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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14037 ***
+
+THE LIFE OF HUGO GROTIUS
+
+With Brief Minutes of the Civil, Ecclesiastical, and Literary History
+of the Netherlands
+
+by
+
+CHARLES BUTLER, ESQ.
+
+Of Lincoln's-Inn
+
+London: John Murray, Albemarle-Street.
+
+M.DCCC.XXVI.
+
+
+
+
+TO
+HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS
+THE DUKE OF SUSSEX,
+THIS BIOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT
+OF
+ONE OF THE MOST AMIABLE AND RESPECTABLE DEFENDERS OF THE NOBLE CAUSE OF
+CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY,
+OF WHICH
+HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS HAS UNIFORMLY BEEN A CONSTANT AND POWERFUL ADVOCATE,
+IS
+(WITH HIS PERMISSION),
+MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED,
+BY
+THE AUTHOR,
+
+Great Ormond Street
+
+29 Sept. 1826
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+In the following pages we shall attempt to present our Readers, with a
+Life of HUGO GROTIUS; and MINUTES OF THE CIVIL, ECCLESIASTICAL, AND
+LITERARY HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+In writing these pages, we principally consulted his life, written in
+the French language, by _M. de Burigni_, Member of the French Royal
+Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres; an English translation of
+it, was published in 1754, in one Volume, 8vo.;
+
+_Hugonis Grotii Manes, ab iniquis obtrectationibus vindicati_; 2
+vols. 8vo. 1727: the author of this work is said to be M. Lehman;
+
+The article _Grotius_, in _Bayle's and Chalmers's
+Dictionaries_;
+
+And many of the letters in _Hugonis Grotii Epistolæ_, published at
+Amsterdam in 1687, in one volume, folio; and many in the _Præstantium
+et Eruditorum Virorum Epistolæ Ecclesiasticæ_, published at Amsterdam
+in 1684, in one volume, 4to.
+
+For what we have said on GERMANY AND THE NETHERLANDS, we principally
+consulted,
+
+_Schmidt's Histoire des Allemands_;
+
+_Pfeffell's Histoire Abregé de l'Allemagne_, 2 vols. 8vo.;
+
+_Mr. Durnford's excellent Translation, of Professor Pütter's
+Historical Developement, of the Political History of the German
+Empire_; 3 vols. 8vo.;
+
+And _Hugonis Grotii Annales, et Historiæ de Rebus Belgicis_, one
+vol. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1658.
+
+In our account of the troubles on _Arminianism_, and the Synod of
+Dort; we principally consulted, the French Abridgment, in 3 vols. 8vo.
+of _Brand's History of the Netherlands_, and _Grotius's_
+excellent _Apology_:
+
+In every part of the work, we have consulted other publications;--three
+only of these we shall mention;
+
+The three _Bibliothècques_ of Le Clerc;
+
+_The Life of Arminius_, and
+
+_Calvinism and Arminianism Compared_, by Mr. James Nichols.
+
+From these materials the following pages have been composed: they may be
+found to contain,--
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER
+
+
+
+
+A.D. 800-911.
+
+
+
+I. 1. _Boundaries, and Devolution of the Empire of
+        Germany, during the Carlovingian dynasty_
+   2. _State of Literature, in the time of Charlemagne_
+   3. _Decline of Literature, under the Descendants of
+        Charlemagne_
+
+A.D. 911-1024.
+
+II. 1. _Boundaries, and Devolution of the empire of
+         Germany, during the Saxon dynasty_
+    2. _State of Literature, during the Saxon dynasty_
+
+A.D. 1024-1138.
+
+III. 1. _Boundaries, and State of Germany, during the
+          Franconian dynasty_
+     2. _State of German Literature, during the Franconian
+          dynasty_
+
+A.D. 1138-1519.
+
+IV. 1. _State of Germany, from the beginning of the
+         Suabian dynasty, until the accession of the
+         Emperor Charles V._
+    2. _State of German Literature, during this period_
+
+A.D. 1138-1519.
+
+V. 1. _Antient, and modern Geography of the Netherlands_
+   2. _The formation, of the different provinces of the
+        Netherlands, into one State_
+   3. _Brief view, of the History of the Netherlands, until
+        the acknowledgment of the Seven United Provinces,
+        by the Spanish monarch_
+   4. _Their constitution, and principal officers_
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+A.D. 1582-1597.
+
+BIRTH, AND EDUCATION OF GROTIUS
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+A.D. 1597-1610.
+
+GROTIUS, EMBRACES THE PROFESSION OF THE
+LAW
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE EARLY PUBLICATIONS, OF GROTIUS
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+HISTORICAL MINUTES, OF THE UNITED PROVINCES,
+FROM THEIR DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE,
+TILL THE ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+A.D. 1610-1617.
+
+THE FEUDS, IN THE UNITED PROVINCES, BETWEEN
+THE DISCIPLES OF CALVIN, AND THE DISCIPLES
+OF ARMINIUS, UNTIL THE SYNOD OF DORT
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+A.D. 1618.
+
+THE SYNOD OF DORT
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+A.D. 1618-1621.
+
+TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT OF GROTIUS; HIS
+ESCAPE FROM PRISON
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+A.D. 1622
+
+JAMES I.      VORSTIUS
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+A.D. 1621-1634.
+
+GROTIUS, AFTER HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON, UNTIL
+HIS APPOINTMENT OF AMBASSADOR, FROM
+SWEDEN, TO THE COURT OF FRANCE
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS, OF GROTIUS
+1. _New edition of Stobæus_
+2. _His treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis_
+3. ---- _de Veritate Religionis Christianæ_
+4. ---- _de Jure summarum potestatum circa
+           sacra._--And _Commentatio ad loca quædam Novi
+           Testamenti, quæ de Antichristo agunt, aut agere
+           videntur_
+5. _His Commentaries on the Scriptures_
+6. _His other works_
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+A.D. 1634-1645.
+
+GROTIUS, AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM
+OF SWEDEN, TO THE COURT OF FRANCE
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS OF GROTIUS; SOME
+OTHER OF HIS WORKS,
+1. _Subsequent History of Arminianism_
+2. _Grotius's religious sentiments_
+3. _Projects of religious Pacification_
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+THE DEATH OF GROTIUS
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+A.D. 1680-1815.
+
+HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF
+THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES,
+FROM THE DEATH OF WILLIAM II. TILL
+THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM OF THE
+NETHERLANDS.
+
+1. _William III._
+2. _John William Count of Nassau Dietz, 1702-1711;
+      William IV._ 1711-1751
+3. _From the death of William IV. till the erection of
+      the Kingdom of the Netherlands_
+
+
+APPENDIX I.
+
+_Some Account of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith,
+   or Symbolic Books, of the Roman-Catholic, Greek,
+   and principal Protestant Churches_
+
+
+APPENDIX II.
+
+_On the Reunion of Christians_
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+SUCCINCT NOTICE OF THE GEOGRAPHY, PRINCIPAL POLITICAL EVENTS, AND
+LITERATURE, OF THE NETHERLANDS, BEFORE THE BIRTH OF GROTIUS.
+
+800-1581.
+
+
+
+
+
+We propose to present to our readers, in this chapter, a succinct
+account, of the Geography, Devolution, and Literature of the
+Netherlands,--considering them, until they became subject to the princes
+of the House of Burgundy, as a portion of the German Empire, and
+included in its history:--and from that time, as forming a separate
+territory.
+
+[Sidenote: 800-1581.]
+
+Contemplating the Netherlands in the first of these views,--we shall
+briefly mention the Boundaries and Government, of the German Empire, and
+the state of learning in its territories, during the Carlovingian,
+Saxon, Franconian and Suabian Dynasties, and the period, which
+intervened, between the last Suabian emperor and the election of the
+Emperor Charles the fifth.
+
+From this time, we shall confine ourselves to the History of the
+Netherlands. We shall then, therefore, endeavour to give a short view of
+the geography of these countries, and of the manner in which they were
+acquired by the Princes of Burgundy; then, shortly mention the
+successful revolt of the Seven United Provinces.
+
+In one of them, GROTIUS, the subject of these pages, was born; the part
+which he took in the public events of his times, forms the most
+important portion of his biography.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+I. 1.
+
+_Boundaries and Devolution of the Empire of Germany during the
+Carlovingian Dynasty_.
+
+800-911.
+
+
+The Ocean on the north, the Danube on the south, the Rhine on the west,
+and the Sarmatian Provinces on the east, are the boundaries assigned by
+Tacitus to Antient Germany. It formed the most extensive portion of the
+territories of Charlemagne; descended, at his decease, to his son, Lewis
+the Debonnaire; and, on the partition between his three sons, was
+allotted to Lewis, his second son.
+
+All the territories of Charlemagne were united in Charles the Fat; he
+was deposed by his subjects, and his empire divided. Germany was
+assigned to his third son, Charles the Brave. On his decease, it was
+possessed by Arnold, a natural son of Carloman, the elder brother of
+Charles: from him it descended to Hedwiges, the wife of Otho, Duke of
+Saxony, and she transmitted it to their son Henry the Fowler, the first
+emperor of that house.
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911.]
+
+From the skirts of Germany and France two new kingdoms arose: the
+kingdom of Lorraine, which comprised the countries between the Rhine,
+the Meuse, and the Scheld; or the modern Lorraine, the province of
+Alsace, the Palatinate, Treves, Cologne, Juliers, Liêge and the
+Netherlands;--and the kingdom of Burgundy: This was divided into the
+Cis-juranan, or the part of it on the east, and the Trans-juranan, or
+the part of it on the west of Mount Jura. The former comprised Provençe,
+Dauphiné, the Lyonese, Franche-comté, Bresse, Bugey, and a part of
+Savoy; the latter comprised the countries between Mount Jura and the
+Pennine Alps, or the part of Switzerland between the Reus, the Valais,
+and the rest of Savoy.
+
+Such was the geographical state of Germany at the close of the
+Carlovingian Dynasty.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+I. 2.
+
+_State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne_.
+
+
+So far as Literature depends upon the favour of the monarch, no æra in
+history promised more than the reign of Charlemagne. His education had
+been neglected; but he had real taste for learning and the arts, was
+sensible of their beneficial influence both upon the public and the
+private welfare of a people; and possessed the amplest means of
+encouraging and diffusing them; his wisdom would suggest to him the
+properest means of doing it, and the energy of his mind would excite
+him to constant exertions.
+
+[Sidenote: I. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.]
+
+Nothing that could be effected by a prince thus gifted and disposed, was
+left untried by Charlemagne. He drew to him the celebrated Alcuin, Peter
+of Pisa, Paul Warnefrid, and many other distinguished literary
+characters: he heaped favours upon them; and a marked distinction was
+always shewn them at his court. He formed them into a literary society,
+which had frequent meetings. Their conversation was literary, he often
+bore a part in it; and, what was at least equally gratifying, he always
+listened with a polite and flattering attention while others spoke. To
+establish perfect equality among them, the monarch, and, after his
+example, the other members of this society, dropt their own and adopted
+other names. Angelbert was called Homer, from his partiality to that
+poet; Riculphus, archbishop of Mentz, chose the name of Damétas, from an
+eclogue of Virgil: another member took that of Candidus; Eginhard, the
+Emperor's biographer, was called Calliopus, from the Muse Calliope;
+Alcuin received, from his country, the name of Albinus; the archbishop
+Theodulfe was called Pindar; the abbot Adelard was called Augustine;
+Charlemagne, as the man of God's own heart, was called David.
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911]
+
+The Emperor corresponded with men of learning, on subjects of
+literature; they generally related to religion. In one of his letters,
+he requires of Alcuin an explanation of the words Septuagesima,
+Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima, which denote the Sundays which
+immediately precede, and the word Quadragesima, which denotes the first
+Sunday which occurs in Lent. The denominations of those Sundays give
+rise to two difficulties; one, that they seem to imply that each week
+consists of ten, not of seven days; the other, that the words sound as
+if Septuagesima were the seventieth, when it is only the sixty-third day
+before Easter Sunday; Sexagesima, as if it were the sixtieth, when it is
+only the fifty-sixth; Quinquagesima, as if it were the fiftieth, when it
+is the forty-ninth; Quadragesima, as if it were the fortieth, when it is
+the forty-second. Alcuin's answer is more subtle than satisfactory.
+
+At the meals of Charlemagne some person always read to him. His example
+was followed by many of his successors, particularly by Francis I. of
+France, who, in an happier era for learning, imitated with happier
+effects, the example of the Emperor.
+
+[Sidenote: I. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.]
+
+Alcuin was general director of all the literary schemes of Charlemagne.
+He was an Englishman by birth; skilled both in the Greek and Latin
+language, and in many branches of philosophy. Having taught, with great
+reputation and success, in his own country, he travelled to Rome. In
+780, Charlemagne attracted him to his court.
+
+There, Alcuin gave lectures, and published several treatises. In these,
+he began with Orthography; then proceeded to Grammar; afterwards to
+Rhetoric, and Dialectic. He composed his treatises in the form of
+dialogues; and, as Charlemagne frequently attended them, Alcuin made him
+one of his interlocutors. Few scholars of Alcuin were more attentive
+than his imperial pupil; he had learned grammar from Peter of Pisa; he
+was instructed in rhetoric, dialectic, and astronomy by Alcuin. He also
+engaged in the study of divinity; and had the good sense to stop short
+of those subtleties, in which Justinian, Heraclius, and other princes,
+unfortunately both for themselves and their subjects, bewildered
+themselves. Letters from Giséla and Richtrudis, the daughters of
+Charlemagne, to Alcuin, shew that they partook of their father's
+literary zeal: his favourite study was astronomy.
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911.]
+
+The number of persons in his court, who addicted themselves to pursuits
+of literature, was so great, and their application so regular, that
+their meetings acquired the appellation of "The School of Charlemagne."
+Their library was at Aix-la-Chapelle, the favourite residence of the
+monarch: but they accompanied him in many of his journies. Antiquarians
+have tracked them at Paris, Thionville, Wormes, Ratisbon, Wurtzburgh,
+Mentz, and Frankfort.
+
+Charlemagne established schools in every part of his dominions. In 787,
+he addressed a circular letter to all the metropolitan prelates of his
+dominions, to be communicated by them to their suffragan bishops, and to
+the abbots within their provinces. He exhorted them to erect schools in
+every cathedral and monastery. Schools were accordingly established
+throughout his vast dominions: they were divided into two classes;
+arithmetic, grammar, and music were taught in the lower, the liberal
+arts and theology in the higher.
+
+[Sidenote: 1. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.]
+
+In France, the abbeys of Corbie, Fontenelles, Ferrieres, St. Denis, St
+Germain of Paris, St. Germain of Auxerre, and St. Benedict on the
+Loire;--in Germany, the abbeys of Proom, Fulda, and of St Gall;--in
+Italy, the abbey of Mount Casino, were celebrated for the excellence of
+their schools. One, for the express purpose of teaching the Greek
+language, was founded by Charlemagne at Osnabruck. All were equally open
+to the children of the nobility and the children of peasants; all
+received the same treatment. It happened that, on a public examination
+of the children, the peasant boys were found to have made greater
+progress than the noble. The Emperor remarked it to the latter, and
+declared with an oath, that "the bishopricks and abbeys should be given
+to the diligent poor." "You rely," he said to the patrician youths, "on
+the merit of your ancestors; these have already been rewarded. The state
+owes them nothing; those only are entitled to favour, who qualify
+themselves for serving and illustrating their country by their talents
+and their merits."
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911.]
+
+The civil law then consisted of the Theodosian code, the Salic,
+Ripuarian, Allemannic, Bavarian, Burgundian, and other _codes_; and of
+the _formularies_ of Angesise and Marculfus. To these Charlemagne added
+his own _capitularies_. The whole collection, in opposition to the canon
+or ecclesiastical law, received the appellation of _Lex Mundana_, or
+_worldly law_. The canon law consisted of the code of canons which
+Charlemagne brought with him from Rome in 784; a code of the canons of
+the church of France; the canons inserted in the collection of Angelram,
+bishop of Metz; the apostolic canons, published by St. Martin, bishop of
+Braga; the capitularies of Theodulfus, of Orleans; and the penitential
+canons, published in the Spicilegium of d'Acheri.[001] To the study,
+both of the canon and civil law, schools were appropriated by
+Charlemagne: few, except persons intended for the ecclesiastical state,
+frequented them. Rabanus Maurus,[002] abbot of Fulda, and afterwards
+archbishop of Mentz, has left an interesting account of the studies of
+this period; it shews that all were referred to theology, and only
+considered to be useful so far as they could be made serviceable to
+sacred learning. Such a plan of study could conduce but little to the
+advancement of general literature or science. Still, it was productive
+of good, and led to improvement.
+
+[Sidenote: I.2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.]
+
+It is observable that both antient and modern civilizers of nations,
+have called music to their aid; among these we may mention Charlemagne.
+In his residence at Rome, he was delighted with the Gregorian chant.
+After his return to Germany, he endeavoured to introduce it, both into
+his French and German dominions. The former had a chant of their own;
+they called it an improvement, but other nations considered it a
+corruption of the Gregorian. Greatly against the wish of Charlemagne,
+his Gallic subjects persisted in their attachment to their national
+music; the merit of it was gravely debated before the Emperor; they
+vehemently urged the superiority of their own strains. "Tell me," said
+the Emperor, "which is purer, the fountain or the rivulet?" They
+answered, "the former." "Return ye, then," (said the Emperor) "to St.
+Gregory: he is the fountain, the rivulets are evidently corrupted." The
+Emperor was obeyed, and the Gregorian chant was taught, both in France
+and Germany, by Italian choristers. The Italian writers of the times
+describe the difficulties which they experienced in forming the rough
+and almost untuneable voices of their French and German pupils to the
+softness of the Gregorian song. They appear to have succeeded better
+with the Germans than the French. By these, their lessons were so soon
+and so completely forgotten, after the decease of Charlemagne, that
+Lewis the Debonnaire, his son, was obliged to request Pope Gregory IV.
+to send him from Rome, a new supply of singers to instruct the people.
+
+But music continued to prosper in Germany; it abounded in songs. Some
+were amatory, (_münnelier_); some were satirical, (_cantica in
+malitiam_); some heroic, (_cantica in honorem,_); some diabolical,
+(_cantica diabolica_.) These consisted of incantations, and of
+narratives of the feats of evil spirits.
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911.]
+
+Vernacular poetry, and vernacular composition, of every kind, were
+almost wholly left to the vulgar; all, who aimed at literary eminence,
+wrote in the Latin language. Some discerning spirits became sensible
+that the German language was susceptible of great improvement, and
+excited their countrymen to its cultivation. Among these was Otfroid; he
+translated the Gospel into German verse. He describes, in strong terms,
+the difficulties which he had to encounter: "The barbarousness of the
+German language is," he says, "so great, and its sounds are so
+incoherent and strange, that it is very difficult to subject them to the
+rules of grammar, to represent them by syllables, or to find in the
+alphabet letters which correspond to them." It is however remarkable,
+that, although he complains of the dissonance of the German language, he
+never accuses it of poverty.
+
+While France and Germany continued subject to the same monarch, German
+was the language of the court, and generally used in every class of
+society. When the treaty of Verdun divided the territories of
+Charlemagne, the _Romande_, or _Romançe_ language, a corruption of the
+Latin, superseded the German in every part of France: it was insensibly
+refined into the modern French, but the German continued to be the only
+language spoken in Germany.
+
+Great progress was made in architecture: the churches and palaces
+constructed by the direction of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, the
+Basilisc at Germani, the church of St. Recquier at Ponthieu, and many
+other monuments of great architectural skill and expense, belong to the
+age of Charlemagne, and bear ample testimony to the well-directed
+exertions of the monarch, and of some of his descendants, and to their
+wise and splendid magnificence.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+I. 3.
+
+_Decline of Literature under the Descendants of Charlemagne._
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911]
+
+[Sidenote: I. 3. Decline of Literature under the Descendants of
+Charlemagne.]
+
+
+That literature began to decline immediately after the decease of
+Charlemagne, in every part of his extensive dominions, and that its
+decline was principally owing to the wars among his descendants, which
+devastated every portion of his empire, seems to be universally
+acknowledged; yet there are strong grounds for contending that it was
+not so great as generally represented. _Abbé le Beuf_,[003] in an
+excellent dissertation on the state of the sciences in the Gauls during
+the period which elapsed between the death of Charlemagne and the reign
+of Robert, king of France, attempts to prove the contrary; and the
+preliminary discourses of the authors of "l'Histoire Literaire de la
+France," on the state of learning during the ninth and tenth centuries,
+strongly confirm the abbé's representations. It is surprising how many
+works were written during these dark, and, as they are too harshly
+called, ignorant ages. It is more to be wondered, that while so much was
+written, so little was written well. The classical works of antiquity
+were not unknown in those times; the Latin Vulgate translation of the
+Old and New Testament was daily read by the clergy, and heard by the
+people. Now, although the language of the Vulgate be not classical, it
+is not destitute of elegance, and it possesses throughout the exquisite
+charms of clearness and simplicity. It is surprising that these
+circumstances did not lead the writers to a better style. They had no
+such effect; the general style of the time was hard, inflated and
+obscure. It should, however, be observed, that Simonde de Sismondi, as
+he is translated by Mr. Roscoe, justly observes, that "during the reign
+of Charlemagne, and during the four centuries which immediately preceded
+it, there appeared, both in France and Italy, some judicious historians,
+whose style possesses considerable vivacity, and who gave animated
+pictures of their times; some subtle philosophers, who astonished their
+contemporaries, rather by the fineness of their speculations than by the
+justness of their reasoning; some learned theologians, and some poets.
+The names of Paul Warnefrid, of Alcuin, of Luitprand, and Eginhard, are
+even yet universally respected. They all, however, wrote in Latin. They
+had all of them, by the strength of their intellect, and the happy
+circumstances in which they were placed, learned to appreciate the
+beauty of the models which antiquity had left them. They breathed the
+spirit of a former age, as they had adopted its language: we do not find
+them representatives of their contemporaries: it is impossible to
+recognize in their style the times in which they lived; it only betrays
+the relative industry and felicity with which they imitated the language
+and thoughts of a former age. They were the last monuments of civilized
+antiquity, the last of a noble race, which, after a long period of
+degeneracy, became extinct in them."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 1.
+
+_Boundaries and Devolution of the German Empire during the Saxon
+Dynasty._
+
+911-1024.
+
+
+We have mentioned that, on the death of Lewis, the son of Arnhold, the
+empire descended to Henry I. in the right of his mother. From him, it
+devolved through Otho, surnamed the Great, Otho II., and Otho III., to
+Henry II. the last emperor of the Saxon line.
+
+In this period of the German history, the attention of the reader is
+particularly directed to two circumstances,--the principal states, of
+which Germany was composed, the cradles, as they may be called, of the
+present electorates, and the erection of the principal cities and
+monasteries in Germany.
+
+[Sidenote: II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.]
+
+A curious altercation between Nicephorus Phocas, the Greek emperor, and
+Luitprand bishop of Cremona, ambassador from Otho I. to the Greek
+sovereign, shews the state of Germany during this period. "Your nation,"
+said the empire to the ambassador, "does not know how to sit on
+horseback; or how to fight on foot: your large shields, massive armour,
+long swords, and heavy helmets, disable you for battle."--Luitprand
+told the emperor that "he would, the first time they should meet in the
+field, feel the contrary." Luitprand observed, that "Germany was so
+little advanced in ecclesiastical worth; that no council had been held
+within its precincts:" the ambassador remarked, that "all heresies had
+originated in Greece." The emperor asserted, that "the Germans were
+gluttons and drunkards:" Luitprand replied, that "the Greeks were
+effeminate." All writers agree, that, in what each party to this
+conversation asserted, there was too much truth.
+
+We have noticed the advance towards civilization which Henry I, made by
+the construction of towns; he effected another, by the introduction of
+tournaments and field sports, on a large, orderly and showy plan.
+Speaking generally, society in Germany during the Saxon line of its
+princes, was always improving.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 2.
+
+_State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty_.
+
+[Sidenote: 911-1024.]
+
+
+"In the school of Paderborn," says the biographer of Meinwert, as he is
+cited by Schmidt, "there are famous musicians, dialecticians, orators,
+grammarians, mathematicians, astronomers and geometricians. Horace, the
+great Virgil, Sallust, and Statius, are highly esteemed. The monks amuse
+themselves with poetry, books and music. Several are incessantly
+employed in transcribing and painting."
+
+A German translation of the Psalms, by Notker, a monk of the abbey of
+St. Gall, shews that some attention was paid to the language of the
+country. The Greek was cultivated; the writers of the times mention
+several persons skilled in it. Notker, in a letter to one of his
+correspondents, informs him, that "his Greek brothers salute him."
+
+[Sidenote: II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.]
+
+Poetry was a favourite study: the celebrated _Gerbert_, afterwards Pope
+Silvester II, and _Waldram_, bishop of Strasburgh, were the best poets
+of their times. Hroswith,[004] a nun in the monastery of Gardersheim,
+published comedies: "Many Catholics," she says, in her preface to them,
+"are guilty of a fault, from which I myself am not altogether free;
+they prefer profane works, on account of their style, to the holy
+Scriptures. Others have the Scriptures always in their hands, and
+despise profane authors; yet they often read Terence, and their
+attention to the beauties of his style does not prevent the
+objectionable passages in his writings from making an impression on
+them."
+
+To this age, the origin of Romances is usually assigned: but these
+belong to the French; no specimen of them has been discovered in
+Germany. Music was much cultivated. Hroswith introduced it into her
+comedies.
+
+It has been mentioned, that Sallust was read in the school at Paderborn.
+It is supposed that Tacitus was known to Wittikind or Dittmar: both
+relate visions, and several puerile circumstances; but they write with
+precision, and shew, on many occasions, great good sense.
+
+The same cannot be said of the Legend-writers; the account which the
+authors of "The Literary History of France" give of them is very just.
+"The ancient legends," they say, "were lost, in consequence either of
+the plunder or the burning of the churches; it was considered necessary
+to replace them, as it was thought impossible to honour the memory, or
+to preserve the veneration of the saints, without some knowledge of
+their lives. It is to be remarked, that the saints, whose memories were
+thus sought to be honoured, had been long dead, or had lived in foreign
+countries, so that little was known of them except by oral tradition.
+From this it may be easily guessed, that those who employed themselves
+upon the legends, were deprived of necessary information, and upon that
+account could not produce exact and true histories. Thus, to the general
+defects of the age in which they lived, they added uncertainty,
+confusion, and some falsehood. Their pages abound with visions. In the
+place of the simple and natural, they substituted the wonderful and
+extraordinary. It even happened too frequently that they took leave to
+tell untruths. Heriger, the abbot of St Lupus, says, in direct terms,
+that they piously lied."
+
+[Sidenote: 911-1024.]
+
+Dialectic was in great favour: it was called philosophy; no work was
+more read than "the Book of Categories," erroneously ascribed to St.
+Augustine; and a work, upon the same subject, imputed to Porphyry.
+
+[Sidenote: II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.]
+
+The schools of the cathedrals and principal monasteries contributed
+essentially to the increase and diffusion of literature. Among the
+monasteries, those of Fulda, St. Gall, Corbie and Kershaw, were
+particularly renowned. Bishops and abbots exerted themselves to procure
+books, and to have copies of them made and circulated: they were often
+splendidly illuminated. Henry I. caused a painting to be made, of a
+battle which he had gained over the Hungarians. Bernard, bishop of
+Hildersheim, in imitation of what he had seen in Italy, ornamented the
+churches of his diocese with mosaic paintings; he also introduced, among
+his countrymen, the art of fusing and working metals; he caused precious
+and highly ornamented vases to be made in imitation of the antients.
+Large and small bells were cast; chalices, patines, incensories, images,
+and even altars of gold and silver, or ornamented with them, were
+fabricated. Aventin relates, that at Mauverkirchen, in Bavaria, figures
+in plaster, hardened by fire, had, in 948, been made of a duke of
+Bavaria and his general.
+
+[Sidenote: 911-1024.]
+
+The establishment of schools, and the protection given to the arts and
+sciences, invited the whole body of the nation to the acquisition of
+useful and ornamental knowledge; but the invitation was not even
+generally accepted. There was much superstition in every order of the
+laity. An opinion prevailed among them, that the world was to end, and
+the day of judgment arrive, in the year 1000. An universal panic spread
+itself over Europe. Strange to relate, the people sought to avoid the
+catastrophe, by hiding themselves in caverns and tombs.
+
+The existence of this ignorance cannot be denied: but, to the
+ecclesiastics, who strove against it, who erected and fostered so many
+schools to dispel it, and who exerted themselves in the manner we have
+mentioned, to establish another and a better order of things, a great
+share of praise and gratitude should never be denied.
+
+The mines of Hartz were discovered in the time of Otho I. and diffused
+so much wealth over Saxony, and afterwards over all Germany, as gave the
+reign of that emperor the appellation of "the age of gold." Before this
+time, Nicephorus Phocas had called Saxony, from the dress, or rather the
+coverings of its inhabitants, "the land of skins." But all the wealth of
+the country still continued to be concentrated among the great
+landowners.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 1.
+
+_Boundaries and State of Germany during the Franconian Dynasty._
+
+1024-1138.
+
+
+Under Henry III. the second prince of this line, the German empire had
+its greatest extent. It comprised Germany, Italy, Burgundy and Lorraine.
+Poland, and other parts of the Sclavonian territories, were subject to
+it. Denmark and Hungary acknowledged themselves its vassals.
+
+The emperors affected to consider all kingdoms as forming a royal
+republic, of which the emperor was chief. For their right to this
+splendid prerogative, they always found advocates in their own
+dominions: they reckon, among these, the illustrious Leibniz. Out of
+Germany, nothing of the claim, beyond precedence in rank, has ever been
+allowed. This, no sovereign in Europe has contested with the emperors:
+it is observable, that, as the French monarchs insisted on the
+Carlovingian extraction of Hugh Capet, they affected to consider Henry
+the Fowler the first prince of the Saxon dynasty, and all his successors
+in the empire as usurpers. Lewis XIV. expresses himself in this manner
+in some memoirs recently attributed to him.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 2.
+
+_State of German Literature during the Franconian Dynasty._
+
+[Sidenote: 1024-1138.]
+
+
+Throughout this period, commerce was always upon the increase; and
+literature, science and art, increased with it. The monuments of the
+antient grandeur of the eternal city, began about this time to engage
+the attention of the inhabitants of Germany, and to attract to Rome many
+literary pilgrims. They returned home impressed with admiration of what
+they had seen, and related the wonders to their countrymen. "The gods
+themselves (they told their hearers) behold their images in Rome with
+admiration, and wish to resemble them. Nature herself does not raise
+forms as beautiful as those, which the artist creates. One is tempted to
+say that they breathe; and to adore the skill of the artist rather than
+the inhabitant of Olympus represented by his art." Thus the uncultivated
+Germans began to perceive the beauty of these relics of antiquity, and
+to feel the wish of imitation. This first appeared on the seals of the
+emperors and bishops; several of distinguished beauty have reached our
+times. The German artists soon began to engrave on precious stones, and
+to work in marble and bronze. Four statues of emperors of the house of
+Saxony, of the workmanship of these times, are still to be seen at
+Spires; they are rudely fashioned, but are animated, and have distinct
+and expressive countenances.
+
+[Sidenote: III. 2. State of German Literature during the Franconian
+Dynasty.]
+
+When the emperors or nobility travelled, they were frequently
+accompanied by artists. These sometimes made drawings of foreign
+churches and edifices, and on their return home, raised others in
+imitation of them. Thus the cathedral at Bremen was built on the model
+of that of Benevento. The cathedral of Strasburgh, and many other
+churches, were built about this time.
+
+Music was considerably improved; the system of Guido Aretinus was no
+where understood better, or cultivated with greater ardour, than in
+Germany. Some improvement was made in poetry, but it chiefly appeared in
+the songs of the common people. A monk of Togernsee, in Bavaria,
+composed a collection of poems under the title of Bucolics; they
+resemble those of Virgil only in their title. Lambert, of
+Aschaffenburgh, published a history of his own times, inferior to none
+which have reached us from the middle ages.
+
+[Sidenote: 1024-1138]
+
+Dialectic, however, still continued the favourite study; and the art of
+disputation was never carried so far: the interest which the public took
+in these disputes was surprising. When it was announced that two
+celebrated dialecticians were to hold a public dispute, persons flocked
+from all parts to witness the conflict; they listened with avidity, and
+with all the feelings of partisans. This appears ridiculous; but, in the
+present times, is there no _fancy_ which deserves equal ridicule?
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+IV. 1
+
+_The State of Germany, from the beginning of the Suabian Dynasty, till
+the Accession of the Emperor Charles V._
+
+1138-1519.
+
+
+The principal events in the reigns of the latter princes of the
+Franconian, and of all the princes of the Suabian line, were produced or
+influenced by the contests between the popes and emperors, respecting
+investitures, or the right of nominating to vacant bishoprics;--by the
+pretensions of the popes to hold their antient territories independent
+of the emperors;--or by the new acquisitions of the popes in Italy.
+
+
+1264-1272.
+
+
+These contests reduced the empire to a state of anarchy, which produced
+what is generally called, by the German writers, the Great Interregnum.
+While it continued, six princes successively claimed to be emperors of
+Germany.
+
+
+1272-1438.
+
+
+The interregnum was determined by the election of Rodolph, count of
+Hapsburgh. From him, till the ultimate accession of the house of
+Austria, in the person of Albert the Second, the empire was held by
+several princes of different noble families.
+
+
+1438-1519.
+
+
+Albert was succeeded by Frederick III.; Frederick, by Maximilian I.; and
+Maximilian, by Charles V.
+
+To the period between the extinction of the Suabian dynasty and the
+accession of the emperor Albert, may be assigned the rise of the Italian
+republics, particularly Venice, Genoa and Florence; the elevations of
+the princes of Savoy and Milan, and the revolutions of Naples, and the
+Two Sicilies.
+
+[Sidenote: IV. 1. The State of Germany, from the beginning of the
+Suabian Dynasty till the Accession of the Emperor Charles V.]
+
+The boundaries of Germany, during this period, were the Eider and the
+sea, on the north; the Scheld, the Meuse, the Saone and the Rhone, on
+the west; the Alps and the Rhine, on the south; and the Lech and
+Vistula, on the east. They contained,--1. The duchy of Burgundy; 2. The
+duchy of Lorraine; 3. The principalities into which Allemmania and
+Franconia were divided; 4. The Bavarian territories, which the Franks
+had acquired in Rhoetia, Noricum, and Pannonia; 5. Saxony; 6. The
+Sclavic territories between the Oder and the Vistula: these were
+possessed by the margraves of Brandenburgh, and the dukes of Poland and
+Bohemia, and the princes dependent upon them in Moravia, Silesia and
+Lusatia;--7. by the provinces of Pomerania and Prussia, on the east of
+Saxony; 8. and the Marchia Orientalis, Oostrich, or Austria, on the east
+of Bavaria.
+
+At first, the emperor was chosen by the people at large; the right of
+election was afterwards confined to the nobility and the principal
+officers of state: insensibly, it was engrossed by the five great
+officers,--the chancellor, the great marshal, the great chamberlain, the
+great butler, and the great master of the palace. But their exclusive
+pretensions were much questioned. At length, their right of election was
+settled; first, by the Electoral Union, in 1337; and finally, in the
+reign of the emperor Charles IV. by the celebrated constitution, called,
+from the seal of gold appended to it, _the Golden Bull_. By this, the
+right of election was vested in three spiritual and four temporal
+electors: two temporal electors have since been added to their numbers.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+IV. 2.
+
+_State of German literature during this period_.
+
+[Sidenote: 1438-1519]
+
+
+While the empire was possessed by the princes of the house of Saxony, a
+copy of the Pandects of Justinian was discovered at Amalfi. "The
+discovery of them," says Sir William Blackstone, in his Introductory
+discourse to his Commentaries, "soon brought the civil law into vogue
+all over the west of Europe, where before it was quite laid aside, and
+in a manner wholly forgotten; though some traces of its authority
+remained in Italy, and the eastern provinces of the empire.--The study
+of it was introduced into many universities abroad, particularly that of
+Bologna, where exercises were performed, lectures read, and degrees
+conferred in this faculty, as in other branches of science; and many
+nations of the continent, just then beginning to recover from the
+convulsions consequent to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and
+settling by degrees into peaceable forms of government, adopted the
+civil law (being the best written system then extant,) as the basis of
+their several constitutions; blending or interweaving in it their own
+feudal customs, in some places, with a more extensive, in others, a more
+confined authority."
+
+[Sidenote: IV. 2. State of German Literature, from the Suabian Dynasty
+to Charles V.]
+
+This was a great step toward the civilization of Germany, and of the
+other countries in which the institutions of the civil law were thus
+introduced. They certainly tended to animate the nations, by whom they
+were received, to the study of the history and literature of the people
+from the works of whose writers they had been compiled. They produced
+this effect in several countries of Europe; but their influence in
+Germany was very limited: the disposition to subtilize, which was at
+that time universal throughout the German empire, led those who
+cultivated literature rather to refine upon what was before them, than
+to new inquiries. The language of the Pandects is of the silver age; it
+might therefore be expected, that it would have improved the general
+style of the times; but this improvement is seldom discernible.
+
+[Sidenote: 1438-1519]
+
+[Sidenote: IV. 2. State of German Literature, from the Suabian Dynasty
+to Charles V.]
+
+Good or evil is seldom unmixed: civil contests and dissensions,
+generally produce both public and private misery; sometimes, however,
+they generate mental excitement. This is favourable to Literature and
+Science. Its good effects appeared in the contests between the Popes and
+the Emperors. Great were the public and the private calamities which
+they caused, both in church and state; but they promoted inquiry and
+intellectual exertions. These were often attended with happy results.
+Irnerius, by birth a German, had studied Justinian's law at
+Constantinople. Towards the year 1130, he was appointed professor of
+civil law at Bologna: the contests between the popes and the emperors
+produced a warfare of words among the disciples of Irnerius. It has been
+mentioned that the German emperors pretended to succeed to the empire of
+the Cæsars. The language and spirit of the Justinianean code, being
+highly favourable to this claim, the emperors encouraged the civilians,
+and in return for it, had their pens at command. The decree of Gratian
+was favourable to the pretensions of the popes; and on this account was
+encouraged by the canonists. Hence, generally speaking, the civilians
+were partisans of the emperors, the canonists of the popes. From their
+adherence to the law of Justinian, the former were called Legistæ; from
+their adherence to the decree of Gratian, the latter were called
+Decretistæ. The controversy was carried on with great ardour and
+perseverance; the schools both of Italy and Germany resounded with the
+disputes, and in both, numerous tracts in support of the opposite
+claims, were circulated. The question necessarily carried the
+disputants to many incidental topics: these equally increased the powers
+and curiosity of the disputants, and stimulated them to better and more
+interesting studies.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V. 1.
+
+_Antient and Modern Geography of the Netherlands._
+
+
+We have thus brought down our historical deduction of the German Empire
+to the accession of the Emperor Charles the Fifth.
+
+About 160 years before this event, that portion of the empire, to which
+its situation has given the appellation of THE NETHERLANDS, began to
+have a separate history, and both a separate and important influence on
+the events of the times. To them we shall now direct our attention.
+
+These spacious territories are bounded on the north, by the German
+Ocean; on the west, by the British Sea and part of Picardy; on the
+south, by Champagne or Lorraine; on the east, by the archbishoprics of
+Triers and Trêves, the dutchies of Juliers and Cléves, the bishopric of
+Munster, and the county of Embden or East Friesland.
+
+[Sidenote: V. 1. Antient and Modern Geography of the Netherlands.]
+
+When the Romans invaded Gaul, it was divided among three principal
+clans: the Rhine then formed its western boundary. The left banks of
+this river were occupied by the Belgians: this tract of land now
+comprises the catholic Netherlands, and the territory of the United
+States; the right bank of the Rhine was then filled by the Frisians,
+and now comprises the modern Gröningen, east and west Friesland, a part
+of Holland, Gueldres, Utrecht, and Overyssell: the Batavians inhabited
+the island which derives its name from them; it now comprises the upper
+part of Holland, Utrecht, Gueldres, and Overyssell, the modern Cléves
+between the Lech and the Waal.
+
+In antient geography, the Netherlands were separated into the
+Cisrhenahan and Transrhenahan divisions: the Cisrhenahan lay on the
+western side of the Rhine, and included the Belgic Gaul; it was bounded
+by the Rhenus, the Rhodanus, the Sequana, the Matrona, and the Oceanus
+Britannicus: the Transrhenahan lay on the eastern side of the Rhine; it
+was a part of Lower Germany, and bounded on the north by the eastern
+Frisia, Westphalia, the Ager-Colonensis, the Juliacensis-Ducatus, and
+the Treveri. The classical reader will have no difficulty in assigning
+to these denominations, their actual names in the language of modern
+geography.
+
+The whole of these territories is called the Netherlands by the English;
+and Flanders by the Italians, Spaniards, and French.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V. 2.
+
+_The formation of the different Provinces of the Netherlands into one
+State_.
+
+
+In 1363, John the Good, the king of France, gave to Philip the Bold, his
+third son, the dutchy of Burgundy: it then comprised the county of
+Burgundy, Dauphiné, and a portion of Switzerland. The monarch at the
+same time created his son duke of Burgundy. Thus Philip, became the
+patriarch of the second line of that illustrious house.
+
+History does not produce an instance of a family, which has so greatly
+aggrandized itself by marriage, as the house of Austria. The largest
+part by far of the Netherlands was derived to it, 1st, from Margaret of
+Franche Comtè; 2dly, from Margaret of Flanders; 3dly, from Jane of
+Brabant; 4thly, from Mary of Burgundy; 5thly, from Jacqueline of
+Holland; and 6thly, from Elizabeth of Luxemburgh.
+
+[Sidenote: Formation of the Provinces of the Netherlands into one
+State.]
+
+The possessions of the three first of these splendid heiresses,
+descended to Margaret of Flanders. She married Phillip the Bold, who, as
+we have just mentioned, was the first of the modern Dukes of Burgundy.
+By this marriage, he acquired, in right of his wife, the provinces of
+Flanders, Artois, Mechlin, and Rhetel; and transmitted them and his own
+dukedom of Burgundy to his son Charles the Intrepid. From Charles, they
+descended to his son Philip the Good. He purchased Namur; and by a
+transaction with Jacqueline of Holland, acquired that province, Zealand,
+Hainault, and Friesland. By other means, he obtained Brabant, Antwerp,
+Luxemburgh, Limburgh, Gueldres, and Zutphen. On the failure of issue
+male of Philip the Good, all these fourteen provinces descended to Mary
+his only daughter. She married the Emperor Maximilian. He had two sons
+by her, the Emperor Charles V. and Ferdinand. The former acquired, by
+purchase or force, Utrecht, Overyssell and Gröningen.
+
+These territories formed what are generally called the SEVENTEEN
+PROVINCES OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+In the language of the middle ages, they consisted of the Dutchies of
+Brabant, Limburgh, Luxemburgh, and Gueldres; the Earldoms of Flanders,
+Artois, Hainault, Holland, Zealand, Namur, Zutphen, Antwerp, (sometimes
+called the Marquisate of the Holy Empire) and the Lordships of
+Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssell, and Gröningen. Cambrai, the
+Cambresis, and the County of Burgundy, though a separate territory, were
+considered to be appendages, but not part of them.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V. 3.
+
+_Brief View of the History of the Netherlands, till the acknowledgement
+of the Independence of the Seven United Provinces by the Spanish
+Monarch._
+
+
+The laws, the customs, and the government of all these provinces were
+nearly alike: each had its representative assembly of the three orders,
+of the clergy, nobility, and burghers: each had its courts of justice;
+and an appeal from the superior tribunal of each lay to the supreme
+court at Mechlin.
+
+Public and fiscal concerns of moment fell under the cognizance of the
+sovereign. The people enjoyed numerous and considerable privileges: the
+most important of them was the _Droit de Joyeuse entrée_, the right of
+not being taxed without the consent of the three estates. Commerce,
+agriculture, and the arts, particularly music and painting, flourished
+among them. The people were honest, frugal, regular and just in their
+general habits; more steady than active; not easily roused; but, when
+once roused, not easily appeased.
+
+[Sidenote: Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.]
+
+Charles V. made over his hereditary territories in Germany to his
+brother Ferdinand; but retained the Netherlands, and annexed them to the
+crown of Spain.
+
+With that crown, they descended to Philip the Second, the only son of
+Charles.
+
+Unwise and unjust measures of that monarch drove the inhabitants into
+rebellion.
+
+On the 5th of April 1566, a deputation of 400 gentlemen, with Lewis of
+Nassau, a brother of the prince of Orange, at their head, presented a
+petition to Margaret of Austria, the Governor of the Netherlands. From
+the coarseness of their dress, they acquired the name of _gueux_ or
+_beggars_, and retained it throughout the whole of the troubles which
+followed.
+
+[Sidenote: Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.]
+
+Calvinism had, before this time, made great progress in these countries,
+and gained over to it numbers of the discontented party. Philip
+proceeded to the most violent measures, and sent the Duke of Alva, with
+an army of 20,000 men, into the Netherlands. William, Prince of Orange,
+placed himself at the head of the malcontents, and raised an army. At an
+assembly of the States of Holland and Zealand in 1559, he was declared
+Stadtholder, or Governor of Holland, Friesland, and Utrecht: Calvinism
+was declared to be the religion of the States. In 1579, the three
+provinces were joined by those of Gueldres, Zutphen, Overyssell, and
+Gröningen. All signed, by their deputies, the TREATY OF UNION; it became
+the basis of their constitution: still, however, they acknowledged
+Philip for their sovereign. But in 1581, the deputies of the United
+States assembled at Amsterdam, subscribed a solemn act, by which they
+formally renounced allegiance to Philip and his successors, and asserted
+their independence. They declared in their manifesto, that "the prince
+is made for the people, not the people for the prince;" that "the
+prince, who treats his subjects as slaves, is a tyrant, whom his
+subjects have a right to dethrone, when they have no other means of
+preserving their liberty;" that "this right particularly belongs to the
+Netherlands; their sovereign, being bound by his coronation oath to
+observe the laws, under pain of forfeiting his sovereignty."
+
+In 1584, the Prince of Orange was assassinated by Balthazar Gerard, a
+Catholic fanatic: the war was continued till 1609, when it was suspended
+by a truce of twelve years. At the expiration of it, the war burst forth
+with fresh fury: it was finally terminated by the peace of Munster, or
+Westphalia, in 1648, when the King of Spain acknowledged, in the fullest
+manner, the INDEPENDENCE OF THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES, and of all their
+possessions in Asia, Africa, and America.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V.4.
+
+_Their Constitution and principal Officers._
+
+[Sidenote: Constitution of the Netherlands.]
+
+
+Thus the United Provinces became a confederacy of seven independent
+principalities, called in the aggregate the States General. Several
+years elapsed before their constitution was finally settled. Then, the
+supreme sovereignty of the whole was considered to be vested in the
+people of every province represented by the States. These consisted of
+deputies appointed to them from the different provinces. Each province
+might send to the assembly more than one deputy; but, whatever was the
+number of deputies sent by them, they had one vote only in the
+proceedings of the assembly. The government of each province was vested
+in its states: these were composed of two orders, the deputies from the
+towns, and those from the equestrian order.
+
+Each province contained several independent republics.
+
+The States General could not make war or peace, or enter into alliances,
+or raise money, without the consent of all the seven provinces; nor did
+the decrees of any one of the States bind the constituent parts of it,
+without their consent.
+
+[Sidenote: Constitution of the Netherlands.]
+
+The Stadtholder was appointed by the States General, and held his office
+at their will. The offices of captain-general and admiral were united in
+him: thus he had the appointment of all military commands, both by sea
+and land; and had considerable influence and power in the nomination to
+civil offices. Three officers,--the _treasurer, the conservator of the
+peace, and the grand pensionary,_ were appointed by the States General,
+and were immediately subject to their controul; they were wholly
+independent of the Stadtholder. The grand pensionary was always supposed
+to be profoundly versed in civil, ecclesiastical, and consuetudinary
+law; and in foreign diplomacy. All transactions between subjects or
+foreigners with the States General, passed through his hands. He
+attended the deliberations of the States; he was not entitled to vote,
+but was expected to sum up the arguments on each side, and to deliver
+his opinion upon them. Each province had its advocate, syndic or
+pensionary; a public officer who superintended their public concerns;
+and represented them, but only with a deliberative voice, in the
+assembly of the States.
+
+[Sidenote: Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.]
+
+We now reach the æra, at which our intended biography commences. A
+Literary History of the Netherlands, from the time of their becoming
+subjects to the Dukes of Burgundy, till this æra, is much wanted.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE BIRTH AND EDUCATION OF HUGO GROTIUS.
+
+
+1582-1597.
+
+
+The Life of Erasmus, which we have offered to the public, presents to
+its readers, the interesting spectacle of a person, born under every,
+disadvantage for the acquisition of literature, surmounting them all by
+his genius and perseverance, and reaching, at an early age, the highest
+summit of literary eminence: the Life of GROTIUS, which we now attempt,
+exhibits the successful literary career of a person, born with every
+advantage, undeviatingly availing himself of them, and attaining equal
+eminence; with the addition of high reputation for great political
+wisdom and public integrity.
+
+[Sidenote: His Birth and Education.]
+
+He was born at Delft, on the 10th April 1582. His parents were John de
+Groote, and Alida Averschie. John was the second son of Hugo de Groote
+by Elselinda Heemskirke. Hugo was the son of Cornelius Cornet by
+Ermingarde, the daughter and sole heiress of Diederic de Groote. Upon
+their marriage, Diederic stipulated that Cornet should adopt the
+surname of Groote: it signifies _Great_, and is said to have been given
+to Diederic for some signal service, which he had rendered to his
+sovereign. All the males and females mentioned in the genealogy of
+Grotius were of noble extraction.
+
+Learning appears to have been hereditary in the family: John, the father
+of Hugo, the subject of our biography, was both a lawyer in great
+practice, and a general scholar.
+
+The 10th of April, on which GROTIUS was born, was Easter Sunday in that
+year: he always observed his birthday with religious solemnity.
+
+All the biographers of Grotius assert, and their assertion will be
+easily believed, that he discovered, in his earliest years, great
+aptitude for the acquisition of learning, great taste, judgment and
+application, and a wonderful memory. He found, in his father, an
+excellent tutor: by him, Grotius was instructed in the rudiments of the
+Christian doctrine, and his infant mind impressed with sound principles
+of morality and honour; in this, he was aided by the mother of Grotius.
+The youth corresponded with their cares. He has celebrated, in elegant
+verses, their pious attention to his early education. The mention of
+these verses will bring to the recollection of every English reader, the
+magnificent strains, in which, Milton addressed _his_ father.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. I. 1582-1597.]
+
+As soon as Grotius had passed his childhood, he was placed with
+Utengobard, an Arminian clergyman: we shall see that this circumstance
+had a decisive influence upon his future life. He retained a lasting
+regard for Utengobard, and a grateful recollection of his obligations to
+him. At the age of twelve years, Grotius was sent to the university of
+Leyden, and committed to the care of Francis Junius. Here, he
+distinguished himself so much by his diligence, his talents, and his
+modesty, as to obtain the notice and regard of several of the most
+famous scholars of the times. Even Joseph Scaliger, equally
+distinguished by his learning and caustic arrogance, noticed him, and
+condescended to direct his studies. He was scarcely eleven years of age
+when Douza, one of the princes of the republic of letters in those
+times, celebrated his praises in verse: He declared that "he could
+scarcely believe that Erasmus promised so much as Grotius at his age:"
+he announced that "Grotius would soon excel all his contemporaries, and
+bear a comparison with the most leaned of the antients."
+
+Grotius also gained the esteem of Barneveldt, the grand pensionary, in
+whose fate he was afterward involved. In 1587, the Dutch sent Count
+Justin of Nassau and Barneveldt, at the head of an embassy, to Henry IV.
+of France. Barneveldt permitted Grotius to accompany him.
+
+[Sidenote: His Birth and Education.]
+
+Grotius had been preceded by his reputation. He was known to M. de
+Busenval, the monarch's ambassador in Holland. Busenval described him
+favourably to the monarch. Henry gave Grotius a gracious reception, and
+was so pleased with his conversation and demeanour, that he presented
+him with his picture and a golden chain. Grotius gives an account of
+this embassy, in the seventh book of his Annals: he abstains, with a
+praiseworthy modesty, from any mention of himself: but, in one of his
+poems, he dwells with complacency on his having seen the monarch, "who
+owed his kingdom only to his valour"--
+
+        " ... _Le Heros, qui regna sur la Françe,
+        Et par droit de conquête et par droit de naissançe_."
+                                VOLTAIRE, _Henriade_.
+
+Grotius was so much pleased with his reception, and the present which he
+received from Henry, that he caused a print of himself, adorned with the
+chain presented to him by Henry, to be engraved. He was introduced to
+many of the most distinguished persons at Paris: there was one, whom he
+particularly esteemed, but whom, from some unexplained circumstance, he
+missed seeing.
+
+[Sidenote: Chap. 1. 1582-1597]
+
+This was _the President de Thou_, a name never to be mentioned without
+veneration. He had been employed by his sovereign on many delicate and
+important commissions, and had acquitted himself in all, with ability
+and honour. He had filled the office of _Maitre des Requétes_, and been
+advanced to that of _President a Mortiér_. He was employed, at this
+time, upon his immortal History. In the account which it gives of the
+events, that took place in France, it is entitled to almost unqualified
+praise: in regard to what happened to other countries, he necessarily
+depended on the information which he received from them, and cannot
+therefore be equally relied upon. The prolixity, with which he is now
+reproached, was not felt at the time in which he wrote; every event,
+however small, was then thought to be important, and multitudes were
+personally interested in it. But the charm of his work is, that every
+page of it shews a true lover of his country, an impartial judgment, and
+an honourable mind. The memoirs, which he has left us of his own life,
+recently translated into English by Mr. Collinson, are interesting and
+entertaining. He collected a very large library, both of printed books
+and manuscripts, and had them splendidly bound. The whole was sold by
+auction in the reign of Louis XIV, and scarcely produced half the sum
+which the binding of its volumes had cost: The same has been said of the
+Harleian collection, sold in our times.
+
+[Sidenote: His Birth and Education.]
+
+Having remained a twelvemonth at Paris, Grotius returned to Holland.
+Immediately after his arrival, he addressed a letter to the president
+de Thou, in which he expressed great mortification at not having seen
+him, and requested his acceptance of a book accompanying his letter,
+which he had dedicated to the Prince of Condé. The president de Thou was
+highly pleased with this letter: a correspondence took place between
+them. Grotius furnished the president with materials for that portion of
+his history which related to the troubles in the Low Countries.
+
+In the last letter of the President de Thou, in this correspondence, he
+earnestly dissuades Grotius from engaging in the religious disputes of
+the times. In reply to it, Grotius respectfully intimates to the
+president, that "he found himself obliged to enter into them by his love
+of his country; his wish to serve his church, and the request of those
+to whom he owed obedience:" promising, at the same time, "to abstain
+from all disputes that were not necessary." After the death of the
+President, Grotius celebrated his memory in a poem, which was considered
+by the bard's admirers to be one of his best performances.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GROTIUS EMBRACES THE PROFESSION OF THE LAW. HIS FIRST PROMOTIONS.
+
+1597-1610.
+
+
+In the ruin of the Roman Empire, her laws were lost in the general
+wreck. During the 200 years, which followed the reign of Constantine the
+Great, Europe was a scene of every calamity, which the inroads of
+barbarians could inflict, either on the countries through which they
+passed, or those in which they settled. About the sixth century, Europe
+obtained some degree of tranquillity, in consequence of the introduction
+of feudalism; the most singular event in the annals of history. At
+first, it produced a general anarchy; but the system of subordination
+upon which it was grounded, contained in it the germ of regular
+government, and even, of jurisprudence. Its effects were first visible
+in the _various codes of law_ which the barbarous nations promulgated.
+Such are the Salic, the Ripuarian, the Alemannic, the Burgundian, the
+Visigothic, and the Lombard laws.
+
+[Sidenote: Feudal Jurisprudence.]
+
+A complicated or refined system of jurisprudence is not to be looked for
+in them; but, if they are considered with due regard to the state of
+society for which they were calculated, they will be found to contain
+much that deserves praise. The _capitularies_, or short legislative
+provisions, propounded by the sovereign, and adopted by the public
+assemblies of the nation, were a further advance in legislation. By
+degrees, so much regularity prevailed in the judicial proceedings and
+legal transactions, that they were regulated by established
+_formularies_; and, in addition to those provisions, every nation
+contained a collection of unwritten usages or _customs_, which had the
+force of law. The natural tendency of these institutions to introduce
+order and peaceful habits into society was great; but it was so much
+counteracted by the turbulent spirit of every class of men, that it was
+not till the beginning of the thirteenth century that this effect of
+them became discernible.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. II. 1597-1610]
+
+From this time, the governments of Europe sensibly improved. A better
+spirit of legislation shewed itself; the administration of justice
+became more regular; trade and husbandry were protected, several arts
+were encouraged; and a general wish for a better order of things
+prevailed in every part of Europe. While the public mind was in this
+state of improvement, an event fortunately happened, which gave it a
+very salutary direction. This was, (what we have already noticed), the
+discovery of a complete copy of the _Pandects of Justinian_ at Amalfi, a
+town in Italy, near Salerno. From Amalfi, it found its way to Pisa; and
+in 1406, was carried to Florence, where it has since remained.
+
+[Sidenote: The Civil Law]
+
+Few events in history can be mentioned which have conduced more to the
+welfare of Europe than this discovery. The codes, the capitularies, the
+formularies, and the customs, by which, till that time, the feudal
+nations had been governed, fell very short of affording them the legal
+provisions, which society, in the improved state of civilization, to
+which it was then advancing, evidently required. Unexpectedly, a system
+of law presented itself, which seemed to contain every thing that the
+most enlightened men of those times could have desired. The wisdom and
+justice of the system of law expressed in the Pandects seem to have been
+universally felt. The study of it was immediately pursued with ardour.
+It was introduced into several universities; exercises were performed,
+lectures read, and degrees conferred in that, as in other branches of
+science; and most of the nations of the continent adopted it, if not as
+the basis, at least as an important portion of their civil
+jurisprudence. A regular _succession of civil_ lawyers followed. At
+first, they rather incumbered the text with their subtleties, than
+illustrated it by learning and discrimination. _Andrew Alciat_ was the
+first who united the study of polite learning with the study of the
+civil law: he was founder of a school called the _Cujacian_, from
+_Cujas_, the glory of civilians. Of him, it may be truly said, that he
+found the civil law in wood and left it in marble.
+
+This school has subsisted until our time: it has never been without
+writers of the greatest taste, judgment and erudition; the names of
+Cujacius, Augustinus, the Gothofredi, Heineccius, Voetius, Vinnius,
+Gravina and Pothier, are as dear to the scholar as they are to the
+lawyer; an Englishman however must reflect with pleasure, that the
+Commentaries of his countryman, Sir William Blackstone, will not suffer
+in a comparison with any foreign work of jurisprudence. So far as the
+researches of the present writer extend, the only one that can be put
+into competition with them, is the _Jus Canonicum of Van-Espen_.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. II. 1597-1610]
+
+The judicial process of the nations on the continent differed
+considerably from that of England. Trial by jury, and separate courts of
+equity, were unknown to them. Some causes were heard and decided by all
+the magistrates of the courts; others were referred to one or more of
+their number. The king's advocate, or the advocate of the state, as he
+was termed in a republic, held a situation between the judges and the
+suitors: his province was to sum the facts and arguments of the cause,
+and to suggest his opinions upon them to the judges.--We trust our
+readers will excuse this summary view of foreign jurisprudence.
+
+Grotius, by the advice of his father, addicted himself to the profession
+of the law. He was only in his seventeenth year, when he pleaded his
+first cause. He acquired by it, great reputation; and this was
+constantly upon the increase, through the whole of his professional
+career. He observed in his pleadings a rule, which he afterwards
+recommended to his son: "That you may not," he told him, "be embarrassed
+by the little order observed by the adversary counsel, attend to one
+thing, which I have found eminently useful: Distribute all that can be
+said on both sides, under certain heads; imprint these strongly in your
+memory; and, whatever your adversary says, refer it not to his division,
+but to your own."
+
+[Sidenote: Grotius embraces the profession of the Law.]
+
+The brilliant success of Grotius at the bar soon procured him very
+considerable promotions. The place of Advocate-General of the Fisc of
+the provinces of Holland and Zealand becoming vacant, it was unanimously
+conferred on him. This situation was attended with great distinction and
+authority; the person invested with it, being charged with the
+preservation of the public peace, and the prosecution of public
+offenders. In 1613, Grotius was advanced to the situation of Pensionary
+of Rotterdam; and his high character authorized him to stipulate before
+he accepted it, that he should hold it during his life, and not, at
+will, its usual tenure. It immediately gave him a seat in the assembly
+of the States of Holland; and, at a future time, a seat in the assembly
+of the States General.
+
+Between the time of his appointment to the advocacy of the Fisc of
+Holland and Zealand, and his being appointed Pensionary of Rotterdam, he
+married Mary Reygersburgh, of an illustrious family in Zealand. It
+proved a marriage of happiness. The most perfect harmony subsisted
+between Grotius and his consort: we shall find that she was an ornament
+to him in prosperity, his comfort and aid in adverse fortune. The
+marriage was solemnized in July 1608, and celebrated by many a Belgic
+bard.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP II. 1597-1610.]
+
+A dispute arising about this time between England and the States
+General, upon the exclusive right claimed by the former to fish in the
+Northern seas, the States, with a view to an amicable adjustment of it,
+sent Grotius to England. Several meetings took place between him and
+commissioners appointed by James, the British sovereign. If we credit
+the account, given by Grotius, of the point in dispute, and the
+negociation to which it gave rise, justice was decidedly on the side of
+the States General; and England only carried the point by the lion's
+right,--the _droit du plus fort_.
+
+[Sidenote: Grotius embraces the profession of the Law.]
+
+Grotius had every reason to be pleased with his reception by the English
+monarch and his court. Between Grotius and Casaubon, who, at this time,
+resided in England, an intimacy had long subsisted. It was cemented by
+mutual esteem, similarity of studies, and the earnest wish of each for
+an amicable termination of religious differences: each respected the
+antient doctrines and discipline of the church; each thought that many
+of the points in controversy were disputes of words; that much might be
+gained by mutual concessions; and that the articles, upon which there
+was any substantial difference, were few. "I esteem Grotius
+highly,"--Casaubon writes in a letter to the president de Thou, "on
+account of his other great qualities; but particularly because he judges
+of the modern subjects of religious controversy like a learned and good
+man. In his veneration for antiquity, he agrees with the wisest men."
+... "I heartily pray God," says Casaubon in a letter to Grotius, "to;
+preserve you: as long as I shall live, I shall hold you in the highest
+esteem: so much am I taken with your piety, your probity, and your
+admirable learning."[005]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE EARLY PUBLICATIONS OF GROTIUS.
+
+
+There is not, perhaps, an instance of a person's acquiring at an age
+equally early, the reputation, which attended the first publication of
+Grotius. It was an edition, with notes, of the work of "_Martianus
+Mineus Felix Capella_, on the Marriage of Mercury and Philology, in two
+books; and of the same writer's Seven Treatises on the Liberal Arts."
+They had been often printed; but all the editions were faulty: a
+manuscript of them having been put into the hands of Grotius by his
+father, he communicated it to Scaliger, and by his advice undertook a
+new edition of them.
+
+The time, in which Capella lived, and the place of his birth, are
+uncertain; the better opinion seems to be, that he flourished towards
+the third century, resided at Rome, and attained the consular dignity.
+His works are written in prose, intermixed with poetry. His diction has
+some resemblance to that of Tertullian, but is much more crabbed and
+obscure: none, but the ablest Latin scholars, can understand him. The
+Marriage of Mercury and Philology,--or of Speech with Learning, is not
+uninteresting. His other treatises contain nothing remarkable: that upon
+music, is hardly intelligible; it is printed separately in the
+collection of _Meibomius_. With all his harshness and obscurity, Capella
+seems to have been much studied in the middle ages,--some proof that
+there was more learning in them, than is generally supposed,--he is so
+often quoted by the writers of those times, that some persons have
+supposed that his work was then a text book in the schools.
+
+[Sidenote: The early publications of Grotius.]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
+
+When Grotius undertook his edition of Capella, he was only twelve years
+of age: he published it in his fourteenth year, and dedicated it to the
+Prince of Condé. The learning and critical discernment displayed by him
+in this publication excited astonishment, and obtained for him the
+applause of all the literary world. Grotius himself gives the following
+account of his work: "We have collated Capella with the several authors,
+who have investigated the same subjects. In the two first books, we have
+consulted those whose writings contain the sentiments of the antient
+philosophers, as Apuleius, Albericus and others, too tedious to name; on
+grammar, we have compared, Capella with the antient grammarians; in what
+he has said on rhetoric, with Cicero and Aquila; on logic, with
+Porphyry, Aristotle, Cassiodorus and Apuleius; on geography, with
+Strabo, Mela, Solinus, and Ptolemy, but chiefly Pliny; on arithmetic,
+with Euclid; on astronomy, with Hyginus, and others, who have treated on
+that subject; on music, with Cleonides, Vitruvius and Boethius." In
+Grotius's Annotations all these writers are mentioned in a manner, which
+shews that he was thoroughly conversant with their works. Grotius's
+edition is become, from its extreme scarcity, a typographical curiosity:
+all the other editions are scarce. The writer of these pages found, with
+great difficulty, a copy of it in the London market.[006] That of
+Bonhomme, published at Lyons in 1539, he procured by loan. The
+celebrated Leibniz began to prepare an edition of Capella _in usum
+Delphini_; but his collections being purloined from him, he desisted
+from his project: it must be owned that the general learning of Leibniz
+qualified him admirably for such a task.[009]
+
+[Sidenote: The early Publications of Grotius.]
+
+While yet in his fourteenth year, Grotius published a translation of a
+work, published by Simon Steven in 1586, upon Navigation, and shewed by
+it a profound knowledge of mathematics:[010] he dedicated it to the
+republic of Venice.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
+
+In the following year, Grotius published _the Phenomena of Aratus_, a
+poetical treatise of that author upon astronomy, with Cicero's
+translation of it, so far as it has reached us. Grotius supplied the
+vacancies. It is universally admitted that the parts supplied by him,
+are not inferior to those of Cicero. The abbé d'Olivet, the editor of
+Cicero's works, and an enthusiastic admirer of his style, declares that
+"the Muse of Cicero[011] did not throw the Muse of Grotius into the
+shade:" he therefore inserted the supplementary verses of Grotius in his
+edition. Grotius dedicated his work to the States of Holland and West
+Friseland; and promised them in his dedication something more
+considerable. He was complimented upon it by several of the greatest men
+of the age.
+
+The following simile, taken from Cicero's translation of Aratus, and
+Voltaire's version of it, are greatly admired:
+
+        Sic Jovis altisoni subito pennata satelles,
+        Arboris è trunco, serpentis saucia morsu;
+        Ipsa feris subigit transfigens unguibus anguem
+        Semianimum, et variâ graviter cervice micantem;
+        Quem se intorquentem laniens rostroque craentans,
+        Abjicit efflantem, et laceratum effundit in undas,
+        Seque obitu a solis nitidos convertit ad ortus.
+
+                        CICERO.
+
+
+        Tel on voit cet oiseau, qui porte le tonnere,
+        Blessé par un serpent élancé de la terre;
+        Il s'envole, il entraine au sejour azuré
+        L'ennemi tortueux dont il est entouré.
+        Le sang tombe des airs: il dechire, il devore
+        Le reptile acharné, qui le combat encore;
+        Il le perçe, il le tient sous ses ongles vainqeurs,
+        Par cent coups rédoublés il venge ses douleurs;
+        Le Monstre en expirant, se debat, se replie;
+        Il exhale en poison le reste de sa vie;
+        Et l'aigle tout sanglant, fier et victorieux,
+        Le rejette en fureur, et plane au haut des cieux.
+
+                        VOLTAIRE.
+
+[Sidenote: The early Publications of Grotius.]
+
+About the year 1608, Grotius published his celebrated work _Mare
+Liberum_, to assert in it against the English, the general freedom of
+the sea. The controversy arose upon the claim of Great Britain to enjoy
+the dominion of the British seas, in the most extensive sense of those
+words, both as to the right of navigating them, and the right of fishing
+within them. Against this claim, Grotius attempted to shew that the sea
+was, from its nature, insusceptible of exclusive right; and that, if it
+were susceptible of it, England did not prove her title to it. Selden,
+in opposition to Grotius, asserted the British claim, by his treatise
+_Mare Clausam_,--a noble exertion of a vigorous mind, fraught with
+profound and extensive erudition. It is pleasing to add, that he treats
+Grotius with the respect due to his learning and character. Selden's
+treatise was thought of so much importance to his cause, that a copy of
+it was directed to be deposited in the British Admiralty. Grotius was
+highly pleased with the respect, which was shewn to him by Selden.
+
+On Selden's _Mare Clausum_ he composed the following epigram:--
+
+        Ipsum compedibus qui vinxerat Ennegisæum,
+          Est Grecâ Xerxes multus in historia:
+        Lucullum Latii Xerxem dixere togatum;
+          Seldenus Xerxes ecce Britannus erit.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610]
+
+The States General were gratified by his work; but at that time it was
+so much their interest to preserve the strictest amity with England,
+that they discountenanced any further advocation of their claim.[012]
+
+The year after his publication of his "Treatise on the Freedom of the
+Sea," Grotius printed his work on the "_Antiquity of the Batavian
+Republic_." He gives in it an account of the antient _Batavians;_ he
+professes to shew that they were the allies, not the subjects of the
+Romans; that, after a period of anarchy, during which little is known of
+their history, they became subjects of the Counts of Holland; that these
+were not vassals of the empire, but independent princes; and, strictly
+speaking, elected by the people, although, in the election of them,
+great regard was always shewn to the hereditary line: that they were
+bound to conform to the laws of the state; and always required, before
+their election, to swear to the observance of the constitution; that the
+taxes were always imposed by the States, and that Philip the Second had
+occasioned the grand war, by repeated infractions of the public and
+private right of the people of the United Provinces.
+
+[Sidenote: The early Publications of Grotius.]
+
+The States of Holland were highly pleased with this work; they voted
+thanks to its author, and accompanied them with a present. It is
+considered that his partiality to his country led him to advance some
+positions favourable to its antient independence, which his proofs did
+not justify.
+
+For the use of _Du Maurier_, the French ambassador to the States
+General, Grotius published, about this time, his "Directions for a
+Course of general Study," _De omni genere studiorum recte instituendo_.
+It was favourably received, both by the diplomatist for whose use it was
+composed, and the public at large; but, on account of the great
+extension of literature, since the time of Grotius, it is now little
+read. Mentioning the Roman history, he shews that a knowledge of it is
+better acquired by reading its Greek than by reading its Latin
+historians; because foreigners give more attention to the public manners
+and customs of a country than natives.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
+
+All the works, which we have mentioned, were most favourably received in
+every part of the United Provinces. It was now become evident that the
+exertions for their independence were on the eve of being crowned with
+complete success. All the European Powers had deserted Spain, so that
+she was left to her own single and unaided strength, to maintain the
+contest against the insurgent provinces. The glory, which they acquired
+by their successful resistance to her, determined them to make choice of
+an historian, who should transmit to future ages the signal exploits of
+their memorable struggle. With this view, they appointed Grotius their
+historiographer.
+
+[Sidenote: The Poems of Grotius.]
+
+It remains to mention the "_Poems of Grotius:_" throughout his life, he
+sacrificed to the Muses. The _Prosopopoeia,_ in which he introduces the
+City of Ostend addressing the world, when, in the third year of her
+siege, the Marquis Spinola led the troops of Spain against her, was
+greatly, admired. All the adjacent territory had been taken by the
+Spaniards, so that nothing remained of it to the confederates, but the
+precinct within the walls of the city; and even much of this had been
+wrested from the besieged. All Europe had its eye fixed on the
+operations of Spinola. It is therefore, with great propriety of
+language, that Grotius makes Ostend thus address herself to the world,
+in the following lines:--
+
+        "Area parva ducum, totus quam respicit orbis;
+        Celsior una malis, et quam damnare ruinae
+        Nunc quoque fata timent,--alieno in litore resto.
+        Tertius annus abit; toties mutavimus hostem:
+        Sævit hyems pelago, morbisque furentibus æstas;
+        Et minimum est quod fecit Iber,--crudelior armis
+        In nos orta lues,--nullum est sine funere funus.
+        Nec perimit mors una semel:--Fortuna quid haeres?
+        Quâ mercede tenes mixtos in sanguine manes?
+        Quis tumulos moriens hos occupet hoste perempto?
+        Queritur,--et sterili tantum de pulvere pugna est."
+
+
+    "A small area of chiefs, whom the whole world contemplates;
+    alone loftier than my woes; I, whom the
+    Fates even yet, fear to condemn to ruin;--remain on a
+    foreign shore.
+
+    "The third year now passes away; thrice has my foe
+    been changed:
+
+    "The winter rages on the sea; the summer, by its furious
+    heats.
+
+    "The Spaniard has been my least enemy;--more cruel
+    than arms, a pestilence has risen among us; no funeral is
+    without another; the dying never perish by a single death.
+
+    "Fortune! why do'st thou hesitate? By what reward
+    do'st thou detain the manes mingled in blood?
+
+    "Who, dying, will, after the destruction of the enemy,
+    occupy these tombs?--This is enquired.--
+    The contest is only for sterile dust."
+
+With the following poetical translation of these verses, the writer has
+been favoured by Mr. Sotheby, the elegant translator of "Oberon."
+
+        Scant battle-field of Chiefs, thro' earth renown'd,
+        Opprest, I loftier tow'r;--and, now, while Fate
+        Dreads to destroy, in foreign soil I stand.
+        Thrice chang'd the year, thrice have we chang'd the Foe.
+        Fierce Winter chafes the Deep, the Summer burns
+        With fell disease: less fell th' Iberian sword.
+        Dire Pestilence spreads;--on funerals funerals swell:
+        Nor does one death at once extirpate all.
+        Why, Fortune! linger? why our souls detain
+        With blood immingled? Who, the Foe extinct,
+        Who, dying, shall these sepulchres possess,
+        And in this sterile dust the conflict close?
+
+                        W.S.
+            March 28,1826.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
+
+These verses produced a great sensation in the literary world: they were
+ascribed by many to Scaliger, as the best Latin poet of the age; the
+only person considered to be capable of writing them. The celebrated
+Peyresck hinted this to that learned man: Scaliger answered, that "he
+was too old not to be the aversion of the virgins of Helicon," and
+announced that the verses were written by Grotius. They were translated
+into French by Du Vair, afterwards the keeper of the seals; by Rapin,
+grand-provost of the Constabulary of France; by Stephen Pasquier, and by
+Malherbes: Casaubon translated them into Greek.[013]
+
+[Sidenote: The Poems of Grotius.]
+
+Three Generals had successively been entrusted with the siege of Ostend;
+nine commanders had successively been entrusted with its defence: the
+siege had cost the besiegers and besieged 100,000 lives: all the
+historians of the times agree, that few important consequences were
+derived to either side by the success of the Spaniards. The Archduke and
+Infanta, had the curiosity to view the city, after it was taken. They
+found in it nothing but heaps of ruins: little that shewed the former
+state of the town; its ditches were filled, its fortifications
+overthrown, its buildings, and the works of attack and defence, were
+levelled with the ground. Spinola led them to the spots in which the
+most remarkable events had taken place; and, finally to that, in which
+the forces of the besieged had made their last stand; had, for want of
+space, found themselves unable to raise military works, and had, on that
+account, found themselves forced to surrender. The Archduke and the
+Infanta were moved to tears at the melancholy sight; and declared that
+such a victory was not worth its cost.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
+
+The success of the siege of Ostend covered Spinola with glory: his reply
+to a person, who asked him,--who, in his opinion was the greatest
+general of the age,--is generally known: "Prince Maurice," he said, "is
+the second."[014]
+
+The principal poetical performances of Grotius in the collection we have
+mentioned, are--_three tragedies_, "Adam in Banishment," "Christ
+Suffering," and "Sophomphaneos," which signifies in the language of
+Egypt, "the Saviour of the world:" it exhibits the story of Joseph.
+Sandys translated it into English verse, and dedicated his translation
+to Charles I. From the second of these tragedies, Lauder transcribed
+many of the verses, upon which he founded the charge of plagiarism
+against Milton.
+
+An eminent rank among modern Latin poets, has always been assigned to
+Grotius: his diction is always classical, his sentiments just. But those
+who are accustomed to the _wood notes_ of the Bard of Avon, will not
+admire the scenic compositions, however elegant or mellifluous, of the
+Batavian Bard.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THEIR DECLARATION OF
+INDEPENDENCE, TILL THE ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY.
+
+
+The present chapter will lead our readers to the public life of Grotius:
+in a former page we succinctly mentioned the principal events in the
+history of the United Provinces, from their first insurrection against
+Philip II. till their declaration of independence. On that event, they
+continued Prince William of Orange in the Stadtholderate: he was
+entitled to it by his civil and military talents. Application, activity,
+liberality, eloquence, intrepidity, enterprise and discretion, were
+united in him in an extraordinary degree: he could accommodate himself
+to all persons and occurrences, accelerate or retard events, as best
+served the interests of his cause, or his own designs. In the rare
+talent of governing popular assemblies, and procuring the co-operation
+of persons of opposite views, he has had few equals. He wanted no
+quality, which a chief of a party should possess, either to insure the
+success of the public object, or to further his private aims.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. IV. 1597-1610.]
+
+These had, for some time, been suspected: it was generally observed,
+that he affected the exercise of sovereign authority; that he
+endeavoured to attach the military to his own person; that he always
+sought to have the acts of the States issued in his own name; that, on
+many occasions, he avoided consulting the States, or doing any thing
+which could be considered an explicit recognition of their supremacy;
+and that in several instances, in which the constitution required the
+co-operation of the States, he acted independently of them. This gave
+rise to a party, which was jealous of his power, and on many occasions
+thwarted, what they thought the projects of his private ambition. From
+their attachment to the constitution, they were termed the republican
+party: Barneveldt, the Grand-Pensionary of the States General, was their
+leader.
+
+[Sidenote: Assassination of William Prince of Orange.]
+
+Whatever were the projects of the prince, there appeared to be great
+probability of their ultimate success. In 1684, he had gained so for,
+that the States of Holland, Zealand and Frizeland, had come to a
+resolution to confer upon him the sovereignty of their states, under the
+title of Count. All the conditions were settled: on one hand, the rights
+of the prince, on the other, the rights of the people, were defined and
+recognised; a contravention of them by any of the people was declared
+to be treason; the infringement of them by the prince, was declared to
+be a forfeiture of his sovereignty. Thus the prince seemed to be on the
+eve of receiving the fruit of all his exertions. But, as we have already
+mentioned, he was assassinated by Balthazar Gerard, a fanatic Spaniard.
+The last words of the prince were, "Lord! have mercy on my soul! have
+pity on my poor country!"
+
+In 1585, Prince Maurice, the second son of William, was, chiefly by the
+influence of Barneveldt, proclaimed Stadtholder by the States General.
+They were not less jealous of his views, than they had been of his
+father's; but the misconduct of the Earl of Leicester had made it
+necessary for them to throw themselves into the prince's arms. The
+weakness of Spain, and the troubles in France, now permitted the United
+Provinces to enjoy some repose. They availed themselves of it, to settle
+the constitution: the towns were repaired, the fortifications completed,
+Universities were founded or revived at Utrecht, Leyden and Franker; and
+the arts of peace began to be cultivated.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. IV. 1597-1610.]
+
+Maurice inherited all the civil talents of his father; he had greater
+military skill, and at least equal ambition. The art of war seems to
+consist, at the present time, in directing immense masses of men, by
+skilful evolutions and positions, to the destruction of the force
+opposed. In the wars of the Netherlands, it was principally shewn by
+surprising strong-holds, besieging towns, regular assaults, advantageous
+encampments, and wasting the army of the enemy by skilful marches. The
+camp of Maurice became a school, in which the nobility and gentry of the
+empire, France, and England, entered as volunteers, to learn the art of
+war. His taking of the city of Breda, raised his reputation to the
+highest: from this time, the war, which, on the part of the United
+Provinces, had till then, been a defensive war, became offensive, and
+their arms were attended with almost uninterrupted success: they equally
+triumphed on Sea.
+
+In 1698, the war between Spain and France was terminated. Philip II.
+soon afterwards died: he was succeeded by Philip III. a weak monarch.
+Then, began the naval glory of the United Provinces; their attacks on
+the West Indian and East Indian colonies of the Spaniards. In 1600,
+prince Maurice gained a decisive victory at Nieuport near Ostend: it was
+followed by other important successes. In 1607, Admiral Heemskirk
+obtained a complete victory over the Spanish fleet, though protected by
+the batteries of Cadiz, and seized their ships and treasures.
+
+[Sidenote: Armistice between Spain and the United Provinces.]
+
+The war between Spain and the United Provinces had now continued forty
+years: the resources of Spain were so exhausted, that she herself was
+forced to solicit an armistice. Prince Maurice objected to it, as the
+continuance of the war was essential to the furtherance of his own
+ambitious views. On this account, the truce was promoted by Barneveldt
+and the republican party. They justly thought that the aggrandizement of
+the house of Orange would be the extinction of the liberties of their
+country, so that the result of the war would only be, that the United
+Provinces would change their masters. After a long negotiation, an
+armistice of twelve years was agreed upon in 1609, and England and
+France guaranteed the execution of the treaty.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE FEUDS IN THE UNITED PROVINCES BETWEEN THE DISCIPLES OF CALVIN AND
+THE DISCIPLES OF ARMINIUS, UNTIL THE SYNOD AT DORT.
+
+1610-1617.
+
+
+It has generally happened, when a people have risen against their
+sovereign, that their first successes have been followed by divisions
+among themselves; and that these have endangered, and sometimes even
+ruined, their cause. Such a division took place, in a remarkable manner,
+in the conflict between the United Provinces and Spain. No sooner did
+the arms of the former begin to prosper, and promise ultimate success,
+than the ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY burst forth. At first, it was merely a
+religious dispute; but it soon mixed itself in the national politics;
+split the people into two very hostile parties, and produced contentions
+between them, which more than once brought their cause to the brink of
+destruction. Grotius was unfortunately involved in them. This part of
+the history now claims our attention.
+
+[Sidenote: Calvinism.]
+
+The reformed church, in the largest import of the word, comprises all
+the religious communities, which have separated themselves from the
+church of Rome. In this sense, the words are often used by English
+writers; but, having been adopted by the French Calvinists to describe
+_their_ church, these words are most commonly used, on the continent, as
+a general appellation of all the churches who profess the doctrines of
+Calvin.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+About the year 1541, the church of Geneva was placed by the magistrates
+of that city, under the direction of Calvin. He immediately conceived
+one of the boldest projects, that ever entered into the mind of an
+obscure individual. He undertook to new model the religious creed of the
+reformed church; to give it strength and consistency, and to render the
+church of Geneva the mother and mistress of all Protestant churches. His
+learning, eloquence, and talents for business, soon attracted general
+notice; and, while the fervour of his zeal, the austerity of his
+manners, and the devotional cast of his writings, attracted the
+multitude, the elegance of his compositions, and his insinuating style,
+equally captivated the gentleman and the scholar. By degrees, his fame
+reached every part of Europe. Having prevailed upon the senate of Geneva
+to found an academy, and place it under his superintendence, and having
+filled it with men eminent throughout Europe for their learning and
+talent, it became the favourite resort of all persons, who leaned to the
+new principles, and sought religious or literary instruction. From
+Germany, France, Italy, England and Scotland, numbers crowded to the new
+academy, and returned from it to their native countries, saturated with
+the doctrine of Geneva, and burning with zeal to propagate its creed.
+
+Calvin's peculiar doctrine on Predestination and Free-will soon
+attracted attention, and gave rise to _more than a civil war_[015] of
+controversy,[016]
+
+We feel that we are free: if we were not free, conscience could not
+exist; for, if a man had not freedom of action, conscience could not
+intimate to him either its approbation or its disapprobation of his
+actions.
+
+But--_how_ are we free? _How_ is free-will reconcileable, either with
+the influence of motive upon will? or with the order of the universe,
+prescribed by the Deity? or, with his prescience? For that, which his
+infinite mind prescribes or foresees, must be fixed.
+
+[Sidenote: Disputes on the Free-will of Man.]
+
+This question soon engaged the attention of the Greek Philosophers: some
+advocated the free-will of man; others denied it, and ascribed his
+actions to Fate or Destiny; a being or energy, which they were never
+able to define or describe. Among the Jews, the Sadducees embraced the
+former opinion; the Pharisees, the latter. Among the Mahometans, a like
+division took place between the followers of Omar, and those of Ali.
+
+Unfortunately, the Christians engaged in these ungrateful speculations:
+their disputes chiefly turned upon the effect, which motive, suggested
+by grace, or the divine favour, has upon will. Does it necessitate?
+then, there is no free-will,--no merit,--no demerit. Does it not
+necessitate? then, in the choice of good, man acts by his own power, and
+thus achieves a good of which God is not the author.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+The dispute was brought to an issue by _Pelagius_ and his disciples.
+They held, that man acts independently of divine grace, both in the
+choice and execution of good. This independence was denied by _St.
+Augustin_, he asserted, that man co-operates with grace, yet, that grace
+begins, advances and brings to perfection every thing in man, which can
+be justly called good. _St. Thomas of Aquin_ new-modelled the system of
+St. Augustin, and used new terms in describing it: his subtile
+distinctions, in the opinion of many, considerably improved it.
+
+_Calvin_ aggravated the doctrine of St. Augustin. He maintained,[017]
+that the everlasting condition of mankind in the future world, was
+determined from all eternity, by the _unchangeable order_ of the Deity;
+and that this _absolute_ determination of his will was the only source
+of _happiness or misery_ to individuals. Thus Calvin maintained, without
+any qualification, that God, from all eternity has doomed one part of
+mankind to everlasting happiness, the other to everlasting misery; and,
+was led to make this distinction, without regard to the merit or demerit
+of the object, and by no other reason or motive than his own pleasure.
+
+_Luther_,[018] in opposition to Calvin, maintained, that the _divine
+decrees_ respecting the salvation or misery of men, are founded upon a
+previous knowledge of their sentiments and characters; or, in other
+words, that God, foreseeing from all eternity the faith and virtue of
+some, and the incredulity or wickedness of others, has reserved eternal
+happiness for the former, and eternal misery for the latter.
+
+[Sidenote: Disputes on the Free-will of Man.]
+
+These, and other doctrinal differences, separated the Protestants into
+the adherents to the creed of Luther, and the adherents to the creed of
+Calvin. The United Provinces were among the latter: the creed of Calvin
+was, as we have mentioned, one of the fundamental laws of the Union.
+
+The Calvinistic doctrine, that God, from all eternity, consigns one
+portion of mankind, without any fault on their side, to everlasting
+torments, shocks our feelings, and is totally repugnant to the notions
+entertained by us of the goodness and justice of the Deity: it is not
+therefore surprising that it should be called in question. From the
+first, several objected to it; but it was not till the successes of the
+United Provinces appeared to afford them a near prospect of triumph,
+that the opposers of Calvin's doctrine formed themselves into a party,
+and occasioned a public sensation.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+The celebrated JAMES ARMINIUS[019] was at their head. He was born in
+1560, at Oudewater in Holland, of respectable parents. He lost his
+father in his infancy, and was indebted, for the first rudiments of his
+education, to a clergyman, who had imbibed some opinions of the reformed
+religion. Under his tuition, Arminius studied, during some time, at
+Utrecht. After the clergyman's decease, Rudolphus Snellius, a clergyman
+of eminence, took Arminius under his protection, and, in 1575, placed
+him at Marpurgh. There, he heard of the taking of Oudewater by the
+Spaniards, and their massacre of its inhabitants. His mother, sister,
+and two brothers were among the victims. On the first intelligence of
+the calamity he repaired to Oudewater, in hopes that the account of it
+might have been exaggerated. Finding it true, he retired to Leyden:
+there, his severe application to study, and the regularity of his
+morals, gained him universal esteem. In 1563, he was sent to Geneva, at
+the expense of the magistrates of Amsterdam, to perfect his studies
+under the care of Beza. Unfortunately, by adopting the philosophical
+principles, of _Ramus_, and unguardedly professing them, he displeased
+some leading men of the university, and was obliged to leave it: he then
+went to Bâsle. There, his reputation having preceded him, he was
+received with great kindness: the faculty of divinity offered him a
+doctor's degree; but a general wish for his return being expressed at
+Geneva, he declined the honour, and returned to that city. He then
+visited Italy, and, during some months, studied under Zabarella, a
+famous philosopher, who then lectured at Padua. In 1588, Arminius was
+ordained minister at Amsterdam.
+
+[Sidenote: Arminius.]
+
+Some theologians of Delft having attacked the sentiments of Calvin and
+Beza upon predestination, and given great offence by it, they defended
+themselves by a book, entitled; "An Answer to certain Arguments of Beza
+and Calvin, in the treatise concerning Predestination; or upon the ninth
+Chapter of the Epistle to the Romans." They transmitted their defence to
+Martin Lydius, a partisan of the divines whom it attacked; he sent it to
+Arminius, with a request that he would answer it. Arminius undertook the
+task, and attentively examined and weighed the arguments on each side;
+the result was, that he embraced the opinions which he had been called
+upon to confute, and even went further than the ministers of Delft. Upon
+this account, the friends of the rejected principles raised a great
+clamour against him; but were quieted by the intervention of the
+magistrates. The opinions, which Arminius adopted, he endeavoured to
+propagate. They are contained in the Remonstrance of his disciples,
+which we shall afterwards transcribe.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+As the language of Arminius seemed to express notions, more consonant
+than those of Calvin, to the sentiments entertained by rational
+Christians, of the goodness and justice of the Deity, it is not
+surprising that they found many advocates among the learned and
+moderate; but some ardent spirits were offended by them, and instilled
+their dislike of them into the populace. This, Arminius was soon made to
+feel. In 1603, he was appointed, on the death of Francis Junius, to a
+professorship of theology in the university of Leyden: great efforts
+were made, first to prevent, and afterwards to procure a recision of his
+appointment. He was accused of having said in a sermon, that "God had
+not yet sent his letter of divorce to the church of Rome;" but his
+friends produced a work of Francis Junius, his predecessor in the
+theological chair, in which that celebrated theologian had used the same
+expression. Arminius was also accused by his adversaries, of elevating
+the action of reason in the choice of good, at the expense of grace. To
+this Arminius replied, by accusing his adversaries of sacrificing reason
+entirely to grace. But the greater number of the enemies of Arminius
+supported their charges against him, by making it a question of
+authority: "the States," they said, "had decided the question, by
+adopting Calvin's doctrine at the union; so that the gainsayers of it
+were guilty of treason." The friends of Arminius replied, that he did
+not deny Calvin's doctrine, but merely explained it.
+
+[Sidenote: Arminius.]
+
+Thus they disputed;
+
+        "And found no end, in wandering mazes lost."
+                        Milton.
+
+In fact, the subject,--as the writer has more than once observed,--is
+above human reason: the day will come, "when the Almighty will be
+judged, and will overcome;"--when the secret of his councils will be
+unfolded, and their justice and goodness made manifest to all.[020]
+
+The friends of Arminius also observed, that he was by no means singular
+in his doctrine; that it was favoured by professors in Gueldres,
+Friesland, Utrecht, and other parts of Holland; and, that in all the
+provinces, it was patronized by the higher ranks of the laity. Was it
+fitting, they asked, that the peace of the church, and the tranquillity
+of the state, should be disturbed by such a dispute? by a dispute which
+affected no essential article of christianity; no civil, no moral, no
+religious observation?
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+The principal adversary of Arminius was _Gomarus_, also a professor of
+theology at Leyden. When the election of Arminius was proposed, Gomarus
+announced suspicions of his orthodoxy; he afterwards raised his tone,
+and accused Arminius of Pelagianism, of secretly inclining to the church
+of Rome, and holding principles which led to general scepticism and
+infidelity.
+
+Arminius died on the 19th October 1609.
+
+Grotius made his eulogium in verse. He had hitherto applied little to
+these matters; he acknowledges, in a letter written in 1609, his general
+ignorance of them. Entering afterwards into the dispute, he became
+convinced that the idea, which we ought to have of the goodness and
+justice of God, and even the language of the scriptures and the early
+fathers of the church, favoured the system of Arminius, and contradicted
+that of Gomarus.
+
+The prejudices against the Arminians increasing, they drew up a
+Remonstrance, dated the 14th January 1610, and addressed it to the
+States of Holland. It begins by stating what they do not believe: it
+afterwards propounds their own sentiments in the five articles
+following:[021]
+
+     [Sidenote: Remonstrance.]
+
+    1. "That God, by an eternal and immutable decree in Jesus Christ
+    his son, before the world was created, resolved to save in Jesus
+    Christ, on account of Jesus Christ, and through Jesus Christ,
+    those, from among mankind fallen in sin, who, by the grace of the
+    Holy Spirit believe in his same son Jesus; and through the same
+    grace continue in the faith and obedience to the end; and, on the
+    contrary, to leave under sin, and wrath, and to condemn the
+    obstinate and unbelieving, as having no part in Christ; according
+    to what is said _St. John_ iii. 36.
+
+    2. "That accordingly, Jesus Christ the Saviour of the world, died
+    for all and every man; and by his death on the cross has merited
+    for all, reconciliation with God, and remission of sin; in such
+    manner nevertheless, that no one can partake of them but believers,
+    according to the words of Jesus, _St. John_ iii. 16., 1 _John_ ii.
+    2.
+
+    3. "That man hath not saving faith of himself, and by the strength
+    of his own free will; since, while in a state of sin and apostasy,
+    he cannot of himself think, desire, or do, that which is truly
+    good, which is what is chiefly meant by saving faith; but it is
+    necessary that God in Jesus Christ, and by the Holy Spirit,
+    regenerate and renew him in his understanding and affections, or in
+    his will and all his powers; that he may know the true good,
+    meditate on it, desire, and do it. _St. John_ xv. 5.
+
+    [Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+    4. "That to this grace of God is owing the beginning, the
+    progression, and accomplishment of all good; in such manner, that
+    even the regenerate, without this antecedent, or preventing,
+    exciting, concomitant, and cooperating grace, cannot think that,
+    which is good, desire or practise it; nor resist any temptation to
+    evil; so that all the good works or actions he can conceive, spring
+    from the grace of God; that as to what regards the manner of
+    operation of this grace, it is not irresistible, since it is said
+    of several, they resisted the Holy Spirit. See _Acts_ vii. and
+    other places.
+
+    5. "That those, who by a lively faith are engrafted into Christ, and
+    consequently made partakers of his quickening spirit, are furnished
+    with sufficient strength to be able to combat, and even overcome
+    Satan, sin, the world, and their own lusts; and all this, as is
+    carefully to be observed, by the assistance of the grace and the
+    Holy Spirit; and that Jesus Christ succours them by his spirit in
+    all temptations, reaches to them his hand, (provided they be
+    willing to engage, ask his assistance, and are not wanting to
+    themselves,) supports and strengthens them: so, that they cannot be
+    led away by any wile or violence of Satan, or snatched out of
+    Christ's hands, as he says himself, _St. John_ x. _My sheep shall
+    no man pluck out of my hands_. For the rest, if it be asked whether
+    these may not through negligence let go the confidence they had
+    from the beginning, (Heb. iii. 6.) cleave again to the present
+    world, depart from the holy doctrine, which was delivered, make
+    shipwreck of a good conscience? (2 Pet. i. 10., Jude iii., 1 Tim.
+    i. 19., Heb. xii. 15.) This must be previously examined with more
+    care, by the Scriptures, to be able to teach it with full assurance
+    to others."
+
+Such is the Confession of Faith of the Arminians: they gave it the name
+of _Remonstrance_; and were styled from it REMONSTRANTS. It was drawn up
+by _Utengobard_, minister at the Hague, with the help, it is supposed,
+of Grotius: it was signed by forty-six ministers.
+
+[Sidenote: Contra-Remonstrance.]
+
+The Gomarists opposed to it a _Contra-Remonstrance_; which gave them the
+name of the CONTRA-REMONSTRANTS.
+
+It was about this time, that Grotius was elected Pensionary of
+Rotterdam, and ordered to England: it has been suggested, that he had
+secret instructions from the Arminians, to induce king James to favour
+their principles.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+We are informed, by Mr. Nichols, (_Calvinism and Arminianism
+compared_,)[022] that the Arminians sent to King James by Grotius, a
+true state of their case; that Grotius found an adversary in _Archbishop
+Abbott_, and friends in _Bishops Andrews_ and _Overal_; and that by
+their advice the monarch addressed to the States General, a wise and
+conciliatory letter.
+
+The irritation of the public mind increasing, the States of Holland, to
+restore tranquillity, published an edict of Pacification, by which they
+strongly enjoined forbearance, toleration, and silence. This was
+favourable to the Arminians, but it increased the violence of the
+_Contra-remonstrants_. Thus, it became a signal of war. The States of
+Holland transmitted it to King James: his Majesty, the archbishop of
+Canterbury, and the other English prelates, allowed its doctrine to be
+orthodox.
+
+[Sidenote: Remonstrants--Contra-Remonstrants.]
+
+Still, the troubles in Holland augmented: riots took place and greater
+riots were apprehended. In an evil hour, Barneveldt, the
+Grand-Pensionary, proposed to the States of Holland, that the
+magistrates of the cities of that province should he empowered to raise
+troops for the suppression of the rioters. Amsterdam, Dort, and other
+towns, that favoured the Gomarists, protested against this measure,
+styling it a declaration of war against the Contra-remonstrants. Yet,
+on the 4th August 1617, Barneveldt's proposition was agreed to, and
+promulgated.
+
+We have mentioned the enmity of Prince Maurice to Barneveldt, on account
+of his having promoted the armistice of 1609, and his favouring the
+republican party. The Prince professed to consider the edict of
+Pacification as derogatory of his authority, and forbade the soldiers to
+obey the States, if they should be ordered to act against the rioters.
+He publicly declared, that he favoured the Gomarists; he assisted, at
+the divine service, in their churches only, and shewed them every other
+mark of public favour. Exulting in this powerful support, the Gomarists
+separated themselves, formally, from the Arminians.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+To bring over Amsterdam to their sentiments, the States of Holland sent
+a deputation to the burgomasters of that city, and placed Grotius at its
+head. On the day after their arrival in Amsterdam, the burgomasters
+assembled to receive the deputies. Grotius addressed them in an
+argumentative and eloquent speech. He urged the necessity and advantage
+of religious toleration, particularly upon theoretical points of
+doctrine. He observed to the assembly, that Bullinger and Melancthon had
+been tolerated by Deza and Calvin; that James, the King of Great
+Britain, had advanced, in his writings, that each of the two opposite
+opinions on Predestination might be maintained without danger of
+reprobation; that Gomarus himself had declared that Arminius had not
+erred in any fundamental article of Christian doctrine; that the
+contested articles were of a very abstruse nature; that the affirmative
+or negative of the doctrines expressed in them, had not been determined;
+and that toleration would restore tranquillity and union, and favour the
+assembling of a numerous and respectable synod, which might labour with
+success in restoring peace to the church.
+
+Grotius delivered his speech in the Dutch language; it was afterwards
+translated into Latin; all, who heard, admired it; but it produced no
+effect on them. The deputies were uncivilly dismissed; and the oration
+of Grotius, by an order of the States General, was suppressed.[023]
+
+[Sidenote: Feuds of the Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants.]
+
+He was much affected by the bad success of his mission: he was seized
+with a fever, which nearly proved fatal to him. Many of his friends
+sought to persuade him to retire from the contest: he told them that he
+had taken his resolution after deep deliberation; that he was aware of
+his danger, and that he submitted the event to providence.
+
+The next effort of the States of Holland to pacify the troubles, was to
+prepare a _formula_ of peace, which the ministers of the two parties
+should be obliged to sign. It contained nothing contrary to the doctrine
+of Calvin; it referred the five articles to future examination, and
+prescribed, in the mean time, silence upon the parts in dispute. Grotius
+drew up the Formula; it was shewn to Prince Maurice, and rejected by
+him.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+Matters now converged to a crisis:--we have more than once mentioned the
+opposite politics of Prince Maurice and Barneveldt, the
+Grand-Pensionary; the former wishing to draw the whole sovereign power
+to himself; the latter endeavouring to preserve and stabilitate the the
+constitution of the Provinces, as it had been settled by the Act of
+Union. We noticed that the Gomarists sided with the Prince; the
+Arminians with the Grand-Pensionary. As the Prince was aware that the
+States of Holland were favourable to the Arminians, that the States
+General were opposed to them, and that the clergy of each denomination
+partook of the civil and ecclesiastical opinions of their flocks, he
+convened a national synod of the clergy; and, that be might the more
+overawe his opponents and strengthen his own party, he appointed the
+synod to meet in Holland. Against this synod the provinces of Holland,
+Utretcht, and Overyssell protested. Barneveldt was so much affected by
+the disturbances, and a view of the evils with which they appeared to
+threaten his country, that he sought to resign his place of
+Grand-Pensionary; but the States of the province of Holland, which
+needed more than ever the counsels of such an experienced minister, sent
+a deputation to him, beseeching him not to abandon them in times of so
+much difficulty. He thought it his duty to yield to their entreaty, and
+continued to exercise the functions of his office.
+
+[Sidenote: Imprisonment of Barneveldt, Grotius and Hoogerbetz.]
+
+To frustrate the designs of Prince Maurice, several cities favourable to
+the Arminians levied bodies of militia, and gave them the name of
+_Attendant Soldiers_. The States-General, at the instigation of Prince
+Maurice, enjoined the cities to disband them. The cities generally
+disobeyed these orders. In this they were justified by the established
+constitution: the Prince, however, treated their conduct as rebellious;
+and, in concert with the States General, marched in person, at the head
+of his troops, against the refractory cities. Wherever he came, he
+disarmed and disbanded the new levies; deposed the Arminian magistrates,
+and expelled the ministers of their party.
+
+In the provinces of Gueldres and Overyssell, he met with no resistance;
+and little at Arnheim: greater resistance was expected at Utretcht: the
+States of Holland sent Grotius and Hoogerbetz, the Pensionary of Leyden,
+to stimulate the inhabitants to resistance; but the fortune of the
+Prince prevailed. In an extraordinary assembly, which consisted of eight
+persons only, yet assuming to act as the States General, the Prince
+procured an ordonnance to be passed, which directed Barneveldt, Grotius,
+and Hoogerbetz to be taken into immediate custody. They were accordingly
+arrested, and confined in the Castle at the Hague.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+Thus the Prince's party prevailed in every part of the United Provinces.
+About this time, he succeeded, in consequence of the death of his elder
+brother, to the dignity of Prince of Orange.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE SYNOD OF DORT.
+
+1618.
+
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.]
+
+The States General determined that the Synod[024] should be composed of
+twenty-six divines of the United Provinces, twenty-eight foreign
+divines, five professors of divinity, and sixteen laymen;--seventy-five
+members in the whole. The expence was calculated at 100,000 florins. The
+English divines were, Dr. George Carlton, Bishop of Llandaff; Dr. Joseph
+Hall, Dean of Worcester; John Davenant, professor of divinity, and
+Master of Queen's college, Cambridge; Samuel Ward, Archdeacon of
+Taunton, and head of Sidney college, Cambridge. To these were added,
+Walter Balcanqual, a Scottish theologian, as representative of the
+Scottish churches. The ever-memorable John Hales of Eaton, as that
+learned and amiable person is justly termed by protestant writers, was
+permitted to attend the debates of the Synod, but was not allowed to
+speak, or take any part in its proceedings.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+We have mentioned that Arminius was converted to the opinions, which he
+defended afterwards so strenuously, by the perusal of a work in support
+of the opposite doctrine, which he had been desired to confute. In the
+same manner, the proceedings of the Contra-Remonstrants, at the Synod of
+Dort, made Mr. Hales a Remonstrant. We are informed by his friend Mr.
+Faringdon, that, in his younger days, he was a Calvinist; but that some
+explanations given by Episcopius of the text in John iii. 16, induced
+him, as he himself said, to "bid John Calvin, Good Night." His letters
+from Dort to Sir Dudley Carleton, the English ambassador at the Hague,
+contain an interesting account of the proceedings of the assembly.[025]
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.]
+
+Dr. Heylin says, in his "Quinquarticular History," that the theologians
+sent by King James to Dort, were inclined to condemn the Remonstrants;
+but he intimates that the monarch acted from reasons of state; and that
+he was more hostile to their persons than their doctrines: Brand makes
+the same remark upon Prince Maurice. It seems to be admitted, that, in
+the conference at Hampton Court, King James declared against absolute
+predestination.[026]
+
+The English divines arrived at the Hague on the 5th November 1618: they
+were immediately presented to the States General, and most honourably
+received.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+The King of France had permitted two Protestant theologians of his
+kingdom to attend the Synod; but afterwards revoked the permission. The
+French Protestant churches had deputed to it, the celebrated Peter de
+Moulin and Andrew Rivet; but the King prohibited their attending it,
+under severe penalties.
+
+After the election of the members was finally adjusted, the Synod
+appeared to be composed of about seventy Contra-Remonstrants and
+fourteen Arminians.
+
+It was opened on the 13th of November 1618. Two commissioners of the
+States placed themselves on the right side of the chimney of the room;
+the English divines were placed on the left; seats were kept vacant for
+the French; the third place was assigned to the deputies from the
+Palatinate; the fourth, to those from Hesse; the fifth, to the Swiss;
+the sixth to the Genevans; the seventh to the theologians from Bremen;
+and the eighth to those from Embden. The professors of theology were
+placed immediately after the commissioners; then, the ministers and
+elders of the country. By an arrangement, favoured by the States,
+thirty-six ministers and twenty elders were added to the five
+professors. Of this the Remonstrants complained, on the just ground,
+that it evidently gave their adversaries an undue preponderance.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.]
+
+The commissioners nominated the celebrated Daniel Heinsius secretary.
+The Remonstrants objected to him; they admitted his extensive
+acquaintance with polite literature, and his elegant taste; but
+asserted, that he possessed no theological learning, and was prejudiced
+against them. Episcopius was always considered to be at the head of the
+Remonstrants: he has seldom been excelled in learning, eloquence, or
+power of argumentation.
+
+No further business than arranging the forms of sitting and voting, was
+transacted at the _first session_ of the Synod. _At the second_, the
+Synod constituted John Bogerman its president, and appointed two
+assessors and two secretaries: all five were distinguished for their
+known hostility to the Remonstrants. The appointment of Bogerman
+particularly offended them, as he openly avowed it to be his opinion
+that heretics should be punished by death; and had translated into the
+Dutch language the celebrated treatise of Beza, _de hæreticis a civili
+magistratu puniendis_, in which this doctrine is explicitly maintained
+in its fullest extent.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+_In the third session_,--the deputies from Geneva produced their
+commission: it was expressed in terms decidedly hostile to the
+Remonstrants.
+
+_In the fourth session_,--the grand preliminary question,--in what
+manner the Remonstrants were to be summoned,--came under consideration.
+After much argument, it was settled, by a great majority of voices, that
+"Episcopius and some other Remonstrants should within a fortnight,
+appear before the Synod, as the sovereign ecclesiastical tribunal of the
+United States."
+
+The Remonstrants and the advocates of their cause protested against this
+proceeding: they called in question the authority of the Synod to sit as
+judges upon them, or even to decide any point of doctrine definitively:
+they averred it contrary to the evangelical liberty professed and taught
+by the first Reformers. Every friend to the true principles of the
+reformation must admit the force of this objection.
+
+The _5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th Sessions_
+of the intermediate fortnight, were consumed in debates upon a projected
+new translation of the Scriptures; _the 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th,
+19th, 20th_ and _21st Sessions_ were employed in discussions,
+upon a new catechism, and other ecclesiastical arrangements.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.]
+
+The _22d Session_ was held on the 6_th_ of December. The
+Remonstrants appeared before the Synod, and requested further time for
+preparing their defence on the articles with which they were charged.
+Their request was denied: and Episcopius having said, that "They wished
+to enter into a conference with the Synod," a resolution was passed, by
+which the Synod declared, that "the Remonstrants had not been cited to
+_confer_ with the Synod; but to propound their opinions, and submit
+to its judgment."
+
+The Remonstrants then paid their visits to the foreign theologians:
+these they found greatly prejudiced against them; they therefore
+published two short writings, explaining and justifying their
+sentiments.
+
+In _the 23d Session_, Episcopius made a long discourse. Mr.
+John Hales praised it highly, in a letter addressed by him to the
+English ambassador An oath was prescribed to the members, by which they
+promised, that, in the examination of the five articles, "or any other
+points of doctrine which should be discussed, they would confine
+themselves to the Scriptures, and resort to no human authority." But,
+what was the Synod itself more than human authority? The oath was not
+tendered to the Remonstrants; it was declined by the Swiss.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+The _24th Session_ was consumed in debates: _on the 25th_,
+Episcopius read a long document, and afterwards presented it to the
+Synod. He protested in it against the authority of the Synod, and asked
+the searching question, whether the Calvinists would "submit to a Synod
+of Lutherans?" To this question, no answer was given: an angry
+discussion followed.
+
+
+It continued during _the 27th and 28th Sessions_.
+
+On _the 29th_, the opinions of foreign divines were produced in
+favour of the authority of the Synod: those of the English divines, and
+the divines of Bremen, were expressed with more moderation than the
+others. The divines of Geneva stated, that, "if a person obstinately
+refused to submit to the just decisions of the church, he might be
+proceeded against in two ways; the _magistrate_ might coerce him,
+and the _church_ might publicly excommunicate him as a violator of
+the law of God."
+
+The dispute was more violent in _the 30th Session_.
+
+Finally, the Remonstrants agreed to propound their sentiments in
+writing; but with an express salvo, of their right to liberty of
+conscience, and to retain their objections to the authority of the
+Synod.
+
+In _the 31st Session_, the Remonstrants presented to the
+Synod a writing, containing their sentiments upon Predestination,--the
+first and most important of the five articles.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.]
+
+In _the 34th Session_, they presented their sentiments upon the
+four other articles; and in _the 39th Session_, upon the Catechism
+of Heidelberg. The Synod had enjoined them to confine themselves to
+explanations of their own doctrine, and to abstain from controverting
+the doctrines of the Calvinists. These debates carried the Synod to its
+_46th Session_.
+
+In that session, the resolution of the States General upon the
+proceedings of the Synod was produced. They declared by it, that "the
+Remonstrants were obliged to submit to the decrees of the Synod,"--and
+that "if they persisted in their disobedience to them, both the censures
+of the church, and the penalties by which the States punished violators
+of public authority, should be inflicted upon them." The States ordered
+the Remonstrants to remain, in the meantime, in the town.
+
+The Remonstrants persisting in their refusal to acknowledge the
+authority of the Synod, an assembly of it met on _the 57th
+Session_, and formally expelled the Remonstrants from the Synod.
+Episcopius exclaimed, "May God decide between the Synod and us!" "I
+appeal," said Niellius, "from the injustice of the Synod, to the throne
+of Jesus Christ." All remained firm in their protestation.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+Mr. Hales and Mr. Balcanqual, in their letters to the English
+ambassador, blame the proceedings of the Synod.[027] The only question
+between the Synod and the Remonstrants was, whether the latter would
+submit to acknowledge the authority of the former. This, the
+Remonstrants uniformly refused to do. In almost every Synod there was a
+repetition of the same demand, and of the same answer. By every English
+reader, the demand of the Synod will be thought exorbitant.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP VI. 1618.]
+
+The Synod relaxed afterwards so far, as to permit the Remonstrants to
+deliver their sentiments in writing: they did it at great length. But
+they still persisted in objecting to the authority of the Synod, and to
+be examined by it. The Synod therefore proceeded against them in their
+absence; and ultimately, on the 24th of April 1610, pronounced them
+guilty of pestilential errors, and corruptors of the true religion. The
+five articles were formally condemned; Episcopius and the other
+ministers were deposed.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+"There are conclusions," says Grotius,[028] in a letter written by him
+in the same year, "in the canons of the Synod of Dort, of which, if good
+Melancthon were again to make his appearance, he would express his
+disapprobation, and with which Bullinger would be no less grieved; there
+are others, which alienate all the Lutherans from the Calvinists;
+although amity and concord are desirable between them and us at this
+juncture. There are some points in them, which forbid the Greek churches
+from uniting with us, though they are very favourable to us; but there
+are others of the Dort canons, which admit of no controversy.--It is
+possible that they may recall to mind my labours for unity. Even those
+writings, which I published since my calamity, have not been diverted
+from the same peaceful object." If ever any Protestant divines deserved
+the reproach cast by Mr. Gibbon,[029] on the first reformers in general,
+"of being ambitious to succeed the tyrants whom they had dethroned,"
+they were the members of the Synod of Dort.
+
+The Synod was closed on the 29th of May.
+
+The sentence passed by it on the Remonstrants was approved by the States
+General on the 3d July 1619. On the same day, the Arminian ministers,
+who had been detained at Dort, were, by a sentence of the States
+General, banished or imprisoned, deprived of their employments, and the
+effects of some were confiscated. Similar severities were exercised on
+the Arminians in most of the territories subject to the States General.
+To avoid the persecution, some fled to Antwerp, some to France, the
+greater part to Holstein. There, under the wise protection of the
+reigning duke, they settled, and afterwards built a town, which from him
+they called Friedericstadt.
+
+They continued to assert the irregularity of the Synod: the Bishop of
+Meaux shrewdly observed, that "they employed against the authority of
+the Synod, the same arguments as the Protestants use against the
+authority of the Council of Trent."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP VI. 1618.]
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+For the publication of _Acts of the Council_, divines were chosen
+out of various districts of the United Provinces: their edition of the
+Acts was published at Dort in the year 1620, in folio, in the types of
+the Elzevirs; and was soon afterwards republished with greater
+correctness, in the same year, at Hanover, in quarto, with an addition
+of a copious index.--An Epistle of their High Mightinesses the States
+General, addressed to the Monarchs, Kings, Princes, Counts, Cities and
+Magistrates of the Christian world, and vouching for the authority and
+authenticity of the Acts,[030] is prefixed to this edition. The
+Remonstrants published an edition of the Acts in 1620, in 4to.: it is
+said,[031] that from a fear of their adversaries, it was printed on
+ship-board.
+
+Here, the history of the Arminians, so far as it is connected with that
+part of the Life of Grotius to which our subject has hitherto led us,
+seems to close. We shall hereafter be called upon to resume it.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT OF GROTIUS. HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON.
+
+1618-1621.
+
+
+While the Synod of Dort continued its sittings, Prince Maurice and his
+party were actively employed in increasing the popular ferment against
+Barneveldt, Grotius and Hoogerbetz; in collecting evidence of the
+designs and practices of which they were accused, and in framing the
+legal proceedings against them in such a manner as was most likely both
+to procure their conviction, and to persuade the public of their guilt.
+
+We have mentioned that their confinement took place on the 20th of
+August 1618, and that they were removed from the Hague, the original
+place of their imprisonment, to the Castle of Louvestein. On the 19th
+November, the States General, at the instigation of Prince Maurice,
+nominated twenty-six commissioners for their trial. All the prisoners
+objected both to the jurisdiction of the commissioners, and to that of
+the States General; and asserted that the States of Holland were their
+only competent judges. They observed, at the same time, that many of the
+judges were notoriously prejudiced against the Arminians.
+
+[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.]
+
+The act of accusation contained many general charges, and many averments
+of particular facts, supposed to substantiate them. It was alleged
+against the prisoners, that they had disturbed the established religion
+of the United Provinces; that, in direct contradiction of the articles
+of union, they had asserted the right of each province to decide for
+itself in matters of religion; that they had set up the authority and
+interests of the States of Holland and West Friesland against those of
+the States General; that they were the authors of the Insurrection at
+Utrecht; had levied, in opposition to the orders of government, the
+attendant soldiers; had raised jealousies between the Prince and several
+of the Provincial States, and between these and the States General; and
+that, by their habitual conduct, they had become public disturbers of
+the tranquillity of the republic, and councillors and practisers of
+schemes hostile to its welfare.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618-1621.]
+
+The Commissioners proceeded to the trial of Barneveldt. Uniformly
+protesting against the competency of the tribunal, Barneveldt defended
+himself with great firmness and ability. He controverted every article
+of the accusation, and concluded his defence, by a long and pathetic
+enumeration of the services, which he had rendered to the republic; and
+of the numerous actions, by which he had shewn his attachment to Prince
+William and Prince Maurice:--he proved that it had been principally
+owing to him, that the Stadtholderate had been conferred on the latter.
+He admitted that he had suspected the Prince of designs hostile to the
+constitution of the United Provinces, and had opposed the Prince in
+every measure, which appeared to have such a tendency; but he asserted
+that he never had resorted to means which the laws or constitution of
+the Provinces did not warrant. His arguments were unanswerable; but
+Prince Maurice was determined on his ruin; and the Commissioners were
+wholly subservient to the prince's views: they accordingly passed
+unanimously a sentence of death upon Barneveldt.
+
+[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.]
+
+Many of the princes of Europe expressed their dissatisfaction at these
+proceedings: none so much as the French monarch. To him, the great merit
+of Barneveldt had been long known. He considered that the conduct of
+Prince Maurice was likely to involve the United Provinces in troubles,
+of which Spain might take advantages. From personal regard to
+Barneveldt, and with a view of terminating the discord, the monarch sent
+an ambassador extraordinary to the United States, and ordered him to
+join Du Maurier, his ambassador in ordinary, in soliciting them in
+favour of the accused, and in labouring to restore the public
+tranquillity. The ambassadors executed their commission with the
+greatest zeal. They made many remonstrances, and had several audiences
+both with the States and the Prince. The States, instigated by the
+Prince, expressed great indignation at the proceedings of the
+ambassadors.
+
+All the accused were respectably allied, and had many friends: numerous
+applications were made in their favour. They undeviatingly demeaned
+themselves with the firmness and modest dignity of conscious innocence.
+They persisted in denying the guilt attributed to them, and in
+protesting against the competency of the tribunal. They made no
+degrading submission. At a subsequent time, a son of Barneveldt having
+been condemned to death, his mother applied to Prince Maurice, for his
+pardon. The Prince observed to her, that she had made no such
+application in behalf of her husband; "No," she replied, "I know my son
+is guilty, I therefore solicit his pardon; I knew my husband was
+innocent, I therefore solicited no pardon for him."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618--1621.]
+
+On Monday morning, May 13, 1619, Barneveldt was informed that he was to
+be executed upon that day. He received the notification of it with great
+firmness; he inquired whether Grotius and Hoogerbetz were to suffer:
+being answered in the negative, he expressed much satisfaction,
+observing that "they were of an age to be still able to serve the
+republic."
+
+    "The scaffold for his execution," says Burigni, "was erected in the
+    Court of the Castle at the Hague, facing the Prince of Orange's
+    apartments. He made a short speech to the people, which is yet
+    preserved in the _Mercure Françoise_. 'Burghers!' he said, 'I have
+    been always your faithful countryman; believe not that I die for
+    treason: I die for maintaining the rights and liberties of my
+    country!' After this speech, the executioner struck off his head at
+    one blow. It is affirmed that the Prince of Orange, to feast
+    himself with the cruel pleasure of seeing his enemy perish, beheld
+    the execution with a glass; the people looked on it with other
+    eyes: many came to gather the sand wet with his blood, to keep it
+    carefully in phials; and the crowd of those, who had the same
+    curiosity, continued next day, notwithstanding all they could do
+    to hinder them.
+
+    "Thus fell that great minister, who did the United Provinces as much
+    service in the cabinet, as the Prince of Orange did in the field.
+    It is highly probable that the melancholy end of this illustrious
+    and unfortunate man was owing to his steadiness in opposing the
+    design of making Prince Maurice Dictator."[032]
+
+[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.]
+
+The Prince pursued his triumph. Soon after the arrest of Grotius, the
+States of Holland presented a petition to the Prince, representing the
+arrest as a breach of their constitutional rights; the Prince referred
+it to the States General. To these, therefore, they presented a similar
+petition; praying at the same time, that Grotius might be tried by the
+laws and usages of the Provinces of Holland: no regard was shewn to
+their petitions.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618--1621.]
+
+Grotius had an invaluable friend:--he was no sooner arrested, than his
+wife petitioned to share his confinement throughout the whole of his
+imprisonment: it was denied. Grotius fell ill: she renewed the
+application: it was absolutely rejected: but neither his wife, nor any
+of the friends of Grotius ever recommended to him an unworthy
+submission. He always denied the competency of the tribunal appointed to
+try him: his wife and brother uniformly recommended him to persist in
+his plea.
+
+Much disregard of form took place, and many arbitrary acts were
+perpetrated, in the proceedings against Grotius. On the 18th of May
+1619, the Commissioners pronounced sentence against him. After
+enumerating all the charges, of which he was accused, and asserting that
+all were proved against him, the judges condemned him to perpetual
+imprisonment, and his estates to be confiscated. The same sentence was
+passed on Hoogerbetz; but the house of the latter was assigned to him
+for his imprisonment.
+
+On the 6th of June, Grotius was taken to Louvestein. It lies near
+Gorcum, in South Holland, at the point of the island formed by the Vaal
+and the Meuse. Twenty-four sous a day were allowed for his maintenance;
+but his wife undertook to support him, during his confinement, from her
+own estate. She was at length admitted into prison with him, on
+condition that she should remain in it, while his imprisonment lasted.
+
+[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.]
+
+At first, his confinement was very rigid: by degrees it was relaxed: his
+wife was allowed to leave the prison for a few hours, twice in every
+week. He was permitted to borrow books, and to correspond, except on
+politics, with his friends.
+
+He beguiled the tedious hours of confinement by study, relieving his
+mind by varying its objects. Antient and modern literature equally
+engaged his attention: Sundays he wholly dedicated to prayer and the
+study of theology.
+
+Twenty months of imprisonment thus passed away. His wife now began to
+devise projects for his liberty. She had observed that he was not so
+strictly watched as at first; that the guards, who examined the chest
+used for the conveyance of his books and linen, being accustomed to see
+nothing in it but books and linen, began to examine them loosely: at
+length, they permitted the chest to pass without any examination. Upon
+this, she formed her project for her husband's release.
+
+She began to carry it into execution by cultivating an intimacy with the
+wife of the commandant of Gorcum. To her, she lamented Grotius's
+immoderate application to study; she informed her that it had made him
+seriously ill; and that, in consequence of his illness, she had resolved
+to take all his books from him, and restore them to their owners. She
+circulated every where the account of his illness, and finally declared
+that it had confined him to his bed.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618--1621.]
+
+In the mean time, the chest was accommodated to her purpose; and
+particularly, some holes were bored in it, to let in air. Her maid and
+the valet of Grotius were entrusted with the secret. The chest was
+conveyed to Grotius's apartment. She then revealed her project to him,
+and, after much entreaty, prevailed on him to get into the chest, and
+leave her in the prison.
+
+The books, which Grotius borrowed, were usually sent to Gorcum; and the
+chest, which contained them, passed in a boat, from the prison at
+Louvestein, to that town.
+
+[Sidenote: His Escape from Prison.]
+
+Big with the fate of Grotius, the chest, as soon as he was enclosed in
+it, was moved into the boat. One of the soldiers, observing that it was
+uncommonly heavy, insisted on its being opened, and its contents
+examined; but, by the address of the maid, his scruples were removed,
+and the chest was lodged in the boat. The passage from Louvestein to
+Gorcum took a considerable time. The length of the chest did not exceed
+three feet and a half. At length, it reached Gorcum: it was intended
+that it should be deposited at the house of David Bazelaer, an Arminian
+friend of Grotius, who resided at Gorcum. But, when the boat reached the
+shore, a difficulty arose, how the chest was to be conveyed from the
+spot, upon which it was to be landed, to Bazelaer's house. This
+difficulty was removed by the maid's presence of mind; she told the
+bystanders, that the chest contained glass, and that it must be moved
+with particular care. Two chairmen were soon found, and they carefully
+moved it on a horse-chair to the appointed place.
+
+Bazelaer sent away his servants on different errands, opened the chest,
+and received his friend with open arms. Grotius declared, that while he
+was in the chest, he had felt much anxiety, but had suffered no other
+inconvenience. Having dressed himself as a mason, with a rule and
+trowel, he went, through the back door of Bazelaer's house, accompanied
+by his maid, along the market-place, to a boat engaged for the purpose.
+It conveyed them to Vervie in Brabant: there, he was safe. His maid then
+left him, and, returning to his wife, communicated to her the agreeable
+information of the success of the enterprise.
+
+[Sidenote: Chap. VII. 1618-1621.]
+
+As soon as Grotius's wife ascertained that he was in perfect safety, she
+informed the guards of his escape: these communicated the intelligence
+to the governor. He put her into close confinement; but in a few days,
+an order of the States General set her at liberty, and permitted her to
+carry with her every thing at Louvestein, which belonged to her. It is
+impossible to think without pleasure of the meeting of Grotius and his
+heroic wife. From Vervie he proceeded to Antwerp; a few days after his
+arrival in that city, he addressed a letter to the States General: he
+assured them, that, in procuring his liberty, he had used neither
+violence nor corruption. He solemnly protested that his public conduct
+had been blameless, and that the persecution he had suffered would never
+lessen his attachment to his country.
+
+[Sidenote: His Escape from Prison.]
+
+It was on the 22d March 1621, that Grotius obtained his liberty. In the
+same year, the truce, concluded for twelve years between Spain and the
+United Provinces expired: it was expected, that the war would be resumed
+with more fury than ever. But this did not happen; the war of thirty
+years, which we shall afterwards have occasion to mention, had mixed the
+contest between Spain and the United Provinces with the general military
+plans and operations of the parties engaged in it, and had carried much
+of the conflict from the Low Countries into Germany. Prince Maurice
+still appeared at the head of the army of the United Provinces; but he
+had lost, by his persecution of the Arminians, and his selfish
+intrigues, the confidence of the people. Conspiracies against his life
+were formed: fortune no longer favoured his arms. His attempts to compel
+the Marquis Spinola to raise the siege of Bréda were unsuccessful. This
+reverse of fortune preyed upon his mind. He thought himself haunted by a
+spectre of Barneveldt: he was frequently heard, during his last illness,
+to exclaim, "Remove this head from me!" "This anecdote," says the author
+of the _Resumé de l'histoire de la Hollande_, "is related by all the
+republican historians of the United Provinces; it is concealed by the
+flatterers of the House of Orange.... To relate the remorse of princes
+for their crimes, is one of the most useful duties of historians."
+
+Prince Maurice died in 1625.
+
+M. Le Clerc, in the 2d volume of the _Bibliotheque Choisée, art. 3_,
+shews, by unquestionable facts and irresistible arguments, that both
+Prince William and Prince Maurice sought to obtain the independent
+sovereignty of the United Provinces. It was the aim of all their
+successors: it has been effected in our times by means, which certainly
+were foreseen by none.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+VORSTIUS,--JAMES I.
+
+1622.
+
+
+We must now carry back our readers to events which preceded the Synod of
+Dort. We have mentioned the decease of Arminius: soon after it, a
+circumstance took place, which, to the exquisite delight of the monarch,
+who, at that time filled the British throne, involved him in the
+theological disputes of the Belgic theologians.
+
+Not long after the commencement of the Reformation, several bold
+inquirers began to deny the trinity of persons in the Deity, the divine
+authority of the Old and New Testament, and the existence of mystery in
+the Christian dispensation. Both Catholics and Protestants united
+against them. To avoid their hostilities, the maintainers of these
+opinions fled to Poland, and, forming themselves into a distinct
+congregation, published, in 1574, their First Catechism. They
+established congregations at Cracow, Lubin, Pinczow, Luck and Smila:
+but their most flourishing settlement was at Racow.
+
+[Sidenote: Vorstius--James I.]
+
+They spread their doctrines over each bank of the Danube, and at length
+penetrated Italy. There, they were adopted by Loelius Socinus. After
+many peregrinations in different parts of Europe, he finally settled at
+Zurich. Faustus Socinus, his nephew, inherited his sentiments; and, on
+this account, was obliged to quit Zurich. After many wanderings, he
+fixed his residence at Racow. There, he was received with open arms by
+the new communion, and completed their system of theology. From him,
+they derived their appellation of SOCINIANS. Their doctrine is expressed
+in the Racovian catechism, published, in the Polish language, in 1605.
+Other editions of it have appeared. An English translation of the
+edition of 1605, was published at Amsterdam in 1652: Dr. Toulmin, in his
+Life of Socinus, ascribes it, seemingly by conjecture, to Mr. John
+Biddle. In 1818, Mr. Rees published a new translation of it, prefixing
+to it an interesting historical preface.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VIII. 1622.]
+
+Among the disciples of Arminius, was the celebrated CONRADE VORSTIUS,
+born at Cologne in 1569, of parents in reduced circumstances: he was
+soon remarked for his diligence and irreproachable conduct; and was, in
+1605, appointed to a professor's chair at Steinfurth. In 1610, he
+quitted it, and was named to succeed Arminius, in the chair of Professor
+of Theology, at Leyden. "He was beloved and honoured," says Mr.
+Chalmers, "at Steinfurth; there, he enjoyed the utmost tranquillity, and
+was in the highest reputation; he doubtless foresaw, that in the state
+in which the controversies of Arminius and Gomarus were at that time, he
+should meet with great opposition in Holland. But he was tempted by the
+glory he should gain by supporting a party, which was weakened by
+Arminius's death."
+
+[Sidenote: Vorstius--James I.]
+
+He had previously published his Treatise "_de Deo_." Some passages
+in it were thought to favour the doctrine of Arminius; some, to lead to
+Socinianism; and some, to have an ulterior tendency. That Arminius
+himself discovers these views in his writings, has been frequently
+asserted. Doctor Maclaine, the learned translator of Mosheim's
+Ecclesiastical History,[033] observes it to be a common opinion, that
+"the disciples of Arminius, and more especially Episcopius, had boldly
+transgressed the bounds, that had been wisely prescribed by their
+master, and had gone ever to the Pelagians, and even to the Socinians."
+"Such," continues Dr. Maclaine, "is the opinion commonly entertained
+upon this matter. But it appears on the contrary evident to me, that
+Arminius himself had laid the plan of the theological system, that was,
+in after times embraced by his followers; that he had instilled the
+principles of it into the minds of his disciples; and that these latter
+did really no more than bring this plan to a greater degree of
+perfection, and propagate with more courage and perspicuity the
+doctrines it contains." To prove this assertion, the Doctor cites a
+passage from the Will of Arminius, in which he declares, that "his view
+in all his theological and ministerial labours, was to unite in one
+community, cemented by the bonds of fraternal charity, all sects and
+denominations of Christians, the papists excepted." "These words, on
+this account," continues Dr. Maclaine, "coincide perfectly with the
+modern system of Arminianism, which extends the limits of the christian
+church, and relaxes the bonds of fraternal communion in such a manner,
+that Christians of all sects and all denominations, whatever their sects
+and opinions may be, (Papists excepted) may be formed into one religious
+body, and live together in brotherly love and concord." It is not
+surprising that in the state of religious effervescence, in which the
+minds of men were at the time of which we are now speaking, a suspicion
+that Vorstius entertained the sentiments we have mentioned, or
+sentiments nearly approaching to them, should have rendered him a
+subject of jealousy. So greatly was this the case, that the
+Contra-remonstrants appealed against his doctrines to several Protestant
+states, and represented to them the doctrine of Vorstius in the most
+odious light. Our James I. accepted the appeal: by a royal proclamation,
+he caused Vorstius's Treatise _de Deo_ to be burnt in London, and each
+of the English Universities. He drew up a list, of the several heresies,
+which he had discovered in it, commanded his resident at the Hague to
+notify them to the States; to express his horror of them, and his
+detestation of those, who should tolerate them.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VIII. 1622.]
+
+[Sidenote: Vorstius.--James I.]
+
+With some intimation of their independence, the States replied, that
+"the case was of _their_ cognizance;" that "they would examine it;"
+and that, "if it should appear that Vorstius maintained the doctrines
+imputed to him, they would not suffer him to live among them." The
+monarch's orthodoxy was not satisfied with this answer. He repeated his
+suggestions, that the States should proceed against Vorstius; and
+hinted, that if the doctrines should be proved against him, and if he
+should persist in them, burning might be a proper punishment for him.
+The monarch added that, if the States did not use their utmost
+endeavours to extirpate the rising heresy, he should publicly protest
+against their conduct; that, in quality of defender of the faith, he
+would exhort all Protestant churches to join in one general resolution
+to extinguish the abomination, and would, as sovereign of his own
+dominions, prohibit his subjects to frequent so pestilential a place as
+the University of Leyden. To his menaces he added the terrors of his
+pen, and published a "Confutation of Vorstius."
+
+By the advice of the States, Vorstius replied to his royal adversary in
+a most respectful manner; still, the royal adversary was not satisfied.
+Finally, the States condemned the obnoxious doctrines of Vorstius,
+divested him of all his offices; and sentenced him to perpetual
+banishment. Vorstius remained concealed during two years; then found an
+asylum in the dominions of the Duke of Holstein, who, as we have
+mentioned, took the remains of the Arminians into his protection.
+
+Vorstius died in 1622.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+GROTIUS AFTER HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON, TILL HIS APPOINTMENT OF AMBASSADOR
+FROM SWEDEN TO THE COURT OF FRANCE.
+
+1621-1634.
+
+
+Soon after the escape of Grotius from prison, he repaired to Paris: in
+this, he followed the advice of Du Maurier, the French ambassador at the
+Hague. His works had made him known in every part of Europe, in which
+learning was cultivated: but persons properly qualified to appreciate
+their merit, existed no where in such abundance as at Paris: he was
+personally esteemed and regarded by the monarch; and the principal
+officers of state were attached to him. Paris was also recommended to
+him by its libraries, the easy access to them, and the habitual
+intercourse of the men of letters, who, during, at least, a great part
+of the year, made that city their place of residence.
+
+[Sidenote: From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of
+Ambassador.]
+
+Grotius arrived at Paris on the 13th of April 1621. He was immediately
+noticed by a multitude of persons of distinction and rank; but it was
+not till March 1622, that he was presented to the king. His majesty
+received him graciously, and settled upon him a pension of 3,000 livres.
+The Prince of Condé, the Chancellor, and the Keeper of the Seals, had
+exerted themselves to dispose the king in his favour. His majesty
+professed kindness towards those, who had been persecuted by the States;
+and issued an edict, dated the 22d April 1622, by which he took them
+under his protection, in the same manner as if they were his own
+subjects; he even extended this benefit to their children. The
+celebrated President Jeannin was one of the most active and useful of
+Grotius's friends; but he died soon after Grotius arrived at Paris.
+
+Grotius, during his stay in that city, attended frequently the courts of
+justice. He observed the wretched style of oratory, which at that time,
+prevailed in them. It was, in some measure, corrected by _Patru_ and _Le
+Maitre_; but it did not reach its best state, till the end of the reign
+of Lewis XIV. The rhetorical march and laboured amplifications allowed
+at the French bar, are offensive to English ears. Has any nation
+produced a more perfect style of forensic or judicial eloquence, than
+that of _Sir William Grant_? The wisdom and justice of _Lord Stowell's_
+decisions, and the admirable arguments by which he explains or
+illustrates them, are known and acknowledged by every Court.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. IX. 1621--1634]
+
+Grotius's love of his native country continued unabated; all his views,
+all his hopes, were directed thither. With these feelings he wrote his
+_Apology_. He composed it in the Dutch language, and translated it
+afterwards into Latin: it was published in 1622. He dedicated it to the
+people of Holland and West Friesland. It is divided into twenty
+chapters; in the first, he argues the important point, that each of the
+United Provinces is sovereign and independent of the States General, and
+that the authority of these is confined to the defence of the provinces
+against their enemies. In the second chapter, he applies the position to
+ecclesiastical concerns; these, he says, are subject to the sovereign
+power of each State. In the following chapters, he descends into the
+particular charges against him; defending himself against all the crimes
+and irregularities of which he was accused, and shewing the informality
+of the judicial proceedings by which he and his companions in misfortune
+were tried and condemned.
+
+[Sidenote: From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of
+Ambassador.]
+
+His answer was universally read and approved: It greatly incensed the
+States General: They proscribed it, and forbade all persons to have it
+in their possession, under pain of death; but no answer to it was
+published. The edict made Grotius and his friends entertain
+apprehensions for his personal safety. On this account, he obtained
+from the French monarch letters of naturalization, dated the 26th
+February 1623: By these, his majesty took him under his special
+protection.
+
+Grotius retained many friends in every part of the United Provinces:
+Prince Frederick Henry, the brother of Maurice, was among them. He had
+never entered into his brother's persecuting projects.
+
+"The Count d'Estrades has given us," says Burigni, "some anecdotes on
+this subject, which we shall relate on his authority. He assures us,
+that, being one day _tête a tête_ with Prince Henry Frederick in his
+coach, he heard him say, that he had much to do to keep well with his
+brother Maurice, who suspected him of secretly favouring Barneveldt and
+the Arminians. He told me, (these were the Count's own words), it was
+true that he kept a correspondence with them, to prevent their opposing
+his election, in case his brother should die; but that, as it imported
+him to be on good terms with his brother, and to efface the notion he
+had of his connection with the Arminians, he made use of Vandenuse, one
+of his particular friends, and Barneveldt's son-in-law, to let the cabal
+know, that it was necessary for him to accommodate himself to his
+brother, that he might be better able to serve them,--which Barneveldt
+approved of."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. IX. 1621--1634.]
+
+In the meantime, the situation of Grotius at Paris, became very
+uncomfortable. His resources, and those of his wife, were small; and his
+pension was paid irregularly. Cardinal de Richelieu wished to attach
+Grotius; but required from him an absolute and unqualified devotion to
+him, which was utterly irreconcileable with the slightest degree of
+honourable independence. Grotius therefore declined the offers of the
+Cardinal. From this time, the Cardinal regarded him with an evil eye,
+and often made him feel the effects of his displeasure.
+
+This rendered Grotius desirous of quitting France. Trusting to some
+protestations of friendship, which he had received from Prince
+Frederick; to his numerous friends, to his claims upon the gratitude of
+the States of Holland, to his feelings of innocence, and to the effect
+produced, as he flattered himself, by his _Apology_, he ventured into
+Holland in 1631. But he met with no countenance: and in that year was
+banished a second time. Upon this, he formally bade a final adieu to
+Holland, and determined to seek his fortune elsewhere: He then fixed his
+residence at Hamburgh.
+
+[Sidenote: From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of
+Ambassador.]
+
+He sought to preserve his friends in France; but announced to them his
+intention to receive no more money from the French government.
+
+"I shall always," he said in a letter to the First President of the Cour
+des Monnoies, "be grateful for the King's liberality; but it is enough
+that I was chargeable to you, while I resided in France. I have never
+done you any service, though I made you an offer of myself. But it would
+not be proper that I should now live, like an hornet, on the goods of
+other men. I shall not, however, forget the kindness of so great a king,
+and the good offices of so many friends."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. IX. 1621-1634.]
+
+It may appear surprising that Prince Frederick of Orange should
+pertinaciously exclude Grotius from his native country. But ambition
+listens to nothing that conflicts with its own views. Prince Frederick
+inherited from his father and brother the wish of becoming the sovereign
+of the United Provinces. To this, he knew he should always find a
+zealous and able opponent in Grotius: hence, notwithstanding his great
+personal regard for Grotius, he always kept him a banished man. Grotius
+wished to be employed by the Government of England, and Archbishop Laud
+was sounded upon this subject; but the application was coldly
+received[034]. Prince Frederick sustained, both in military and civil
+concerns, the character of the former princes of his family. Under his
+administration, the affairs of the republic prospered at sea and land.
+Peter Haim captured the Spanish flotilla, estimated at twelve millions
+of florins. The Prince took Bois-le duc, Maestricht, and Breda, and
+reduced the Dutchy of Limburgh. Under his auspices, the celebrated Van
+Tromp commenced his career of naval glory, by obtaining a complete
+victory over the Spanish fleet, consisting of seventy men of war. Prince
+Frederick died in 1658.
+
+From the close of his Stadtholderate, we may date the origin of the
+jealousy entertained, by France and England, of the rising power of the
+United Provinces. It is to be observed that Prince Frederick was
+Stadtholder only of the Provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres
+and Overyssell: Count Ernest Casimir of Nassau was Stadtholder of the
+provinces of Gröningen, Frizeland, and the county of the Drenta. In
+1631, their eldest sons were chosen, in the lifetime of their fathers,
+their successors in their respective Stadtholderates. This was a great
+step towards making the Stadtholderate hereditary in their
+families,--one of the leading objects of their ambitious views.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS OF GROTIUS.
+
+1. _His Edition of Stobæus_.
+
+2. _His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis_.
+
+3. _His Treatise de Veritate Religionis Christianæ_.
+
+4. _His Treatise de Jure summarum potestatum circa
+      sacra_.
+
+5. _His Commentary on the Scriptures_.
+
+6. _Some other Works of Grotius_
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634]
+
+
+That literature is an ornament in prosperity, and a comfort in adverse
+fortune, has been often said by the best and wisest men; but no one
+experienced the truth of this assertion in a higher degree than Grotius,
+during his imprisonment at Louvestein. In that wreck of his fortune and
+overthrow of all his hopes, books came to his aid, soothed his sorrows,
+and beguiled the wearisome hours of his gloomy solitude. His studies
+often stole him from himself, and from the sense of his misfortunes. In
+the exercise of his mental energies, he was sensible of their powers;
+and it was impossible that he should contemplate, without pleasure, the
+extent, the worth, or the splendour of his labours; the services, which
+he rendered by them to learning and religion, and the admiration and
+gratitude of the scholar, which he then enjoyed, and which would attend
+his memory to the latest posterity. He himself acknowledged that, in the
+ardour of his literary pursuits, he often forgot his calamities, and
+that the hours passed unheeded, if not in joy, at least without pain.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X 1.
+
+_His Edition of Stobæus_.
+
+
+Being ourselves unacquainted with this work, we cannot do better than
+present our readers with the account given of it by Burigni.
+
+    "The year after the publication of his _Apology_, that is to say in
+    1623, Nicholas Huon printed at Paris, _Grotius's improvements and
+    additions to Stobæus_. This author, as is well known, extracted
+    what he thought most important in the ancient Greek writers, and
+    ranged it under different heads, comprehending the principal points
+    of philosophy. His work is the more valuable, as it has preserved
+    several fragments of the Ancients, found no where else. Grotius,
+    when very young, purposed to extract from this author all the
+    maxims of the poets; to translate them into Latin verse, and to
+    print the original with the translation. He began this, when a boy;
+    he was employed in it at the time of his arrest; and continued it
+    as an amusement, whilst he had the use of books, in his prison at
+    the Hague. He tells us that, when he was deprived of pen and ink,
+    he was got to the forty-ninth title, which is an invective against
+    tyranny, that had a great relation to what passed at that time in
+    Holland. On his removal to Louvestein, he resumed this work, and
+    finished it at Paris. He made several happy corrections in the text
+    of Stobæus; some, from his own conjectures or those of his friends;
+    others, on the authority of manuscripts in the King's library,
+    which were politely lent him by the learned Nicholas Rigaut,
+    librarian to his majesty.
+
+    [Sidenote: His edition of Stobæus.]
+
+    [Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634]
+
+    "Prefixed to this book, are _Prolegomena_, in which the author shews
+    that the works of the ancient Pagans are filled with maxims
+    agreeable to the truths taught in holy writ. He intended to
+    dedicate this book to the Chancellor Silleri: he had even writ the
+    dedication, but his friends, to whom he shewed it, thought he
+    expressed himself with too much warmth, against the censurers of
+    his _Apology_. They advised him therefore to suppress it; and he
+    yielded to their opinion. It may be observed in reading the royal
+    privilege, that the present title of the book is different from
+    what it was to have had. To these extracts from the Greek poets
+    translated into Latin verse, Grotius annexed two pieces, one of
+    Plutarch, the other of St. Basil, on the use of the poets; giving
+    the Greek text with a Latin translation."
+
+The work was received with universal approbation.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X. 2.
+
+_His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis_.
+
+
+Grotius may be considered as the founder of the modern school of _the
+Law of Nature and of Nations_. He was struck with the ruthless manner,
+in which wars were generally conducted; the slight pretences, upon which
+they were generally begun; and the barbarity and injustice, with which
+they were generally attended. He attributed these evils to the want of
+settled principles respecting the rights and duties of nations and
+individuals in a state of war. These, he observed, must depend on the
+previous rights and duties of mankind, in a state of peace: this led him
+to the preliminary inquiry into their rights and duties in a state of
+nature.
+
+Thus, an ample field was opened to him. He brought to it, a vigorous
+discerning mind, and stupendous erudition. From antient and modern
+history, philosophy, oratory, and poetry, he collected facts and
+sayings, which appeared to him to establish a general agreement of all
+civilized nations upon certain principles. From these, he formed his
+system; applying them, as he proceeded in his work, to a vast multitude
+of circumstances. These are so numerous, that some persons have not
+scrupled to say, that no case or international law, either in war or in
+peace, can be stated, to which the work of Grotius does not contain an
+applicable rule.
+
+[Sidenote: X. 2. _The Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis._]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634]
+
+Three important objections have been made to this celebrated work,--one,
+that the author defers in it, too little, to principle, too much, to
+authority;--another, that the work is written in a very desultory
+manner, with small attention to order, or classification;--a third, that
+his authorities are often feeble, and sometimes whimsical. "Grotius,"
+says Condillac, "was able to think for himself; but he constantly
+labours to support his conclusions by the authority of others. Upon many
+occasions; even in support of the most obvious and indisputable
+propositions, he introduces a long string of quotations from the Mosaic
+law, from the Gospels, from the fathers of the church, from the
+casuists, and not unfrequently, even in the very same paragraph, from
+Ovid, and Aristophanes." This strange mixture is subject of many
+witticisms of Voltaire. But let us hear what is urged in the defence of
+Grotius, by a gentleman, of whose praise the ablest of writers may be
+proud:
+
+    "Few writers," says Sir James Mackintosh, in his Discourse on the
+    Study of the Law of Nature and Nations, "were more celebrated than
+    Grotius in his own days, and in the age which succeeded. It has,
+    however, been the fashion of the last half century to depreciate
+    his work, as a shapeless compilation, in which reason lies buried
+    under a mass of authorities and quotations. This fashion originated
+    among French wits and declaimers, and it has been, I know not for
+    what reason, adopted, though with far greater moderation and
+    decency, by some respectable writers among ourselves. As to those,
+    who first used this language, the most candid supposition that we
+    can make with respect to them is, that they never read the work;
+    for, if they had not been deterred from the perusal of it by such a
+    formidable display of Greek characters, they must soon have
+    discovered that Grotius never quotes, on any subject, till he has
+    first appealed to some principles; and often, in my humble opinion,
+    though, not always, to the soundest and most rational principles.
+
+    [Sidenote: His treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis.]
+
+    "But another sort of answer is due to some of those, who have
+    criticised Grotius; and that answer might be given in the words of
+    Grotius himself. He was not of such a stupid and servile cast of
+    mind as to quote the opinions of poets or orators, of historians
+    and philosophers, as those of judges, from whose decision there was
+    no appeal. He quotes them, as he tells us himself, as witnesses,
+    whose conspiring testimony, mightily strengthened and confirmed by
+    their discordance on almost every other subject, is a conclusive
+    proof of the unanimity of the whole human race on the great rules
+    of duty, and the fundamental principles of morals. Of such matters,
+    poets and orators are the most unexceptionable of all witnesses;
+    for they address themselves to the general feelings and sympathies
+    of mankind; they are neither warped by system, nor perverted by
+    sophistry; they can attain none of their objects; they can neither
+    please nor persuade, if they dwell on moral sentiments not in
+    unison with those of their readers. No system of moral philosophy
+    can surely disregard the general feelings of human nature, and the
+    according judgment of all ages and nations. But, where are these
+    feelings and that judgment recorded and preserved? In those very
+    writings which Grotius is gravely blamed for having quoted. The
+    usages and law of nations, the events of history, the opinions of
+    philosophers, the sentiments of orators and poets, as well as the
+    observation of common life, are, in truth, the materials out of
+    which the science of morality is formed; and those who neglect
+    them, are justly chargeable with a vain attempt to philosophise
+    without regard to fact and experience, the sole foundation of all
+    true philosophy.
+
+    [Sidenote: Chap. X. 1621-1634]
+
+    "If this were merely an objection of taste, I should be willing to
+    allow, that Grotius has indeed poured forth his learning with a
+    profusion, that sometimes rather encumbers than adorns his work,
+    and which is not always necessary to the illustration of his
+    subject. Yet, even in making, that concession, I should rather
+    yield to the tastes of others, than speak from my own feelings. I
+    own that such richness and splendour of literature have a powerful
+    charm for me. They fill my mind with an endless variety of
+    delightful recollections and associations. They relieve the
+    understanding in its progress through a vast science, by calling up
+    the memory of great men and of interesting events. By this means we
+    see the truths of morality clothed with all the eloquence (not that
+    could be produced by the powers of one man, but) that could be
+    bestowed on them by the collective genius of the world. Even virtue
+    and wisdom themselves acquire new majesty in my eyes, when I thus
+    see all the great masters of thinking and writing called together,
+    as it were, from all times and countries, to do them homage and to
+    appear in their train.
+
+    [Sidenote: X. 2. His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis]
+
+    "But this is no piece for discussions of taste, and I am very ready
+    to own, that mine may be corrupted. The work of Grotius is liable
+    to a more serious objection, though I do not recollect that it has
+    ever been made. His method is inconvenient and unscientific. He has
+    inverted the natural order. That natural order undoubtedly
+    dictates, that we should first search for the original principles
+    of the science, in human nature; then apply them to the regulation
+    of the conduct of individuals; and lastly employ them for the
+    decision of those difficult and complicated questions that arise
+    with respect to the intercourse of nations. But Grotius has chosen
+    the reverse of this method. He begins with the consideration of the
+    states of peace and war, and he examines original principles, only
+    occasionally and incidentally, as they grow out of the questions,
+    which he is called upon to decide. It is a necessary consequence of
+    this disorderly method, which exhibits the elements of the science
+    in the form of scattered digressions, that he seldom employs
+    sufficient discussion on those fundamental truths, and never in
+    the place where such a discussion would be most instructive to the
+    reader. This defect in the plan of Grotius was perceived, and
+    supplied by Puffendorf, who restored natural law to that
+    superiority which belonged to it, and with great propriety, treated
+    the law of nations as only one main branch of the parent stock."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP X. 1621-1634]
+
+Whatever may be the merit of the work of which we are speaking, it must
+be admitted, that few, on their first appearance, and during a long
+subsequent period after publication, have received greater or warmer
+applause. The stores of erudition displayed in it, recommended it to the
+classical scholar, while the happy application of the author's reading
+to the affairs of human life, drew to it the attention of common
+readers. Among those, whose approbation of it, deserved to be recorded,
+Gustavus Adolphus,--his prime minister the Chancellor Oxenstiern,--and
+the Elector Palatine Charles Lewis, deserve particular mention.[035] As
+the trophies of Miltiades are supposed to have kept Themistocles awake,
+it has been said that the trophies of Grotius drove sleep from Selden,
+till be produced his celebrated treatise, "_De Jure naturali et gentium
+secundum leges Ebræorim_." This important work equals that of Grotius
+in learning; but, from the partial and recondite nature of its subject,
+never equalled it in popularity.
+
+[Sidenote: X. 9. His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis]
+
+The supposed want of general elementary principles in the work of
+Grotius gave occasion to Puffendorf's treatise _de Jure Naturae et
+Gentium_; afterwards abridged by him into the small octavo volume _De
+Officio hominis et civis_: an edition of it in octavo was published by
+Professor Garschen Carmichael, of Glasgow, in 1724.
+
+The best edition of Grotius's treatise _de Jure Belli et Pacis_ was
+published at Amsterdam in 1730, by John Barbeyrac.
+
+Foreigners observe, that the study of the law of nature and nations is
+less cultivated in England than upon the continent. Is it not, because
+Englishmen are blessed with a free constitution; are admitted into a
+general participation of all its blessings; are thus personally
+interested in the national concerns; and have therefore a jurisprudence,
+which comes nearer to their bosoms? Is it not also, because the law of
+nature and nations, with all its merit, is so loose, that its principles
+seldom admit of that practical application, which renders them really
+useful; and which an English mind always requires?
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X.3.
+
+_De Veritate Religionis Christianæ._
+
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
+
+Grotius, while a prisoner in the Castle of Louvestein, had written, in
+the Dutch language, "A treatise on the Truth of the Christian Religion."
+He afterwards enlarged it, and translated it, so enlarged, into Latin.
+It was universally read and admired. French, German, English, modern
+Greek, Persic, and even Turkish versions of it have been made: it was
+equally approved by Catholics and Protestants.
+
+[Sidenote: De Veritate Religionis Christianæ.]
+
+It was invidiously objected, that he did not attempt to prove, or even
+mention, the Trinity, and some other gospel mysteries: he replied,
+satisfactorily in our opinion, that a discussion of any particular tenet
+of the Christian religion did not fall within the scope of his work. In
+this respect, he was afterwards imitated by _Abadie_ and _Houteville_,
+two of the most eminent apologists of Christianity. The latter expresses
+himself of the work of Grotius in the following terms:
+
+    "Grotius's work is the first, in which we find the characteristics
+    of just reasoning, accuracy, and strength: he is extremely concise;
+    but even this brevity will please us, when we find his work
+    comprehends so many things, without confounding them or lessening
+    their evidence or force. It is no wonder that the book should be
+    translated into so many languages."
+
+The best edition of it is that published by Le Clerc,[036] in 1709 at
+Amsterdam, in 8vo. To this edition, Le Clerc has added a curious
+_dissertation_ on _religious indifference_. He presumes that the
+supposed indifference is persuaded of the authenticity of the New
+Testament:--He then (says Le Clerc) must ascertain,--
+
+    1. Which are the denominations of religionists which avow their
+    belief of it:
+
+    2. Which of these are most worthy of the name of Christians:
+
+    3. And which profess the Christian religion in most purity and with
+    least extraneous alloy:
+
+    4. He will find, that all Christians agree in the fundamental
+    articles of faith:
+
+    5. That all these articles are clearly expressed in the New
+    Testament:
+
+    6. That no tenet should be believed to be of faith, unless the New
+    Testament contains it.
+
+    7. That the providence of God is admirable in the preservation of
+    these tenets, amidst the confused multitude of religious opinions,
+    which have prevailed in the world:
+
+    8. That this confusion was foreseen by God:
+
+    9. That he permitted it as a consequence of his gift of free-will
+    to man:
+
+    10. That the inquirer should aggregate himself to that religious
+    communion, which receives the New Testament as its only rule of
+    faith, and does not persecute others:
+
+    11. That episcopacy without tyranny is the most antient form of
+    ecclesiastical government, and most to be desired; but that it is
+    not essential to a Christian church:
+
+    12. That these were the opinions of Grotius:
+
+    13. Finally, that it is greatly to be desired that a belief of no
+    dogma, not explicitly propounded in the New Testament, should be
+    required.
+
+Such is the religious system propounded by Le Clerc.--Does any religious
+communion really profess it?--Many Protestant churches declare, that the
+Bible, and the Bible only, contains their creed: but, do they not all
+mean by this--the Bible, as it is explained by the Articles, the
+Formulary, or the Confession received by their church?
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X. 4.
+
+_Grotius's Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum circa sacra_.--And,
+_Commentatio ad loca quædam Novi Testamenti, quæ de Antichristo agunt,
+aut agere putantur_.
+
+
+Nothing in the life of Grotius places him in a more amiable or
+respectable point of view, than his constant attempts to put Catholics
+and Protestants into good humour with each other, and to put both into
+good humour among themselves.
+
+[Sidenote: X. 4. His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum. &c.]
+
+We have mentioned the _pacific decree of the States of Holland_, which
+ordered the contending communions to tolerate each other. Grotius is
+supposed to have framed this wise decree. The Contra-remonstrants
+attacked it: Grotius reprinted it, with a collection of proofs and
+authorities.
+
+It gave rise to a controversy on the nice question, respecting the
+authority of the temporal power to interfere in the ecclesiastical
+concerns of the state. Grotius adopted, upon this point, the sentiments
+of what is termed in England the Low Church: he seems to have pushed
+them to their utmost bearings. With these sentiments, he published his
+treatise _de Imperio summarum potestatum circa sacra_. It was disliked
+by King James and his bishops: Grotius, in their opinion, gave too much
+authority, in sacred things, to the secular power.
+
+On the work of Grotius, respecting _Anti-christ_, we prefer transcribing
+Burigni's sentiments to delivering our own.
+
+    "This deep study of the Holy Scriptures led Grotius to examine a
+    question, which made much noise at that time. Some Protestant
+    synods had ventured to decide that _the Pope was Antichrist_; and
+    this extravagance, gravely delivered by the ministers, was
+    regarded by the zealous schismatics, as a fundamental truth.
+    Grotius undertook to overturn such an absurd opinion, that stirred
+    up an irreconcileable enmity between the Roman Catholics and the
+    Protestants; and, of consequence, was a very great obstacle to
+    their re-union, which was the sole object of his desires. He
+    entered therefore upon the consideration of the passages of
+    Scripture relating to Antichrist, and employed his Sundays in it.
+
+    [Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
+
+    "It was this work, that raised him up most enemies. We see by the
+    letters he wrote to his brother, that his best friends were afraid
+    lest they should be suspected of having some hand in the
+    publication of the books, in which he treated of Antichrist. 'If
+    you are afraid of incurring ill will, (he writes thus to his
+    brother), you may easily find people that are far from a factious
+    spirit, who will take care of the impression. Nothing has incensed
+    princes against those, who separated from the church of Rome, more
+    than the injurious names, with which the Protestants load their
+    adversaries; and nothing is a greater hindrance to that re-union,
+    which we are all obliged to labour after, in consequence of
+    Christ's precept and the profession we make of our faith in the
+    creed. Perhaps the Turk, who threatens Italy, will force us to it.
+    In order to arrive at it, we must first remove whatever obstructs a
+    mutual quiet hearing. I hope I shall find assistance in this pious
+    design. I shall not cease to labour in it, and shall rejoice to die
+    employed in so good a work.'
+
+    [Sidenote: His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum, &c.]
+
+    "Reigersberg, Blaeu, Vossius himself, however much devoted to
+    Grotius, beheld with concern the printing of this book, because
+    they did not doubt but it would increase the number of his enemies.
+    Grotius informs his brother, of the uneasiness which Vossius gave
+    him on this subject. 'Among those, who wish this work destroyed,'
+    says he, 'I am astonished and grieved to see Vossius. Whence could
+    he have this idea? I imagine somebody has told him, that it would
+    injure the fortune of his children, if he approved of such books;
+    and that, on the contrary, he would find favour by hurting me. We
+    must therefore have recourse to Corcellius or Corvinus.' He
+    elsewhere complains of the too great timidity of this old friend,
+    who at bottom approved of Grotius's sentiments, but durst not own
+    them publicly, because he was not so independent as Grotius.
+
+    [Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
+
+    "The treatise on Anti-christ made much noise among all the declared
+    enemies of the Romish church. Michael Gettichius wrote to Ruarus,
+    that he had only glanced over Grotius's book on Antichrist; but as
+    far as he could judge by the first reading, that learned man, who
+    was possessed of such an excellent genius, and such singular
+    erudition, had no other intention than to engage the learned in a
+    further inquiry concerning Antichrist; and to determine them to
+    attack with greater strength, the Romish Antichrist; or, if he
+    wrote seriously, he wanted to cut out a path for going over,
+    without dishonour, to the Papists. Ruarus answers this letter Dec.
+    16, 1642, from Dantzic. 'I have always (he says) looked on Grotius
+    as a very honest and at the same time a very learned man. I am
+    persuaded that love of peace engaged him in this work. I don't deny
+    but he has gone too far; the love of antiquity perhaps seduced him:
+    no Remonstrant, that I know of, has as yet answered him; but he has
+    been confuted by some learned Calvinists, particularly Desmonets,
+    minister of Bois le duc, who has written against him with much
+    bitterness.'
+
+    "Grotius's work was printed in 1640, with this title: _Commentatio
+    ad loca quædam Novi Testamenti, quæ de Antichristo agunt aut agere
+    putantur:--Expedenda eruditis."_[037]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X.5.
+
+_His Commentary on the Scriptures._
+
+
+[Sidenote: X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures.]
+
+The theological works of Grotius are comprised in four volumes folio:
+the three first contain his Commentary, and Notes upon the Scriptures.
+On their merit, both Catholics and Protestants considerably differ. All
+allow that an abundance of sacred and profane learning is displayed in
+them; and that Grotius, by his references to the writings of the Rabbis,
+and his remarks upon the idiom of the sacred writings, has happily
+elucidated a multitude of passages in the text. He uniformly adopts the
+literal and obvious signification of the language used by the holy
+penmen. In explaining the predictions of the prophets, he maintains that
+they referred to events anterior to the coming of Christ, and were
+accomplished in these; so that the natural and obvious sense of the
+words and phrases, in which they were delivered, does not terminate in
+Christ; yet, that in some of the predictions, those particularly, which
+the writers of the New Testament apply to Christ, there is, _besides_
+the literal and obvious signification, a hidden and mysterious sense,
+which lies concealed under the external mark of certain _persons_,
+certain _events_, and certain _actions_, which are representative of the
+person, the ministry, the sufferings, and the merits of the Son of God.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
+
+It has been objected, that this system leads to Socinianism, and even
+beyond it. All Catholic, and several episcopalian Protestant divines
+object to it; they generally contend, that the sacred writings ought
+always to be understood in that sense _only_, which has been attributed
+to them, by the early fathers.--Against this system, Dr. Whitby
+published his celebrated work "Concerning the Interpretation of
+Scripture after the manner of the Fathers."[038]
+
+[Sidenote: X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures.]
+
+The system of Grotius was defended, to a certain extent, by _Father
+Simôn_, the oratorian, the father of the modern biblical school. Against
+both Simôn and Grotius, Bossuet wielded his powerful lance,--in his
+"Pastoral Instruction on the Works of Father Simôn," and his
+"Dissertations upon Grotius." In these works he says that, during thirty
+years,
+
+    "Grotius searched for truth in good faith, and at last was so near
+    it, that it is wonderful that he did not take the last step, to
+    which God called him. Shocked at Calvin's harsh doctrines, he
+    embraced Arminianism; then, abandoned it. More a lawyer than a
+    theologian, more a polite scholar than a philosopher, he throws the
+    doctrine of the immortality of the soul into obscurity. He
+    endeavours to weaken and steal from the church, her most powerful
+    proofs of the divinity of the Son of God, and strives to darken the
+    prophecies, which announce the arrival of the Messiah."
+
+Bossuet proceeds to particularize some of the principal errors of
+Grotius: Le Clerc replied to the prelate's criticism, by his _Sentimens
+de quelques Theologiens de la Hollande_.--Grotius had also an able
+advocate in Father Simôn. His defence of Grotius against the charge of
+_semi-Pelagianism_, in the _Bibliotheque de Sainjore_,[039] appears to
+be satisfactory. He cites the note of Grotius, on the Acts of the
+Apostles, (the celebrated ch. xiii. ver. 38), in which he says expressly
+that he does not exclude preventive grace: this the semi-Pelagians
+denied altogether. But in his defence of Grotius against the charge of
+_Socinianism_, he is not equally successful. Bossuet sent his _Pastoral
+Instruction_, and _Dissertations upon Grotius_, to the bishop of
+Fréjus, afterward Cardinal de Fleury: he accompanied them by a letter,
+which closes with these remarkable words:
+
+    "The spirit of incredulity gains ground in the world every day: you
+    have often heard me make this remark. It is now worse than ever, as
+    the Gospel itself is used for the corruption of religion. I thank
+    God that at my age he blesses me with sufficient strength to resist
+    the torrent."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621--1634.]
+
+Dom. Calmet[040] calls Grotius,
+
+    "one of the most able and moderate Protestant writers: one who
+    spreads throughout his notes a pleasing profusion of profane
+    literature, which causes his works to be sought for and read by
+    those, who have taste for that kind of literature. His high
+    reputation, great erudition, and rare modesty," says Dom. Calmet,
+    "render it easy for him to insinuate his particular sentiments
+    respecting the divinity of Christ, against which, his readers
+    should be guarded."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X.6.
+
+_Some other Works of Grotius_.
+
+
+1. The first which we shall mention is his history of the _Goths,
+Vandals, and Lombards_, written in the Latin language, and accompanied
+by learned dissertations. He composed it, as a testimony of his
+gratitude to the Swedes, by doing honour to their gothic ancestors. The
+preface has always been admired, for its erudition and sound criticism.
+But the Belgic friends of Grotius accused him of elevating the Swedes at
+their expense.
+
+
+[Sidenote: X. 6. Other Works of Grotius.]
+
+2. A more important work consists of his _Annals, and History of the
+United Provinces_. The Annals begin with the year 1588, when Prince
+Maurice had the greatest influence in the affairs of the United
+Provinces; and concludes with the truce of twelve years, signed between
+them and Spain. The impartiality, with which these works are written,
+has been praised by every writer.
+
+It is to be lamented that Grotius professed to imitate, both in his
+Annals and History, the style of Tacitus. Expressed by his own pen, the
+style of Tacitus is energetic, picturesque, and pleasing; but it is
+impossible to deny its frequent abruptness and obscurity. Generally
+speaking, an imitation of what is defective, contains a larger share,
+than the original, of its distinctive defect. It should however be
+added, that Grotius's own style is short, sententious and broken; and
+possesses nothing of the meliflous ease of the ultramontane Latinists;
+or of our Milton or Buchanan. None of the works of Grotius, which we
+have mentioned in this Article, were published till after his decease.
+
+
+3. It remains to notice the _Letters of Grotius_, published at Amsterdam
+in one volume folio, in 1687.--A multitude of his unpublished letters is
+said to exist in different public and private libraries.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
+
+His published letters are an invaluable treasure: they abound with wise
+maxims of sound policy, and curious discussions on points arising on
+Roman or Belgic jurisprudence. Many points of sacred and profane
+learning, and particularly of the civil and canon law, are treated in
+them with equal learning and taste. For the perfect understanding of
+them, the letters of the correspondents of Grotius should be perused:
+they are principally to be found, in the _Præstantium et Eruditorum
+Virorum Epistolæ Ecclesiasticæ et Theologicæ_, published at Amsterdam in
+1684. A critical account of the Letters of Grotius, executed with great
+taste and judgment, is inserted in the first volume of the _Bibliotheque
+Universelle et Historique_.[041]
+
+[Sidenote: X. 6. Other Works of Grotius.]
+
+It is acknowledged that the letters of Grotius, are written in the
+finest latinity, and contain much valuable information; but the point,
+the sprightliness, the genius, the vivid descriptions of men and
+things, which are so profusely scattered over the letters of Erasmus,
+are seldom discoverable in those of Grotius. A man of learning would
+have been gratified beyond measure, by the profound conversations of
+Grotius and Father Petau: but what a treat must it have been, to have
+assisted with one, two, or three good listeners, at the conversations
+between Erasmus and Sir Thomas More!
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER. XI.
+
+GROTIUS.--AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN TO THE COURT OF
+FRANCE.
+
+1634--1645.
+
+
+The embassy of Grotius is connected with an important period in the
+history of the War of Thirty years.
+
+This celebrated war was principally caused by the religious disputes of
+the sixteenth century. Very soon after Luther's first attack on the See
+of Rome, the Reformation was established in Saxony, Livonia, Prussia,
+and Hesse-cassell; in many imperial towns; in Friezland and Holland; in
+several of the Swiss Cantons; in Pomerania, Mecklenburgh, Anhalt;
+Sweden, Denmark, Norway; England, and Scotland. Its progress in Germany
+is particularly connected with the subject of these pages.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius in the Court of France.]
+
+At the diet of Augsburgh, in 1530, the Protestant princes of Germany
+delivered to the emperor their Confession of Faith; they afterwards, at
+Smalcald, entered into an offensive and defensive league against the
+emperor. Being sensible that they were unable to resist him, they
+engaged the French monarch in their cause. At first, the emperor was
+victorious; but a new league was formed. France then took a more active
+part in favour of the confederates, and the contest ended in the peace
+of Passau, in 1552, there the two parties, for the first time, treated
+as equals, and the free exercise of the Lutheran religion was allowed.
+Things remained quiet during the reigns of Ferdinand the First and
+Maximilian the Second; but, in consequence of the disputes, which arose
+on the succession to the dutchies of Cleves and Juliers, the religious
+differences broke out with fresh animosity:--the Protestant princes
+formed a confederacy called the _Evangelical Union_, and placed, at its
+head, the Elector Palatine; the Catholics formed a confederacy called
+the _Catholic League_, and placed, at its head, the Duke of Bavaria. In
+the year 1618, they burst into open war; every state in Europe, and even
+the Ottoman princes, at one time or other, took a part in it. France was
+the soul of the Protestant cause; she assisted it with her armies, and
+her subsidies:--it may be truly said, that, if there be a Protestant
+state from the Vistula to the Rhine, or a Mahometan, state between the
+Danube and the Mediterranean, its existence is owing to the Bourbon
+monarchs. From the period of its duration, it has been called the WAR
+OF THIRTY YEARS: it is divided, by its _Palatine, Danish, Swedish,_ and
+_French_ periods.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
+
+1. Frederick, the fifth _Elector Palatine_ of that name, being elected
+King of Bohemia, by the states of that kingdom, made war on the emperor
+Ferdinand the Second. Being defeated in 1620, at the battle of Prague,
+and abandoned by his allies, he was driven from Bohemia, and deprived of
+his other states.
+
+2. Christian the Fourth of _Denmark_, then placed himself at the head of
+the confederacy against the emperor; but, having in 1626, lost the
+battle of Lutter, in which Tilly commanded the Austrian forces; he
+signed, three years after that event, a separate peace with the emperor.
+
+In the following year, Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, was placed at
+the head of the confederacy. Their cause appeared desperate: Walstein,
+the Austrian general, had been uniformly successful, and almost the
+whole of Germany had submitted to the emperor: but the Austrians soon
+experienced a severe reverse of fortune.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
+
+3. Lewis XIII filled at that time, the throne of France; his councils
+were guided by Cardinal Richelieu, one of the ablest statesmen that has
+appeared upon the theatre of the world. Vast, but provident in his
+designs; daring, but considerate in his operations; capable of the
+largest views and the most minute attentions; he formed three immense
+projects, and succeeded in all.
+
+"When your Majesty," he thus addresses the monarch in his celebrated
+_Testament Politique_, "resolved at the same time to admit me into your
+councils, and to give me a great portion of your confidence, I can say
+with truth that the Hugonots divided the state with you; that the great,
+conducted themselves, as if they were not your subjects, and the
+governors of the provinces, as if they were the sovereigns of them; and
+that France was contemned by her foreign allies."
+
+To reduce the Hugonots, to lower the nobility, to elevate France to be
+the preponderating power in Europe, were the three objects, which the
+Cardinal proposed to himself. In each, he had difficulties to encounter,
+which extraordinary talents only could surmount. By a strict
+administration of justice, and severely punishing, without respect to
+rank or connections, those, who engaged in treasonable practices, he
+completely subdued the towering spirit of the nobility; by victorious
+armies and a vigorous dispensation of the laws, he reduced the Hugonots;
+and, by calling forth all the energies of his country, and arraying
+half the Continent against Austria and Spain, he gave to France an
+almost irresistible ascendant in the concerns of Europe.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI 1634-1645.]
+
+To the last only of these three designs our present subject leads us.
+
+_Sweden_ had long been engaged in a war against Denmark, and highly
+dissatisfied with Austria. By the persuasion of Richelieu, she made
+peace with the Danes, and entered into an offensive and defensive
+alliance with France. In consequence of it, Gustavus Adolphus was placed
+at the head of the Protestant confederacy: a large army of Swedes
+entered Germany; Gustavus was invested with the command of the
+confederate forces, and his brilliant campaigns turned the tide of
+success in their favour. At Lutzen he obtained a complete victory, but
+lost his life.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
+
+After the death of Gustavus, the States assembled, and the Mareschal of
+the Diet proposed, that the celebrated Christina, the only child of
+Gustavus, then an infant of very tender years, should be crowned: the
+Mareschal carried her in his arms into the midst of the assembly. On
+observing her, all were struck with her likeness to her father. "Yes!"
+they cried, "it is she herself! she has the eyes, the nose and the
+forehead of Gustavus! We will have her for our queen!" She was
+immediately seated on the throne, and proclaimed queen. The regency of
+the kingdom, during the minority of Christina, was conferred on the
+Chancellor Oxenstiern: he had been the confidential minister and friend
+of Gustavus, and shewed through life that he deserved that confidence,
+by his wisdom, eminent talents, and spotless integrity. Both the monarch
+and his minister entertained a high opinion of the abilities and virtue
+of Grotius: His treatise _De Jure Belli et Pacis_ was found, after the
+death of Gustavus, in the royal tent.
+
+4. Not long after the disastrous victory of the Swedes at Lutzen, the
+Austrian and confederate armies conflicted at Nordlingen, in one of the
+most obstinate and bloody battles recorded in history: the confederates
+were completely defeated. The blame was thrown on the Swedes; they were
+deserted by almost all their Protestant allies, and the weight of the
+war devolved almost entirely upon the Swedes and _the French_. Till this
+time, they had acted and negociated on an equality: the loss of this
+battle made the Swedes dependent upon France, and the haughty genius of
+Richelieu made them severely feel it.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
+
+The first object of Oxenstiern was to renew the treaty with France: a
+skilful negociator on the part of Sweden was necessary. Oxenstiern
+fixed his eye upon Grotius: the penetrating minister had several
+conversations with him. The embassy to France was certainly the most
+important commission, with which a minister from Sweden could be
+charged: Oxenstiern's appointment of Grotius to it, demonstrated the
+minister's high opinion of him. Some time in July 1634, he declared
+Grotius councillor to the Queen of Sweden, and her ambassador to the
+court of France. Grotius made his public entry into Paris on Friday the
+2d of March 1635. Nothing of the customary ceremonial or compliment was
+omitted in his regard, by the court of France.
+
+Unfortunately for the success of the embassy of Grotius, two envoys from
+some of the Protestant states in Germany had previously signed a treaty
+with France, which was generally considered by the confederates to be
+injurious to their interests.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
+
+The first interview of Grotius with the Cardinal took place on the 28th
+March. During their conference, a dispatch arrived from Oxenstiern to
+Grotius: it was immediately put into his bands, by the Cardinal's
+desire. It announced a resolution, taken by the Chancellor, to repair to
+Paris, and that he was actually on his journey thither. Richelieu was
+displeased: but he determined to give the chancellor the most
+honourable and flattering reception. On the 21st of April, Grotius met
+Oxenstiern at Soissons: they proceeded together to Paris. Conferences
+between the Cardinal and the Chancellor immediately took place. The
+matter in discussion between the courts were soon arranged: France
+undertook to declare war against the emperor, to subsidize Sweden, and
+to send an army to co-operate with her forces in Germany. It has always
+been considered highly creditable to the firmness and talents of
+Oxenstiern, that, in the reduced condition of the Swedes, he could
+obtain for them such advantageous terms. Immediately after the treaty
+was signed, the Chancellor quitted France. During his stay, he shewed a
+marked attention to Grotius, and expressed unqualified approbation of
+his conduct and views.
+
+The arms of Sweden again triumphed. In Pomerania, General Bannier
+obtained important advantages over the imperialists; in Alsace, the arms
+of the Duke of Saxe-Weimar were equally successful. In the following
+year, the two victorious generals carried their arms into the heart of
+the Austrian territories, and, were almost uniformly successful.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
+
+But it is foreign to these pages to dwell further on the military
+achievements or political intrigues of the times of which we are
+speaking. Humanity shudders at the perusal of the events of this war.
+Through the whole of its long period, Germany was a scene of
+devastation. In its northern and central parts, the ravages of advancing
+and retreating armies were repeatedly experienced in their utmost
+horrors: many of its finest towns were destroyed; whole villages
+depopulated; large territories laid waste. Frequently the women, the
+children, and the aged, naked, pale, and disfigured, were seen wandering
+over the fields, supporting themselves by the leaves of trees, by wild
+roots, and even grass. The war extended itself into Lorraine: an
+affecting account of the calamities, which it produced in that beautiful
+province, was published by Father Caussin, who accompanied Lewis XIII
+into it, as his confessor.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
+
+Struck with the scene of woe, St. Vincent of Paul, an humble missionary
+priest, who, at that time, resided at Paris, requested an audience of
+Cardinal de Richelieu. Being admitted, he represented to his eminence,
+with respect, but with firmness, the misery of the people, the sins, and
+all the other enormities, which are the usual consequences of war: he
+then fell upon his knees, and in a voice, equally animated by grief and
+charity, "Sir!" he said to the Cardinal "have mercy upon us! Have
+compassion upon the world! Give us peace!" The stern and vindictive
+genius of the Cardinal sunk before the man of God. He raised Vincent
+from the ground. He told him, with much apparent benignity, that "the
+general pacification of Europe was his great object, but that
+unfortunately it did not depend on him alone; there being, both within
+and without the kingdom, those who sought the contrary, and prevented
+peace." Few ministers have shewn greater ability, or produced greater
+public or private misery, than Richelieu. It may, on the other hand, be
+doubted, whether, at the day of general retribution, when every child of
+Adam will have to account for his works, even one will appear with more
+numerous deeds of useful and heroic charity than St. Vincent of
+Paul.[042]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
+
+The affairs of the important embassy entrusted to Grotius, prospered in
+his hands. In his conduct, there was an uniform assemblage of prudence,
+activity, moderation, and firmness. To the French monarch, he was always
+acceptable--not always so to the cardinal minister. It was the constant
+object of the latter, to delay the payments of the subsidies promised
+to Sweden, or to make deductions from them; and to lessen the number of
+soldiers, which France was bound, by treaty to supply. Sometimes by
+blandishments, sometimes by loftiness, the minister or his agents
+endeavoured to induce Grotius to sanction these irregularities: but
+Grotius was always true to the interests of the country which he
+represented: it does not appear, that the Cardinal gained a single point
+against him. Towards the close of his embassy, Grotius succeeded in
+renewing the treaty between Sweden and France, on terms which were
+considered to do great honour to his diplomatic talents.
+
+In the discharge of his embassy, Grotius had to sustain other
+unpleasantnesses. His pension was not regularly paid: this often
+subjected him to great inconveniences. He had disputes respecting rank
+and ceremonial, both with the French ministry and the ambassadors of
+other states. It must surprise an English reader to find, that Grotius
+questioned the right of the English ambassador to precedence over him:
+the French court often played one ambassador, against the other.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
+
+In the midst of these troubles, Grotius preserved the serenity of his
+mind; and his attachment to sacred and profane literature. He cultivated
+the acquaintance of the learned and the good, of every communion; and
+possessed their esteem and regard. His conduct as ambassador was always
+approved by the Chancellor Oxenstiern, while he lived, and after his
+decease, by his son and successor in his office. The Queen of Sweden was
+equally favourable to Grotius; but she unadvisedly took an adventurer
+into her confidence, and sent him, in an ambiguous character, to Paris.
+This disgusted Grotius: and age and infirmities now thickened upon him.
+He applied to the Queen for his recall. She granted it in the most
+flattering terms, and desired him to repair immediately to Stockholm, to
+receive, from her, distinguished marks of her favour. She wrote to the
+Queen of France, a letter, in which she expressed herself in a manner
+highly honourable to Grotius: she acknowledged her obligations to him
+and protested that she never would forget them. This was towards the
+month of March 1645.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
+
+About three years after this event, the war of thirty years was
+concluded by the peace of Westphalia. France and the Protestant princes
+of Europe dictated the terms: the Swedes were indemnified for their
+charges of the war, by Pomerania, Steten, Rugen, Wismar and Verden: the
+house of Brandenburgh obtained Magdeburgh, Halberstad, Minden and Camin;
+Alsace was conquered, and retained by France; Lusatia, was ceded to
+Saxony. The history of the treaty of Westphalia has been ably written by
+_Father Bougeant_, a French Jesuit: some critics have pronounced it the
+best historical work in the French language. Till the late revolution of
+France, it was the breviary of all French aspirants to political
+distinction.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS OF GROTIUS:--SOME OTHER OF HIS WORKS.
+
+1. _Subsequent History of Arminianism_. 2. _Grotius's Religious
+Sentiments_. 3. _His Projects of Religious Pacification_.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XII. 1.
+
+_Subsequent History of Arminianism._
+
+
+We left the Arminians under the iron arm of Prince Maurice:--He died in
+1625:--We have mentioned, that Prince Frederick-Henry his brother, and
+successor in the Stadtholderate, adopted more moderate councils in their
+regard; that he recalled the Remonstrants, with some exceptions, from
+banishment; that many settled at Amsterdam and Rotterdam; and that the
+Arminians founded a college in the former city:--_Episcopius_ was its
+first professor of theology:--it has never been without teachers, of
+eminence for learning, as Courcelles, Pollemberg, Limborch, Le Clerc,
+Cottemburgh, and Wetstein.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+It should be added, that the authority of the Synod of Dort insensibly
+declined:--its authority was never formally acknowledged by the provinces
+of _Friesland_, _Zealand_, _Utrecht_, _Gueldreland_ and
+_Gröningen_: In 1651, they were induced to intimate that they would see
+with pleasure, the reformed religion maintained upon the footing, upon
+which it had been maintained and confirmed by the Synod of Dort; but
+this intimation was never considered to have the force of a legislative
+enactment.[043]
+
+[Sidenote: XII.1. History of Arminianism.]
+
+The theological system of the Arminians, after their return to Holland,
+underwent, if we credit Dr. Mosheim,[044] a remarkable change. They
+appear, by his account, to have almost coincided with those, who exclude
+the necessity of divine grace in the work of conversion and
+sanctification; and think that Christ demands from men, rather virtue
+than faith; and has confined that belief, which is essential for
+salvation, to very few articles. Thus the modern Arminians, according
+to Dr. Mosheim, admit into their communion,--1st. All, with an exception
+of Catholics, who receive the holy scriptures; and more especially the
+New Testament; allowing at the same time to every individual, his own
+interpretation of the sacred books:--2dly. All whose lives are regulated
+by the law of God:--3dly. And all, who neither persecute nor bear ill
+will towards those who differ from them in their religious sentiments.
+Their _Confession of Faith_ was drawn up by Episcopius in 1622: four
+divines of the established church of Holland published a _Refutation_ of
+it: the authors of the _Confession_ replied to it in the following year,
+by their _Apology_.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+James I. of England directed his theological representatives in the
+Synod of Dort, to join the members in the condemnation of the doctrines
+of Arminius:--but, when the English divines returned from that assembly,
+and gave a full account of its proceedings, the King and the greatest
+part of the English clergy expressed their dissatisfaction with them,
+and declared that the sentiments of Arminius on the divine decrees, was
+preferable to those of Calvin and Gomarus. By the exertions of
+Archbishop Laud, and afterwards, in consequence of the general tendency
+of the public mind to doctrines of mildness and comprehension, an
+Arminian construction of the English articles on predestination and
+free-will was adopted:--it has since prevailed,--and the Arminian creed,
+by the number of its secret or open adherents, has insensibly found
+admittance into every Protestant church.
+
+[Sidenote: History of Arminianism.]
+
+If we believe the celebrated Jurieu[045], Arminianism even in its
+Socinian form, abounded, in less than a century, after the death of
+Arminius, in the United Provinces, and among the Hugonots of the
+adjacent part of France. By his account, the dispersion of the French
+Hugonots, in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
+revealed to the terrified reformers of the original school, the alarming
+secret of the preponderance of Socinianism in the reformed church. Its
+members, according to Jurieu, being no longer under the controul of the
+civil power, spread their Socinian principles every where, with the
+utmost activity and success: even in England, Jurieu professed to
+discover the effect of their exertions. He mentions that in 1698,
+thirty-four French refugee ministers residing in London addressed a
+letter to the synod, then sitting at Amsterdam, in which they declared,
+that Socinianism had spread so rapidly, that, if the ecclesiastical
+assemblies supplied no means for checking their growth, or used
+palliatives only, the mischief would be incurable.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+This charge, however, the Arminians have indignantly rejected. A writer
+in the _Bibliotheque Germanique_[046] relates, that
+
+    "the celebrated Anthony Collins called on M. Le Clerc of Amsterdam:
+    He was accompanied by some Frenchmen, of the fraternity of those,
+    who think freely. They expected to find the religious opinions of
+    Le Clerc in unison with their own, but, they were surprised to find
+    the strong stand which he made in favour of revelation. He proved
+    to them, with great strength of argument, the truth of the
+    Christian religion. Jesus Christ, he told them, was born among the
+    Jews; still, it was not the Jewish religion which he taught;
+    neither was it the religion of the Pagan neighbourhood; but, a
+    religion infinitely superior to both. One sees in it the most
+    striking marks of divinity. The Christians, who followed, were
+    incapable of imagining any thing so beautiful. Add to this, that
+    the Christian religion is so excellently calculated for the good of
+    society, that, if we did not derive so great a present from heaven,
+    the good and safety of men would absolutely demand from them an
+    equivalent."
+
+Throughout the conversation, M. Le Clerc reproached the Deists strongly,
+for the hatred, which they shewed to Christianity. He proved, that, by
+banishing it from the world,
+
+    "they would overturn whatever was most holy and respectable among
+    men; break asunder the surest bonds of humanity; teach men to shake
+    off the yoke of law; deprive them of their strongest incitement to
+    virtue, and bereave them of their best comfort. What," (he asked
+    them) "do you substitute in its place? Can you flatter yourself,
+    that you will discover something better? You expect, no doubt, that
+    men will erect statues to you, for your exertions to deprive them
+    of their religion! Permit me to tell you, that the part you act
+    makes you odious and despicable in the eyes of all honest men."
+
+He finished the conversation by requesting Mr. Collins to bring him no
+more such visitors.
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 1. History of Arminians.]
+
+From the close of the 17th century, till the present time, Arminianism
+has been continually on the increase. It is a just observation of Mr.
+Gibbon, that "the disciples of Arminius must not be computed by their
+separate congregations."
+
+Doctor Maclaine says, it is certain, that the most eminent philosophers
+have been found among the Arminians. "If both Arminians and Calvinists,"
+says Mr. Evans, in the excellent work we have cited,
+
+    "claim a _King_ (_James_ I.), it is certain that the latter alone
+    can boast of a _Newton_, a _Locke_, a _Clarke_, or a _Boyle_.
+    Archbishop _Usher_ is said to have lived a _Calvinist_; and died an
+    _Arminian_. The members of the episcopal church in Scotland; the
+    Moravians, the general Baptists, the Wesleyan Methodists, the
+    Quakers or Friends, are Arminians; and it is supposed that a great
+    proportion of the Kirk of Scotland teach the doctrines of Arminius,
+    though they have a Calvinistic confession of faith. What a pity it
+    is that the opinions either of Calvinists or Arminians,"
+
+--(we beg leave to add: or any other Catholic or Protestant opinions
+whatsoever)--
+
+    "cannot in the eyes of some persons be held without a diminution of
+    Christian charity!"
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XII. 2.
+
+_Grotius's Religious Sentiments_.
+
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+To the milder form of Arminianism, Grotius always inclined. During his
+embassy in France, he adopted it without reserve. He was soon disgusted
+with the French Calvinists. The ministers of Charenton accepted the
+decisions of the Synod of Dort, and, in conformity with them, refused,
+when Grotius repaired to Paris, after his escape from Louvestein, to
+admit him into their communion. On his arrival at Paris, in quality of
+ambassador, they offered to receive him: Grotius expressed pleasure at
+the proposal; and, intimated to them, that if he should go into any
+country, in which the Lutherans, knowing his sentiments on the sacrament
+of our Lord's Supper, should be willing to receive him into their
+communion, he would make no difficulty in joining them. Thus every thing
+appeared to be settled; but the ministers then objected to receive
+Grotius as ambassador from Sweden, because that kingdom was Lutheran.
+Grotius, upon this, resolved to have the divine service performed in his
+house. Lutherans publicly attended it. "We have celebrated," he writes
+to his brother, "the Feast of the Nativity in my house: the Duke of
+Wirtemberg, the Count de Saxenburgh, and several Swedish and German
+lords, attended at it." His first chaplain was imprudent, his second
+gave him great satisfaction.
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 2. Grotius' Religious Sentiments.]
+
+Burigni has collected, in the last chapter of his Life of Grotius, a
+multitude of passages, which shew his gradual leaning to the Roman
+Catholic faith. He produces several passages from his works, which
+prove,--
+
+_That_ he paid high regard to decisions of the councils, and the
+discipline of the primitive church; and thought the sentiments of the
+antient church should be deferred to, in the explanation of the
+Scriptures: [047]
+
+_That_, the early reformers were held by him in no great esteem:[048]
+
+_That_, mentioning Casaubon's sentiments, Grotius said that this learned
+man thought the Roman Catholics of France better informed than those of
+other countries, and came nearer to truth than the ministers of
+Charenton:--
+
+    "It cannot," says Grotius, "be denied, that there are several Roman
+    Catholic pastors here, who teach true religion, without any mixture
+    of superstition; it were to be wished that all did the same:"[049]
+
+_That_ the Calvinists were schismatics, and had no mission:[050]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+_That_ the Jesuits were learned men and good subjects. "I know many of
+them," he says, in one of his writings against Rivetus, "who are very
+desirous to see abuses abolished, and the church restored to its
+primitive unity."--We shall hereafter see that Father Petâu, an
+illustrious member of the society, possessed the confidence of
+Grotius:[051]
+
+_That_, Grotius looked upon the abolition of episcopacy and of a visible
+head of the church, as something very monstrous:[052]
+
+_That_, he acknowledged that some change was made in the eucharistic
+bread; that, when Jesus Christ, being sacramentally present, favours us
+with his substance,--as the Council of Trent expresses its doctrine on
+the Eucharist,--the appearances of bread and wine remain, and in their
+place succeed the body and blood of Christ: [053]
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 2. Grotius's Religious Sentiments.]
+
+_That_, Grotius did not approve of the sentiments of the Calvinists
+concerning the Eucharist, and reproached them with their contradiction.
+
+    "You will hear them state in their confessions," says Grotius,
+    "that they really, substantially and essentially partake of
+    Christ's body and his blood; but, in their disputes, they maintain
+    that Christ is received only spiritually, by faith. The antients
+    go much further: they admit a real incorporation of Jesus Christ
+    with us, and the reality of Christ's body, as Saint Hilarius
+    speaks."
+
+It must however be remarked that, although Grotius thought that the term
+_Transubstantiation_ adopted by the council of Trent, was capable of a
+good interpretation, it is not clear, what was his precise opinion
+respecting the Eucharist. He proposed the following formulary:
+
+    "We believe that, in the use of the supper, we truly, really, and
+    substantially,--that is to say,--in its proper substance,--receive
+    the true body and the true blood of Jesus Christ, in a spiritual
+    and ineffable manner: [054]"
+
+_That_, Grotius justified the decision of the Council of Trent,
+concerning the number of the sacraments:[055]
+
+_That_, after the year 1640, he took no offence at the use of images in
+churches, or at prayers for the dead:[056]
+
+_That_, he thought the bishops of Rome may be in error, but cannot long
+remain in it, if they adhere to the universal church;--this seems to
+presuppose the church's infallibility:[057]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+_That_ in the opinion of Grotius; fasting was early used in the church;
+the observance of Lent was a very early practice: the sign of the cross
+had something respectable in it; the fathers held virginity a more
+perfect state than marriage; and the celibacy of the priests conformable
+to the antient discipline of the church:[058]
+
+And
+
+    "that those, who shall read the decrees of the Council of Trent,
+    with a mind disposed to peace, will find that every thing is wisely
+    explained in them: and agreeable to what is taught by the
+    Scriptures and the antient fathers."[059]
+
+It is certain, that Grotius was intimate with Father Petâu, a Jesuit,
+inferior to none of his society, in genius and learning; that the good
+father used all his endeavours to convert Grotius to the Roman Catholic
+religion; and was, at length, so much persuaded of his friend's
+catholicity, that, when he heard of his death, he said prayers for the
+repose of his soul.[060]
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+As the religion of Grotius was a problem to many, Menâge wrote the
+following Epigram upon it: the sense of it is, that--
+
+    "As many sects claimed the religion of Grotius, as the towns, which
+    contended for the birth of Homer."
+
+        _Smyrna, Rhodos, Colophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos, Athenæ,
+          Siderei certant vatis de patriâ Homeri:
+        Grotiadæ certant de religione, Socinus,
+          Arrius, Arminius, Calvinus, Roma, Lutherus_.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XII. 3.
+
+_Grotius's Project of Religious Pacification._
+
+
+A wish for religious peace among Christians grew with the growth and
+strengthened with the strength of Grotius. It was known, before his
+imprisonment at Louvestein, that he entertained these sentiments: he
+avows them in the dedication to Lewis XIII. of his treatise _de Jure
+Belli et Pacis_.
+
+    "I shall never cease," he says in a letter to his brother,[061] "to
+    use my utmost endeavours for establishing peace among Christians;
+    And, if I should not succeed, it will be honourable to die in such
+    an enterprise." "I am not the only one, who has conceived such
+    projects," he writes in another letter to his brother:[062]
+    "Erasmus, Cassander; Wicelius and Casaubon had the same design. La
+    Meletiere is employed at present in it. Cardinal de Richelieu
+    declares that he will protect the coalition; and he is such a
+    fortunate man, that he never undertakes any thing, in which he
+    does not succeed. If there were no hopes of success at present,
+    ought we not to sow the seed, which may he useful to
+    posterity?[063] Even if we should only diminish the mutual hatred
+    among Christians, and render them more sociable, would not this be
+    worth purchasing at the price of some labour and reproaches?"[064]
+
+Grotius expressed himself in similar terms to Baron Oxenstiern: Surely
+it is the true language of the Gospel.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+In the first appendix to this work,--we shall insert, an account
+
+    "of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith, and Symbolic Books, of
+    the Roman Catholic, Greek, and principal Protestant churches:"--
+
+In the second appendix,--we shall insert an account of the principal
+attempts made, since the Reformation, for the re-union of
+Christians.--The former is abridged from the "Historical and Literary
+Account of the Confessions of Faith," which was formerly published by
+the present writer;--the second is an essay appended to that work:--both
+have been before referred to in the present publication.
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+Grotius[065] thought that the most compendious way to produce universal
+religious peace among Christians, would be to frame, with the
+concurrence of all the orthodox Eastern and Western churches, a
+formulary which should express, briefly and explicitly, all the articles
+of faith, the belief of which they agree in thinking essential to
+salvation. In a letter addressed from Paris in 1625,[066] he mentions
+that Gustavus Adolphus had entertained projects of religious
+pacification, and had taken measures to effect it; that he had procured
+a meeting of divines of the Lutheran and Reformed churches and that they
+had separated amicably: Grotius says that the differences between them
+were as slight as those between the Greek and Coptic churches.
+
+For some time, Grotius flattered himself that he should succeed in his
+project of pacification. In one of his letters to his brother, he
+mentions distinguished Protestants, who approved and encouraged them
+
+    "I perceive," he says, "that by conversing with men of the most
+    learning among the reformed, and explaining my sentiments to them,
+    they are of my opinion; and that their number will increase, if my
+    treatises are dispersed. I can truly affirm, that I have said
+    nothing in them from party spirit, but followed truth as closely as
+    I could."[067]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+He imagined that some Catholics entered into his views.
+
+    "The ablest men among the Catholics," he thus writes to his
+    brother, "think that what I have published is written with great
+    freedom and moderation, and approve of it."[068]
+
+These pacific projects of Grotius cemented the union between him and
+Father Petâu.
+
+    "I had," says that most learned Jesuit, in his 12th Letter, "a
+    great desire to see and converse with Grotius. We have been long
+    together, and very intimate. He is, as far as I can judge, a good
+    man, and possesses great candour. I do not think him far from
+    becoming a Catholic, after the example of Holstenius as you hoped.
+    I shall neglect nothing in my power to reconcile him to Christ, and
+    put him in the way of salvation."[069]
+
+[Sidenote: His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+As Grotius lays so much stress on the pacific labours of Erasmus,
+Wicelius, Cassander and Casaubon, we shall briefly mention, in the
+present chapter, the labours of the three first: Casaubon's we shall
+notice, in the second appendix to this work.
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] It appears that _Erasmus_ had it in
+contemplation to compose three dialogues, upon the important subject of
+religious pacification: the speakers were to have been Luther, under the
+name of Thrasimacus, and a Catholic divine, under that of Eubolus. In
+the first dialogue, they were to have discussed the proper methods of
+terminating the religious controversies of the times; in the second, to
+have investigated what were the points in controversy, the belief of
+which was essential to a member of the church of Christ; in the third,
+they were to have inquired what were the best means to procure a good
+understanding between the contending parties, and to effect their union.
+It is to be lamented that Erasmus did not execute his design. His
+general sentiments appear in his _Paraphrase upon the 83d Psalm_; they
+are expressed with great wisdom and moderation.[071]
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+_Wicelius_,--who is next mentioned by Grotius, had been professed in a
+religious order: had quitted it, and embraced Lutheranism: he afterwards
+forsook that communion, and returned to the Catholic: upon this, he was
+appointed to a curacy; and, in the discharge of his functions, obtained
+general esteem: he was much regarded by the Emperors Ferdinand and
+Maximilian. In 1537, he published at Leipsic a Latin work, "On the
+method of procuring Religious Concord,--_Methodus Concordiæ
+Ecclesiasticæ_." He addressed it to the pope, to all sovereigns,
+bishops, doctors, and generally to all christians, exhorting them to
+peace, and to desist from contention. He assumed in it, that the true
+religion had been preserved in the Catholic church; but he allows that
+modern doctors had involved it in numerous scholastic subtleties,
+unknown to antiquity. He complains that on one hand the reformers left
+nothing untouched; that, on the other, the scholastics would retain
+every abuse, and every superfluity: Wisdom, he thought, lay between
+them; the reformers should have respected what antiquity consecrated;
+the Catholics should have abandoned modern doctrines and modern
+practices to the discretion of individuals.
+
+The "Royal Road," or _Via Regia_ of Wicelius, a still more important
+work, was published by him at Helmstadt in 1537. Both works were
+approved, and the perusal of them warmly recommended, by the emperors:
+they have been often reprinted; they are inserted, with a life of their
+author, in the second volume of _Brown's Fasciculus_.
+
+    "If all the divines of those times," says Father Simôn the
+    oratorian,[073] "had possessed the same spirit as Wicelius, the
+    affairs of religion might have taken a different turn."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+[Sidenote: XII.3. His Project of Religious Pacification]
+
+_Cassander_, another peacemaker, mentioned with praise by Grotius, is
+the subject of a long and interesting article in _Dupin's Ecclesiastical
+History_:[074]
+
+    "He was," says Dupin, "solidly learned; and thoroughly versed in
+    ecclesiastical antiquity and the controversies of his own times.
+    The flaming zeal, which he had for the re-union and peace of the
+    church, made him yield much to the Protestants, and led him to
+    advance some propositions that were too bold. But he always kept in
+    the communion of the Catholic church. He declared that he submitted
+    to its judgments, and openly condemned the authors of the schism
+    and their principal errors. He was a gentle, humble and moderate
+    man; patient under afflictions, and entirely disinterested. In his
+    disputes, he never returned injury for injury; and neither in his
+    manners nor in his writings were presumption or arrogance ever
+    discoverable. He avoided glory, honor, or wealth; and lived private
+    and retired, having no other thought or wish, but to promote the
+    peace of the church; no employment, but study; no business, but to
+    compose books, which might be profitable to the public; and no
+    passion, but knowing and teaching the truth."
+
+His character procured him universal respect. The emperor and several
+Catholic princes in Germany fixed upon him as a mediator in the
+religious disputes, by which the empire was, at that time, agitated. In
+conformity with their views he published his celebrated, "_Consultatio
+de Articulis Religionis inter Catholicos et Protestantes Controversis_."
+
+    "In this work," says Mr. Chalmers, "he discusses the several
+    articles of the Augsburgh Confession, stating their difference from
+    the doctrines of the Catholic church, and the concessions that
+    might safely be made in respect to them. This work was written with
+    great liberality, was much applauded by those, who were desirous of
+    a coalition: they were too soon convinced that every attempt of
+    this kind was nugatory. Cassander presented it to the Emperors
+    Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. They received it favourably; the
+    former invited Cassander to Vienna, but his infirmities prevented
+    his accepting the offer."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+In 1542, Grotius published his "_Road to Religious Peace,--Via ad Pacem
+Ecclesiasticam_:" he inserted in it Cassander's "_Consultation_," and
+accompanied it with notes.
+
+All pacific persons reverenced Grotius, and still reverence his memory,
+for his attempts to restore the religious peace of Christendom: all the
+violent condemned him, and opposed his projects. The contradictions,
+which he met with, chagrined him; so that he sometimes lost that
+tranquillity of mind, which he had possessed in his deepest adversity.
+But, to use his own words, he looked to the blessed Peacemaker for his
+reward, and trusted that posterity would do justice to its intentions.--
+
+    "Perhaps, by writing to reconcile such as entertain very opposite
+    sentiments, I shall," says Grotius, "offend both parties: but, if
+    that should so happen, I shall comfort myself with the example of
+    him, who said, If I please men, I am not the servant of Christ."
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+    "Grotius," says Burigni, "content with gratifying his pacific
+    desires, expected his reward from posterity. This he clearly
+    intimates in the following verses, written by him on the subject:
+
+        "_Accipe, sed placidé, quæ, si non optimo, certé
+          Espressit nobis non mala pacis amor.
+        Et tibi dic, nostro labor hic si displicet avo,
+          A gratia pretium posteritate feret_."
+
+The projects of religious pacification did not cease with Grotius:
+several divines of distinction adopted it; and attempted, some with more
+prudence and ability than others, to carry it into effect. The principal
+of these are noticed in the second appendix to the present work. None
+succeeded: One description of persons, who engaged in this design, was
+denominated _Syncretists_, or _Calixtines_, from _George Calixtus_ their
+leader: the other, from their calling men from controversy to holiness
+of life, received the appellation of _Pietists_: A third party,--perhaps
+we may style them, the _Ultra-orthodox_,--more hostile to the former
+than to the latter--arose in opposition to both, and accused them of
+sacrificing the doctrines of faith to a mistaken zeal for union and
+sanctity.[075]
+
+It is certain[076] that the friends of union too often erred in
+this,--that they aimed rather at an uniformity of _terms_ than of
+_sentiments_; and thus seemed satisfied, when they engaged the
+contending parties to use the same _words and phrases_, though their
+_real difference_ in opinion remained the same. This could not be
+justified: it tended evidently to extinguish truth and honour, and to
+introduce equivocation.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+THE DEATH OF GROTIUS.
+
+1645
+
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XIII. 1645.]
+
+Every thing respecting the recall of Grotius being settled, he embarked
+at Dieppe for Holland. He was extremely well received at Amsterdam and
+Rotterdam: the constituted authorities, of the former city fitted a
+vessel, which was to take him to Hamburgh: there, after along and
+harassing journey, he arrived on the 16th of May. From Hamburgh he
+proceeded to Lübec: the magistrates of that city gave him an honourable
+reception. He proceeded to Wismar; where Count Wismar, the admiral of
+the Swedish fleet, gave him a splendid entertainment, and afterwards
+sent him in a man-of-war to Colmar: thence, he went by land to
+Stockholm. When he arrived there, Queen Christina was at Upsal; but,
+hearing that Grotius was at Stockholm, she returned to that city to meet
+him. On the day after her arrival, she favoured him with a long
+audience: she expressed to him great satisfaction at his conduct, and
+made him large promises. These audiences were often repeated; and once
+she permitted him to have the honour of dining with her. She assured
+him, that if he would continue in her service, as Councillor of State,
+and bring his family into Sweden, he should have no reason to complain
+of her. But Grotius was anxious to leave Sweden; and his passport being
+delayed, he resolved to quit it without one, and actually proceeded to a
+seaport about seven leagues distant from Stockholm. The Queen, being
+informed of his departure, sent a gentleman to inform him, that she
+wished to see him once more. On this invitation he returned to
+Stockholm, and was immediately admitted into the Queen's presence; he
+then explained to her his reasons for wishing to quit Sweden. The Queen
+appeared to be satisfied with them: she made him a present in money of
+twelve or thirteen thousand Swedish imperials, of the value of about ten
+thousand French crowns; she added to the present, some plate, the
+finishing of which had, she told him, been the only cause of the delay
+of his passport. She then put it into his hands, and a vessel was
+appointed to carry him to Lübec. On the 12th August he embarked for that
+city.
+
+[Sidenote: The Death of Grotius.]
+
+What were his real motives for refusing Christina's offers, or in what
+place he ultimately intended to fix himself, is not known.
+
+The vessel in which he embarked had scarcely sailed from Lübec, when it
+was overtaken by a violent storm, and obliged, on the 17th August, to
+take shelter in a port fourteen miles distant from Dantzic. Grotius went
+from it in an open wagon to Lübec, and arrived very ill at Rostock[077]
+on the 26th August. No one, there, knew him: his great weakness
+determined him to call in the aid of a physician: one accordingly
+attended him: his name was Stochman. On feeling Grotius's pulse, he said
+his indisposition proceeded from weakness and fatigue, and that, with
+rest and some restoratives, he might recover; but, on the following day
+he changed his opinion. Perceiving that the weakness of Grotius
+increased, and that it was accompanied with a cold sweat and other
+symptoms indicating an exhaustion of nature, the physician announced
+that the end of his patient was near. Grotius then asked for a
+clergyman. _John Quistorpius_ was brought to him. Quistorpius, in a
+letter to Calovius, gives the following particulars of Grotius's last
+moments:
+
+    "You are desirous of hearing from me, how that Phoenix of
+    Literature, Hugo Grotius, behaved in his last moments, and I am
+    going to tell you. He embarked at Stockholm for Lübec, and after
+    having been tossed for the three days, by a violent tempest, he was
+    shipwrecked, and got to shore on the coast of Pomerania, from
+    whence he came to our town of Rostock, distant above sixty miles,
+    in an open wagon through wind and rain. He lodged with Balleman;
+    and sent for M. Stochman, the physician, who observing that he was
+    extremely weakened by years, by what he suffered at sea, and by the
+    inconveniences attending the journey, judged that he could not live
+    long. The second day after Grotius's arrival in this town, that is,
+    on the 18th of August, O.S. he sent for me, about nine at night, I
+    went, and found him almost at the point of death: I said, 'There
+    was nothing I desired more, than to have seen him in health, that I
+    might have the pleasure of his conversation.' He answered, 'God had
+    ordered it otherwise.' I desired him: to prepare himself for a
+    happier life, to acknowledge that he was a sinner, and to repent of
+    his faults: and, happening to mention the publican, who
+    acknowledged that he was a sinner, and asked God's mercy; he
+    answered, '_I am that publican_.' I went on, and told him that he
+    must have recourse to Jesus Christ, without whom there is no
+    salvation.'
+
+    "He replied, '_I place all my hope in Jesus Christ_.'
+
+[Sidenote: The Death of Grotius.]
+
+    "I began to repeat aloud in German, the prayer which begins _Herr
+    Jesu:_[078] he followed me in a very low voice; with his hands
+    clasped. When I had done, I asked him, 'if he understood me.' He
+    answered, '_I understand you very well_.' I continued to repeat to
+    him those passages of the word of God, which are commonly offered
+    to the remembrance of dying persons; and asking him, 'if he
+    understood me,' he answered, '_I heard your voice, but I did not
+    understand what you said._'
+
+    "These were his last words; soon afterwards he expired; just at
+    midnight. His body was delivered to the physicians, who took out
+    his bowels. I easily obtained leave to bury them in our principal
+    church, which is dedicated to the Virgin."
+
+His corpse, was afterwards carried to Delft, and deposited in the tomb
+of his ancestors. He wrote this modest epitaph for himself,
+
+        "GROTIUS HIC HUGO EST, BATAVUM
+          CAPTIVUS ET EXSUL,
+        LEGATUS REGNI, SUECIA MAGNA, TUI."
+
+Burigni informs us that Grotius had a very agreeable person, a good
+complexion, an aquiline nose, sparkling eyes, a serene and smiling
+countenance; that he was not tall, but very strong, and well built. The
+engraving of him prefixed to the _Hugonis Grotii Manes_ answers this
+description.
+
+It is needless to give an account of his descendants, or their
+prosperous or adverse fortunes: they are noticed at length by Burigni.
+In _Mr. Boswell's Life of Johnson_, mention is made of one who was then
+in a state of want. Dr. Johnson, in a letter to Dr. Vyse,
+
+    "requests him to recommend, an old friend, to his grace the
+    Archbishop of Canterbury. His name," says the Doctor, "is De Groot.
+    He has all the common claims to charity; he is poor and infirm in a
+    great degree. He has likewise another claim, to which no scholar
+    can refuse attention: he is, by several descents, the nephew of
+    Hugo Grotius; of him, of whom every man of learning has perhaps
+    learned something. Let it not be said, that, in any lettered
+    country, the nephew of Grotius, ever asked a charity, and was
+    refused."
+
+The reader must be pleased, to be informed, that the application,--it
+was for some situation, in the charter-house,--was successful. Dr. Vyse
+informed Dr. Johnson of it, by letter. In his answer,
+
+    "Dr. Johnson," by Dr. Vyse's account, "rejoiced much, and was
+    lavish of the praise he bestowed upon his favourite Hugo
+    Grotius."[079]
+
+[Sidenote: The Death of Grotius.]
+
+Three points were united in Grotius, each of which would strongly
+recommend him to Dr. Johnson: he was learned, pious, and opposed to the
+doctrines of Calvin. It is still more unnecessary to mention the various
+encomiums, which the learned of all nations have made of Grotius, in
+prose and verse. That he was one of the most universal scholars, whom
+the world has produced, and that he possessed sense, taste, and genius
+in a high degree, is universally confessed. It is equally true, that
+both his public and his private character, are entitled to a high degree
+of praise.
+
+When Queen Christina, heard of his death, she wrote to his widow, a
+letter of condolence, and requested, that the manuscripts which he had
+left, might be sent to her:
+
+    "My ambassador," the Queen says in this letter, "has made you
+    acquainted, with my high esteem, for his learning, and the good
+    services he did me; but he could not express, how dear I hold his
+    memory, and the effects of his great labours. If gold, or silver,
+    could do any thing towards redeeming such a valuable life, I would
+    gladly employ all, I am mistress of, for that purpose."
+
+She concludes by asking his widow, for all the manuscripts "of that
+learned man, whose works had given her such pleasure." The Queen assures
+her, that "they could not fall into better hands," and that, "the
+author, having been useful to her in his lifetime, it was not just that
+she should be deprived, after his death, of the fruits of his labours."
+
+It remains to mention, that, after the death of Grotius, his wife
+communicated with the Church of England: this, it is said, she did in
+conformity to the dying injunctions of her husband: it is certain, that
+Grotius respected the Church of England. His wife died at the Hague, in
+the communion of the Remonstrants. Through life, she was uniformly
+respected; and, whenever the services of Grotius, to sacred and profane
+literature, are recorded, her services to him, should be mentioned with
+praise.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SEVEN
+UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THE DEATH OF WILLIAM II. TILL THE ESTABLISHMENT
+OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+1680-1815.
+
+
+In some of the preceding pages, the principal events in the history of
+the Seven United Provinces, till the death of William II, in 1680, have
+been briefly mentioned: in the present chapter, we shall insert a
+summary account of the revolutions of their government, till the present
+time.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XIV. 1.
+
+_William III._
+
+1650-1702.
+
+
+William III. was born after the death of William II. his father.
+Immediately after that event, his mother claimed for him the
+stadtholderate, and all the other dignities, pre-eminences, and rights,
+which his father and grandfather had enjoyed; but, so great, at that
+time, was the public jealousy of the ambitious views of the house of
+Orange, that the States General would not even take her claims into
+deliberation. A general assembly of the States was held in 1661. They
+confirmed the Treaty of Union, of 1579; attributed to themselves, the
+appointment of all civil and military offices; placed the army under the
+authority of the provinces and municipalities, and invested the council
+of state with the general direction of the military concerns of the
+nation. A war with England, which was then governed by Cromwell, soon
+followed; it was the commencement of the naval glory of the United
+States. But the government was distracted by the contests and
+dissensions between the republican and the Orange factions. The former
+were headed by John de Witt. He possessed transcendent abilities, was a
+true lover of his country, and, on every occasion, advised the wisest
+measures. Some of the military operations of the States proving
+unsuccessful, the Orange faction endeavoured to persuade the people,
+that this reverse of fortune was owing to the want of a Stadtholder; and
+exhorted them to confer this dignity on the young prince, to be
+exercised, during his minority, by one of the family. This proposition
+was successfully resisted by De Witt. Peace between England and the
+United Provinces being concluded, Cromwell endeavoured to unite them to
+England by a federative alliance; but they rejected the proposition. At
+the suggestion of De Witt, the States of Holland passed an Act, by which
+they bound themselves never to appoint the Prince of Orange, or any of
+his descendants, to the office of Stadtholder, or Captain General; and
+to prevent, to their utmost power, the other States from making such an
+appointment. This measure displeased the other States. In 1665, the
+office of Commander in Chief becoming vacant, the opposite party
+endeavoured to procure it for one of the Orange family; this attempt
+also proved abortive. In 1661 a war broke out between England,--which
+was then governed by Charles II., and the United States; these displayed
+in it, chiefly under the command of De Ruyter, prodigies of valour and
+naval skill; the year 1667 was famous in their annals, by their fleet's
+sailing up the river Thames, and burning the English fleet at Chatham.
+The peace of Breda immediately followed.
+
+[Sidenote: XIV. 1. William III.]
+
+Still, the civil discord continued. The States of Holland renewed the
+_Edict of Exclusion_, with the addition of a clause, that, whenever a
+person should be invested, with the office of Captain, or Admiral
+General, he should swear never to aspire to the office of Stadtholder,
+and to refuse it, if it should be offered to him.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XIV 1650--1702.]
+
+The year 1671 is remarkable for the league entered into by Louis XIV.
+and Charles II. against the United States, and by their vigourous
+resistance to it. The circumstances into which it drove the United
+States, compelled them to appoint the Prince of Orange Captain General
+and Admiral: he took the oath prescribed by the Perpetual Edict, not to
+aspire to the stadtholderate, and to reject it, if offered. He was at
+this time in his twenty-second year: he owed his elevation to the
+critical situation in which the United States were then placed; but it
+was also owing to the great prudence with which he had conducted himself
+when fortune was opposed to him; and to the talents and application to
+business which he then discovered.
+
+At sea, the navy of the United States was generally successful. At land,
+the arms of Lewis XIV. triumphed; he conquered Gueldres, Overyssell, and
+the city and province of Utretcht. This maddened the populace. They
+massacred John De Witt, and Cornelius De Witt, his brother, after having
+subjected them to the cruellest tortures and the most brutal
+indignities. To the indelible reproach of William III. he did not
+interfere to prevent or stop these horrors. His measures for obtaining
+the stadtholderate succeeded.
+
+[Sidenote: XIV. 1. William III.]
+
+On the 4th of July 1672, it was re-established in the person of William
+III.; and all the dignities and rights enjoyed by his predecessors were
+conferred upon him. These, in 1674, were made hereditary in his family.
+His subsequent conduct is entitled, on many accounts, to the warmest
+praise. The success of the United States at sea compelled Charles II. to
+make peace with them, so that Lewis XIV. was their only enemy. The war
+with him was terminated by the peace of Nimeguen in 1678. Ten years
+after it, the Stadtholder, on the abdication of James II. became King of
+England. In 1690, England, Spain, Austria, and the United Provinces,
+entered into the Grand Alliance against France. The Duke of Savoy and
+several Princes of Germany afterwards joined it. In general, the
+proceedings of the confederacy were unsuccessful; the war was terminated
+in 1697 by the peace of Ryswick. In 1700, the disputes on the succession
+to the Spanish monarchy, in consequence of the death of Charles II. of
+Spain, without issue, called the world again to arms. William III. died
+in 1702.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XIV. 2.
+
+_John William Count of Nassau Dietz_, 1702-1711; _William IV_.
+1711-1751.
+
+
+The government of William III. was generally displeasing to the United
+States: they accused him of sacrificing them to the interests of his
+English monarchy, and to the hatred which he always bore to the French.
+He was also suspected, and not without reason, of a design to acquire
+the independent sovereignty of the provinces. At first, his influence
+within them was so great, that he was said to be King in the United
+States, and Stadtholder in England; but it declined gradually; and an
+attempt by him to obtain the succession to the stadtholderate for John
+Friso, Prince of Nassau and Hereditary Stadtholder of Frizeland,
+absolutely failed. He made, by his will, that prince his testamentary
+heir.
+
+Upon the decease of William III. a general wish to discontinue the
+stadtholderate was expressed in most of the provinces; those of Holland,
+Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres, and Overyssell, came to a formal resolution
+to this effect They recognised the supreme power of the States General,
+and conferred the direction of their political concerns on Heinsius, the
+actual Grand Pensionary, a person of great learning, uncommon talents
+for business, and acknowledged integrity.
+
+[Sidenote: XIV. 2. John William Count of Nassau Diets, 1702-1711;
+William IV. 1711-1749.]
+
+As testamentary heir of William III., John-William assumed the title of
+Prince of Orange: he died in 1711, without having exercised the power of
+the stadtholderate, except in the province of Frizeland.
+
+The war of the succession terminated in 1713, by the peace of Utretcht:
+it was succeeded in 1715 by the Barrier Treaty, and in 1719 by the
+Quadruple Alliance, ever memorable for the triumphant campaigns of
+Marlborough, by which it was followed. The pensionary Heinsius died in
+1720. In his life-time, several weak attempts had been made, in
+different provinces, to restore in them the stadtholderate. They
+succeeded only at Gueldres; and even there, it was restored with great
+limitations.
+
+Upon the decease of Prince William-John, his rights and pretensions
+descended to Prince William, his son. In 1733, he married Mary, the
+daughter of George II. of England. This strengthened his cause; but the
+general spirit of the United Provinces was so averse to the
+Stadtholderate, that it was not till the invasion of Holland, by the
+French, in 1747, that the prince's party judged it advisable to bring
+forward his claim. At first they met with resistance, but finally
+prevailed, and Prince William of Orange became the sole Stadtholder of
+every province: until his time each of the provinces of Frizeland and
+Groningen had its particular Stadtholder. The dignities of Captain
+General and Admiral were also conferred on him; and, in addition to
+these, some rights and privileges which no former Stadtholder had
+enjoyed.
+
+The reverses of the United Provinces continued, and the aggrandisement
+of the Stadtholderate increased proportionally. As yet William IV. had
+no male issue. In 1748, the Orange faction proposed that the
+Stadtholderate should be declared hereditary; and that, in default of
+males, females should be admitted into the succession. After some
+opposition the measure was carried in all the provinces, except
+Frizeland and Groningen. From this time the United Provinces ceased to
+be a republic, and became a monarchy, limited by the antient usages and
+institutions. William IV. died in 1749.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XIV. 3.
+
+_From the Death of William IV. till the Erection of the Kingdom of the
+Netherlands_.
+
+1749-1815.
+
+
+At the death of William IV. William, his son, and afterwards his
+successor in the Stadtholderate, was an infant, in very tender years.
+His mother was named by the states Governess of the United Provinces.
+She appointed the Duke of Brunswick to the command of their armies;
+thus, after all their exertions and sacrifices for liberty, the United
+Provinces became subject to the government of an English princess and a
+German prince; and an English party became predominant in their
+politics; William V. married a princess of Prussia, and thus the Orange
+party was strengthened by Prussian influence.
+
+[Sidenote: XIV. 3. From the death of William IV. till the erection of
+the Kingdom of the Netherlands.]
+
+These opposite, and conflicting interests, filled every province, with
+dissension; and, on some occasions, armed one body of citizens against
+another. The English party, sided with the Orange faction; the French,
+with the republicans. At first the latter prevailed; they led the states
+into measures, which forced England to declare war against them. In
+1782, they acknowledged the independence of the United States of
+America. Still, the dissensions continued. After a long conflict, the
+republican party acquired the ascendant; they suspended the Prince of
+Orange from his functions, and filled all the principal places of trust
+with their own adherents. But the Orange party soon rallied; the Duke of
+Brunswick entered Holland at the head of a victorious army, and, in
+1787, re-established the Stadtholderate.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XIV. 1749-1816.]
+
+His victorious career, was soon terminated. In 1799, the revolutionary
+army of France made themselves masters of the whole territory of the
+United States; and established _The Batavian Republic_. It was
+successively governed, but always under the overpowering controul of
+France, by a Convention, a Directory, and a Consul, with the appellation
+of Grand Pensionary. In 1806, even these forms of her antient government
+were abolished; Napoleon sending Louis, one of his brothers, to reign
+over the United Provinces, with the title and powers of royalty; but
+with an intimation, that France was entitled to his first attentions and
+a priority of duty. The demands of Napoleon for attentions and duties
+were so exorbitant, that rather than be instrumental in the infliction
+of the miseries which a compliance with them must occasion, Louis
+resigned his throne. Napoleon then incorporated the United Provinces
+into his empire, "as an alluvion," for such he termed them, "to the
+Rivers of France." Scenes of the most grinding oppression followed: the
+Batavians were relieved from it by the fall and abdication of Napoleon.
+
+[Sidenote: XIV. 3. Establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.]
+
+Before this event, William V. died, leaving a son, called from his
+pretensions to the stadtholderate, William VI. We have seen that, on the
+death of the Emperor Charles V. all the seventeen provinces, composing
+the Netherlands, devolved to Philip II. his son; the successful
+defection of the Seven United Provinces has been mentioned; the ten
+remaining provinces were afterwards transferred to the House of Austria,
+and were inherited by the Emperor Joseph II. The French made an easy
+conquest of them in an early stage of the Revolution.
+
+We now reach the ultimate fate of both the divisions of the Netherlands.
+The congress of Vienna, by an act of the 9th June 1815, created and
+conferred upon this prince, THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS, consisting
+of the seventeen provinces, and a portion of Luxemburgh. It is
+confessedly the first among the kingdoms of the second order.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+It was our wish to present our readers with a sketch of the literary
+history of the Netherlands, during the period treated of in this
+chapter; but after most diligent and extensive searches, both in the
+British and foreign markets, we have not been able to discover materials
+for it; persons of acknowledged learning, both in Germany and the
+Netherlands, have assured us that no such history exists.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+I.
+
+REFERRED TO IN PAGE 188.
+
+SOME ACCOUNT OF THE FORMULARIES, CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, OR SYMBOLIC
+BOOKS, OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC, GREEK, AND PRINCIPAL PROTESTANT CHURCHES.
+
+
+The constitutions of the Roman Catholic, and Protestant Churches, differ
+in nothing more, than in the following important points: The Catholic
+Church, acknowledges the authority of the Scriptures, and, in addition
+to them, a body of traditionary law. She receives both under the
+authority, and with the interpretation of the Church, and believes that
+the authority of the Church in receiving and interpreting them is
+infallible. The Protestant Churches generally profess to acknowledge no
+law but the Scriptures, no interpreter of the Scriptures, but the
+understanding and conscience of the individual who peruses them.
+
+That the Roman Catholic Church should propound a formulary of her faith,
+enlarge this formulary from time to time, as further interpretation is
+wanted, and enforce acquiscence in it by spiritual censures, is
+consistent with _her_ principles. Whether such a pretension can be
+avowed, without inconsistency, by any Protestant Church, has been a
+subject of much discussion. In point of fact, however, no Protestant
+Church is without her formulary, or abstains from enforcing it by
+temporal provisions and spiritual censures. To enforce their formularies
+by civil penalties, is inconsistent with the principles, of every
+christian church. All churches howsoever have so enforced, and have
+blamed the others, for so enforcing them.
+
+Such formularies, from the circumstance of their collecting into one
+instrument, several articles, of religious belief, are generally known
+on the Continent, by the appellation of SYMBOLIC BOOKS.
+
+
+I. The symbolic books, received by ALL TRINITARIAN CHRISTIAN
+CHURCHES,--are,
+
+    1. _The Symbol of the Apostles_; and
+
+    2. _The Nicene Symbol_.
+
+
+II. The symbolic books, received by the ROMAN CATHOLIC Church,--are,
+
+    1. The General Councils;
+
+    2. Among these,--_the Council of Trent_,--as immediately applying
+    to the controversies between the Catholic and Protestant Churches,
+    is particularly regarded;
+
+    3. _The Symbol of Pope Pius IV_.;
+
+    4. _The Catechism of the Council of Trent_.
+
+
+III. The symbolic books of the GREEK CHURCH,--are,
+
+    1. _The Confession, of her true and sincere faith_, which, on the
+    taking of Constantinople, by Mahomet II, in 1453, Gennadius, its
+    patriarch, presented to the conqueror;
+
+    2. _The Orthodox Confession, of the Catholic and Apostolic Greek
+    Church_, published in 1642, by Mogilow, the Metropolitan of Kiow.
+
+
+IV. The symbolic books of the LUTHERAN CHURCHES, are
+
+    1. _The Confession of Augsburgh_;
+
+    2. _The Apology of the Confession of Augsburgh_;
+
+    3. _The Articles of Smalcald_;
+
+    4. _And_, (in the opinion of some Lutheran Churches),--_The Form of
+    Concord_;
+
+    5. _The Saxon, Wirtenburgian, Suabian, Pomeranian, Mansfeldian,
+    Antwerpensian, and Copenhagen Confessions_, possess, in particular
+    places, the authority of Symbolic books:--the two first are
+    particularly respected.
+
+
+V. The symbolic books of the REFORMED CHURCHES. The reformed Church, in
+the largest extent of that expression, comprises all the religious
+communities, which have separated from the Church of Rome. In this
+sense, it is often used by English writers: but, having, soon after the
+Reformation, been used by the French Protestants to describe their
+church, which was Calvinistic, it became, insensibly, the appellation of
+all Calvinistic churches on the Continent. The principal symbolic books
+of these churches,--are,
+
+    1. _The Confession of the Helvetian Churches_;
+
+    2. _The Tetrapolitan Confession_,--signed by the four cities of
+    Strasburgh, Constance, Memmingen, and Lindau;
+
+    3. _The Catechism of Heidelbergh_;
+
+    4. _The Gallic Confession of Faith_;
+
+    5. _The Belgic Confession of Faith_;
+
+    6. _The Canons of the Council of Dort_.
+
+
+    VI. The symbolic books of the WALDENSES,--are,
+
+    _Their original and reformed Creeds_.
+
+
+VII. The symbolic books of the _Bohemians_,--are,
+
+    1. _The Confession of faith of the Calixtines and Taborites_,
+    signed at the Synod of Cuttenburgh in 1541;
+
+    2. _The Confession of the faith of the Bohemians_,--inserted in the
+    "Harmony of Confessions," published at Cambridge in 1680.
+
+    3. _The Consent of faith at Sendomer_.
+
+
+VIII. The symbolic book of the ARMINIANS,--is
+
+    _The Declaration of the Remonstrants_, drawn up by Episcopius, and
+    signed in 1622.
+
+
+IX. The symbolic book of the SOCINIANS is _The Catechism of Racow_;--the
+best edition of it was published in 1609, reprinted at Frankfort, in
+1739. An English translation of it has been published by Mr. Rees.
+
+
+X. The UNITARIANS have no symbolic book. To Doctor Lardner's _Letter on
+the Logos_ they shew universal respect.
+
+
+XI. The symbolic books of THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND,--are,
+
+    1. _The Theological Oaths_,--containing a Declaration of the belief
+    of the Monarch's spiritual supremacy;--and Declarations against
+    Transubstantiation,--the invocation of Saints,--and the sacrifice
+    of the Mass;
+
+    2. _The Thirty-nine Articles_.
+
+
+XII. The symbolic book of the ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH PRESBYTERIANS,--is
+
+    "_The Articles of Religion_ approved and passed by both Houses of
+    Parliament after advice had with an assembly of divines, called
+    together for that purpose." These were sent into Scotland, and
+    immediately sanctioned by the General Assembly, and Parliament of
+    that kingdom; and thus became a law of the Church and State.
+
+
+XIII. The symbolic books of the Anabaptists may be said to be,--
+
+    THEIR SEVERAL CONFESSIONS OF FAITH:--Five were published at
+    Amsterdam, in 1675, in one volume 8vo.
+
+
+XIV. The symbolic books of the Quakers,--are,
+
+    1. _Barclay's Catechism and Confession of Faith_, published in
+    1675;
+
+    2. His _Theses Theologicæ_;
+
+    3. His _Apology_,--a logical demonstration of the propositions in
+    the Theses. It was translated into almost every language and
+    presented to all the ministers assembled at Nimeguen;
+
+    4. But some persons assert that the real doctrines of the Quakers
+    are more easily discoverable from _The Christian Quaker and his
+    divine testimony, vindicated by Scripture reason and authorities
+    against the injurious attempts that have been lately made by
+    several adversaries_.--This work appeared in 1674; the first part
+    of it was written by Penn, the second by Whithead, one of his most
+    distinguished disciples.
+
+
+XV. It may be added, that the symbolic book of the Jews,--is
+
+    _The Schelosch aikara ikkarim,--the Thirteen Articles of Faith_
+    framed by Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon in the 12th century: it is
+    frequently inserted in the Jewish prayer books. Sebastian Munster
+    published it with a Latin translation and an abridgment of the
+    History of Josephus, in one vol. 8vo. at Worms in 1529.
+
+Many Christian Catechisms have been translated into Hebrew for the
+benefit of the Jews.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+An historical and literary account of all these Confessions of Faith,
+and of several works and circumstances connected with them, is attempted
+to be given, by the Author of these pages, in his "_Historical and
+Literary Account of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith, and Symbolic
+Books, of the Roman Catholic, Greek, and principal Protestant
+Churches._"
+
+THE SYLLOGE CONFESSIONUM printed at the Clarendon Press in 1804,
+contains the _Professio Fidei Tridentinæ, Confessio Helvetica,
+Augustana, Saxonica, Belgica_."
+
+"The Harmony of the Confessions of the Faith of the Christian and
+Reformed Churches" published at Cambridge in 1586, 8_vo_. attempts to
+reconcile the Confession of Augsburgh, the Confession of the Four
+Cities, the Confession of Bâsle, the first Confession of Helvetia; the
+Confession of Saxony, the Confession of Wirtemburgh, the French
+Confession, the English Confession, the latter Confession of Helvetia,
+the Belgic Confession, and that of Bohemia.
+
+On the general subject, _Walchius's Bibliotheca Theologica Selecta_, may
+be usefully consulted.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX II.
+
+REFERRED TO IN PAGE 188.
+
+ON THE REUNION OF CHRISTIANS.
+
+
+The attempts, made at different times for the re-union of Christians,
+are the subject of a learned and interesting work, published at Paris,
+with the title of "_Histoire critique des projéts formés depuis trois
+cents ans pour la Reunion des communions Chretiennes, par M. Tabaraud,
+ancien Prétre de L'Oratoire, Paris_, 1824." An excellent sketch of these
+attempts had been previously given by _Doctor Mosheim, in his
+Ecclesiastical History, Cent. XVI. Ch. III. sect. 3. part 2. c. 1. and
+Cent. XVII. Cha. I. sect. 2. p_. 1. To these publications the reader is
+referred:--the present Essay may be found to contain,
+
+    I. A general view of the attempts made after the Reformation, to
+    unite the Lutheran and Calvinist churches:
+
+    II. Some account of the Attempts made at different times by the
+    sovereigns of France for the conversion of their protestant subjects:
+
+    III. The correspondence of Bossuet and Leibniz, under the auspices of
+    Lewis the Fourteenth, for the reunion of the Lutheran Churches to the
+    Church of Rome:
+
+    IV. Some account of an attempt made in the reign of George the First,
+    to reunite the Church of England to the Church of Rome:
+
+    V. And some general remarks on the Reunion of Christians.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+_Attempts made to unite the Lutheran, and Calvinist Churches._
+
+
+The great division of Protestant Churches is, into the Lutheran, and
+Calvinist communions. The Abbé Tabaraud relates in the work, which we
+have just cited, not fewer than fifteen different attempts to effect a
+reunion of their churches. In reading his account and that given by
+Mosheim of these attempts, the writer thinks that, on each side, there
+was something to commend and something to blame. It seems to him, that
+the Lutherans deserve credit for the open and explicit manner, in which,
+on these occasions, they propounded the tenets of their creed to the
+Calvinists; that the conduct of the Calvinists was more liberal and
+conciliating; but that, on the other hand, the conduct of the Lutherans
+towards the Calvinists, was generally repulsive, and sometimes deserving
+a much harsher name; while the conduct of the Calvinists, was sometimes
+chargeable, with ambiguity.
+
+    "It was deplorable," says Mosheim, (Cent. xvii. sect. 2. part 2.
+    art. 3.) "to see two churches, which had discovered, an equal
+    degree of pious zeal, and fortitude, in throwing off the despotic
+    yoke of Rome, divided among themselves, and living in discords,
+    that were highly detrimental, to the interests of religion, and the
+    well-being of society. Hence, several eminent divines, and leading
+    men, both among the Lutherans, and Calvinists, sought anxiously,
+    after some method, of uniting the two churches, though divided in
+    their opinions, in the bonds of Christian charity, and
+    ecclesiastical communion. A competent knowledge, of human nature,
+    and human passions, was sufficient, to persuade these wise, and
+    pacific mediators, that a perfect uniformity in religious opinions,
+    was not practicable, and that it would be entirely extravagant, to
+    imagine that any of these communities, could ever be brought, to
+    embrace universally, and without limitation, the doctrines of the
+    other. They made it, therefore, their principal business, to
+    persuade those, whose spirits were inflamed with the heat of
+    controversy, that the points in debate between the two churches,
+    were not essential, to true religion;--that the fundamental
+    doctrines, of Christianity, were received, and professed, in both
+    communions; and that the difference of opinion, between the
+    contending parties, turned, either upon points of an abstruse, and
+    incomprehensible nature, or upon matters of indifference, which
+    neither tended, to make mankind wiser, or better, and in which the
+    interests of genuine piety, were in no wise concerned. Those, who
+    viewed things in this point of light, were obliged to acknowledge,
+    that the diversity of opinions, between the two churches, was by no
+    means, a sufficient reason, for their separation; and that of
+    consequence, they were called, by the dictates of that gospel,
+    which they both professed, to live, not only in the mutual
+    exercise, of Christian charity, but also to enter, into the
+    fraternal bonds, of church communion. The greatest part, of the
+    reformed doctors, seemed disposed, to acknowledge, that the errors
+    of the Lutherans, were not, of a momentous nature, nor of a
+    pernicious tendency; and that the fundamental doctrines of
+    Christianity, had not undergone, any remarkable alteration, in that
+    communion; and thus, on their side, an important step, was made,
+    towards peace, and union, between the two churches. But the
+    greatest part of the Lutheran doctors declared, that they could not
+    form, a like judgment, with respect, to the doctrine, of the
+    Reformed churches; they maintained tenaciously, the importance of
+    the points, which divided the two communions, and affirmed, that a
+    considerable part of the controversy turned upon the fundamental
+    principles, of all religion, and virtue. It is not at all
+    surprising, that this steadiness and constancy of the Lutherans,
+    was branded by the opposite party, with the epithets, of morose
+    obstinacy, supercilious arrogance, and such like odious
+    denominations. The Lutherans, were not behind hand with their
+    adversaries, in acrimony, of style; they recriminated with
+    vehemence, and charged their accusers with instances of misconduct,
+    different in kind, but equally condemnable. They reproached them
+    with having dealt disingenuously, by disguising, under ambiguous
+    expressions, the real doctrine of the Reformed churches; they
+    observed further, that their adversaries, notwithstanding their
+    consummate prudence and circumspection, gave plain proofs, on many
+    occasions, that their propensity to a reconciliation, between the
+    two churches, arose from views of private interest, rather than
+    from a zeal for the public good."
+
+It is observable that Mosheim applies these observations to a late
+stage of the reformation, when much of its first violence had subsided.
+
+The nearest approach[080] to a reunion, between any Protestant
+churches, seems to be that, which took place at Sendomer, in the year
+1570.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+_Attempts for a Reunion of the Calvinist Churches to the See of Rome._
+
+
+Having thus summarily noticed, the unsuccessful attempts, to effect an
+union, between the Lutheran, and Calvinist churches, we proceed to a
+similar summary mention of the attempts, equally unsuccessful, to effect
+the reunion of the Calvinists, to the church of Rome, which were made,
+
+1st, during the reign of Henry the Fourth:
+
+2dly, during the reign of Lewis the Thirteenth: and
+
+3dly, during the reign of Lewis the Fourteenth:
+
+4thly, we shall afterwards notice, the Revocation of the edict of
+Nantes, and the complete restoration of the protestants of France, to
+their civil rights, in the reign of Lewis the Eighteenth.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 1.
+
+
+An attempt to reunite the Calvinists to the church of Rome was made at
+the celebrated Conference held at Poissi in 1561. In the work which we
+have cited, the Abbé Tabaraud gives a short and clear account of this
+conference. It failed of success, and a long civil war of religion
+ensued. It was closed by the conversion of _Henry the Fourth_ to the
+Roman Catholic religion. He was no sooner quietly seated on the throne,
+than he conceived the arduous, but certainly noble project of pacifying
+the religious contests of the world. It appears that he was induced to
+entertain hopes of the success of this measure, by the assurances given
+him by the Calvinist ministers, when his change of religion, was in
+agitation, that salvation might be obtained in the church of Rome; and
+from his expectation of finding a spirit of conciliation, and
+concession, in the see of Rome.
+
+    "I have heard, from persons of distinction," says Grotius[081],
+    "that Henry the Fourth declared that he had great hopes of
+    procuring for the King of England, and the other protestant
+    princes, who were his allies, conditions, which they could not
+    honorably refuse, if they had any real wish of returning to the
+    unity of the church; and that he had once an intention of employing
+    bishops of his own kingdom on this project; but that this project
+    failed by his death."
+
+It is said, that with these views he had sent for _Isaac Casaubon_, a
+protestant divine of equal learning and moderation, and appointed him
+his librarian; and that he intended confidentially employing him in
+preparing means for the success of the measure, and smoothing the
+obstacles which might impede its progress. Grotius[082] mentions, as a
+saying of Casaubon, that "the catholics of France had a juster way of
+thinking than the ministers of Charenton:" these were the most rigid of
+the French Hugonot ministers. It is observable that the French
+government always considered the Hugonots of a much more refractory
+disposition than the Lutherans.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 2.
+
+
+The pacific views of Henry the Fourth, were terminated by his decease.
+The capture of la Rochelle by the arms of _Lewis the XIIIth_, was a
+fatal blow to the political consequence of the Protestant party in
+France. Cardinal Richelieu immediately set on foot a project, for the
+general conversion, of the body: two persons, of very different
+characters, were employed by him, in this measure; Father Joseph, a
+capuchin friar, the confident, of all the cardinal's political and
+private schemes, and Father P. Dulaurens, an oratorian, who lived in
+retirement, wholly absorbed in the exercises of religion. They began
+the work of reunion by holding frequent conferences, on an amicable
+footing, with several of the protestant ministers; and it was resolved,
+that, with the permission of the pope, and the authority of the king, an
+assembly, should be convened, of ecclesiastics of each communion. Father
+Dulaurens, recommended that the intended communications with the
+ministers, should not take place, till they reached, the capital; but,
+the cardinal, thought it more advisable, that the ministers, should be
+separately informed, of the project, before they left the provinces. It
+was accordingly communicated to them, and favourably received, by the
+ministers, of Languedoc, and Normandy, but met with an unfavourable
+reception, from the ministers of Sedan. It was resolved, that the
+assembly, should meet, and begin their deliberations, with the
+differences in the opinions, of the two churches, respecting the
+Sacraments. Father Dulaurens recommended, that for some time, at least,
+the Bible, even in the Calvinist version, of Olivétan, should be the
+only book appealed to, on either side, as authority: but the Cardinal
+insisted, on a resort to tradition. Grotius mentions that in several
+articles, (as communion under both kinds, and the invocation of saints),
+the Cardinal was willing, that concessions, should be made to the
+Protestants; and suggested, that, as a medium, to reconcile them to the
+Pope, a patriarchate should be established, in France, and he himself,
+be the first patriarch[083].
+
+Notwithstanding the general loftiness, and overbearing nature, of his
+manners, it appears, particularly from M. de Rullhiêres[084] (6.) that
+the Cardinal, acted on this occasion, with great moderation, and
+recommended to his royal master, a similar line of moderation, in all
+his conduct, towards his Protestant subjects.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 3.
+
+
+The Cardinal's project, was suspended, by his decease; and resumed,
+under _Lewis the Fourteenth_. In 1662, a plan, drawn up by M. le Blanc
+de Beaulieu, a professor of Divinity, at Sedan, singularly esteemed,
+both by the Roman Catholics, and Protestants, by which the essential
+articles, in dispute, were reduced to a small number, was adopted, by
+the Court, to serve as the basis of discussion. It was resolved, that
+different synods of Protestant ministers, should be convened; that
+these, should be composed, of ministers of known moderation, and pacific
+views, and the articles, drawn up by M. le Blanc de Beaulieu, presented
+to them. Three years were employed, in negotiations for effecting this
+project: several ministers in the lower Languedoc, and the Isle of
+France, expressed themselves, in terms favourable, to the measure, but
+the synod of Charenton, took the alarm, and the project, was abandoned.
+
+The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, a measure equally unwise, and
+unjust, too soon followed. It is more to be attributed, to his ministers
+and advisers, than to Lewis the Fourteenth himself. From the
+_Eclaircissemens Historiques_ of M. de Rullhiêres, and the life of
+Bossuet, by M. Baussét[085], it seems evident, that Lewis the
+Fourteenth, had been induced, to believe, that the number of Protestants
+was much smaller; that the conversions of them, would be much more
+rapid, general, and sincere; and that the measures, for hastening their
+conversion, would be much less violent than they really were. It is also
+due, to the monarch, to add, that from the authors, whom we have cited,
+it is evident, that when he began to perceive the true state, of the
+transaction, though from false principles of honour, and policy, he
+would not revoke the edict, he wished it not to be put into great
+activity, and checked the forwardness, of the Intendants general in its
+execution.
+
+It is whimsical, (if on so serious a subject such a word may be used),
+that the dragonâde, or employment of the dragoon troops, in forcing the
+conversion, of the Hugonots, was owing to the wish of Louvois, the
+minister, of Lewis the Fourteenth, to become himself, a missionary.
+Observing how much the apparent success, of the missionaries,
+recommended them, to Lewis the Fourteenth, he began to consider them as
+dangerous rivals for the favour of his royal master, and determined,
+therefore, to become himself, a principal performer. With this view, he
+instituted the dragoon missions, and thus brought a material part, of
+the work of conversion, into the war department.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 4.
+
+
+The death of Lewis, and the known disposition of the Regent, appeared to
+the Protestant party, in France, to afford a proper opportunity of
+recovering their rights. Duclos, in his _Mémoires secréts sur les regnes
+de Louis XIV. et de Louis XV_., says, that the Regent himself wished to
+restore the Protestants, to their civil rights, but was dissuaded by his
+council. Still, he seldom permitted the edicts against them to be
+executed; and speaking generally, the Protestants seem to have suffered
+no active persecution in any part of the reign of Lewis, the XVth. One
+intolerable grievance, however, they unquestionably suffered in every
+part of it. Their religious principles did not permit them to be married
+by a Roman Catholic priest, in the manner prescribed by the law of the
+state, and that law did not recognize the legal validity of a marriage,
+celebrated in any other form. The consequence was, that in the eye of
+the law, the marriage of Protestants was a mere concubinage, and the
+offspring of it illegitimate. To his immortal honour, _Lewis the XVIth_,
+by his edict of the 17th of November, 1787, accorded to all his
+Non-catholic subjects the full and complete enjoyment of all the rights
+of his Roman-catholic subjects. On a division in the Parliament, this
+edict was registered by a majority of 96 votes against 16.
+
+The persecution of the Hugonots in consequence of the revocation of the
+Edict of Nantes, was condemned by the greatest men in France. M.
+d'Aguesseau, the father of the celebrated chancellor, resigned his
+office of Intendant of Languedoc rather than remain a witness of it: his
+son repeatedly mentions it with abhorrence. Fénélon, Flechier, and
+Bossuet,[086] confessedly the ornaments of the Gallican church, lamented
+it. To the utmost of their power, they prevented the execution of the
+edict, and lessened its severities, when they could not prevent them.
+Most sincerely lamenting and condemning the outrages committed by the
+Roman Catholics against the Protestants at Nismes, as violations of the
+law of God and man, but doubting of the nature and extent, which some
+have attributed to them, the writer of these pages begs leave to refer
+to the sermon preached on them by the Reverend James Archer, a Roman
+Catholic priest, and printed for Booker, in Bond-street, by the desire
+of two Roman Catholic congregations, as expressing the doctrine of the
+Roman Catholic church, and of all real christians on heretics and the
+persecution of heretics.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+
+_The Correspondence of Bossuet and Leibniz, under the auspices of Lewis
+the XIVth, for the Reunion of the Lutheran Protestants to the Roman
+Catholic Church._
+
+This correspondence forms one of the most interesting events in the life
+of Bossuet; the letters, of which it consists, and the other written
+documents, which relate to it, are highly interesting. We shall attempt
+to present our readers with a short account--
+
+    1st. Of the circumstances which led to this correspondence;
+
+    2ndly. Of the Project of Reunion, delivered by Molanus, a Lutheran
+    Divine, and Bossuet's sentiments on that Project;
+
+    3dly. Of the intervention of Leibniz in the negotiation; and
+
+    4thly. Of the Project suggested by Bossuet, and the principal
+    reasons, by which he contended for its reception.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 1.
+
+
+It appears that, towards the 17th century, the Emperor Leopold, and
+several sovereign princes in Germany, conceived a project of re-uniting
+the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches. The Duke of Brunswick, who had
+recently embraced the Roman Catholic religion, and published his _Fifty
+Reasons for his conversion_, (once a popular work of controversy), and
+the Duke of Hanover, the father of the first prince of the illustrious
+house, which now fills the throne of England, were the original
+promoters of the attempt. It was generally approved; and the mention of
+it at the Diet of the Empire was favourably received. Some
+communications upon it took place between the Emperor and the ducal
+Princes: and with all their knowledge, several conferences were held
+upon the subject, between certain distinguished Roman Catholic and
+Protestant Divines. In these, the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus, the
+Abbot of Lokkum, took the lead. The first had been consecrated Bishop of
+Tina in Bosnia, then under the dominion of the Turks, with Ordinary
+Jurisdiction over some parts of the Turkish territories. His conduct had
+recommended him to Innocent the XIth, and that pope had directed him to
+visit the Protestant states in Germany, and inform him of their actual
+dispositions in respect to the Church of Rome. In consequence of this
+mission, he became known to the Emperor, who appointed him to the See of
+Neustadt, in the neighbourhood of Vienna. Molanus, was Director of the
+Protestant Churches and Consistories of Hanover. Both were admirably
+calculated for the office intended them, on this occasion. Each
+possessed the confidence of his own party, and was esteemed by the
+other; each was profoundly versed in the matters in dispute; each
+possessed good sense, moderation, and conciliating manners; and each had
+the success of the business at heart, with a fixed purpose, that
+nothing, but a real difference on some essential article of doctrine,
+should frustrate the project.
+
+The effect of the first conferences was so promising, that the Emperor
+and the two Princes resolved, that they should be conducted in a manner
+more regular, and more likely to bring the object of them to a
+conclusion. With this view, the business was formally entrusted by both
+the princes to Molanus alone, and the Emperor published a rescript,
+dated the 20th March, 1691, by which he gave the Bishop of Neustadt full
+authority to treat, on all matters of religion, with the states,
+communities, and individuals of the empire, reserving to the
+ecclesiastical and imperial powers, their right to confirm the acts of
+the Bishop, as they should judge adviseable. Under these auspicious
+circumstances, the conference between the Bishop of Neustadt and Molanus
+began.
+
+But, before the events which we have mentioned took place, a
+correspondence on the subject of a general reunion between Catholics and
+Protestants had been carried on for some time, between Pelisson and
+Leibniz. The former held a considerable rank among the French writers,
+who adorned the reign of Lewis the Fourteenth; the latter was eminently
+distinguished in the literary world. In the exact sciences, he was
+inferior to Newton alone; in metaphysics, he had no superior; in general
+learning, he had scarcely a rival. He had recommended himself to the
+Brunswick family, by three volumes, which he had recently published, on
+the Antiquities of that illustrious House; and was then engaged in the
+investigation of its Italian descent, and early German shoots. The
+result of it, under the title of _Origines Guelphicæ_, was published,
+after his decease, by Scheidius, and is considered to be a perfect model
+of genealogical history. He was also thoroughly conversant in the
+theological disputes of the times; and in all the questions of dogma,
+or history, which enter into them.
+
+His correspondence with Pelisson, came to the knowledge of Louisa,
+Princess Palatine, and Abbess of Maubrusson. She was a daughter of
+Frederick, the Elector, and Count Palatine of the Rhine, and a sister,
+of the Duchess of Hanover. In early life, she had been converted to the
+Roman Catholic religion, and had the conversion of her sister, very much
+at heart. With this view, she sent to her, the correspondence between
+Leibniz and Pelisson, and received from her an account of what was
+passing, between the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus. Both the ladies
+were anxious, to promote the measure, and that Bossuet should take in
+it, the leading part, on the side of the Catholics. This was mentioned
+to Lewis the Fourteenth, and had his approbation. The Emperor and both
+the Princes, by all of whom Bossuet, was personally esteemed, equally
+approved of it, and it was finally settled that Bossuet and Leibniz,
+should be joined, to the Bishops of Neustadt, and Molanus, and that the
+correspondence with Bossuet, should pass through the hands of Madame de
+Brinon, who acted, as secretary to the Abbess of Maubrusson, and is
+celebrated, by the writers of the times, for her wit and dexterity in
+business. Thus the matter assumed, a still more regular form, and much
+was expected from the acknowledged talents, learning, and moderation of
+the actors in it, and their patrons.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 2.
+
+
+The conferences between the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus continued
+for seven months, and ended in their agreeing on 12 articles, to serve
+for the basis of the discussion, on the terms of the reunion.
+
+The Bishop of Neustadt, communicated these articles to Bossuet. He
+seems, to have approved of them generally, but to have thought, that
+some alteration in them, was adviseable. This being mentioned to
+Molanus, he published his _Cogitationes Privatæ_, a profound and
+conciliating dissertation. Without entering into any discussion, on the
+points in dispute, between the churches, he suggested in it a kind of
+truce, during which, there should be ecclesiastical communion between
+them: the Lutherans, were to acknowledge the Pope, as the first of
+Bishops, in order, and dignity: the Church of Rome, was to receive the
+Lutherans, as her children, without exacting from them, any retractation
+of their alledged errors, or any renunciation, of the articles in their
+creed, condemned by the Council of Trent. The anathemas of that council,
+were to be suspended, and a general council was to be convened, in which
+the Protestants were to have a deliberative voice: the sentence of that
+council, was to be definitive, and, in the mean time, the members of
+each party, were to treat the members of the other, as brethren, whose
+errors, however great they might appear, were to be tolerated, from
+motives of peace, and in consideration, of their engagements to abandon
+them, if the council should pronounce against them. To show the
+probability of a final accommodation, Molanus notices, in his
+Dissertation, several points, in which one party imputed to the other
+errors, not justly chargeable on them; several, on which they disputed,
+merely for want of rightly understanding each other; and several, in
+which the dispute was of words only.
+
+It appears that the Bishop of Neustadt, communicated this dissertation,
+to Bossuet, and that Bossuet was delighted, with the good sense,
+candour, and true spirit of conciliation, which it displayed. In his
+letters he frequently mentions the author, and always in terms, Of the
+highest praise. His own language was equally moderate and conciliating.
+
+    "The Council of Trent," he says in one of his letters,
+    "is our stay; but we shall not use it to prejudice the cause. This
+    would be, to take for granted, what is in dispute between us. We
+    shall deal more fairly with our opponents. We shall make the
+    council serve, for a statement, and explanation, of our doctrines.
+    Thus, we shall come to an explanation, on those points, in which
+    either of us imputes to the other, what he does not believe, and in
+    which we dispute, only because we misconceive each other. This may
+    lead us far; for _the Abbot of Lokkum, has actually conciliated the
+    points so essential, of Justification, and the Eucharist: nothing
+    is wanting in him, on that side, but that he should be avowed. Why
+    should we not hope to conclude, in the same manner, disputes, less
+    difficult, and of less importance? Cela se peut pousser si avant,
+    que M. l'Abbé de Lokkum, a concilié, actuellement les points si
+    essentiels, de la justification, et du sacrifice de l'Eucharistie,
+    et il ne lui manque de ce coté la, que de se faire avouer. Pourquoi
+    ne pas espérer de finir, par les mêmes moyens, des disputes, moins
+    difficiles, et moins importantes?"_
+
+With these rational and conciliatory dispositions, Bossuet, and Molanus,
+proceeded. But, after this stage of the business, Molanus disappears,
+and Leibniz comes on the scene.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 3.
+
+
+A Letter, written by Bossuet to M^me de Brinon, having been communicated
+by her to Leibniz, opened the correspondence between him and Bossuet. In
+that letter, Bossuet declared explicitly, that the Church of Rome, was
+ready, to make concessions, on points of discipline, and to explain
+doctrines, but would make no concession in respect to defined articles
+of faith; and, in particular, would make no such concession, in respect
+to any which had been defined by the Council of Trent. Leibniz's Letter
+to M^me de Brinon, in answer to this communication, is very important.
+He expresses himself in these terms;
+
+    "The Bishop of Meaux says,
+
+    "1st. That the Project delivered to the Bishop of Neustadt, does not
+    appear to him quite sufficient;
+
+    "2dly. That it is, nevertheless, very useful, as every thing must
+    have its beginning:
+
+    "3dly. That Rome will never relax from any point of doctrine,
+    defined by the church, and cannot capitulate, in respect to any
+    such article;
+
+    "4thly. That the doctrine, defined in the Council of Trent, is
+    received in and out of France by all Roman Catholics;
+
+    "5thly, That satisfaction may be given to Protestants, in respect to
+    certain points of discipline, or in the way of explanation, and
+    that this had been already done in an useful manner, in some
+    points, mentioned in the Project of the Bishop of Neustadt.
+
+    "These are the material propositions, in the letter of the Bishop of
+    Meaux, and I believe all these propositions true. Neither the
+    Bishop of Neustadt, nor those who negotiated with them, make any
+    opposition to them. There is nothing in them, which is not
+    conformable to the sentiments of those persons. The third of them
+    in particular, which might be thought, an obstacle, to these
+    Projects of Accommodation, could not be unknown to them; one may
+    even say, that they built on it."
+
+It seems difficult to deny, that, in this stage of the business, much
+had been gained to the cause of reunion. The parties were come to a
+complete understanding on the important articles of Justification, and
+the Eucharist; and it was admitted, both by Leibniz, and Molanus, that,
+in their view of the concern, an accommodation might be effected,
+between the Roman Catholic, and Lutheran churches, though the former,
+retained all her defined doctrines, and, in particular, all her
+doctrines, defined by the Council of Trent. The question then was, what
+should be done in respect to the remaining articles in difference
+between the churches? It is to be wished, that it had been left to
+Bossuet, and Molanus, to settle them, in the way of amicable
+explanation, in which they had settled, the two important articles,
+which we have mentioned. It is evident, from the passages, which we have
+cited, from Bossuet, that it was his wish, that the business should
+proceed on that plan, and that he had hopes of its success.
+Unfortunately, the business took, another direction: Leibniz proclaimed,
+that after every possible explanation should be given, the Lutheran
+church would, still retain, some articles, contrary to the defined
+doctrines, of the Church of Rome, and anathematized, by the Council of
+Trent. To remove the final effect of this objection, Leibniz held out
+Molanus's first project, that the Lutherans should express a general
+acquiescence, in the authority of the church, and promise obedience, to
+the decisions of a General Council, to be called, for the purpose of
+pronouncing, on these points; and that, in consequence of these
+advances, on their part, the anathemas of the Council of Trent, should
+be suspended, and the Lutherans received, provisionally, within the
+pale, of the Catholic church. To bring over Bossuet to this plan, he
+exerted great eloquence, and displayed, no common learning.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 4.
+
+
+But the eloquence, and learning, of Leibniz, were without effect. In
+language, equally temperate and firm, Bossuet, adhered to his text,
+that in matters of discipline, or any other matter, distinct from faith,
+the Church of Rome, would show the utmost indulgence to the Lutherans;
+but that, on articles of faith, and specifically, on those propounded by
+the Council of Trent, there could be no compromise. This, however, he
+confined to articles of faith alone: and even on articles of faith, he
+wished to consult the feelings of Protestants, as much as possible. He
+offered them every fair explanation of the tenets of the council; he
+required from them no retractation, of their own tenets:
+
+    "Molanus," he says, "will not allow retractation to be mentioned.
+    It may be dispensed with; it will be sufficient, that the parties
+    acknowledge, the truth, by way of declaration or explanation. To
+    this, the Symbolical Books, give a clear opening, as appears by the
+    passages, which have been produced from them, and will appear, by
+    other passages, which may be produced from them."
+
+If Bossuet was thus considerate, in what regarded faith, it will easily
+be supposed, how indulgent his sentiments were, in respect to all, that
+merely regarded discipline. A complete confession of faith, being once
+obtained from the Lutherans, he was willing, to allow them, if they
+required it, communion under both kinds; that their Bishops, should
+retain their Sees; and that, where there was no Bishop, and the whole
+body of the people, was Protestant, under the care, of a superintendant,
+_that_ superintendant, should be consecrated their Bishop; that, where
+there was a Catholic Bishop, and a considerable part of the diocese, was
+Lutheran, the superintendant, should be consecrated priest, and invested
+with rank, and office, that the Lutheran ministers, should be
+consecrated priests; that provision should be made for their support;
+that such of their bishops, and ministers, as were married, might
+retain their wives, and that the consciences of those, who held
+possessions of the church, should be quieted, except in respect, to
+hospitals, whose possessions he thought, could not conscientiously be
+withheld, from the poor objects of their foundations; and that every
+other arrangement should be made, by the church and state, which would
+be agreeable, to the feelings, and prejudices, of their new brethren.
+
+Such were the advances made by Bossuet; and much discussion on them,
+took place, between him, and Leibniz. It continued ten years. They are
+very learned, and a scholar will read them with delight; but,
+unfortunately, they rather retarded, than promoted, their object. The
+real business ended, when Molanus quitted the scene. We shall close this
+article, with the following extract from the last letter but one,
+written by Bossuet, on the subject. It is addressed to Leibniz, and
+bears date the 12th August, 1701, ten years, after his first letter, on
+it was written:
+
+    "Among the divines of the Confession of Augsburg, I always placed
+    M. Molanus, in the first rank, as a man, whose learning, candour
+    and moderation made him one of the persons, the most capable I have
+    known, of advancing the NOBLE PROJECT OF REUNION. In a letter,
+    which I wrote to him some years ago, by the Count Balati, I assured
+    him, that, if he could obtain, the general consent of his party, to
+    what he calls, his Private Thoughts, _Cogitationes Privatæ_, I
+    promised myself, that, by joining to them, the remarks, which I
+    sent to him, on the Confession of Augsburg, and the other Symbolic
+    writings of the Protestants, the work of the Reunion would be
+    perfected, in all its most difficult and most essential points; so
+    that well disposed persons might, in a short time, bring it to a
+    conclusion."
+
+The passage is so important, that it is proper to present it to the
+reader in Bossuet's own words.
+
+    "Parmi les Théologiens de la Confession d'Ausbourg, j'ai toujours
+    mis, au premier rang, M. l'Abbé de Lokkum, comme un homme, dont le
+    sçavoir, la candeur, et la modération le rendolent un des plus
+    capables, que je connusse, pour avancer CE BEAU DESSEIN. Cela est
+    si véritable, que j'ai cru devoir assurer ce docte Abbé, dans la
+    réponse que je luis fis, il y a dejà, plusieurs années, par M. le
+    Comte Balati, que s'il pouvoit faire passer ce qu'il appelle ses
+    Pensées Particulières _Cogitationes Privatæ_, à un consentement
+    suffisent, je me promettois qu'en y joignant les remarques, que je
+    lui envoyois, sur la Confession d'Ausbourg, et les autres écrits
+    Symboliques des Protestans, l'ouvrage de la Réunion seroit achevé
+    dans ses parties les plus difficiles et les plus essentielles; en
+    sorte qu'il ne faudroit à des personnes bien disposées, que très
+    peu de tems pour la conclure[087]."
+
+Dom. de Foris, the Benedictine Editor of the new edition of the works of
+Bossuet and the Abbé Racine, _Abrégé de l'Histoire Ecclésiastique_[088]
+are very severe in their censures of the conduct of Leibniz in the
+negotiations for the Reunion, and attribute its failure to his
+presumption and duplicity. To the writer of these pages, it appears
+clear, that Leibniz was sincere in his wishes for the reunion; and that,
+if he occasioned its failure, it was unintentionally. While the
+business was in the hands of Bossuet, and Molanus, it was a treaty, not
+for the reunion of the Roman Catholic church, and all Protestant
+churches, but for the reunion of the Roman Catholic church, and the
+Lutheran church; and to this, Molanus's endeavours to reconcile
+differences, were directed. Leibniz, whose principles in religion, were
+much wider, than those of Molanus, seems to have wished, that the
+negotiation should be placed, on a broader basis, and extended to a
+reunion of the church of Rome, with every denomination of Christians.
+This gave the negotiation a different direction, and in a great measure,
+undid what had been, so happily begun. We have seen, that, to the very
+last, Bossuet, called out for Molanus, and entertained great hopes,
+that, if the matter were left to Molanus, and him, the noble Project of
+Reunion, would be crowned with success. There is no part of Bossuet's
+literary or active life, in which he appears to greater advantage, or in
+a more amiable light, than on this occasion.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+_Attempt in the reign of Lewis the XV. to effect an union between the
+Church of Rome and the Church of England._
+
+
+Of all Protestant churches, the national church of England most nearly
+resembles the church of Rome. It has retained much of the dogma, and
+much of the discipline of Roman Catholics. Down to the sub-deacon it has
+retained the whole of their hierarchy; and, like them, has its deans,
+rural deans, chapters, prebends, archdeacons, rectors, and vicars; a
+liturgy, taken in a great measure, from the Roman Catholic liturgy; and
+composed like that, of Psalms, Canticles, the three creeds, litanies,
+epistles, gospels, prayers, and responses. Both churches have the
+sacraments of baptism, and the eucharist, the absolution of the sick,
+the burial service, the sign of the cross in baptism, the reservation of
+confirmation, and order to bishops, the difference of episcopal, and
+sacerdotal dress, feasts, and fasts. Without adopting all the general
+councils of the church of Rome, the church of England has adopted the
+first four of them; and, without acknowledging the authority of the
+other councils, or the authority of the early fathers, the English
+divines of the established church, allow them to be entitled, to a high
+degree of respect.[089] On the important article of the eucharist, the
+language, of the Thirty-nine Articles, sounds very like, the doctrine of
+the church of Rome.
+
+At the time, of which we are speaking, the doctrines of the high church,
+which are generally considered to incline to those of the Roman
+Catholics, more than the doctrines of the low church, were in their
+zenith; and in France, where the ultramontane principles on the power of
+the Pope had always been discountenanced, the disputes of Jansenism were
+supposed to reduce it very low. On each side, therefore, the time was
+thought favourable to the project of Reunion.
+
+It was also favourable to it, that, a few years before this time, an
+event had taken place, which naturally tended to put both sides into
+good humour.
+
+On the occasion of the marriage of the Princess Christina of
+Wolfenbuttell, a Lutheran, with the archduke of Austria, her court
+consulted the faculty of theology of the University of Helmstadt, on
+the question,
+
+    "Whether a Protestant Princess, destined to marry a catholic
+    prince, could, without wounding her conscience, embrace the Roman
+    Catholic religion?" The faculty replied, that, "it could not answer
+    the proposed question, in a solid manner, without having previously
+    decided, whether the catholics were, or were not engaged in errors,
+    that were fundamental, and opposed to salvation; or, (which was the
+    same thing), whether the state of the catholic church was such,
+    that persons might practise in it, the true worship of God, and
+    arrive at salvation." This question the divines of Helmstadt,
+    discussed at length; and concluded in these terms: "After having
+    shown, that the foundation of religion, subsists in the Roman
+    Catholic religion, so that a person may be orthodox in it, live
+    well in it, die well in it, and obtain salvation in it, the
+    discussion of the proposed question, is easy. We are, therefore, of
+    opinion, that the most Serene Princess of Wolfenbuttell, may, in
+    favour of her marriage, embrace the catholic religion."
+
+This opinion is dated the 28th of April 1707, and was printed in the
+same year at Cologne. The Journalists of Trevoux inserted both the
+original and a French translation of it in their journal of May, 1708.
+
+Under these circumstances, the correspondence in question took place. It
+began, in 1718, through Doctor Beauvoir, chaplain to Lord Stair, his
+Britannic majesty's ambassador at Paris. Some conversation, on the
+reunion of the two churches, having taken place, between Doctor Dupin,
+and him, he acquainted the archbishop of Canterbury, with the subject of
+them. This communication, produced some compliments from the archbishop,
+to Dr. Dupin, and these, led the latter, to address, to his grace, a
+letter, in which he mentioned generally, that, on some points in
+dispute, the supposed difference between the two communions was
+reconcileable. The correspondence getting wind, Doctor Piers, pronounced
+a discourse in the Sorbonne, in which he earnestly exhorted his
+colleagues, to promote the reunion, by revising those articles, of
+doctrine, and discipline, which protestants branded with the name of
+papal tyranny; and contended, that, by proscribing the ultramontane
+doctrines, the first step to the reunion would be made. The discourse,
+was communicated to Dr. Wake: in his answer, he pressed Dr. Dupin, for a
+more explicit declaration, on the leading points, in controversy.
+
+In compliance with this requisition, Doctor Dupin drew up his
+_Commonitorium_, and communicated it, to several persons of distinction,
+both in the state, and church of France. He discussed in it, the
+Thirty-nine Articles, as they regarded doctrine, morality, and
+discipline. He insisted on the necessity of tradition, to interpret the
+scriptures, and to establish the canonicity of the books, of the Old and
+New Testament. He insisted on the infallibility, of the church, in
+faith, and morals; he contended, that the sacrifice of the mass, was not
+a simple sacrament, but a continuation of the sacrifice of the cross.
+
+The word Transubstantiation, he seemed willing to give up, if the Roman
+Catholic doctrine, intended to be expressed by it, were retained. He
+proposed, that communion under both kinds, or under bread alone, should
+be left, to the discretion of the different churches, and consented,
+that persons in holy orders should retain their state, with such
+provisions, as would place the validity of their ordination, beyond
+exception. The marriage of priests, in the countries, in which such
+marriages were allowed, and the recitation of the divine service in the
+vulgar tongue, he allowed; and intimated that no difficulty would be
+found in the ultimate settlement of the doctrine, respecting purgatory,
+indulgences, the veneration of saints, relics, or images. He seems to
+have thought, that the Pope can exercise, no immediate jurisdiction,
+within the dioceses of bishops, and that his primacy invested him, with
+no more than a general conservation, of the deposit of the faith, a
+right to enforce, the observance of the sacred canons, and the general
+maintenance of discipline. He allowed, in general terms, that there was
+little substantially wrong, in the discipline of the Church of England;
+he deprecated all discussion, on the original merit of reformation, and
+he professed to see no use in the Pope's intervention, till the basis of
+the negotiation, should be settled.
+
+The answer of the archbishop, was not very explicit. It is evident from
+it, that he thought, the quarrels on Jansenism, had alienated the
+Jansenists and their adherents, from the Pope, much more, than they had
+done, in reality. He was willing to concede, to the Pope, a primacy of
+rank and honour, but would by no means allow him, a primacy of
+jurisdiction, or any primacy, by divine right. On the other points, he
+seemed to have thought, that they might come to an agreement, on what
+they should declare, to be the fundamental doctrine of the churches, and
+adopt, on every other point of doctrine, a general system, of christian
+toleration.
+
+The correspondence, which is very interesting, may be seen, in the last
+volume of the English translation, of Doctor Mosheim's Ecclesiastical
+History. To facilitate, the accomplishment of the object of it, Doctor
+Courayer, published his celebrated treatise, on _the Validity of English
+Ordinations_.
+
+Both Dr. Wake, and Dr. Dupin. were censured, by the members of their
+respective communions, for the parts, which they had taken, in this
+business. Several rigid members of the English Church, and even some
+foreign protestants, blamed Dr. Wake, for what they termed, his too
+great concessions. In France, the worst of motives, were imputed to Dr.
+Dupin, and his associates; they were accused, of making unjustifiable
+sacrifices, in order to form an union, between the Jansenists, and the
+members of the English Church. Even the regent, took the alarm: he
+ordered Dr. Dupin, to discontinue the correspondence, and to leave all
+the papers, respecting it, with the minister. This was done, but the
+most important of them, have been printed, in the interesting and
+extensively circulated publication, which has been mentioned.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+_Miscellaneous Remarks on the Reunion of Christians._
+
+
+It does not appear, that subsequently to the communications, between
+Archbishop Wake, and Dr. Dupin, any attempts for a general, or partial
+reunion of christians, were made in the last century: but, early in the
+present, _Napoleon_, conceived the project, of effecting, such a
+reunion. He is said, to have particularly had in view, the
+catholicizing, as it was termed, the northern part, of Germany. To
+forward his design, many works were published: one of them, the _Essai
+sur l'Unité des Cultes_, of M. Bonald, is written, with great ingenuity.
+That Essay, and several others by the same author, were inserted in the
+_Ambigu_ of Peltier, and deserve the attention, of every reader. Though
+they contain some things, to which a Roman Catholic writer, would
+object, they are evidently written, by a Roman Catholic pen.
+
+The first point to be considered, by those, who meditate the project of
+reunion, is, its practicability--those, who are disposed, to contend for
+the affirmative, will observe, the number of important articles, of
+Christian Faith, in which, all Christians, are agreed, and the
+proportionally small number of those, in which, any Christians disagree.
+
+All Christians believe,
+
+    1st. That there is one God;
+
+    2d. That he is a Being, of infinite perfection;
+
+    3d. That he directs all things, by his providence;
+
+    4th. That it is our duty to love him, with all our hearts, and our
+    neighbour, as ourselves;
+
+    5th. That it is our duty, to repent, of the sins we commit;
+
+    6th. That God, pardons the truly penitent;
+
+    7th. That there is a future state, of rewards, and punishments,
+    when all mankind shall be judged, according to their works;
+
+    8th. That God, sent his Son, into the world, to be its saviour, the
+    author of eternal salvation, to all, that obey him;
+
+    9th. That he is the true Messiah;
+
+    10th. That he taught, worked miracles, suffered, died, and rose
+    again, as is related in the four gospels;
+
+    11th. That he will hereafter, make a second appearance on the
+    earth, raise all mankind from the dead, judge the world in
+    righteousness, bestow eternal life on the virtuous, and punish the
+    workers of iniquity.
+
+In the belief of these articles, all Christians, the Roman Catholic, all
+the Oriental churches, all the members of the Church of England, all
+Lutherans, Calvinists, Socinians, and Unitarians, are agreed. In
+addition to these, each division, and subdivision of Christians, has its
+own tenets. Now, let each settle among its own members, what are the
+articles of belief, peculiar to them, which, in their cool deliberate
+judgment, they consider as _absolutely necessary_ that a person should
+believe, to be a member of the church of Christ; let these articles be
+divested of all foreign matter, and expressed in perspicuous, exact, and
+unequivocal terms; and, above all, let each distinction of Christians,
+earnestly wish, to find an agreement, between themselves and their
+fellow Christians:--the result of a discussion conducted on this plan,
+would most assuredly be, to convince all Christians, that the essential
+articles of religious credence, in which there is, a real difference
+among Christians, are not so numerous, as the verbal disputes, and
+extraneous matter, in which controversy is too often involved, make them
+generally thought.
+
+Still,--some articles will remain, the belief of which, one denomination
+of Christians, will consider to be the obligation of every Christian,
+and which other Christian denominations, will condemn. On some of those,
+a _speedy_ reunion of Christians is not to be expected: but, to use the
+language of Mr. _Vansittart_, in His excellent letter to the reverend
+Dr. Marsh and John Coker, Esq.,
+
+    "There is an inferior degree of Reunion, more within our prospect,
+    and yet perhaps as perfect as human infirmity allows us to hope
+    for; wherein, though all differences of opinion, should not be
+    extinguished, yet they may be refined, from all party prejudices,
+    and interested views, so softened by the spirit of charity, and
+    mutual concession, and so controuled by agreement, on the leading
+    principles, and zeal, for the general interests of christianity,
+    that no sect, or persuasion, should be tempted to make religion,
+    subservient to secular views, or to employ political power, to the
+    prejudice of others.--The existence of Dissent, will, perhaps, be
+    inseparable from religious freedom, so long, as the mind of man, is
+    liable to error: but it is not unreasonable to hope, that
+    hostility, may cease, though perfect agreement, cannot be established.
+    IF WE CANNOT RECONCILE ALL OPINIONS, LET US RECONCILE ALL HEARTS."
+
+These pages, cannot be closed better, than by these golden words!!!
+
+
+
+
+
+FINIS.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES.
+
+
+[Footnote 001: Tom. xi. p. 1. 200.]
+
+[Footnote 002: De Institutiones Clericorum, L. iii. c. xviii. &c.]
+
+[Footnote 003: In his "Recueil des Ecrits pour servir d'eclaircissement
+de l'histoire de France, 2 vol. Paris 1798."]
+
+[Footnote 004: "Roswede, or Aroswethe, a nun in the monastery of
+Gardersheim, lived in the reigns of Otho II. and III. towards the end of
+the tenth century. She composed many works in prose and verse. In 1501,
+some of her poems, on the Martyrdom of St. Denys, the Blessed Virgin,
+St. Ann, &c. were printed at Nuremburgh. Her verses in praise of Otto
+II. would be tolerable, if they were not Leonines: there are in them
+some errors of prosody." Bib. Univers. et Histor. Vol. ii. p. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 005: For a fuller account of Feudal and Civil Jurisprudence,
+the writer of these pages begs leave to refer to his work, entitled,
+"HORÆ JURIDICÆ SUBSECIVÆ, being a connected series of Notes respecting
+the Geography, Chronology, and Literary History of the principal Codes
+and original Documents of the Grecian, Roman, Feudal, and Canon Law." 1
+vol. 8vo.]
+
+[Footnote 006: It is entitled, "_Martiani Minei Felicis Capellæ
+Carthaginiensis, Viri Procunsularis, Satyricon, in quo de Nuptiis
+Philologiæ et Mecurii libri duo, & de septem artibus liberalibus libri
+singulares. Omnes, et emendati et Notis sive Februis Hug. Grotii
+illustrati. Ex Officina Plantiniana, Apud Christophorum Raphelingium
+Academiæ Lugduno-Bat. Typographum_ M. D. C." [Transcriber's note:
+Apostrophic date 1600] The Dedication to the Prince of Condé follows:
+then, Encomiastic Verses by Scaliger, and Tiliabrogus. The two works are
+then inserted, with an address to the reader, Errata, and Various
+Readings. Afterwards, _Hugeiani Grotii Februa[007] in Satyricon Martiani
+Capellæ:_ this contains his notes. They are preceded by an Engraving of
+Grotius. Round it, is written, "_Anno_ M. D. C." [Transcriber's note:
+Apostrophic date 1600] Hora Ruit.[008] Æt.xv. Under the engraving the
+following verses are printed,
+
+        "_Quem sibi quindenis_ ASTRÆA _sacravit ab annis,
+        Talis,_ HUGEIANI GROTII _ora fero_."]
+
+[Footnote 007: "Corrections"--or more literarily, "Purifications".]
+
+[Footnote 008: These words were used by Grotius for his motto.]
+
+[Footnote 009: Fabricii Bibliotheca Latina, Lib iii. c. 15. In 1794,
+John Adam Goez published the "Treatise on the Marriage of Philology and
+Mercury" separately, in a duodecimo volume: he mentions, in the preface,
+an edition of it by Walthard. It is on the authority of Goez that we
+have assigned the age of Capella to the third century: others place him
+in a much later period.]
+
+[Footnote 010: Montucla. Histoire des Mathematiques, Vol.ii. p.657.]
+
+[Footnote 011: Vol. 9. p. 147. ii. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 012: A similar exclusive claim in respect to the Indian seas,
+under the grant of Pope Alexander VI., was set up by the Portuguese;
+similar claims to the Ligustic and Adriatic seas, have been and still
+continue to be made by the Genoese and Venetians. Those, who seek for
+information on the subject, should consult the _Dissertation of
+Bynkershook de Dominio Maris_, and note 61 to the recent edition of Sir
+Edward Coke's Commentary upon Littleton.]
+
+[Footnote 013: "Mais, dites vous, dans ce tems même, le jeune Pison
+pouvolt avoir dix ans: Grotius faisoit bien des vers a cet âge. Je le
+sçais, mais les Grotius sont ils bien commune! combien d'enfans
+trouveres vous de dix ans, qui ayent nonseulement assez du feu pour
+faire des vers, mais encore assez de jugement pour en juger sainement."
+Gibbon's Posthumous Works, 8vo. vol. i. p. 520.--"Salmasius," says Mr.
+Gibbon in another part of the same entertaining publication, (vol. v. p.
+209), "had read as much as Grotius; but their different modes of reading
+had made the one an enlighten'd philosopher; and the other, to speak
+plainly, a pedant puffed up with an useless erudition."]
+
+[Footnote 014: Bentivoglio, Histoire des Guerres de Flandres, l,
+xxviii.]
+
+[Footnote 015: _Bella plusquam civilia._ Lucan.]
+
+[Footnote 016: Those who wish to obtain a clear, concise, and exact
+notion of Calvinism and Arminianism, will usefully peruse the account of
+them in Mr. Evans's "_Sketch of the Denominations of the Christian
+World_." The thirteenth Edition is now before us, and we believe that it
+has been often since reprinted.]
+
+[Footnote 017: Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. Cent. xvi, ch. 2. § 3. part 2.]
+
+[Footnote 018: Chalmer's Biographical Dictionary, Title "Arminius."]
+
+[Footnote 019: A short and clear account of Arminianism is given by Le
+Clere, in his Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne, Vol. II. Art. 3. p.
+123.]
+
+[Footnote 020: The best discussion of this subject, which has fallen
+into the hands of the writer, is Bourduloué's Sermon _sur la
+Predestination_.]
+
+[Footnote 021: English Translation of Burigni's Life of Grotius, pp. 43,
+44, 45.]
+
+[Footnote 022: Vol. i.]
+
+[Footnote 023: _Letters from and to Sir Dudley Carleton, during his
+Embassy in Holland, from January 1615-16[**Modern presentation.] to
+December 1620. London, 1757, p. 84_,--Sir Dudley Carleton's Letters
+abound with harsh expressions respecting Grotius. The Editor of this
+correspondence has inserted (p. 415) a letter from Grotius to Dr.
+Lancelot Andrews, written from the Castle at Louvestein. "This letter,"
+says the Editor, "which was never printed before, deserves a place here,
+not only for its elegance and spirit, and its connection with the
+subject of the work, but likewise in justice to the memory of the great
+writer, as it contains his own justification of his conduct, which may
+be compared with the less favourable accounts of it in the preceding
+letters of Sir Dudley Carleton. The original is extant among the
+manuscripts in the library of the late Sir Hans Sloane, bart. now part
+of the British Museum."--"Utinam," says Grotius in this letter, "D.
+Carleton mihi esset plus æquior; cui mitigando propinqui mei operam
+dant. Sed partium, studia mire homines obcæcant."]
+
+[Footnote 024: The history of this Synod, and of the whole controversy
+upon Arminianism, is contained in Brand's _History of the Reformation_:
+the account of the synod in these pages, is principally extracted from
+the French abridgment of that work, in 3 volumes 8vo. The Calvinian
+representation of the Arminian doctrines, and the proceedings of the
+synod, may be seen in the late Mr. Scott's _Articles of the Synod of
+Dort_, to which he has prefixed the History of the Events which _made
+way for that Synod_: it is severely censured by Mr. James Nichols, in
+his _Calvinism and Arminianism compared_. Introd. cxlii.
+
+The Abridgment of Brand's History, was translated into the English
+language and published in 1724-25[**Modern presentation.] by _M. de la
+Roche_. He concludes his Preface to it by observing, that "No good man
+can read the work without abhorring arbitrary power, and all manner of
+persecution." The persecution of the Scottish Non-conformists by the
+Episcopalians, and the persecution of the Remonstrants by the
+Contra-Remonstrants, were attended with this enormity, that, in most
+other instances, when one denomination of christians has persecuted
+another, it has been on the ground that the errors of the sufferers were
+impious, and led the maintainers of them to eternal perdition, and
+therefore rendered these wholesome severities, as the persecutors term
+them, a salutary infliction. But, when the Protestant Episcopalian
+persecuted the Scottish Non-conformist, or the Contra-Remonstrant
+persecuted the Remonstrant, he persecuted a Christian who agreed with
+him in all which he himself deemed to be substantial articles of faith,
+and differed from him only about rites and opinions, which he himself
+allowed to be indifferent.--See Mr. Neale's just remark, Vol. II. ch.
+vi.]
+
+[Footnote 025: In 1765, Lord Hailes published a beautiful edition of
+"The Works of the Ever-memorable Mr. John Hales of Eaton, then first
+collected together," in three volumes, at Glasgow. It is to be lamented
+that he did not accompany it with a full biographical account of Mr.
+Hales.
+
+"His biographers," says Mr. Chalmers, "all allow that he may be classed
+among those divines who were afterwards called Latitudinarians." May he
+not be termed the founder of that splendid school? Perceiving that the
+minds of men required to be more liberally enlightened, and their
+affections to be more powerfully engaged on the side of religion than
+was formerly thought necessary, they set themselves, to use the language
+of Bishop Burnet, "to raise those who conversed with them to another
+sort of thoughts, and to consider the Christian religion as a doctrine
+sent from God, both to elevate and to sweeten human nature. With this
+view, they laboured chiefly to take men from being in parties from
+narrow notions, and from fierceness about opinions. They also continued
+to keep a good correspondence with those who differed from them in
+opinion and allowed a great freedom both in philosophy and divinity."
+(Burnet's History of his own Times. Vol. I. p. 261-268, oct. edit.)
+Hales, Chillingworth, Taylor, Cudworth, Wilkins, Tillotson,
+Stillingfleet, and Patrick, were among their brightest ornaments. They
+were in some respects hostile to the Roman Catholics: _in hoc non
+laudo_.--See the Writer's History of the English, Irish, and Scottish
+Catholics. Vol. III. c. lxviii. sect. 1. 3d edition.]
+
+[Footnote 026: "King James," says Mr. James Nichols, in his Calvinism
+and Arminianism compared, p. 242, "sent a deputation of respectable
+British divines, for the double and undisguised purpose of condemning
+the Remonstrants, but especially Vórstius, (whom his Majesty had long
+before exposed to the world as an arch-heretic), and of assisting the
+Prince of Orange in his design of usurping the liberties of the United
+Provinces, and assuming the supreme authority. The Elector Palatine sent
+his Heidelberg divines for the same family purpose; and the Duke of
+Bouillon employed all his influence with the chief pastors among the
+French reformed."]
+
+[Footnote 027: The words of the former are remarkable: "The errors of
+public actions, if they be not very gross, are with less inconvenience
+tolerated than amended. For the danger of alteration, of disgracing and
+disabling authority, makes that the fortune of such proceeding admits of
+no redress; but being howsoever well or ill done, they must ever after
+be upheld. The most partial spectator of our synodal acts cannot but
+confess, that, in the late discussion of the Remonstrants, with so much
+choler and heat, there was a great oversight committed, and
+that,--whether we respect our common profession of Christianity, 'quæ
+nil nisi justum suadet et lene,' or the quality of this people, apt to
+mutiny by reason of long liberty, and not having learned to be
+imperiously commanded,--in which argument the clergy should not have
+read their first lesson. The synod, therefore, to whom it is not now _in
+integro_ to go back and rectify what is amiss, without disparagement,
+must now go forward and leave events to God, and for the countenance of
+their actions do the best they may." Letter to Sir Dudley Carleton, 11
+January 1619.]
+
+[Footnote 028: _Nichol's Calvinism and Arminianism compared_, Vol. II.
+p.592]
+
+[Footnote 029: _Decline and Fall_, Ch. LIV. towards the end.]
+
+[Footnote 030: The writers who have given an account of the Synod of
+Dort are mentioned by Fabricius, Bib. Græca, Vol. XI. p. 723. Some
+useful observations upon the proceedings of the Synod may be found in
+"Mr. Nichols's _Calvinism and Arminianism compared_." It is much to be
+wished that the promised continuation of this work should speedily make
+its appearance.
+
+But no work upon this famous Synod deserves more attention than
+"_Johannis Halesii, Historia Concilii Dordraceni, J. Laur. Moshemius
+Theol. Doct. et P.P.C. ex Anglico Sermone latine vertit, variis
+observationibus et Vitâ Halesii ausit. Accessit ejusdem de auctoritate
+Concilii Dordraceni Paci Sacræ noxii, Consultatio. Hamburgi_, 8vo." M.
+Le Clere's criticism on this work (_Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne_
+Vol. 23, art. 4.) contains much valuable information upon the Synod, and
+a summary of the life and writings of Mr. Hales.--Des Maizeaux published
+a curious account of them in 1719.]
+
+[Footnote 031: Pfaffii Hist. Literaria, vol. ii. p. 303.]
+
+[Footnote 032: Burigni's Life of Grotius, lib. ii. sect. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 033: Cent XVII, sect. 2, Part 2 (Note Y.)]
+
+[Footnote 034: Mr. James Nicholls's Calvinism and Arminianism compared.
+Vol. i. p. 597, 600, 634, 636.]
+
+[Footnote 035: See Mr. Dugald Stewart's first Dissertation, sect. III.]
+
+[Footnote 036: See Joannis Christopheri Locheri Dissertatio Epistolica
+Historiam libelli Grotiani _De Veritate Religionis Christianæ_
+complectens, 1725, in quarto; and the Journal de Scavans for the year
+1724.]
+
+[Footnote 037: See Nichols's Calvinism and Arminianism compared, vol. i.
+p. 289.]
+
+[Footnote 038: On the respect, which the Church of England considers to
+be due to the writings of the early Fathers, see the excellent Appendix
+to the Sermons of Dr. Jebb, the Right Reverend Bishop of Limerick.]
+
+[Footnote 039: Vol. iii. L. 38. This letter merits a serious perusal.]
+
+[Footnote 040: Dict. Historique, Preliminaire, p. xxix.]
+
+[Footnote 041: Vol.1. p. 121]
+
+[Footnote 042: Those, who will read his life, published by the writer of
+these pages, with other Tracts, in 1819, will not, it is believed, think
+this too strong an assertion. Is it not to be earnestly hoped, that in
+the distress by which we are now visited, and the greater distress with
+which we are threatened, many St. Vincents will appear?]
+
+[Footnote 043: Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. ch. ii. sect. ii. part. ii. and
+Bynkershock's Quest. Juris publici, lib. ii. ch. 18.]
+
+[Footnote 044: Le Clerc, (Bib. Anc. et Mod. vol. xxiii. Art. iv.)
+strenuously objects to this representation of Dr. Mosheim. "The
+Arminians," he says, "have introduced no dogma as necessary to
+salvation, which was unknown to the framers of their Confession of
+Faith; neither have they retrenched from it, any article essential to
+faith." He however observes, "that there are many ways of explaining
+dogmas." Now, the same dogma explained in two ways, amounts to two
+dogmas.]
+
+[Footnote 045: See the third part of "_the last of Bossuet's Six
+Addresses to the Protestants_," and the passages which he cites in it
+from Jurieu.
+
+For the actual state of Religious Doctrine, both in the Lutheran and
+Reformed Churches of Germany, the reader may usefully consult, "_The
+State of the Protestant Religion in Germany, in a series of Discourses
+preached before the University of Cambridge, by the Rev. Hugh James
+Rose, M.A. 8vo. 1825_;" and "_Entretiens Philosophiques sur la Re-union
+des differens communions chretiens, par feu M. le Baron Starck, Ministre
+Protestant, et premier predicateur, de la Cour de Hesse Darmstadt, &c.
+8vo. 1818_;" and "_Tabaraud's Histoire des Re-unions des Chrêtiens._"]
+
+[Footnote 046: Tom. XLVI. Art. 12. p. 208.]
+
+[Footnote 047: Page 283.]
+
+[Footnote 048: Page 284, 285.]
+
+[Footnote 049: Page 286.]
+
+[Footnote 050: Page 287.]
+
+[Footnote 051: Page 288.]
+
+[Footnote 052: Page 288.]
+
+[Footnote 053: Page 291.]
+
+[Footnote 054: Page 292.]
+
+[Footnote 055: Page 293.]
+
+[Footnote 056: Page 294.]
+
+[Footnote 057: Page 296.]
+
+[Footnote 058: Page 298.]
+
+[Footnote 059: Page 299.]
+
+[Footnote 060: Page 300. M. Le Clerc, (_Sentimens de quelques
+Theologiens de Hollande, dix-septieme Lettre_) defends Grotius with
+great ability against the charge of Socinianism: he justly observes,
+that, his abstaining from unpleasing propositions, his silence on
+offensive doctrines, and his conciliating expressions, should not too
+easily be accounted proofs, of belief of his precise sentiments of any
+particular tenets. Grotius, says Le Clerc, was like an arbitrator, who,
+to bring to amity the parties in difference, recommends to each, that he
+should give something of what he himself considers to be his strict
+right.]
+
+[Footnote 061: Ep. 363. p. 364]
+
+[Footnote 062: Ep. 491. p. 195.]
+
+[Footnote 063: Ep. 494. p. 896.]
+
+[Footnote 064: Ep. 1706. p. 736.]
+
+[Footnote 065: _Comparison of Calvinism and Arminianism_. vol. ii. p.
+560.]
+
+[Footnote 066: Ib. Vol. ii. p. 609.]
+
+[Footnote 067: Ep. 1538. p. 573, 690, 926.]
+
+[Footnote 068: Ep. 528. p. 400.]
+
+[Footnote 069: "Those," says Mr. James Nichols,[070]
+
+    "who wish to behold the praises to which HUGO GROTIUS or HUGH DE
+    GROOT, is justly entitled, and which he has received in ample
+    measure from admiring friends and reluctant foes, may consult SIR
+    THOMAS POPE BLOUNT's _Censura celebriorum Authorum_. His well
+    earned reputation is founded on too durable a basis to be moved by
+    such petty attacks as those to which I have alluded in a previous
+    part of this introduction (p. xxi.), or those of Mr. Orme in page
+    641.
+
+    "That a man so accomplished, virtuous, fearless, and unfortunate,
+    should have had many enemies, among his contemporaries, is not
+    wonderful. But the number of those who evinced their hatred to him,
+    or to his philanthropic labours, increased after his decease, when
+    they could display it with impunity. 'This very pious, learned, and
+    judicious man,' says Dr. Hammond, 'hath of late, among many, fallen
+    under a very unhappy fate, being most unjustly calumniated,
+    sometimes as a SOCINIAN, sometimes as a PAPIST, and, as if he had
+    learnt to reconcile contradictions, sometimes _as both of them
+    together._'
+
+    "One cause of the Charge of SOCINIANISM being preferred against him,
+    has been already mentioned, (p. xxxiii.) and it is more fully
+    explained in pages 637, 642. The reader will not require many
+    additional reasons to convince him of the untenable ground for such
+    an accusation, when he is told that VOETIUS, one of the most
+    violent of his enemies, laid down this grand axiom--'To place the
+    principal part of religion in an _observance of Christ's commands
+    is_ RANK SOCIANISM!' To such a _practical observance of the_
+    requisitions of the Gospel, by what name soever it might be
+    stigmatized, Grotius pleaded guilty. He says (p. 637) 'I perceive
+    this was accounted the principal part of religion by the Christians
+    of the primitive ages; and their various assemblies, divines, and
+    martyrs taught, 'that the doctrines _necessary to be known_ are
+    exceedingly few, but that God forms his estimate of us from the
+    purpose and intention of an obedient spirit.' I am likewise of the
+    same opinion, and shall never repent of having maintained it.'
+
+    "But as the charge of POPERY is of the utmost consequence, I have
+    discussed this topic at great length, (pp. 566, 746), and have
+    proved (pp. 549, 561), that Grotius was as little attached to the
+    principles or the practice of the Romish church as the most zealous
+    of his accusers. Whatever tends to vindicate the conduct of Grotius
+    in this matter, will operate still more powerfully in favour of
+    Archbishop Laud. The design of Grotius is well described by Dr.
+    Hammond, in a _Digression_ which he added to his _Answer_ to the
+    _Animadversions on his Dissertations_; in which he says,
+
+    "'For the charge of Popery that is fallen upon him, it is evident
+    from whence that flows,--either from his _profest opposition to
+    many doctrines of some Reformers, Zuinglius and Calvin, &c_. or
+    from his _Annotations on Cassander, and the Debates with Rivet
+    consequent thereto, the Votum pro pace and Discussio_.'
+
+    "For the former of these, it is sufficiently known what contests
+    there were, and at length how profest the divisions betwixt the
+    Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants; and it is confessed that he
+    maintained (all his time) the Remonstrants party, vindicating it
+    from all charge, whether of Pelagianism or Semi-Pelagianism, which
+    was by the opposers objected to it, and pressing the favourers of
+    the doctrine of Irrespective Decrees with the odious consequences
+    of making God the _author and favourer of sin_, and frequently
+    expressing his sense of the evil influences that some of those
+    doctrines were experimented to have on men's lives. And by these
+    means it is not strange that he should fall under great displeasure
+    from those who, having espoused the opinion of Irrespective
+    Decrees, did not only publish it as the THE TRUTH and TRUTH OF GOD,
+    but farther asserted the questioning of it to be injurious to God's
+    free grace and his Eternal Election, and consequently retained no
+    ordinary patience for or charity to opposers. But, then, still this
+    is no medium to to infer that charge. The doctrines which he thus
+    maintained were neither branches nor characters of Popery, but
+    asserted by some of the first and most learned and pious Reformers.
+    Witness the writings of Hemingius in his _Opuscula_, most of which
+    are on these subjects. Whereas on the contrary side, Zuinglius and
+    others, who maintained the rigid way of Irrespective Decrees, and
+    infused them into some of this nation of ours, are truly said, by
+    an excellent writer of ours, Dr. Jackson, to _have had it first
+    from some ancient Romish Schoolmen_, and so to have had as much or
+    more of that guilt adherent to them, as can be charged on their
+    opposers. So that from hence to found the jealousy, to affirm him a
+    papist because he was not a contra-remonstrant, is but the old
+    method of speaking all that is ill of those who differ from our
+    opinions on any thing; as the Dutchman in his rage calls his horse
+    an ARMINIAN, because he doth not not go as he would have him. And
+    this is all that can soberly be concluded from such suggestions,
+    that they are displeased and passionate that thus speak.
+
+    "As for the _Annotations on Cassander_, &c. and the consequent
+    vindications of himself against _Rivet_, those have with some
+    colour been deemed more favourable toward Popery; but yet I suppose
+    will be capable of benign interpretations, if they be read with
+    these few cautions or remembrances:
+
+    "_First_. That they were designed to shew a way to peace whensoever
+    men's minds on both sides should be piously affected to it.
+
+    "_Secondly_. That he did not hope for this temper in his age, the
+    humour on both sides being so turgent, and extremely contrary to
+    it, and the controversy debated on both sides by those 'who,' saith
+    he, '_desire to eternize, and not to compose contentions_,' and
+    therefore makes his appeal to posterity, when this paroxysm shall
+    be over.
+
+    "_Thirdly_. That for the chief usurpations of the papacy; he leaves
+    it to Christian princes to join together to vindicate their own
+    rights, and reduce the Pope _ad Canones_, to that temper, which the
+    ancient canons allow and require of him; and if that will not be
+    done, to reform every one in their own dominions.
+
+    "_Fourthly_. That what he saith in favour of some Popish doctrines,
+    above what some other learned Protestants have said, is not so much
+    by way of _assertion_ or _justification_ of them, as to shew what
+    reasons they may justly be thought to proceed upon, and so not to
+    be go irrational or impious as they are ordinarily accounted; and
+    this only in order to the peace of the christian world, that we may
+    have as much charity to others and not as high animosities, live
+    with all men as sweetly and amicably, and peaceably, and not as
+    bitterly as is possible, accounting the wars and seditions, and
+    divisions and rebellions, that are raised and managed upon the
+    account of religion, far greater and more scandalous unchristian
+    evils, than are the errors of some Romish doctrines, especially as
+    they are maintained by the more sober and moderate men among them,
+    Cassander, Picherel, &c.
+
+    "_Fifthly_. What he saith in his _Discussio_, of a conjunction of
+    Protestants with those that adhere to the Bishop of Rome, is no
+    farther to be extended, than his words extend it. That there is not
+    any other visible way to the end there mentioned by him, of
+    acquiring or preserving universal unity. That this is to be done,
+    not crudely, by returning to them as they are, submitting our necks
+    to our former yokes, but by taking away at once the division, and
+    the causes of it, on which side soever; adding only in the third
+    place, that the bare primacy of the Bishop of Rome, _secundum
+    Canones_, such as the ancient canons allow of, (which hath nothing
+    of _supreme universal power_, or authority in it,) is none of those
+    causes, nor consequently necessary to be excluded in the [Greek:
+    diallaktikon], citing that as the confession of that excellent
+    person Philip Melancthon. So that in effect, that whole speech of
+    his which is so solemnly vouched by Mr. Knott, and looked on so
+    jealously by many of us, is no more than this, 'that such a Primacy
+    of the Bishop of Rome, as the ancient canons allowed him, were, for
+    so glorious an end as is the regaining the peace of christendom,
+    very reasonably to be afforded him, nay absolutely necessary to be
+    yielded him, whensoever any such catholic union shall be attempted,
+    which as it had been the express opinion of Melancthon, one of the
+    first and wisest Reformers, so it is far from any design of
+    establishing the usurpations of the Papacy, or any of their false
+    doctrines attending them, but only designed as an expedient for the
+    restoring the peace of the whole christian world, which every
+    disciple of Christ is so passionately required to contend and pray
+    for.'
+
+"At the conclusion of the Doctor's _Continuation of the Defence of_ HUGO
+GROTIUS, he thus expresses himself:
+
+    "'As this is an act of mere justice and charity to the dead,--and no
+    less to those who, by their sin of uncharitable thoughts towards
+    him, are likely to deprive themselves of the benefit of his
+    labours,--so is it but a proportionable return of debt and
+    gratitude to the signal value and kindness, which in his lifetime,
+    he constantly professed to pay to this church and nation,
+    expressing his opinion, "that of all churches in the world, it was
+    the most careful observer and transcriber of primitive antiquity,"
+    and more than intimating his desire to end his days in the bosom
+    and communion of our mother. Of this I want not store of witnesses,
+    which from time to time have heard it from his own mouth whilst he
+    was ambassador in France, and even in his return to Sweden,
+    immediately before his death; and for a real evidence of this
+    truth, it is no news to many, that, at the taking his journey from
+    Paris, he appointed his wife, whom he left behind, to resort to the
+    English Assembly at the Agent's house, which accordingly she is
+    known to have practised.'"]
+
+[Footnote 070: Calvinism and Arminianism compared, Introduction,
+cxxxii.]
+
+[Footnote 071: A dialogue on the Reformation was also in the
+contemplation of Mr. Gibbon: "I have," he says in the Memoirs of his
+life and writings,[072] "sometimes thought of writing a dialogue of the
+dead, in which Luther, Erasmus and Voltaire should mutually acknowledge
+the danger of exposing an old superstition to the contempt of the blind
+and fanatic multitude."]
+
+[Footnote 072: Vol. i. p. 269, of the 8vo. edition of his works.]
+
+[Footnote 073: A full account of the writings of _Wicelius_, and of his
+projects of Pacification, is given by _Father Simon_ in the _Biblioteque
+Critique, par M. de Sainjore_, Tom. ii. ch. 18. He concludes it, by
+observing, that
+
+    "the great love which Wicelius had for the peace of the church,
+    might induce him to use expressions, somewhat harsh, but which
+    really ought not to be censured with too much rigour. It is evident
+    that his only view was to be useful to persons of his own time, to
+    whom he consecrated the latter part of his life.--I do not
+    recollect to have read that he was censured at Rome, and the
+    Spanish Inquisitors seem to have observed the same moderation in
+    his regard."]
+
+[Footnote 074: XVI. Cent. Book V. p. 41, in the Englsh translation.]
+
+[Footnote 075: See Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, Cent. XVII. ch. ii.
+sect. ii. Part II.]
+
+[Footnote 076: Eccles. Hist. Cent. XVI. ch. ii. sect. iii. Part. II.]
+
+[Footnote 077: Observat. Hallen, 15 t. p. 341.]
+
+[Footnote 078: It is a prayer addressed to Jesus Christ, and suited to
+the condition of a dying person who builds his hope on the Mediator. _M.
+Le Clerc_ has inserted it at length in the _Sentimens de quelques
+Theologiens de Hollande_, 17 Lettre, p. 397.]
+
+[Footnote 079: Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson, 2d Vol. p. 502. 2d
+Edition.]
+
+[Footnote 080: The author's "Confessions of Faith," mention this
+convention, its dissolution, and the subsequent union of the Helvetian,
+and Bohemian protestant congregations, in the Synods, held at Astrog, in
+the years 1620, and 1627. The original settlement of these churches, was
+in Bohemia, and Moravia. Persecution scattered the members of them: a
+considerable number of the fugitives, settled at Herrenhut, a village in
+Lusatia. There, under the protection and guidance of Count Zinzendorf,
+they formed themselves into a new community, which was designed to
+comprehend their actual and future congregations, under the title of
+"_The Protestant Church of the Unitas Fratrum, or United Brethren of the
+Confession of Augsburgh_." That Confession is their only symbolic book;
+but they profess great esteem for the eighteen first chapters of the
+Synodical Document of the church of Berne in 1532, as a declaration of
+true Christian Doctrine. They also respect, the writings of Count
+Zinzendorf, but do not consider themselves, bound by any opinion,
+sentiment, or expression, which these contain. It is acknowledged, that,
+towards the middle of the last century, they used in their devotional
+exercises, particularly in their hymns, many expressions justly
+censurable: but these have been corrected. They consider Lutherans and
+Calvinists, to be their brethren in faith, as according with them in the
+essential articles of religion; and therefore, when any of their members
+reside at a distance from a congregation of the United Brethren, they
+not only attend a Lutheran, or Calvinist church, but receive the
+Sacrament, from its ministers, without scruple. In this, they profess to
+act in conformity to the Convention at Sendomer. The union, which
+prevails both among the congregations, and the individuals which compose
+them, their modest and humble carriage, their moderation in lucrative
+pursuits, the simplicity of their manners, their laborious industry,
+their frugal habits, their ardent but mild piety, and their regular
+discharge of all their spiritual observances, are universally
+acknowledged and admired. Their charities are boundless, their kindness
+to their poor brethren is most edifying; there is not among them a
+beggar. The care, which they bestow, on the education of their children,
+in forming their minds, chastening their hearts, and curbing their
+imaginations,--particularly in those years,
+
+                       "When youth, elate and gay,
+    Steps into life and follows, unrestrained,
+    Where passion leads, or reason points the way."     _Lowth._
+
+are universally acknowledged, universally admired, and deserve universal
+imitation.
+
+But, it is principally, by the extent and success of their missionary
+labours, that they now engage, the attention of the public. These began,
+in 1732. In 1812, they had thirty-three settlements, in heathen nations.
+One hundred and thirty-seven missionaries, were employed in them: they
+had baptized, twenty-seven thousand, four hundred converts: and such had
+been their care, in admitting them to that sacred rite, and such their
+assiduity, in cultivating a spirit of religion, among them, that
+scarcely an individual, had been known, to relapse into paganism. All
+travellers, who have visited their settlements, speak with wonder, and
+praise, of the humility, the patient endurance of privation, and
+hardship, the affectionate zeal, the mild, and persevering exertions of
+the missionaries; and the innocence, industry and piety of the
+converts:--the European, the American, the African, and the Asiatic
+traveller speaks of them, in the same terms: and, that they speak
+without exaggeration, the conduct both of the pastor, and the flock in
+the different settlements of the United Brethren in England,
+incontestibly proves. Whatever he may think of their religious tenets,
+_Talis cum sitis, utinam nostri essetis_, must be the exclamation of
+every christian, who considers their lives. Those, who desire further
+knowledge of this amiable, and worthy denomination of Christians, will
+find it in _David Cranz's ancient and modern History of the Brethren,
+printed at Barby, 1771, and the two continuations of it, Barby_, 1791,
+and 1804. The History has been translated into English; and is become
+exceedingly scarce; the Continuations have not been translated. Mr. La
+Trobe, the Pastor of the United Brethren in London, has published a
+_Concise Historical Account of the Protestant Church of the United
+Brethren adhering to the Confession of Augsburgh_.]
+
+[Footnote 081: Epist. 1706, p. 736.]
+
+[Footnote 082: Ib. Epist. 613.]
+
+[Footnote 083: Epist. part. I. Epist. 432. part II. Epist. 53. The
+French public strongly suspected the Cardinal of this design. It gave
+rise to the celebrated libel, entitled "_Optatus Gallus,_" _Grotius_,
+(Lit. 982.) notices a prophecy of Nostradamus, then in circulation:
+
+        "_Celui qui était bien avant dans le regne,
+        Ayant chat rouge, proche, hierarchie,
+        Apre et cruel, et se fera tant craindre,
+        Succedera, a sacrée Monarchie._"
+
+If the event in question had happened, Nostradamus would have passed,
+with many for a prophet.]
+
+[Footnote 084: Eclaircissemens de l'édit de Nantes, page 1. c. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 085: V. 2. p. 38, 148.]
+
+[Footnote 086: We are grieved to add, that he allowed the _right_ of a
+sovereign to persecute for religion.]
+
+[Footnote 087: This article is extracted from Oeuvres Posthumes de
+Bossuet, vol. i. Nouvelle édition des Oeuvres de Bossuet, vol. ii.
+Leibnizii Opera, studio Ludovici Dutens, vol. i. and v. And the Pensées
+de Leibniz, vol. ii. 8vo.]
+
+[Footnote 088: Tom. xiii.]
+
+[Footnote 089: See the Appendix to the Sermons of Dr. Jebb, the present
+excellent Bishop of Limerick.--Cadel, 1824.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+                              Luke Hansard & Sons,
+                       near Lincoln's-Inn Fields, London.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+                              By the same Author,
+
+                              THE LIFE OF ERASMUS:
+
+                                      WITH
+
+    HISTORICAL REMARKS ON THE STATE OF LITERATURE BETWEEN THE TENTH AND
+                             SIXTEENTH CENTURIES.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14037 ***
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+ span.c11 {margin-left: 6em;}
+ span.c10 {margin-left: 1em;}
+ span.c9 {margin-left: 8em;}
+ p.c8 {font-style: italic}
+ hr.c7 {width: 65%;}
+ p.c6 {text-align: left}
+ div.c5 {text-align: right}
+ span.c4 {font-size: 150%}
+ div.c3 {text-align: center}
+ hr.c2 {width: 45%;}
+ h3.c1 {font-style: italic}
+    </style>
+</head>
+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14037 ***</div>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Life of Hugo Grotius, by Charles Butler</h1>
+  <hr class="full" noshade>
+  <br>
+  <br>
+    <h3>
+      THE
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      LIFE
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      OF
+    </h3>
+    <h1>
+      HUGO GROTIUS:
+    </h1>
+    <h3>
+      WITH
+    </h3>
+    <h3 class="c1">
+      BRIEF MINUTES
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      OF THE
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      CIVIL, ECCLESIASTICAL, AND LITERARY
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+    </h3>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <h3>
+      BY CHARLES BUTLER, ESQ.
+    </h3>
+    <h4>
+      OF LINCOLN'S-INN.
+    </h4>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <h4>
+      LONDON:
+    </h4>
+    <h4>
+      JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET.
+    </h4>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <h4>
+      M.DCCC.XXVI.
+    </h4>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class="c3">
+      Luke Hansard &amp; Sons,<br>
+      near Lincoln's-Inn Fields, London.
+    </div>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class="c3">
+      TO<br>
+      <br>
+       HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS<br>
+      <br>
+       <span class="c4">THE DUKE OF SUSSEX,</span><br>
+      <br>
+       THIS BIOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT<br>
+      <br>
+       OF<br>
+      <br>
+       ONE OF THE MOST AMIABLE AND<br>
+       RESPECTABLE DEFENDERS OF THE NOBLE<br>
+       CAUSE OF CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY,<br>
+      <br>
+       OF WHICH<br>
+      <br>
+       HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS HAS UNIFORMLY<br>
+       BEEN A CONSTANT AND POWERFUL<br>
+       ADVOCATE,<br>
+      <br>
+       IS<br>
+      <br>
+       (WITH HIS PERMISSION),<br>
+      <br>
+       MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED,<br>
+      <br>
+       BY<br>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class="c5">
+      THE AUTHOR,
+    </div>
+    <p class="c6">
+      <i>Great Ormond Street</i>,<br>
+       29 <i>Sept</i>. 1826.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <h2>
+      CONTENTS
+    </h2>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      In the following pages we shall attempt to present our
+      Readers, with a Life of HUGO GROTIUS; and MINUTES OF THE
+      CIVIL, ECCLESIASTICAL, AND LITERARY HISTORY OF THE
+      NETHERLANDS.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In writing these pages, we principally consulted his life,
+      written in the French language, by <i>M. de Burigni</i>,
+      Member of the French Royal Academy of Inscriptions and
+      Belles Lettres; an English translation of it, was published
+      in 1754, in one Volume, 8vo.;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Hugonis Grotii Manes, ab iniquis obtrectationibus
+      vindicati</i>; 2 vols. 8vo. 1727: the author of this work
+      is said to be M. Lehman;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The article <i>Grotius</i>, in <i>Bayle's and Chalmers's
+      Dictionaries</i>;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And many of the letters in <i>Hugonis Grotii
+      Epistol&aelig;</i>, published at Amsterdam in 1687, in one
+      volume, folio; and many in the <i>Pr&aelig;stantium et
+      Eruditorum Virorum Epistol&aelig; Ecclesiastic&aelig;</i>,
+      published at Amsterdam in 1684, in one volume, 4to.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      For what we have said on GERMANY AND THE NETHERLANDS, we
+      principally consulted,
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Schmidt's Histoire des Allemands</i>;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Pfeffell's Histoire Abreg&eacute; de l'Allemagne</i>, 2
+      vols. 8vo.;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Mr. Durnford's excellent Translation, of Professor
+      P&uuml;tter's Historical Developement, of the Political
+      History of the German Empire</i>; 3 vols. 8vo.;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And <i>Hugonis Grotii Annales, et Histori&aelig; de Rebus
+      Belgicis</i>, one vol. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1658.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In our account of the troubles on <i>Arminianism</i>, and
+      the Synod of Dort; we principally consulted, the French
+      Abridgment, in 3 vols. 8vo. of <i>Brand's History of the
+      Netherlands</i>, and <i>Grotius's</i> excellent
+      <i>Apology</i>:
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In every part of the work, we have consulted other
+      publications;-three only of these we shall mention;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The three <i>Biblioth&egrave;cques</i> of Le Clerc;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The Life of Arminius</i>, and
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Calvinism and Arminianism Compared</i>, by Mr. James
+      Nichols.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      From these materials the following pages have been
+      composed: they may be found to contain,-
+    </p>
+    <p>
+
+    </p>
+    <table width="700" summary="TOC" border="0" align="center">
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c_intro'></a><a href=
+          '#INTRODUCTION'><b>INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 800-911. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <b>I.</b>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <a name='c_1.1'></a><a href='#intro_I_1'><b>1.</b></a>
+           <i>Boundaries, and Devolution of the Empire of
+          Germany, during the Carlovingian dynasty</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <a name='c_1.2'></a><a href='#intro_I_2'><b>2.</b></a>
+           <i>State of Literature, in the time of
+          Charlemagne</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c_1.3'></a><a href='#intro_I_3'>3.</a></b>
+           <i>Decline of Literature, under the Descendants of
+          Charlemagne</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 911-1024. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <b>II.</b>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <a name='c_2.1'></a><a href='#intro_II_1'><b>1.</b></a>
+           <i>Boundaries, and Devolution of the empire of
+          Germany, during the Saxon dynasty</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c_2.2'></a><a href='#intro_II_2'>2.</a></b>
+           <i>State of Literature, during the Saxon dynasty</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1024-1138. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <b>III.</b>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <a name='c_3.1'></a><a href=
+          '#intro_III_1'><b>1.</b></a>  <i>Boundaries, and State
+          of Germany, during the Franconian dynasty</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c_3.2'></a><a href=
+          '#intro_III_2'>2.</a></b>  <i>State of German
+          Literature, during the Franconian dynasty</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1138-1519 </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="40">
+          <b>IV.</b>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="40">
+          <b><a name='c_iv.1'></a><a href=
+          '#intro_IV_1'>1.</a></b>  <i>State of Germany, from the
+          beginning of the Suabian dynasty, until the accession
+          of the Emperor Charles V.</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c_iv.2'></a><a href=
+          '#intro_IV_2'>2.</a></b>  <i>State of German
+          Literature, during this period</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1138-1519 </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <b>V. </b>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c_v.1'></a><a href='#intro_V_1'>1.</a></b>
+           <i>Antient, and modern Geography of the
+          Netherlands</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <a name='c_v.2'></a><a href='#intro_V_2'><b>2.</b></a>
+           <i>The formation, of the different provinces of the
+          Netherlands, into one State</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="40">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="40">
+          <a name='c_v.3'></a><a href='#intro_V_3'><b>3.</b></a>
+           <i>Brief view, of the History of the Netherlands,
+          until the acknowledgment of the Seven United Provinces,
+          by the Spanish monarch</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c_v.4'></a><a href='#intro_V_4'>4.</a></b>
+           <i>Their constitution, and principal officers</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c01'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_I'><b>CHAPTER
+          I.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1582-1597.</b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          BIRTH, AND EDUCATION OF GROTIUS
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c02'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_II'><b>CHAPTER
+          II </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1597-1610.</b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          GROTIUS, EMBRACES THE PROFESSION OF THE LAW
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c03'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_III'><b>CHAPTER
+          III. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          THE EARLY PUBLICATIONS, OF GROTIUS
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c04'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_IV'><b>CHAPTER
+          IV. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="40">
+          HISTORICAL MINUTES, OF THE UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THEIR
+          DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, TILL THE ARMINIAN
+          CONTROVERSY
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c05'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_V'><b>CHAPTER
+          V. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1610-1617. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="40">
+          THE FEUDS, IN THE UNITED PROVINCES, BETWEEN THE
+          DISCIPLES OF CALVIN, AND THE DISCIPLES OF ARMINIUS,
+          UNTIL THE SYNOD OF DORT
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c06'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_VI'><b>CHAPTER
+          VI.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1618. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          THE SYNOD OF DORT
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c07'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_VII'><b>CHAPTER
+          VII. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1618-1621. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT OF GROTIUS; HIS ESCAPE FROM
+          PRISON
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c08'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_VIII'><b>CHAPTER
+          VIII.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1622 </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          JAMES I.
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+           VORSTIUS
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c09'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_IX'><b>CHAPTER
+          IX.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1621-1634. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="40">
+          GROTIUS, AFTER HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON, UNTIL HIS
+          APPOINTMENT OF AMBASSADOR, FROM SWEDEN, TO THE COURT OF
+          FRANCE
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c10'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_X'><b>CHAPTER
+          X. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS, OF GROTIUS
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <a name='c10.1'></a><a href='#X_1'><b>1.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          New edition of Stob&aelig;us
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <a name='c10.2'></a><a href='#X_2'><b>2.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+          His treatise
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+          de Jure Belli et Pacis
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="27">
+          <a name='c10.3'></a><a href='#X_3'><b>3.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" align="center" height="27">
+          ----
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="27">
+          de Veritate Religionis Christian&aelig;
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="47">
+          <a name='c10.4'></a><a href='#X_4'><b>4.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" align="center" height="47">
+          ----
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="47">
+          de Jure summarum potestatum circa sacra.--And
+          Commentatio ad loca qu&aelig;dam Novi Testamenti,
+          qu&aelig; de Antichristo agunt, aut agere videntur
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c10.5'></a><a href='#X_5'>5.</a> </b>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          His Commentaries on the Scriptures
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c10.6'></a><a href='#X_6'>6.</a> </b>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          His other works
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c11'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_XI'><b>CHAPTER
+          XI. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1634-1645. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="40">
+          GROTIUS, AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN, TO
+          THE COURT OF FRANCE
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c12'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_XII'><b>CHAPTER
+          XII. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS OF GROTIUS; SOME OTHER OF HIS
+          WORKS,
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <a name='c12.1'></a><a href='#XII_1'><b>1.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          Subsequent History of Arminianism
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <a name='c12.2'></a><a href='#XII_2'><b>2.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          Grotius's religious sentiments
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <a name='c12_3'></a><a href='#XII_3'><b>3.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          Projects of religious Pacification
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c13'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_XIII'><b>CHAPTER
+          XIII.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          THE DEATH OF GROTIUS
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c14'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_XIV'><b>CHAPTER
+          XIV. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1680-1815. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="59">
+          HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT
+          OF THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THE DEATH OF
+          WILLIAM II. TILL THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM OF
+          THE NETHERLANDS.
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <a name='c14.1'></a><a href='#XIV_1'><b>1.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          William III.
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="40">
+          <a name='c14.2'></a><a href='#XIV_2'><b>2.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="40">
+          John William Count of Nassau Dietz, 1702-1711;<br
+          clear="all">
+           William IV. 1711-1751
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <a name='c14.3'></a><a href='#XIV_3'><b>3.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          From the death of William IV. till the erection of the
+          Kingdom of the Netherlands
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='cAp.1'></a><a href='#APPENDIX_I'><b>APPENDIX
+          I.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="40">
+          Some Account of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith,
+          or Symbolic Books, of the Roman-Catholic, Greek, and
+          principal Protestant Churches
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='cAp.2'></a><a href='#APPENDIX_II'><b>APPENDIX
+          II.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          On the Reunion of Christians
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='ci'></a><a href='#I'><b>I.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='cii'></a><a href='#II'><b>II.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='cii.1'></a><a href='#II_1'><b>II. 1.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='cii.2'></a><a href='#II_2'><b>II. 2.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='cii.3'></a><a href='#II_3'><b>II. 3.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='cii.4'></a><a href='#II_4'><b>II. 4.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='ciii'></a><a href='#III'><b>III.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='ciii.1'></a><a href='#c_III_1'><b>III.
+          1.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='ciii.2'></a><a href='#c_III_2'><b>III.
+          2.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='ciii.3'></a><a href='#c_III_3'><b>III.
+          3.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='ciii.4'></a><a href='#III_4'><b>III.
+          4.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='civ'></a><a href='#IV'><b>IV.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='cv'></a><a href='#V'><b>V.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="718" valign="top" colspan="3" height="74">
+          <hr width="45%">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='FOOTNOTES_1'></a><a href=
+          '#FOOTNOTES'><b>FOOTNOTES.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+    </table>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <h3>
+      THE
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      LIFE
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      OF
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      HUGO GROTIUS,
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      WITH MINUTES OF THE CIVIL, ECCLESIASTICAL,<br>
+			AND LITERARY HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+    </h3>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='INTRODUCTION'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_intro'>INTRODUCTION.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      SUCCINCT NOTICE OF THE GEOGRAPHY, PRINCIPAL POLITICAL
+      EVENTS, AND LITERATURE, OF THE NETHERLANDS, BEFORE THE
+      BIRTH OF GROTIUS.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      800-1581.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      We propose to present to our readers, in this chapter, a
+      succinct account, of the Geography, Devolution, and
+      Literature of the Netherlands,-considering them, until they
+      became subject to the princes of the House of Burgundy, as
+      a portion of the German Empire, and included in its
+      history:-and from that time, as forming a separate
+      territory.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      800-1581.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Contemplating the Netherlands in the first of these
+      views,-we shall briefly mention the Boundaries and
+      Government, of the German Empire, and the state of learning
+      in its territories, during the Carlovingian, Saxon,
+      Franconian and Suabian Dynasties, and the period, which
+      intervened, between the last Suabian emperor and the
+      election of the Emperor Charles the fifth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      From this time, we shall confine ourselves to the History
+      of the Netherlands. We shall then, therefore, endeavour to
+      give a short view of the geography of these countries, and
+      of the manner in which they were acquired by the Princes of
+      Burgundy; then, shortly mention the successful revolt of
+      the Seven United Provinces.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In one of them, GROTIUS, the subject of these pages, was
+      born; the part which he took in the public events of his
+      times, forms the most important portion of his biography.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_I_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_1.1'>I. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Boundaries and Devolution of the Empire of Germany
+      during the Carlovingian Dynasty</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      800-911.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The Ocean on the north, the Danube on the south, the Rhine
+      on the west, and the Sarmatian Provinces on the east, are
+      the boundaries assigned by Tacitus to Antient Germany. It
+      formed the most extensive portion of the territories of
+      Charlemagne; descended, at his decease, to his son, Lewis
+      the Debonnaire; and, on the partition between his three
+      sons, was allotted to Lewis, his second son.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All the territories of Charlemagne were united in Charles
+      the Fat; he was deposed by his subjects, and his empire
+      divided. Germany was assigned to his third son, Charles the
+      Brave. On his decease, it was possessed by Arnold, a
+      natural son of Carloman, the elder brother of Charles: from
+      him it descended to Hedwiges, the wife of Otho, Duke of
+      Saxony, and she transmitted it to their son Henry the
+      Fowler, the first emperor of that house.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      800-911.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      From the skirts of Germany and France two new kingdoms
+      arose: the kingdom of Lorraine, which comprised the
+      countries between the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Scheld; or
+      the modern Lorraine, the province of Alsace, the
+      Palatinate, Treves, Cologne, Juliers, Li&ecirc;ge and the
+      Netherlands;-and the kingdom of Burgundy: This was divided
+      into the Cis-juranan, or the part of it on the east, and
+      the Trans-juranan, or the part of it on the west of Mount
+      Jura. The former comprised Proven&ccedil;e,
+      Dauphin&eacute;, the Lyonese, Franche-comt&eacute;, Bresse,
+      Bugey, and a part of Savoy; the latter comprised the
+      countries between Mount Jura and the Pennine Alps, or the
+      part of Switzerland between the Reus, the Valais, and the
+      rest of Savoy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Such was the geographical state of Germany at the close of
+      the Carlovingian Dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_I_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_1.2'>I. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne</i>.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      So far as Literature depends upon the favour of the
+      monarch, no &aelig;ra in history promised more than the
+      reign of Charlemagne. His education had been neglected; but
+      he had real taste for learning and the arts, was sensible
+      of their beneficial influence both upon the public and the
+      private welfare of a people; and possessed the amplest
+      means of encouraging and diffusing them; his wisdom would
+      suggest to him the properest means of doing it, and the
+      energy of his mind would excite him to constant exertions.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      I. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Nothing that could be effected by a prince thus gifted and
+      disposed, was left untried by Charlemagne. He drew to him
+      the celebrated Alcuin, Peter of Pisa, Paul Warnefrid, and
+      many other distinguished literary characters: he heaped
+      favours upon them; and a marked distinction was always
+      shewn them at his court. He formed them into a literary
+      society, which had frequent meetings. Their conversation
+      was literary, he often bore a part in it; and, what was at
+      least equally gratifying, he always listened with a polite
+      and flattering attention while others spoke. To establish
+      perfect equality among them, the monarch, and, after his
+      example, the other members of this society, dropt their own
+      and adopted other names. Angelbert was called Homer, from
+      his partiality to that poet; Riculphus, archbishop of
+      Mentz, chose the name of Dam&eacute;tas, from an eclogue of
+      Virgil: another member took that of Candidus; Eginhard, the
+      Emperor's biographer, was called Calliopus, from the Muse
+      Calliope; Alcuin received, from his country, the name of
+      Albinus; the archbishop Theodulfe was called Pindar; the
+      abbot Adelard was called Augustine; Charlemagne, as the man
+      of God's own heart, was called David.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      800-911
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Emperor corresponded with men of learning, on subjects
+      of literature; they generally related to religion. In one
+      of his letters, he requires of Alcuin an explanation of the
+      words Septuagesima, Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima, which
+      denote the Sundays which immediately precede, and the word
+      Quadragesima, which denotes the first Sunday which occurs
+      in Lent. The denominations of those Sundays give rise to
+      two difficulties; one, that they seem to imply that each
+      week consists of ten, not of seven days; the other, that
+      the words sound as if Septuagesima were the seventieth,
+      when it is only the sixty-third day before Easter Sunday;
+      Sexagesima, as if it were the sixtieth, when it is only the
+      fifty-sixth; Quinquagesima, as if it were the fiftieth,
+      when it is the forty-ninth; Quadragesima, as if it were the
+      fortieth, when it is the forty-second. Alcuin's answer is
+      more subtle than satisfactory.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At the meals of Charlemagne some person always read to him.
+      His example was followed by many of his successors,
+      particularly by Francis I. of France, who, in an happier
+      era for learning, imitated with happier effects, the
+      example of the Emperor.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      I. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Alcuin was general director of all the literary schemes of
+      Charlemagne. He was an Englishman by birth; skilled both in
+      the Greek and Latin language, and in many branches of
+      philosophy. Having taught, with great reputation and
+      success, in his own country, he travelled to Rome. In 780,
+      Charlemagne attracted him to his court.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There, Alcuin gave lectures, and published several
+      treatises. In these, he began with Orthography; then
+      proceeded to Grammar; afterwards to Rhetoric, and
+      Dialectic. He composed his treatises in the form of
+      dialogues; and, as Charlemagne frequently attended them,
+      Alcuin made him one of his interlocutors. Few scholars of
+      Alcuin were more attentive than his imperial pupil; he had
+      learned grammar from Peter of Pisa; he was instructed in
+      rhetoric, dialectic, and astronomy by Alcuin. He also
+      engaged in the study of divinity; and had the good sense to
+      stop short of those subtleties, in which Justinian,
+      Heraclius, and other princes, unfortunately both for
+      themselves and their subjects, bewildered themselves.
+      Letters from Gis&eacute;la and Richtrudis, the daughters of
+      Charlemagne, to Alcuin, shew that they partook of their
+      father's literary zeal: his favourite study was astronomy.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      800-911.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The number of persons in his court, who addicted themselves
+      to pursuits of literature, was so great, and their
+      application so regular, that their meetings acquired the
+      appellation of "The School of Charlemagne." Their library
+      was at Aix-la-Chapelle, the favourite residence of the
+      monarch: but they accompanied him in many of his journies.
+      Antiquarians have tracked them at Paris, Thionville,
+      Wormes, Ratisbon, Wurtzburgh, Mentz, and Frankfort.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Charlemagne established schools in every part of his
+      dominions. In 787, he addressed a circular letter to all
+      the metropolitan prelates of his dominions, to be
+      communicated by them to their suffragan bishops, and to the
+      abbots within their provinces. He exhorted them to erect
+      schools in every cathedral and monastery. Schools were
+      accordingly established throughout his vast dominions: they
+      were divided into two classes; arithmetic, grammar, and
+      music were taught in the lower, the liberal arts and
+      theology in the higher.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      1. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In France, the abbeys of Corbie, Fontenelles, Ferrieres,
+      St. Denis, St Germain of Paris, St. Germain of Auxerre, and
+      St. Benedict on the Loire;-in Germany, the abbeys of Proom,
+      Fulda, and of St Gall;-in Italy, the abbey of Mount Casino,
+      were celebrated for the excellence of their schools. One,
+      for the express purpose of teaching the Greek language, was
+      founded by Charlemagne at Osnabruck. All were equally open
+      to the children of the nobility and the children of
+      peasants; all received the same treatment. It happened
+      that, on a public examination of the children, the peasant
+      boys were found to have made greater progress than the
+      noble. The Emperor remarked it to the latter, and declared
+      with an oath, that "the bishopricks and abbeys should be
+      given to the diligent poor." "You rely," he said to the
+      patrician youths, "on the merit of your ancestors; these
+      have already been rewarded. The state owes them nothing;
+      those only are entitled to favour, who qualify themselves
+      for serving and illustrating their country by their talents
+      and their merits."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      800-911.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The civil law then consisted of the Theodosian code, the
+      Salic, Ripuarian, Allemannic, Bavarian, Burgundian, and
+      other <i>codes</i>; and of the <i>formularies</i> of
+      Angesise and Marculfus. To these Charlemagne added his own
+      <i>capitularies</i>. The whole collection, in opposition to
+      the canon or ecclesiastical law, received the appellation
+      of <i>Lex Mundana</i>, or <i>worldly law</i>. The canon law
+      consisted of the code of canons which Charlemagne brought
+      with him from Rome in 784; a code of the canons of the
+      church of France; the canons inserted in the collection of
+      Angelram, bishop of Metz; the apostolic canons, published
+      by St. Martin, bishop of Braga; the capitularies of
+      Theodulfus, of Orleans; and the penitential canons,
+      published in the Spicilegium of d'Acheri.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_001_1'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_001_1'><sup>[001]</sup></a> To the study, both
+      of the canon and civil law, schools were appropriated by
+      Charlemagne: few, except persons intended for the
+      ecclesiastical state, frequented them. Rabanus Maurus,<a
+      name='FNanchor_002_2'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_002_2'><sup>[002]</sup></a> abbot of Fulda, and
+      afterwards archbishop of Mentz, has left an interesting
+      account of the studies of this period; it shews that all
+      were referred to theology, and only considered to be useful
+      so far as they could be made serviceable to sacred
+      learning. Such a plan of study could conduce but little to
+      the advancement of general literature or science. Still, it
+      was productive of good, and led to improvement.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      I.2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is observable that both antient and modern civilizers of
+      nations, have called music to their aid; among these we may
+      mention Charlemagne. In his residence at Rome, he was
+      delighted with the Gregorian chant. After his return to
+      Germany, he endeavoured to introduce it, both into his
+      French and German dominions. The former had a chant of
+      their own; they called it an improvement, but other nations
+      considered it a corruption of the Gregorian. Greatly
+      against the wish of Charlemagne, his Gallic subjects
+      persisted in their attachment to their national music; the
+      merit of it was gravely debated before the Emperor; they
+      vehemently urged the superiority of their own strains.
+      "Tell me," said the Emperor, "which is purer, the fountain
+      or the rivulet?" They answered, "the former." "Return ye,
+      then," (said the Emperor) "to St. Gregory: he is the
+      fountain, the rivulets are evidently corrupted." The
+      Emperor was obeyed, and the Gregorian chant was taught,
+      both in France and Germany, by Italian choristers. The
+      Italian writers of the times describe the difficulties
+      which they experienced in forming the rough and almost
+      untuneable voices of their French and German pupils to the
+      softness of the Gregorian song. They appear to have
+      succeeded better with the Germans than the French. By
+      these, their lessons were so soon and so completely
+      forgotten, after the decease of Charlemagne, that Lewis the
+      Debonnaire, his son, was obliged to request Pope Gregory
+      IV. to send him from Rome, a new supply of singers to
+      instruct the people.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But music continued to prosper in Germany; it abounded in
+      songs. Some were amatory, (<i>m&uuml;nnelier</i>); some
+      were satirical, (<i>cantica in malitiam</i>); some heroic,
+      (<i>cantica in honorem,</i>); some diabolical, (<i>cantica
+      diabolica</i>.) These consisted of incantations, and of
+      narratives of the feats of evil spirits.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      800-911.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Vernacular poetry, and vernacular composition, of every
+      kind, were almost wholly left to the vulgar; all, who aimed
+      at literary eminence, wrote in the Latin language. Some
+      discerning spirits became sensible that the German language
+      was susceptible of great improvement, and excited their
+      countrymen to its cultivation. Among these was Otfroid; he
+      translated the Gospel into German verse. He describes, in
+      strong terms, the difficulties which he had to encounter:
+      "The barbarousness of the German language is," he says, "so
+      great, and its sounds are so incoherent and strange, that
+      it is very difficult to subject them to the rules of
+      grammar, to represent them by syllables, or to find in the
+      alphabet letters which correspond to them." It is however
+      remarkable, that, although he complains of the dissonance
+      of the German language, he never accuses it of poverty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      While France and Germany continued subject to the same
+      monarch, German was the language of the court, and
+      generally used in every class of society. When the treaty
+      of Verdun divided the territories of Charlemagne, the
+      <i>Romande</i>, or <i>Roman&ccedil;e</i> language, a
+      corruption of the Latin, superseded the German in every
+      part of France: it was insensibly refined into the modern
+      French, but the German continued to be the only language
+      spoken in Germany.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Great progress was made in architecture: the churches and
+      palaces constructed by the direction of Charlemagne at
+      Aix-la-Chapelle, the Basilisc at Germani, the church of St.
+      Recquier at Ponthieu, and many other monuments of great
+      architectural skill and expense, belong to the age of
+      Charlemagne, and bear ample testimony to the well-directed
+      exertions of the monarch, and of some of his descendants,
+      and to their wise and splendid magnificence.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_I_3'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_1.3'>I. 3.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Decline of Literature under the Descendants of Charlemagne.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      800-911
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      I. 3. Decline of Literature under the Descendants of
+      Charlemagne.
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      That literature began to decline immediately after the
+      decease of Charlemagne, in every part of his extensive
+      dominions, and that its decline was principally owing to
+      the wars among his descendants, which devastated every
+      portion of his empire, seems to be universally
+      acknowledged; yet there are strong grounds for contending
+      that it was not so great as generally represented.
+      <i>Abb&eacute; le Beuf</i>,<a name='FNanchor_003_3'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_003_3'><sup>[003]</sup></a> in an excellent
+      dissertation on the state of the sciences in the Gauls
+      during the period which elapsed between the death of
+      Charlemagne and the reign of Robert, king of France,
+      attempts to prove the contrary; and the preliminary
+      discourses of the authors of "l'Histoire Literaire de la
+      France," on the state of learning during the ninth and
+      tenth centuries, strongly confirm the abb&eacute;'s
+      representations. It is surprising how many works were
+      written during these dark, and, as they are too harshly
+      called, ignorant ages. It is more to be wondered, that
+      while so much was written, so little was written well. The
+      classical works of antiquity were not unknown in those
+      times; the Latin Vulgate translation of the Old and New
+      Testament was daily read by the clergy, and heard by the
+      people. Now, although the language of the Vulgate be not
+      classical, it is not destitute of elegance, and it
+      possesses throughout the exquisite charms of clearness and
+      simplicity. It is surprising that these circumstances did
+      not lead the writers to a better style. They had no such
+      effect; the general style of the time was hard, inflated
+      and obscure. It should, however, be observed, that Simonde
+      de Sismondi, as he is translated by Mr. Roscoe, justly
+      observes, that "during the reign of Charlemagne, and during
+      the four centuries which immediately preceded it, there
+      appeared, both in France and Italy, some judicious
+      historians, whose style possesses considerable vivacity,
+      and who gave animated pictures of their times; some subtle
+      philosophers, who astonished their contemporaries, rather
+      by the fineness of their speculations than by the justness
+      of their reasoning; some learned theologians, and some
+      poets. The names of Paul Warnefrid, of Alcuin, of
+      Luitprand, and Eginhard, are even yet universally
+      respected. They all, however, wrote in Latin. They had all
+      of them, by the strength of their intellect, and the happy
+      circumstances in which they were placed, learned to
+      appreciate the beauty of the models which antiquity had
+      left them. They breathed the spirit of a former age, as
+      they had adopted its language: we do not find them
+      representatives of their contemporaries: it is impossible
+      to recognize in their style the times in which they lived;
+      it only betrays the relative industry and felicity with
+      which they imitated the language and thoughts of a former
+      age. They were the last monuments of civilized antiquity,
+      the last of a noble race, which, after a long period of
+      degeneracy, became extinct in them."
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_II_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_2.1'>II. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Boundaries and Devolution of the German Empire during the
+      Saxon Dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      911-1024.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      We have mentioned that, on the death of Lewis, the son of
+      Arnhold, the empire descended to Henry I. in the right of
+      his mother. From him, it devolved through Otho, surnamed
+      the Great, Otho II., and Otho III., to Henry II. the last
+      emperor of the Saxon line.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In this period of the German history, the attention of the
+      reader is particularly directed to two circumstances,-the
+      principal states, of which Germany was composed, the
+      cradles, as they may be called, of the present electorates,
+      and the erection of the principal cities and monasteries in
+      Germany.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      A curious altercation between Nicephorus Phocas, the Greek
+      emperor, and Luitprand bishop of Cremona, ambassador from
+      Otho I. to the Greek sovereign, shews the state of Germany
+      during this period. "Your nation," said the empire to the
+      ambassador, "does not know how to sit on horseback; or how
+      to fight on foot: your large shields, massive armour, long
+      swords, and heavy helmets, disable you for
+      battle."-Luitprand told the emperor that "he would, the
+      first time they should meet in the field, feel the
+      contrary." Luitprand observed, that "Germany was so little
+      advanced in ecclesiastical worth; that no council had been
+      held within its precincts:" the ambassador remarked, that
+      "all heresies had originated in Greece." The emperor
+      asserted, that "the Germans were gluttons and drunkards:"
+      Luitprand replied, that "the Greeks were effeminate." All
+      writers agree, that, in what each party to this
+      conversation asserted, there was too much truth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We have noticed the advance towards civilization which
+      Henry I, made by the construction of towns; he effected
+      another, by the introduction of tournaments and field
+      sports, on a large, orderly and showy plan. Speaking
+      generally, society in Germany during the Saxon line of its
+      princes, was always improving.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_II_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_2.2'>II. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty</i>.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      911-1024.
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      "In the school of Paderborn," says the biographer of
+      Meinwert, as he is cited by Schmidt, "there are famous
+      musicians, dialecticians, orators, grammarians,
+      mathematicians, astronomers and geometricians. Horace, the
+      great Virgil, Sallust, and Statius, are highly esteemed.
+      The monks amuse themselves with poetry, books and music.
+      Several are incessantly employed in transcribing and
+      painting."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A German translation of the Psalms, by Notker, a monk of
+      the abbey of St. Gall, shews that some attention was paid
+      to the language of the country. The Greek was cultivated;
+      the writers of the times mention several persons skilled in
+      it. Notker, in a letter to one of his correspondents,
+      informs him, that "his Greek brothers salute him."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Poetry was a favourite study: the celebrated
+      <i>Gerbert</i>, afterwards Pope Silvester II, and
+      <i>Waldram</i>, bishop of Strasburgh, were the best poets
+      of their times. Hroswith,<a name='FNanchor_004_4'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_004_4'><sup>[004]</sup></a> a nun in the
+      monastery of Gardersheim, published comedies: "Many
+      Catholics," she says, in her preface to them, "are guilty
+      of a fault, from which I myself am not altogether free;
+      they prefer profane works, on account of their style, to
+      the holy Scriptures. Others have the Scriptures always in
+      their hands, and despise profane authors; yet they often
+      read Terence, and their attention to the beauties of his
+      style does not prevent the objectionable passages in his
+      writings from making an impression on them."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To this age, the origin of Romances is usually assigned:
+      but these belong to the French; no specimen of them has
+      been discovered in Germany. Music was much cultivated.
+      Hroswith introduced it into her comedies.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It has been mentioned, that Sallust was read in the school
+      at Paderborn. It is supposed that Tacitus was known to
+      Wittikind or Dittmar: both relate visions, and several
+      puerile circumstances; but they write with precision, and
+      shew, on many occasions, great good sense.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The same cannot be said of the Legend-writers; the account
+      which the authors of "The Literary History of France" give
+      of them is very just. "The ancient legends," they say,
+      "were lost, in consequence either of the plunder or the
+      burning of the churches; it was considered necessary to
+      replace them, as it was thought impossible to honour the
+      memory, or to preserve the veneration of the saints,
+      without some knowledge of their lives. It is to be
+      remarked, that the saints, whose memories were thus sought
+      to be honoured, had been long dead, or had lived in foreign
+      countries, so that little was known of them except by oral
+      tradition. From this it may be easily guessed, that those
+      who employed themselves upon the legends, were deprived of
+      necessary information, and upon that account could not
+      produce exact and true histories. Thus, to the general
+      defects of the age in which they lived, they added
+      uncertainty, confusion, and some falsehood. Their pages
+      abound with visions. In the place of the simple and
+      natural, they substituted the wonderful and extraordinary.
+      It even happened too frequently that they took leave to
+      tell untruths. Heriger, the abbot of St Lupus, says, in
+      direct terms, that they piously lied."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      911-1024.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Dialectic was in great favour: it was called philosophy; no
+      work was more read than "the Book of Categories,"
+      erroneously ascribed to St. Augustine; and a work, upon the
+      same subject, imputed to Porphyry.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The schools of the cathedrals and principal monasteries
+      contributed essentially to the increase and diffusion of
+      literature. Among the monasteries, those of Fulda, St.
+      Gall, Corbie and Kershaw, were particularly renowned.
+      Bishops and abbots exerted themselves to procure books, and
+      to have copies of them made and circulated: they were often
+      splendidly illuminated. Henry I. caused a painting to be
+      made, of a battle which he had gained over the Hungarians.
+      Bernard, bishop of Hildersheim, in imitation of what he had
+      seen in Italy, ornamented the churches of his diocese with
+      mosaic paintings; he also introduced, among his countrymen,
+      the art of fusing and working metals; he caused precious
+      and highly ornamented vases to be made in imitation of the
+      antients. Large and small bells were cast; chalices,
+      patines, incensories, images, and even altars of gold and
+      silver, or ornamented with them, were fabricated. Aventin
+      relates, that at Mauverkirchen, in Bavaria, figures in
+      plaster, hardened by fire, had, in 948, been made of a duke
+      of Bavaria and his general.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      911-1024.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The establishment of schools, and the protection given to
+      the arts and sciences, invited the whole body of the nation
+      to the acquisition of useful and ornamental knowledge; but
+      the invitation was not even generally accepted. There was
+      much superstition in every order of the laity. An opinion
+      prevailed among them, that the world was to end, and the
+      day of judgment arrive, in the year 1000. An universal
+      panic spread itself over Europe. Strange to relate, the
+      people sought to avoid the catastrophe, by hiding
+      themselves in caverns and tombs.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The existence of this ignorance cannot be denied: but, to
+      the ecclesiastics, who strove against it, who erected and
+      fostered so many schools to dispel it, and who exerted
+      themselves in the manner we have mentioned, to establish
+      another and a better order of things, a great share of
+      praise and gratitude should never be denied.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The mines of Hartz were discovered in the time of Otho I.
+      and diffused so much wealth over Saxony, and afterwards
+      over all Germany, as gave the reign of that emperor the
+      appellation of "the age of gold." Before this time,
+      Nicephorus Phocas had called Saxony, from the dress, or
+      rather the coverings of its inhabitants, "the land of
+      skins." But all the wealth of the country still continued
+      to be concentrated among the great landowners.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_III_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_3.1'>III. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Boundaries and State of Germany during the Franconian
+      Dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1024-1138.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Under Henry III. the second prince of this line, the German
+      empire had its greatest extent. It comprised Germany,
+      Italy, Burgundy and Lorraine. Poland, and other parts of
+      the Sclavonian territories, were subject to it. Denmark and
+      Hungary acknowledged themselves its vassals.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The emperors affected to consider all kingdoms as forming a
+      royal republic, of which the emperor was chief. For their
+      right to this splendid prerogative, they always found
+      advocates in their own dominions: they reckon, among these,
+      the illustrious Leibniz. Out of Germany, nothing of the
+      claim, beyond precedence in rank, has ever been allowed.
+      This, no sovereign in Europe has contested with the
+      emperors: it is observable, that, as the French monarchs
+      insisted on the Carlovingian extraction of Hugh Capet, they
+      affected to consider Henry the Fowler the first prince of
+      the Saxon dynasty, and all his successors in the empire as
+      usurpers. Lewis XIV. expresses himself in this manner in
+      some memoirs recently attributed to him.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_III_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_3.2'>III. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      State of German Literature during the Franconian Dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      1024-1138.
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Throughout this period, commerce was always upon the
+      increase; and literature, science and art, increased with
+      it. The monuments of the antient grandeur of the eternal
+      city, began about this time to engage the attention of the
+      inhabitants of Germany, and to attract to Rome many
+      literary pilgrims. They returned home impressed with
+      admiration of what they had seen, and related the wonders
+      to their countrymen. "The gods themselves (they told their
+      hearers) behold their images in Rome with admiration, and
+      wish to resemble them. Nature herself does not raise forms
+      as beautiful as those, which the artist creates. One is
+      tempted to say that they breathe; and to adore the skill of
+      the artist rather than the inhabitant of Olympus
+      represented by his art." Thus the uncultivated Germans
+      began to perceive the beauty of these relics of antiquity,
+      and to feel the wish of imitation. This first appeared on
+      the seals of the emperors and bishops; several of
+      distinguished beauty have reached our times. The German
+      artists soon began to engrave on precious stones, and to
+      work in marble and bronze. Four statues of emperors of the
+      house of Saxony, of the workmanship of these times, are
+      still to be seen at Spires; they are rudely fashioned, but
+      are animated, and have distinct and expressive
+      countenances.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      III. 2. State of German Literature during the Franconian
+      Dynasty.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      When the emperors or nobility travelled, they were
+      frequently accompanied by artists. These sometimes made
+      drawings of foreign churches and edifices, and on their
+      return home, raised others in imitation of them. Thus the
+      cathedral at Bremen was built on the model of that of
+      Benevento. The cathedral of Strasburgh, and many other
+      churches, were built about this time.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Music was considerably improved; the system of Guido
+      Aretinus was no where understood better, or cultivated with
+      greater ardour, than in Germany. Some improvement was made
+      in poetry, but it chiefly appeared in the songs of the
+      common people. A monk of Togernsee, in Bavaria, composed a
+      collection of poems under the title of Bucolics; they
+      resemble those of Virgil only in their title. Lambert, of
+      Aschaffenburgh, published a history of his own times,
+      inferior to none which have reached us from the middle
+      ages.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      1024-1138
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Dialectic, however, still continued the favourite study;
+      and the art of disputation was never carried so far: the
+      interest which the public took in these disputes was
+      surprising. When it was announced that two celebrated
+      dialecticians were to hold a public dispute, persons
+      flocked from all parts to witness the conflict; they
+      listened with avidity, and with all the feelings of
+      partisans. This appears ridiculous; but, in the present
+      times, is there no <i>fancy</i> which deserves equal
+      ridicule?
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_IV_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_iv.1'>IV. 1</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      The State of Germany, from the beginning of the Suabian
+      Dynasty, till the Accession of the Emperor Charles V.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1138-1519.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The principal events in the reigns of the latter princes of
+      the Franconian, and of all the princes of the Suabian line,
+      were produced or influenced by the contests between the
+      popes and emperors, respecting investitures, or the right
+      of nominating to vacant bishoprics;-by the pretensions of
+      the popes to hold their antient territories independent of
+      the emperors;-or by the new acquisitions of the popes in
+      Italy.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      1264-1272.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      These contests reduced the empire to a state of anarchy,
+      which produced what is generally called, by the German
+      writers, the Great Interregnum. While it continued, six
+      princes successively claimed to be emperors of Germany.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      1272-1438.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The interregnum was determined by the election of Rodolph,
+      count of Hapsburgh. From him, till the ultimate accession
+      of the house of Austria, in the person of Albert the
+      Second, the empire was held by several princes of different
+      noble families.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      1438-1519.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Albert was succeeded by Frederick III.; Frederick, by
+      Maximilian I.; and Maximilian, by Charles V.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To the period between the extinction of the Suabian dynasty
+      and the accession of the emperor Albert, may be assigned
+      the rise of the Italian republics, particularly Venice,
+      Genoa and Florence; the elevations of the princes of Savoy
+      and Milan, and the revolutions of Naples, and the Two
+      Sicilies.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      IV. 1. The State of Germany, from the beginning of the
+      Suabian Dynasty till the Accession of the Emperor Charles
+      V.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The boundaries of Germany, during this period, were the
+      Eider and the sea, on the north; the Scheld, the Meuse, the
+      Saone and the Rhone, on the west; the Alps and the Rhine,
+      on the south; and the Lech and Vistula, on the east. They
+      contained,-1. The duchy of Burgundy; 2. The duchy of
+      Lorraine; 3. The principalities into which Allemmania and
+      Franconia were divided; 4. The Bavarian territories, which
+      the Franks had acquired in Rhoetia, Noricum, and Pannonia;
+      5. Saxony; 6. The Sclavic territories between the Oder and
+      the Vistula: these were possessed by the margraves of
+      Brandenburgh, and the dukes of Poland and Bohemia, and the
+      princes dependent upon them in Moravia, Silesia and
+      Lusatia;-7. by the provinces of Pomerania and Prussia, on
+      the east of Saxony; 8. and the Marchia Orientalis,
+      Oostrich, or Austria, on the east of Bavaria.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At first, the emperor was chosen by the people at large;
+      the right of election was afterwards confined to the
+      nobility and the principal officers of state: insensibly,
+      it was engrossed by the five great officers,-the
+      chancellor, the great marshal, the great chamberlain, the
+      great butler, and the great master of the palace. But their
+      exclusive pretensions were much questioned. At length,
+      their right of election was settled; first, by the
+      Electoral Union, in 1337; and finally, in the reign of the
+      emperor Charles IV. by the celebrated constitution, called,
+      from the seal of gold appended to it, <i>the Golden
+      Bull</i>. By this, the right of election was vested in
+      three spiritual and four temporal electors: two temporal
+      electors have since been added to their numbers.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_IV_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_iv.2'>IV. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>State of German literature during this period</i>.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      1438-1519
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      While the empire was possessed by the princes of the house
+      of Saxony, a copy of the Pandects of Justinian was
+      discovered at Amalfi. "The discovery of them," says Sir
+      William Blackstone, in his Introductory discourse to his
+      Commentaries, "soon brought the civil law into vogue all
+      over the west of Europe, where before it was quite laid
+      aside, and in a manner wholly forgotten; though some traces
+      of its authority remained in Italy, and the eastern
+      provinces of the empire.-The study of it was introduced
+      into many universities abroad, particularly that of
+      Bologna, where exercises were performed, lectures read, and
+      degrees conferred in this faculty, as in other branches of
+      science; and many nations of the continent, just then
+      beginning to recover from the convulsions consequent to the
+      overthrow of the Roman empire, and settling by degrees into
+      peaceable forms of government, adopted the civil law (being
+      the best written system then extant,) as the basis of their
+      several constitutions; blending or interweaving in it their
+      own feudal customs, in some places, with a more extensive,
+      in others, a more confined authority."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      IV. 2. State of German Literature, from the Suabian Dynasty
+      to Charles V.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This was a great step toward the civilization of Germany,
+      and of the other countries in which the institutions of the
+      civil law were thus introduced. They certainly tended to
+      animate the nations, by whom they were received, to the
+      study of the history and literature of the people from the
+      works of whose writers they had been compiled. They
+      produced this effect in several countries of Europe; but
+      their influence in Germany was very limited: the
+      disposition to subtilize, which was at that time universal
+      throughout the German empire, led those who cultivated
+      literature rather to refine upon what was before them, than
+      to new inquiries. The language of the Pandects is of the
+      silver age; it might therefore be expected, that it would
+      have improved the general style of the times; but this
+      improvement is seldom discernible.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      1438-1519
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      IV. 2. State of German Literature, from the Suabian Dynasty
+      to Charles V.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Good or evil is seldom unmixed: civil contests and
+      dissensions, generally produce both public and private
+      misery; sometimes, however, they generate mental
+      excitement. This is favourable to Literature and Science.
+      Its good effects appeared in the contests between the Popes
+      and the Emperors. Great were the public and the private
+      calamities which they caused, both in church and state; but
+      they promoted inquiry and intellectual exertions. These
+      were often attended with happy results. Irnerius, by birth
+      a German, had studied Justinian's law at Constantinople.
+      Towards the year 1130, he was appointed professor of civil
+      law at Bologna: the contests between the popes and the
+      emperors produced a warfare of words among the disciples of
+      Irnerius. It has been mentioned that the German emperors
+      pretended to succeed to the empire of the C&aelig;sars. The
+      language and spirit of the Justinianean code, being highly
+      favourable to this claim, the emperors encouraged the
+      civilians, and in return for it, had their pens at command.
+      The decree of Gratian was favourable to the pretensions of
+      the popes; and on this account was encouraged by the
+      canonists. Hence, generally speaking, the civilians were
+      partisans of the emperors, the canonists of the popes. From
+      their adherence to the law of Justinian, the former were
+      called Legist&aelig;; from their adherence to the decree of
+      Gratian, the latter were called Decretist&aelig;. The
+      controversy was carried on with great ardour and
+      perseverance; the schools both of Italy and Germany
+      resounded with the disputes, and in both, numerous tracts
+      in support of the opposite claims, were circulated. The
+      question necessarily carried the disputants to many
+      incidental topics: these equally increased the powers and
+      curiosity of the disputants, and stimulated them to better
+      and more interesting studies.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_V_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_v.1'>V. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Antient and Modern Geography of the Netherlands.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      We have thus brought down our historical deduction of the
+      German Empire to the accession of the Emperor Charles the
+      Fifth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      About 160 years before this event, that portion of the
+      empire, to which its situation has given the appellation of
+      THE NETHERLANDS, began to have a separate history, and both
+      a separate and important influence on the events of the
+      times. To them we shall now direct our attention.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These spacious territories are bounded on the north, by the
+      German Ocean; on the west, by the British Sea and part of
+      Picardy; on the south, by Champagne or Lorraine; on the
+      east, by the archbishoprics of Triers and Tr&ecirc;ves, the
+      dutchies of Juliers and Cl&eacute;ves, the bishopric of
+      Munster, and the county of Embden or East Friesland.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      V. 1. Antient and Modern Geography of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      When the Romans invaded Gaul, it was divided among three
+      principal clans: the Rhine then formed its western
+      boundary. The left banks of this river were occupied by the
+      Belgians: this tract of land now comprises the catholic
+      Netherlands, and the territory of the United States; the
+      right bank of the Rhine was then filled by the Frisians,
+      and now comprises the modern Gr&ouml;ningen, east and west
+      Friesland, a part of Holland, Gueldres, Utrecht, and
+      Overyssell: the Batavians inhabited the island which
+      derives its name from them; it now comprises the upper part
+      of Holland, Utrecht, Gueldres, and Overyssell, the modern
+      Cl&eacute;ves between the Lech and the Waal.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In antient geography, the Netherlands were separated into
+      the Cisrhenahan and Transrhenahan divisions: the
+      Cisrhenahan lay on the western side of the Rhine, and
+      included the Belgic Gaul; it was bounded by the Rhenus, the
+      Rhodanus, the Sequana, the Matrona, and the Oceanus
+      Britannicus: the Transrhenahan lay on the eastern side of
+      the Rhine; it was a part of Lower Germany, and bounded on
+      the north by the eastern Frisia, Westphalia, the
+      Ager-Colonensis, the Juliacensis-Ducatus, and the Treveri.
+      The classical reader will have no difficulty in assigning
+      to these denominations, their actual names in the language
+      of modern geography.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The whole of these territories is called the Netherlands by
+      the English; and Flanders by the Italians, Spaniards, and
+      French.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_V_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_v.2'>V. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>The formation of the different Provinces of the
+      Netherlands into one State</i>.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1363, John the Good, the king of France, gave to Philip
+      the Bold, his third son, the dutchy of Burgundy: it then
+      comprised the county of Burgundy, Dauphin&eacute;, and a
+      portion of Switzerland. The monarch at the same time
+      created his son duke of Burgundy. Thus Philip, became the
+      patriarch of the second line of that illustrious house.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      History does not produce an instance of a family, which has
+      so greatly aggrandized itself by marriage, as the house of
+      Austria. The largest part by far of the Netherlands was
+      derived to it, 1st, from Margaret of Franche Comt&egrave;;
+      2dly, from Margaret of Flanders; 3dly, from Jane of
+      Brabant; 4thly, from Mary of Burgundy; 5thly, from
+      Jacqueline of Holland; and 6thly, from Elizabeth of
+      Luxemburgh.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Formation of the Provinces of the Netherlands into one
+      State.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The possessions of the three first of these splendid
+      heiresses, descended to Margaret of Flanders. She married
+      Phillip the Bold, who, as we have just mentioned, was the
+      first of the modern Dukes of Burgundy. By this marriage, he
+      acquired, in right of his wife, the provinces of Flanders,
+      Artois, Mechlin, and Rhetel; and transmitted them and his
+      own dukedom of Burgundy to his son Charles the Intrepid.
+      From Charles, they descended to his son Philip the Good. He
+      purchased Namur; and by a transaction with Jacqueline of
+      Holland, acquired that province, Zealand, Hainault, and
+      Friesland. By other means, he obtained Brabant, Antwerp,
+      Luxemburgh, Limburgh, Gueldres, and Zutphen. On the failure
+      of issue male of Philip the Good, all these fourteen
+      provinces descended to Mary his only daughter. She married
+      the Emperor Maximilian. He had two sons by her, the Emperor
+      Charles V. and Ferdinand. The former acquired, by purchase
+      or force, Utrecht, Overyssell and Gr&ouml;ningen.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These territories formed what are generally called the
+      SEVENTEEN PROVINCES OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the language of the middle ages, they consisted of the
+      Dutchies of Brabant, Limburgh, Luxemburgh, and Gueldres;
+      the Earldoms of Flanders, Artois, Hainault, Holland,
+      Zealand, Namur, Zutphen, Antwerp, (sometimes called the
+      Marquisate of the Holy Empire) and the Lordships of
+      Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssell, and
+      Gr&ouml;ningen. Cambrai, the Cambresis, and the County of
+      Burgundy, though a separate territory, were considered to
+      be appendages, but not part of them.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_V_3'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_v.3'>V. 3.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Brief View of the History of the Netherlands, till the
+      acknowledgement of the Independence of the Seven United
+      Provinces by the Spanish Monarch.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The laws, the customs, and the government of all these
+      provinces were nearly alike: each had its representative
+      assembly of the three orders, of the clergy, nobility, and
+      burghers: each had its courts of justice; and an appeal
+      from the superior tribunal of each lay to the supreme court
+      at Mechlin.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Public and fiscal concerns of moment fell under the
+      cognizance of the sovereign. The people enjoyed numerous
+      and considerable privileges: the most important of them was
+      the <i>Droit de Joyeuse entr&eacute;e</i>, the right of not
+      being taxed without the consent of the three estates.
+      Commerce, agriculture, and the arts, particularly music and
+      painting, flourished among them. The people were honest,
+      frugal, regular and just in their general habits; more
+      steady than active; not easily roused; but, when once
+      roused, not easily appeased.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Charles V. made over his hereditary territories in Germany
+      to his brother Ferdinand; but retained the Netherlands, and
+      annexed them to the crown of Spain.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      With that crown, they descended to Philip the Second, the
+      only son of Charles.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Unwise and unjust measures of that monarch drove the
+      inhabitants into rebellion.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the 5th of April 1566, a deputation of 400 gentlemen,
+      with Lewis of Nassau, a brother of the prince of Orange, at
+      their head, presented a petition to Margaret of Austria,
+      the Governor of the Netherlands. From the coarseness of
+      their dress, they acquired the name of <i>gueux</i> or
+      <i>beggars</i>, and retained it throughout the whole of the
+      troubles which followed.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Calvinism had, before this time, made great progress in
+      these countries, and gained over to it numbers of the
+      discontented party. Philip proceeded to the most violent
+      measures, and sent the Duke of Alva, with an army of 20,000
+      men, into the Netherlands. William, Prince of Orange,
+      placed himself at the head of the malcontents, and raised
+      an army. At an assembly of the States of Holland and
+      Zealand in 1559, he was declared Stadtholder, or Governor
+      of Holland, Friesland, and Utrecht: Calvinism was declared
+      to be the religion of the States. In 1579, the three
+      provinces were joined by those of Gueldres, Zutphen,
+      Overyssell, and Gr&ouml;ningen. All signed, by their
+      deputies, the TREATY OF UNION; it became the basis of their
+      constitution: still, however, they acknowledged Philip for
+      their sovereign. But in 1581, the deputies of the United
+      States assembled at Amsterdam, subscribed a solemn act, by
+      which they formally renounced allegiance to Philip and his
+      successors, and asserted their independence. They declared
+      in their manifesto, that "the prince is made for the
+      people, not the people for the prince;" that "the prince,
+      who treats his subjects as slaves, is a tyrant, whom his
+      subjects have a right to dethrone, when they have no other
+      means of preserving their liberty;" that "this right
+      particularly belongs to the Netherlands; their sovereign,
+      being bound by his coronation oath to observe the laws,
+      under pain of forfeiting his sovereignty."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In 1584, the Prince of Orange was assassinated by Balthazar
+      Gerard, a Catholic fanatic: the war was continued till
+      1609, when it was suspended by a truce of twelve years. At
+      the expiration of it, the war burst forth with fresh fury:
+      it was finally terminated by the peace of Munster, or
+      Westphalia, in 1648, when the King of Spain acknowledged,
+      in the fullest manner, the INDEPENDENCE OF THE SEVEN UNITED
+      PROVINCES, and of all their possessions in Asia, Africa,
+      and America.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_V_4'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_v.4'>V. 4.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Their Constitution and principal Officers.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Constitution of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Thus the United Provinces became a confederacy of seven
+      independent principalities, called in the aggregate the
+      States General. Several years elapsed before their
+      constitution was finally settled. Then, the supreme
+      sovereignty of the whole was considered to be vested in the
+      people of every province represented by the States. These
+      consisted of deputies appointed to them from the different
+      provinces. Each province might send to the assembly more
+      than one deputy; but, whatever was the number of deputies
+      sent by them, they had one vote only in the proceedings of
+      the assembly. The government of each province was vested in
+      its states: these were composed of two orders, the deputies
+      from the towns, and those from the equestrian order.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Each province contained several independent republics.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The States General could not make war or peace, or enter
+      into alliances, or raise money, without the consent of all
+      the seven provinces; nor did the decrees of any one of the
+      States bind the constituent parts of it, without their
+      consent.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Constitution of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Stadtholder was appointed by the States General, and
+      held his office at their will. The offices of
+      captain-general and admiral were united in him: thus he had
+      the appointment of all military commands, both by sea and
+      land; and had considerable influence and power in the
+      nomination to civil offices. Three officers,-the
+      <i>treasurer, the conservator of the peace, and the grand
+      pensionary,</i> were appointed by the States General, and
+      were immediately subject to their controul; they were
+      wholly independent of the Stadtholder. The grand pensionary
+      was always supposed to be profoundly versed in civil,
+      ecclesiastical, and consuetudinary law; and in foreign
+      diplomacy. All transactions between subjects or foreigners
+      with the States General, passed through his hands. He
+      attended the deliberations of the States; he was not
+      entitled to vote, but was expected to sum up the arguments
+      on each side, and to deliver his opinion upon them. Each
+      province had its advocate, syndic or pensionary; a public
+      officer who superintended their public concerns; and
+      represented them, but only with a deliberative voice, in
+      the assembly of the States.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      We now reach the &aelig;ra, at which our intended biography
+      commences. A Literary History of the Netherlands, from the
+      time of their becoming subjects to the Dukes of Burgundy,
+      till this &aelig;ra, is much wanted.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_I'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c01'>CHAPTER I.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      THE BIRTH AND EDUCATION OF HUGO GROTIUS.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      1582-1597.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The Life of Erasmus, which we have offered to the public,
+      presents to its readers, the interesting spectacle of a
+      person, born under every, disadvantage for the acquisition
+      of literature, surmounting them all by his genius and
+      perseverance, and reaching, at an early age, the highest
+      summit of literary eminence: the Life of GROTIUS, which we
+      now attempt, exhibits the successful literary career of a
+      person, born with every advantage, undeviatingly availing
+      himself of them, and attaining equal eminence; with the
+      addition of high reputation for great political wisdom and
+      public integrity.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      His Birth and Education.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He was born at Delft, on the 10th April 1582. His parents
+      were John de Groote, and Alida Averschie. John was the
+      second son of Hugo de Groote by Elselinda Heemskirke. Hugo
+      was the son of Cornelius Cornet by Ermingarde, the daughter
+      and sole heiress of Diederic de Groote. Upon their
+      marriage, Diederic stipulated that Cornet should adopt the
+      surname of Groote: it signifies <i>Great</i>, and is said
+      to have been given to Diederic for some signal service,
+      which he had rendered to his sovereign. All the males and
+      females mentioned in the genealogy of Grotius were of noble
+      extraction.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Learning appears to have been hereditary in the family:
+      John, the father of Hugo, the subject of our biography, was
+      both a lawyer in great practice, and a general scholar.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The 10th of April, on which GROTIUS was born, was Easter
+      Sunday in that year: he always observed his birthday with
+      religious solemnity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All the biographers of Grotius assert, and their assertion
+      will be easily believed, that he discovered, in his
+      earliest years, great aptitude for the acquisition of
+      learning, great taste, judgment and application, and a
+      wonderful memory. He found, in his father, an excellent
+      tutor: by him, Grotius was instructed in the rudiments of
+      the Christian doctrine, and his infant mind impressed with
+      sound principles of morality and honour; in this, he was
+      aided by the mother of Grotius. The youth corresponded with
+      their cares. He has celebrated, in elegant verses, their
+      pious attention to his early education. The mention of
+      these verses will bring to the recollection of every
+      English reader, the magnificent strains, in which, Milton
+      addressed <i>his</i> father.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. I. 1582-1597.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As soon as Grotius had passed his childhood, he was placed
+      with Utengobard, an Arminian clergyman: we shall see that
+      this circumstance had a decisive influence upon his future
+      life. He retained a lasting regard for Utengobard, and a
+      grateful recollection of his obligations to him. At the age
+      of twelve years, Grotius was sent to the university of
+      Leyden, and committed to the care of Francis Junius. Here,
+      he distinguished himself so much by his diligence, his
+      talents, and his modesty, as to obtain the notice and
+      regard of several of the most famous scholars of the times.
+      Even Joseph Scaliger, equally distinguished by his learning
+      and caustic arrogance, noticed him, and condescended to
+      direct his studies. He was scarcely eleven years of age
+      when Douza, one of the princes of the republic of letters
+      in those times, celebrated his praises in verse: He
+      declared that "he could scarcely believe that Erasmus
+      promised so much as Grotius at his age:" he announced that
+      "Grotius would soon excel all his contemporaries, and bear
+      a comparison with the most leaned of the antients."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Grotius also gained the esteem of Barneveldt, the grand
+      pensionary, in whose fate he was afterward involved. In
+      1587, the Dutch sent Count Justin of Nassau and Barneveldt,
+      at the head of an embassy, to Henry IV. of France.
+      Barneveldt permitted Grotius to accompany him.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      His Birth and Education.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius had been preceded by his reputation. He was known
+      to M. de Busenval, the monarch's ambassador in Holland.
+      Busenval described him favourably to the monarch. Henry
+      gave Grotius a gracious reception, and was so pleased with
+      his conversation and demeanour, that he presented him with
+      his picture and a golden chain. Grotius gives an account of
+      this embassy, in the seventh book of his Annals: he
+      abstains, with a praiseworthy modesty, from any mention of
+      himself: but, in one of his poems, he dwells with
+      complacency on his having seen the monarch, "who owed his
+      kingdom only to his valour"-
+    </p>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>" ... <i>Le Heros, qui regna sur la
+      Fran&ccedil;e,</i></span><br>
+      <span><i>Et par droit de conqu&ecirc;te et par droit de
+      naissan&ccedil;e</i>."</span>
+    </div>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span class='c9'>VOLTAIRE, <i>Henriade</i>.</span><br>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius was so much pleased with his reception, and the
+      present which he received from Henry, that he caused a
+      print of himself, adorned with the chain presented to him
+      by Henry, to be engraved. He was introduced to many of the
+      most distinguished persons at Paris: there was one, whom he
+      particularly esteemed, but whom, from some unexplained
+      circumstance, he missed seeing.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Chap. 1. 1582-1597
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This was <i>the President de Thou</i>, a name never to be
+      mentioned without veneration. He had been employed by his
+      sovereign on many delicate and important commissions, and
+      had acquitted himself in all, with ability and honour. He
+      had filled the office of <i>Maitre des Requ&eacute;tes</i>,
+      and been advanced to that of <i>President a
+      Morti&eacute;r</i>. He was employed, at this time, upon his
+      immortal History. In the account which it gives of the
+      events, that took place in France, it is entitled to almost
+      unqualified praise: in regard to what happened to other
+      countries, he necessarily depended on the information which
+      he received from them, and cannot therefore be equally
+      relied upon. The prolixity, with which he is now
+      reproached, was not felt at the time in which he wrote;
+      every event, however small, was then thought to be
+      important, and multitudes were personally interested in it.
+      But the charm of his work is, that every page of it shews a
+      true lover of his country, an impartial judgment, and an
+      honourable mind. The memoirs, which he has left us of his
+      own life, recently translated into English by Mr.
+      Collinson, are interesting and entertaining. He collected a
+      very large library, both of printed books and manuscripts,
+      and had them splendidly bound. The whole was sold by
+      auction in the reign of Louis XIV, and scarcely produced
+      half the sum which the binding of its volumes had cost: The
+      same has been said of the Harleian collection, sold in our
+      times.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      His Birth and Education.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Having remained a twelvemonth at Paris, Grotius returned to
+      Holland. Immediately after his arrival, he addressed a
+      letter to the president de Thou, in which he expressed
+      great mortification at not having seen him, and requested
+      his acceptance of a book accompanying his letter, which he
+      had dedicated to the Prince of Cond&eacute;. The president
+      de Thou was highly pleased with this letter: a
+      correspondence took place between them. Grotius furnished
+      the president with materials for that portion of his
+      history which related to the troubles in the Low Countries.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the last letter of the President de Thou, in this
+      correspondence, he earnestly dissuades Grotius from
+      engaging in the religious disputes of the times. In reply
+      to it, Grotius respectfully intimates to the president,
+      that "he found himself obliged to enter into them by his
+      love of his country; his wish to serve his church, and the
+      request of those to whom he owed obedience:" promising, at
+      the same time, "to abstain from all disputes that were not
+      necessary." After the death of the President, Grotius
+      celebrated his memory in a poem, which was considered by
+      the bard's admirers to be one of his best performances.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_II'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c02'>CHAPTER II.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      GROTIUS EMBRACES THE PROFESSION OF THE LAW. HIS FIRST
+      PROMOTIONS.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1597-1610.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      In the ruin of the Roman Empire, her laws were lost in the
+      general wreck. During the 200 years, which followed the
+      reign of Constantine the Great, Europe was a scene of every
+      calamity, which the inroads of barbarians could inflict,
+      either on the countries through which they passed, or those
+      in which they settled. About the sixth century, Europe
+      obtained some degree of tranquillity, in consequence of the
+      introduction of feudalism; the most singular event in the
+      annals of history. At first, it produced a general anarchy;
+      but the system of subordination upon which it was grounded,
+      contained in it the germ of regular government, and even,
+      of jurisprudence. Its effects were first visible in the
+      <i>various codes of law</i> which the barbarous nations
+      promulgated. Such are the Salic, the Ripuarian, the
+      Alemannic, the Burgundian, the Visigothic, and the Lombard
+      laws.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Feudal Jurisprudence.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      A complicated or refined system of jurisprudence is not to
+      be looked for in them; but, if they are considered with due
+      regard to the state of society for which they were
+      calculated, they will be found to contain much that
+      deserves praise. The <i>capitularies</i>, or short
+      legislative provisions, propounded by the sovereign, and
+      adopted by the public assemblies of the nation, were a
+      further advance in legislation. By degrees, so much
+      regularity prevailed in the judicial proceedings and legal
+      transactions, that they were regulated by established
+      <i>formularies</i>; and, in addition to those provisions,
+      every nation contained a collection of unwritten usages or
+      <i>customs</i>, which had the force of law. The natural
+      tendency of these institutions to introduce order and
+      peaceful habits into society was great; but it was so much
+      counteracted by the turbulent spirit of every class of men,
+      that it was not till the beginning of the thirteenth
+      century that this effect of them became discernible.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. II. 1597-1610
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      From this time, the governments of Europe sensibly
+      improved. A better spirit of legislation shewed itself; the
+      administration of justice became more regular; trade and
+      husbandry were protected, several arts were encouraged; and
+      a general wish for a better order of things prevailed in
+      every part of Europe. While the public mind was in this
+      state of improvement, an event fortunately happened, which
+      gave it a very salutary direction. This was, (what we have
+      already noticed), the discovery of a complete copy of the
+      <i>Pandects of Justinian</i> at Amalfi, a town in Italy,
+      near Salerno. From Amalfi, it found its way to Pisa; and in
+      1406, was carried to Florence, where it has since remained.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Civil Law
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Few events in history can be mentioned which have conduced
+      more to the welfare of Europe than this discovery. The
+      codes, the capitularies, the formularies, and the customs,
+      by which, till that time, the feudal nations had been
+      governed, fell very short of affording them the legal
+      provisions, which society, in the improved state of
+      civilization, to which it was then advancing, evidently
+      required. Unexpectedly, a system of law presented itself,
+      which seemed to contain every thing that the most
+      enlightened men of those times could have desired. The
+      wisdom and justice of the system of law expressed in the
+      Pandects seem to have been universally felt. The study of
+      it was immediately pursued with ardour. It was introduced
+      into several universities; exercises were performed,
+      lectures read, and degrees conferred in that, as in other
+      branches of science; and most of the nations of the
+      continent adopted it, if not as the basis, at least as an
+      important portion of their civil jurisprudence. A regular
+      <i>succession of civil</i> lawyers followed. At first, they
+      rather incumbered the text with their subtleties, than
+      illustrated it by learning and discrimination. <i>Andrew
+      Alciat</i> was the first who united the study of polite
+      learning with the study of the civil law: he was founder of
+      a school called the <i>Cujacian</i>, from <i>Cujas</i>, the
+      glory of civilians. Of him, it may be truly said, that he
+      found the civil law in wood and left it in marble.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This school has subsisted until our time: it has never been
+      without writers of the greatest taste, judgment and
+      erudition; the names of Cujacius, Augustinus, the
+      Gothofredi, Heineccius, Voetius, Vinnius, Gravina and
+      Pothier, are as dear to the scholar as they are to the
+      lawyer; an Englishman however must reflect with pleasure,
+      that the Commentaries of his countryman, Sir William
+      Blackstone, will not suffer in a comparison with any
+      foreign work of jurisprudence. So far as the researches of
+      the present writer extend, the only one that can be put
+      into competition with them, is the <i>Jus Canonicum of
+      Van-Espen</i>.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. II. 1597-1610
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The judicial process of the nations on the continent
+      differed considerably from that of England. Trial by jury,
+      and separate courts of equity, were unknown to them. Some
+      causes were heard and decided by all the magistrates of the
+      courts; others were referred to one or more of their
+      number. The king's advocate, or the advocate of the state,
+      as he was termed in a republic, held a situation between
+      the judges and the suitors: his province was to sum the
+      facts and arguments of the cause, and to suggest his
+      opinions upon them to the judges.-We trust our readers will
+      excuse this summary view of foreign jurisprudence.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Grotius, by the advice of his father, addicted himself to
+      the profession of the law. He was only in his seventeenth
+      year, when he pleaded his first cause. He acquired by it,
+      great reputation; and this was constantly upon the
+      increase, through the whole of his professional career. He
+      observed in his pleadings a rule, which he afterwards
+      recommended to his son: "That you may not," he told him,
+      "be embarrassed by the little order observed by the
+      adversary counsel, attend to one thing, which I have found
+      eminently useful: Distribute all that can be said on both
+      sides, under certain heads; imprint these strongly in your
+      memory; and, whatever your adversary says, refer it not to
+      his division, but to your own."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Grotius embraces the profession of the Law.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The brilliant success of Grotius at the bar soon procured
+      him very considerable promotions. The place of
+      Advocate-General of the Fisc of the provinces of Holland
+      and Zealand becoming vacant, it was unanimously conferred
+      on him. This situation was attended with great distinction
+      and authority; the person invested with it, being charged
+      with the preservation of the public peace, and the
+      prosecution of public offenders. In 1613, Grotius was
+      advanced to the situation of Pensionary of Rotterdam; and
+      his high character authorized him to stipulate before he
+      accepted it, that he should hold it during his life, and
+      not, at will, its usual tenure. It immediately gave him a
+      seat in the assembly of the States of Holland; and, at a
+      future time, a seat in the assembly of the States General.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Between the time of his appointment to the advocacy of the
+      Fisc of Holland and Zealand, and his being appointed
+      Pensionary of Rotterdam, he married Mary Reygersburgh, of
+      an illustrious family in Zealand. It proved a marriage of
+      happiness. The most perfect harmony subsisted between
+      Grotius and his consort: we shall find that she was an
+      ornament to him in prosperity, his comfort and aid in
+      adverse fortune. The marriage was solemnized in July 1608,
+      and celebrated by many a Belgic bard.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP II. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      A dispute arising about this time between England and the
+      States General, upon the exclusive right claimed by the
+      former to fish in the Northern seas, the States, with a
+      view to an amicable adjustment of it, sent Grotius to
+      England. Several meetings took place between him and
+      commissioners appointed by James, the British sovereign. If
+      we credit the account, given by Grotius, of the point in
+      dispute, and the negociation to which it gave rise, justice
+      was decidedly on the side of the States General; and
+      England only carried the point by the lion's right,-the
+      <i>droit du plus fort</i>.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Grotius embraces the profession of the Law.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius had every reason to be pleased with his reception
+      by the English monarch and his court. Between Grotius and
+      Casaubon, who, at this time, resided in England, an
+      intimacy had long subsisted. It was cemented by mutual
+      esteem, similarity of studies, and the earnest wish of each
+      for an amicable termination of religious differences: each
+      respected the antient doctrines and discipline of the
+      church; each thought that many of the points in controversy
+      were disputes of words; that much might be gained by mutual
+      concessions; and that the articles, upon which there was
+      any substantial difference, were few. "I esteem Grotius
+      highly,"-Casaubon writes in a letter to the president de
+      Thou, "on account of his other great qualities; but
+      particularly because he judges of the modern subjects of
+      religious controversy like a learned and good man. In his
+      veneration for antiquity, he agrees with the wisest men."
+      ... "I heartily pray God," says Casaubon in a letter to
+      Grotius, "to; preserve you: as long as I shall live, I
+      shall hold you in the highest esteem: so much am I taken
+      with your piety, your probity, and your admirable
+      learning."<a name='FNanchor_005_5'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_005_5'><sup>[005]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_III'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c03'>CHAPTER III.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      THE EARLY PUBLICATIONS OF GROTIUS.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      There is not, perhaps, an instance of a person's acquiring
+      at an age equally early, the reputation, which attended the
+      first publication of Grotius. It was an edition, with
+      notes, of the work of "<i>Martianus Mineus Felix
+      Capella</i>, on the Marriage of Mercury and Philology, in
+      two books; and of the same writer's Seven Treatises on the
+      Liberal Arts." They had been often printed; but all the
+      editions were faulty: a manuscript of them having been put
+      into the hands of Grotius by his father, he communicated it
+      to Scaliger, and by his advice undertook a new edition of
+      them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The time, in which Capella lived, and the place of his
+      birth, are uncertain; the better opinion seems to be, that
+      he flourished towards the third century, resided at Rome,
+      and attained the consular dignity. His works are written in
+      prose, intermixed with poetry. His diction has some
+      resemblance to that of Tertullian, but is much more crabbed
+      and obscure: none, but the ablest Latin scholars, can
+      understand him. The Marriage of Mercury and Philology,-or
+      of Speech with Learning, is not uninteresting. His other
+      treatises contain nothing remarkable: that upon music, is
+      hardly intelligible; it is printed separately in the
+      collection of <i>Meibomius</i>. With all his harshness and
+      obscurity, Capella seems to have been much studied in the
+      middle ages,-some proof that there was more learning in
+      them, than is generally supposed,-he is so often quoted by
+      the writers of those times, that some persons have supposed
+      that his work was then a text book in the schools.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The early publications of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. III. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      When Grotius undertook his edition of Capella, he was only
+      twelve years of age: he published it in his fourteenth
+      year, and dedicated it to the Prince of Cond&eacute;. The
+      learning and critical discernment displayed by him in this
+      publication excited astonishment, and obtained for him the
+      applause of all the literary world. Grotius himself gives
+      the following account of his work: "We have collated
+      Capella with the several authors, who have investigated the
+      same subjects. In the two first books, we have consulted
+      those whose writings contain the sentiments of the antient
+      philosophers, as Apuleius, Albericus and others, too
+      tedious to name; on grammar, we have compared, Capella with
+      the antient grammarians; in what he has said on rhetoric,
+      with Cicero and Aquila; on logic, with Porphyry, Aristotle,
+      Cassiodorus and Apuleius; on geography, with Strabo, Mela,
+      Solinus, and Ptolemy, but chiefly Pliny; on arithmetic,
+      with Euclid; on astronomy, with Hyginus, and others, who
+      have treated on that subject; on music, with Cleonides,
+      Vitruvius and Boethius." In Grotius's Annotations all these
+      writers are mentioned in a manner, which shews that he was
+      thoroughly conversant with their works. Grotius's edition
+      is become, from its extreme scarcity, a typographical
+      curiosity: all the other editions are scarce. The writer of
+      these pages found, with great difficulty, a copy of it in
+      the London market.<a name='FNanchor_006_6'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_006_6'><sup>[006]</sup></a> That of Bonhomme,
+      published at Lyons in 1539, he procured by loan. The
+      celebrated Leibniz began to prepare an edition of Capella
+      <i>in usum Delphini</i>; but his collections being
+      purloined from him, he desisted from his project: it must
+      be owned that the general learning of Leibniz qualified him
+      admirably for such a task.<a name='FNanchor_009_9'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_009_9'><sup>[009]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The early Publications of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      While yet in his fourteenth year, Grotius published a
+      translation of a work, published by Simon Steven in 1586,
+      upon Navigation, and shewed by it a profound knowledge of
+      mathematics:<a name='FNanchor_010_10'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_010_10'><sup>[010]</sup></a> he dedicated it to
+      the republic of Venice.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. III. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the following year, Grotius published <i>the Phenomena
+      of Aratus</i>, a poetical treatise of that author upon
+      astronomy, with Cicero's translation of it, so far as it
+      has reached us. Grotius supplied the vacancies. It is
+      universally admitted that the parts supplied by him, are
+      not inferior to those of Cicero. The abb&eacute; d'Olivet,
+      the editor of Cicero's works, and an enthusiastic admirer
+      of his style, declares that "the Muse of Cicero<a name=
+      'FNanchor_011_11'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_011_11'><sup>[011]</sup></a> did not throw the
+      Muse of Grotius into the shade:" he therefore inserted the
+      supplementary verses of Grotius in his edition. Grotius
+      dedicated his work to the States of Holland and West
+      Friseland; and promised them in his dedication something
+      more considerable. He was complimented upon it by several
+      of the greatest men of the age.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The following simile, taken from Cicero's translation of
+      Aratus, and Voltaire's version of it, are greatly admired:
+    </p>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>Sic Jovis altisoni subito pennata
+      satelles,</span><br>
+      <span>Arboris &egrave; trunco, serpentis saucia
+      morsu;</span><br>
+      <span>Ipsa feris subigit transfigens unguibus
+      anguem</span><br>
+      <span>Semianimum, et vari&acirc; graviter cervice
+      micantem;</span><br>
+      <span>Quem se intorquentem laniens rostroque
+      craentans,</span><br>
+      <span>Abjicit efflantem, et laceratum effundit in
+      undas,</span><br>
+      <span>Seque obitu a solis nitidos convertit ad
+      ortus.</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span class='c9'><i>CICERO.</i></span>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+
+    </p>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>Tel on voit cet oiseau, qui porte le
+      tonnere,</span><br>
+      <span>Bless&eacute; par un serpent &eacute;lanc&eacute; de
+      la terre;</span><br>
+      <span>Il s'envole, il entraine au sejour
+      azur&eacute;</span><br>
+      <span>L'ennemi tortueux dont il est
+      entour&eacute;.</span><br>
+      <span>Le sang tombe des airs: il dechire, il
+      devore</span><br>
+      <span>Le reptile acharn&eacute;, qui le combat
+      encore;</span><br>
+      <span>Il le per&ccedil;e, il le tient sous ses ongles
+      vainqeurs,</span><br>
+      <span>Par cent coups r&eacute;doubl&eacute;s il venge ses
+      douleurs;</span><br>
+      <span>Le Monstre en expirant, se debat, se
+      replie;</span><br>
+      <span>Il exhale en poison le reste de sa vie;</span><br>
+      <span>Et l'aigle tout sanglant, fier et
+      victorieux,</span><br>
+      <span>Le rejette en fureur, et plane au haut des
+      cieux.</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span class='c9'><i>VOLTAIRE.</i></span>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The early Publications of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      About the year 1608, Grotius published his celebrated work
+      <i>Mare Liberum</i>, to assert in it against the English,
+      the general freedom of the sea. The controversy arose upon
+      the claim of Great Britain to enjoy the dominion of the
+      British seas, in the most extensive sense of those words,
+      both as to the right of navigating them, and the right of
+      fishing within them. Against this claim, Grotius attempted
+      to shew that the sea was, from its nature, insusceptible of
+      exclusive right; and that, if it were susceptible of it,
+      England did not prove her title to it. Selden, in
+      opposition to Grotius, asserted the British claim, by his
+      treatise <i>Mare Clausam</i>,-a noble exertion of a
+      vigorous mind, fraught with profound and extensive
+      erudition. It is pleasing to add, that he treats Grotius
+      with the respect due to his learning and character.
+      Selden's treatise was thought of so much importance to his
+      cause, that a copy of it was directed to be deposited in
+      the British Admiralty. Grotius was highly pleased with the
+      respect, which was shewn to him by Selden.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On Selden's <i>Mare Clausum</i> he composed the following
+      epigram:-
+    </p>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>Ipsum compedibus qui vinxerat
+      Ennegis&aelig;um,</span><br>
+      <span class='c10'><i>Est Grec&acirc; Xerxes multus in
+      historia:</i></span><br>
+      <span>Lucullum Latii Xerxem dixere togatum;</span><br>
+      <span class='c10'><i>Seldenus Xerxes ecce Britannus
+      erit.</i></span><br>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. III. 1597-1610
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The States General were gratified by his work; but at that
+      time it was so much their interest to preserve the
+      strictest amity with England, that they discountenanced any
+      further advocation of their claim.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_012_12'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_012_12'><sup>[012]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The year after his publication of his "Treatise on the
+      Freedom of the Sea," Grotius printed his work on the
+      "<i>Antiquity of the Batavian Republic</i>." He gives in it
+      an account of the antient <i>Batavians;</i> he professes to
+      shew that they were the allies, not the subjects of the
+      Romans; that, after a period of anarchy, during which
+      little is known of their history, they became subjects of
+      the Counts of Holland; that these were not vassals of the
+      empire, but independent princes; and, strictly speaking,
+      elected by the people, although, in the election of them,
+      great regard was always shewn to the hereditary line: that
+      they were bound to conform to the laws of the state; and
+      always required, before their election, to swear to the
+      observance of the constitution; that the taxes were always
+      imposed by the States, and that Philip the Second had
+      occasioned the grand war, by repeated infractions of the
+      public and private right of the people of the United
+      Provinces.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The early Publications of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The States of Holland were highly pleased with this work;
+      they voted thanks to its author, and accompanied them with
+      a present. It is considered that his partiality to his
+      country led him to advance some positions favourable to its
+      antient independence, which his proofs did not justify.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      For the use of <i>Du Maurier</i>, the French ambassador to
+      the States General, Grotius published, about this time, his
+      "Directions for a Course of general Study," <i>De omni
+      genere studiorum recte instituendo</i>. It was favourably
+      received, both by the diplomatist for whose use it was
+      composed, and the public at large; but, on account of the
+      great extension of literature, since the time of Grotius,
+      it is now little read. Mentioning the Roman history, he
+      shews that a knowledge of it is better acquired by reading
+      its Greek than by reading its Latin historians; because
+      foreigners give more attention to the public manners and
+      customs of a country than natives.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. III. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      All the works, which we have mentioned, were most
+      favourably received in every part of the United Provinces.
+      It was now become evident that the exertions for their
+      independence were on the eve of being crowned with complete
+      success. All the European Powers had deserted Spain, so
+      that she was left to her own single and unaided strength,
+      to maintain the contest against the insurgent provinces.
+      The glory, which they acquired by their successful
+      resistance to her, determined them to make choice of an
+      historian, who should transmit to future ages the signal
+      exploits of their memorable struggle. With this view, they
+      appointed Grotius their historiographer.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Poems of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It remains to mention the "<i>Poems of Grotius:</i>"
+      throughout his life, he sacrificed to the Muses. The
+      <i>Prosopopoeia,</i> in which he introduces the City of
+      Ostend addressing the world, when, in the third year of her
+      siege, the Marquis Spinola led the troops of Spain against
+      her, was greatly, admired. All the adjacent territory had
+      been taken by the Spaniards, so that nothing remained of it
+      to the confederates, but the precinct within the walls of
+      the city; and even much of this had been wrested from the
+      besieged. All Europe had its eye fixed on the operations of
+      Spinola. It is therefore, with great propriety of language,
+      that Grotius makes Ostend thus address herself to the
+      world, in the following lines:-
+    </p>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>"Area parva ducum, totus quam respicit
+      orbis;</span><br>
+      <span>Celsior una malis, et quam damnare ruinae</span><br>
+      <span>Nunc quoque fata timent,-alieno in litore
+      resto.</span><br>
+      <span>Tertius annus abit; toties mutavimus
+      hostem:</span><br>
+      <span>S&aelig;vit hyems pelago, morbisque furentibus
+      &aelig;stas;</span><br>
+      <span>Et minimum est quod fecit Iber,-crudelior
+      armis</span><br>
+      <span>In nos orta lues,-nullum est sine funere
+      funus.</span><br>
+      <span>Nec perimit mors una semel:-Fortuna quid
+      haeres?</span><br>
+      <span>Qu&acirc; mercede tenes mixtos in sanguine
+      manes?</span><br>
+      <span>Quis tumulos moriens hos occupet hoste
+      perempto?</span><br>
+      <span>Queritur,-et sterili tantum de pulvere pugna
+      est."</span>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>"A small area of chiefs, whom the whole world
+      contemplates;</span><br>
+      <span>alone loftier than my woes; I, whom the</span><br>
+      <span>Fates even yet, fear to condemn to ruin;-remain on a
+      foreign shore.</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span>"The third year now passes away; thrice has my foe
+      been changed:</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span>"The winter rages on the sea; the summer, by its
+      furious heats.</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span>"The Spaniard has been my least enemy;-more
+      cruel</span><br>
+      <span>than arms, a pestilence has risen among us; no
+      funeral is</span><br>
+      <span>without another; the dying never perish by a single
+      death.</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span>"Fortune! why do'st thou hesitate? By what
+      reward</span><br>
+      <span>do'st thou detain the manes mingled in
+      blood?</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span>"Who, dying, will, after the destruction of the
+      enemy,</span><br>
+      <span>occupy these tombs?-This is enquired.-</span><br>
+      <span>The contest is only for sterile dust."</span><br>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      With the following poetical translation of these verses,
+      the writer has been favoured by Mr. Sotheby, the elegant
+      translator of "Oberon."
+    </p>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>Scant battle-field of Chiefs, thro' earth
+      renown'd,</span><br>
+      <span>Opprest, I loftier tow'r;-and, now, while
+      Fate</span><br>
+      <span>Dreads to destroy, in foreign soil I
+      stand.</span><br>
+      <span>Thrice chang'd the year, thrice have we chang'd the
+      Foe.</span><br>
+      <span>Fierce Winter chafes the Deep, the Summer
+      burns</span><br>
+      <span>With fell disease: less fell th' Iberian
+      sword.</span><br>
+      <span>Dire Pestilence spreads;-on funerals funerals
+      swell:</span><br>
+      <span>Nor does one death at once extirpate all.</span><br>
+      <span>Why, Fortune! linger? why our souls detain</span><br>
+      <span>With blood immingled? Who, the Foe
+      extinct,</span><br>
+      <span>Who, dying, shall these sepulchres
+      possess,</span><br>
+      <span>And in this sterile dust the conflict
+      close?</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span class='c9'><i>W.S.</i></span><br>
+      <span class='c11'><i>March 28,1826.</i></span><br>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. III. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These verses produced a great sensation in the literary
+      world: they were ascribed by many to Scaliger, as the best
+      Latin poet of the age; the only person considered to be
+      capable of writing them. The celebrated Peyresck hinted
+      this to that learned man: Scaliger answered, that "he was
+      too old not to be the aversion of the virgins of Helicon,"
+      and announced that the verses were written by Grotius. They
+      were translated into French by Du Vair, afterwards the
+      keeper of the seals; by Rapin, grand-provost of the
+      Constabulary of France; by Stephen Pasquier, and by
+      Malherbes: Casaubon translated them into Greek.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_013_13'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_013_13'><sup>[013]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Poems of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Three Generals had successively been entrusted with the
+      siege of Ostend; nine commanders had successively been
+      entrusted with its defence: the siege had cost the
+      besiegers and besieged 100,000 lives: all the historians of
+      the times agree, that few important consequences were
+      derived to either side by the success of the Spaniards. The
+      Archduke and Infanta, had the curiosity to view the city,
+      after it was taken. They found in it nothing but heaps of
+      ruins: little that shewed the former state of the town; its
+      ditches were filled, its fortifications overthrown, its
+      buildings, and the works of attack and defence, were
+      levelled with the ground. Spinola led them to the spots in
+      which the most remarkable events had taken place; and,
+      finally to that, in which the forces of the besieged had
+      made their last stand; had, for want of space, found
+      themselves unable to raise military works, and had, on that
+      account, found themselves forced to surrender. The Archduke
+      and the Infanta were moved to tears at the melancholy
+      sight; and declared that such a victory was not worth its
+      cost.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. III. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The success of the siege of Ostend covered Spinola with
+      glory: his reply to a person, who asked him,-who, in his
+      opinion was the greatest general of the age,-is generally
+      known: "Prince Maurice," he said, "is the second."<a name=
+      'FNanchor_014_14'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_014_14'><sup>[014]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The principal poetical performances of Grotius in the
+      collection we have mentioned, are-<i>three tragedies</i>,
+      "Adam in Banishment," "Christ Suffering," and
+      "Sophomphaneos," which signifies in the language of Egypt,
+      "the Saviour of the world:" it exhibits the story of
+      Joseph. Sandys translated it into English verse, and
+      dedicated his translation to Charles I. From the second of
+      these tragedies, Lauder transcribed many of the verses,
+      upon which he founded the charge of plagiarism against
+      Milton.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      An eminent rank among modern Latin poets, has always been
+      assigned to Grotius: his diction is always classical, his
+      sentiments just. But those who are accustomed to the
+      <i>wood notes</i> of the Bard of Avon, will not admire the
+      scenic compositions, however elegant or mellifluous, of the
+      Batavian Bard.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_IV'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c04'>CHAPTER IV.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THEIR
+      DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, TILL THE ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The present chapter will lead our readers to the public
+      life of Grotius: in a former page we succinctly mentioned
+      the principal events in the history of the United
+      Provinces, from their first insurrection against Philip II.
+      till their declaration of independence. On that event, they
+      continued Prince William of Orange in the Stadtholderate:
+      he was entitled to it by his civil and military talents.
+      Application, activity, liberality, eloquence, intrepidity,
+      enterprise and discretion, were united in him in an
+      extraordinary degree: he could accommodate himself to all
+      persons and occurrences, accelerate or retard events, as
+      best served the interests of his cause, or his own designs.
+      In the rare talent of governing popular assemblies, and
+      procuring the co-operation of persons of opposite views, he
+      has had few equals. He wanted no quality, which a chief of
+      a party should possess, either to insure the success of the
+      public object, or to further his private aims.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. IV. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These had, for some time, been suspected: it was generally
+      observed, that he affected the exercise of sovereign
+      authority; that he endeavoured to attach the military to
+      his own person; that he always sought to have the acts of
+      the States issued in his own name; that, on many occasions,
+      he avoided consulting the States, or doing any thing which
+      could be considered an explicit recognition of their
+      supremacy; and that in several instances, in which the
+      constitution required the co-operation of the States, he
+      acted independently of them. This gave rise to a party,
+      which was jealous of his power, and on many occasions
+      thwarted, what they thought the projects of his private
+      ambition. From their attachment to the constitution, they
+      were termed the republican party: Barneveldt, the
+      Grand-Pensionary of the States General, was their leader.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Assassination of William Prince of Orange.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Whatever were the projects of the prince, there appeared to
+      be great probability of their ultimate success. In 1684, he
+      had gained so for, that the States of Holland, Zealand and
+      Frizeland, had come to a resolution to confer upon him the
+      sovereignty of their states, under the title of Count. All
+      the conditions were settled: on one hand, the rights of the
+      prince, on the other, the rights of the people, were
+      defined and recognised; a contravention of them by any of
+      the people was declared to be treason; the infringement of
+      them by the prince, was declared to be a forfeiture of his
+      sovereignty. Thus the prince seemed to be on the eve of
+      receiving the fruit of all his exertions. But, as we have
+      already mentioned, he was assassinated by Balthazar Gerard,
+      a fanatic Spaniard. The last words of the prince were,
+      "Lord! have mercy on my soul! have pity on my poor
+      country!"
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In 1585, Prince Maurice, the second son of William, was,
+      chiefly by the influence of Barneveldt, proclaimed
+      Stadtholder by the States General. They were not less
+      jealous of his views, than they had been of his father's;
+      but the misconduct of the Earl of Leicester had made it
+      necessary for them to throw themselves into the prince's
+      arms. The weakness of Spain, and the troubles in France,
+      now permitted the United Provinces to enjoy some repose.
+      They availed themselves of it, to settle the constitution:
+      the towns were repaired, the fortifications completed,
+      Universities were founded or revived at Utrecht, Leyden and
+      Franker; and the arts of peace began to be cultivated.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. IV. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Maurice inherited all the civil talents of his father; he
+      had greater military skill, and at least equal ambition.
+      The art of war seems to consist, at the present time, in
+      directing immense masses of men, by skilful evolutions and
+      positions, to the destruction of the force opposed. In the
+      wars of the Netherlands, it was principally shewn by
+      surprising strong-holds, besieging towns, regular assaults,
+      advantageous encampments, and wasting the army of the enemy
+      by skilful marches. The camp of Maurice became a school, in
+      which the nobility and gentry of the empire, France, and
+      England, entered as volunteers, to learn the art of war.
+      His taking of the city of Breda, raised his reputation to
+      the highest: from this time, the war, which, on the part of
+      the United Provinces, had till then, been a defensive war,
+      became offensive, and their arms were attended with almost
+      uninterrupted success: they equally triumphed on Sea.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In 1698, the war between Spain and France was terminated.
+      Philip II. soon afterwards died: he was succeeded by Philip
+      III. a weak monarch. Then, began the naval glory of the
+      United Provinces; their attacks on the West Indian and East
+      Indian colonies of the Spaniards. In 1600, prince Maurice
+      gained a decisive victory at Nieuport near Ostend: it was
+      followed by other important successes. In 1607, Admiral
+      Heemskirk obtained a complete victory over the Spanish
+      fleet, though protected by the batteries of Cadiz, and
+      seized their ships and treasures.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Armistice between Spain and the United Provinces.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The war between Spain and the United Provinces had now
+      continued forty years: the resources of Spain were so
+      exhausted, that she herself was forced to solicit an
+      armistice. Prince Maurice objected to it, as the
+      continuance of the war was essential to the furtherance of
+      his own ambitious views. On this account, the truce was
+      promoted by Barneveldt and the republican party. They
+      justly thought that the aggrandizement of the house of
+      Orange would be the extinction of the liberties of their
+      country, so that the result of the war would only be, that
+      the United Provinces would change their masters. After a
+      long negotiation, an armistice of twelve years was agreed
+      upon in 1609, and England and France guaranteed the
+      execution of the treaty.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_V'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c05'>CHAPTER V.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      THE FEUDS IN THE UNITED PROVINCES BETWEEN THE DISCIPLES OF
+      CALVIN AND THE DISCIPLES OF ARMINIUS, UNTIL THE SYNOD AT
+      DORT.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1610-1617.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      It has generally happened, when a people have risen against
+      their sovereign, that their first successes have been
+      followed by divisions among themselves; and that these have
+      endangered, and sometimes even ruined, their cause. Such a
+      division took place, in a remarkable manner, in the
+      conflict between the United Provinces and Spain. No sooner
+      did the arms of the former begin to prosper, and promise
+      ultimate success, than the ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY burst
+      forth. At first, it was merely a religious dispute; but it
+      soon mixed itself in the national politics; split the
+      people into two very hostile parties, and produced
+      contentions between them, which more than once brought
+      their cause to the brink of destruction. Grotius was
+      unfortunately involved in them. This part of the history
+      now claims our attention.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Calvinism.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The reformed church, in the largest import of the word,
+      comprises all the religious communities, which have
+      separated themselves from the church of Rome. In this
+      sense, the words are often used by English writers; but,
+      having been adopted by the French Calvinists to describe
+      <i>their</i> church, these words are most commonly used, on
+      the continent, as a general appellation of all the churches
+      who profess the doctrines of Calvin.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      About the year 1541, the church of Geneva was placed by the
+      magistrates of that city, under the direction of Calvin. He
+      immediately conceived one of the boldest projects, that
+      ever entered into the mind of an obscure individual. He
+      undertook to new model the religious creed of the reformed
+      church; to give it strength and consistency, and to render
+      the church of Geneva the mother and mistress of all
+      Protestant churches. His learning, eloquence, and talents
+      for business, soon attracted general notice; and, while the
+      fervour of his zeal, the austerity of his manners, and the
+      devotional cast of his writings, attracted the multitude,
+      the elegance of his compositions, and his insinuating
+      style, equally captivated the gentleman and the scholar. By
+      degrees, his fame reached every part of Europe. Having
+      prevailed upon the senate of Geneva to found an academy,
+      and place it under his superintendence, and having filled
+      it with men eminent throughout Europe for their learning
+      and talent, it became the favourite resort of all persons,
+      who leaned to the new principles, and sought religious or
+      literary instruction. From Germany, France, Italy, England
+      and Scotland, numbers crowded to the new academy, and
+      returned from it to their native countries, saturated with
+      the doctrine of Geneva, and burning with zeal to propagate
+      its creed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Calvin's peculiar doctrine on Predestination and Free-will
+      soon attracted attention, and gave rise to <i>more than a
+      civil war</i><a name='FNanchor_015_15'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_015_15'><sup>[015]</sup></a> of controversy,<a
+      name='FNanchor_016_16'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_016_16'><sup>[016]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We feel that we are free: if we were not free, conscience
+      could not exist; for, if a man had not freedom of action,
+      conscience could not intimate to him either its approbation
+      or its disapprobation of his actions.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But-<i>how</i> are we free? <i>How</i> is free-will
+      reconcileable, either with the influence of motive upon
+      will? or with the order of the universe, prescribed by the
+      Deity? or, with his prescience? For that, which his
+      infinite mind prescribes or foresees, must be fixed.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Disputes on the Free-will of Man.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This question soon engaged the attention of the Greek
+      Philosophers: some advocated the free-will of man; others
+      denied it, and ascribed his actions to Fate or Destiny; a
+      being or energy, which they were never able to define or
+      describe. Among the Jews, the Sadducees embraced the former
+      opinion; the Pharisees, the latter. Among the Mahometans, a
+      like division took place between the followers of Omar, and
+      those of Ali.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Unfortunately, the Christians engaged in these ungrateful
+      speculations: their disputes chiefly turned upon the
+      effect, which motive, suggested by grace, or the divine
+      favour, has upon will. Does it necessitate? then, there is
+      no free-will,-no merit,-no demerit. Does it not
+      necessitate? then, in the choice of good, man acts by his
+      own power, and thus achieves a good of which God is not the
+      author.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The dispute was brought to an issue by <i>Pelagius</i> and
+      his disciples. They held, that man acts independently of
+      divine grace, both in the choice and execution of good.
+      This independence was denied by <i>St. Augustin</i>, he
+      asserted, that man co-operates with grace, yet, that grace
+      begins, advances and brings to perfection every thing in
+      man, which can be justly called good. <i>St. Thomas of
+      Aquin</i> new-modelled the system of St. Augustin, and used
+      new terms in describing it: his subtile distinctions, in
+      the opinion of many, considerably improved it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Calvin</i> aggravated the doctrine of St. Augustin. He
+      maintained,<a name='FNanchor_017_17'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_017_17'><sup>[017]</sup></a> that the
+      everlasting condition of mankind in the future world, was
+      determined from all eternity, by the <i>unchangeable
+      order</i> of the Deity; and that this <i>absolute</i>
+      determination of his will was the only source of
+      <i>happiness or misery</i> to individuals. Thus Calvin
+      maintained, without any qualification, that God, from all
+      eternity has doomed one part of mankind to everlasting
+      happiness, the other to everlasting misery; and, was led to
+      make this distinction, without regard to the merit or
+      demerit of the object, and by no other reason or motive
+      than his own pleasure.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Luther</i>,<a name='FNanchor_018_18'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_018_18'><sup>[018]</sup></a> in opposition to
+      Calvin, maintained, that the <i>divine decrees</i>
+      respecting the salvation or misery of men, are founded upon
+      a previous knowledge of their sentiments and characters;
+      or, in other words, that God, foreseeing from all eternity
+      the faith and virtue of some, and the incredulity or
+      wickedness of others, has reserved eternal happiness for
+      the former, and eternal misery for the latter.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Disputes on the Free-will of Man.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These, and other doctrinal differences, separated the
+      Protestants into the adherents to the creed of Luther, and
+      the adherents to the creed of Calvin. The United Provinces
+      were among the latter: the creed of Calvin was, as we have
+      mentioned, one of the fundamental laws of the Union.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Calvinistic doctrine, that God, from all eternity,
+      consigns one portion of mankind, without any fault on their
+      side, to everlasting torments, shocks our feelings, and is
+      totally repugnant to the notions entertained by us of the
+      goodness and justice of the Deity: it is not therefore
+      surprising that it should be called in question. From the
+      first, several objected to it; but it was not till the
+      successes of the United Provinces appeared to afford them a
+      near prospect of triumph, that the opposers of Calvin's
+      doctrine formed themselves into a party, and occasioned a
+      public sensation.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The celebrated JAMES ARMINIUS<a name=
+      'FNanchor_019_19'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_019_19'><sup>[019]</sup></a> was at their head.
+      He was born in 1560, at Oudewater in Holland, of
+      respectable parents. He lost his father in his infancy, and
+      was indebted, for the first rudiments of his education, to
+      a clergyman, who had imbibed some opinions of the reformed
+      religion. Under his tuition, Arminius studied, during some
+      time, at Utrecht. After the clergyman's decease, Rudolphus
+      Snellius, a clergyman of eminence, took Arminius under his
+      protection, and, in 1575, placed him at Marpurgh. There, he
+      heard of the taking of Oudewater by the Spaniards, and
+      their massacre of its inhabitants. His mother, sister, and
+      two brothers were among the victims. On the first
+      intelligence of the calamity he repaired to Oudewater, in
+      hopes that the account of it might have been exaggerated.
+      Finding it true, he retired to Leyden: there, his severe
+      application to study, and the regularity of his morals,
+      gained him universal esteem. In 1563, he was sent to
+      Geneva, at the expense of the magistrates of Amsterdam, to
+      perfect his studies under the care of Beza. Unfortunately,
+      by adopting the philosophical principles, of <i>Ramus</i>,
+      and unguardedly professing them, he displeased some leading
+      men of the university, and was obliged to leave it: he then
+      went to B&acirc;sle. There, his reputation having preceded
+      him, he was received with great kindness: the faculty of
+      divinity offered him a doctor's degree; but a general wish
+      for his return being expressed at Geneva, he declined the
+      honour, and returned to that city. He then visited Italy,
+      and, during some months, studied under Zabarella, a famous
+      philosopher, who then lectured at Padua. In 1588, Arminius
+      was ordained minister at Amsterdam.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Arminius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Some theologians of Delft having attacked the sentiments of
+      Calvin and Beza upon predestination, and given great
+      offence by it, they defended themselves by a book,
+      entitled; "An Answer to certain Arguments of Beza and
+      Calvin, in the treatise concerning Predestination; or upon
+      the ninth Chapter of the Epistle to the Romans." They
+      transmitted their defence to Martin Lydius, a partisan of
+      the divines whom it attacked; he sent it to Arminius, with
+      a request that he would answer it. Arminius undertook the
+      task, and attentively examined and weighed the arguments on
+      each side; the result was, that he embraced the opinions
+      which he had been called upon to confute, and even went
+      further than the ministers of Delft. Upon this account, the
+      friends of the rejected principles raised a great clamour
+      against him; but were quieted by the intervention of the
+      magistrates. The opinions, which Arminius adopted, he
+      endeavoured to propagate. They are contained in the
+      Remonstrance of his disciples, which we shall afterwards
+      transcribe.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As the language of Arminius seemed to express notions, more
+      consonant than those of Calvin, to the sentiments
+      entertained by rational Christians, of the goodness and
+      justice of the Deity, it is not surprising that they found
+      many advocates among the learned and moderate; but some
+      ardent spirits were offended by them, and instilled their
+      dislike of them into the populace. This, Arminius was soon
+      made to feel. In 1603, he was appointed, on the death of
+      Francis Junius, to a professorship of theology in the
+      university of Leyden: great efforts were made, first to
+      prevent, and afterwards to procure a recision of his
+      appointment. He was accused of having said in a sermon,
+      that "God had not yet sent his letter of divorce to the
+      church of Rome;" but his friends produced a work of Francis
+      Junius, his predecessor in the theological chair, in which
+      that celebrated theologian had used the same expression.
+      Arminius was also accused by his adversaries, of elevating
+      the action of reason in the choice of good, at the expense
+      of grace. To this Arminius replied, by accusing his
+      adversaries of sacrificing reason entirely to grace. But
+      the greater number of the enemies of Arminius supported
+      their charges against him, by making it a question of
+      authority: "the States," they said, "had decided the
+      question, by adopting Calvin's doctrine at the union; so
+      that the gainsayers of it were guilty of treason." The
+      friends of Arminius replied, that he did not deny Calvin's
+      doctrine, but merely explained it.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Arminius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Thus they disputed;
+    </p>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>"And found no end, in wandering mazes
+      lost."</span><br>
+      <span class='c9'><i>Milton.</i></span>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      In fact, the subject,-as the writer has more than once
+      observed,-is above human reason: the day will come, "when
+      the Almighty will be judged, and will overcome;"-when the
+      secret of his councils will be unfolded, and their justice
+      and goodness made manifest to all.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_020_20'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_020_20'><sup>[020]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The friends of Arminius also observed, that he was by no
+      means singular in his doctrine; that it was favoured by
+      professors in Gueldres, Friesland, Utrecht, and other parts
+      of Holland; and, that in all the provinces, it was
+      patronized by the higher ranks of the laity. Was it
+      fitting, they asked, that the peace of the church, and the
+      tranquillity of the state, should be disturbed by such a
+      dispute? by a dispute which affected no essential article
+      of christianity; no civil, no moral, no religious
+      observation?
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The principal adversary of Arminius was <i>Gomarus</i>,
+      also a professor of theology at Leyden. When the election
+      of Arminius was proposed, Gomarus announced suspicions of
+      his orthodoxy; he afterwards raised his tone, and accused
+      Arminius of Pelagianism, of secretly inclining to the
+      church of Rome, and holding principles which led to general
+      scepticism and infidelity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Arminius died on the 19th October 1609.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Grotius made his eulogium in verse. He had hitherto applied
+      little to these matters; he acknowledges, in a letter
+      written in 1609, his general ignorance of them. Entering
+      afterwards into the dispute, he became convinced that the
+      idea, which we ought to have of the goodness and justice of
+      God, and even the language of the scriptures and the early
+      fathers of the church, favoured the system of Arminius, and
+      contradicted that of Gomarus.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The prejudices against the Arminians increasing, they drew
+      up a Remonstrance, dated the 14th January 1610, and
+      addressed it to the States of Holland. It begins by stating
+      what they do not believe: it afterwards propounds their own
+      sentiments in the five articles following:<a name=
+      'FNanchor_021_21'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_021_21'><sup>[021]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        Remonstrance.
+      </div>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        1. "That God, by an eternal and immutable decree in Jesus
+        Christ his son, before the world was created, resolved to
+        save in Jesus Christ, on account of Jesus Christ, and
+        through Jesus Christ, those, from among mankind fallen in
+        sin, who, by the grace of the Holy Spirit believe in his
+        same son Jesus; and through the same grace continue in
+        the faith and obedience to the end; and, on the contrary,
+        to leave under sin, and wrath, and to condemn the
+        obstinate and unbelieving, as having no part in Christ;
+        according to what is said <i>St. John</i> iii. 36.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. "That accordingly, Jesus Christ the Saviour of the
+        world, died for all and every man; and by his death on
+        the cross has merited for all, reconciliation with God,
+        and remission of sin; in such manner nevertheless, that
+        no one can partake of them but believers, according to
+        the words of Jesus, <i>St. John</i> iii. 16., 1
+        <i>John</i> ii. 2.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3. "That man hath not saving faith of himself, and by the
+        strength of his own free will; since, while in a state of
+        sin and apostasy, he cannot of himself think, desire, or
+        do, that which is truly good, which is what is chiefly
+        meant by saving faith; but it is necessary that God in
+        Jesus Christ, and by the Holy Spirit, regenerate and
+        renew him in his understanding and affections, or in his
+        will and all his powers; that he may know the true good,
+        meditate on it, desire, and do it. <i>St. John</i> xv. 5.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+      </div>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        4. "That to this grace of God is owing the beginning, the
+        progression, and accomplishment of all good; in such
+        manner, that even the regenerate, without this
+        antecedent, or preventing, exciting, concomitant, and
+        cooperating grace, cannot think that, which is good,
+        desire or practise it; nor resist any temptation to evil;
+        so that all the good works or actions he can conceive,
+        spring from the grace of God; that as to what regards the
+        manner of operation of this grace, it is not
+        irresistible, since it is said of several, they resisted
+        the Holy Spirit. See <i>Acts</i> vii. and other places.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        5. "That those, who by a lively faith are engrafted into
+        Christ, and consequently made partakers of his quickening
+        spirit, are furnished with sufficient strength to be able
+        to combat, and even overcome Satan, sin, the world, and
+        their own lusts; and all this, as is carefully to be
+        observed, by the assistance of the grace and the Holy
+        Spirit; and that Jesus Christ succours them by his spirit
+        in all temptations, reaches to them his hand, (provided
+        they be willing to engage, ask his assistance, and are
+        not wanting to themselves,) supports and strengthens
+        them: so, that they cannot be led away by any wile or
+        violence of Satan, or snatched out of Christ's hands, as
+        he says himself, <i>St. John</i> x. <i>My sheep shall no
+        man pluck out of my hands</i>. For the rest, if it be
+        asked whether these may not through negligence let go the
+        confidence they had from the beginning, (Heb. iii. 6.)
+        cleave again to the present world, depart from the holy
+        doctrine, which was delivered, make shipwreck of a good
+        conscience? (2 Pet. i. 10., Jude iii., 1 Tim. i. 19.,
+        Heb. xii. 15.) This must be previously examined with more
+        care, by the Scriptures, to be able to teach it with full
+        assurance to others."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Such is the Confession of Faith of the Arminians: they gave
+      it the name of <i>Remonstrance</i>; and were styled from it
+      REMONSTRANTS. It was drawn up by <i>Utengobard</i>,
+      minister at the Hague, with the help, it is supposed, of
+      Grotius: it was signed by forty-six ministers.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Contra-Remonstrance.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Gomarists opposed to it a <i>Contra-Remonstrance</i>;
+      which gave them the name of the CONTRA-REMONSTRANTS.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was about this time, that Grotius was elected Pensionary
+      of Rotterdam, and ordered to England: it has been
+      suggested, that he had secret instructions from the
+      Arminians, to induce king James to favour their principles.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      We are informed, by Mr. Nichols, (<i>Calvinism and
+      Arminianism compared</i>,)<a name='FNanchor_022_22'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_022_22'><sup>[022]</sup></a> that the
+      Arminians sent to King James by Grotius, a true state of
+      their case; that Grotius found an adversary in
+      <i>Archbishop Abbott</i>, and friends in <i>Bishops
+      Andrews</i> and <i>Overal</i>; and that by their advice the
+      monarch addressed to the States General, a wise and
+      conciliatory letter.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The irritation of the public mind increasing, the States of
+      Holland, to restore tranquillity, published an edict of
+      Pacification, by which they strongly enjoined forbearance,
+      toleration, and silence. This was favourable to the
+      Arminians, but it increased the violence of the
+      <i>Contra-remonstrants</i>. Thus, it became a signal of
+      war. The States of Holland transmitted it to King James:
+      his Majesty, the archbishop of Canterbury, and the other
+      English prelates, allowed its doctrine to be orthodox.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Remonstrants-Contra-Remonstrants.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Still, the troubles in Holland augmented: riots took place
+      and greater riots were apprehended. In an evil hour,
+      Barneveldt, the Grand-Pensionary, proposed to the States of
+      Holland, that the magistrates of the cities of that
+      province should he empowered to raise troops for the
+      suppression of the rioters. Amsterdam, Dort, and other
+      towns, that favoured the Gomarists, protested against this
+      measure, styling it a declaration of war against the
+      Contra-remonstrants. Yet, on the 4th August 1617,
+      Barneveldt's proposition was agreed to, and promulgated.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We have mentioned the enmity of Prince Maurice to
+      Barneveldt, on account of his having promoted the armistice
+      of 1609, and his favouring the republican party. The Prince
+      professed to consider the edict of Pacification as
+      derogatory of his authority, and forbade the soldiers to
+      obey the States, if they should be ordered to act against
+      the rioters. He publicly declared, that he favoured the
+      Gomarists; he assisted, at the divine service, in their
+      churches only, and shewed them every other mark of public
+      favour. Exulting in this powerful support, the Gomarists
+      separated themselves, formally, from the Arminians.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      To bring over Amsterdam to their sentiments, the States of
+      Holland sent a deputation to the burgomasters of that city,
+      and placed Grotius at its head. On the day after their
+      arrival in Amsterdam, the burgomasters assembled to receive
+      the deputies. Grotius addressed them in an argumentative
+      and eloquent speech. He urged the necessity and advantage
+      of religious toleration, particularly upon theoretical
+      points of doctrine. He observed to the assembly, that
+      Bullinger and Melancthon had been tolerated by Deza and
+      Calvin; that James, the King of Great Britain, had
+      advanced, in his writings, that each of the two opposite
+      opinions on Predestination might be maintained without
+      danger of reprobation; that Gomarus himself had declared
+      that Arminius had not erred in any fundamental article of
+      Christian doctrine; that the contested articles were of a
+      very abstruse nature; that the affirmative or negative of
+      the doctrines expressed in them, had not been determined;
+      and that toleration would restore tranquillity and union,
+      and favour the assembling of a numerous and respectable
+      synod, which might labour with success in restoring peace
+      to the church.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Grotius delivered his speech in the Dutch language; it was
+      afterwards translated into Latin; all, who heard, admired
+      it; but it produced no effect on them. The deputies were
+      uncivilly dismissed; and the oration of Grotius, by an
+      order of the States General, was suppressed.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_023_23'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_023_23'><sup>[023]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Feuds of the Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He was much affected by the bad success of his mission: he
+      was seized with a fever, which nearly proved fatal to him.
+      Many of his friends sought to persuade him to retire from
+      the contest: he told them that he had taken his resolution
+      after deep deliberation; that he was aware of his danger,
+      and that he submitted the event to providence.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The next effort of the States of Holland to pacify the
+      troubles, was to prepare a <i>formula</i> of peace, which
+      the ministers of the two parties should be obliged to sign.
+      It contained nothing contrary to the doctrine of Calvin; it
+      referred the five articles to future examination, and
+      prescribed, in the mean time, silence upon the parts in
+      dispute. Grotius drew up the Formula; it was shewn to
+      Prince Maurice, and rejected by him.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Matters now converged to a crisis:-we have more than once
+      mentioned the opposite politics of Prince Maurice and
+      Barneveldt, the Grand-Pensionary; the former wishing to
+      draw the whole sovereign power to himself; the latter
+      endeavouring to preserve and stabilitate the the
+      constitution of the Provinces, as it had been settled by
+      the Act of Union. We noticed that the Gomarists sided with
+      the Prince; the Arminians with the Grand-Pensionary. As the
+      Prince was aware that the States of Holland were favourable
+      to the Arminians, that the States General were opposed to
+      them, and that the clergy of each denomination partook of
+      the civil and ecclesiastical opinions of their flocks, he
+      convened a national synod of the clergy; and, that be might
+      the more overawe his opponents and strengthen his own
+      party, he appointed the synod to meet in Holland. Against
+      this synod the provinces of Holland, Utretcht, and
+      Overyssell protested. Barneveldt was so much affected by
+      the disturbances, and a view of the evils with which they
+      appeared to threaten his country, that he sought to resign
+      his place of Grand-Pensionary; but the States of the
+      province of Holland, which needed more than ever the
+      counsels of such an experienced minister, sent a deputation
+      to him, beseeching him not to abandon them in times of so
+      much difficulty. He thought it his duty to yield to their
+      entreaty, and continued to exercise the functions of his
+      office.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Imprisonment of Barneveldt, Grotius and Hoogerbetz.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      To frustrate the designs of Prince Maurice, several cities
+      favourable to the Arminians levied bodies of militia, and
+      gave them the name of <i>Attendant Soldiers</i>. The
+      States-General, at the instigation of Prince Maurice,
+      enjoined the cities to disband them. The cities generally
+      disobeyed these orders. In this they were justified by the
+      established constitution: the Prince, however, treated
+      their conduct as rebellious; and, in concert with the
+      States General, marched in person, at the head of his
+      troops, against the refractory cities. Wherever he came, he
+      disarmed and disbanded the new levies; deposed the Arminian
+      magistrates, and expelled the ministers of their party.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the provinces of Gueldres and Overyssell, he met with no
+      resistance; and little at Arnheim: greater resistance was
+      expected at Utretcht: the States of Holland sent Grotius
+      and Hoogerbetz, the Pensionary of Leyden, to stimulate the
+      inhabitants to resistance; but the fortune of the Prince
+      prevailed. In an extraordinary assembly, which consisted of
+      eight persons only, yet assuming to act as the States
+      General, the Prince procured an ordonnance to be passed,
+      which directed Barneveldt, Grotius, and Hoogerbetz to be
+      taken into immediate custody. They were accordingly
+      arrested, and confined in the Castle at the Hague.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Thus the Prince's party prevailed in every part of the
+      United Provinces. About this time, he succeeded, in
+      consequence of the death of his elder brother, to the
+      dignity of Prince of Orange.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_VI'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c06'>CHAPTER VI.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      THE SYNOD OF DORT.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1618.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VI. 1618.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The States General determined that the Synod<a name=
+      'FNanchor_024_24'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_024_24'><sup>[024]</sup></a> should be composed
+      of twenty-six divines of the United Provinces, twenty-eight
+      foreign divines, five professors of divinity, and sixteen
+      laymen;-seventy-five members in the whole. The expence was
+      calculated at 100,000 florins. The English divines were,
+      Dr. George Carlton, Bishop of Llandaff; Dr. Joseph Hall,
+      Dean of Worcester; John Davenant, professor of divinity,
+      and Master of Queen's college, Cambridge; Samuel Ward,
+      Archdeacon of Taunton, and head of Sidney college,
+      Cambridge. To these were added, Walter Balcanqual, a
+      Scottish theologian, as representative of the Scottish
+      churches. The ever-memorable John Hales of Eaton, as that
+      learned and amiable person is justly termed by protestant
+      writers, was permitted to attend the debates of the Synod,
+      but was not allowed to speak, or take any part in its
+      proceedings.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Synod of Dort.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      We have mentioned that Arminius was converted to the
+      opinions, which he defended afterwards so strenuously, by
+      the perusal of a work in support of the opposite doctrine,
+      which he had been desired to confute. In the same manner,
+      the proceedings of the Contra-Remonstrants, at the Synod of
+      Dort, made Mr. Hales a Remonstrant. We are informed by his
+      friend Mr. Faringdon, that, in his younger days, he was a
+      Calvinist; but that some explanations given by Episcopius
+      of the text in John iii. 16, induced him, as he himself
+      said, to "bid John Calvin, Good Night." His letters from
+      Dort to Sir Dudley Carleton, the English ambassador at the
+      Hague, contain an interesting account of the proceedings of
+      the assembly.<a name='FNanchor_025_25'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_025_25'><sup>[025]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VI. 1618.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Dr. Heylin says, in his "Quinquarticular History," that the
+      theologians sent by King James to Dort, were inclined to
+      condemn the Remonstrants; but he intimates that the monarch
+      acted from reasons of state; and that he was more hostile
+      to their persons than their doctrines: Brand makes the same
+      remark upon Prince Maurice. It seems to be admitted, that,
+      in the conference at Hampton Court, King James declared
+      against absolute predestination.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_026_26'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_026_26'><sup>[026]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The English divines arrived at the Hague on the 5th
+      November 1618: they were immediately presented to the
+      States General, and most honourably received.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Synod of Dort.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The King of France had permitted two Protestant theologians
+      of his kingdom to attend the Synod; but afterwards revoked
+      the permission. The French Protestant churches had deputed
+      to it, the celebrated Peter de Moulin and Andrew Rivet; but
+      the King prohibited their attending it, under severe
+      penalties.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      After the election of the members was finally adjusted, the
+      Synod appeared to be composed of about seventy
+      Contra-Remonstrants and fourteen Arminians.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was opened on the 13th of November 1618. Two
+      commissioners of the States placed themselves on the right
+      side of the chimney of the room; the English divines were
+      placed on the left; seats were kept vacant for the French;
+      the third place was assigned to the deputies from the
+      Palatinate; the fourth, to those from Hesse; the fifth, to
+      the Swiss; the sixth to the Genevans; the seventh to the
+      theologians from Bremen; and the eighth to those from
+      Embden. The professors of theology were placed immediately
+      after the commissioners; then, the ministers and elders of
+      the country. By an arrangement, favoured by the States,
+      thirty-six ministers and twenty elders were added to the
+      five professors. Of this the Remonstrants complained, on
+      the just ground, that it evidently gave their adversaries
+      an undue preponderance.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VI. 1618.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The commissioners nominated the celebrated Daniel Heinsius
+      secretary. The Remonstrants objected to him; they admitted
+      his extensive acquaintance with polite literature, and his
+      elegant taste; but asserted, that he possessed no
+      theological learning, and was prejudiced against them.
+      Episcopius was always considered to be at the head of the
+      Remonstrants: he has seldom been excelled in learning,
+      eloquence, or power of argumentation.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      No further business than arranging the forms of sitting and
+      voting, was transacted at the <i>first session</i> of the
+      Synod. <i>At the second</i>, the Synod constituted John
+      Bogerman its president, and appointed two assessors and two
+      secretaries: all five were distinguished for their known
+      hostility to the Remonstrants. The appointment of Bogerman
+      particularly offended them, as he openly avowed it to be
+      his opinion that heretics should be punished by death; and
+      had translated into the Dutch language the celebrated
+      treatise of Beza, <i>de h&aelig;reticis a civili magistratu
+      puniendis</i>, in which this doctrine is explicitly
+      maintained in its fullest extent.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Synod of Dort.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <i>In the third session</i>,-the deputies from Geneva
+      produced their commission: it was expressed in terms
+      decidedly hostile to the Remonstrants.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>In the fourth session</i>,-the grand preliminary
+      question,-in what manner the Remonstrants were to be
+      summoned,-came under consideration. After much argument, it
+      was settled, by a great majority of voices, that
+      "Episcopius and some other Remonstrants should within a
+      fortnight, appear before the Synod, as the sovereign
+      ecclesiastical tribunal of the United States."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Remonstrants and the advocates of their cause protested
+      against this proceeding: they called in question the
+      authority of the Synod to sit as judges upon them, or even
+      to decide any point of doctrine definitively: they averred
+      it contrary to the evangelical liberty professed and taught
+      by the first Reformers. Every friend to the true principles
+      of the reformation must admit the force of this objection.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The <i>5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th
+      Sessions</i> of the intermediate fortnight, were consumed
+      in debates upon a projected new translation of the
+      Scriptures; <i>the 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th,
+      20th</i> and <i>21st Sessions</i> were employed in
+      discussions, upon a new catechism, and other ecclesiastical
+      arrangements.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VI. 1618.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The <i>22d Session</i> was held on the 6<i>th</i> of
+      December. The Remonstrants appeared before the Synod, and
+      requested further time for preparing their defence on the
+      articles with which they were charged. Their request was
+      denied: and Episcopius having said, that "They wished to
+      enter into a conference with the Synod," a resolution was
+      passed, by which the Synod declared, that "the Remonstrants
+      had not been cited to <i>confer</i> with the Synod; but to
+      propound their opinions, and submit to its judgment."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Remonstrants then paid their visits to the foreign
+      theologians: these they found greatly prejudiced against
+      them; they therefore published two short writings,
+      explaining and justifying their sentiments.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In <i>the 23d Session</i>, Episcopius made a long
+      discourse. Mr. John Hales praised it highly, in a letter
+      addressed by him to the English ambassador An oath was
+      prescribed to the members, by which they promised, that, in
+      the examination of the five articles, "or any other points
+      of doctrine which should be discussed, they would confine
+      themselves to the Scriptures, and resort to no human
+      authority." But, what was the Synod itself more than human
+      authority? The oath was not tendered to the Remonstrants;
+      it was declined by the Swiss.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Synod of Dort.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The <i>24th Session</i> was consumed in debates: <i>on the
+      25th</i>, Episcopius read a long document, and afterwards
+      presented it to the Synod. He protested in it against the
+      authority of the Synod, and asked the searching question,
+      whether the Calvinists would "submit to a Synod of
+      Lutherans?" To this question, no answer was given: an angry
+      discussion followed.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      It continued during <i>the 27th and 28th Sessions</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On <i>the 29th</i>, the opinions of foreign divines were
+      produced in favour of the authority of the Synod: those of
+      the English divines, and the divines of Bremen, were
+      expressed with more moderation than the others. The divines
+      of Geneva stated, that, "if a person obstinately refused to
+      submit to the just decisions of the church, he might be
+      proceeded against in two ways; the <i>magistrate</i> might
+      coerce him, and the <i>church</i> might publicly
+      excommunicate him as a violator of the law of God."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The dispute was more violent in <i>the 30th Session</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Finally, the Remonstrants agreed to propound their
+      sentiments in writing; but with an express salvo, of their
+      right to liberty of conscience, and to retain their
+      objections to the authority of the Synod.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In <i>the 31st Session</i>, the Remonstrants presented to
+      the Synod a writing, containing their sentiments upon
+      Predestination,-the first and most important of the five
+      articles.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VI. 1618.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In <i>the 34th Session</i>, they presented their sentiments
+      upon the four other articles; and in <i>the 39th
+      Session</i>, upon the Catechism of Heidelberg. The Synod
+      had enjoined them to confine themselves to explanations of
+      their own doctrine, and to abstain from controverting the
+      doctrines of the Calvinists. These debates carried the
+      Synod to its <i>46th Session</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In that session, the resolution of the States General upon
+      the proceedings of the Synod was produced. They declared by
+      it, that "the Remonstrants were obliged to submit to the
+      decrees of the Synod,"-and that "if they persisted in their
+      disobedience to them, both the censures of the church, and
+      the penalties by which the States punished violators of
+      public authority, should be inflicted upon them." The
+      States ordered the Remonstrants to remain, in the meantime,
+      in the town.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Remonstrants persisting in their refusal to acknowledge
+      the authority of the Synod, an assembly of it met on <i>the
+      57th Session</i>, and formally expelled the Remonstrants
+      from the Synod. Episcopius exclaimed, "May God decide
+      between the Synod and us!" "I appeal," said Niellius, "from
+      the injustice of the Synod, to the throne of Jesus Christ."
+      All remained firm in their protestation.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Synod of Dort.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Mr. Hales and Mr. Balcanqual, in their letters to the
+      English ambassador, blame the proceedings of the Synod.<a
+      name='FNanchor_027_27'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_027_27'><sup>[027]</sup></a> The only question
+      between the Synod and the Remonstrants was, whether the
+      latter would submit to acknowledge the authority of the
+      former. This, the Remonstrants uniformly refused to do. In
+      almost every Synod there was a repetition of the same
+      demand, and of the same answer. By every English reader,
+      the demand of the Synod will be thought exorbitant.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP VI. 1618.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Synod relaxed afterwards so far, as to permit the
+      Remonstrants to deliver their sentiments in writing: they
+      did it at great length. But they still persisted in
+      objecting to the authority of the Synod, and to be examined
+      by it. The Synod therefore proceeded against them in their
+      absence; and ultimately, on the 24th of April 1610,
+      pronounced them guilty of pestilential errors, and
+      corruptors of the true religion. The five articles were
+      formally condemned; Episcopius and the other ministers were
+      deposed.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Synod of Dort.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      "There are conclusions," says Grotius,<a name=
+      'FNanchor_028_28'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_028_28'><sup>[028]</sup></a> in a letter written
+      by him in the same year, "in the canons of the Synod of
+      Dort, of which, if good Melancthon were again to make his
+      appearance, he would express his disapprobation, and with
+      which Bullinger would be no less grieved; there are others,
+      which alienate all the Lutherans from the Calvinists;
+      although amity and concord are desirable between them and
+      us at this juncture. There are some points in them, which
+      forbid the Greek churches from uniting with us, though they
+      are very favourable to us; but there are others of the Dort
+      canons, which admit of no controversy.-It is possible that
+      they may recall to mind my labours for unity. Even those
+      writings, which I published since my calamity, have not
+      been diverted from the same peaceful object." If ever any
+      Protestant divines deserved the reproach cast by Mr.
+      Gibbon,<a name='FNanchor_029_29'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_029_29'><sup>[029]</sup></a> on the first
+      reformers in general, "of being ambitious to succeed the
+      tyrants whom they had dethroned," they were the members of
+      the Synod of Dort.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Synod was closed on the 29th of May.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The sentence passed by it on the Remonstrants was approved
+      by the States General on the 3d July 1619. On the same day,
+      the Arminian ministers, who had been detained at Dort,
+      were, by a sentence of the States General, banished or
+      imprisoned, deprived of their employments, and the effects
+      of some were confiscated. Similar severities were exercised
+      on the Arminians in most of the territories subject to the
+      States General. To avoid the persecution, some fled to
+      Antwerp, some to France, the greater part to Holstein.
+      There, under the wise protection of the reigning duke, they
+      settled, and afterwards built a town, which from him they
+      called Friedericstadt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      They continued to assert the irregularity of the Synod: the
+      Bishop of Meaux shrewdly observed, that "they employed
+      against the authority of the Synod, the same arguments as
+      the Protestants use against the authority of the Council of
+      Trent."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP VI. 1618.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Synod of Dort.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      For the publication of <i>Acts of the Council</i>, divines
+      were chosen out of various districts of the United
+      Provinces: their edition of the Acts was published at Dort
+      in the year 1620, in folio, in the types of the Elzevirs;
+      and was soon afterwards republished with greater
+      correctness, in the same year, at Hanover, in quarto, with
+      an addition of a copious index.-An Epistle of their High
+      Mightinesses the States General, addressed to the Monarchs,
+      Kings, Princes, Counts, Cities and Magistrates of the
+      Christian world, and vouching for the authority and
+      authenticity of the Acts,<a name='FNanchor_030_30'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_030_30'><sup>[030]</sup></a> is prefixed to
+      this edition. The Remonstrants published an edition of the
+      Acts in 1620, in 4to.: it is said,<a name=
+      'FNanchor_031_31'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_031_31'><sup>[031]</sup></a> that from a fear of
+      their adversaries, it was printed on ship-board.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Here, the history of the Arminians, so far as it is
+      connected with that part of the Life of Grotius to which
+      our subject has hitherto led us, seems to close. We shall
+      hereafter be called upon to resume it.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_VII'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c07'>CHAPTER VII.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT OF GROTIUS. HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1618-1621.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      While the Synod of Dort continued its sittings, Prince
+      Maurice and his party were actively employed in increasing
+      the popular ferment against Barneveldt, Grotius and
+      Hoogerbetz; in collecting evidence of the designs and
+      practices of which they were accused, and in framing the
+      legal proceedings against them in such a manner as was most
+      likely both to procure their conviction, and to persuade
+      the public of their guilt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We have mentioned that their confinement took place on the
+      20th of August 1618, and that they were removed from the
+      Hague, the original place of their imprisonment, to the
+      Castle of Louvestein. On the 19th November, the States
+      General, at the instigation of Prince Maurice, nominated
+      twenty-six commissioners for their trial. All the prisoners
+      objected both to the jurisdiction of the commissioners, and
+      to that of the States General; and asserted that the States
+      of Holland were their only competent judges. They observed,
+      at the same time, that many of the judges were notoriously
+      prejudiced against the Arminians.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The act of accusation contained many general charges, and
+      many averments of particular facts, supposed to
+      substantiate them. It was alleged against the prisoners,
+      that they had disturbed the established religion of the
+      United Provinces; that, in direct contradiction of the
+      articles of union, they had asserted the right of each
+      province to decide for itself in matters of religion; that
+      they had set up the authority and interests of the States
+      of Holland and West Friesland against those of the States
+      General; that they were the authors of the Insurrection at
+      Utrecht; had levied, in opposition to the orders of
+      government, the attendant soldiers; had raised jealousies
+      between the Prince and several of the Provincial States,
+      and between these and the States General; and that, by
+      their habitual conduct, they had become public disturbers
+      of the tranquillity of the republic, and councillors and
+      practisers of schemes hostile to its welfare.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VII. 1618-1621.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Commissioners proceeded to the trial of Barneveldt.
+      Uniformly protesting against the competency of the
+      tribunal, Barneveldt defended himself with great firmness
+      and ability. He controverted every article of the
+      accusation, and concluded his defence, by a long and
+      pathetic enumeration of the services, which he had rendered
+      to the republic; and of the numerous actions, by which he
+      had shewn his attachment to Prince William and Prince
+      Maurice:-he proved that it had been principally owing to
+      him, that the Stadtholderate had been conferred on the
+      latter. He admitted that he had suspected the Prince of
+      designs hostile to the constitution of the United
+      Provinces, and had opposed the Prince in every measure,
+      which appeared to have such a tendency; but he asserted
+      that he never had resorted to means which the laws or
+      constitution of the Provinces did not warrant. His
+      arguments were unanswerable; but Prince Maurice was
+      determined on his ruin; and the Commissioners were wholly
+      subservient to the prince's views: they accordingly passed
+      unanimously a sentence of death upon Barneveldt.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Many of the princes of Europe expressed their
+      dissatisfaction at these proceedings: none so much as the
+      French monarch. To him, the great merit of Barneveldt had
+      been long known. He considered that the conduct of Prince
+      Maurice was likely to involve the United Provinces in
+      troubles, of which Spain might take advantages. From
+      personal regard to Barneveldt, and with a view of
+      terminating the discord, the monarch sent an ambassador
+      extraordinary to the United States, and ordered him to join
+      Du Maurier, his ambassador in ordinary, in soliciting them
+      in favour of the accused, and in labouring to restore the
+      public tranquillity. The ambassadors executed their
+      commission with the greatest zeal. They made many
+      remonstrances, and had several audiences both with the
+      States and the Prince. The States, instigated by the
+      Prince, expressed great indignation at the proceedings of
+      the ambassadors.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All the accused were respectably allied, and had many
+      friends: numerous applications were made in their favour.
+      They undeviatingly demeaned themselves with the firmness
+      and modest dignity of conscious innocence. They persisted
+      in denying the guilt attributed to them, and in protesting
+      against the competency of the tribunal. They made no
+      degrading submission. At a subsequent time, a son of
+      Barneveldt having been condemned to death, his mother
+      applied to Prince Maurice, for his pardon. The Prince
+      observed to her, that she had made no such application in
+      behalf of her husband; "No," she replied, "I know my son is
+      guilty, I therefore solicit his pardon; I knew my husband
+      was innocent, I therefore solicited no pardon for him."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VII. 1618-1621.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      On Monday morning, May 13, 1619, Barneveldt was informed
+      that he was to be executed upon that day. He received the
+      notification of it with great firmness; he inquired whether
+      Grotius and Hoogerbetz were to suffer: being answered in
+      the negative, he expressed much satisfaction, observing
+      that "they were of an age to be still able to serve the
+      republic."
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "The scaffold for his execution," says Burigni, "was
+        erected in the Court of the Castle at the Hague, facing
+        the Prince of Orange's apartments. He made a short speech
+        to the people, which is yet preserved in the <i>Mercure
+        Fran&ccedil;oise</i>. 'Burghers!' he said, 'I have been
+        always your faithful countryman; believe not that I die
+        for treason: I die for maintaining the rights and
+        liberties of my country!' After this speech, the
+        executioner struck off his head at one blow. It is
+        affirmed that the Prince of Orange, to feast himself with
+        the cruel pleasure of seeing his enemy perish, beheld the
+        execution with a glass; the people looked on it with
+        other eyes: many came to gather the sand wet with his
+        blood, to keep it carefully in phials; and the crowd of
+        those, who had the same curiosity, continued next day,
+        notwithstanding all they could do to hinder them.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Thus fell that great minister, who did the United
+        Provinces as much service in the cabinet, as the Prince
+        of Orange did in the field. It is highly probable that
+        the melancholy end of this illustrious and unfortunate
+        man was owing to his steadiness in opposing the design of
+        making Prince Maurice Dictator."<a name=
+        'FNanchor_032_32'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_032_32'><sup>[032]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Prince pursued his triumph. Soon after the arrest of
+      Grotius, the States of Holland presented a petition to the
+      Prince, representing the arrest as a breach of their
+      constitutional rights; the Prince referred it to the States
+      General. To these, therefore, they presented a similar
+      petition; praying at the same time, that Grotius might be
+      tried by the laws and usages of the Provinces of Holland:
+      no regard was shewn to their petitions.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VII. 1618-1621.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius had an invaluable friend:-he was no sooner
+      arrested, than his wife petitioned to share his confinement
+      throughout the whole of his imprisonment: it was denied.
+      Grotius fell ill: she renewed the application: it was
+      absolutely rejected: but neither his wife, nor any of the
+      friends of Grotius ever recommended to him an unworthy
+      submission. He always denied the competency of the tribunal
+      appointed to try him: his wife and brother uniformly
+      recommended him to persist in his plea.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Much disregard of form took place, and many arbitrary acts
+      were perpetrated, in the proceedings against Grotius. On
+      the 18th of May 1619, the Commissioners pronounced sentence
+      against him. After enumerating all the charges, of which he
+      was accused, and asserting that all were proved against
+      him, the judges condemned him to perpetual imprisonment,
+      and his estates to be confiscated. The same sentence was
+      passed on Hoogerbetz; but the house of the latter was
+      assigned to him for his imprisonment.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the 6th of June, Grotius was taken to Louvestein. It
+      lies near Gorcum, in South Holland, at the point of the
+      island formed by the Vaal and the Meuse. Twenty-four sous a
+      day were allowed for his maintenance; but his wife
+      undertook to support him, during his confinement, from her
+      own estate. She was at length admitted into prison with
+      him, on condition that she should remain in it, while his
+      imprisonment lasted.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      At first, his confinement was very rigid: by degrees it was
+      relaxed: his wife was allowed to leave the prison for a few
+      hours, twice in every week. He was permitted to borrow
+      books, and to correspond, except on politics, with his
+      friends.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      He beguiled the tedious hours of confinement by study,
+      relieving his mind by varying its objects. Antient and
+      modern literature equally engaged his attention: Sundays he
+      wholly dedicated to prayer and the study of theology.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Twenty months of imprisonment thus passed away. His wife
+      now began to devise projects for his liberty. She had
+      observed that he was not so strictly watched as at first;
+      that the guards, who examined the chest used for the
+      conveyance of his books and linen, being accustomed to see
+      nothing in it but books and linen, began to examine them
+      loosely: at length, they permitted the chest to pass
+      without any examination. Upon this, she formed her project
+      for her husband's release.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      She began to carry it into execution by cultivating an
+      intimacy with the wife of the commandant of Gorcum. To her,
+      she lamented Grotius's immoderate application to study; she
+      informed her that it had made him seriously ill; and that,
+      in consequence of his illness, she had resolved to take all
+      his books from him, and restore them to their owners. She
+      circulated every where the account of his illness, and
+      finally declared that it had confined him to his bed.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VII. 1618-1621.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the mean time, the chest was accommodated to her
+      purpose; and particularly, some holes were bored in it, to
+      let in air. Her maid and the valet of Grotius were
+      entrusted with the secret. The chest was conveyed to
+      Grotius's apartment. She then revealed her project to him,
+      and, after much entreaty, prevailed on him to get into the
+      chest, and leave her in the prison.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The books, which Grotius borrowed, were usually sent to
+      Gorcum; and the chest, which contained them, passed in a
+      boat, from the prison at Louvestein, to that town.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      His Escape from Prison.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Big with the fate of Grotius, the chest, as soon as he was
+      enclosed in it, was moved into the boat. One of the
+      soldiers, observing that it was uncommonly heavy, insisted
+      on its being opened, and its contents examined; but, by the
+      address of the maid, his scruples were removed, and the
+      chest was lodged in the boat. The passage from Louvestein
+      to Gorcum took a considerable time. The length of the chest
+      did not exceed three feet and a half. At length, it reached
+      Gorcum: it was intended that it should be deposited at the
+      house of David Bazelaer, an Arminian friend of Grotius, who
+      resided at Gorcum. But, when the boat reached the shore, a
+      difficulty arose, how the chest was to be conveyed from the
+      spot, upon which it was to be landed, to Bazelaer's house.
+      This difficulty was removed by the maid's presence of mind;
+      she told the bystanders, that the chest contained glass,
+      and that it must be moved with particular care. Two
+      chairmen were soon found, and they carefully moved it on a
+      horse-chair to the appointed place.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Bazelaer sent away his servants on different errands,
+      opened the chest, and received his friend with open arms.
+      Grotius declared, that while he was in the chest, he had
+      felt much anxiety, but had suffered no other inconvenience.
+      Having dressed himself as a mason, with a rule and trowel,
+      he went, through the back door of Bazelaer's house,
+      accompanied by his maid, along the market-place, to a boat
+      engaged for the purpose. It conveyed them to Vervie in
+      Brabant: there, he was safe. His maid then left him, and,
+      returning to his wife, communicated to her the agreeable
+      information of the success of the enterprise.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Chap. VII. 1618-1621.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As soon as Grotius's wife ascertained that he was in
+      perfect safety, she informed the guards of his escape:
+      these communicated the intelligence to the governor. He put
+      her into close confinement; but in a few days, an order of
+      the States General set her at liberty, and permitted her to
+      carry with her every thing at Louvestein, which belonged to
+      her. It is impossible to think without pleasure of the
+      meeting of Grotius and his heroic wife. From Vervie he
+      proceeded to Antwerp; a few days after his arrival in that
+      city, he addressed a letter to the States General: he
+      assured them, that, in procuring his liberty, he had used
+      neither violence nor corruption. He solemnly protested that
+      his public conduct had been blameless, and that the
+      persecution he had suffered would never lessen his
+      attachment to his country.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      His Escape from Prison.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It was on the 22d March 1621, that Grotius obtained his
+      liberty. In the same year, the truce, concluded for twelve
+      years between Spain and the United Provinces expired: it
+      was expected, that the war would be resumed with more fury
+      than ever. But this did not happen; the war of thirty
+      years, which we shall afterwards have occasion to mention,
+      had mixed the contest between Spain and the United
+      Provinces with the general military plans and operations of
+      the parties engaged in it, and had carried much of the
+      conflict from the Low Countries into Germany. Prince
+      Maurice still appeared at the head of the army of the
+      United Provinces; but he had lost, by his persecution of
+      the Arminians, and his selfish intrigues, the confidence of
+      the people. Conspiracies against his life were formed:
+      fortune no longer favoured his arms. His attempts to compel
+      the Marquis Spinola to raise the siege of Br&eacute;da were
+      unsuccessful. This reverse of fortune preyed upon his mind.
+      He thought himself haunted by a spectre of Barneveldt: he
+      was frequently heard, during his last illness, to exclaim,
+      "Remove this head from me!" "This anecdote," says the
+      author of the <i>Resum&eacute; de l'histoire de la
+      Hollande</i>, "is related by all the republican historians
+      of the United Provinces; it is concealed by the flatterers
+      of the House of Orange.... To relate the remorse of princes
+      for their crimes, is one of the most useful duties of
+      historians."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Prince Maurice died in 1625.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      M. Le Clerc, in the 2d volume of the <i>Bibliotheque
+      Chois&eacute;e, art. 3</i>, shews, by unquestionable facts
+      and irresistible arguments, that both Prince William and
+      Prince Maurice sought to obtain the independent sovereignty
+      of the United Provinces. It was the aim of all their
+      successors: it has been effected in our times by means,
+      which certainly were foreseen by none.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_VIII'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c08'>CHAPTER VIII.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      VORSTIUS,-JAMES I.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1622.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      We must now carry back our readers to events which preceded
+      the Synod of Dort. We have mentioned the decease of
+      Arminius: soon after it, a circumstance took place, which,
+      to the exquisite delight of the monarch, who, at that time
+      filled the British throne, involved him in the theological
+      disputes of the Belgic theologians.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Not long after the commencement of the Reformation, several
+      bold inquirers began to deny the trinity of persons in the
+      Deity, the divine authority of the Old and New Testament,
+      and the existence of mystery in the Christian dispensation.
+      Both Catholics and Protestants united against them. To
+      avoid their hostilities, the maintainers of these opinions
+      fled to Poland, and, forming themselves into a distinct
+      congregation, published, in 1574, their First Catechism.
+      They established congregations at Cracow, Lubin, Pinczow,
+      Luck and Smila: but their most flourishing settlement was
+      at Racow.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Vorstius-James I.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      They spread their doctrines over each bank of the Danube,
+      and at length penetrated Italy. There, they were adopted by
+      Loelius Socinus. After many peregrinations in different
+      parts of Europe, he finally settled at Zurich. Faustus
+      Socinus, his nephew, inherited his sentiments; and, on this
+      account, was obliged to quit Zurich. After many wanderings,
+      he fixed his residence at Racow. There, he was received
+      with open arms by the new communion, and completed their
+      system of theology. From him, they derived their
+      appellation of SOCINIANS. Their doctrine is expressed in
+      the Racovian catechism, published, in the Polish language,
+      in 1605. Other editions of it have appeared. An English
+      translation of the edition of 1605, was published at
+      Amsterdam in 1652: Dr. Toulmin, in his Life of Socinus,
+      ascribes it, seemingly by conjecture, to Mr. John Biddle.
+      In 1818, Mr. Rees published a new translation of it,
+      prefixing to it an interesting historical preface.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VIII. 1622.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Among the disciples of Arminius, was the celebrated CONRADE
+      VORSTIUS, born at Cologne in 1569, of parents in reduced
+      circumstances: he was soon remarked for his diligence and
+      irreproachable conduct; and was, in 1605, appointed to a
+      professor's chair at Steinfurth. In 1610, he quitted it,
+      and was named to succeed Arminius, in the chair of
+      Professor of Theology, at Leyden. "He was beloved and
+      honoured," says Mr. Chalmers, "at Steinfurth; there, he
+      enjoyed the utmost tranquillity, and was in the highest
+      reputation; he doubtless foresaw, that in the state in
+      which the controversies of Arminius and Gomarus were at
+      that time, he should meet with great opposition in Holland.
+      But he was tempted by the glory he should gain by
+      supporting a party, which was weakened by Arminius's
+      death."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Vorstius-James I.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He had previously published his Treatise "<i>de Deo</i>."
+      Some passages in it were thought to favour the doctrine of
+      Arminius; some, to lead to Socinianism; and some, to have
+      an ulterior tendency. That Arminius himself discovers these
+      views in his writings, has been frequently asserted. Doctor
+      Maclaine, the learned translator of Mosheim's
+      Ecclesiastical History,<a name='FNanchor_033_33'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_033_33'><sup>[033]</sup></a> observes it to
+      be a common opinion, that "the disciples of Arminius, and
+      more especially Episcopius, had boldly transgressed the
+      bounds, that had been wisely prescribed by their master,
+      and had gone ever to the Pelagians, and even to the
+      Socinians." "Such," continues Dr. Maclaine, "is the opinion
+      commonly entertained upon this matter. But it appears on
+      the contrary evident to me, that Arminius himself had laid
+      the plan of the theological system, that was, in after
+      times embraced by his followers; that he had instilled the
+      principles of it into the minds of his disciples; and that
+      these latter did really no more than bring this plan to a
+      greater degree of perfection, and propagate with more
+      courage and perspicuity the doctrines it contains." To
+      prove this assertion, the Doctor cites a passage from the
+      Will of Arminius, in which he declares, that "his view in
+      all his theological and ministerial labours, was to unite
+      in one community, cemented by the bonds of fraternal
+      charity, all sects and denominations of Christians, the
+      papists excepted." "These words, on this account,"
+      continues Dr. Maclaine, "coincide perfectly with the modern
+      system of Arminianism, which extends the limits of the
+      christian church, and relaxes the bonds of fraternal
+      communion in such a manner, that Christians of all sects
+      and all denominations, whatever their sects and opinions
+      may be, (Papists excepted) may be formed into one religious
+      body, and live together in brotherly love and concord." It
+      is not surprising that in the state of religious
+      effervescence, in which the minds of men were at the time
+      of which we are now speaking, a suspicion that Vorstius
+      entertained the sentiments we have mentioned, or sentiments
+      nearly approaching to them, should have rendered him a
+      subject of jealousy. So greatly was this the case, that the
+      Contra-remonstrants appealed against his doctrines to
+      several Protestant states, and represented to them the
+      doctrine of Vorstius in the most odious light. Our James I.
+      accepted the appeal: by a royal proclamation, he caused
+      Vorstius's Treatise <i>de Deo</i> to be burnt in London,
+      and each of the English Universities. He drew up a list, of
+      the several heresies, which he had discovered in it,
+      commanded his resident at the Hague to notify them to the
+      States; to express his horror of them, and his detestation
+      of those, who should tolerate them.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VIII. 1622.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Vorstius.-James I.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      With some intimation of their independence, the States
+      replied, that "the case was of <i>their</i> cognizance;"
+      that "they would examine it;" and that, "if it should
+      appear that Vorstius maintained the doctrines imputed to
+      him, they would not suffer him to live among them." The
+      monarch's orthodoxy was not satisfied with this answer. He
+      repeated his suggestions, that the States should proceed
+      against Vorstius; and hinted, that if the doctrines should
+      be proved against him, and if he should persist in them,
+      burning might be a proper punishment for him. The monarch
+      added that, if the States did not use their utmost
+      endeavours to extirpate the rising heresy, he should
+      publicly protest against their conduct; that, in quality of
+      defender of the faith, he would exhort all Protestant
+      churches to join in one general resolution to extinguish
+      the abomination, and would, as sovereign of his own
+      dominions, prohibit his subjects to frequent so
+      pestilential a place as the University of Leyden. To his
+      menaces he added the terrors of his pen, and published a
+      "Confutation of Vorstius."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      By the advice of the States, Vorstius replied to his royal
+      adversary in a most respectful manner; still, the royal
+      adversary was not satisfied. Finally, the States condemned
+      the obnoxious doctrines of Vorstius, divested him of all
+      his offices; and sentenced him to perpetual banishment.
+      Vorstius remained concealed during two years; then found an
+      asylum in the dominions of the Duke of Holstein, who, as we
+      have mentioned, took the remains of the Arminians into his
+      protection.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Vorstius died in 1622.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_IX'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c09'>CHAPTER IX.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      GROTIUS AFTER HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON, TILL HIS APPOINTMENT
+      OF AMBASSADOR FROM SWEDEN TO THE COURT OF FRANCE.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1621-1634.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Soon after the escape of Grotius from prison, he repaired
+      to Paris: in this, he followed the advice of Du Maurier,
+      the French ambassador at the Hague. His works had made him
+      known in every part of Europe, in which learning was
+      cultivated: but persons properly qualified to appreciate
+      their merit, existed no where in such abundance as at
+      Paris: he was personally esteemed and regarded by the
+      monarch; and the principal officers of state were attached
+      to him. Paris was also recommended to him by its libraries,
+      the easy access to them, and the habitual intercourse of
+      the men of letters, who, during, at least, a great part of
+      the year, made that city their place of residence.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of
+      Ambassador.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius arrived at Paris on the 13th of April 1621. He was
+      immediately noticed by a multitude of persons of
+      distinction and rank; but it was not till March 1622, that
+      he was presented to the king. His majesty received him
+      graciously, and settled upon him a pension of 3,000 livres.
+      The Prince of Cond&eacute;, the Chancellor, and the Keeper
+      of the Seals, had exerted themselves to dispose the king in
+      his favour. His majesty professed kindness towards those,
+      who had been persecuted by the States; and issued an edict,
+      dated the 22d April 1622, by which he took them under his
+      protection, in the same manner as if they were his own
+      subjects; he even extended this benefit to their children.
+      The celebrated President Jeannin was one of the most active
+      and useful of Grotius's friends; but he died soon after
+      Grotius arrived at Paris.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Grotius, during his stay in that city, attended frequently
+      the courts of justice. He observed the wretched style of
+      oratory, which at that time, prevailed in them. It was, in
+      some measure, corrected by <i>Patru</i> and <i>Le
+      Maitre</i>; but it did not reach its best state, till the
+      end of the reign of Lewis XIV. The rhetorical march and
+      laboured amplifications allowed at the French bar, are
+      offensive to English ears. Has any nation produced a more
+      perfect style of forensic or judicial eloquence, than that
+      of <i>Sir William Grant</i>? The wisdom and justice of
+      <i>Lord Stowell's</i> decisions, and the admirable
+      arguments by which he explains or illustrates them, are
+      known and acknowledged by every Court.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. IX. 1621-1634
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius's love of his native country continued unabated;
+      all his views, all his hopes, were directed thither. With
+      these feelings he wrote his <i>Apology</i>. He composed it
+      in the Dutch language, and translated it afterwards into
+      Latin: it was published in 1622. He dedicated it to the
+      people of Holland and West Friesland. It is divided into
+      twenty chapters; in the first, he argues the important
+      point, that each of the United Provinces is sovereign and
+      independent of the States General, and that the authority
+      of these is confined to the defence of the provinces
+      against their enemies. In the second chapter, he applies
+      the position to ecclesiastical concerns; these, he says,
+      are subject to the sovereign power of each State. In the
+      following chapters, he descends into the particular charges
+      against him; defending himself against all the crimes and
+      irregularities of which he was accused, and shewing the
+      informality of the judicial proceedings by which he and his
+      companions in misfortune were tried and condemned.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of
+      Ambassador.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      His answer was universally read and approved: It greatly
+      incensed the States General: They proscribed it, and
+      forbade all persons to have it in their possession, under
+      pain of death; but no answer to it was published. The edict
+      made Grotius and his friends entertain apprehensions for
+      his personal safety. On this account, he obtained from the
+      French monarch letters of naturalization, dated the 26th
+      February 1623: By these, his majesty took him under his
+      special protection.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Grotius retained many friends in every part of the United
+      Provinces: Prince Frederick Henry, the brother of Maurice,
+      was among them. He had never entered into his brother's
+      persecuting projects.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "The Count d'Estrades has given us," says Burigni, "some
+      anecdotes on this subject, which we shall relate on his
+      authority. He assures us, that, being one day <i>t&ecirc;te
+      a t&ecirc;te</i> with Prince Henry Frederick in his coach,
+      he heard him say, that he had much to do to keep well with
+      his brother Maurice, who suspected him of secretly
+      favouring Barneveldt and the Arminians. He told me, (these
+      were the Count's own words), it was true that he kept a
+      correspondence with them, to prevent their opposing his
+      election, in case his brother should die; but that, as it
+      imported him to be on good terms with his brother, and to
+      efface the notion he had of his connection with the
+      Arminians, he made use of Vandenuse, one of his particular
+      friends, and Barneveldt's son-in-law, to let the cabal
+      know, that it was necessary for him to accommodate himself
+      to his brother, that he might be better able to serve
+      them,-which Barneveldt approved of."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. IX. 1621-1634.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, the situation of Grotius at Paris, became
+      very uncomfortable. His resources, and those of his wife,
+      were small; and his pension was paid irregularly. Cardinal
+      de Richelieu wished to attach Grotius; but required from
+      him an absolute and unqualified devotion to him, which was
+      utterly irreconcileable with the slightest degree of
+      honourable independence. Grotius therefore declined the
+      offers of the Cardinal. From this time, the Cardinal
+      regarded him with an evil eye, and often made him feel the
+      effects of his displeasure.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This rendered Grotius desirous of quitting France. Trusting
+      to some protestations of friendship, which he had received
+      from Prince Frederick; to his numerous friends, to his
+      claims upon the gratitude of the States of Holland, to his
+      feelings of innocence, and to the effect produced, as he
+      flattered himself, by his <i>Apology</i>, he ventured into
+      Holland in 1631. But he met with no countenance: and in
+      that year was banished a second time. Upon this, he
+      formally bade a final adieu to Holland, and determined to
+      seek his fortune elsewhere: He then fixed his residence at
+      Hamburgh.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of
+      Ambassador.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He sought to preserve his friends in France; but announced
+      to them his intention to receive no more money from the
+      French government.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "I shall always," he said in a letter to the First
+      President of the Cour des Monnoies, "be grateful for the
+      King's liberality; but it is enough that I was chargeable
+      to you, while I resided in France. I have never done you
+      any service, though I made you an offer of myself. But it
+      would not be proper that I should now live, like an hornet,
+      on the goods of other men. I shall not, however, forget the
+      kindness of so great a king, and the good offices of so
+      many friends."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. IX. 1621-1634.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It may appear surprising that Prince Frederick of Orange
+      should pertinaciously exclude Grotius from his native
+      country. But ambition listens to nothing that conflicts
+      with its own views. Prince Frederick inherited from his
+      father and brother the wish of becoming the sovereign of
+      the United Provinces. To this, he knew he should always
+      find a zealous and able opponent in Grotius: hence,
+      notwithstanding his great personal regard for Grotius, he
+      always kept him a banished man. Grotius wished to be
+      employed by the Government of England, and Archbishop Laud
+      was sounded upon this subject; but the application was
+      coldly received<a name='FNanchor_034_34'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_034_34'><sup>[034]</sup></a>. Prince Frederick
+      sustained, both in military and civil concerns, the
+      character of the former princes of his family. Under his
+      administration, the affairs of the republic prospered at
+      sea and land. Peter Haim captured the Spanish flotilla,
+      estimated at twelve millions of florins. The Prince took
+      Bois-le duc, Maestricht, and Breda, and reduced the Dutchy
+      of Limburgh. Under his auspices, the celebrated Van Tromp
+      commenced his career of naval glory, by obtaining a
+      complete victory over the Spanish fleet, consisting of
+      seventy men of war. Prince Frederick died in 1658.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      From the close of his Stadtholderate, we may date the
+      origin of the jealousy entertained, by France and England,
+      of the rising power of the United Provinces. It is to be
+      observed that Prince Frederick was Stadtholder only of the
+      Provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres and
+      Overyssell: Count Ernest Casimir of Nassau was Stadtholder
+      of the provinces of Gr&ouml;ningen, Frizeland, and the
+      county of the Drenta. In 1631, their eldest sons were
+      chosen, in the lifetime of their fathers, their successors
+      in their respective Stadtholderates. This was a great step
+      towards making the Stadtholderate hereditary in their
+      families,-one of the leading objects of their ambitious
+      views.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_X'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c10'>CHAPTER X.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS OF GROTIUS.
+    </p>
+    1. <i>His Edition of Stob&aelig;us</i>.<br>
+    <br>
+    2. <i>His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis</i>.<br>
+    <br>
+    3. <i>His Treatise de Veritate Religionis
+    Christian&aelig;</i>.<br>
+    <br>
+    4. <i>His Treatise de Jure summarum potestatum circa</i><br>
+    <span class='c12'><i>sacra</i>.</span><br>
+    <br>
+    5. <i>His Commentary on the Scriptures</i>.<br>
+    <br>
+    6. <i>Some other Works of Grotius</i><br>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. X. 1621-1634
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      That literature is an ornament in prosperity, and a comfort
+      in adverse fortune, has been often said by the best and
+      wisest men; but no one experienced the truth of this
+      assertion in a higher degree than Grotius, during his
+      imprisonment at Louvestein. In that wreck of his fortune
+      and overthrow of all his hopes, books came to his aid,
+      soothed his sorrows, and beguiled the wearisome hours of
+      his gloomy solitude. His studies often stole him from
+      himself, and from the sense of his misfortunes. In the
+      exercise of his mental energies, he was sensible of their
+      powers; and it was impossible that he should contemplate,
+      without pleasure, the extent, the worth, or the splendour
+      of his labours; the services, which he rendered by them to
+      learning and religion, and the admiration and gratitude of
+      the scholar, which he then enjoyed, and which would attend
+      his memory to the latest posterity. He himself acknowledged
+      that, in the ardour of his literary pursuits, he often
+      forgot his calamities, and that the hours passed unheeded,
+      if not in joy, at least without pain.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='X_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c10.1'>X. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>His Edition of Stob&aelig;us</i>.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Being ourselves unacquainted with this work, we cannot do
+      better than present our readers with the account given of
+      it by Burigni.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "The year after the publication of his <i>Apology</i>,
+        that is to say in 1623, Nicholas Huon printed at Paris,
+        <i>Grotius's improvements and additions to
+        Stob&aelig;us</i>. This author, as is well known,
+        extracted what he thought most important in the ancient
+        Greek writers, and ranged it under different heads,
+        comprehending the principal points of philosophy. His
+        work is the more valuable, as it has preserved several
+        fragments of the Ancients, found no where else. Grotius,
+        when very young, purposed to extract from this author all
+        the maxims of the poets; to translate them into Latin
+        verse, and to print the original with the translation. He
+        began this, when a boy; he was employed in it at the time
+        of his arrest; and continued it as an amusement, whilst
+        he had the use of books, in his prison at the Hague. He
+        tells us that, when he was deprived of pen and ink, he
+        was got to the forty-ninth title, which is an invective
+        against tyranny, that had a great relation to what passed
+        at that time in Holland. On his removal to Louvestein, he
+        resumed this work, and finished it at Paris. He made
+        several happy corrections in the text of Stob&aelig;us;
+        some, from his own conjectures or those of his friends;
+        others, on the authority of manuscripts in the King's
+        library, which were politely lent him by the learned
+        Nicholas Rigaut, librarian to his majesty.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        His edition of Stob&aelig;us.
+      </div>
+      <br>
+      <br>
+
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        CHAP. X. 1621-1634
+      </div>
+      <br>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        "Prefixed to this book, are <i>Prolegomena</i>, in which
+        the author shews that the works of the ancient Pagans are
+        filled with maxims agreeable to the truths taught in holy
+        writ. He intended to dedicate this book to the Chancellor
+        Silleri: he had even writ the dedication, but his
+        friends, to whom he shewed it, thought he expressed
+        himself with too much warmth, against the censurers of
+        his <i>Apology</i>. They advised him therefore to
+        suppress it; and he yielded to their opinion. It may be
+        observed in reading the royal privilege, that the present
+        title of the book is different from what it was to have
+        had. To these extracts from the Greek poets translated
+        into Latin verse, Grotius annexed two pieces, one of
+        Plutarch, the other of St. Basil, on the use of the
+        poets; giving the Greek text with a Latin translation."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The work was received with universal approbation.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='X_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c10.2'>X. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis</i>.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Grotius may be considered as the founder of the modern
+      school of <i>the Law of Nature and of Nations</i>. He was
+      struck with the ruthless manner, in which wars were
+      generally conducted; the slight pretences, upon which they
+      were generally begun; and the barbarity and injustice, with
+      which they were generally attended. He attributed these
+      evils to the want of settled principles respecting the
+      rights and duties of nations and individuals in a state of
+      war. These, he observed, must depend on the previous rights
+      and duties of mankind, in a state of peace: this led him to
+      the preliminary inquiry into their rights and duties in a
+      state of nature.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thus, an ample field was opened to him. He brought to it, a
+      vigorous discerning mind, and stupendous erudition. From
+      antient and modern history, philosophy, oratory, and
+      poetry, he collected facts and sayings, which appeared to
+      him to establish a general agreement of all civilized
+      nations upon certain principles. From these, he formed his
+      system; applying them, as he proceeded in his work, to a
+      vast multitude of circumstances. These are so numerous,
+      that some persons have not scrupled to say, that no case or
+      international law, either in war or in peace, can be
+      stated, to which the work of Grotius does not contain an
+      applicable rule.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      X. 2. <i>The Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis.</i>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. X. 1621-1634
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Three important objections have been made to this
+      celebrated work,-one, that the author defers in it, too
+      little, to principle, too much, to authority;-another, that
+      the work is written in a very desultory manner, with small
+      attention to order, or classification;-a third, that his
+      authorities are often feeble, and sometimes whimsical.
+      "Grotius," says Condillac, "was able to think for himself;
+      but he constantly labours to support his conclusions by the
+      authority of others. Upon many occasions; even in support
+      of the most obvious and indisputable propositions, he
+      introduces a long string of quotations from the Mosaic law,
+      from the Gospels, from the fathers of the church, from the
+      casuists, and not unfrequently, even in the very same
+      paragraph, from Ovid, and Aristophanes." This strange
+      mixture is subject of many witticisms of Voltaire. But let
+      us hear what is urged in the defence of Grotius, by a
+      gentleman, of whose praise the ablest of writers may be
+      proud:
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Few writers," says Sir James Mackintosh, in his
+        Discourse on the Study of the Law of Nature and Nations,
+        "were more celebrated than Grotius in his own days, and
+        in the age which succeeded. It has, however, been the
+        fashion of the last half century to depreciate his work,
+        as a shapeless compilation, in which reason lies buried
+        under a mass of authorities and quotations. This fashion
+        originated among French wits and declaimers, and it has
+        been, I know not for what reason, adopted, though with
+        far greater moderation and decency, by some respectable
+        writers among ourselves. As to those, who first used this
+        language, the most candid supposition that we can make
+        with respect to them is, that they never read the work;
+        for, if they had not been deterred from the perusal of it
+        by such a formidable display of Greek characters, they
+        must soon have discovered that Grotius never quotes, on
+        any subject, till he has first appealed to some
+        principles; and often, in my humble opinion, though, not
+        always, to the soundest and most rational principles.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        His treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis.
+      </div>
+      <br>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        "But another sort of answer is due to some of those, who
+        have criticised Grotius; and that answer might be given
+        in the words of Grotius himself. He was not of such a
+        stupid and servile cast of mind as to quote the opinions
+        of poets or orators, of historians and philosophers, as
+        those of judges, from whose decision there was no appeal.
+        He quotes them, as he tells us himself, as witnesses,
+        whose conspiring testimony, mightily strengthened and
+        confirmed by their discordance on almost every other
+        subject, is a conclusive proof of the unanimity of the
+        whole human race on the great rules of duty, and the
+        fundamental principles of morals. Of such matters, poets
+        and orators are the most unexceptionable of all
+        witnesses; for they address themselves to the general
+        feelings and sympathies of mankind; they are neither
+        warped by system, nor perverted by sophistry; they can
+        attain none of their objects; they can neither please nor
+        persuade, if they dwell on moral sentiments not in unison
+        with those of their readers. No system of moral
+        philosophy can surely disregard the general feelings of
+        human nature, and the according judgment of all ages and
+        nations. But, where are these feelings and that judgment
+        recorded and preserved? In those very writings which
+        Grotius is gravely blamed for having quoted. The usages
+        and law of nations, the events of history, the opinions
+        of philosophers, the sentiments of orators and poets, as
+        well as the observation of common life, are, in truth,
+        the materials out of which the science of morality is
+        formed; and those who neglect them, are justly chargeable
+        with a vain attempt to philosophise without regard to
+        fact and experience, the sole foundation of all true
+        philosophy.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        Chap. X. 1621-1634
+      </div>
+      <br>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        "If this were merely an objection of taste, I should be
+        willing to allow, that Grotius has indeed poured forth
+        his learning with a profusion, that sometimes rather
+        encumbers than adorns his work, and which is not always
+        necessary to the illustration of his subject. Yet, even
+        in making, that concession, I should rather yield to the
+        tastes of others, than speak from my own feelings. I own
+        that such richness and splendour of literature have a
+        powerful charm for me. They fill my mind with an endless
+        variety of delightful recollections and associations.
+        They relieve the understanding in its progress through a
+        vast science, by calling up the memory of great men and
+        of interesting events. By this means we see the truths of
+        morality clothed with all the eloquence (not that could
+        be produced by the powers of one man, but) that could be
+        bestowed on them by the collective genius of the world.
+        Even virtue and wisdom themselves acquire new majesty in
+        my eyes, when I thus see all the great masters of
+        thinking and writing called together, as it were, from
+        all times and countries, to do them homage and to appear
+        in their train.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        X. 2. His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis
+      </div>
+      <br>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        "But this is no piece for discussions of taste, and I am
+        very ready to own, that mine may be corrupted. The work
+        of Grotius is liable to a more serious objection, though
+        I do not recollect that it has ever been made. His method
+        is inconvenient and unscientific. He has inverted the
+        natural order. That natural order undoubtedly dictates,
+        that we should first search for the original principles
+        of the science, in human nature; then apply them to the
+        regulation of the conduct of individuals; and lastly
+        employ them for the decision of those difficult and
+        complicated questions that arise with respect to the
+        intercourse of nations. But Grotius has chosen the
+        reverse of this method. He begins with the consideration
+        of the states of peace and war, and he examines original
+        principles, only occasionally and incidentally, as they
+        grow out of the questions, which he is called upon to
+        decide. It is a necessary consequence of this disorderly
+        method, which exhibits the elements of the science in the
+        form of scattered digressions, that he seldom employs
+        sufficient discussion on those fundamental truths, and
+        never in the place where such a discussion would be most
+        instructive to the reader. This defect in the plan of
+        Grotius was perceived, and supplied by Puffendorf, who
+        restored natural law to that superiority which belonged
+        to it, and with great propriety, treated the law of
+        nations as only one main branch of the parent stock."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP X. 1621-1634
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Whatever may be the merit of the work of which we are
+      speaking, it must be admitted, that few, on their first
+      appearance, and during a long subsequent period after
+      publication, have received greater or warmer applause. The
+      stores of erudition displayed in it, recommended it to the
+      classical scholar, while the happy application of the
+      author's reading to the affairs of human life, drew to it
+      the attention of common readers. Among those, whose
+      approbation of it, deserved to be recorded, Gustavus
+      Adolphus,-his prime minister the Chancellor Oxenstiern,-and
+      the Elector Palatine Charles Lewis, deserve particular
+      mention.<a name='FNanchor_035_35'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_035_35'><sup>[035]</sup></a> As the trophies of
+      Miltiades are supposed to have kept Themistocles awake, it
+      has been said that the trophies of Grotius drove sleep from
+      Selden, till be produced his celebrated treatise, "<i>De
+      Jure naturali et gentium secundum leges
+      Ebr&aelig;orim</i>." This important work equals that of
+      Grotius in learning; but, from the partial and recondite
+      nature of its subject, never equalled it in popularity.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      X. 9. His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The supposed want of general elementary principles in the
+      work of Grotius gave occasion to Puffendorf's treatise
+      <i>de Jure Naturae et Gentium</i>; afterwards abridged by
+      him into the small octavo volume <i>De Officio hominis et
+      civis</i>: an edition of it in octavo was published by
+      Professor Garschen Carmichael, of Glasgow, in 1724.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The best edition of Grotius's treatise <i>de Jure Belli et
+      Pacis</i> was published at Amsterdam in 1730, by John
+      Barbeyrac.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Foreigners observe, that the study of the law of nature and
+      nations is less cultivated in England than upon the
+      continent. Is it not, because Englishmen are blessed with a
+      free constitution; are admitted into a general
+      participation of all its blessings; are thus personally
+      interested in the national concerns; and have therefore a
+      jurisprudence, which comes nearer to their bosoms? Is it
+      not also, because the law of nature and nations, with all
+      its merit, is so loose, that its principles seldom admit of
+      that practical application, which renders them really
+      useful; and which an English mind always requires?
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='X_3'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c10.3'>X. 3.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      De Veritate Religionis Christian&aelig;.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. X. 1621-1634.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius, while a prisoner in the Castle of Louvestein, had
+      written, in the Dutch language, "A treatise on the Truth of
+      the Christian Religion." He afterwards enlarged it, and
+      translated it, so enlarged, into Latin. It was universally
+      read and admired. French, German, English, modern Greek,
+      Persic, and even Turkish versions of it have been made: it
+      was equally approved by Catholics and Protestants.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      De Veritate Religionis Christian&aelig;.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It was invidiously objected, that he did not attempt to
+      prove, or even mention, the Trinity, and some other gospel
+      mysteries: he replied, satisfactorily in our opinion, that
+      a discussion of any particular tenet of the Christian
+      religion did not fall within the scope of his work. In this
+      respect, he was afterwards imitated by <i>Abadie</i> and
+      <i>Houteville</i>, two of the most eminent apologists of
+      Christianity. The latter expresses himself of the work of
+      Grotius in the following terms:
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Grotius's work is the first, in which we find the
+        characteristics of just reasoning, accuracy, and
+        strength: he is extremely concise; but even this brevity
+        will please us, when we find his work comprehends so many
+        things, without confounding them or lessening their
+        evidence or force. It is no wonder that the book should
+        be translated into so many languages."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The best edition of it is that published by Le Clerc,<a
+      name='FNanchor_036_36'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_036_36'><sup>[036]</sup></a> in 1709 at
+      Amsterdam, in 8vo. To this edition, Le Clerc has added a
+      curious <i>dissertation</i> on <i>religious
+      indifference</i>. He presumes that the supposed
+      indifference is persuaded of the authenticity of the New
+      Testament:-He then (says Le Clerc) must ascertain,-
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. Which are the denominations of religionists which avow
+        their belief of it:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. Which of these are most worthy of the name of
+        Christians:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3. And which profess the Christian religion in most
+        purity and with least extraneous alloy:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4. He will find, that all Christians agree in the
+        fundamental articles of faith:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        5. That all these articles are clearly expressed in the
+        New Testament:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        6. That no tenet should be believed to be of faith,
+        unless the New Testament contains it.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        7. That the providence of God is admirable in the
+        preservation of these tenets, amidst the confused
+        multitude of religious opinions, which have prevailed in
+        the world:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        8. That this confusion was foreseen by God:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        9. That he permitted it as a consequence of his gift of
+        free-will to man:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        10. That the inquirer should aggregate himself to that
+        religious communion, which receives the New Testament as
+        its only rule of faith, and does not persecute others:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        11. That episcopacy without tyranny is the most antient
+        form of ecclesiastical government, and most to be
+        desired; but that it is not essential to a Christian
+        church:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        12. That these were the opinions of Grotius:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        13. Finally, that it is greatly to be desired that a
+        belief of no dogma, not explicitly propounded in the New
+        Testament, should be required.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Such is the religious system propounded by Le Clerc.-Does
+      any religious communion really profess it?-Many Protestant
+      churches declare, that the Bible, and the Bible only,
+      contains their creed: but, do they not all mean by this-the
+      Bible, as it is explained by the Articles, the Formulary,
+      or the Confession received by their church?
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='X_4'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c10.4'>X. 4.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Grotius's Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum circa
+      sacra</i>.-And, <i>Commentatio ad loca qu&aelig;dam Novi
+      Testamenti, qu&aelig; de Antichristo agunt, aut agere
+      putantur</i>.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Nothing in the life of Grotius places him in a more amiable
+      or respectable point of view, than his constant attempts to
+      put Catholics and Protestants into good humour with each
+      other, and to put both into good humour among themselves.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      X. 4. His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum. &amp;c.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      We have mentioned the <i>pacific decree of the States of
+      Holland</i>, which ordered the contending communions to
+      tolerate each other. Grotius is supposed to have framed
+      this wise decree. The Contra-remonstrants attacked it:
+      Grotius reprinted it, with a collection of proofs and
+      authorities.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It gave rise to a controversy on the nice question,
+      respecting the authority of the temporal power to interfere
+      in the ecclesiastical concerns of the state. Grotius
+      adopted, upon this point, the sentiments of what is termed
+      in England the Low Church: he seems to have pushed them to
+      their utmost bearings. With these sentiments, he published
+      his treatise <i>de Imperio summarum potestatum circa
+      sacra</i>. It was disliked by King James and his bishops:
+      Grotius, in their opinion, gave too much authority, in
+      sacred things, to the secular power.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the work of Grotius, respecting <i>Anti-christ</i>, we
+      prefer transcribing Burigni's sentiments to delivering our
+      own.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "This deep study of the Holy Scriptures led Grotius to
+        examine a question, which made much noise at that time.
+        Some Protestant synods had ventured to decide that <i>the
+        Pope was Antichrist</i>; and this extravagance, gravely
+        delivered by the ministers, was regarded by the zealous
+        schismatics, as a fundamental truth. Grotius undertook to
+        overturn such an absurd opinion, that stirred up an
+        irreconcileable enmity between the Roman Catholics and
+        the Protestants; and, of consequence, was a very great
+        obstacle to their re-union, which was the sole object of
+        his desires. He entered therefore upon the consideration
+        of the passages of Scripture relating to Antichrist, and
+        employed his Sundays in it.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        CHAP. X. 1621-1634.
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        "It was this work, that raised him up most enemies. We see
+        by the letters he wrote to his brother, that his best
+        friends were afraid lest they should be suspected of
+        having some hand in the publication of the books, in
+        which he treated of Antichrist. 'If you are afraid of
+        incurring ill will, (he writes thus to his brother), you
+        may easily find people that are far from a factious
+        spirit, who will take care of the impression. Nothing has
+        incensed princes against those, who separated from the
+        church of Rome, more than the injurious names, with which
+        the Protestants load their adversaries; and nothing is a
+        greater hindrance to that re-union, which we are all
+        obliged to labour after, in consequence of Christ's
+        precept and the profession we make of our faith in the
+        creed. Perhaps the Turk, who threatens Italy, will force
+        us to it. In order to arrive at it, we must first remove
+        whatever obstructs a mutual quiet hearing. I hope I shall
+        find assistance in this pious design. I shall not cease
+        to labour in it, and shall rejoice to die employed in so
+        good a work.'
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum, &amp;c.
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        "Reigersberg, Blaeu, Vossius himself, however much devoted
+        to Grotius, beheld with concern the printing of this
+        book, because they did not doubt but it would increase
+        the number of his enemies. Grotius informs his brother,
+        of the uneasiness which Vossius gave him on this subject.
+        'Among those, who wish this work destroyed,' says he, 'I
+        am astonished and grieved to see Vossius. Whence could he
+        have this idea? I imagine somebody has told him, that it
+        would injure the fortune of his children, if he approved
+        of such books; and that, on the contrary, he would find
+        favour by hurting me. We must therefore have recourse to
+        Corcellius or Corvinus.' He elsewhere complains of the
+        too great timidity of this old friend, who at bottom
+        approved of Grotius's sentiments, but durst not own them
+        publicly, because he was not so independent as Grotius.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        CHAP. X. 1621-1634.
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        "The treatise on Anti-christ made much noise among all the
+        declared enemies of the Romish church. Michael Gettichius
+        wrote to Ruarus, that he had only glanced over Grotius's
+        book on Antichrist; but as far as he could judge by the
+        first reading, that learned man, who was possessed of
+        such an excellent genius, and such singular erudition,
+        had no other intention than to engage the learned in a
+        further inquiry concerning Antichrist; and to determine
+        them to attack with greater strength, the Romish
+        Antichrist; or, if he wrote seriously, he wanted to cut
+        out a path for going over, without dishonour, to the
+        Papists. Ruarus answers this letter Dec. 16, 1642, from
+        Dantzic. 'I have always (he says) looked on Grotius as a
+        very honest and at the same time a very learned man. I am
+        persuaded that love of peace engaged him in this work. I
+        don't deny but he has gone too far; the love of antiquity
+        perhaps seduced him: no Remonstrant, that I know of, has
+        as yet answered him; but he has been confuted by some
+        learned Calvinists, particularly Desmonets, minister of
+        Bois le duc, who has written against him with much
+        bitterness.'
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Grotius's work was printed in 1640, with this title:
+        <i>Commentatio ad loca qu&aelig;dam Novi Testamenti,
+        qu&aelig; de Antichristo agunt aut agere
+        putantur:-Expedenda eruditis."</i><a name=
+        'FNanchor_037_37'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_037_37'><sup>[037]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='X_5'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c10.5'>X. 5.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      His Commentary on the Scriptures.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The theological works of Grotius are comprised in four
+      volumes folio: the three first contain his Commentary, and
+      Notes upon the Scriptures. On their merit, both Catholics
+      and Protestants considerably differ. All allow that an
+      abundance of sacred and profane learning is displayed in
+      them; and that Grotius, by his references to the writings
+      of the Rabbis, and his remarks upon the idiom of the sacred
+      writings, has happily elucidated a multitude of passages in
+      the text. He uniformly adopts the literal and obvious
+      signification of the language used by the holy penmen. In
+      explaining the predictions of the prophets, he maintains
+      that they referred to events anterior to the coming of
+      Christ, and were accomplished in these; so that the natural
+      and obvious sense of the words and phrases, in which they
+      were delivered, does not terminate in Christ; yet, that in
+      some of the predictions, those particularly, which the
+      writers of the New Testament apply to Christ, there is,
+      <i>besides</i> the literal and obvious signification, a
+      hidden and mysterious sense, which lies concealed under the
+      external mark of certain <i>persons</i>, certain
+      <i>events</i>, and certain <i>actions</i>, which are
+      representative of the person, the ministry, the sufferings,
+      and the merits of the Son of God.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. X. 1621-1634.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It has been objected, that this system leads to
+      Socinianism, and even beyond it. All Catholic, and several
+      episcopalian Protestant divines object to it; they
+      generally contend, that the sacred writings ought always to
+      be understood in that sense <i>only</i>, which has been
+      attributed to them, by the early fathers.-Against this
+      system, Dr. Whitby published his celebrated work
+      "Concerning the Interpretation of Scripture after the
+      manner of the Fathers."<a name='FNanchor_038_38'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_038_38'><sup>[038]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The system of Grotius was defended, to a certain extent, by
+      <i>Father Sim&ocirc;n</i>, the oratorian, the father of the
+      modern biblical school. Against both Sim&ocirc;n and
+      Grotius, Bossuet wielded his powerful lance,-in his
+      "Pastoral Instruction on the Works of Father Sim&ocirc;n,"
+      and his "Dissertations upon Grotius." In these works he
+      says that, during thirty years,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Grotius searched for truth in good faith, and at last
+        was so near it, that it is wonderful that he did not take
+        the last step, to which God called him. Shocked at
+        Calvin's harsh doctrines, he embraced Arminianism; then,
+        abandoned it. More a lawyer than a theologian, more a
+        polite scholar than a philosopher, he throws the doctrine
+        of the immortality of the soul into obscurity. He
+        endeavours to weaken and steal from the church, her most
+        powerful proofs of the divinity of the Son of God, and
+        strives to darken the prophecies, which announce the
+        arrival of the Messiah."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Bossuet proceeds to particularize some of the principal
+      errors of Grotius: Le Clerc replied to the prelate's
+      criticism, by his <i>Sentimens de quelques Theologiens de
+      la Hollande</i>.-Grotius had also an able advocate in
+      Father Sim&ocirc;n. His defence of Grotius against the
+      charge of <i>semi-Pelagianism</i>, in the <i>Bibliotheque
+      de Sainjore</i>,<a name='FNanchor_039_39'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_039_39'><sup>[039]</sup></a> appears to be
+      satisfactory. He cites the note of Grotius, on the Acts of
+      the Apostles, (the celebrated ch. xiii. ver. 38), in which
+      he says expressly that he does not exclude preventive
+      grace: this the semi-Pelagians denied altogether. But in
+      his defence of Grotius against the charge of
+      <i>Socinianism</i>, he is not equally successful. Bossuet
+      sent his <i>Pastoral Instruction</i>, and <i>Dissertations
+      upon Grotius</i>, to the bishop of Fr&eacute;jus, afterward
+      Cardinal de Fleury: he accompanied them by a letter, which
+      closes with these remarkable words:
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "The spirit of incredulity gains ground in the world
+        every day: you have often heard me make this remark. It
+        is now worse than ever, as the Gospel itself is used for
+        the corruption of religion. I thank God that at my age he
+        blesses me with sufficient strength to resist the
+        torrent."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. X. 1621-1634.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Dom. Calmet<a name='FNanchor_040_40'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_040_40'><sup>[040]</sup></a> calls Grotius,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "one of the most able and moderate Protestant writers:
+        one who spreads throughout his notes a pleasing profusion
+        of profane literature, which causes his works to be
+        sought for and read by those, who have taste for that
+        kind of literature. His high reputation, great erudition,
+        and rare modesty," says Dom. Calmet, "render it easy for
+        him to insinuate his particular sentiments respecting the
+        divinity of Christ, against which, his readers should be
+        guarded."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='X_6'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c10.6'>X. 6.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Some other Works of Grotius</i>.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      1. The first which we shall mention is his history of the
+      <i>Goths, Vandals, and Lombards</i>, written in the Latin
+      language, and accompanied by learned dissertations. He
+      composed it, as a testimony of his gratitude to the Swedes,
+      by doing honour to their gothic ancestors. The preface has
+      always been admired, for its erudition and sound criticism.
+      But the Belgic friends of Grotius accused him of elevating
+      the Swedes at their expense.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      X. 6. Other Works of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      2. A more important work consists of his <i>Annals, and
+      History of the United Provinces</i>. The Annals begin with
+      the year 1588, when Prince Maurice had the greatest
+      influence in the affairs of the United Provinces; and
+      concludes with the truce of twelve years, signed between
+      them and Spain. The impartiality, with which these works
+      are written, has been praised by every writer.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is to be lamented that Grotius professed to imitate,
+      both in his Annals and History, the style of Tacitus.
+      Expressed by his own pen, the style of Tacitus is
+      energetic, picturesque, and pleasing; but it is impossible
+      to deny its frequent abruptness and obscurity. Generally
+      speaking, an imitation of what is defective, contains a
+      larger share, than the original, of its distinctive defect.
+      It should however be added, that Grotius's own style is
+      short, sententious and broken; and possesses nothing of the
+      meliflous ease of the ultramontane Latinists; or of our
+      Milton or Buchanan. None of the works of Grotius, which we
+      have mentioned in this Article, were published till after
+      his decease.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      3. It remains to notice the <i>Letters of Grotius</i>,
+      published at Amsterdam in one volume folio, in 1687.-A
+      multitude of his unpublished letters is said to exist in
+      different public and private libraries.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. X. 1621-1634.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      His published letters are an invaluable treasure: they
+      abound with wise maxims of sound policy, and curious
+      discussions on points arising on Roman or Belgic
+      jurisprudence. Many points of sacred and profane learning,
+      and particularly of the civil and canon law, are treated in
+      them with equal learning and taste. For the perfect
+      understanding of them, the letters of the correspondents of
+      Grotius should be perused: they are principally to be
+      found, in the <i>Pr&aelig;stantium et Eruditorum Virorum
+      Epistol&aelig; Ecclesiastic&aelig; et Theologic&aelig;</i>,
+      published at Amsterdam in 1684. A critical account of the
+      Letters of Grotius, executed with great taste and judgment,
+      is inserted in the first volume of the <i>Bibliotheque
+      Universelle et Historique</i>.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_041_41'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_041_41'><sup>[041]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      X. 6. Other Works of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is acknowledged that the letters of Grotius, are written
+      in the finest latinity, and contain much valuable
+      information; but the point, the sprightliness, the genius,
+      the vivid descriptions of men and things, which are so
+      profusely scattered over the letters of Erasmus, are seldom
+      discoverable in those of Grotius. A man of learning would
+      have been gratified beyond measure, by the profound
+      conversations of Grotius and Father Petau: but what a treat
+      must it have been, to have assisted with one, two, or three
+      good listeners, at the conversations between Erasmus and
+      Sir Thomas More!
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_XI'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c11'>CHAPTER XI.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      GROTIUS.-AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN TO THE
+      COURT OF FRANCE.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1634-1645.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The embassy of Grotius is connected with an important
+      period in the history of the War of Thirty years.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This celebrated war was principally caused by the religious
+      disputes of the sixteenth century. Very soon after Luther's
+      first attack on the See of Rome, the Reformation was
+      established in Saxony, Livonia, Prussia, and Hesse-cassell;
+      in many imperial towns; in Friezland and Holland; in
+      several of the Swiss Cantons; in Pomerania, Mecklenburgh,
+      Anhalt; Sweden, Denmark, Norway; England, and Scotland. Its
+      progress in Germany is particularly connected with the
+      subject of these pages.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Embassy of Grotius in the Court of France.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      At the diet of Augsburgh, in 1530, the Protestant princes
+      of Germany delivered to the emperor their Confession of
+      Faith; they afterwards, at Smalcald, entered into an
+      offensive and defensive league against the emperor. Being
+      sensible that they were unable to resist him, they engaged
+      the French monarch in their cause. At first, the emperor
+      was victorious; but a new league was formed. France then
+      took a more active part in favour of the confederates, and
+      the contest ended in the peace of Passau, in 1552, there
+      the two parties, for the first time, treated as equals, and
+      the free exercise of the Lutheran religion was allowed.
+      Things remained quiet during the reigns of Ferdinand the
+      First and Maximilian the Second; but, in consequence of the
+      disputes, which arose on the succession to the dutchies of
+      Cleves and Juliers, the religious differences broke out
+      with fresh animosity:-the Protestant princes formed a
+      confederacy called the <i>Evangelical Union</i>, and
+      placed, at its head, the Elector Palatine; the Catholics
+      formed a confederacy called the <i>Catholic League</i>, and
+      placed, at its head, the Duke of Bavaria. In the year 1618,
+      they burst into open war; every state in Europe, and even
+      the Ottoman princes, at one time or other, took a part in
+      it. France was the soul of the Protestant cause; she
+      assisted it with her armies, and her subsidies:-it may be
+      truly said, that, if there be a Protestant state from the
+      Vistula to the Rhine, or a Mahometan, state between the
+      Danube and the Mediterranean, its existence is owing to the
+      Bourbon monarchs. From the period of its duration, it has
+      been called the WAR OF THIRTY YEARS: it is divided, by its
+      <i>Palatine, Danish, Swedish,</i> and <i>French</i>
+      periods.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      1. Frederick, the fifth <i>Elector Palatine</i> of that
+      name, being elected King of Bohemia, by the states of that
+      kingdom, made war on the emperor Ferdinand the Second.
+      Being defeated in 1620, at the battle of Prague, and
+      abandoned by his allies, he was driven from Bohemia, and
+      deprived of his other states.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      2. Christian the Fourth of <i>Denmark</i>, then placed
+      himself at the head of the confederacy against the emperor;
+      but, having in 1626, lost the battle of Lutter, in which
+      Tilly commanded the Austrian forces; he signed, three years
+      after that event, a separate peace with the emperor.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the following year, Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden,
+      was placed at the head of the confederacy. Their cause
+      appeared desperate: Walstein, the Austrian general, had
+      been uniformly successful, and almost the whole of Germany
+      had submitted to the emperor: but the Austrians soon
+      experienced a severe reverse of fortune.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      3. Lewis XIII filled at that time, the throne of France;
+      his councils were guided by Cardinal Richelieu, one of the
+      ablest statesmen that has appeared upon the theatre of the
+      world. Vast, but provident in his designs; daring, but
+      considerate in his operations; capable of the largest views
+      and the most minute attentions; he formed three immense
+      projects, and succeeded in all.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "When your Majesty," he thus addresses the monarch in his
+      celebrated <i>Testament Politique</i>, "resolved at the
+      same time to admit me into your councils, and to give me a
+      great portion of your confidence, I can say with truth that
+      the Hugonots divided the state with you; that the great,
+      conducted themselves, as if they were not your subjects,
+      and the governors of the provinces, as if they were the
+      sovereigns of them; and that France was contemned by her
+      foreign allies."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To reduce the Hugonots, to lower the nobility, to elevate
+      France to be the preponderating power in Europe, were the
+      three objects, which the Cardinal proposed to himself. In
+      each, he had difficulties to encounter, which extraordinary
+      talents only could surmount. By a strict administration of
+      justice, and severely punishing, without respect to rank or
+      connections, those, who engaged in treasonable practices,
+      he completely subdued the towering spirit of the nobility;
+      by victorious armies and a vigorous dispensation of the
+      laws, he reduced the Hugonots; and, by calling forth all
+      the energies of his country, and arraying half the
+      Continent against Austria and Spain, he gave to France an
+      almost irresistible ascendant in the concerns of Europe.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XI 1634-1645.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      To the last only of these three designs our present subject
+      leads us.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Sweden</i> had long been engaged in a war against
+      Denmark, and highly dissatisfied with Austria. By the
+      persuasion of Richelieu, she made peace with the Danes, and
+      entered into an offensive and defensive alliance with
+      France. In consequence of it, Gustavus Adolphus was placed
+      at the head of the Protestant confederacy: a large army of
+      Swedes entered Germany; Gustavus was invested with the
+      command of the confederate forces, and his brilliant
+      campaigns turned the tide of success in their favour. At
+      Lutzen he obtained a complete victory, but lost his life.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      After the death of Gustavus, the States assembled, and the
+      Mareschal of the Diet proposed, that the celebrated
+      Christina, the only child of Gustavus, then an infant of
+      very tender years, should be crowned: the Mareschal carried
+      her in his arms into the midst of the assembly. On
+      observing her, all were struck with her likeness to her
+      father. "Yes!" they cried, "it is she herself! she has the
+      eyes, the nose and the forehead of Gustavus! We will have
+      her for our queen!" She was immediately seated on the
+      throne, and proclaimed queen. The regency of the kingdom,
+      during the minority of Christina, was conferred on the
+      Chancellor Oxenstiern: he had been the confidential
+      minister and friend of Gustavus, and shewed through life
+      that he deserved that confidence, by his wisdom, eminent
+      talents, and spotless integrity. Both the monarch and his
+      minister entertained a high opinion of the abilities and
+      virtue of Grotius: His treatise <i>De Jure Belli et
+      Pacis</i> was found, after the death of Gustavus, in the
+      royal tent.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      4. Not long after the disastrous victory of the Swedes at
+      Lutzen, the Austrian and confederate armies conflicted at
+      Nordlingen, in one of the most obstinate and bloody battles
+      recorded in history: the confederates were completely
+      defeated. The blame was thrown on the Swedes; they were
+      deserted by almost all their Protestant allies, and the
+      weight of the war devolved almost entirely upon the Swedes
+      and <i>the French</i>. Till this time, they had acted and
+      negociated on an equality: the loss of this battle made the
+      Swedes dependent upon France, and the haughty genius of
+      Richelieu made them severely feel it.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The first object of Oxenstiern was to renew the treaty with
+      France: a skilful negociator on the part of Sweden was
+      necessary. Oxenstiern fixed his eye upon Grotius: the
+      penetrating minister had several conversations with him.
+      The embassy to France was certainly the most important
+      commission, with which a minister from Sweden could be
+      charged: Oxenstiern's appointment of Grotius to it,
+      demonstrated the minister's high opinion of him. Some time
+      in July 1634, he declared Grotius councillor to the Queen
+      of Sweden, and her ambassador to the court of France.
+      Grotius made his public entry into Paris on Friday the 2d
+      of March 1635. Nothing of the customary ceremonial or
+      compliment was omitted in his regard, by the court of
+      France.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Unfortunately for the success of the embassy of Grotius,
+      two envoys from some of the Protestant states in Germany
+      had previously signed a treaty with France, which was
+      generally considered by the confederates to be injurious to
+      their interests.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The first interview of Grotius with the Cardinal took place
+      on the 28th March. During their conference, a dispatch
+      arrived from Oxenstiern to Grotius: it was immediately put
+      into his bands, by the Cardinal's desire. It announced a
+      resolution, taken by the Chancellor, to repair to Paris,
+      and that he was actually on his journey thither. Richelieu
+      was displeased: but he determined to give the chancellor
+      the most honourable and flattering reception. On the 21st
+      of April, Grotius met Oxenstiern at Soissons: they
+      proceeded together to Paris. Conferences between the
+      Cardinal and the Chancellor immediately took place. The
+      matter in discussion between the courts were soon arranged:
+      France undertook to declare war against the emperor, to
+      subsidize Sweden, and to send an army to co-operate with
+      her forces in Germany. It has always been considered highly
+      creditable to the firmness and talents of Oxenstiern, that,
+      in the reduced condition of the Swedes, he could obtain for
+      them such advantageous terms. Immediately after the treaty
+      was signed, the Chancellor quitted France. During his stay,
+      he shewed a marked attention to Grotius, and expressed
+      unqualified approbation of his conduct and views.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The arms of Sweden again triumphed. In Pomerania, General
+      Bannier obtained important advantages over the
+      imperialists; in Alsace, the arms of the Duke of
+      Saxe-Weimar were equally successful. In the following year,
+      the two victorious generals carried their arms into the
+      heart of the Austrian territories, and, were almost
+      uniformly successful.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      But it is foreign to these pages to dwell further on the
+      military achievements or political intrigues of the times
+      of which we are speaking. Humanity shudders at the perusal
+      of the events of this war. Through the whole of its long
+      period, Germany was a scene of devastation. In its northern
+      and central parts, the ravages of advancing and retreating
+      armies were repeatedly experienced in their utmost horrors:
+      many of its finest towns were destroyed; whole villages
+      depopulated; large territories laid waste. Frequently the
+      women, the children, and the aged, naked, pale, and
+      disfigured, were seen wandering over the fields, supporting
+      themselves by the leaves of trees, by wild roots, and even
+      grass. The war extended itself into Lorraine: an affecting
+      account of the calamities, which it produced in that
+      beautiful province, was published by Father Caussin, who
+      accompanied Lewis XIII into it, as his confessor.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Struck with the scene of woe, St. Vincent of Paul, an
+      humble missionary priest, who, at that time, resided at
+      Paris, requested an audience of Cardinal de Richelieu.
+      Being admitted, he represented to his eminence, with
+      respect, but with firmness, the misery of the people, the
+      sins, and all the other enormities, which are the usual
+      consequences of war: he then fell upon his knees, and in a
+      voice, equally animated by grief and charity, "Sir!" he
+      said to the Cardinal "have mercy upon us! Have compassion
+      upon the world! Give us peace!" The stern and vindictive
+      genius of the Cardinal sunk before the man of God. He
+      raised Vincent from the ground. He told him, with much
+      apparent benignity, that "the general pacification of
+      Europe was his great object, but that unfortunately it did
+      not depend on him alone; there being, both within and
+      without the kingdom, those who sought the contrary, and
+      prevented peace." Few ministers have shewn greater ability,
+      or produced greater public or private misery, than
+      Richelieu. It may, on the other hand, be doubted, whether,
+      at the day of general retribution, when every child of Adam
+      will have to account for his works, even one will appear
+      with more numerous deeds of useful and heroic charity than
+      St. Vincent of Paul.<a name='FNanchor_042_42'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_042_42'><sup>[042]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The affairs of the important embassy entrusted to Grotius,
+      prospered in his hands. In his conduct, there was an
+      uniform assemblage of prudence, activity, moderation, and
+      firmness. To the French monarch, he was always
+      acceptable-not always so to the cardinal minister. It was
+      the constant object of the latter, to delay the payments of
+      the subsidies promised to Sweden, or to make deductions
+      from them; and to lessen the number of soldiers, which
+      France was bound, by treaty to supply. Sometimes by
+      blandishments, sometimes by loftiness, the minister or his
+      agents endeavoured to induce Grotius to sanction these
+      irregularities: but Grotius was always true to the
+      interests of the country which he represented: it does not
+      appear, that the Cardinal gained a single point against
+      him. Towards the close of his embassy, Grotius succeeded in
+      renewing the treaty between Sweden and France, on terms
+      which were considered to do great honour to his diplomatic
+      talents.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the discharge of his embassy, Grotius had to sustain
+      other unpleasantnesses. His pension was not regularly paid:
+      this often subjected him to great inconveniences. He had
+      disputes respecting rank and ceremonial, both with the
+      French ministry and the ambassadors of other states. It
+      must surprise an English reader to find, that Grotius
+      questioned the right of the English ambassador to
+      precedence over him: the French court often played one
+      ambassador, against the other.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the midst of these troubles, Grotius preserved the
+      serenity of his mind; and his attachment to sacred and
+      profane literature. He cultivated the acquaintance of the
+      learned and the good, of every communion; and possessed
+      their esteem and regard. His conduct as ambassador was
+      always approved by the Chancellor Oxenstiern, while he
+      lived, and after his decease, by his son and successor in
+      his office. The Queen of Sweden was equally favourable to
+      Grotius; but she unadvisedly took an adventurer into her
+      confidence, and sent him, in an ambiguous character, to
+      Paris. This disgusted Grotius: and age and infirmities now
+      thickened upon him. He applied to the Queen for his recall.
+      She granted it in the most flattering terms, and desired
+      him to repair immediately to Stockholm, to receive, from
+      her, distinguished marks of her favour. She wrote to the
+      Queen of France, a letter, in which she expressed herself
+      in a manner highly honourable to Grotius: she acknowledged
+      her obligations to him and protested that she never would
+      forget them. This was towards the month of March 1645.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      About three years after this event, the war of thirty years
+      was concluded by the peace of Westphalia. France and the
+      Protestant princes of Europe dictated the terms: the Swedes
+      were indemnified for their charges of the war, by
+      Pomerania, Steten, Rugen, Wismar and Verden: the house of
+      Brandenburgh obtained Magdeburgh, Halberstad, Minden and
+      Camin; Alsace was conquered, and retained by France;
+      Lusatia, was ceded to Saxony. The history of the treaty of
+      Westphalia has been ably written by <i>Father Bougeant</i>,
+      a French Jesuit: some critics have pronounced it the best
+      historical work in the French language. Till the late
+      revolution of France, it was the breviary of all French
+      aspirants to political distinction.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_XII'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c12'>CHAPTER XII.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS OF GROTIUS:-SOME OTHER OF HIS
+      WORKS.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1. <i>Subsequent History of Arminianism</i>. 2.
+      <i>Grotius's Religious Sentiments</i>. 3. <i>His Projects
+      of Religious Pacification</i>.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='XII_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c12.1'>XII. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Subsequent History of Arminianism.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      We left the Arminians under the iron arm of Prince
+      Maurice:-He died in 1625:-We have mentioned, that Prince
+      Frederick-Henry his brother, and successor in the
+      Stadtholderate, adopted more moderate councils in their
+      regard; that he recalled the Remonstrants, with some
+      exceptions, from banishment; that many settled at Amsterdam
+      and Rotterdam; and that the Arminians founded a college in
+      the former city:-<i>Episcopius</i> was its first professor
+      of theology:-it has never been without teachers, of
+      eminence for learning, as Courcelles, Pollemberg, Limborch,
+      Le Clerc, Cottemburgh, and Wetstein.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It should be added, that the authority of the Synod of Dort
+      insensibly declined:-its authority was never formally
+      acknowledged by the provinces of <i>Friesland</i>,
+      <i>Zealand</i>, <i>Utrecht</i>, <i>Gueldreland</i> and
+      <i>Gr&ouml;ningen</i>: In 1651, they were induced to
+      intimate that they would see with pleasure, the reformed
+      religion maintained upon the footing, upon which it had
+      been maintained and confirmed by the Synod of Dort; but
+      this intimation was never considered to have the force of a
+      legislative enactment.<a name='FNanchor_043_43'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_043_43'><sup>[043]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII.1. History of Arminianism.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The theological system of the Arminians, after their return
+      to Holland, underwent, if we credit Dr. Mosheim,<a name=
+      'FNanchor_044_44'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_044_44'><sup>[044]</sup></a> a remarkable
+      change. They appear, by his account, to have almost
+      coincided with those, who exclude the necessity of divine
+      grace in the work of conversion and sanctification; and
+      think that Christ demands from men, rather virtue than
+      faith; and has confined that belief, which is essential for
+      salvation, to very few articles. Thus the modern Arminians,
+      according to Dr. Mosheim, admit into their communion,-1st.
+      All, with an exception of Catholics, who receive the holy
+      scriptures; and more especially the New Testament; allowing
+      at the same time to every individual, his own
+      interpretation of the sacred books:-2dly. All whose lives
+      are regulated by the law of God:-3dly. And all, who neither
+      persecute nor bear ill will towards those who differ from
+      them in their religious sentiments. Their <i>Confession of
+      Faith</i> was drawn up by Episcopius in 1622: four divines
+      of the established church of Holland published a
+      <i>Refutation</i> of it: the authors of the
+      <i>Confession</i> replied to it in the following year, by
+      their <i>Apology</i>.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      James I. of England directed his theological
+      representatives in the Synod of Dort, to join the members
+      in the condemnation of the doctrines of Arminius:-but, when
+      the English divines returned from that assembly, and gave a
+      full account of its proceedings, the King and the greatest
+      part of the English clergy expressed their dissatisfaction
+      with them, and declared that the sentiments of Arminius on
+      the divine decrees, was preferable to those of Calvin and
+      Gomarus. By the exertions of Archbishop Laud, and
+      afterwards, in consequence of the general tendency of the
+      public mind to doctrines of mildness and comprehension, an
+      Arminian construction of the English articles on
+      predestination and free-will was adopted:-it has since
+      prevailed,-and the Arminian creed, by the number of its
+      secret or open adherents, has insensibly found admittance
+      into every Protestant church.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      History of Arminianism.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      If we believe the celebrated Jurieu<a name=
+      'FNanchor_045_45'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_045_45'><sup>[045]</sup></a>, Arminianism even
+      in its Socinian form, abounded, in less than a century,
+      after the death of Arminius, in the United Provinces, and
+      among the Hugonots of the adjacent part of France. By his
+      account, the dispersion of the French Hugonots, in
+      consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
+      revealed to the terrified reformers of the original school,
+      the alarming secret of the preponderance of Socinianism in
+      the reformed church. Its members, according to Jurieu,
+      being no longer under the controul of the civil power,
+      spread their Socinian principles every where, with the
+      utmost activity and success: even in England, Jurieu
+      professed to discover the effect of their exertions. He
+      mentions that in 1698, thirty-four French refugee ministers
+      residing in London addressed a letter to the synod, then
+      sitting at Amsterdam, in which they declared, that
+      Socinianism had spread so rapidly, that, if the
+      ecclesiastical assemblies supplied no means for checking
+      their growth, or used palliatives only, the mischief would
+      be incurable.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This charge, however, the Arminians have indignantly
+      rejected. A writer in the <i>Bibliotheque Germanique</i><a
+      name='FNanchor_046_46'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_046_46'><sup>[046]</sup></a> relates, that
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "the celebrated Anthony Collins called on M. Le Clerc of
+        Amsterdam: He was accompanied by some Frenchmen, of the
+        fraternity of those, who think freely. They expected to
+        find the religious opinions of Le Clerc in unison with
+        their own, but, they were surprised to find the strong
+        stand which he made in favour of revelation. He proved to
+        them, with great strength of argument, the truth of the
+        Christian religion. Jesus Christ, he told them, was born
+        among the Jews; still, it was not the Jewish religion
+        which he taught; neither was it the religion of the Pagan
+        neighbourhood; but, a religion infinitely superior to
+        both. One sees in it the most striking marks of divinity.
+        The Christians, who followed, were incapable of imagining
+        any thing so beautiful. Add to this, that the Christian
+        religion is so excellently calculated for the good of
+        society, that, if we did not derive so great a present
+        from heaven, the good and safety of men would absolutely
+        demand from them an equivalent."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Throughout the conversation, M. Le Clerc reproached the
+      Deists strongly, for the hatred, which they shewed to
+      Christianity. He proved, that, by banishing it from the
+      world,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "they would overturn whatever was most holy and
+        respectable among men; break asunder the surest bonds of
+        humanity; teach men to shake off the yoke of law; deprive
+        them of their strongest incitement to virtue, and bereave
+        them of their best comfort. What," (he asked them) "do
+        you substitute in its place? Can you flatter yourself,
+        that you will discover something better? You expect, no
+        doubt, that men will erect statues to you, for your
+        exertions to deprive them of their religion! Permit me to
+        tell you, that the part you act makes you odious and
+        despicable in the eyes of all honest men."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He finished the conversation by requesting Mr. Collins to
+      bring him no more such visitors.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 1. History of Arminians.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      From the close of the 17th century, till the present time,
+      Arminianism has been continually on the increase. It is a
+      just observation of Mr. Gibbon, that "the disciples of
+      Arminius must not be computed by their separate
+      congregations."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Doctor Maclaine says, it is certain, that the most eminent
+      philosophers have been found among the Arminians. "If both
+      Arminians and Calvinists," says Mr. Evans, in the excellent
+      work we have cited,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "claim a <i>King</i> (<i>James</i> I.), it is certain
+        that the latter alone can boast of a <i>Newton</i>, a
+        <i>Locke</i>, a <i>Clarke</i>, or a <i>Boyle</i>.
+        Archbishop <i>Usher</i> is said to have lived a
+        <i>Calvinist</i>; and died an <i>Arminian</i>. The
+        members of the episcopal church in Scotland; the
+        Moravians, the general Baptists, the Wesleyan Methodists,
+        the Quakers or Friends, are Arminians; and it is supposed
+        that a great proportion of the Kirk of Scotland teach the
+        doctrines of Arminius, though they have a Calvinistic
+        confession of faith. What a pity it is that the opinions
+        either of Calvinists or Arminians,"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      -(we beg leave to add: or any other Catholic or Protestant
+      opinions whatsoever)-
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "cannot in the eyes of some persons be held without a
+        diminution of Christian charity!"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='XII_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c12.2'>XII. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Grotius's Religious Sentiments</i>.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      To the milder form of Arminianism, Grotius always inclined.
+      During his embassy in France, he adopted it without
+      reserve. He was soon disgusted with the French Calvinists.
+      The ministers of Charenton accepted the decisions of the
+      Synod of Dort, and, in conformity with them, refused, when
+      Grotius repaired to Paris, after his escape from
+      Louvestein, to admit him into their communion. On his
+      arrival at Paris, in quality of ambassador, they offered to
+      receive him: Grotius expressed pleasure at the proposal;
+      and, intimated to them, that if he should go into any
+      country, in which the Lutherans, knowing his sentiments on
+      the sacrament of our Lord's Supper, should be willing to
+      receive him into their communion, he would make no
+      difficulty in joining them. Thus every thing appeared to be
+      settled; but the ministers then objected to receive Grotius
+      as ambassador from Sweden, because that kingdom was
+      Lutheran. Grotius, upon this, resolved to have the divine
+      service performed in his house. Lutherans publicly attended
+      it. "We have celebrated," he writes to his brother, "the
+      Feast of the Nativity in my house: the Duke of Wirtemberg,
+      the Count de Saxenburgh, and several Swedish and German
+      lords, attended at it." His first chaplain was imprudent,
+      his second gave him great satisfaction.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 2. Grotius' Religious Sentiments.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Burigni has collected, in the last chapter of his Life of
+      Grotius, a multitude of passages, which shew his gradual
+      leaning to the Roman Catholic faith. He produces several
+      passages from his works, which prove,-
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i> he paid high regard to decisions of the
+      councils, and the discipline of the primitive church; and
+      thought the sentiments of the antient church should be
+      deferred to, in the explanation of the Scriptures: <a name=
+      'FNanchor_047_47'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_047_47'><sup>[047]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, the early reformers were held by him in no
+      great esteem:<a name='FNanchor_048_48'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_048_48'><sup>[048]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, mentioning Casaubon's sentiments, Grotius said
+      that this learned man thought the Roman Catholics of France
+      better informed than those of other countries, and came
+      nearer to truth than the ministers of Charenton:-
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "It cannot," says Grotius, "be denied, that there are
+        several Roman Catholic pastors here, who teach true
+        religion, without any mixture of superstition; it were to
+        be wished that all did the same:"<a name=
+        'FNanchor_049_49'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_049_49'><sup>[049]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i> the Calvinists were schismatics, and had no
+      mission:<a name='FNanchor_050_50'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_050_50'><sup>[050]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i> the Jesuits were learned men and good subjects.
+      "I know many of them," he says, in one of his writings
+      against Rivetus, "who are very desirous to see abuses
+      abolished, and the church restored to its primitive
+      unity."-We shall hereafter see that Father Pet&acirc;u, an
+      illustrious member of the society, possessed the confidence
+      of Grotius:<a name='FNanchor_051_51'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_051_51'><sup>[051]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, Grotius looked upon the abolition of
+      episcopacy and of a visible head of the church, as
+      something very monstrous:<a name='FNanchor_052_52'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_052_52'><sup>[052]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, he acknowledged that some change was made in
+      the eucharistic bread; that, when Jesus Christ, being
+      sacramentally present, favours us with his substance,-as
+      the Council of Trent expresses its doctrine on the
+      Eucharist,-the appearances of bread and wine remain, and in
+      their place succeed the body and blood of Christ: <a name=
+      'FNanchor_053_53'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_053_53'><sup>[053]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 2. Grotius's Religious Sentiments.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, Grotius did not approve of the sentiments of
+      the Calvinists concerning the Eucharist, and reproached
+      them with their contradiction.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "You will hear them state in their confessions," says
+        Grotius, "that they really, substantially and essentially
+        partake of Christ's body and his blood; but, in their
+        disputes, they maintain that Christ is received only
+        spiritually, by faith. The antients go much further: they
+        admit a real incorporation of Jesus Christ with us, and
+        the reality of Christ's body, as Saint Hilarius speaks."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It must however be remarked that, although Grotius thought
+      that the term <i>Transubstantiation</i> adopted by the
+      council of Trent, was capable of a good interpretation, it
+      is not clear, what was his precise opinion respecting the
+      Eucharist. He proposed the following formulary:
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "We believe that, in the use of the supper, we truly,
+        really, and substantially,-that is to say,-in its proper
+        substance,-receive the true body and the true blood of
+        Jesus Christ, in a spiritual and ineffable manner: <a
+        name='FNanchor_054_54'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_054_54'><sup>[054]</sup></a>"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, Grotius justified the decision of the Council
+      of Trent, concerning the number of the sacraments:<a name=
+      'FNanchor_055_55'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_055_55'><sup>[055]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, after the year 1640, he took no offence at the
+      use of images in churches, or at prayers for the dead:<a
+      name='FNanchor_056_56'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_056_56'><sup>[056]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, he thought the bishops of Rome may be in
+      error, but cannot long remain in it, if they adhere to the
+      universal church;-this seems to presuppose the church's
+      infallibility:<a name='FNanchor_057_57'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_057_57'><sup>[057]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i> in the opinion of Grotius; fasting was early
+      used in the church; the observance of Lent was a very early
+      practice: the sign of the cross had something respectable
+      in it; the fathers held virginity a more perfect state than
+      marriage; and the celibacy of the priests conformable to
+      the antient discipline of the church:<a name=
+      'FNanchor_058_58'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_058_58'><sup>[058]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "that those, who shall read the decrees of the Council of
+        Trent, with a mind disposed to peace, will find that
+        every thing is wisely explained in them: and agreeable to
+        what is taught by the Scriptures and the antient
+        fathers."<a name='FNanchor_059_59'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_059_59'><sup>[059]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is certain, that Grotius was intimate with Father
+      Pet&acirc;u, a Jesuit, inferior to none of his society, in
+      genius and learning; that the good father used all his
+      endeavours to convert Grotius to the Roman Catholic
+      religion; and was, at length, so much persuaded of his
+      friend's catholicity, that, when he heard of his death, he
+      said prayers for the repose of his soul.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_060_60'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_060_60'><sup>[060]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As the religion of Grotius was a problem to many,
+      Men&acirc;ge wrote the following Epigram upon it: the sense
+      of it is, that-
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "As many sects claimed the religion of Grotius, as the
+        towns, which contended for the birth of Homer."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span><i>Smyrna, Rhodos, Colophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos,
+      Athen&aelig;,</i></span><br>
+      <span class='c10'><i>Siderei certant vatis de patri&acirc;
+      Homeri</i>:</span><br>
+      <span><i>Grotiad&aelig; certant de religione,
+      Socinus</i>,</span><br>
+      <span class='c10'><i>Arrius, Arminius, Calvinus, Roma,
+      Lutherus</i>.</span>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='XII_3'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c12_3'>XII. 3.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Grotius's Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      A wish for religious peace among Christians grew with the
+      growth and strengthened with the strength of Grotius. It
+      was known, before his imprisonment at Louvestein, that he
+      entertained these sentiments: he avows them in the
+      dedication to Lewis XIII. of his treatise <i>de Jure Belli
+      et Pacis</i>.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "I shall never cease," he says in a letter to his
+        brother,<a name='FNanchor_061_61'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_061_61'><sup>[061]</sup></a> "to use my utmost
+        endeavours for establishing peace among Christians; And,
+        if I should not succeed, it will be honourable to die in
+        such an enterprise." "I am not the only one, who has
+        conceived such projects," he writes in another letter to
+        his brother:<a name='FNanchor_062_62'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_062_62'><sup>[062]</sup></a> "Erasmus,
+        Cassander; Wicelius and Casaubon had the same design. La
+        Meletiere is employed at present in it. Cardinal de
+        Richelieu declares that he will protect the coalition;
+        and he is such a fortunate man, that he never undertakes
+        any thing, in which he does not succeed. If there were no
+        hopes of success at present, ought we not to sow the
+        seed, which may he useful to posterity?<a name=
+        'FNanchor_063_63'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_063_63'><sup>[063]</sup></a> Even if we should
+        only diminish the mutual hatred among Christians, and
+        render them more sociable, would not this be worth
+        purchasing at the price of some labour and reproaches?"<a
+        name='FNanchor_064_64'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_064_64'><sup>[064]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius expressed himself in similar terms to Baron
+      Oxenstiern: Surely it is the true language of the Gospel.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the first <a name='ap_1'></a><a href=
+      '#APPENDIX_I'>appendix</a> to this work,-we shall insert,
+      an account
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith, and Symbolic
+        Books, of the Roman Catholic, Greek, and principal
+        Protestant churches:"-
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the second <a name='ap_2'></a><a href=
+      '#APPENDIX_II'>appendix</a>,-we shall insert an account of
+      the principal attempts made, since the Reformation, for the
+      re-union of Christians.-The former is abridged from the
+      "Historical and Literary Account of the Confessions of
+      Faith," which was formerly published by the present
+      writer;-the second is an essay appended to that work:-both
+      have been before referred to in the present publication.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius<a name='FNanchor_065_65'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_065_65'><sup>[065]</sup></a> thought that the
+      most compendious way to produce universal religious peace
+      among Christians, would be to frame, with the concurrence
+      of all the orthodox Eastern and Western churches, a
+      formulary which should express, briefly and explicitly, all
+      the articles of faith, the belief of which they agree in
+      thinking essential to salvation. In a letter addressed from
+      Paris in 1625,<a name='FNanchor_066_66'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_066_66'><sup>[066]</sup></a> he mentions that
+      Gustavus Adolphus had entertained projects of religious
+      pacification, and had taken measures to effect it; that he
+      had procured a meeting of divines of the Lutheran and
+      Reformed churches and that they had separated amicably:
+      Grotius says that the differences between them were as
+      slight as those between the Greek and Coptic churches.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      For some time, Grotius flattered himself that he should
+      succeed in his project of pacification. In one of his
+      letters to his brother, he mentions distinguished
+      Protestants, who approved and encouraged them
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "I perceive," he says, "that by conversing with men of
+        the most learning among the reformed, and explaining my
+        sentiments to them, they are of my opinion; and that
+        their number will increase, if my treatises are
+        dispersed. I can truly affirm, that I have said nothing
+        in them from party spirit, but followed truth as closely
+        as I could."<a name='FNanchor_067_67'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_067_67'><sup>[067]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He imagined that some Catholics entered into his views.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "The ablest men among the Catholics," he thus writes to
+        his brother, "think that what I have published is written
+        with great freedom and moderation, and approve of it."<a
+        name='FNanchor_068_68'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_068_68'><sup>[068]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These pacific projects of Grotius cemented the union
+      between him and Father Pet&acirc;u.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "I had," says that most learned Jesuit, in his 12th
+        Letter, "a great desire to see and converse with Grotius.
+        We have been long together, and very intimate. He is, as
+        far as I can judge, a good man, and possesses great
+        candour. I do not think him far from becoming a Catholic,
+        after the example of Holstenius as you hoped. I shall
+        neglect nothing in my power to reconcile him to Christ,
+        and put him in the way of salvation."<a name=
+        'FNanchor_069_69'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_069_69'><sup>[069]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      His Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As Grotius lays so much stress on the pacific labours of
+      Erasmus, Wicelius, Cassander and Casaubon, we shall briefly
+      mention, in the present chapter, the labours of the three
+      first: Casaubon's we shall notice, in the second appendix
+      to this work.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    It appears that <i>Erasmus</i> had it in contemplation to
+    compose three dialogues, upon the important subject of
+    religious pacification: the speakers were to have been
+    Luther, under the name of Thrasimacus, and a Catholic divine,
+    under that of Eubolus. In the first dialogue, they were to
+    have discussed the proper methods of terminating the
+    religious controversies of the times; in the second, to have
+    investigated what were the points in controversy, the belief
+    of which was essential to a member of the church of Christ;
+    in the third, they were to have inquired what were the best
+    means to procure a good understanding between the contending
+    parties, and to effect their union. It is to be lamented that
+    Erasmus did not execute his design. His general sentiments
+    appear in his <i>Paraphrase upon the 83d Psalm</i>; they are
+    expressed with great wisdom and moderation.<a name=
+    'FNanchor_071_71'></a><a href=
+    '#Footnote_071_71'><sup>[071]</sup></a><br>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <i>Wicelius</i>,-who is next mentioned by Grotius, had been
+      professed in a religious order: had quitted it, and
+      embraced Lutheranism: he afterwards forsook that communion,
+      and returned to the Catholic: upon this, he was appointed
+      to a curacy; and, in the discharge of his functions,
+      obtained general esteem: he was much regarded by the
+      Emperors Ferdinand and Maximilian. In 1537, he published at
+      Leipsic a Latin work, "On the method of procuring Religious
+      Concord,-<i>Methodus Concordi&aelig;
+      Ecclesiastic&aelig;</i>." He addressed it to the pope, to
+      all sovereigns, bishops, doctors, and generally to all
+      christians, exhorting them to peace, and to desist from
+      contention. He assumed in it, that the true religion had
+      been preserved in the Catholic church; but he allows that
+      modern doctors had involved it in numerous scholastic
+      subtleties, unknown to antiquity. He complains that on one
+      hand the reformers left nothing untouched; that, on the
+      other, the scholastics would retain every abuse, and every
+      superfluity: Wisdom, he thought, lay between them; the
+      reformers should have respected what antiquity consecrated;
+      the Catholics should have abandoned modern doctrines and
+      modern practices to the discretion of individuals.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The "Royal Road," or <i>Via Regia</i> of Wicelius, a still
+      more important work, was published by him at Helmstadt in
+      1537. Both works were approved, and the perusal of them
+      warmly recommended, by the emperors: they have been often
+      reprinted; they are inserted, with a life of their author,
+      in the second volume of <i>Brown's Fasciculus</i>.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "If all the divines of those times," says Father
+        Sim&ocirc;n the oratorian,<a name=
+        'FNanchor_073_73'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_073_73'><sup>[073]</sup></a> "had possessed
+        the same spirit as Wicelius, the affairs of religion
+        might have taken a different turn."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII.3. His Project of Religious Pacification
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <i>Cassander</i>, another peacemaker, mentioned with praise
+      by Grotius, is the subject of a long and interesting
+      article in <i>Dupin's Ecclesiastical History</i>:<a name=
+      'FNanchor_074_74'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_074_74'><sup>[074]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "He was," says Dupin, "solidly learned; and thoroughly
+        versed in ecclesiastical antiquity and the controversies
+        of his own times. The flaming zeal, which he had for the
+        re-union and peace of the church, made him yield much to
+        the Protestants, and led him to advance some propositions
+        that were too bold. But he always kept in the communion
+        of the Catholic church. He declared that he submitted to
+        its judgments, and openly condemned the authors of the
+        schism and their principal errors. He was a gentle,
+        humble and moderate man; patient under afflictions, and
+        entirely disinterested. In his disputes, he never
+        returned injury for injury; and neither in his manners
+        nor in his writings were presumption or arrogance ever
+        discoverable. He avoided glory, honor, or wealth; and
+        lived private and retired, having no other thought or
+        wish, but to promote the peace of the church; no
+        employment, but study; no business, but to compose books,
+        which might be profitable to the public; and no passion,
+        but knowing and teaching the truth."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      His character procured him universal respect. The emperor
+      and several Catholic princes in Germany fixed upon him as a
+      mediator in the religious disputes, by which the empire
+      was, at that time, agitated. In conformity with their views
+      he published his celebrated, "<i>Consultatio de Articulis
+      Religionis inter Catholicos et Protestantes
+      Controversis</i>."
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "In this work," says Mr. Chalmers, "he discusses the
+        several articles of the Augsburgh Confession, stating
+        their difference from the doctrines of the Catholic
+        church, and the concessions that might safely be made in
+        respect to them. This work was written with great
+        liberality, was much applauded by those, who were
+        desirous of a coalition: they were too soon convinced
+        that every attempt of this kind was nugatory. Cassander
+        presented it to the Emperors Ferdinand I. and Maximilian
+        II. They received it favourably; the former invited
+        Cassander to Vienna, but his infirmities prevented his
+        accepting the offer."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In 1542, Grotius published his "<i>Road to Religious
+      Peace,-Via ad Pacem Ecclesiasticam</i>:" he inserted in it
+      Cassander's "<i>Consultation</i>," and accompanied it with
+      notes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All pacific persons reverenced Grotius, and still reverence
+      his memory, for his attempts to restore the religious peace
+      of Christendom: all the violent condemned him, and opposed
+      his projects. The contradictions, which he met with,
+      chagrined him; so that he sometimes lost that tranquillity
+      of mind, which he had possessed in his deepest adversity.
+      But, to use his own words, he looked to the blessed
+      Peacemaker for his reward, and trusted that posterity would
+      do justice to its intentions.-
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Perhaps, by writing to reconcile such as entertain very
+        opposite sentiments, I shall," says Grotius, "offend both
+        parties: but, if that should so happen, I shall comfort
+        myself with the example of him, who said, If I please
+        men, I am not the servant of Christ."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </div>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Grotius," says Burigni, "content with gratifying his
+        pacific desires, expected his reward from posterity. This
+        he clearly intimates in the following verses, written by
+        him on the subject:
+      </p>
+      <div class='poem'>
+        <span><i>"Accipe, sed placid&eacute;, qu&aelig;, si non
+        optimo,cert&eacute;</i></span><br>
+        <span><i>Espressit nobis non mala pacis
+        amor</i>.</span><br>
+        <span><i>Et tibi dic, nostro labor hic si displicet
+        avo</i>,</span><br>
+        <span><i>A gratia pretium posteritate feret</i>."</span>
+      </div>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        The projects of religious pacification did not cease with
+        Grotius: several divines of distinction adopted it; and
+        attempted, some with more prudence and ability than
+        others, to carry it into effect. The principal of these
+        are noticed in the second appendix to the present work.
+        None succeeded: One description of persons, who engaged
+        in this design, was denominated <i>Syncretists</i>, or
+        <i>Calixtines</i>, from <i>George Calixtus</i> their
+        leader: the other, from their calling men from
+        controversy to holiness of life, received the appellation
+        of <i>Pietists</i>: A third party,-perhaps we may style
+        them, the <i>Ultra-orthodox</i>,-more hostile to the
+        former than to the latter-arose in opposition to both,
+        and accused them of sacrificing the doctrines of faith to
+        a mistaken zeal for union and sanctity.<a name=
+        'FNanchor_075_75'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_075_75'><sup>[075]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        It is certain<a name='FNanchor_076_76'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_076_76'><sup>[076]</sup></a> that the friends
+        of union too often erred in this,-that they aimed rather
+        at an uniformity of <i>terms</i> than of
+        <i>sentiments</i>; and thus seemed satisfied, when they
+        engaged the contending parties to use the same <i>words
+        and phrases</i>, though their <i>real difference</i> in
+        opinion remained the same. This could not be justified:
+        it tended evidently to extinguish truth and honour, and
+        to introduce equivocation.
+      </p>
+      <hr class='c2'>
+      <hr class='c7'>
+      <a name='CHAPTER_XIII'></a>
+      <h2>
+        <a href='#c13'>CHAPTER XIII.</a>
+      </h2>
+      <p>
+        THE DEATH OF GROTIUS.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        1645
+      </p>
+      <br>
+
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        CHAP. XIII. 1645.
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        Every thing respecting the recall of Grotius being
+        settled, he embarked at Dieppe for Holland. He was
+        extremely well received at Amsterdam and Rotterdam: the
+        constituted authorities, of the former city fitted a
+        vessel, which was to take him to Hamburgh: there, after
+        along and harassing journey, he arrived on the 16th of
+        May. From Hamburgh he proceeded to L&uuml;bec: the
+        magistrates of that city gave him an honourable
+        reception. He proceeded to Wismar; where Count Wismar,
+        the admiral of the Swedish fleet, gave him a splendid
+        entertainment, and afterwards sent him in a man-of-war to
+        Colmar: thence, he went by land to Stockholm. When he
+        arrived there, Queen Christina was at Upsal; but, hearing
+        that Grotius was at Stockholm, she returned to that city
+        to meet him. On the day after her arrival, she favoured
+        him with a long audience: she expressed to him great
+        satisfaction at his conduct, and made him large promises.
+        These audiences were often repeated; and once she
+        permitted him to have the honour of dining with her. She
+        assured him, that if he would continue in her service, as
+        Councillor of State, and bring his family into Sweden, he
+        should have no reason to complain of her. But Grotius was
+        anxious to leave Sweden; and his passport being delayed,
+        he resolved to quit it without one, and actually
+        proceeded to a seaport about seven leagues distant from
+        Stockholm. The Queen, being informed of his departure,
+        sent a gentleman to inform him, that she wished to see
+        him once more. On this invitation he returned to
+        Stockholm, and was immediately admitted into the Queen's
+        presence; he then explained to her his reasons for
+        wishing to quit Sweden. The Queen appeared to be
+        satisfied with them: she made him a present in money of
+        twelve or thirteen thousand Swedish imperials, of the
+        value of about ten thousand French crowns; she added to
+        the present, some plate, the finishing of which had, she
+        told him, been the only cause of the delay of his
+        passport. She then put it into his hands, and a vessel
+        was appointed to carry him to L&uuml;bec. On the 12th
+        August he embarked for that city.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        The Death of Grotius.
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        What were his real motives for refusing Christina's
+        offers, or in what place he ultimately intended to fix
+        himself, is not known.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        The vessel in which he embarked had scarcely sailed from
+        L&uuml;bec, when it was overtaken by a violent storm, and
+        obliged, on the 17th August, to take shelter in a port
+        fourteen miles distant from Dantzic. Grotius went from it
+        in an open wagon to L&uuml;bec, and arrived very ill at
+        Rostock<a name='FNanchor_077_77'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_077_77'><sup>[077]</sup></a> on the 26th
+        August. No one, there, knew him: his great weakness
+        determined him to call in the aid of a physician: one
+        accordingly attended him: his name was Stochman. On
+        feeling Grotius's pulse, he said his indisposition
+        proceeded from weakness and fatigue, and that, with rest
+        and some restoratives, he might recover; but, on the
+        following day he changed his opinion. Perceiving that the
+        weakness of Grotius increased, and that it was
+        accompanied with a cold sweat and other symptoms
+        indicating an exhaustion of nature, the physician
+        announced that the end of his patient was near. Grotius
+        then asked for a clergyman. <i>John Quistorpius</i> was
+        brought to him. Quistorpius, in a letter to Calovius,
+        gives the following particulars of Grotius's last
+        moments:
+      </p>
+      <div class='blkquot'>
+        <p>
+          "You are desirous of hearing from me, how that Phoenix
+          of Literature, Hugo Grotius, behaved in his last
+          moments, and I am going to tell you. He embarked at
+          Stockholm for L&uuml;bec, and after having been tossed
+          for the three days, by a violent tempest, he was
+          shipwrecked, and got to shore on the coast of
+          Pomerania, from whence he came to our town of Rostock,
+          distant above sixty miles, in an open wagon through
+          wind and rain. He lodged with Balleman; and sent for M.
+          Stochman, the physician, who observing that he was
+          extremely weakened by years, by what he suffered at
+          sea, and by the inconveniences attending the journey,
+          judged that he could not live long. The second day
+          after Grotius's arrival in this town, that is, on the
+          18th of August, O.S. he sent for me, about nine at
+          night, I went, and found him almost at the point of
+          death: I said, 'There was nothing I desired more, than
+          to have seen him in health, that I might have the
+          pleasure of his conversation.' He answered, 'God had
+          ordered it otherwise.' I desired him: to prepare
+          himself for a happier life, to acknowledge that he was
+          a sinner, and to repent of his faults: and, happening
+          to mention the publican, who acknowledged that he was a
+          sinner, and asked God's mercy; he answered, '<i>I am
+          that publican</i>.' I went on, and told him that he
+          must have recourse to Jesus Christ, without whom there
+          is no salvation.'
+        </p>
+        <p>
+          "He replied, '<i>I place all my hope in Jesus
+          Christ</i>.'
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        The Death of Grotius.
+      </div>
+      <div class='blkquot'>
+        <p>
+          "I began to repeat aloud in German, the prayer which
+          begins <i>Herr Jesu:</i><a name=
+          'FNanchor_078_78'></a><a href=
+          '#Footnote_078_78'><sup>[078]</sup></a> he followed me
+          in a very low voice; with his hands clasped. When I had
+          done, I asked him, 'if he understood me.' He answered,
+          '<i>I understand you very well</i>.' I continued to
+          repeat to him those passages of the word of God, which
+          are commonly offered to the remembrance of dying
+          persons; and asking him, 'if he understood me,' he
+          answered, '<i>I heard your voice, but I did not
+          understand what you said.</i>'
+        </p>
+        <p>
+          "These were his last words; soon afterwards he expired;
+          just at midnight. His body was delivered to the
+          physicians, who took out his bowels. I easily obtained
+          leave to bury them in our principal church, which is
+          dedicated to the Virgin."
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        His corpse, was afterwards carried to Delft, and
+        deposited in the tomb of his ancestors. He wrote this
+        modest epitaph for himself,
+      </p>
+      <div class='poem'>
+        <span>"GROTIUS HIC HUGO EST, BATAVUM</span><br>
+        <span class='c10'>CAPTIVUS ET EXSUL,</span><br>
+        <span>LEGATUS REGNI, SUECIA MAGNA, TUI."</span><br>
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        Burigni informs us that Grotius had a very agreeable
+        person, a good complexion, an aquiline nose, sparkling
+        eyes, a serene and smiling countenance; that he was not
+        tall, but very strong, and well built. The engraving of
+        him prefixed to the <i>Hugonis Grotii Manes</i> answers
+        this description.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        It is needless to give an account of his descendants, or
+        their prosperous or adverse fortunes: they are noticed at
+        length by Burigni. In <i>Mr. Boswell's Life of
+        Johnson</i>, mention is made of one who was then in a
+        state of want. Dr. Johnson, in a letter to Dr. Vyse,
+      </p>
+      <div class='blkquot'>
+        <p>
+          "requests him to recommend, an old friend, to his grace
+          the Archbishop of Canterbury. His name," says the
+          Doctor, "is De Groot. He has all the common claims to
+          charity; he is poor and infirm in a great degree. He
+          has likewise another claim, to which no scholar can
+          refuse attention: he is, by several descents, the
+          nephew of Hugo Grotius; of him, of whom every man of
+          learning has perhaps learned something. Let it not be
+          said, that, in any lettered country, the nephew of
+          Grotius, ever asked a charity, and was refused."
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        The reader must be pleased, to be informed, that the
+        application,-it was for some situation, in the
+        charter-house,-was successful. Dr. Vyse informed Dr.
+        Johnson of it, by letter. In his answer,
+      </p>
+      <div class='blkquot'>
+        <p>
+          "Dr. Johnson," by Dr. Vyse's account, "rejoiced much,
+          and was lavish of the praise he bestowed upon his
+          favourite Hugo Grotius."<a name=
+          'FNanchor_079_79'></a><a href=
+          '#Footnote_079_79'><sup>[079]</sup></a>
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        The Death of Grotius.
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        Three points were united in Grotius, each of which would
+        strongly recommend him to Dr. Johnson: he was learned,
+        pious, and opposed to the doctrines of Calvin. It is
+        still more unnecessary to mention the various encomiums,
+        which the learned of all nations have made of Grotius, in
+        prose and verse. That he was one of the most universal
+        scholars, whom the world has produced, and that he
+        possessed sense, taste, and genius in a high degree, is
+        universally confessed. It is equally true, that both his
+        public and his private character, are entitled to a high
+        degree of praise.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        When Queen Christina, heard of his death, she wrote to
+        his widow, a letter of condolence, and requested, that
+        the manuscripts which he had left, might be sent to her:
+      </p>
+      <div class='blkquot'>
+        <p>
+          "My ambassador," the Queen says in this letter, "has
+          made you acquainted, with my high esteem, for his
+          learning, and the good services he did me; but he could
+          not express, how dear I hold his memory, and the
+          effects of his great labours. If gold, or silver, could
+          do any thing towards redeeming such a valuable life, I
+          would gladly employ all, I am mistress of, for that
+          purpose."
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        She concludes by asking his widow, for all the
+        manuscripts "of that learned man, whose works had given
+        her such pleasure." The Queen assures her, that "they
+        could not fall into better hands," and that, "the author,
+        having been useful to her in his lifetime, it was not
+        just that she should be deprived, after his death, of the
+        fruits of his labours."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      It remains to mention, that, after the death of Grotius,
+      his wife communicated with the Church of England: this, it
+      is said, she did in conformity to the dying injunctions of
+      her husband: it is certain, that Grotius respected the
+      Church of England. His wife died at the Hague, in the
+      communion of the Remonstrants. Through life, she was
+      uniformly respected; and, whenever the services of Grotius,
+      to sacred and profane literature, are recorded, her
+      services to him, should be mentioned with praise.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_XIV'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c14'>CHAPTER XIV.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF
+      THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THE DEATH OF WILLIAM II.
+      TILL THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1680-1815.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      In some of the preceding pages, the principal events in the
+      history of the Seven United Provinces, till the death of
+      William II, in 1680, have been briefly mentioned: in the
+      present chapter, we shall insert a summary account of the
+      revolutions of their government, till the present time.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='XIV_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c14.1'>XIV. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      William III.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1650-1702.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      William III. was born after the death of William II. his
+      father. Immediately after that event, his mother claimed
+      for him the stadtholderate, and all the other dignities,
+      pre-eminences, and rights, which his father and grandfather
+      had enjoyed; but, so great, at that time, was the public
+      jealousy of the ambitious views of the house of Orange,
+      that the States General would not even take her claims into
+      deliberation. A general assembly of the States was held in
+      1661. They confirmed the Treaty of Union, of 1579;
+      attributed to themselves, the appointment of all civil and
+      military offices; placed the army under the authority of
+      the provinces and municipalities, and invested the council
+      of state with the general direction of the military
+      concerns of the nation. A war with England, which was then
+      governed by Cromwell, soon followed; it was the
+      commencement of the naval glory of the United States. But
+      the government was distracted by the contests and
+      dissensions between the republican and the Orange factions.
+      The former were headed by John de Witt. He possessed
+      transcendent abilities, was a true lover of his country,
+      and, on every occasion, advised the wisest measures. Some
+      of the military operations of the States proving
+      unsuccessful, the Orange faction endeavoured to persuade
+      the people, that this reverse of fortune was owing to the
+      want of a Stadtholder; and exhorted them to confer this
+      dignity on the young prince, to be exercised, during his
+      minority, by one of the family. This proposition was
+      successfully resisted by De Witt. Peace between England and
+      the United Provinces being concluded, Cromwell endeavoured
+      to unite them to England by a federative alliance; but they
+      rejected the proposition. At the suggestion of De Witt, the
+      States of Holland passed an Act, by which they bound
+      themselves never to appoint the Prince of Orange, or any of
+      his descendants, to the office of Stadtholder, or Captain
+      General; and to prevent, to their utmost power, the other
+      States from making such an appointment. This measure
+      displeased the other States. In 1665, the office of
+      Commander in Chief becoming vacant, the opposite party
+      endeavoured to procure it for one of the Orange family;
+      this attempt also proved abortive. In 1661 a war broke out
+      between England,-which was then governed by Charles II.,
+      and the United States; these displayed in it, chiefly under
+      the command of De Ruyter, prodigies of valour and naval
+      skill; the year 1667 was famous in their annals, by their
+      fleet's sailing up the river Thames, and burning the
+      English fleet at Chatham. The peace of Breda immediately
+      followed.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XIV. 1. William III.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Still, the civil discord continued. The States of Holland
+      renewed the <i>Edict of Exclusion</i>, with the addition of
+      a clause, that, whenever a person should be invested, with
+      the office of Captain, or Admiral General, he should swear
+      never to aspire to the office of Stadtholder, and to refuse
+      it, if it should be offered to him.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XIV 1650-1702.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The year 1671 is remarkable for the league entered into by
+      Louis XIV. and Charles II. against the United States, and
+      by their vigourous resistance to it. The circumstances into
+      which it drove the United States, compelled them to appoint
+      the Prince of Orange Captain General and Admiral: he took
+      the oath prescribed by the Perpetual Edict, not to aspire
+      to the stadtholderate, and to reject it, if offered. He was
+      at this time in his twenty-second year: he owed his
+      elevation to the critical situation in which the United
+      States were then placed; but it was also owing to the great
+      prudence with which he had conducted himself when fortune
+      was opposed to him; and to the talents and application to
+      business which he then discovered.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At sea, the navy of the United States was generally
+      successful. At land, the arms of Lewis XIV. triumphed; he
+      conquered Gueldres, Overyssell, and the city and province
+      of Utretcht. This maddened the populace. They massacred
+      John De Witt, and Cornelius De Witt, his brother, after
+      having subjected them to the cruellest tortures and the
+      most brutal indignities. To the indelible reproach of
+      William III. he did not interfere to prevent or stop these
+      horrors. His measures for obtaining the stadtholderate
+      succeeded.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XIV. 1. William III.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      On the 4th of July 1672, it was re-established in the
+      person of William III.; and all the dignities and rights
+      enjoyed by his predecessors were conferred upon him. These,
+      in 1674, were made hereditary in his family. His subsequent
+      conduct is entitled, on many accounts, to the warmest
+      praise. The success of the United States at sea compelled
+      Charles II. to make peace with them, so that Lewis XIV. was
+      their only enemy. The war with him was terminated by the
+      peace of Nimeguen in 1678. Ten years after it, the
+      Stadtholder, on the abdication of James II. became King of
+      England. In 1690, England, Spain, Austria, and the United
+      Provinces, entered into the Grand Alliance against France.
+      The Duke of Savoy and several Princes of Germany afterwards
+      joined it. In general, the proceedings of the confederacy
+      were unsuccessful; the war was terminated in 1697 by the
+      peace of Ryswick. In 1700, the disputes on the succession
+      to the Spanish monarchy, in consequence of the death of
+      Charles II. of Spain, without issue, called the world again
+      to arms. William III. died in 1702.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='XIV_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c14.2'>XIV. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>John William Count of Nassau Dietz</i>, 1702-1711;
+      <i>William IV</i>. 1711-1751.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The government of William III. was generally displeasing to
+      the United States: they accused him of sacrificing them to
+      the interests of his English monarchy, and to the hatred
+      which he always bore to the French. He was also suspected,
+      and not without reason, of a design to acquire the
+      independent sovereignty of the provinces. At first, his
+      influence within them was so great, that he was said to be
+      King in the United States, and Stadtholder in England; but
+      it declined gradually; and an attempt by him to obtain the
+      succession to the stadtholderate for John Friso, Prince of
+      Nassau and Hereditary Stadtholder of Frizeland, absolutely
+      failed. He made, by his will, that prince his testamentary
+      heir.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Upon the decease of William III. a general wish to
+      discontinue the stadtholderate was expressed in most of the
+      provinces; those of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres,
+      and Overyssell, came to a formal resolution to this effect
+      They recognised the supreme power of the States General,
+      and conferred the direction of their political concerns on
+      Heinsius, the actual Grand Pensionary, a person of great
+      learning, uncommon talents for business, and acknowledged
+      integrity.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XIV. 2. John William Count of Nassau Diets, 1702-1711;
+      William IV. 1711-1749.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As testamentary heir of William III., John-William assumed
+      the title of Prince of Orange: he died in 1711, without
+      having exercised the power of the stadtholderate, except in
+      the province of Frizeland.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The war of the succession terminated in 1713, by the peace
+      of Utretcht: it was succeeded in 1715 by the Barrier
+      Treaty, and in 1719 by the Quadruple Alliance, ever
+      memorable for the triumphant campaigns of Marlborough, by
+      which it was followed. The pensionary Heinsius died in
+      1720. In his life-time, several weak attempts had been
+      made, in different provinces, to restore in them the
+      stadtholderate. They succeeded only at Gueldres; and even
+      there, it was restored with great limitations.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Upon the decease of Prince William-John, his rights and
+      pretensions descended to Prince William, his son. In 1733,
+      he married Mary, the daughter of George II. of England.
+      This strengthened his cause; but the general spirit of the
+      United Provinces was so averse to the Stadtholderate, that
+      it was not till the invasion of Holland, by the French, in
+      1747, that the prince's party judged it advisable to bring
+      forward his claim. At first they met with resistance, but
+      finally prevailed, and Prince William of Orange became the
+      sole Stadtholder of every province: until his time each of
+      the provinces of Frizeland and Groningen had its particular
+      Stadtholder. The dignities of Captain General and Admiral
+      were also conferred on him; and, in addition to these, some
+      rights and privileges which no former Stadtholder had
+      enjoyed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The reverses of the United Provinces continued, and the
+      aggrandisement of the Stadtholderate increased
+      proportionally. As yet William IV. had no male issue. In
+      1748, the Orange faction proposed that the Stadtholderate
+      should be declared hereditary; and that, in default of
+      males, females should be admitted into the succession.
+      After some opposition the measure was carried in all the
+      provinces, except Frizeland and Groningen. From this time
+      the United Provinces ceased to be a republic, and became a
+      monarchy, limited by the antient usages and institutions.
+      William IV. died in 1749.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='XIV_3'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c14.3'>XIV. 3.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>From the Death of William IV. till the Erection of the
+      Kingdom of the Netherlands</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1749-1815.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      At the death of William IV. William, his son, and
+      afterwards his successor in the Stadtholderate, was an
+      infant, in very tender years. His mother was named by the
+      states Governess of the United Provinces. She appointed the
+      Duke of Brunswick to the command of their armies; thus,
+      after all their exertions and sacrifices for liberty, the
+      United Provinces became subject to the government of an
+      English princess and a German prince; and an English party
+      became predominant in their politics; William V. married a
+      princess of Prussia, and thus the Orange party was
+      strengthened by Prussian influence.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XIV. 3. From the death of William IV. till the erection of
+      the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These opposite, and conflicting interests, filled every
+      province, with dissension; and, on some occasions, armed
+      one body of citizens against another. The English party,
+      sided with the Orange faction; the French, with the
+      republicans. At first the latter prevailed; they led the
+      states into measures, which forced England to declare war
+      against them. In 1782, they acknowledged the independence
+      of the United States of America. Still, the dissensions
+      continued. After a long conflict, the republican party
+      acquired the ascendant; they suspended the Prince of Orange
+      from his functions, and filled all the principal places of
+      trust with their own adherents. But the Orange party soon
+      rallied; the Duke of Brunswick entered Holland at the head
+      of a victorious army, and, in 1787, re-established the
+      Stadtholderate.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XIV. 1749-1816.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      His victorious career, was soon terminated. In 1799, the
+      revolutionary army of France made themselves masters of the
+      whole territory of the United States; and established
+      <i>The Batavian Republic</i>. It was successively governed,
+      but always under the overpowering controul of France, by a
+      Convention, a Directory, and a Consul, with the appellation
+      of Grand Pensionary. In 1806, even these forms of her
+      antient government were abolished; Napoleon sending Louis,
+      one of his brothers, to reign over the United Provinces,
+      with the title and powers of royalty; but with an
+      intimation, that France was entitled to his first
+      attentions and a priority of duty. The demands of Napoleon
+      for attentions and duties were so exorbitant, that rather
+      than be instrumental in the infliction of the miseries
+      which a compliance with them must occasion, Louis resigned
+      his throne. Napoleon then incorporated the United Provinces
+      into his empire, "as an alluvion," for such he termed them,
+      "to the Rivers of France." Scenes of the most grinding
+      oppression followed: the Batavians were relieved from it by
+      the fall and abdication of Napoleon.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XIV. 3. Establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Before this event, William V. died, leaving a son, called
+      from his pretensions to the stadtholderate, William VI. We
+      have seen that, on the death of the Emperor Charles V. all
+      the seventeen provinces, composing the Netherlands,
+      devolved to Philip II. his son; the successful defection of
+      the Seven United Provinces has been mentioned; the ten
+      remaining provinces were afterwards transferred to the
+      House of Austria, and were inherited by the Emperor Joseph
+      II. The French made an easy conquest of them in an early
+      stage of the Revolution.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We now reach the ultimate fate of both the divisions of the
+      Netherlands. The congress of Vienna, by an act of the 9th
+      June 1815, created and conferred upon this prince, THE
+      KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS, consisting of the seventeen
+      provinces, and a portion of Luxemburgh. It is confessedly
+      the first among the kingdoms of the second order.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      It was our wish to present our readers with a sketch of the
+      literary history of the Netherlands, during the period
+      treated of in this chapter; but after most diligent and
+      extensive searches, both in the British and foreign
+      markets, we have not been able to discover materials for
+      it; persons of acknowledged learning, both in Germany and
+      the Netherlands, have assured us that no such history
+      exists.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='APPENDIX_I'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cAp.1'>APPENDIX I.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <a href='#ap_1'>REFERRED TO IN PAGE 188.</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      SOME ACCOUNT OF THE FORMULARIES, CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, OR
+      SYMBOLIC BOOKS, OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC, GREEK, AND PRINCIPAL
+      PROTESTANT CHURCHES.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The constitutions of the Roman Catholic, and Protestant
+      Churches, differ in nothing more, than in the following
+      important points: The Catholic Church, acknowledges the
+      authority of the Scriptures, and, in addition to them, a
+      body of traditionary law. She receives both under the
+      authority, and with the interpretation of the Church, and
+      believes that the authority of the Church in receiving and
+      interpreting them is infallible. The Protestant Churches
+      generally profess to acknowledge no law but the Scriptures,
+      no interpreter of the Scriptures, but the understanding and
+      conscience of the individual who peruses them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      That the Roman Catholic Church should propound a formulary
+      of her faith, enlarge this formulary from time to time, as
+      further interpretation is wanted, and enforce acquiscence
+      in it by spiritual censures, is consistent with <i>her</i>
+      principles. Whether such a pretension can be avowed,
+      without inconsistency, by any Protestant Church, has been a
+      subject of much discussion. In point of fact, however, no
+      Protestant Church is without her formulary, or abstains
+      from enforcing it by temporal provisions and spiritual
+      censures. To enforce their formularies by civil penalties,
+      is inconsistent with the principles, of every christian
+      church. All churches howsoever have so enforced, and have
+      blamed the others, for so enforcing them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Such formularies, from the circumstance of their collecting
+      into one instrument, several articles, of religious belief,
+      are generally known on the Continent, by the appellation of
+      SYMBOLIC BOOKS.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      I. The symbolic books, received by ALL TRINITARIAN
+      CHRISTIAN CHURCHES,-are,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. <i>The Symbol of the Apostles</i>; and
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. <i>The Nicene Symbol</i>.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      II. The symbolic books, received by the ROMAN CATHOLIC
+      Church,-are,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. The General Councils;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. Among these,-<i>the Council of Trent</i>,-as
+        immediately applying to the controversies between the
+        Catholic and Protestant Churches, is particularly
+        regarded;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3. <i>The Symbol of Pope Pius IV</i>.;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4. <i>The Catechism of the Council of Trent</i>.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      III. The symbolic books of the GREEK CHURCH,-are,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. <i>The Confession, of her true and sincere faith</i>,
+        which, on the taking of Constantinople, by Mahomet II, in
+        1453, Gennadius, its patriarch, presented to the
+        conqueror;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. <i>The Orthodox Confession, of the Catholic and
+        Apostolic Greek Church</i>, published in 1642, by
+        Mogilow, the Metropolitan of Kiow.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      IV. The symbolic books of the LUTHERAN CHURCHES, are
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. <i>The Confession of Augsburgh</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. <i>The Apology of the Confession of Augsburgh</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3. <i>The Articles of Smalcald</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4. <i>And</i>, (in the opinion of some Lutheran
+        Churches),-<i>The Form of Concord</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        5. <i>The Saxon, Wirtenburgian, Suabian, Pomeranian,
+        Mansfeldian, Antwerpensian, and Copenhagen
+        Confessions</i>, possess, in particular places, the
+        authority of Symbolic books:-the two first are
+        particularly respected.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      V. The symbolic books of the REFORMED CHURCHES. The
+      reformed Church, in the largest extent of that expression,
+      comprises all the religious communities, which have
+      separated from the Church of Rome. In this sense, it is
+      often used by English writers: but, having, soon after the
+      Reformation, been used by the French Protestants to
+      describe their church, which was Calvinistic, it became,
+      insensibly, the appellation of all Calvinistic churches on
+      the Continent. The principal symbolic books of these
+      churches,-are,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. <i>The Confession of the Helvetian Churches</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. <i>The Tetrapolitan Confession</i>,-signed by the four
+        cities of Strasburgh, Constance, Memmingen, and Lindau;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3. <i>The Catechism of Heidelbergh</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4. <i>The Gallic Confession of Faith</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        5. <i>The Belgic Confession of Faith</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        6. <i>The Canons of the Council of Dort</i>.
+      </p>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        VI. The symbolic books of the WALDENSES,-are,
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Their original and reformed Creeds</i>.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      VII. The symbolic books of the <i>Bohemians</i>,-are,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. <i>The Confession of faith of the Calixtines and
+        Taborites</i>, signed at the Synod of Cuttenburgh in
+        1541;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. <i>The Confession of the faith of the
+        Bohemians</i>,-inserted in the "Harmony of Confessions,"
+        published at Cambridge in 1680.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3. <i>The Consent of faith at Sendomer</i>.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      VIII. The symbolic book of the ARMINIANS,-is
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        <i>The Declaration of the Remonstrants</i>, drawn up by
+        Episcopius, and signed in 1622.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      IX. The symbolic book of the SOCINIANS is <i>The Catechism
+      of Racow</i>;-the best edition of it was published in 1609,
+      reprinted at Frankfort, in 1739. An English translation of
+      it has been published by Mr. Rees.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      X. The UNITARIANS have no symbolic book. To Doctor
+      Lardner's <i>Letter on the Logos</i> they shew universal
+      respect.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      XI. The symbolic books of THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND,-are,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. <i>The Theological Oaths</i>,-containing a Declaration
+        of the belief of the Monarch's spiritual supremacy;-and
+        Declarations against Transubstantiation,-the invocation
+        of Saints,-and the sacrifice of the Mass;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. <i>The Thirty-nine Articles</i>.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      XII. The symbolic book of the ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH
+      PRESBYTERIANS,-is
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "<i>The Articles of Religion</i> approved and passed by
+        both Houses of Parliament after advice had with an
+        assembly of divines, called together for that purpose."
+        These were sent into Scotland, and immediately sanctioned
+        by the General Assembly, and Parliament of that kingdom;
+        and thus became a law of the Church and State.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      XIII. The symbolic books of the Anabaptists may be said to
+      be,-
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        THEIR SEVERAL CONFESSIONS OF FAITH:-Five were published
+        at Amsterdam, in 1675, in one volume 8vo.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      XIV. The symbolic books of the Quakers,-are,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. <i>Barclay's Catechism and Confession of Faith</i>,
+        published in 1675;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. His <i>Theses Theologic&aelig;</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3. His <i>Apology</i>,-a logical demonstration of the
+        propositions in the Theses. It was translated into almost
+        every language and presented to all the ministers
+        assembled at Nimeguen;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4. But some persons assert that the real doctrines of the
+        Quakers are more easily discoverable from <i>The
+        Christian Quaker and his divine testimony, vindicated by
+        Scripture reason and authorities against the injurious
+        attempts that have been lately made by several
+        adversaries</i>.-This work appeared in 1674; the first
+        part of it was written by Penn, the second by Whithead,
+        one of his most distinguished disciples.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      XV. It may be added, that the symbolic book of the Jews,-is
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        <i>The Schelosch aikara ikkarim,-the Thirteen Articles of
+        Faith</i> framed by Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon in the 12th
+        century: it is frequently inserted in the Jewish prayer
+        books. Sebastian Munster published it with a Latin
+        translation and an abridgment of the History of Josephus,
+        in one vol. 8vo. at Worms in 1529.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Many Christian Catechisms have been translated into Hebrew
+      for the benefit of the Jews.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      An historical and literary account of all these Confessions
+      of Faith, and of several works and circumstances connected
+      with them, is attempted to be given, by the Author of these
+      pages, in his "<i>Historical and Literary Account of the
+      Formularies, Confessions of Faith, and Symbolic Books, of
+      the Roman Catholic, Greek, and principal Protestant
+      Churches.</i>"
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      THE SYLLOGE CONFESSIONUM printed at the Clarendon Press in
+      1804, contains the <i>Professio Fidei Tridentin&aelig;,
+      Confessio Helvetica, Augustana, Saxonica, Belgica."</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "The Harmony of the Confessions of the Faith of the
+      Christian and Reformed Churches" published at Cambridge in
+      1586, 8<i>vo</i>. attempts to reconcile the Confession of
+      Augsburgh, the Confession of the Four Cities, the
+      Confession of B&acirc;sle, the first Confession of
+      Helvetia; the Confession of Saxony, the Confession of
+      Wirtemburgh, the French Confession, the English Confession,
+      the latter Confession of Helvetia, the Belgic Confession,
+      and that of Bohemia.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the general subject, <i>Walchius's Bibliotheca
+      Theologica Selecta</i>, may be usefully consulted.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='APPENDIX_II'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cAp.2'>APPENDIX II.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <a href='#ap_2'>REFERRED TO IN PAGE 188.</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      ON THE REUNION OF CHRISTIANS.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The attempts, made at different times for the re-union of
+      Christians, are the subject of a learned and interesting
+      work, published at Paris, with the title of "<i>Histoire
+      critique des proj&eacute;ts form&eacute;s depuis trois
+      cents ans pour la Reunion des communions Chretiennes, par
+      M. Tabaraud, ancien Pr&eacute;tre de L'Oratoire, Paris</i>,
+      1824." An excellent sketch of these attempts had been
+      previously given by <i>Doctor Mosheim, in his
+      Ecclesiastical History, Cent. XVI. Ch. III. sect. 3. part
+      2. c. 1. and Cent. XVII. Cha. I. sect. 2. p</i>. 1. To
+      these publications the reader is referred:-the present
+      Essay may be found to contain,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        I. A general view of the attempts made after the
+        Reformation, to unite the Lutheran and Calvinist
+        churches:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        II. Some account of the Attempts made at different times
+        by the sovereigns of France for the conversion of their
+        protestant subjects:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        III. The correspondence of Bossuet and Leibniz, under the
+        auspices of Lewis the Fourteenth, for the reunion of the
+        Lutheran Churches to the Church of Rome:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        IV. Some account of an attempt made in the reign of
+        George the First, to reunite the Church of England to the
+        Church of Rome:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        V. And some general remarks on the Reunion of Christians.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='I'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#ci'>I.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Attempts made to unite the Lutheran, and Calvinist
+      Churches.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The great division of Protestant Churches is, into the
+      Lutheran, and Calvinist communions. The Abb&eacute;
+      Tabaraud relates in the work, which we have just cited, not
+      fewer than fifteen different attempts to effect a reunion
+      of their churches. In reading his account and that given by
+      Mosheim of these attempts, the writer thinks that, on each
+      side, there was something to commend and something to
+      blame. It seems to him, that the Lutherans deserve credit
+      for the open and explicit manner, in which, on these
+      occasions, they propounded the tenets of their creed to the
+      Calvinists; that the conduct of the Calvinists was more
+      liberal and conciliating; but that, on the other hand, the
+      conduct of the Lutherans towards the Calvinists, was
+      generally repulsive, and sometimes deserving a much harsher
+      name; while the conduct of the Calvinists, was sometimes
+      chargeable, with ambiguity.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "It was deplorable," says Mosheim, (Cent. xvii. sect. 2.
+        part 2. art. 3.) "to see two churches, which had
+        discovered, an equal degree of pious zeal, and fortitude,
+        in throwing off the despotic yoke of Rome, divided among
+        themselves, and living in discords, that were highly
+        detrimental, to the interests of religion, and the
+        well-being of society. Hence, several eminent divines,
+        and leading men, both among the Lutherans, and
+        Calvinists, sought anxiously, after some method, of
+        uniting the two churches, though divided in their
+        opinions, in the bonds of Christian charity, and
+        ecclesiastical communion. A competent knowledge, of human
+        nature, and human passions, was sufficient, to persuade
+        these wise, and pacific mediators, that a perfect
+        uniformity in religious opinions, was not practicable,
+        and that it would be entirely extravagant, to imagine
+        that any of these communities, could ever be brought, to
+        embrace universally, and without limitation, the
+        doctrines of the other. They made it, therefore, their
+        principal business, to persuade those, whose spirits were
+        inflamed with the heat of controversy, that the points in
+        debate between the two churches, were not essential, to
+        true religion;-that the fundamental doctrines, of
+        Christianity, were received, and professed, in both
+        communions; and that the difference of opinion, between
+        the contending parties, turned, either upon points of an
+        abstruse, and incomprehensible nature, or upon matters of
+        indifference, which neither tended, to make mankind
+        wiser, or better, and in which the interests of genuine
+        piety, were in no wise concerned. Those, who viewed
+        things in this point of light, were obliged to
+        acknowledge, that the diversity of opinions, between the
+        two churches, was by no means, a sufficient reason, for
+        their separation; and that of consequence, they were
+        called, by the dictates of that gospel, which they both
+        professed, to live, not only in the mutual exercise, of
+        Christian charity, but also to enter, into the fraternal
+        bonds, of church communion. The greatest part, of the
+        reformed doctors, seemed disposed, to acknowledge, that
+        the errors of the Lutherans, were not, of a momentous
+        nature, nor of a pernicious tendency; and that the
+        fundamental doctrines of Christianity, had not undergone,
+        any remarkable alteration, in that communion; and thus,
+        on their side, an important step, was made, towards
+        peace, and union, between the two churches. But the
+        greatest part of the Lutheran doctors declared, that they
+        could not form, a like judgment, with respect, to the
+        doctrine, of the Reformed churches; they maintained
+        tenaciously, the importance of the points, which divided
+        the two communions, and affirmed, that a considerable
+        part of the controversy turned upon the fundamental
+        principles, of all religion, and virtue. It is not at all
+        surprising, that this steadiness and constancy of the
+        Lutherans, was branded by the opposite party, with the
+        epithets, of morose obstinacy, supercilious arrogance,
+        and such like odious denominations. The Lutherans, were
+        not behind hand with their adversaries, in acrimony, of
+        style; they recriminated with vehemence, and charged
+        their accusers with instances of misconduct, different in
+        kind, but equally condemnable. They reproached them with
+        having dealt disingenuously, by disguising, under
+        ambiguous expressions, the real doctrine of the Reformed
+        churches; they observed further, that their adversaries,
+        notwithstanding their consummate prudence and
+        circumspection, gave plain proofs, on many occasions,
+        that their propensity to a reconciliation, between the
+        two churches, arose from views of private interest,
+        rather than from a zeal for the public good."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is observable that Mosheim applies these observations to
+      a late stage of the reformation, when much of its first
+      violence had subsided.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The nearest approach<a name='FNanchor_080_80'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_080_80'><sup>[080]</sup></a> to a reunion,
+      between any Protestant churches, seems to be that, which
+      took place at Sendomer, in the year 1570.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='II'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cii'>II.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Attempts for a Reunion of the Calvinist Churches to the See
+      of Rome.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Having thus summarily noticed, the unsuccessful attempts,
+      to effect an union, between the Lutheran, and Calvinist
+      churches, we proceed to a similar summary mention of the
+      attempts, equally unsuccessful, to effect the reunion of
+      the Calvinists, to the church of Rome, which were made,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1st, during the reign of Henry the Fourth:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2dly, during the reign of Lewis the Thirteenth: and
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3dly, during the reign of Lewis the Fourteenth:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4thly, we shall afterwards notice, the Revocation of the
+        edict of Nantes, and the complete restoration of the
+        protestants of France, to their civil rights, in the
+        reign of Lewis the Eighteenth.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='II_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cii.1'>II. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      An attempt to reunite the Calvinists to the church of Rome
+      was made at the celebrated Conference held at Poissi in
+      1561. In the work which we have cited, the Abb&eacute;
+      Tabaraud gives a short and clear account of this
+      conference. It failed of success, and a long civil war of
+      religion ensued. It was closed by the conversion of
+      <i>Henry the Fourth</i> to the Roman Catholic religion. He
+      was no sooner quietly seated on the throne, than he
+      conceived the arduous, but certainly noble project of
+      pacifying the religious contests of the world. It appears
+      that he was induced to entertain hopes of the success of
+      this measure, by the assurances given him by the Calvinist
+      ministers, when his change of religion, was in agitation,
+      that salvation might be obtained in the church of Rome; and
+      from his expectation of finding a spirit of conciliation,
+      and concession, in the see of Rome.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "I have heard, from persons of distinction," says
+        Grotius<a name='FNanchor_081_81'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_081_81'><sup>[081]</sup></a>, "that Henry the
+        Fourth declared that he had great hopes of procuring for
+        the King of England, and the other protestant princes,
+        who were his allies, conditions, which they could not
+        honorably refuse, if they had any real wish of returning
+        to the unity of the church; and that he had once an
+        intention of employing bishops of his own kingdom on this
+        project; but that this project failed by his death."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is said, that with these views he had sent for <i>Isaac
+      Casaubon</i>, a protestant divine of equal learning and
+      moderation, and appointed him his librarian; and that he
+      intended confidentially employing him in preparing means
+      for the success of the measure, and smoothing the obstacles
+      which might impede its progress. Grotius<a name=
+      'FNanchor_082_82'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_082_82'><sup>[082]</sup></a> mentions, as a
+      saying of Casaubon, that "the catholics of France had a
+      juster way of thinking than the ministers of Charenton:"
+      these were the most rigid of the French Hugonot ministers.
+      It is observable that the French government always
+      considered the Hugonots of a much more refractory
+      disposition than the Lutherans.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='II_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cii.2'>II. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The pacific views of Henry the Fourth, were terminated by
+      his decease. The capture of la Rochelle by the arms of
+      <i>Lewis the XIIIth</i>, was a fatal blow to the political
+      consequence of the Protestant party in France. Cardinal
+      Richelieu immediately set on foot a project, for the
+      general conversion, of the body: two persons, of very
+      different characters, were employed by him, in this
+      measure; Father Joseph, a capuchin friar, the confident, of
+      all the cardinal's political and private schemes, and
+      Father P. Dulaurens, an oratorian, who lived in retirement,
+      wholly absorbed in the exercises of religion. They began
+      the work of reunion by holding frequent conferences, on an
+      amicable footing, with several of the protestant ministers;
+      and it was resolved, that, with the permission of the pope,
+      and the authority of the king, an assembly, should be
+      convened, of ecclesiastics of each communion. Father
+      Dulaurens, recommended that the intended communications
+      with the ministers, should not take place, till they
+      reached, the capital; but, the cardinal, thought it more
+      advisable, that the ministers, should be separately
+      informed, of the project, before they left the provinces.
+      It was accordingly communicated to them, and favourably
+      received, by the ministers, of Languedoc, and Normandy, but
+      met with an unfavourable reception, from the ministers of
+      Sedan. It was resolved, that the assembly, should meet, and
+      begin their deliberations, with the differences in the
+      opinions, of the two churches, respecting the Sacraments.
+      Father Dulaurens recommended, that for some time, at least,
+      the Bible, even in the Calvinist version, of
+      Oliv&eacute;tan, should be the only book appealed to, on
+      either side, as authority: but the Cardinal insisted, on a
+      resort to tradition. Grotius mentions that in several
+      articles, (as communion under both kinds, and the
+      invocation of saints), the Cardinal was willing, that
+      concessions, should be made to the Protestants; and
+      suggested, that, as a medium, to reconcile them to the
+      Pope, a patriarchate should be established, in France, and
+      he himself, be the first patriarch<a name=
+      'FNanchor_083_83'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_083_83'><sup>[083]</sup></a>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Notwithstanding the general loftiness, and overbearing
+      nature, of his manners, it appears, particularly from M. de
+      Rullhi&ecirc;res<a name='FNanchor_084_84'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_084_84'><sup>[084]</sup></a> (6.) that the
+      Cardinal, acted on this occasion, with great moderation,
+      and recommended to his royal master, a similar line of
+      moderation, in all his conduct, towards his Protestant
+      subjects.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='II_3'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cii.3'>II. 3.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The Cardinal's project, was suspended, by his decease; and
+      resumed, under <i>Lewis the Fourteenth</i>. In 1662, a
+      plan, drawn up by M. le Blanc de Beaulieu, a professor of
+      Divinity, at Sedan, singularly esteemed, both by the Roman
+      Catholics, and Protestants, by which the essential
+      articles, in dispute, were reduced to a small number, was
+      adopted, by the Court, to serve as the basis of discussion.
+      It was resolved, that different synods of Protestant
+      ministers, should be convened; that these, should be
+      composed, of ministers of known moderation, and pacific
+      views, and the articles, drawn up by M. le Blanc de
+      Beaulieu, presented to them. Three years were employed, in
+      negotiations for effecting this project: several ministers
+      in the lower Languedoc, and the Isle of France, expressed
+      themselves, in terms favourable, to the measure, but the
+      synod of Charenton, took the alarm, and the project, was
+      abandoned.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, a measure equally
+      unwise, and unjust, too soon followed. It is more to be
+      attributed, to his ministers and advisers, than to Lewis
+      the Fourteenth himself. From the <i>Eclaircissemens
+      Historiques</i> of M. de Rullhi&ecirc;res, and the life of
+      Bossuet, by M. Bauss&eacute;t<a name=
+      'FNanchor_085_85'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_085_85'><sup>[085]</sup></a>, it seems evident,
+      that Lewis the Fourteenth, had been induced, to believe,
+      that the number of Protestants was much smaller; that the
+      conversions of them, would be much more rapid, general, and
+      sincere; and that the measures, for hastening their
+      conversion, would be much less violent than they really
+      were. It is also due, to the monarch, to add, that from the
+      authors, whom we have cited, it is evident, that when he
+      began to perceive the true state, of the transaction,
+      though from false principles of honour, and policy, he
+      would not revoke the edict, he wished it not to be put into
+      great activity, and checked the forwardness, of the
+      Intendants general in its execution.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is whimsical, (if on so serious a subject such a word
+      may be used), that the dragon&acirc;de, or employment of
+      the dragoon troops, in forcing the conversion, of the
+      Hugonots, was owing to the wish of Louvois, the minister,
+      of Lewis the Fourteenth, to become himself, a missionary.
+      Observing how much the apparent success, of the
+      missionaries, recommended them, to Lewis the Fourteenth, he
+      began to consider them as dangerous rivals for the favour
+      of his royal master, and determined, therefore, to become
+      himself, a principal performer. With this view, he
+      instituted the dragoon missions, and thus brought a
+      material part, of the work of conversion, into the war
+      department.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='II_4'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cii.4'>II. 4.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The death of Lewis, and the known disposition of the
+      Regent, appeared to the Protestant party, in France, to
+      afford a proper opportunity of recovering their rights.
+      Duclos, in his <i>M&eacute;moires secr&eacute;ts sur les
+      regnes de Louis XIV. et de Louis XV</i>., says, that the
+      Regent himself wished to restore the Protestants, to their
+      civil rights, but was dissuaded by his council. Still, he
+      seldom permitted the edicts against them to be executed;
+      and speaking generally, the Protestants seem to have
+      suffered no active persecution in any part of the reign of
+      Lewis, the XVth. One intolerable grievance, however, they
+      unquestionably suffered in every part of it. Their
+      religious principles did not permit them to be married by a
+      Roman Catholic priest, in the manner prescribed by the law
+      of the state, and that law did not recognize the legal
+      validity of a marriage, celebrated in any other form. The
+      consequence was, that in the eye of the law, the marriage
+      of Protestants was a mere concubinage, and the offspring of
+      it illegitimate. To his immortal honour, <i>Lewis the
+      XVIth</i>, by his edict of the 17th of November, 1787,
+      accorded to all his Non-catholic subjects the full and
+      complete enjoyment of all the rights of his Roman-catholic
+      subjects. On a division in the Parliament, this edict was
+      registered by a majority of 96 votes against 16.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The persecution of the Hugonots in consequence of the
+      revocation of the Edict of Nantes, was condemned by the
+      greatest men in France. M. d'Aguesseau, the father of the
+      celebrated chancellor, resigned his office of Intendant of
+      Languedoc rather than remain a witness of it: his son
+      repeatedly mentions it with abhorrence.
+      F&eacute;n&eacute;lon, Flechier, and Bossuet,<a name=
+      'FNanchor_086_86'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_086_86'><sup>[086]</sup></a> confessedly the
+      ornaments of the Gallican church, lamented it. To the
+      utmost of their power, they prevented the execution of the
+      edict, and lessened its severities, when they could not
+      prevent them. Most sincerely lamenting and condemning the
+      outrages committed by the Roman Catholics against the
+      Protestants at Nismes, as violations of the law of God and
+      man, but doubting of the nature and extent, which some have
+      attributed to them, the writer of these pages begs leave to
+      refer to the sermon preached on them by the Reverend James
+      Archer, a Roman Catholic priest, and printed for Booker, in
+      Bond-street, by the desire of two Roman Catholic
+      congregations, as expressing the doctrine of the Roman
+      Catholic church, and of all real christians on heretics and
+      the persecution of heretics.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='III'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#ciii'>III.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p class="c8">
+      The Correspondence of Bossuet and Leibniz, under the
+      auspices of Lewis the XIVth, for the Reunion of the
+      Lutheran Protestants to the Roman Catholic Church.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This correspondence forms one of the most interesting
+      events in the life of Bossuet; the letters, of which it
+      consists, and the other written documents, which relate to
+      it, are highly interesting. We shall attempt to present our
+      readers with a short account-
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1st. Of the circumstances which led to this
+        correspondence;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2ndly. Of the Project of Reunion, delivered by Molanus, a
+        Lutheran Divine, and Bossuet's sentiments on that
+        Project;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3dly. Of the intervention of Leibniz in the negotiation;
+        and
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4thly. Of the Project suggested by Bossuet, and the
+        principal reasons, by which he contended for its
+        reception.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='c_III_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#ciii.1'>III. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      It appears that, towards the 17th century, the Emperor
+      Leopold, and several sovereign princes in Germany,
+      conceived a project of re-uniting the Roman Catholic and
+      Lutheran churches. The Duke of Brunswick, who had recently
+      embraced the Roman Catholic religion, and published his
+      <i>Fifty Reasons for his conversion</i>, (once a popular
+      work of controversy), and the Duke of Hanover, the father
+      of the first prince of the illustrious house, which now
+      fills the throne of England, were the original promoters of
+      the attempt. It was generally approved; and the mention of
+      it at the Diet of the Empire was favourably received. Some
+      communications upon it took place between the Emperor and
+      the ducal Princes: and with all their knowledge, several
+      conferences were held upon the subject, between certain
+      distinguished Roman Catholic and Protestant Divines. In
+      these, the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus, the Abbot of
+      Lokkum, took the lead. The first had been consecrated
+      Bishop of Tina in Bosnia, then under the dominion of the
+      Turks, with Ordinary Jurisdiction over some parts of the
+      Turkish territories. His conduct had recommended him to
+      Innocent the XIth, and that pope had directed him to visit
+      the Protestant states in Germany, and inform him of their
+      actual dispositions in respect to the Church of Rome. In
+      consequence of this mission, he became known to the
+      Emperor, who appointed him to the See of Neustadt, in the
+      neighbourhood of Vienna. Molanus, was Director of the
+      Protestant Churches and Consistories of Hanover. Both were
+      admirably calculated for the office intended them, on this
+      occasion. Each possessed the confidence of his own party,
+      and was esteemed by the other; each was profoundly versed
+      in the matters in dispute; each possessed good sense,
+      moderation, and conciliating manners; and each had the
+      success of the business at heart, with a fixed purpose,
+      that nothing, but a real difference on some essential
+      article of doctrine, should frustrate the project.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The effect of the first conferences was so promising, that
+      the Emperor and the two Princes resolved, that they should
+      be conducted in a manner more regular, and more likely to
+      bring the object of them to a conclusion. With this view,
+      the business was formally entrusted by both the princes to
+      Molanus alone, and the Emperor published a rescript, dated
+      the 20th March, 1691, by which he gave the Bishop of
+      Neustadt full authority to treat, on all matters of
+      religion, with the states, communities, and individuals of
+      the empire, reserving to the ecclesiastical and imperial
+      powers, their right to confirm the acts of the Bishop, as
+      they should judge adviseable. Under these auspicious
+      circumstances, the conference between the Bishop of
+      Neustadt and Molanus began.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But, before the events which we have mentioned took place,
+      a correspondence on the subject of a general reunion
+      between Catholics and Protestants had been carried on for
+      some time, between Pelisson and Leibniz. The former held a
+      considerable rank among the French writers, who adorned the
+      reign of Lewis the Fourteenth; the latter was eminently
+      distinguished in the literary world. In the exact sciences,
+      he was inferior to Newton alone; in metaphysics, he had no
+      superior; in general learning, he had scarcely a rival. He
+      had recommended himself to the Brunswick family, by three
+      volumes, which he had recently published, on the
+      Antiquities of that illustrious House; and was then engaged
+      in the investigation of its Italian descent, and early
+      German shoots. The result of it, under the title of
+      <i>Origines Guelphic&aelig;</i>, was published, after his
+      decease, by Scheidius, and is considered to be a perfect
+      model of genealogical history. He was also thoroughly
+      conversant in the theological disputes of the times; and in
+      all the questions of dogma, or history, which enter into
+      them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      His correspondence with Pelisson, came to the knowledge of
+      Louisa, Princess Palatine, and Abbess of Maubrusson. She
+      was a daughter of Frederick, the Elector, and Count
+      Palatine of the Rhine, and a sister, of the Duchess of
+      Hanover. In early life, she had been converted to the Roman
+      Catholic religion, and had the conversion of her sister,
+      very much at heart. With this view, she sent to her, the
+      correspondence between Leibniz and Pelisson, and received
+      from her an account of what was passing, between the Bishop
+      of Neustadt, and Molanus. Both the ladies were anxious, to
+      promote the measure, and that Bossuet should take in it,
+      the leading part, on the side of the Catholics. This was
+      mentioned to Lewis the Fourteenth, and had his approbation.
+      The Emperor and both the Princes, by all of whom Bossuet,
+      was personally esteemed, equally approved of it, and it was
+      finally settled that Bossuet and Leibniz, should be joined,
+      to the Bishops of Neustadt, and Molanus, and that the
+      correspondence with Bossuet, should pass through the hands
+      of Madame de Brinon, who acted, as secretary to the Abbess
+      of Maubrusson, and is celebrated, by the writers of the
+      times, for her wit and dexterity in business. Thus the
+      matter assumed, a still more regular form, and much was
+      expected from the acknowledged talents, learning, and
+      moderation of the actors in it, and their patrons.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='c_III_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#ciii.2'>III. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The conferences between the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus
+      continued for seven months, and ended in their agreeing on
+      12 articles, to serve for the basis of the discussion, on
+      the terms of the reunion.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Bishop of Neustadt, communicated these articles to
+      Bossuet. He seems, to have approved of them generally, but
+      to have thought, that some alteration in them, was
+      adviseable. This being mentioned to Molanus, he published
+      his <i>Cogitationes Privat&aelig;</i>, a profound and
+      conciliating dissertation. Without entering into any
+      discussion, on the points in dispute, between the churches,
+      he suggested in it a kind of truce, during which, there
+      should be ecclesiastical communion between them: the
+      Lutherans, were to acknowledge the Pope, as the first of
+      Bishops, in order, and dignity: the Church of Rome, was to
+      receive the Lutherans, as her children, without exacting
+      from them, any retractation of their alledged errors, or
+      any renunciation, of the articles in their creed, condemned
+      by the Council of Trent. The anathemas of that council,
+      were to be suspended, and a general council was to be
+      convened, in which the Protestants were to have a
+      deliberative voice: the sentence of that council, was to be
+      definitive, and, in the mean time, the members of each
+      party, were to treat the members of the other, as brethren,
+      whose errors, however great they might appear, were to be
+      tolerated, from motives of peace, and in consideration, of
+      their engagements to abandon them, if the council should
+      pronounce against them. To show the probability of a final
+      accommodation, Molanus notices, in his Dissertation,
+      several points, in which one party imputed to the other
+      errors, not justly chargeable on them; several, on which
+      they disputed, merely for want of rightly understanding
+      each other; and several, in which the dispute was of words
+      only.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It appears that the Bishop of Neustadt, communicated this
+      dissertation, to Bossuet, and that Bossuet was delighted,
+      with the good sense, candour, and true spirit of
+      conciliation, which it displayed. In his letters he
+      frequently mentions the author, and always in terms, Of the
+      highest praise. His own language was equally moderate and
+      conciliating.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "The Council of Trent," he says in one of his letters,
+        "is our stay; but we shall not use it to prejudice the
+        cause. This would be, to take for granted, what is in
+        dispute between us. We shall deal more fairly with our
+        opponents. We shall make the council serve, for a
+        statement, and explanation, of our doctrines. Thus, we
+        shall come to an explanation, on those points, in which
+        either of us imputes to the other, what he does not
+        believe, and in which we dispute, only because we
+        misconceive each other. This may lead us far; for <i>the
+        Abbot of Lokkum, has actually conciliated the points so
+        essential, of Justification, and the Eucharist: nothing
+        is wanting in him, on that side, but that he should be
+        avowed. Why should we not hope to conclude, in the same
+        manner, disputes, less difficult, and of less importance?
+        Cela se peut pousser si avant, que M. l'Abb&eacute; de
+        Lokkum, a concili&eacute;, actuellement les points si
+        essentiels, de la justification, et du sacrifice de
+        l'Eucharistie, et il ne lui manque de ce cot&eacute; la,
+        que de se faire avouer. Pourquoi ne pas esp&eacute;rer de
+        finir, par les m&ecirc;mes moyens, des disputes, moins
+        difficiles, et moins importantes?"</i>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      With these rational and conciliatory dispositions, Bossuet,
+      and Molanus, proceeded. But, after this stage of the
+      business, Molanus disappears, and Leibniz comes on the
+      scene.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='c_III_3'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#ciii.3'>III. 3.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      A Letter, written by Bossuet to M^me de Brinon, having been
+      communicated by her to Leibniz, opened the correspondence
+      between him and Bossuet. In that letter, Bossuet declared
+      explicitly, that the Church of Rome, was ready, to make
+      concessions, on points of discipline, and to explain
+      doctrines, but would make no concession in respect to
+      defined articles of faith; and, in particular, would make
+      no such concession, in respect to any which had been
+      defined by the Council of Trent. Leibniz's Letter to M^me
+      de Brinon, in answer to this communication, is very
+      important. He expresses himself in these terms;
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "The Bishop of Meaux says,
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "1st. That the Project delivered to the Bishop of
+        Neustadt, does not appear to him quite sufficient;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "2dly. That it is, nevertheless, very useful, as every
+        thing must have its beginning:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "3dly. That Rome will never relax from any point of
+        doctrine, defined by the church, and cannot capitulate,
+        in respect to any such article;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "4thly. That the doctrine, defined in the Council of
+        Trent, is received in and out of France by all Roman
+        Catholics;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "5thly, That satisfaction may be given to Protestants, in
+        respect to certain points of discipline, or in the way of
+        explanation, and that this had been already done in an
+        useful manner, in some points, mentioned in the Project
+        of the Bishop of Neustadt.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "These are the material propositions, in the letter of the
+        Bishop of Meaux, and I believe all these propositions
+        true. Neither the Bishop of Neustadt, nor those who
+        negotiated with them, make any opposition to them. There
+        is nothing in them, which is not conformable to the
+        sentiments of those persons. The third of them in
+        particular, which might be thought, an obstacle, to these
+        Projects of Accommodation, could not be unknown to them;
+        one may even say, that they built on it."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It seems difficult to deny, that, in this stage of the
+      business, much had been gained to the cause of reunion. The
+      parties were come to a complete understanding on the
+      important articles of Justification, and the Eucharist; and
+      it was admitted, both by Leibniz, and Molanus, that, in
+      their view of the concern, an accommodation might be
+      effected, between the Roman Catholic, and Lutheran
+      churches, though the former, retained all her defined
+      doctrines, and, in particular, all her doctrines, defined
+      by the Council of Trent. The question then was, what should
+      be done in respect to the remaining articles in difference
+      between the churches? It is to be wished, that it had been
+      left to Bossuet, and Molanus, to settle them, in the way of
+      amicable explanation, in which they had settled, the two
+      important articles, which we have mentioned. It is evident,
+      from the passages, which we have cited, from Bossuet, that
+      it was his wish, that the business should proceed on that
+      plan, and that he had hopes of its success. Unfortunately,
+      the business took, another direction: Leibniz proclaimed,
+      that after every possible explanation should be given, the
+      Lutheran church would, still retain, some articles,
+      contrary to the defined doctrines, of the Church of Rome,
+      and anathematized, by the Council of Trent. To remove the
+      final effect of this objection, Leibniz held out Molanus's
+      first project, that the Lutherans should express a general
+      acquiescence, in the authority of the church, and promise
+      obedience, to the decisions of a General Council, to be
+      called, for the purpose of pronouncing, on these points;
+      and that, in consequence of these advances, on their part,
+      the anathemas of the Council of Trent, should be suspended,
+      and the Lutherans received, provisionally, within the pale,
+      of the Catholic church. To bring over Bossuet to this plan,
+      he exerted great eloquence, and displayed, no common
+      learning.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='III_4'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#ciii.4'>III. 4.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      But the eloquence, and learning, of Leibniz, were without
+      effect. In language, equally temperate and firm, Bossuet,
+      adhered to his text, that in matters of discipline, or any
+      other matter, distinct from faith, the Church of Rome,
+      would show the utmost indulgence to the Lutherans; but
+      that, on articles of faith, and specifically, on those
+      propounded by the Council of Trent, there could be no
+      compromise. This, however, he confined to articles of faith
+      alone: and even on articles of faith, he wished to consult
+      the feelings of Protestants, as much as possible. He
+      offered them every fair explanation of the tenets of the
+      council; he required from them no retractation, of their
+      own tenets:
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Molanus," he says, "will not allow retractation to be
+        mentioned. It may be dispensed with; it will be
+        sufficient, that the parties acknowledge, the truth, by
+        way of declaration or explanation. To this, the
+        Symbolical Books, give a clear opening, as appears by the
+        passages, which have been produced from them, and will
+        appear, by other passages, which may be produced from
+        them."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      If Bossuet was thus considerate, in what regarded faith, it
+      will easily be supposed, how indulgent his sentiments were,
+      in respect to all, that merely regarded discipline. A
+      complete confession of faith, being once obtained from the
+      Lutherans, he was willing, to allow them, if they required
+      it, communion under both kinds; that their Bishops, should
+      retain their Sees; and that, where there was no Bishop, and
+      the whole body of the people, was Protestant, under the
+      care, of a superintendant, <i>that</i> superintendant,
+      should be consecrated their Bishop; that, where there was a
+      Catholic Bishop, and a considerable part of the diocese,
+      was Lutheran, the superintendant, should be consecrated
+      priest, and invested with rank, and office, that the
+      Lutheran ministers, should be consecrated priests; that
+      provision should be made for their support; that such of
+      their bishops, and ministers, as were married, might retain
+      their wives, and that the consciences of those, who held
+      possessions of the church, should be quieted, except in
+      respect, to hospitals, whose possessions he thought, could
+      not conscientiously be withheld, from the poor objects of
+      their foundations; and that every other arrangement should
+      be made, by the church and state, which would be agreeable,
+      to the feelings, and prejudices, of their new brethren.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Such were the advances made by Bossuet; and much discussion
+      on them, took place, between him, and Leibniz. It continued
+      ten years. They are very learned, and a scholar will read
+      them with delight; but, unfortunately, they rather
+      retarded, than promoted, their object. The real business
+      ended, when Molanus quitted the scene. We shall close this
+      article, with the following extract from the last letter
+      but one, written by Bossuet, on the subject. It is
+      addressed to Leibniz, and bears date the 12th August, 1701,
+      ten years, after his first letter, on it was written:
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Among the divines of the Confession of Augsburg, I
+        always placed M. Molanus, in the first rank, as a man,
+        whose learning, candour and moderation made him one of
+        the persons, the most capable I have known, of advancing
+        the NOBLE PROJECT OF REUNION. In a letter, which I wrote
+        to him some years ago, by the Count Balati, I assured
+        him, that, if he could obtain, the general consent of his
+        party, to what he calls, his Private Thoughts,
+        <i>Cogitationes Privat&aelig;</i>, I promised myself,
+        that, by joining to them, the remarks, which I sent to
+        him, on the Confession of Augsburg, and the other
+        Symbolic writings of the Protestants, the work of the
+        Reunion would be perfected, in all its most difficult and
+        most essential points; so that well disposed persons
+        might, in a short time, bring it to a conclusion."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The passage is so important, that it is proper to present
+      it to the reader in Bossuet's own words.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Parmi les Th&eacute;ologiens de la Confession
+        d'Ausbourg, j'ai toujours mis, au premier rang, M.
+        l'Abb&eacute; de Lokkum, comme un homme, dont le
+        s&ccedil;avoir, la candeur, et la mod&eacute;ration le
+        rendolent un des plus capables, que je connusse, pour
+        avancer CE BEAU DESSEIN. Cela est si v&eacute;ritable,
+        que j'ai cru devoir assurer ce docte Abb&eacute;, dans la
+        r&eacute;ponse que je luis fis, il y a dej&agrave;,
+        plusieurs ann&eacute;es, par M. le Comte Balati, que s'il
+        pouvoit faire passer ce qu'il appelle ses Pens&eacute;es
+        Particuli&egrave;res <i>Cogitationes Privat&aelig;</i>,
+        &agrave; un consentement suffisent, je me promettois
+        qu'en y joignant les remarques, que je lui envoyois, sur
+        la Confession d'Ausbourg, et les autres &eacute;crits
+        Symboliques des Protestans, l'ouvrage de la
+        R&eacute;union seroit achev&eacute; dans ses parties les
+        plus difficiles et les plus essentielles; en sorte qu'il
+        ne faudroit &agrave; des personnes bien dispos&eacute;es,
+        que tr&egrave;s peu de tems pour la conclure<a name=
+        'FNanchor_087_87'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_087_87'><sup>[087]</sup></a>."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Dom. de Foris, the Benedictine Editor of the new edition of
+      the works of Bossuet and the Abb&eacute; Racine,
+      <i>Abr&eacute;g&eacute; de l'Histoire
+      Eccl&eacute;siastique</i><a name='FNanchor_088_88'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_088_88'><sup>[088]</sup></a> are very
+      severe in their censures of the conduct of Leibniz in the
+      negotiations for the Reunion, and attribute its failure to
+      his presumption and duplicity. To the writer of these
+      pages, it appears clear, that Leibniz was sincere in his
+      wishes for the reunion; and that, if he occasioned its
+      failure, it was unintentionally. While the business was in
+      the hands of Bossuet, and Molanus, it was a treaty, not for
+      the reunion of the Roman Catholic church, and all
+      Protestant churches, but for the reunion of the Roman
+      Catholic church, and the Lutheran church; and to this,
+      Molanus's endeavours to reconcile differences, were
+      directed. Leibniz, whose principles in religion, were much
+      wider, than those of Molanus, seems to have wished, that
+      the negotiation should be placed, on a broader basis, and
+      extended to a reunion of the church of Rome, with every
+      denomination of Christians. This gave the negotiation a
+      different direction, and in a great measure, undid what had
+      been, so happily begun. We have seen, that, to the very
+      last, Bossuet, called out for Molanus, and entertained
+      great hopes, that, if the matter were left to Molanus, and
+      him, the noble Project of Reunion, would be crowned with
+      success. There is no part of Bossuet's literary or active
+      life, in which he appears to greater advantage, or in a
+      more amiable light, than on this occasion.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='IV'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#civ'>IV.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Attempt in the reign of Lewis the XV. to effect an union
+      between the Church of Rome and the Church of England.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Of all Protestant churches, the national church of England
+      most nearly resembles the church of Rome. It has retained
+      much of the dogma, and much of the discipline of Roman
+      Catholics. Down to the sub-deacon it has retained the whole
+      of their hierarchy; and, like them, has its deans, rural
+      deans, chapters, prebends, archdeacons, rectors, and
+      vicars; a liturgy, taken in a great measure, from the Roman
+      Catholic liturgy; and composed like that, of Psalms,
+      Canticles, the three creeds, litanies, epistles, gospels,
+      prayers, and responses. Both churches have the sacraments
+      of baptism, and the eucharist, the absolution of the sick,
+      the burial service, the sign of the cross in baptism, the
+      reservation of confirmation, and order to bishops, the
+      difference of episcopal, and sacerdotal dress, feasts, and
+      fasts. Without adopting all the general councils of the
+      church of Rome, the church of England has adopted the first
+      four of them; and, without acknowledging the authority of
+      the other councils, or the authority of the early fathers,
+      the English divines of the established church, allow them
+      to be entitled, to a high degree of respect.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_089_89'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_089_89'><sup>[089]</sup></a> On the important
+      article of the eucharist, the language, of the Thirty-nine
+      Articles, sounds very like, the doctrine of the church of
+      Rome.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At the time, of which we are speaking, the doctrines of the
+      high church, which are generally considered to incline to
+      those of the Roman Catholics, more than the doctrines of
+      the low church, were in their zenith; and in France, where
+      the ultramontane principles on the power of the Pope had
+      always been discountenanced, the disputes of Jansenism were
+      supposed to reduce it very low. On each side, therefore,
+      the time was thought favourable to the project of Reunion.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was also favourable to it, that, a few years before this
+      time, an event had taken place, which naturally tended to
+      put both sides into good humour.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the occasion of the marriage of the Princess Christina
+      of Wolfenbuttell, a Lutheran, with the archduke of Austria,
+      her court consulted the faculty of theology of the
+      University of Helmstadt, on the question,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Whether a Protestant Princess, destined to marry a
+        catholic prince, could, without wounding her conscience,
+        embrace the Roman Catholic religion?" The faculty
+        replied, that, "it could not answer the proposed
+        question, in a solid manner, without having previously
+        decided, whether the catholics were, or were not engaged
+        in errors, that were fundamental, and opposed to
+        salvation; or, (which was the same thing), whether the
+        state of the catholic church was such, that persons might
+        practise in it, the true worship of God, and arrive at
+        salvation." This question the divines of Helmstadt,
+        discussed at length; and concluded in these terms: "After
+        having shown, that the foundation of religion, subsists
+        in the Roman Catholic religion, so that a person may be
+        orthodox in it, live well in it, die well in it, and
+        obtain salvation in it, the discussion of the proposed
+        question, is easy. We are, therefore, of opinion, that
+        the most Serene Princess of Wolfenbuttell, may, in favour
+        of her marriage, embrace the catholic religion."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This opinion is dated the 28th of April 1707, and was
+      printed in the same year at Cologne. The Journalists of
+      Trevoux inserted both the original and a French translation
+      of it in their journal of May, 1708.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Under these circumstances, the correspondence in question
+      took place. It began, in 1718, through Doctor Beauvoir,
+      chaplain to Lord Stair, his Britannic majesty's ambassador
+      at Paris. Some conversation, on the reunion of the two
+      churches, having taken place, between Doctor Dupin, and
+      him, he acquainted the archbishop of Canterbury, with the
+      subject of them. This communication, produced some
+      compliments from the archbishop, to Dr. Dupin, and these,
+      led the latter, to address, to his grace, a letter, in
+      which he mentioned generally, that, on some points in
+      dispute, the supposed difference between the two communions
+      was reconcileable. The correspondence getting wind, Doctor
+      Piers, pronounced a discourse in the Sorbonne, in which he
+      earnestly exhorted his colleagues, to promote the reunion,
+      by revising those articles, of doctrine, and discipline,
+      which protestants branded with the name of papal tyranny;
+      and contended, that, by proscribing the ultramontane
+      doctrines, the first step to the reunion would be made. The
+      discourse, was communicated to Dr. Wake: in his answer, he
+      pressed Dr. Dupin, for a more explicit declaration, on the
+      leading points, in controversy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In compliance with this requisition, Doctor Dupin drew up
+      his <i>Commonitorium</i>, and communicated it, to several
+      persons of distinction, both in the state, and church of
+      France. He discussed in it, the Thirty-nine Articles, as
+      they regarded doctrine, morality, and discipline. He
+      insisted on the necessity of tradition, to interpret the
+      scriptures, and to establish the canonicity of the books,
+      of the Old and New Testament. He insisted on the
+      infallibility, of the church, in faith, and morals; he
+      contended, that the sacrifice of the mass, was not a simple
+      sacrament, but a continuation of the sacrifice of the
+      cross.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The word Transubstantiation, he seemed willing to give up,
+      if the Roman Catholic doctrine, intended to be expressed by
+      it, were retained. He proposed, that communion under both
+      kinds, or under bread alone, should be left, to the
+      discretion of the different churches, and consented, that
+      persons in holy orders should retain their state, with such
+      provisions, as would place the validity of their
+      ordination, beyond exception. The marriage of priests, in
+      the countries, in which such marriages were allowed, and
+      the recitation of the divine service in the vulgar tongue,
+      he allowed; and intimated that no difficulty would be found
+      in the ultimate settlement of the doctrine, respecting
+      purgatory, indulgences, the veneration of saints, relics,
+      or images. He seems to have thought, that the Pope can
+      exercise, no immediate jurisdiction, within the dioceses of
+      bishops, and that his primacy invested him, with no more
+      than a general conservation, of the deposit of the faith, a
+      right to enforce, the observance of the sacred canons, and
+      the general maintenance of discipline. He allowed, in
+      general terms, that there was little substantially wrong,
+      in the discipline of the Church of England; he deprecated
+      all discussion, on the original merit of reformation, and
+      he professed to see no use in the Pope's intervention, till
+      the basis of the negotiation, should be settled.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The answer of the archbishop, was not very explicit. It is
+      evident from it, that he thought, the quarrels on
+      Jansenism, had alienated the Jansenists and their
+      adherents, from the Pope, much more, than they had done, in
+      reality. He was willing to concede, to the Pope, a primacy
+      of rank and honour, but would by no means allow him, a
+      primacy of jurisdiction, or any primacy, by divine right.
+      On the other points, he seemed to have thought, that they
+      might come to an agreement, on what they should declare, to
+      be the fundamental doctrine of the churches, and adopt, on
+      every other point of doctrine, a general system, of
+      christian toleration.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The correspondence, which is very interesting, may be seen,
+      in the last volume of the English translation, of Doctor
+      Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History. To facilitate, the
+      accomplishment of the object of it, Doctor Courayer,
+      published his celebrated treatise, on <i>the Validity of
+      English Ordinations</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Both Dr. Wake, and Dr. Dupin. were censured, by the members
+      of their respective communions, for the parts, which they
+      had taken, in this business. Several rigid members of the
+      English Church, and even some foreign protestants, blamed
+      Dr. Wake, for what they termed, his too great concessions.
+      In France, the worst of motives, were imputed to Dr. Dupin,
+      and his associates; they were accused, of making
+      unjustifiable sacrifices, in order to form an union,
+      between the Jansenists, and the members of the English
+      Church. Even the regent, took the alarm: he ordered Dr.
+      Dupin, to discontinue the correspondence, and to leave all
+      the papers, respecting it, with the minister. This was
+      done, but the most important of them, have been printed, in
+      the interesting and extensively circulated publication,
+      which has been mentioned.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='V'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cv'>V.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Miscellaneous Remarks on the Reunion of Christians.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      It does not appear, that subsequently to the
+      communications, between Archbishop Wake, and Dr. Dupin, any
+      attempts for a general, or partial reunion of christians,
+      were made in the last century: but, early in the present,
+      <i>Napoleon</i>, conceived the project, of effecting, such
+      a reunion. He is said, to have particularly had in view,
+      the catholicizing, as it was termed, the northern part, of
+      Germany. To forward his design, many works were published:
+      one of them, the <i>Essai sur l'Unit&eacute; des
+      Cultes</i>, of M. Bonald, is written, with great ingenuity.
+      That Essay, and several others by the same author, were
+      inserted in the <i>Ambigu</i> of Peltier, and deserve the
+      attention, of every reader. Though they contain some
+      things, to which a Roman Catholic writer, would object,
+      they are evidently written, by a Roman Catholic pen.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The first point to be considered, by those, who meditate
+      the project of reunion, is, its practicability-those, who
+      are disposed, to contend for the affirmative, will observe,
+      the number of important articles, of Christian Faith, in
+      which, all Christians, are agreed, and the proportionally
+      small number of those, in which, any Christians disagree.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All Christians believe,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1st. That there is one God;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2d. That he is a Being, of infinite perfection;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3d. That he directs all things, by his providence;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4th. That it is our duty to love him, with all our
+        hearts, and our neighbour, as ourselves;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        5th. That it is our duty, to repent, of the sins we
+        commit;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        6th. That God, pardons the truly penitent;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        7th. That there is a future state, of rewards, and
+        punishments, when all mankind shall be judged, according
+        to their works;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        8th. That God, sent his Son, into the world, to be its
+        saviour, the author of eternal salvation, to all, that
+        obey him;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        9th. That he is the true Messiah;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        10th. That he taught, worked miracles, suffered, died,
+        and rose again, as is related in the four gospels;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        11th. That he will hereafter, make a second appearance on
+        the earth, raise all mankind from the dead, judge the
+        world in righteousness, bestow eternal life on the
+        virtuous, and punish the workers of iniquity.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the belief of these articles, all Christians, the Roman
+      Catholic, all the Oriental churches, all the members of the
+      Church of England, all Lutherans, Calvinists, Socinians,
+      and Unitarians, are agreed. In addition to these, each
+      division, and subdivision of Christians, has its own
+      tenets. Now, let each settle among its own members, what
+      are the articles of belief, peculiar to them, which, in
+      their cool deliberate judgment, they consider as
+      <i>absolutely necessary</i> that a person should believe,
+      to be a member of the church of Christ; let these articles
+      be divested of all foreign matter, and expressed in
+      perspicuous, exact, and unequivocal terms; and, above all,
+      let each distinction of Christians, earnestly wish, to find
+      an agreement, between themselves and their fellow
+      Christians:-the result of a discussion conducted on this
+      plan, would most assuredly be, to convince all Christians,
+      that the essential articles of religious credence, in which
+      there is, a real difference among Christians, are not so
+      numerous, as the verbal disputes, and extraneous matter, in
+      which controversy is too often involved, make them
+      generally thought.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Still,-some articles will remain, the belief of which, one
+      denomination of Christians, will consider to be the
+      obligation of every Christian, and which other Christian
+      denominations, will condemn. On some of those, a
+      <i>speedy</i> reunion of Christians is not to be expected:
+      but, to use the language of Mr. <i>Vansittart</i>, in His
+      excellent letter to the reverend Dr. Marsh and John Coker,
+      Esq.,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "There is an inferior degree of Reunion, more within our
+        prospect, and yet perhaps as perfect as human infirmity
+        allows us to hope for; wherein, though all differences of
+        opinion, should not be extinguished, yet they may be
+        refined, from all party prejudices, and interested views,
+        so softened by the spirit of charity, and mutual
+        concession, and so controuled by agreement, on the
+        leading principles, and zeal, for the general interests
+        of christianity, that no sect, or persuasion, should be
+        tempted to make religion, subservient to secular views,
+        or to employ political power, to the prejudice of
+        others.-The existence of Dissent, will, perhaps, be
+        inseparable from religious freedom, so long, as the mind
+        of man, is liable to error: but it is not unreasonable to
+        hope, that hostility, may cease, though perfect
+        agreement, cannot be established.<br>
+        IF WE CANNOT RECONCILE ALL OPINIONS, LET US RECONCILE ALL
+        HEARTS."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      These pages, cannot be closed better, than by these golden
+      words!!!
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <h4>
+      FINIS.
+    </h4>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='FOOTNOTES'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#FOOTNOTES_1'>FOOTNOTES.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <a name='Footnote_001_1'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_001_1'>[001]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Tom. xi. p. 1. 200.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_002_2'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_002_2'>[002]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        De Institutiones Clericorum, L. iii. c. xviii. &amp;c.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_003_3'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_003_3'>[003]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        In his "Recueil des Ecrits pour servir d'eclaircissement
+        de l'histoire de France, 2 vol. Paris 1798."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_004_4'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_004_4'>[004]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        "Roswede, or Aroswethe, a nun in the monastery of
+        Gardersheim, lived in the reigns of Otho II. and III.
+        towards the end of the tenth century. She composed many
+        works in prose and verse. In 1501, some of her poems, on
+        the Martyrdom of St. Denys, the Blessed Virgin, St. Ann,
+        &amp;c. were printed at Nuremburgh. Her verses in praise
+        of Otto II. would be tolerable, if they were not
+        Leonines: there are in them some errors of prosody." Bib.
+        Univers. et Histor. Vol. ii. p. 46.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_005_5'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_005_5'>[005]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        For a fuller account of Feudal and Civil Jurisprudence,
+        the writer of these pages begs leave to refer to his
+        work, entitled, "HOR&AElig; JURIDIC&AElig;
+        SUBSECIV&AElig;, being a connected series of Notes
+        respecting the Geography, Chronology, and Literary
+        History of the principal Codes and original Documents of
+        the Grecian, Roman, Feudal, and Canon Law." 1 vol. 8vo.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_006_6'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_006_6'>[006]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        It is entitled, "<i>Martiani Minei Felicis Capell&aelig;
+        Carthaginiensis, Viri Procunsularis, Satyricon, in quo de
+        Nuptiis Philologi&aelig; et Mecurii libri duo, &amp; de
+        septem artibus liberalibus libri singulares. Omnes, et
+        emendati et Notis sive Februis Hug. Grotii illustrati. Ex
+        Officina Plantiniana, Apud Christophorum Raphelingium
+        Academi&aelig; Lugduno-Bat. Typographum</i> M. D. C."
+        [Transcriber's note: Apostrophic date 1600] The
+        Dedication to the Prince of Cond&eacute; follows: then,
+        Encomiastic Verses by Scaliger, and Tiliabrogus. The two
+        works are then inserted, with an address to the reader,
+        Errata, and Various Readings. Afterwards, <i>Hugeiani
+        Grotii Februa<a name='FNanchor_007_7'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_007_7'><sup>[007]</sup></a> in Satyricon
+        Martiani Capell&aelig;:</i> this contains his notes. They
+        are preceded by an Engraving of Grotius. Round it, is
+        written, "<i>Anno</i> M. D. C." [Transcriber's note:
+        Apostrophic date 1600] Hora Ruit.<a name=
+        'FNanchor_008_8'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_008_8'><sup>[008]</sup></a> &AElig;t.xv. Under
+        the engraving the following verses are printed,
+      </p>
+      <div class='poem'>
+        <span>"<i>Quem sibi quindenis</i> ASTR&AElig;A <i>sacravit
+        ab annis</i>,</span><br>
+        <span><i>Talis,</i> HUGEIANI GROTII <i>ora
+        fero</i>."</span>
+      </div>
+      <br>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_007_7'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_007_7'>[007]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        "Corrections"-or more literarily, "Purifications".
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_008_8'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_008_8'>[008]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        These words were used by Grotius for his motto.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_009_9'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_009_9'>[009]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Fabricii Bibliotheca Latina, Lib iii. c. 15. In 1794,
+        John Adam Goez published the "Treatise on the Marriage of
+        Philology and Mercury" separately, in a duodecimo volume:
+        he mentions, in the preface, an edition of it by
+        Walthard. It is on the authority of Goez that we have
+        assigned the age of Capella to the third century: others
+        place him in a much later period.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_010_10'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_010_10'>[010]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Montucla. Histoire des Mathematiques, Vol.ii. p.657.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_011_11'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_011_11'>[011]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Vol. 9. p. 147. ii. 1.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_012_12'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_012_12'>[012]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        A similar exclusive claim in respect to the Indian seas,
+        under the grant of Pope Alexander VI., was set up by the
+        Portuguese; similar claims to the Ligustic and Adriatic
+        seas, have been and still continue to be made by the
+        Genoese and Venetians. Those, who seek for information on
+        the subject, should consult the <i>Dissertation of
+        Bynkershook de Dominio Maris</i>, and note 61 to the
+        recent edition of Sir Edward Coke's Commentary upon
+        Littleton.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_013_13'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_013_13'>[013]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        "Mais, dites vous, dans ce tems m&ecirc;me, le jeune
+        Pison pouvolt avoir dix ans: Grotius faisoit bien des
+        vers a cet &acirc;ge. Je le s&ccedil;ais, mais les
+        Grotius sont ils bien commune! combien d'enfans trouveres
+        vous de dix ans, qui ayent nonseulement assez du feu pour
+        faire des vers, mais encore assez de jugement pour en
+        juger sainement." Gibbon's Posthumous Works, 8vo. vol. i.
+        p. 520.-"Salmasius," says Mr. Gibbon in another part of
+        the same entertaining publication, (vol. v. p. 209), "had
+        read as much as Grotius; but their different modes of
+        reading had made the one an enlighten'd philosopher; and
+        the other, to speak plainly, a pedant puffed up with an
+        useless erudition."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_014_14'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_014_14'>[014]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Bentivoglio, Histoire des Guerres de Flandres, l, xxviii.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_015_15'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_015_15'>[015]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        <i>Bella plusquam civilia.</i> Lucan.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_016_16'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_016_16'>[016]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Those who wish to obtain a clear, concise, and exact
+        notion of Calvinism and Arminianism, will usefully peruse
+        the account of them in Mr. Evans's "<i>Sketch of the
+        Denominations of the Christian World</i>." The thirteenth
+        Edition is now before us, and we believe that it has been
+        often since reprinted.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_017_17'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_017_17'>[017]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. Cent. xvi, ch. 2. &sect; 3. part 2.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_018_18'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_018_18'>[018]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Chalmer's Biographical Dictionary, Title "Arminius."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_019_19'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_019_19'>[019]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        A short and clear account of Arminianism is given by Le
+        Clere, in his Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne, Vol. II.
+        Art. 3. p. 123.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_020_20'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_020_20'>[020]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        The best discussion of this subject, which has fallen
+        into the hands of the writer, is Bourdulou&eacute;'s
+        Sermon <i>sur la Predestination</i>.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_021_21'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_021_21'>[021]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        English Translation of Burigni's Life of Grotius, pp. 43,
+        44, 45.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_022_22'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_022_22'>[022]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Vol. i.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_023_23'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_023_23'>[023]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        <i>Letters from and to Sir Dudley Carleton, during his
+        Embassy in Holland, from January 1615-16[**Modern
+        presentation.] to December 1620. London, 1757, p.
+        84</i>,-Sir Dudley Carleton's Letters abound with harsh
+        expressions respecting Grotius. The Editor of this
+        correspondence has inserted (p. 415) a letter from
+        Grotius to Dr. Lancelot Andrews, written from the Castle
+        at Louvestein. "This letter," says the Editor, "which was
+        never printed before, deserves a place here, not only for
+        its elegance and spirit, and its connection with the
+        subject of the work, but likewise in justice to the
+        memory of the great writer, as it contains his own
+        justification of his conduct, which may be compared with
+        the less favourable accounts of it in the preceding
+        letters of Sir Dudley Carleton. The original is extant
+        among the manuscripts in the library of the late Sir Hans
+        Sloane, bart. now part of the British Museum."-"Utinam,"
+        says Grotius in this letter, "D. Carleton mihi esset plus
+        &aelig;quior; cui mitigando propinqui mei operam dant.
+        Sed partium, studia mire homines obc&aelig;cant."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_024_24'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_024_24'>[024]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        The history of this Synod, and of the whole controversy
+        upon Arminianism, is contained in Brand's <i>History of
+        the Reformation</i>: the account of the synod in these
+        pages, is principally extracted from the French
+        abridgment of that work, in 3 volumes 8vo. The Calvinian
+        representation of the Arminian doctrines, and the
+        proceedings of the synod, may be seen in the late Mr.
+        Scott's <i>Articles of the Synod of Dort</i>, to which he
+        has prefixed the History of the Events which <i>made way
+        for that Synod</i>: it is severely censured by Mr. James
+        Nichols, in his <i>Calvinism and Arminianism
+        compared</i>. Introd. cxlii.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        The Abridgment of Brand's History, was translated into
+        the English language and published in 1724-25[**Modern
+        presentation.] by <i>M. de la Roche</i>. He concludes his
+        Preface to it by observing, that "No good man can read
+        the work without abhorring arbitrary power, and all
+        manner of persecution." The persecution of the Scottish
+        Non-conformists by the Episcopalians, and the persecution
+        of the Remonstrants by the Contra-Remonstrants, were
+        attended with this enormity, that, in most other
+        instances, when one denomination of christians has
+        persecuted another, it has been on the ground that the
+        errors of the sufferers were impious, and led the
+        maintainers of them to eternal perdition, and therefore
+        rendered these wholesome severities, as the persecutors
+        term them, a salutary infliction. But, when the
+        Protestant Episcopalian persecuted the Scottish
+        Non-conformist, or the Contra-Remonstrant persecuted the
+        Remonstrant, he persecuted a Christian who agreed with
+        him in all which he himself deemed to be substantial
+        articles of faith, and differed from him only about rites
+        and opinions, which he himself allowed to be
+        indifferent.-See Mr. Neale's just remark, Vol. II. ch.
+        vi.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_025_25'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_025_25'>[025]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        In 1765, Lord Hailes published a beautiful edition of
+        "The Works of the Ever-memorable Mr. John Hales of Eaton,
+        then first collected together," in three volumes, at
+        Glasgow. It is to be lamented that he did not accompany
+        it with a full biographical account of Mr. Hales.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "His biographers," says Mr. Chalmers, "all allow that he
+        may be classed among those divines who were afterwards
+        called Latitudinarians." May he not be termed the founder
+        of that splendid school? Perceiving that the minds of men
+        required to be more liberally enlightened, and their
+        affections to be more powerfully engaged on the side of
+        religion than was formerly thought necessary, they set
+        themselves, to use the language of Bishop Burnet, "to
+        raise those who conversed with them to another sort of
+        thoughts, and to consider the Christian religion as a
+        doctrine sent from God, both to elevate and to sweeten
+        human nature. With this view, they laboured chiefly to
+        take men from being in parties from narrow notions, and
+        from fierceness about opinions. They also continued to
+        keep a good correspondence with those who differed from
+        them in opinion and allowed a great freedom both in
+        philosophy and divinity." (Burnet's History of his own
+        Times. Vol. I. p. 261-268, oct. edit.) Hales,
+        Chillingworth, Taylor, Cudworth, Wilkins, Tillotson,
+        Stillingfleet, and Patrick, were among their brightest
+        ornaments. They were in some respects hostile to the
+        Roman Catholics: <i>in hoc non laudo</i>.-See the
+        Writer's History of the English, Irish, and Scottish
+        Catholics. Vol. III. c. lxviii. sect. 1. 3d edition.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_026_26'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_026_26'>[026]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        "King James," says Mr. James Nichols, in his Calvinism
+        and Arminianism compared, p. 242, "sent a deputation of
+        respectable British divines, for the double and
+        undisguised purpose of condemning the Remonstrants, but
+        especially V&oacute;rstius, (whom his Majesty had long
+        before exposed to the world as an arch-heretic), and of
+        assisting the Prince of Orange in his design of usurping
+        the liberties of the United Provinces, and assuming the
+        supreme authority. The Elector Palatine sent his
+        Heidelberg divines for the same family purpose; and the
+        Duke of Bouillon employed all his influence with the
+        chief pastors among the French reformed."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_027_27'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_027_27'>[027]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        The words of the former are remarkable: "The errors of
+        public actions, if they be not very gross, are with less
+        inconvenience tolerated than amended. For the danger of
+        alteration, of disgracing and disabling authority, makes
+        that the fortune of such proceeding admits of no redress;
+        but being howsoever well or ill done, they must ever
+        after be upheld. The most partial spectator of our
+        synodal acts cannot but confess, that, in the late
+        discussion of the Remonstrants, with so much choler and
+        heat, there was a great oversight committed, and
+        that,-whether we respect our common profession of
+        Christianity, 'qu&aelig; nil nisi justum suadet et lene,'
+        or the quality of this people, apt to mutiny by reason of
+        long liberty, and not having learned to be imperiously
+        commanded,-in which argument the clergy should not have
+        read their first lesson. The synod, therefore, to whom it
+        is not now <i>in integro</i> to go back and rectify what
+        is amiss, without disparagement, must now go forward and
+        leave events to God, and for the countenance of their
+        actions do the best they may." Letter to Sir Dudley
+        Carleton, 11 January 1619.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_028_28'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_028_28'>[028]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        <i>Nichol's Calvinism and Arminianism compared</i>, Vol.
+        II. p.592
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_029_29'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_029_29'>[029]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        <i>Decline and Fall</i>, Ch. LIV. towards the end.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_030_30'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_030_30'>[030]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        The writers who have given an account of the Synod of
+        Dort are mentioned by Fabricius, Bib. Gr&aelig;ca, Vol.
+        XI. p. 723. Some useful observations upon the proceedings
+        of the Synod may be found in "Mr. Nichols's <i>Calvinism
+        and Arminianism compared</i>." It is much to be wished
+        that the promised continuation of this work should
+        speedily make its appearance.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        But no work upon this famous Synod deserves more
+        attention than "<i>Johannis Halesii, Historia Concilii
+        Dordraceni, J. Laur. Moshemius Theol. Doct. et P.P.C. ex
+        Anglico Sermone latine vertit, variis observationibus et
+        Vit&acirc; Halesii ausit. Accessit ejusdem de auctoritate
+        Concilii Dordraceni Paci Sacr&aelig; noxii, Consultatio.
+        Hamburgi</i>, 8vo." M. Le Clere's criticism on this work
+        (<i>Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne</i> Vol. 23, art.
+        4.) contains much valuable information upon the Synod,
+        and a summary of the life and writings of Mr. Hales.-Des
+        Maizeaux published a curious account of them in 1719.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_031_31'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_031_31'>[031]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Pfaffii Hist. Literaria, vol. ii. p. 303.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_032_32'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_032_32'>[032]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Burigni's Life of Grotius, lib. ii. sect. 12.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_033_33'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_033_33'>[033]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Cent XVII, sect. 2, Part 2 (Note Y.)
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_034_34'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_034_34'>[034]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Mr. James Nicholls's Calvinism and Arminianism compared.
+        Vol. i. p. 597, 600, 634, 636.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_035_35'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_035_35'>[035]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        See Mr. Dugald Stewart's first Dissertation, sect. III.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_036_36'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_036_36'>[036]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        See Joannis Christopheri Locheri Dissertatio Epistolica
+        Historiam libelli Grotiani <i>De Veritate Religionis
+        Christian&aelig;</i> complectens, 1725, in quarto; and
+        the Journal de Scavans for the year 1724.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_037_37'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_037_37'>[037]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        See Nichols's Calvinism and Arminianism compared, vol. i.
+        p. 289.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_038_38'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_038_38'>[038]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        On the respect, which the Church of England considers to
+        be due to the writings of the early Fathers, see the
+        excellent Appendix to the Sermons of Dr. Jebb, the Right
+        Reverend Bishop of Limerick.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_039_39'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_039_39'>[039]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Vol. iii. L. 38. This letter merits a serious perusal.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_040_40'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_040_40'>[040]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Dict. Historique, Preliminaire, p. xxix.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_041_41'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_041_41'>[041]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Vol.1. p. 121
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_042_42'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_042_42'>[042]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Those, who will read his life, published by the writer of
+        these pages, with other Tracts, in 1819, will not, it is
+        believed, think this too strong an assertion. Is it not
+        to be earnestly hoped, that in the distress by which we
+        are now visited, and the greater distress with which we
+        are threatened, many St. Vincents will appear?
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_043_43'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_043_43'>[043]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. ch. ii. sect. ii. part. ii. and
+        Bynkershock's Quest. Juris publici, lib. ii. ch. 18.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_044_44'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_044_44'>[044]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Le Clerc, (Bib. Anc. et Mod. vol. xxiii. Art. iv.)
+        strenuously objects to this representation of Dr.
+        Mosheim. "The Arminians," he says, "have introduced no
+        dogma as necessary to salvation, which was unknown to the
+        framers of their Confession of Faith; neither have they
+        retrenched from it, any article essential to faith." He
+        however observes, "that there are many ways of explaining
+        dogmas." Now, the same dogma explained in two ways,
+        amounts to two dogmas.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_045_45'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_045_45'>[045]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        See the third part of "<i>the last of Bossuet's Six
+        Addresses to the Protestants</i>," and the passages which
+        he cites in it from Jurieu.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        For the actual state of Religious Doctrine, both in the
+        Lutheran and Reformed Churches of Germany, the reader may
+        usefully consult, "<i>The State of the Protestant
+        Religion in Germany, in a series of Discourses preached
+        before the University of Cambridge, by the Rev. Hugh
+        James Rose, M.A. 8vo. 1825</i>;" and "<i>Entretiens
+        Philosophiques sur la Re-union des differens communions
+        chretiens, par feu M. le Baron Starck, Ministre
+        Protestant, et premier predicateur, de la Cour de Hesse
+        Darmstadt, &amp;c. 8vo. 1818</i>;" and "<i>Tabaraud's
+        Histoire des Re-unions des Chr&ecirc;tiens.</i>"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_046_46'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_046_46'>[046]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Tom. XLVI. Art. 12. p. 208.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_047_47'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_047_47'>[047]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 283.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_048_48'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_048_48'>[048]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 284, 285.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_049_49'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_049_49'>[049]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 286.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_050_50'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_050_50'>[050]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 287.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_051_51'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_051_51'>[051]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 288.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_052_52'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_052_52'>[052]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 288.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_053_53'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_053_53'>[053]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 291.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_054_54'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_054_54'>[054]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 292.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_055_55'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_055_55'>[055]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 293.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_056_56'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_056_56'>[056]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 294.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_057_57'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_057_57'>[057]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 296.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_058_58'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_058_58'>[058]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 298.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_059_59'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_059_59'>[059]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 299.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_060_60'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_060_60'>[060]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 300. M. Le Clerc, (<i>Sentimens de quelques
+        Theologiens de Hollande, dix-septieme Lettre</i>) defends
+        Grotius with great ability against the charge of
+        Socinianism: he justly observes, that, his abstaining
+        from unpleasing propositions, his silence on offensive
+        doctrines, and his conciliating expressions, should not
+        too easily be accounted proofs, of belief of his precise
+        sentiments of any particular tenets. Grotius, says Le
+        Clerc, was like an arbitrator, who, to bring to amity the
+        parties in difference, recommends to each, that he should
+        give something of what he himself considers to be his
+        strict right.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_061_61'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_061_61'>[061]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Ep. 363. p. 364
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_062_62'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_062_62'>[062]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Ep. 491. p. 195.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_063_63'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_063_63'>[063]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Ep. 494. p. 896.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_064_64'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_064_64'>[064]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Ep. 1706. p. 736.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_065_65'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_065_65'>[065]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        <i>Comparison of Calvinism and Arminianism</i>. vol. ii.
+        p. 560.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_066_66'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_066_66'>[066]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Ib. Vol. ii. p. 609.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_067_67'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_067_67'>[067]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Ep. 1538. p. 573, 690, 926.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_068_68'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_068_68'>[068]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Ep. 528. p. 400.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_069_69'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_069_69'>[069]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        "Those," says Mr. James Nichols,<a name=
+        'FNanchor_070_70'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_070_70'><sup>[070]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+      <div class='blkquot'>
+        <p>
+          "who wish to behold the praises to which HUGO GROTIUS
+          or HUGH DE GROOT, is justly entitled, and which he has
+          received in ample measure from admiring friends and
+          reluctant foes, may consult SIR THOMAS POPE BLOUNT's
+          <i>Censura celebriorum Authorum</i>. His well earned
+          reputation is founded on too durable a basis to be
+          moved by such petty attacks as those to which I have
+          alluded in a previous part of this introduction (p.
+          xxi.), or those of Mr. Orme in page 641.
+        </p>
+        <p>
+          "That a man so accomplished, virtuous, fearless, and
+          unfortunate, should have had many enemies, among his
+          contemporaries, is not wonderful. But the number of
+          those who evinced their hatred to him, or to his
+          philanthropic labours, increased after his decease,
+          when they could display it with impunity. 'This very
+          pious, learned, and judicious man,' says Dr. Hammond,
+          'hath of late, among many, fallen under a very unhappy
+          fate, being most unjustly calumniated, sometimes as a
+          SOCINIAN, sometimes as a PAPIST, and, as if he had
+          learnt to reconcile contradictions, sometimes <i>as
+          both of them together.</i>'
+        </p>
+        <p>
+          "One cause of the Charge of SOCINIANISM being preferred
+          against him, has been already mentioned, (p. xxxiii.)
+          and it is more fully explained in pages 637, 642. The
+          reader will not require many additional reasons to
+          convince him of the untenable ground for such an
+          accusation, when he is told that VOETIUS, one of the
+          most violent of his enemies, laid down this grand
+          axiom-'To place the principal part of religion in an
+          <i>observance of Christ's commands is</i> RANK
+          SOCIANISM!' To such a <i>practical observance of
+          the</i> requisitions of the Gospel, by what name soever
+          it might be stigmatized, Grotius pleaded guilty. He
+          says (p. 637) 'I perceive this was accounted the
+          principal part of religion by the Christians of the
+          primitive ages; and their various assemblies, divines,
+          and martyrs taught, 'that the doctrines <i>necessary to
+          be known</i> are exceedingly few, but that God forms
+          his estimate of us from the purpose and intention of an
+          obedient spirit.' I am likewise of the same opinion,
+          and shall never repent of having maintained it.'
+        </p>
+        <p>
+          "But as the charge of POPERY is of the utmost
+          consequence, I have discussed this topic at great
+          length, (pp. 566, 746), and have proved (pp. 549, 561),
+          that Grotius was as little attached to the principles
+          or the practice of the Romish church as the most
+          zealous of his accusers. Whatever tends to vindicate
+          the conduct of Grotius in this matter, will operate
+          still more powerfully in favour of Archbishop Laud. The
+          design of Grotius is well described by Dr. Hammond, in
+          a <i>Digression</i> which he added to his <i>Answer</i>
+          to the <i>Animadversions on his Dissertations</i>; in
+          which he says,
+        </p>
+        <div class='blkquot'>
+          <p>
+            "'For the charge of Popery that is fallen upon him, it
+            is evident from whence that flows,-either from his
+            <i>profest opposition to many doctrines of some
+            Reformers, Zuinglius and Calvin, &amp;c</i>. or from
+            his <i>Annotations on Cassander, and the Debates with
+            Rivet consequent thereto, the Votum pro pace and
+            Discussio</i>.'
+          </p>
+          <p>
+            "For the former of these, it is sufficiently known
+            what contests there were, and at length how profest
+            the divisions betwixt the Remonstrants and
+            Contra-Remonstrants; and it is confessed that he
+            maintained (all his time) the Remonstrants party,
+            vindicating it from all charge, whether of
+            Pelagianism or Semi-Pelagianism, which was by the
+            opposers objected to it, and pressing the favourers
+            of the doctrine of Irrespective Decrees with the
+            odious consequences of making God the <i>author and
+            favourer of sin</i>, and frequently expressing his
+            sense of the evil influences that some of those
+            doctrines were experimented to have on men's lives.
+            And by these means it is not strange that he should
+            fall under great displeasure from those who, having
+            espoused the opinion of Irrespective Decrees, did not
+            only publish it as the THE TRUTH and TRUTH OF GOD,
+            but farther asserted the questioning of it to be
+            injurious to God's free grace and his Eternal
+            Election, and consequently retained no ordinary
+            patience for or charity to opposers. But, then, still
+            this is no medium to to infer that charge. The
+            doctrines which he thus maintained were neither
+            branches nor characters of Popery, but asserted by
+            some of the first and most learned and pious
+            Reformers. Witness the writings of Hemingius in his
+            <i>Opuscula</i>, most of which are on these subjects.
+            Whereas on the contrary side, Zuinglius and others,
+            who maintained the rigid way of Irrespective Decrees,
+            and infused them into some of this nation of ours,
+            are truly said, by an excellent writer of ours, Dr.
+            Jackson, to <i>have had it first from some ancient
+            Romish Schoolmen</i>, and so to have had as much or
+            more of that guilt adherent to them, as can be
+            charged on their opposers. So that from hence to
+            found the jealousy, to affirm him a papist because he
+            was not a contra-remonstrant, is but the old method
+            of speaking all that is ill of those who differ from
+            our opinions on any thing; as the Dutchman in his
+            rage calls his horse an ARMINIAN, because he doth not
+            not go as he would have him. And this is all that can
+            soberly be concluded from such suggestions, that they
+            are displeased and passionate that thus speak.
+          </p>
+          <p>
+            "As for the <i>Annotations on Cassander</i>, &amp;c.
+            and the consequent vindications of himself against
+            <i>Rivet</i>, those have with some colour been deemed
+            more favourable toward Popery; but yet I suppose will
+            be capable of benign interpretations, if they be read
+            with these few cautions or remembrances:
+          </p>
+          <p>
+            "<i>First</i>. That they were designed to shew a way
+            to peace whensoever men's minds on both sides should
+            be piously affected to it.
+          </p>
+          <p>
+            "<i>Secondly</i>. That he did not hope for this temper
+            in his age, the humour on both sides being so
+            turgent, and extremely contrary to it, and the
+            controversy debated on both sides by those 'who,'
+            saith he, '<i>desire to eternize, and not to compose
+            contentions</i>,' and therefore makes his appeal to
+            posterity, when this paroxysm shall be over.
+          </p>
+          <p>
+            "<i>Thirdly</i>. That for the chief usurpations of the
+            papacy; he leaves it to Christian princes to join
+            together to vindicate their own rights, and reduce
+            the Pope <i>ad Canones</i>, to that temper, which the
+            ancient canons allow and require of him; and if that
+            will not be done, to reform every one in their own
+            dominions.
+          </p>
+          <p>
+            "<i>Fourthly</i>. That what he saith in favour of some
+            Popish doctrines, above what some other learned
+            Protestants have said, is not so much by way of
+            <i>assertion</i> or <i>justification</i> of them, as
+            to shew what reasons they may justly be thought to
+            proceed upon, and so not to be go irrational or
+            impious as they are ordinarily accounted; and this
+            only in order to the peace of the christian world,
+            that we may have as much charity to others and not as
+            high animosities, live with all men as sweetly and
+            amicably, and peaceably, and not as bitterly as is
+            possible, accounting the wars and seditions, and
+            divisions and rebellions, that are raised and managed
+            upon the account of religion, far greater and more
+            scandalous unchristian evils, than are the errors of
+            some Romish doctrines, especially as they are
+            maintained by the more sober and moderate men among
+            them, Cassander, Picherel, &amp;c.
+          </p>
+          <p>
+            "<i>Fifthly</i>. What he saith in his
+            <i>Discussio</i>, of a conjunction of Protestants
+            with those that adhere to the Bishop of Rome, is no
+            farther to be extended, than his words extend it.
+            That there is not any other visible way to the end
+            there mentioned by him, of acquiring or preserving
+            universal unity. That this is to be done, not
+            crudely, by returning to them as they are, submitting
+            our necks to our former yokes, but by taking away at
+            once the division, and the causes of it, on which
+            side soever; adding only in the third place, that the
+            bare primacy of the Bishop of Rome, <i>secundum
+            Canones</i>, such as the ancient canons allow of,
+            (which hath nothing of <i>supreme universal
+            power</i>, or authority in it,) is none of those
+            causes, nor consequently necessary to be excluded in
+            the [Greek: diallaktikon (sic)], citing that as the
+            confession of that excellent person Philip
+            Melancthon. So that in effect, that whole speech of
+            his which is so solemnly vouched by Mr. Knott, and
+            looked on so jealously by many of us, is no more than
+            this, 'that such a Primacy of the Bishop of Rome, as
+            the ancient canons allowed him, were, for so glorious
+            an end as is the regaining the peace of christendom,
+            very reasonably to be afforded him, nay absolutely
+            necessary to be yielded him, whensoever any such
+            catholic union shall be attempted, which as it had
+            been the express opinion of Melancthon, one of the
+            first and wisest Reformers, so it is far from any
+            design of establishing the usurpations of the Papacy,
+            or any of their false doctrines attending them, but
+            only designed as an expedient for the restoring the
+            peace of the whole christian world, which every
+            disciple of Christ is so passionately required to
+            contend and pray for.'
+          </p>
+        </div>
+        <p>
+          "At the conclusion of the Doctor's <i>Continuation of
+          the Defence of</i> HUGO GROTIUS, he thus expresses
+          himself:
+        </p>
+        <div class='blkquot'>
+          <p>
+            "'As this is an act of mere justice and charity to the
+            dead,-and no less to those who, by their sin of
+            uncharitable thoughts towards him, are likely to
+            deprive themselves of the benefit of his labours,-so
+            is it but a proportionable return of debt and
+            gratitude to the signal value and kindness, which in
+            his lifetime, he constantly professed to pay to this
+            church and nation, expressing his opinion, "that of
+            all churches in the world, it was the most careful
+            observer and transcriber of primitive antiquity," and
+            more than intimating his desire to end his days in
+            the bosom and communion of our mother. Of this I want
+            not store of witnesses, which from time to time have
+            heard it from his own mouth whilst he was ambassador
+            in France, and even in his return to Sweden,
+            immediately before his death; and for a real evidence
+            of this truth, it is no news to many, that, at the
+            taking his journey from Paris, he appointed his wife,
+            whom he left behind, to resort to the English
+            Assembly at the Agent's house, which accordingly she
+            is known to have practised.'"
+          </p>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_070_70'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_070_70'>[070]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Calvinism and Arminianism compared, Introduction,
+          cxxxii.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_071_71'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_071_71'>[071]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          A dialogue on the Reformation was also in the
+          contemplation of Mr. Gibbon: "I have," he says in the
+          Memoirs of his life and writings,<a name=
+          'FNanchor_072_72'></a><a href=
+          '#Footnote_072_72'><sup>[072]</sup></a> "sometimes
+          thought of writing a dialogue of the dead, in which
+          Luther, Erasmus and Voltaire should mutually
+          acknowledge the danger of exposing an old superstition
+          to the contempt of the blind and fanatic multitude."
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_072_72'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_072_72'>[072]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Vol. i. p. 269, of the 8vo. edition of his works.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_073_73'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_073_73'>[073]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          A full account of the writings of <i>Wicelius</i>, and
+          of his projects of Pacification, is given by <i>Father
+          Simon</i> in the <i>Biblioteque Critique, par M. de
+          Sainjore</i>, Tom. ii. ch. 18. He concludes it, by
+          observing, that
+        </p>
+        <div class='blkquot'>
+          <p>
+            "the great love which Wicelius had for the peace of
+            the church, might induce him to use expressions,
+            somewhat harsh, but which really ought not to be
+            censured with too much rigour. It is evident that his
+            only view was to be useful to persons of his own
+            time, to whom he consecrated the latter part of his
+            life.-I do not recollect to have read that he was
+            censured at Rome, and the Spanish Inquisitors seem to
+            have observed the same moderation in his regard."
+          </p>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_074_74'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_074_74'>[074]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          XVI. Cent. Book V. p. 41, in the Englsh translation.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_075_75'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_075_75'>[075]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          See Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, Cent. XVII. ch.
+          ii. sect. ii. Part II.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_076_76'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_076_76'>[076]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Eccles. Hist. Cent. XVI. ch. ii. sect. iii. Part. II.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_077_77'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_077_77'>[077]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Observat. Hallen, 15 t. p. 341.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_078_78'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_078_78'>[078]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          It is a prayer addressed to Jesus Christ, and suited to
+          the condition of a dying person who builds his hope on
+          the Mediator. <i>M. Le Clerc</i> has inserted it at
+          length in the <i>Sentimens de quelques Theologiens de
+          Hollande</i>, 17 Lettre, p. 397.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_079_79'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_079_79'>[079]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson, 2d Vol. p. 502. 2d
+          Edition.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_080_80'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_080_80'>[080]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          The author's "Confessions of Faith," mention this
+          convention, its dissolution, and the subsequent union
+          of the Helvetian, and Bohemian protestant
+          congregations, in the Synods, held at Astrog, in the
+          years 1620, and 1627. The original settlement of these
+          churches, was in Bohemia, and Moravia. Persecution
+          scattered the members of them: a considerable number of
+          the fugitives, settled at Herrenhut, a village in
+          Lusatia. There, under the protection and guidance of
+          Count Zinzendorf, they formed themselves into a new
+          community, which was designed to comprehend their
+          actual and future congregations, under the title of
+          "<i>The Protestant Church of the Unitas Fratrum, or
+          United Brethren of the Confession of Augsburgh</i>."
+          That Confession is their only symbolic book; but they
+          profess great esteem for the eighteen first chapters of
+          the Synodical Document of the church of Berne in 1532,
+          as a declaration of true Christian Doctrine. They also
+          respect, the writings of Count Zinzendorf, but do not
+          consider themselves, bound by any opinion, sentiment,
+          or expression, which these contain. It is acknowledged,
+          that, towards the middle of the last century, they used
+          in their devotional exercises, particularly in their
+          hymns, many expressions justly censurable: but these
+          have been corrected. They consider Lutherans and
+          Calvinists, to be their brethren in faith, as according
+          with them in the essential articles of religion; and
+          therefore, when any of their members reside at a
+          distance from a congregation of the United Brethren,
+          they not only attend a Lutheran, or Calvinist church,
+          but receive the Sacrament, from its ministers, without
+          scruple. In this, they profess to act in conformity to
+          the Convention at Sendomer. The union, which prevails
+          both among the congregations, and the individuals which
+          compose them, their modest and humble carriage, their
+          moderation in lucrative pursuits, the simplicity of
+          their manners, their laborious industry, their frugal
+          habits, their ardent but mild piety, and their regular
+          discharge of all their spiritual observances, are
+          universally acknowledged and admired. Their charities
+          are boundless, their kindness to their poor brethren is
+          most edifying; there is not among them a beggar. The
+          care, which they bestow, on the education of their
+          children, in forming their minds, chastening their
+          hearts, and curbing their imaginations,-particularly in
+          those years,
+        </p>
+        <div class='poem'>
+          <span class='c13'>"When youth, elate and
+          gay,</span><br>
+          <span>Steps into life and follows,
+          unrestrained,</span><br>
+          <span>Where passion leads, or reason points the way."
+          <i>Lowth.</i></span><br>
+        </div>
+        <p>
+          are universally acknowledged, universally admired, and
+          deserve universal imitation.
+        </p>
+        <p>
+          But, it is principally, by the extent and success of
+          their missionary labours, that they now engage, the
+          attention of the public. These began, in 1732. In 1812,
+          they had thirty-three settlements, in heathen nations.
+          One hundred and thirty-seven missionaries, were
+          employed in them: they had baptized, twenty-seven
+          thousand, four hundred converts: and such had been
+          their care, in admitting them to that sacred rite, and
+          such their assiduity, in cultivating a spirit of
+          religion, among them, that scarcely an individual, had
+          been known, to relapse into paganism. All travellers,
+          who have visited their settlements, speak with wonder,
+          and praise, of the humility, the patient endurance of
+          privation, and hardship, the affectionate zeal, the
+          mild, and persevering exertions of the missionaries;
+          and the innocence, industry and piety of the
+          converts:-the European, the American, the African, and
+          the Asiatic traveller speaks of them, in the same
+          terms: and, that they speak without exaggeration, the
+          conduct both of the pastor, and the flock in the
+          different settlements of the United Brethren in
+          England, incontestibly proves. Whatever he may think of
+          their religious tenets, <i>Talis cum sitis, utinam
+          nostri essetis</i>, must be the exclamation of every
+          christian, who considers their lives. Those, who desire
+          further knowledge of this amiable, and worthy
+          denomination of Christians, will find it in <i>David
+          Cranz's ancient and modern History of the Brethren,
+          printed at Barby, 1771, and the two continuations of
+          it, Barby</i>, 1791, and 1804. The History has been
+          translated into English; and is become exceedingly
+          scarce; the Continuations have not been translated. Mr.
+          La Trobe, the Pastor of the United Brethren in London,
+          has published a <i>Concise Historical Account of the
+          Protestant Church of the United Brethren adhering to
+          the Confession of Augsburgh</i>.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_081_81'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_081_81'>[081]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Epist. 1706, p. 736.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_082_82'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_082_82'>[082]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Ib. Epist. 613.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_083_83'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_083_83'>[083]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Epist. part. I. Epist. 432. part II. Epist. 53. The
+          French public strongly suspected the Cardinal of this
+          design. It gave rise to the celebrated libel, entitled
+          "<i>Optatus Gallus,</i>" <i>Grotius</i>, (Lit. 982.)
+          notices a prophecy of Nostradamus, then in circulation:
+        </p>
+        <div class='poem'>
+          <br>
+          <span>"<i>Celui qui &eacute;tait bien avant dans le
+          regne,</i></span><br>
+          <span><i>Ayant chat rouge, proche,
+          hierarchie,</i></span><br>
+          <span><i>Apre et cruel, et se fera tant
+          craindre,</i></span><br>
+          <span><i>Succedera, a sacr&eacute;e
+          Monarchie.</i>"</span><br>
+        </div>
+        <p>
+          If the event in question had happened, Nostradamus
+          would have passed, with many for a prophet.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_084_84'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_084_84'>[084]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Eclaircissemens de l'&eacute;dit de Nantes, page 1. c.
+          6.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_085_85'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_085_85'>[085]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          V. 2. p. 38, 148.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_086_86'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_086_86'>[086]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          We are grieved to add, that he allowed the <i>right</i>
+          of a sovereign to persecute for religion.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_087_87'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_087_87'>[087]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          This article is extracted from Oeuvres Posthumes de
+          Bossuet, vol. i. Nouvelle &eacute;dition des Oeuvres de
+          Bossuet, vol. ii. Leibnizii Opera, studio Ludovici
+          Dutens, vol. i. and v. And the Pens&eacute;es de
+          Leibniz, vol. ii. 8vo.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_088_88'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_088_88'>[088]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Tom. xiii.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_089_89'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_089_89'>[089]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          See the Appendix to the Sermons of Dr. Jebb, the
+          present excellent Bishop of Limerick.-Cadel, 1824.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <hr class='c2'>
+      <br>
+
+      <div class="c3">
+        Luke Hansard &amp; Sons,<br>
+         near Lincoln's-Inn Fields, London.
+      </div>
+      <hr class='c2'>
+      <br>
+
+      <div class="c14">
+        By the same Author,
+      </div>
+      <h4>
+        THE LIFE OF ERASMUS:
+      </h4>
+      <h4>
+        WITH
+      </h4>
+      <h4>
+        HISTORICAL REMARKS ON THE STATE OF LITERATURE<br>
+         BETWEEN THE TENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES.
+      </h4>
+    </div>
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14037 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #14037 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14037)
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Life of Hugo Grotius, by Charles Butler
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Life of Hugo Grotius
+
+Author: Charles Butler
+
+Release Date: November 13, 2004  [eBook #14037]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF HUGO GROTIUS***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Frank van Drogen, David Gundry, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team from images generously made
+available by the Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr
+
+
+
+THE LIFE OF HUGO GROTIUS
+
+With Brief Minutes of the Civil, Ecclesiastical, and Literary History
+of the Netherlands
+
+by
+
+CHARLES BUTLER, ESQ.
+
+Of Lincoln's-Inn
+
+London: John Murray, Albemarle-Street.
+
+M.DCCC.XXVI.
+
+
+
+
+TO
+HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS
+THE DUKE OF SUSSEX,
+THIS BIOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT
+OF
+ONE OF THE MOST AMIABLE AND RESPECTABLE DEFENDERS OF THE NOBLE CAUSE OF
+CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY,
+OF WHICH
+HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS HAS UNIFORMLY BEEN A CONSTANT AND POWERFUL ADVOCATE,
+IS
+(WITH HIS PERMISSION),
+MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED,
+BY
+THE AUTHOR,
+
+Great Ormond Street
+
+29 Sept. 1826
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+In the following pages we shall attempt to present our Readers, with a
+Life of HUGO GROTIUS; and MINUTES OF THE CIVIL, ECCLESIASTICAL, AND
+LITERARY HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+In writing these pages, we principally consulted his life, written in
+the French language, by _M. de Burigni_, Member of the French Royal
+Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres; an English translation of
+it, was published in 1754, in one Volume, 8vo.;
+
+_Hugonis Grotii Manes, ab iniquis obtrectationibus vindicati_; 2
+vols. 8vo. 1727: the author of this work is said to be M. Lehman;
+
+The article _Grotius_, in _Bayle's and Chalmers's
+Dictionaries_;
+
+And many of the letters in _Hugonis Grotii Epistolæ_, published at
+Amsterdam in 1687, in one volume, folio; and many in the _Præstantium
+et Eruditorum Virorum Epistolæ Ecclesiasticæ_, published at Amsterdam
+in 1684, in one volume, 4to.
+
+For what we have said on GERMANY AND THE NETHERLANDS, we principally
+consulted,
+
+_Schmidt's Histoire des Allemands_;
+
+_Pfeffell's Histoire Abregé de l'Allemagne_, 2 vols. 8vo.;
+
+_Mr. Durnford's excellent Translation, of Professor Pütter's
+Historical Developement, of the Political History of the German
+Empire_; 3 vols. 8vo.;
+
+And _Hugonis Grotii Annales, et Historiæ de Rebus Belgicis_, one
+vol. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1658.
+
+In our account of the troubles on _Arminianism_, and the Synod of
+Dort; we principally consulted, the French Abridgment, in 3 vols. 8vo.
+of _Brand's History of the Netherlands_, and _Grotius's_
+excellent _Apology_:
+
+In every part of the work, we have consulted other publications;--three
+only of these we shall mention;
+
+The three _Bibliothècques_ of Le Clerc;
+
+_The Life of Arminius_, and
+
+_Calvinism and Arminianism Compared_, by Mr. James Nichols.
+
+From these materials the following pages have been composed: they may be
+found to contain,--
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER
+
+
+
+
+A.D. 800-911.
+
+
+
+I. 1. _Boundaries, and Devolution of the Empire of
+        Germany, during the Carlovingian dynasty_
+   2. _State of Literature, in the time of Charlemagne_
+   3. _Decline of Literature, under the Descendants of
+        Charlemagne_
+
+A.D. 911-1024.
+
+II. 1. _Boundaries, and Devolution of the empire of
+         Germany, during the Saxon dynasty_
+    2. _State of Literature, during the Saxon dynasty_
+
+A.D. 1024-1138.
+
+III. 1. _Boundaries, and State of Germany, during the
+          Franconian dynasty_
+     2. _State of German Literature, during the Franconian
+          dynasty_
+
+A.D. 1138-1519.
+
+IV. 1. _State of Germany, from the beginning of the
+         Suabian dynasty, until the accession of the
+         Emperor Charles V._
+    2. _State of German Literature, during this period_
+
+A.D. 1138-1519.
+
+V. 1. _Antient, and modern Geography of the Netherlands_
+   2. _The formation, of the different provinces of the
+        Netherlands, into one State_
+   3. _Brief view, of the History of the Netherlands, until
+        the acknowledgment of the Seven United Provinces,
+        by the Spanish monarch_
+   4. _Their constitution, and principal officers_
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+A.D. 1582-1597.
+
+BIRTH, AND EDUCATION OF GROTIUS
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+A.D. 1597-1610.
+
+GROTIUS, EMBRACES THE PROFESSION OF THE
+LAW
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE EARLY PUBLICATIONS, OF GROTIUS
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+HISTORICAL MINUTES, OF THE UNITED PROVINCES,
+FROM THEIR DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE,
+TILL THE ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+A.D. 1610-1617.
+
+THE FEUDS, IN THE UNITED PROVINCES, BETWEEN
+THE DISCIPLES OF CALVIN, AND THE DISCIPLES
+OF ARMINIUS, UNTIL THE SYNOD OF DORT
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+A.D. 1618.
+
+THE SYNOD OF DORT
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+A.D. 1618-1621.
+
+TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT OF GROTIUS; HIS
+ESCAPE FROM PRISON
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+A.D. 1622
+
+JAMES I.      VORSTIUS
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+A.D. 1621-1634.
+
+GROTIUS, AFTER HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON, UNTIL
+HIS APPOINTMENT OF AMBASSADOR, FROM
+SWEDEN, TO THE COURT OF FRANCE
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS, OF GROTIUS
+1. _New edition of Stobæus_
+2. _His treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis_
+3. ---- _de Veritate Religionis Christianæ_
+4. ---- _de Jure summarum potestatum circa
+           sacra._--And _Commentatio ad loca quædam Novi
+           Testamenti, quæ de Antichristo agunt, aut agere
+           videntur_
+5. _His Commentaries on the Scriptures_
+6. _His other works_
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+A.D. 1634-1645.
+
+GROTIUS, AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM
+OF SWEDEN, TO THE COURT OF FRANCE
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS OF GROTIUS; SOME
+OTHER OF HIS WORKS,
+1. _Subsequent History of Arminianism_
+2. _Grotius's religious sentiments_
+3. _Projects of religious Pacification_
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+THE DEATH OF GROTIUS
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+A.D. 1680-1815.
+
+HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF
+THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES,
+FROM THE DEATH OF WILLIAM II. TILL
+THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM OF THE
+NETHERLANDS.
+
+1. _William III._
+2. _John William Count of Nassau Dietz, 1702-1711;
+      William IV._ 1711-1751
+3. _From the death of William IV. till the erection of
+      the Kingdom of the Netherlands_
+
+
+APPENDIX I.
+
+_Some Account of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith,
+   or Symbolic Books, of the Roman-Catholic, Greek,
+   and principal Protestant Churches_
+
+
+APPENDIX II.
+
+_On the Reunion of Christians_
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+SUCCINCT NOTICE OF THE GEOGRAPHY, PRINCIPAL POLITICAL EVENTS, AND
+LITERATURE, OF THE NETHERLANDS, BEFORE THE BIRTH OF GROTIUS.
+
+800-1581.
+
+
+
+
+
+We propose to present to our readers, in this chapter, a succinct
+account, of the Geography, Devolution, and Literature of the
+Netherlands,--considering them, until they became subject to the princes
+of the House of Burgundy, as a portion of the German Empire, and
+included in its history:--and from that time, as forming a separate
+territory.
+
+[Sidenote: 800-1581.]
+
+Contemplating the Netherlands in the first of these views,--we shall
+briefly mention the Boundaries and Government, of the German Empire, and
+the state of learning in its territories, during the Carlovingian,
+Saxon, Franconian and Suabian Dynasties, and the period, which
+intervened, between the last Suabian emperor and the election of the
+Emperor Charles the fifth.
+
+From this time, we shall confine ourselves to the History of the
+Netherlands. We shall then, therefore, endeavour to give a short view of
+the geography of these countries, and of the manner in which they were
+acquired by the Princes of Burgundy; then, shortly mention the
+successful revolt of the Seven United Provinces.
+
+In one of them, GROTIUS, the subject of these pages, was born; the part
+which he took in the public events of his times, forms the most
+important portion of his biography.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+I. 1.
+
+_Boundaries and Devolution of the Empire of Germany during the
+Carlovingian Dynasty_.
+
+800-911.
+
+
+The Ocean on the north, the Danube on the south, the Rhine on the west,
+and the Sarmatian Provinces on the east, are the boundaries assigned by
+Tacitus to Antient Germany. It formed the most extensive portion of the
+territories of Charlemagne; descended, at his decease, to his son, Lewis
+the Debonnaire; and, on the partition between his three sons, was
+allotted to Lewis, his second son.
+
+All the territories of Charlemagne were united in Charles the Fat; he
+was deposed by his subjects, and his empire divided. Germany was
+assigned to his third son, Charles the Brave. On his decease, it was
+possessed by Arnold, a natural son of Carloman, the elder brother of
+Charles: from him it descended to Hedwiges, the wife of Otho, Duke of
+Saxony, and she transmitted it to their son Henry the Fowler, the first
+emperor of that house.
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911.]
+
+From the skirts of Germany and France two new kingdoms arose: the
+kingdom of Lorraine, which comprised the countries between the Rhine,
+the Meuse, and the Scheld; or the modern Lorraine, the province of
+Alsace, the Palatinate, Treves, Cologne, Juliers, Liêge and the
+Netherlands;--and the kingdom of Burgundy: This was divided into the
+Cis-juranan, or the part of it on the east, and the Trans-juranan, or
+the part of it on the west of Mount Jura. The former comprised Provençe,
+Dauphiné, the Lyonese, Franche-comté, Bresse, Bugey, and a part of
+Savoy; the latter comprised the countries between Mount Jura and the
+Pennine Alps, or the part of Switzerland between the Reus, the Valais,
+and the rest of Savoy.
+
+Such was the geographical state of Germany at the close of the
+Carlovingian Dynasty.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+I. 2.
+
+_State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne_.
+
+
+So far as Literature depends upon the favour of the monarch, no æra in
+history promised more than the reign of Charlemagne. His education had
+been neglected; but he had real taste for learning and the arts, was
+sensible of their beneficial influence both upon the public and the
+private welfare of a people; and possessed the amplest means of
+encouraging and diffusing them; his wisdom would suggest to him the
+properest means of doing it, and the energy of his mind would excite
+him to constant exertions.
+
+[Sidenote: I. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.]
+
+Nothing that could be effected by a prince thus gifted and disposed, was
+left untried by Charlemagne. He drew to him the celebrated Alcuin, Peter
+of Pisa, Paul Warnefrid, and many other distinguished literary
+characters: he heaped favours upon them; and a marked distinction was
+always shewn them at his court. He formed them into a literary society,
+which had frequent meetings. Their conversation was literary, he often
+bore a part in it; and, what was at least equally gratifying, he always
+listened with a polite and flattering attention while others spoke. To
+establish perfect equality among them, the monarch, and, after his
+example, the other members of this society, dropt their own and adopted
+other names. Angelbert was called Homer, from his partiality to that
+poet; Riculphus, archbishop of Mentz, chose the name of Damétas, from an
+eclogue of Virgil: another member took that of Candidus; Eginhard, the
+Emperor's biographer, was called Calliopus, from the Muse Calliope;
+Alcuin received, from his country, the name of Albinus; the archbishop
+Theodulfe was called Pindar; the abbot Adelard was called Augustine;
+Charlemagne, as the man of God's own heart, was called David.
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911]
+
+The Emperor corresponded with men of learning, on subjects of
+literature; they generally related to religion. In one of his letters,
+he requires of Alcuin an explanation of the words Septuagesima,
+Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima, which denote the Sundays which
+immediately precede, and the word Quadragesima, which denotes the first
+Sunday which occurs in Lent. The denominations of those Sundays give
+rise to two difficulties; one, that they seem to imply that each week
+consists of ten, not of seven days; the other, that the words sound as
+if Septuagesima were the seventieth, when it is only the sixty-third day
+before Easter Sunday; Sexagesima, as if it were the sixtieth, when it is
+only the fifty-sixth; Quinquagesima, as if it were the fiftieth, when it
+is the forty-ninth; Quadragesima, as if it were the fortieth, when it is
+the forty-second. Alcuin's answer is more subtle than satisfactory.
+
+At the meals of Charlemagne some person always read to him. His example
+was followed by many of his successors, particularly by Francis I. of
+France, who, in an happier era for learning, imitated with happier
+effects, the example of the Emperor.
+
+[Sidenote: I. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.]
+
+Alcuin was general director of all the literary schemes of Charlemagne.
+He was an Englishman by birth; skilled both in the Greek and Latin
+language, and in many branches of philosophy. Having taught, with great
+reputation and success, in his own country, he travelled to Rome. In
+780, Charlemagne attracted him to his court.
+
+There, Alcuin gave lectures, and published several treatises. In these,
+he began with Orthography; then proceeded to Grammar; afterwards to
+Rhetoric, and Dialectic. He composed his treatises in the form of
+dialogues; and, as Charlemagne frequently attended them, Alcuin made him
+one of his interlocutors. Few scholars of Alcuin were more attentive
+than his imperial pupil; he had learned grammar from Peter of Pisa; he
+was instructed in rhetoric, dialectic, and astronomy by Alcuin. He also
+engaged in the study of divinity; and had the good sense to stop short
+of those subtleties, in which Justinian, Heraclius, and other princes,
+unfortunately both for themselves and their subjects, bewildered
+themselves. Letters from Giséla and Richtrudis, the daughters of
+Charlemagne, to Alcuin, shew that they partook of their father's
+literary zeal: his favourite study was astronomy.
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911.]
+
+The number of persons in his court, who addicted themselves to pursuits
+of literature, was so great, and their application so regular, that
+their meetings acquired the appellation of "The School of Charlemagne."
+Their library was at Aix-la-Chapelle, the favourite residence of the
+monarch: but they accompanied him in many of his journies. Antiquarians
+have tracked them at Paris, Thionville, Wormes, Ratisbon, Wurtzburgh,
+Mentz, and Frankfort.
+
+Charlemagne established schools in every part of his dominions. In 787,
+he addressed a circular letter to all the metropolitan prelates of his
+dominions, to be communicated by them to their suffragan bishops, and to
+the abbots within their provinces. He exhorted them to erect schools in
+every cathedral and monastery. Schools were accordingly established
+throughout his vast dominions: they were divided into two classes;
+arithmetic, grammar, and music were taught in the lower, the liberal
+arts and theology in the higher.
+
+[Sidenote: 1. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.]
+
+In France, the abbeys of Corbie, Fontenelles, Ferrieres, St. Denis, St
+Germain of Paris, St. Germain of Auxerre, and St. Benedict on the
+Loire;--in Germany, the abbeys of Proom, Fulda, and of St Gall;--in
+Italy, the abbey of Mount Casino, were celebrated for the excellence of
+their schools. One, for the express purpose of teaching the Greek
+language, was founded by Charlemagne at Osnabruck. All were equally open
+to the children of the nobility and the children of peasants; all
+received the same treatment. It happened that, on a public examination
+of the children, the peasant boys were found to have made greater
+progress than the noble. The Emperor remarked it to the latter, and
+declared with an oath, that "the bishopricks and abbeys should be given
+to the diligent poor." "You rely," he said to the patrician youths, "on
+the merit of your ancestors; these have already been rewarded. The state
+owes them nothing; those only are entitled to favour, who qualify
+themselves for serving and illustrating their country by their talents
+and their merits."
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911.]
+
+The civil law then consisted of the Theodosian code, the Salic,
+Ripuarian, Allemannic, Bavarian, Burgundian, and other _codes_; and of
+the _formularies_ of Angesise and Marculfus. To these Charlemagne added
+his own _capitularies_. The whole collection, in opposition to the canon
+or ecclesiastical law, received the appellation of _Lex Mundana_, or
+_worldly law_. The canon law consisted of the code of canons which
+Charlemagne brought with him from Rome in 784; a code of the canons of
+the church of France; the canons inserted in the collection of Angelram,
+bishop of Metz; the apostolic canons, published by St. Martin, bishop of
+Braga; the capitularies of Theodulfus, of Orleans; and the penitential
+canons, published in the Spicilegium of d'Acheri.[001] To the study,
+both of the canon and civil law, schools were appropriated by
+Charlemagne: few, except persons intended for the ecclesiastical state,
+frequented them. Rabanus Maurus,[002] abbot of Fulda, and afterwards
+archbishop of Mentz, has left an interesting account of the studies of
+this period; it shews that all were referred to theology, and only
+considered to be useful so far as they could be made serviceable to
+sacred learning. Such a plan of study could conduce but little to the
+advancement of general literature or science. Still, it was productive
+of good, and led to improvement.
+
+[Sidenote: I.2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.]
+
+It is observable that both antient and modern civilizers of nations,
+have called music to their aid; among these we may mention Charlemagne.
+In his residence at Rome, he was delighted with the Gregorian chant.
+After his return to Germany, he endeavoured to introduce it, both into
+his French and German dominions. The former had a chant of their own;
+they called it an improvement, but other nations considered it a
+corruption of the Gregorian. Greatly against the wish of Charlemagne,
+his Gallic subjects persisted in their attachment to their national
+music; the merit of it was gravely debated before the Emperor; they
+vehemently urged the superiority of their own strains. "Tell me," said
+the Emperor, "which is purer, the fountain or the rivulet?" They
+answered, "the former." "Return ye, then," (said the Emperor) "to St.
+Gregory: he is the fountain, the rivulets are evidently corrupted." The
+Emperor was obeyed, and the Gregorian chant was taught, both in France
+and Germany, by Italian choristers. The Italian writers of the times
+describe the difficulties which they experienced in forming the rough
+and almost untuneable voices of their French and German pupils to the
+softness of the Gregorian song. They appear to have succeeded better
+with the Germans than the French. By these, their lessons were so soon
+and so completely forgotten, after the decease of Charlemagne, that
+Lewis the Debonnaire, his son, was obliged to request Pope Gregory IV.
+to send him from Rome, a new supply of singers to instruct the people.
+
+But music continued to prosper in Germany; it abounded in songs. Some
+were amatory, (_münnelier_); some were satirical, (_cantica in
+malitiam_); some heroic, (_cantica in honorem,_); some diabolical,
+(_cantica diabolica_.) These consisted of incantations, and of
+narratives of the feats of evil spirits.
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911.]
+
+Vernacular poetry, and vernacular composition, of every kind, were
+almost wholly left to the vulgar; all, who aimed at literary eminence,
+wrote in the Latin language. Some discerning spirits became sensible
+that the German language was susceptible of great improvement, and
+excited their countrymen to its cultivation. Among these was Otfroid; he
+translated the Gospel into German verse. He describes, in strong terms,
+the difficulties which he had to encounter: "The barbarousness of the
+German language is," he says, "so great, and its sounds are so
+incoherent and strange, that it is very difficult to subject them to the
+rules of grammar, to represent them by syllables, or to find in the
+alphabet letters which correspond to them." It is however remarkable,
+that, although he complains of the dissonance of the German language, he
+never accuses it of poverty.
+
+While France and Germany continued subject to the same monarch, German
+was the language of the court, and generally used in every class of
+society. When the treaty of Verdun divided the territories of
+Charlemagne, the _Romande_, or _Romançe_ language, a corruption of the
+Latin, superseded the German in every part of France: it was insensibly
+refined into the modern French, but the German continued to be the only
+language spoken in Germany.
+
+Great progress was made in architecture: the churches and palaces
+constructed by the direction of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, the
+Basilisc at Germani, the church of St. Recquier at Ponthieu, and many
+other monuments of great architectural skill and expense, belong to the
+age of Charlemagne, and bear ample testimony to the well-directed
+exertions of the monarch, and of some of his descendants, and to their
+wise and splendid magnificence.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+I. 3.
+
+_Decline of Literature under the Descendants of Charlemagne._
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911]
+
+[Sidenote: I. 3. Decline of Literature under the Descendants of
+Charlemagne.]
+
+
+That literature began to decline immediately after the decease of
+Charlemagne, in every part of his extensive dominions, and that its
+decline was principally owing to the wars among his descendants, which
+devastated every portion of his empire, seems to be universally
+acknowledged; yet there are strong grounds for contending that it was
+not so great as generally represented. _Abbé le Beuf_,[003] in an
+excellent dissertation on the state of the sciences in the Gauls during
+the period which elapsed between the death of Charlemagne and the reign
+of Robert, king of France, attempts to prove the contrary; and the
+preliminary discourses of the authors of "l'Histoire Literaire de la
+France," on the state of learning during the ninth and tenth centuries,
+strongly confirm the abbé's representations. It is surprising how many
+works were written during these dark, and, as they are too harshly
+called, ignorant ages. It is more to be wondered, that while so much was
+written, so little was written well. The classical works of antiquity
+were not unknown in those times; the Latin Vulgate translation of the
+Old and New Testament was daily read by the clergy, and heard by the
+people. Now, although the language of the Vulgate be not classical, it
+is not destitute of elegance, and it possesses throughout the exquisite
+charms of clearness and simplicity. It is surprising that these
+circumstances did not lead the writers to a better style. They had no
+such effect; the general style of the time was hard, inflated and
+obscure. It should, however, be observed, that Simonde de Sismondi, as
+he is translated by Mr. Roscoe, justly observes, that "during the reign
+of Charlemagne, and during the four centuries which immediately preceded
+it, there appeared, both in France and Italy, some judicious historians,
+whose style possesses considerable vivacity, and who gave animated
+pictures of their times; some subtle philosophers, who astonished their
+contemporaries, rather by the fineness of their speculations than by the
+justness of their reasoning; some learned theologians, and some poets.
+The names of Paul Warnefrid, of Alcuin, of Luitprand, and Eginhard, are
+even yet universally respected. They all, however, wrote in Latin. They
+had all of them, by the strength of their intellect, and the happy
+circumstances in which they were placed, learned to appreciate the
+beauty of the models which antiquity had left them. They breathed the
+spirit of a former age, as they had adopted its language: we do not find
+them representatives of their contemporaries: it is impossible to
+recognize in their style the times in which they lived; it only betrays
+the relative industry and felicity with which they imitated the language
+and thoughts of a former age. They were the last monuments of civilized
+antiquity, the last of a noble race, which, after a long period of
+degeneracy, became extinct in them."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 1.
+
+_Boundaries and Devolution of the German Empire during the Saxon
+Dynasty._
+
+911-1024.
+
+
+We have mentioned that, on the death of Lewis, the son of Arnhold, the
+empire descended to Henry I. in the right of his mother. From him, it
+devolved through Otho, surnamed the Great, Otho II., and Otho III., to
+Henry II. the last emperor of the Saxon line.
+
+In this period of the German history, the attention of the reader is
+particularly directed to two circumstances,--the principal states, of
+which Germany was composed, the cradles, as they may be called, of the
+present electorates, and the erection of the principal cities and
+monasteries in Germany.
+
+[Sidenote: II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.]
+
+A curious altercation between Nicephorus Phocas, the Greek emperor, and
+Luitprand bishop of Cremona, ambassador from Otho I. to the Greek
+sovereign, shews the state of Germany during this period. "Your nation,"
+said the empire to the ambassador, "does not know how to sit on
+horseback; or how to fight on foot: your large shields, massive armour,
+long swords, and heavy helmets, disable you for battle."--Luitprand
+told the emperor that "he would, the first time they should meet in the
+field, feel the contrary." Luitprand observed, that "Germany was so
+little advanced in ecclesiastical worth; that no council had been held
+within its precincts:" the ambassador remarked, that "all heresies had
+originated in Greece." The emperor asserted, that "the Germans were
+gluttons and drunkards:" Luitprand replied, that "the Greeks were
+effeminate." All writers agree, that, in what each party to this
+conversation asserted, there was too much truth.
+
+We have noticed the advance towards civilization which Henry I, made by
+the construction of towns; he effected another, by the introduction of
+tournaments and field sports, on a large, orderly and showy plan.
+Speaking generally, society in Germany during the Saxon line of its
+princes, was always improving.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 2.
+
+_State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty_.
+
+[Sidenote: 911-1024.]
+
+
+"In the school of Paderborn," says the biographer of Meinwert, as he is
+cited by Schmidt, "there are famous musicians, dialecticians, orators,
+grammarians, mathematicians, astronomers and geometricians. Horace, the
+great Virgil, Sallust, and Statius, are highly esteemed. The monks amuse
+themselves with poetry, books and music. Several are incessantly
+employed in transcribing and painting."
+
+A German translation of the Psalms, by Notker, a monk of the abbey of
+St. Gall, shews that some attention was paid to the language of the
+country. The Greek was cultivated; the writers of the times mention
+several persons skilled in it. Notker, in a letter to one of his
+correspondents, informs him, that "his Greek brothers salute him."
+
+[Sidenote: II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.]
+
+Poetry was a favourite study: the celebrated _Gerbert_, afterwards Pope
+Silvester II, and _Waldram_, bishop of Strasburgh, were the best poets
+of their times. Hroswith,[004] a nun in the monastery of Gardersheim,
+published comedies: "Many Catholics," she says, in her preface to them,
+"are guilty of a fault, from which I myself am not altogether free;
+they prefer profane works, on account of their style, to the holy
+Scriptures. Others have the Scriptures always in their hands, and
+despise profane authors; yet they often read Terence, and their
+attention to the beauties of his style does not prevent the
+objectionable passages in his writings from making an impression on
+them."
+
+To this age, the origin of Romances is usually assigned: but these
+belong to the French; no specimen of them has been discovered in
+Germany. Music was much cultivated. Hroswith introduced it into her
+comedies.
+
+It has been mentioned, that Sallust was read in the school at Paderborn.
+It is supposed that Tacitus was known to Wittikind or Dittmar: both
+relate visions, and several puerile circumstances; but they write with
+precision, and shew, on many occasions, great good sense.
+
+The same cannot be said of the Legend-writers; the account which the
+authors of "The Literary History of France" give of them is very just.
+"The ancient legends," they say, "were lost, in consequence either of
+the plunder or the burning of the churches; it was considered necessary
+to replace them, as it was thought impossible to honour the memory, or
+to preserve the veneration of the saints, without some knowledge of
+their lives. It is to be remarked, that the saints, whose memories were
+thus sought to be honoured, had been long dead, or had lived in foreign
+countries, so that little was known of them except by oral tradition.
+From this it may be easily guessed, that those who employed themselves
+upon the legends, were deprived of necessary information, and upon that
+account could not produce exact and true histories. Thus, to the general
+defects of the age in which they lived, they added uncertainty,
+confusion, and some falsehood. Their pages abound with visions. In the
+place of the simple and natural, they substituted the wonderful and
+extraordinary. It even happened too frequently that they took leave to
+tell untruths. Heriger, the abbot of St Lupus, says, in direct terms,
+that they piously lied."
+
+[Sidenote: 911-1024.]
+
+Dialectic was in great favour: it was called philosophy; no work was
+more read than "the Book of Categories," erroneously ascribed to St.
+Augustine; and a work, upon the same subject, imputed to Porphyry.
+
+[Sidenote: II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.]
+
+The schools of the cathedrals and principal monasteries contributed
+essentially to the increase and diffusion of literature. Among the
+monasteries, those of Fulda, St. Gall, Corbie and Kershaw, were
+particularly renowned. Bishops and abbots exerted themselves to procure
+books, and to have copies of them made and circulated: they were often
+splendidly illuminated. Henry I. caused a painting to be made, of a
+battle which he had gained over the Hungarians. Bernard, bishop of
+Hildersheim, in imitation of what he had seen in Italy, ornamented the
+churches of his diocese with mosaic paintings; he also introduced, among
+his countrymen, the art of fusing and working metals; he caused precious
+and highly ornamented vases to be made in imitation of the antients.
+Large and small bells were cast; chalices, patines, incensories, images,
+and even altars of gold and silver, or ornamented with them, were
+fabricated. Aventin relates, that at Mauverkirchen, in Bavaria, figures
+in plaster, hardened by fire, had, in 948, been made of a duke of
+Bavaria and his general.
+
+[Sidenote: 911-1024.]
+
+The establishment of schools, and the protection given to the arts and
+sciences, invited the whole body of the nation to the acquisition of
+useful and ornamental knowledge; but the invitation was not even
+generally accepted. There was much superstition in every order of the
+laity. An opinion prevailed among them, that the world was to end, and
+the day of judgment arrive, in the year 1000. An universal panic spread
+itself over Europe. Strange to relate, the people sought to avoid the
+catastrophe, by hiding themselves in caverns and tombs.
+
+The existence of this ignorance cannot be denied: but, to the
+ecclesiastics, who strove against it, who erected and fostered so many
+schools to dispel it, and who exerted themselves in the manner we have
+mentioned, to establish another and a better order of things, a great
+share of praise and gratitude should never be denied.
+
+The mines of Hartz were discovered in the time of Otho I. and diffused
+so much wealth over Saxony, and afterwards over all Germany, as gave the
+reign of that emperor the appellation of "the age of gold." Before this
+time, Nicephorus Phocas had called Saxony, from the dress, or rather the
+coverings of its inhabitants, "the land of skins." But all the wealth of
+the country still continued to be concentrated among the great
+landowners.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 1.
+
+_Boundaries and State of Germany during the Franconian Dynasty._
+
+1024-1138.
+
+
+Under Henry III. the second prince of this line, the German empire had
+its greatest extent. It comprised Germany, Italy, Burgundy and Lorraine.
+Poland, and other parts of the Sclavonian territories, were subject to
+it. Denmark and Hungary acknowledged themselves its vassals.
+
+The emperors affected to consider all kingdoms as forming a royal
+republic, of which the emperor was chief. For their right to this
+splendid prerogative, they always found advocates in their own
+dominions: they reckon, among these, the illustrious Leibniz. Out of
+Germany, nothing of the claim, beyond precedence in rank, has ever been
+allowed. This, no sovereign in Europe has contested with the emperors:
+it is observable, that, as the French monarchs insisted on the
+Carlovingian extraction of Hugh Capet, they affected to consider Henry
+the Fowler the first prince of the Saxon dynasty, and all his successors
+in the empire as usurpers. Lewis XIV. expresses himself in this manner
+in some memoirs recently attributed to him.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 2.
+
+_State of German Literature during the Franconian Dynasty._
+
+[Sidenote: 1024-1138.]
+
+
+Throughout this period, commerce was always upon the increase; and
+literature, science and art, increased with it. The monuments of the
+antient grandeur of the eternal city, began about this time to engage
+the attention of the inhabitants of Germany, and to attract to Rome many
+literary pilgrims. They returned home impressed with admiration of what
+they had seen, and related the wonders to their countrymen. "The gods
+themselves (they told their hearers) behold their images in Rome with
+admiration, and wish to resemble them. Nature herself does not raise
+forms as beautiful as those, which the artist creates. One is tempted to
+say that they breathe; and to adore the skill of the artist rather than
+the inhabitant of Olympus represented by his art." Thus the uncultivated
+Germans began to perceive the beauty of these relics of antiquity, and
+to feel the wish of imitation. This first appeared on the seals of the
+emperors and bishops; several of distinguished beauty have reached our
+times. The German artists soon began to engrave on precious stones, and
+to work in marble and bronze. Four statues of emperors of the house of
+Saxony, of the workmanship of these times, are still to be seen at
+Spires; they are rudely fashioned, but are animated, and have distinct
+and expressive countenances.
+
+[Sidenote: III. 2. State of German Literature during the Franconian
+Dynasty.]
+
+When the emperors or nobility travelled, they were frequently
+accompanied by artists. These sometimes made drawings of foreign
+churches and edifices, and on their return home, raised others in
+imitation of them. Thus the cathedral at Bremen was built on the model
+of that of Benevento. The cathedral of Strasburgh, and many other
+churches, were built about this time.
+
+Music was considerably improved; the system of Guido Aretinus was no
+where understood better, or cultivated with greater ardour, than in
+Germany. Some improvement was made in poetry, but it chiefly appeared in
+the songs of the common people. A monk of Togernsee, in Bavaria,
+composed a collection of poems under the title of Bucolics; they
+resemble those of Virgil only in their title. Lambert, of
+Aschaffenburgh, published a history of his own times, inferior to none
+which have reached us from the middle ages.
+
+[Sidenote: 1024-1138]
+
+Dialectic, however, still continued the favourite study; and the art of
+disputation was never carried so far: the interest which the public took
+in these disputes was surprising. When it was announced that two
+celebrated dialecticians were to hold a public dispute, persons flocked
+from all parts to witness the conflict; they listened with avidity, and
+with all the feelings of partisans. This appears ridiculous; but, in the
+present times, is there no _fancy_ which deserves equal ridicule?
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+IV. 1
+
+_The State of Germany, from the beginning of the Suabian Dynasty, till
+the Accession of the Emperor Charles V._
+
+1138-1519.
+
+
+The principal events in the reigns of the latter princes of the
+Franconian, and of all the princes of the Suabian line, were produced or
+influenced by the contests between the popes and emperors, respecting
+investitures, or the right of nominating to vacant bishoprics;--by the
+pretensions of the popes to hold their antient territories independent
+of the emperors;--or by the new acquisitions of the popes in Italy.
+
+
+1264-1272.
+
+
+These contests reduced the empire to a state of anarchy, which produced
+what is generally called, by the German writers, the Great Interregnum.
+While it continued, six princes successively claimed to be emperors of
+Germany.
+
+
+1272-1438.
+
+
+The interregnum was determined by the election of Rodolph, count of
+Hapsburgh. From him, till the ultimate accession of the house of
+Austria, in the person of Albert the Second, the empire was held by
+several princes of different noble families.
+
+
+1438-1519.
+
+
+Albert was succeeded by Frederick III.; Frederick, by Maximilian I.; and
+Maximilian, by Charles V.
+
+To the period between the extinction of the Suabian dynasty and the
+accession of the emperor Albert, may be assigned the rise of the Italian
+republics, particularly Venice, Genoa and Florence; the elevations of
+the princes of Savoy and Milan, and the revolutions of Naples, and the
+Two Sicilies.
+
+[Sidenote: IV. 1. The State of Germany, from the beginning of the
+Suabian Dynasty till the Accession of the Emperor Charles V.]
+
+The boundaries of Germany, during this period, were the Eider and the
+sea, on the north; the Scheld, the Meuse, the Saone and the Rhone, on
+the west; the Alps and the Rhine, on the south; and the Lech and
+Vistula, on the east. They contained,--1. The duchy of Burgundy; 2. The
+duchy of Lorraine; 3. The principalities into which Allemmania and
+Franconia were divided; 4. The Bavarian territories, which the Franks
+had acquired in Rhoetia, Noricum, and Pannonia; 5. Saxony; 6. The
+Sclavic territories between the Oder and the Vistula: these were
+possessed by the margraves of Brandenburgh, and the dukes of Poland and
+Bohemia, and the princes dependent upon them in Moravia, Silesia and
+Lusatia;--7. by the provinces of Pomerania and Prussia, on the east of
+Saxony; 8. and the Marchia Orientalis, Oostrich, or Austria, on the east
+of Bavaria.
+
+At first, the emperor was chosen by the people at large; the right of
+election was afterwards confined to the nobility and the principal
+officers of state: insensibly, it was engrossed by the five great
+officers,--the chancellor, the great marshal, the great chamberlain, the
+great butler, and the great master of the palace. But their exclusive
+pretensions were much questioned. At length, their right of election was
+settled; first, by the Electoral Union, in 1337; and finally, in the
+reign of the emperor Charles IV. by the celebrated constitution, called,
+from the seal of gold appended to it, _the Golden Bull_. By this, the
+right of election was vested in three spiritual and four temporal
+electors: two temporal electors have since been added to their numbers.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+IV. 2.
+
+_State of German literature during this period_.
+
+[Sidenote: 1438-1519]
+
+
+While the empire was possessed by the princes of the house of Saxony, a
+copy of the Pandects of Justinian was discovered at Amalfi. "The
+discovery of them," says Sir William Blackstone, in his Introductory
+discourse to his Commentaries, "soon brought the civil law into vogue
+all over the west of Europe, where before it was quite laid aside, and
+in a manner wholly forgotten; though some traces of its authority
+remained in Italy, and the eastern provinces of the empire.--The study
+of it was introduced into many universities abroad, particularly that of
+Bologna, where exercises were performed, lectures read, and degrees
+conferred in this faculty, as in other branches of science; and many
+nations of the continent, just then beginning to recover from the
+convulsions consequent to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and
+settling by degrees into peaceable forms of government, adopted the
+civil law (being the best written system then extant,) as the basis of
+their several constitutions; blending or interweaving in it their own
+feudal customs, in some places, with a more extensive, in others, a more
+confined authority."
+
+[Sidenote: IV. 2. State of German Literature, from the Suabian Dynasty
+to Charles V.]
+
+This was a great step toward the civilization of Germany, and of the
+other countries in which the institutions of the civil law were thus
+introduced. They certainly tended to animate the nations, by whom they
+were received, to the study of the history and literature of the people
+from the works of whose writers they had been compiled. They produced
+this effect in several countries of Europe; but their influence in
+Germany was very limited: the disposition to subtilize, which was at
+that time universal throughout the German empire, led those who
+cultivated literature rather to refine upon what was before them, than
+to new inquiries. The language of the Pandects is of the silver age; it
+might therefore be expected, that it would have improved the general
+style of the times; but this improvement is seldom discernible.
+
+[Sidenote: 1438-1519]
+
+[Sidenote: IV. 2. State of German Literature, from the Suabian Dynasty
+to Charles V.]
+
+Good or evil is seldom unmixed: civil contests and dissensions,
+generally produce both public and private misery; sometimes, however,
+they generate mental excitement. This is favourable to Literature and
+Science. Its good effects appeared in the contests between the Popes and
+the Emperors. Great were the public and the private calamities which
+they caused, both in church and state; but they promoted inquiry and
+intellectual exertions. These were often attended with happy results.
+Irnerius, by birth a German, had studied Justinian's law at
+Constantinople. Towards the year 1130, he was appointed professor of
+civil law at Bologna: the contests between the popes and the emperors
+produced a warfare of words among the disciples of Irnerius. It has been
+mentioned that the German emperors pretended to succeed to the empire of
+the Cæsars. The language and spirit of the Justinianean code, being
+highly favourable to this claim, the emperors encouraged the civilians,
+and in return for it, had their pens at command. The decree of Gratian
+was favourable to the pretensions of the popes; and on this account was
+encouraged by the canonists. Hence, generally speaking, the civilians
+were partisans of the emperors, the canonists of the popes. From their
+adherence to the law of Justinian, the former were called Legistæ; from
+their adherence to the decree of Gratian, the latter were called
+Decretistæ. The controversy was carried on with great ardour and
+perseverance; the schools both of Italy and Germany resounded with the
+disputes, and in both, numerous tracts in support of the opposite
+claims, were circulated. The question necessarily carried the
+disputants to many incidental topics: these equally increased the powers
+and curiosity of the disputants, and stimulated them to better and more
+interesting studies.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V. 1.
+
+_Antient and Modern Geography of the Netherlands._
+
+
+We have thus brought down our historical deduction of the German Empire
+to the accession of the Emperor Charles the Fifth.
+
+About 160 years before this event, that portion of the empire, to which
+its situation has given the appellation of THE NETHERLANDS, began to
+have a separate history, and both a separate and important influence on
+the events of the times. To them we shall now direct our attention.
+
+These spacious territories are bounded on the north, by the German
+Ocean; on the west, by the British Sea and part of Picardy; on the
+south, by Champagne or Lorraine; on the east, by the archbishoprics of
+Triers and Trêves, the dutchies of Juliers and Cléves, the bishopric of
+Munster, and the county of Embden or East Friesland.
+
+[Sidenote: V. 1. Antient and Modern Geography of the Netherlands.]
+
+When the Romans invaded Gaul, it was divided among three principal
+clans: the Rhine then formed its western boundary. The left banks of
+this river were occupied by the Belgians: this tract of land now
+comprises the catholic Netherlands, and the territory of the United
+States; the right bank of the Rhine was then filled by the Frisians,
+and now comprises the modern Gröningen, east and west Friesland, a part
+of Holland, Gueldres, Utrecht, and Overyssell: the Batavians inhabited
+the island which derives its name from them; it now comprises the upper
+part of Holland, Utrecht, Gueldres, and Overyssell, the modern Cléves
+between the Lech and the Waal.
+
+In antient geography, the Netherlands were separated into the
+Cisrhenahan and Transrhenahan divisions: the Cisrhenahan lay on the
+western side of the Rhine, and included the Belgic Gaul; it was bounded
+by the Rhenus, the Rhodanus, the Sequana, the Matrona, and the Oceanus
+Britannicus: the Transrhenahan lay on the eastern side of the Rhine; it
+was a part of Lower Germany, and bounded on the north by the eastern
+Frisia, Westphalia, the Ager-Colonensis, the Juliacensis-Ducatus, and
+the Treveri. The classical reader will have no difficulty in assigning
+to these denominations, their actual names in the language of modern
+geography.
+
+The whole of these territories is called the Netherlands by the English;
+and Flanders by the Italians, Spaniards, and French.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V. 2.
+
+_The formation of the different Provinces of the Netherlands into one
+State_.
+
+
+In 1363, John the Good, the king of France, gave to Philip the Bold, his
+third son, the dutchy of Burgundy: it then comprised the county of
+Burgundy, Dauphiné, and a portion of Switzerland. The monarch at the
+same time created his son duke of Burgundy. Thus Philip, became the
+patriarch of the second line of that illustrious house.
+
+History does not produce an instance of a family, which has so greatly
+aggrandized itself by marriage, as the house of Austria. The largest
+part by far of the Netherlands was derived to it, 1st, from Margaret of
+Franche Comtè; 2dly, from Margaret of Flanders; 3dly, from Jane of
+Brabant; 4thly, from Mary of Burgundy; 5thly, from Jacqueline of
+Holland; and 6thly, from Elizabeth of Luxemburgh.
+
+[Sidenote: Formation of the Provinces of the Netherlands into one
+State.]
+
+The possessions of the three first of these splendid heiresses,
+descended to Margaret of Flanders. She married Phillip the Bold, who, as
+we have just mentioned, was the first of the modern Dukes of Burgundy.
+By this marriage, he acquired, in right of his wife, the provinces of
+Flanders, Artois, Mechlin, and Rhetel; and transmitted them and his own
+dukedom of Burgundy to his son Charles the Intrepid. From Charles, they
+descended to his son Philip the Good. He purchased Namur; and by a
+transaction with Jacqueline of Holland, acquired that province, Zealand,
+Hainault, and Friesland. By other means, he obtained Brabant, Antwerp,
+Luxemburgh, Limburgh, Gueldres, and Zutphen. On the failure of issue
+male of Philip the Good, all these fourteen provinces descended to Mary
+his only daughter. She married the Emperor Maximilian. He had two sons
+by her, the Emperor Charles V. and Ferdinand. The former acquired, by
+purchase or force, Utrecht, Overyssell and Gröningen.
+
+These territories formed what are generally called the SEVENTEEN
+PROVINCES OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+In the language of the middle ages, they consisted of the Dutchies of
+Brabant, Limburgh, Luxemburgh, and Gueldres; the Earldoms of Flanders,
+Artois, Hainault, Holland, Zealand, Namur, Zutphen, Antwerp, (sometimes
+called the Marquisate of the Holy Empire) and the Lordships of
+Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssell, and Gröningen. Cambrai, the
+Cambresis, and the County of Burgundy, though a separate territory, were
+considered to be appendages, but not part of them.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V. 3.
+
+_Brief View of the History of the Netherlands, till the acknowledgement
+of the Independence of the Seven United Provinces by the Spanish
+Monarch._
+
+
+The laws, the customs, and the government of all these provinces were
+nearly alike: each had its representative assembly of the three orders,
+of the clergy, nobility, and burghers: each had its courts of justice;
+and an appeal from the superior tribunal of each lay to the supreme
+court at Mechlin.
+
+Public and fiscal concerns of moment fell under the cognizance of the
+sovereign. The people enjoyed numerous and considerable privileges: the
+most important of them was the _Droit de Joyeuse entrée_, the right of
+not being taxed without the consent of the three estates. Commerce,
+agriculture, and the arts, particularly music and painting, flourished
+among them. The people were honest, frugal, regular and just in their
+general habits; more steady than active; not easily roused; but, when
+once roused, not easily appeased.
+
+[Sidenote: Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.]
+
+Charles V. made over his hereditary territories in Germany to his
+brother Ferdinand; but retained the Netherlands, and annexed them to the
+crown of Spain.
+
+With that crown, they descended to Philip the Second, the only son of
+Charles.
+
+Unwise and unjust measures of that monarch drove the inhabitants into
+rebellion.
+
+On the 5th of April 1566, a deputation of 400 gentlemen, with Lewis of
+Nassau, a brother of the prince of Orange, at their head, presented a
+petition to Margaret of Austria, the Governor of the Netherlands. From
+the coarseness of their dress, they acquired the name of _gueux_ or
+_beggars_, and retained it throughout the whole of the troubles which
+followed.
+
+[Sidenote: Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.]
+
+Calvinism had, before this time, made great progress in these countries,
+and gained over to it numbers of the discontented party. Philip
+proceeded to the most violent measures, and sent the Duke of Alva, with
+an army of 20,000 men, into the Netherlands. William, Prince of Orange,
+placed himself at the head of the malcontents, and raised an army. At an
+assembly of the States of Holland and Zealand in 1559, he was declared
+Stadtholder, or Governor of Holland, Friesland, and Utrecht: Calvinism
+was declared to be the religion of the States. In 1579, the three
+provinces were joined by those of Gueldres, Zutphen, Overyssell, and
+Gröningen. All signed, by their deputies, the TREATY OF UNION; it became
+the basis of their constitution: still, however, they acknowledged
+Philip for their sovereign. But in 1581, the deputies of the United
+States assembled at Amsterdam, subscribed a solemn act, by which they
+formally renounced allegiance to Philip and his successors, and asserted
+their independence. They declared in their manifesto, that "the prince
+is made for the people, not the people for the prince;" that "the
+prince, who treats his subjects as slaves, is a tyrant, whom his
+subjects have a right to dethrone, when they have no other means of
+preserving their liberty;" that "this right particularly belongs to the
+Netherlands; their sovereign, being bound by his coronation oath to
+observe the laws, under pain of forfeiting his sovereignty."
+
+In 1584, the Prince of Orange was assassinated by Balthazar Gerard, a
+Catholic fanatic: the war was continued till 1609, when it was suspended
+by a truce of twelve years. At the expiration of it, the war burst forth
+with fresh fury: it was finally terminated by the peace of Munster, or
+Westphalia, in 1648, when the King of Spain acknowledged, in the fullest
+manner, the INDEPENDENCE OF THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES, and of all their
+possessions in Asia, Africa, and America.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V.4.
+
+_Their Constitution and principal Officers._
+
+[Sidenote: Constitution of the Netherlands.]
+
+
+Thus the United Provinces became a confederacy of seven independent
+principalities, called in the aggregate the States General. Several
+years elapsed before their constitution was finally settled. Then, the
+supreme sovereignty of the whole was considered to be vested in the
+people of every province represented by the States. These consisted of
+deputies appointed to them from the different provinces. Each province
+might send to the assembly more than one deputy; but, whatever was the
+number of deputies sent by them, they had one vote only in the
+proceedings of the assembly. The government of each province was vested
+in its states: these were composed of two orders, the deputies from the
+towns, and those from the equestrian order.
+
+Each province contained several independent republics.
+
+The States General could not make war or peace, or enter into alliances,
+or raise money, without the consent of all the seven provinces; nor did
+the decrees of any one of the States bind the constituent parts of it,
+without their consent.
+
+[Sidenote: Constitution of the Netherlands.]
+
+The Stadtholder was appointed by the States General, and held his office
+at their will. The offices of captain-general and admiral were united in
+him: thus he had the appointment of all military commands, both by sea
+and land; and had considerable influence and power in the nomination to
+civil offices. Three officers,--the _treasurer, the conservator of the
+peace, and the grand pensionary,_ were appointed by the States General,
+and were immediately subject to their controul; they were wholly
+independent of the Stadtholder. The grand pensionary was always supposed
+to be profoundly versed in civil, ecclesiastical, and consuetudinary
+law; and in foreign diplomacy. All transactions between subjects or
+foreigners with the States General, passed through his hands. He
+attended the deliberations of the States; he was not entitled to vote,
+but was expected to sum up the arguments on each side, and to deliver
+his opinion upon them. Each province had its advocate, syndic or
+pensionary; a public officer who superintended their public concerns;
+and represented them, but only with a deliberative voice, in the
+assembly of the States.
+
+[Sidenote: Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.]
+
+We now reach the æra, at which our intended biography commences. A
+Literary History of the Netherlands, from the time of their becoming
+subjects to the Dukes of Burgundy, till this æra, is much wanted.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE BIRTH AND EDUCATION OF HUGO GROTIUS.
+
+
+1582-1597.
+
+
+The Life of Erasmus, which we have offered to the public, presents to
+its readers, the interesting spectacle of a person, born under every,
+disadvantage for the acquisition of literature, surmounting them all by
+his genius and perseverance, and reaching, at an early age, the highest
+summit of literary eminence: the Life of GROTIUS, which we now attempt,
+exhibits the successful literary career of a person, born with every
+advantage, undeviatingly availing himself of them, and attaining equal
+eminence; with the addition of high reputation for great political
+wisdom and public integrity.
+
+[Sidenote: His Birth and Education.]
+
+He was born at Delft, on the 10th April 1582. His parents were John de
+Groote, and Alida Averschie. John was the second son of Hugo de Groote
+by Elselinda Heemskirke. Hugo was the son of Cornelius Cornet by
+Ermingarde, the daughter and sole heiress of Diederic de Groote. Upon
+their marriage, Diederic stipulated that Cornet should adopt the
+surname of Groote: it signifies _Great_, and is said to have been given
+to Diederic for some signal service, which he had rendered to his
+sovereign. All the males and females mentioned in the genealogy of
+Grotius were of noble extraction.
+
+Learning appears to have been hereditary in the family: John, the father
+of Hugo, the subject of our biography, was both a lawyer in great
+practice, and a general scholar.
+
+The 10th of April, on which GROTIUS was born, was Easter Sunday in that
+year: he always observed his birthday with religious solemnity.
+
+All the biographers of Grotius assert, and their assertion will be
+easily believed, that he discovered, in his earliest years, great
+aptitude for the acquisition of learning, great taste, judgment and
+application, and a wonderful memory. He found, in his father, an
+excellent tutor: by him, Grotius was instructed in the rudiments of the
+Christian doctrine, and his infant mind impressed with sound principles
+of morality and honour; in this, he was aided by the mother of Grotius.
+The youth corresponded with their cares. He has celebrated, in elegant
+verses, their pious attention to his early education. The mention of
+these verses will bring to the recollection of every English reader, the
+magnificent strains, in which, Milton addressed _his_ father.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. I. 1582-1597.]
+
+As soon as Grotius had passed his childhood, he was placed with
+Utengobard, an Arminian clergyman: we shall see that this circumstance
+had a decisive influence upon his future life. He retained a lasting
+regard for Utengobard, and a grateful recollection of his obligations to
+him. At the age of twelve years, Grotius was sent to the university of
+Leyden, and committed to the care of Francis Junius. Here, he
+distinguished himself so much by his diligence, his talents, and his
+modesty, as to obtain the notice and regard of several of the most
+famous scholars of the times. Even Joseph Scaliger, equally
+distinguished by his learning and caustic arrogance, noticed him, and
+condescended to direct his studies. He was scarcely eleven years of age
+when Douza, one of the princes of the republic of letters in those
+times, celebrated his praises in verse: He declared that "he could
+scarcely believe that Erasmus promised so much as Grotius at his age:"
+he announced that "Grotius would soon excel all his contemporaries, and
+bear a comparison with the most leaned of the antients."
+
+Grotius also gained the esteem of Barneveldt, the grand pensionary, in
+whose fate he was afterward involved. In 1587, the Dutch sent Count
+Justin of Nassau and Barneveldt, at the head of an embassy, to Henry IV.
+of France. Barneveldt permitted Grotius to accompany him.
+
+[Sidenote: His Birth and Education.]
+
+Grotius had been preceded by his reputation. He was known to M. de
+Busenval, the monarch's ambassador in Holland. Busenval described him
+favourably to the monarch. Henry gave Grotius a gracious reception, and
+was so pleased with his conversation and demeanour, that he presented
+him with his picture and a golden chain. Grotius gives an account of
+this embassy, in the seventh book of his Annals: he abstains, with a
+praiseworthy modesty, from any mention of himself: but, in one of his
+poems, he dwells with complacency on his having seen the monarch, "who
+owed his kingdom only to his valour"--
+
+        " ... _Le Heros, qui regna sur la Françe,
+        Et par droit de conquête et par droit de naissançe_."
+                                VOLTAIRE, _Henriade_.
+
+Grotius was so much pleased with his reception, and the present which he
+received from Henry, that he caused a print of himself, adorned with the
+chain presented to him by Henry, to be engraved. He was introduced to
+many of the most distinguished persons at Paris: there was one, whom he
+particularly esteemed, but whom, from some unexplained circumstance, he
+missed seeing.
+
+[Sidenote: Chap. 1. 1582-1597]
+
+This was _the President de Thou_, a name never to be mentioned without
+veneration. He had been employed by his sovereign on many delicate and
+important commissions, and had acquitted himself in all, with ability
+and honour. He had filled the office of _Maitre des Requétes_, and been
+advanced to that of _President a Mortiér_. He was employed, at this
+time, upon his immortal History. In the account which it gives of the
+events, that took place in France, it is entitled to almost unqualified
+praise: in regard to what happened to other countries, he necessarily
+depended on the information which he received from them, and cannot
+therefore be equally relied upon. The prolixity, with which he is now
+reproached, was not felt at the time in which he wrote; every event,
+however small, was then thought to be important, and multitudes were
+personally interested in it. But the charm of his work is, that every
+page of it shews a true lover of his country, an impartial judgment, and
+an honourable mind. The memoirs, which he has left us of his own life,
+recently translated into English by Mr. Collinson, are interesting and
+entertaining. He collected a very large library, both of printed books
+and manuscripts, and had them splendidly bound. The whole was sold by
+auction in the reign of Louis XIV, and scarcely produced half the sum
+which the binding of its volumes had cost: The same has been said of the
+Harleian collection, sold in our times.
+
+[Sidenote: His Birth and Education.]
+
+Having remained a twelvemonth at Paris, Grotius returned to Holland.
+Immediately after his arrival, he addressed a letter to the president
+de Thou, in which he expressed great mortification at not having seen
+him, and requested his acceptance of a book accompanying his letter,
+which he had dedicated to the Prince of Condé. The president de Thou was
+highly pleased with this letter: a correspondence took place between
+them. Grotius furnished the president with materials for that portion of
+his history which related to the troubles in the Low Countries.
+
+In the last letter of the President de Thou, in this correspondence, he
+earnestly dissuades Grotius from engaging in the religious disputes of
+the times. In reply to it, Grotius respectfully intimates to the
+president, that "he found himself obliged to enter into them by his love
+of his country; his wish to serve his church, and the request of those
+to whom he owed obedience:" promising, at the same time, "to abstain
+from all disputes that were not necessary." After the death of the
+President, Grotius celebrated his memory in a poem, which was considered
+by the bard's admirers to be one of his best performances.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GROTIUS EMBRACES THE PROFESSION OF THE LAW. HIS FIRST PROMOTIONS.
+
+1597-1610.
+
+
+In the ruin of the Roman Empire, her laws were lost in the general
+wreck. During the 200 years, which followed the reign of Constantine the
+Great, Europe was a scene of every calamity, which the inroads of
+barbarians could inflict, either on the countries through which they
+passed, or those in which they settled. About the sixth century, Europe
+obtained some degree of tranquillity, in consequence of the introduction
+of feudalism; the most singular event in the annals of history. At
+first, it produced a general anarchy; but the system of subordination
+upon which it was grounded, contained in it the germ of regular
+government, and even, of jurisprudence. Its effects were first visible
+in the _various codes of law_ which the barbarous nations promulgated.
+Such are the Salic, the Ripuarian, the Alemannic, the Burgundian, the
+Visigothic, and the Lombard laws.
+
+[Sidenote: Feudal Jurisprudence.]
+
+A complicated or refined system of jurisprudence is not to be looked for
+in them; but, if they are considered with due regard to the state of
+society for which they were calculated, they will be found to contain
+much that deserves praise. The _capitularies_, or short legislative
+provisions, propounded by the sovereign, and adopted by the public
+assemblies of the nation, were a further advance in legislation. By
+degrees, so much regularity prevailed in the judicial proceedings and
+legal transactions, that they were regulated by established
+_formularies_; and, in addition to those provisions, every nation
+contained a collection of unwritten usages or _customs_, which had the
+force of law. The natural tendency of these institutions to introduce
+order and peaceful habits into society was great; but it was so much
+counteracted by the turbulent spirit of every class of men, that it was
+not till the beginning of the thirteenth century that this effect of
+them became discernible.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. II. 1597-1610]
+
+From this time, the governments of Europe sensibly improved. A better
+spirit of legislation shewed itself; the administration of justice
+became more regular; trade and husbandry were protected, several arts
+were encouraged; and a general wish for a better order of things
+prevailed in every part of Europe. While the public mind was in this
+state of improvement, an event fortunately happened, which gave it a
+very salutary direction. This was, (what we have already noticed), the
+discovery of a complete copy of the _Pandects of Justinian_ at Amalfi, a
+town in Italy, near Salerno. From Amalfi, it found its way to Pisa; and
+in 1406, was carried to Florence, where it has since remained.
+
+[Sidenote: The Civil Law]
+
+Few events in history can be mentioned which have conduced more to the
+welfare of Europe than this discovery. The codes, the capitularies, the
+formularies, and the customs, by which, till that time, the feudal
+nations had been governed, fell very short of affording them the legal
+provisions, which society, in the improved state of civilization, to
+which it was then advancing, evidently required. Unexpectedly, a system
+of law presented itself, which seemed to contain every thing that the
+most enlightened men of those times could have desired. The wisdom and
+justice of the system of law expressed in the Pandects seem to have been
+universally felt. The study of it was immediately pursued with ardour.
+It was introduced into several universities; exercises were performed,
+lectures read, and degrees conferred in that, as in other branches of
+science; and most of the nations of the continent adopted it, if not as
+the basis, at least as an important portion of their civil
+jurisprudence. A regular _succession of civil_ lawyers followed. At
+first, they rather incumbered the text with their subtleties, than
+illustrated it by learning and discrimination. _Andrew Alciat_ was the
+first who united the study of polite learning with the study of the
+civil law: he was founder of a school called the _Cujacian_, from
+_Cujas_, the glory of civilians. Of him, it may be truly said, that he
+found the civil law in wood and left it in marble.
+
+This school has subsisted until our time: it has never been without
+writers of the greatest taste, judgment and erudition; the names of
+Cujacius, Augustinus, the Gothofredi, Heineccius, Voetius, Vinnius,
+Gravina and Pothier, are as dear to the scholar as they are to the
+lawyer; an Englishman however must reflect with pleasure, that the
+Commentaries of his countryman, Sir William Blackstone, will not suffer
+in a comparison with any foreign work of jurisprudence. So far as the
+researches of the present writer extend, the only one that can be put
+into competition with them, is the _Jus Canonicum of Van-Espen_.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. II. 1597-1610]
+
+The judicial process of the nations on the continent differed
+considerably from that of England. Trial by jury, and separate courts of
+equity, were unknown to them. Some causes were heard and decided by all
+the magistrates of the courts; others were referred to one or more of
+their number. The king's advocate, or the advocate of the state, as he
+was termed in a republic, held a situation between the judges and the
+suitors: his province was to sum the facts and arguments of the cause,
+and to suggest his opinions upon them to the judges.--We trust our
+readers will excuse this summary view of foreign jurisprudence.
+
+Grotius, by the advice of his father, addicted himself to the profession
+of the law. He was only in his seventeenth year, when he pleaded his
+first cause. He acquired by it, great reputation; and this was
+constantly upon the increase, through the whole of his professional
+career. He observed in his pleadings a rule, which he afterwards
+recommended to his son: "That you may not," he told him, "be embarrassed
+by the little order observed by the adversary counsel, attend to one
+thing, which I have found eminently useful: Distribute all that can be
+said on both sides, under certain heads; imprint these strongly in your
+memory; and, whatever your adversary says, refer it not to his division,
+but to your own."
+
+[Sidenote: Grotius embraces the profession of the Law.]
+
+The brilliant success of Grotius at the bar soon procured him very
+considerable promotions. The place of Advocate-General of the Fisc of
+the provinces of Holland and Zealand becoming vacant, it was unanimously
+conferred on him. This situation was attended with great distinction and
+authority; the person invested with it, being charged with the
+preservation of the public peace, and the prosecution of public
+offenders. In 1613, Grotius was advanced to the situation of Pensionary
+of Rotterdam; and his high character authorized him to stipulate before
+he accepted it, that he should hold it during his life, and not, at
+will, its usual tenure. It immediately gave him a seat in the assembly
+of the States of Holland; and, at a future time, a seat in the assembly
+of the States General.
+
+Between the time of his appointment to the advocacy of the Fisc of
+Holland and Zealand, and his being appointed Pensionary of Rotterdam, he
+married Mary Reygersburgh, of an illustrious family in Zealand. It
+proved a marriage of happiness. The most perfect harmony subsisted
+between Grotius and his consort: we shall find that she was an ornament
+to him in prosperity, his comfort and aid in adverse fortune. The
+marriage was solemnized in July 1608, and celebrated by many a Belgic
+bard.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP II. 1597-1610.]
+
+A dispute arising about this time between England and the States
+General, upon the exclusive right claimed by the former to fish in the
+Northern seas, the States, with a view to an amicable adjustment of it,
+sent Grotius to England. Several meetings took place between him and
+commissioners appointed by James, the British sovereign. If we credit
+the account, given by Grotius, of the point in dispute, and the
+negociation to which it gave rise, justice was decidedly on the side of
+the States General; and England only carried the point by the lion's
+right,--the _droit du plus fort_.
+
+[Sidenote: Grotius embraces the profession of the Law.]
+
+Grotius had every reason to be pleased with his reception by the English
+monarch and his court. Between Grotius and Casaubon, who, at this time,
+resided in England, an intimacy had long subsisted. It was cemented by
+mutual esteem, similarity of studies, and the earnest wish of each for
+an amicable termination of religious differences: each respected the
+antient doctrines and discipline of the church; each thought that many
+of the points in controversy were disputes of words; that much might be
+gained by mutual concessions; and that the articles, upon which there
+was any substantial difference, were few. "I esteem Grotius
+highly,"--Casaubon writes in a letter to the president de Thou, "on
+account of his other great qualities; but particularly because he judges
+of the modern subjects of religious controversy like a learned and good
+man. In his veneration for antiquity, he agrees with the wisest men."
+... "I heartily pray God," says Casaubon in a letter to Grotius, "to;
+preserve you: as long as I shall live, I shall hold you in the highest
+esteem: so much am I taken with your piety, your probity, and your
+admirable learning."[005]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE EARLY PUBLICATIONS OF GROTIUS.
+
+
+There is not, perhaps, an instance of a person's acquiring at an age
+equally early, the reputation, which attended the first publication of
+Grotius. It was an edition, with notes, of the work of "_Martianus
+Mineus Felix Capella_, on the Marriage of Mercury and Philology, in two
+books; and of the same writer's Seven Treatises on the Liberal Arts."
+They had been often printed; but all the editions were faulty: a
+manuscript of them having been put into the hands of Grotius by his
+father, he communicated it to Scaliger, and by his advice undertook a
+new edition of them.
+
+The time, in which Capella lived, and the place of his birth, are
+uncertain; the better opinion seems to be, that he flourished towards
+the third century, resided at Rome, and attained the consular dignity.
+His works are written in prose, intermixed with poetry. His diction has
+some resemblance to that of Tertullian, but is much more crabbed and
+obscure: none, but the ablest Latin scholars, can understand him. The
+Marriage of Mercury and Philology,--or of Speech with Learning, is not
+uninteresting. His other treatises contain nothing remarkable: that upon
+music, is hardly intelligible; it is printed separately in the
+collection of _Meibomius_. With all his harshness and obscurity, Capella
+seems to have been much studied in the middle ages,--some proof that
+there was more learning in them, than is generally supposed,--he is so
+often quoted by the writers of those times, that some persons have
+supposed that his work was then a text book in the schools.
+
+[Sidenote: The early publications of Grotius.]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
+
+When Grotius undertook his edition of Capella, he was only twelve years
+of age: he published it in his fourteenth year, and dedicated it to the
+Prince of Condé. The learning and critical discernment displayed by him
+in this publication excited astonishment, and obtained for him the
+applause of all the literary world. Grotius himself gives the following
+account of his work: "We have collated Capella with the several authors,
+who have investigated the same subjects. In the two first books, we have
+consulted those whose writings contain the sentiments of the antient
+philosophers, as Apuleius, Albericus and others, too tedious to name; on
+grammar, we have compared, Capella with the antient grammarians; in what
+he has said on rhetoric, with Cicero and Aquila; on logic, with
+Porphyry, Aristotle, Cassiodorus and Apuleius; on geography, with
+Strabo, Mela, Solinus, and Ptolemy, but chiefly Pliny; on arithmetic,
+with Euclid; on astronomy, with Hyginus, and others, who have treated on
+that subject; on music, with Cleonides, Vitruvius and Boethius." In
+Grotius's Annotations all these writers are mentioned in a manner, which
+shews that he was thoroughly conversant with their works. Grotius's
+edition is become, from its extreme scarcity, a typographical curiosity:
+all the other editions are scarce. The writer of these pages found, with
+great difficulty, a copy of it in the London market.[006] That of
+Bonhomme, published at Lyons in 1539, he procured by loan. The
+celebrated Leibniz began to prepare an edition of Capella _in usum
+Delphini_; but his collections being purloined from him, he desisted
+from his project: it must be owned that the general learning of Leibniz
+qualified him admirably for such a task.[009]
+
+[Sidenote: The early Publications of Grotius.]
+
+While yet in his fourteenth year, Grotius published a translation of a
+work, published by Simon Steven in 1586, upon Navigation, and shewed by
+it a profound knowledge of mathematics:[010] he dedicated it to the
+republic of Venice.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
+
+In the following year, Grotius published _the Phenomena of Aratus_, a
+poetical treatise of that author upon astronomy, with Cicero's
+translation of it, so far as it has reached us. Grotius supplied the
+vacancies. It is universally admitted that the parts supplied by him,
+are not inferior to those of Cicero. The abbé d'Olivet, the editor of
+Cicero's works, and an enthusiastic admirer of his style, declares that
+"the Muse of Cicero[011] did not throw the Muse of Grotius into the
+shade:" he therefore inserted the supplementary verses of Grotius in his
+edition. Grotius dedicated his work to the States of Holland and West
+Friseland; and promised them in his dedication something more
+considerable. He was complimented upon it by several of the greatest men
+of the age.
+
+The following simile, taken from Cicero's translation of Aratus, and
+Voltaire's version of it, are greatly admired:
+
+        Sic Jovis altisoni subito pennata satelles,
+        Arboris è trunco, serpentis saucia morsu;
+        Ipsa feris subigit transfigens unguibus anguem
+        Semianimum, et variâ graviter cervice micantem;
+        Quem se intorquentem laniens rostroque craentans,
+        Abjicit efflantem, et laceratum effundit in undas,
+        Seque obitu a solis nitidos convertit ad ortus.
+
+                        CICERO.
+
+
+        Tel on voit cet oiseau, qui porte le tonnere,
+        Blessé par un serpent élancé de la terre;
+        Il s'envole, il entraine au sejour azuré
+        L'ennemi tortueux dont il est entouré.
+        Le sang tombe des airs: il dechire, il devore
+        Le reptile acharné, qui le combat encore;
+        Il le perçe, il le tient sous ses ongles vainqeurs,
+        Par cent coups rédoublés il venge ses douleurs;
+        Le Monstre en expirant, se debat, se replie;
+        Il exhale en poison le reste de sa vie;
+        Et l'aigle tout sanglant, fier et victorieux,
+        Le rejette en fureur, et plane au haut des cieux.
+
+                        VOLTAIRE.
+
+[Sidenote: The early Publications of Grotius.]
+
+About the year 1608, Grotius published his celebrated work _Mare
+Liberum_, to assert in it against the English, the general freedom of
+the sea. The controversy arose upon the claim of Great Britain to enjoy
+the dominion of the British seas, in the most extensive sense of those
+words, both as to the right of navigating them, and the right of fishing
+within them. Against this claim, Grotius attempted to shew that the sea
+was, from its nature, insusceptible of exclusive right; and that, if it
+were susceptible of it, England did not prove her title to it. Selden,
+in opposition to Grotius, asserted the British claim, by his treatise
+_Mare Clausam_,--a noble exertion of a vigorous mind, fraught with
+profound and extensive erudition. It is pleasing to add, that he treats
+Grotius with the respect due to his learning and character. Selden's
+treatise was thought of so much importance to his cause, that a copy of
+it was directed to be deposited in the British Admiralty. Grotius was
+highly pleased with the respect, which was shewn to him by Selden.
+
+On Selden's _Mare Clausum_ he composed the following epigram:--
+
+        Ipsum compedibus qui vinxerat Ennegisæum,
+          Est Grecâ Xerxes multus in historia:
+        Lucullum Latii Xerxem dixere togatum;
+          Seldenus Xerxes ecce Britannus erit.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610]
+
+The States General were gratified by his work; but at that time it was
+so much their interest to preserve the strictest amity with England,
+that they discountenanced any further advocation of their claim.[012]
+
+The year after his publication of his "Treatise on the Freedom of the
+Sea," Grotius printed his work on the "_Antiquity of the Batavian
+Republic_." He gives in it an account of the antient _Batavians;_ he
+professes to shew that they were the allies, not the subjects of the
+Romans; that, after a period of anarchy, during which little is known of
+their history, they became subjects of the Counts of Holland; that these
+were not vassals of the empire, but independent princes; and, strictly
+speaking, elected by the people, although, in the election of them,
+great regard was always shewn to the hereditary line: that they were
+bound to conform to the laws of the state; and always required, before
+their election, to swear to the observance of the constitution; that the
+taxes were always imposed by the States, and that Philip the Second had
+occasioned the grand war, by repeated infractions of the public and
+private right of the people of the United Provinces.
+
+[Sidenote: The early Publications of Grotius.]
+
+The States of Holland were highly pleased with this work; they voted
+thanks to its author, and accompanied them with a present. It is
+considered that his partiality to his country led him to advance some
+positions favourable to its antient independence, which his proofs did
+not justify.
+
+For the use of _Du Maurier_, the French ambassador to the States
+General, Grotius published, about this time, his "Directions for a
+Course of general Study," _De omni genere studiorum recte instituendo_.
+It was favourably received, both by the diplomatist for whose use it was
+composed, and the public at large; but, on account of the great
+extension of literature, since the time of Grotius, it is now little
+read. Mentioning the Roman history, he shews that a knowledge of it is
+better acquired by reading its Greek than by reading its Latin
+historians; because foreigners give more attention to the public manners
+and customs of a country than natives.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
+
+All the works, which we have mentioned, were most favourably received in
+every part of the United Provinces. It was now become evident that the
+exertions for their independence were on the eve of being crowned with
+complete success. All the European Powers had deserted Spain, so that
+she was left to her own single and unaided strength, to maintain the
+contest against the insurgent provinces. The glory, which they acquired
+by their successful resistance to her, determined them to make choice of
+an historian, who should transmit to future ages the signal exploits of
+their memorable struggle. With this view, they appointed Grotius their
+historiographer.
+
+[Sidenote: The Poems of Grotius.]
+
+It remains to mention the "_Poems of Grotius:_" throughout his life, he
+sacrificed to the Muses. The _Prosopopoeia,_ in which he introduces the
+City of Ostend addressing the world, when, in the third year of her
+siege, the Marquis Spinola led the troops of Spain against her, was
+greatly, admired. All the adjacent territory had been taken by the
+Spaniards, so that nothing remained of it to the confederates, but the
+precinct within the walls of the city; and even much of this had been
+wrested from the besieged. All Europe had its eye fixed on the
+operations of Spinola. It is therefore, with great propriety of
+language, that Grotius makes Ostend thus address herself to the world,
+in the following lines:--
+
+        "Area parva ducum, totus quam respicit orbis;
+        Celsior una malis, et quam damnare ruinae
+        Nunc quoque fata timent,--alieno in litore resto.
+        Tertius annus abit; toties mutavimus hostem:
+        Sævit hyems pelago, morbisque furentibus æstas;
+        Et minimum est quod fecit Iber,--crudelior armis
+        In nos orta lues,--nullum est sine funere funus.
+        Nec perimit mors una semel:--Fortuna quid haeres?
+        Quâ mercede tenes mixtos in sanguine manes?
+        Quis tumulos moriens hos occupet hoste perempto?
+        Queritur,--et sterili tantum de pulvere pugna est."
+
+
+    "A small area of chiefs, whom the whole world contemplates;
+    alone loftier than my woes; I, whom the
+    Fates even yet, fear to condemn to ruin;--remain on a
+    foreign shore.
+
+    "The third year now passes away; thrice has my foe
+    been changed:
+
+    "The winter rages on the sea; the summer, by its furious
+    heats.
+
+    "The Spaniard has been my least enemy;--more cruel
+    than arms, a pestilence has risen among us; no funeral is
+    without another; the dying never perish by a single death.
+
+    "Fortune! why do'st thou hesitate? By what reward
+    do'st thou detain the manes mingled in blood?
+
+    "Who, dying, will, after the destruction of the enemy,
+    occupy these tombs?--This is enquired.--
+    The contest is only for sterile dust."
+
+With the following poetical translation of these verses, the writer has
+been favoured by Mr. Sotheby, the elegant translator of "Oberon."
+
+        Scant battle-field of Chiefs, thro' earth renown'd,
+        Opprest, I loftier tow'r;--and, now, while Fate
+        Dreads to destroy, in foreign soil I stand.
+        Thrice chang'd the year, thrice have we chang'd the Foe.
+        Fierce Winter chafes the Deep, the Summer burns
+        With fell disease: less fell th' Iberian sword.
+        Dire Pestilence spreads;--on funerals funerals swell:
+        Nor does one death at once extirpate all.
+        Why, Fortune! linger? why our souls detain
+        With blood immingled? Who, the Foe extinct,
+        Who, dying, shall these sepulchres possess,
+        And in this sterile dust the conflict close?
+
+                        W.S.
+            March 28,1826.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
+
+These verses produced a great sensation in the literary world: they were
+ascribed by many to Scaliger, as the best Latin poet of the age; the
+only person considered to be capable of writing them. The celebrated
+Peyresck hinted this to that learned man: Scaliger answered, that "he
+was too old not to be the aversion of the virgins of Helicon," and
+announced that the verses were written by Grotius. They were translated
+into French by Du Vair, afterwards the keeper of the seals; by Rapin,
+grand-provost of the Constabulary of France; by Stephen Pasquier, and by
+Malherbes: Casaubon translated them into Greek.[013]
+
+[Sidenote: The Poems of Grotius.]
+
+Three Generals had successively been entrusted with the siege of Ostend;
+nine commanders had successively been entrusted with its defence: the
+siege had cost the besiegers and besieged 100,000 lives: all the
+historians of the times agree, that few important consequences were
+derived to either side by the success of the Spaniards. The Archduke and
+Infanta, had the curiosity to view the city, after it was taken. They
+found in it nothing but heaps of ruins: little that shewed the former
+state of the town; its ditches were filled, its fortifications
+overthrown, its buildings, and the works of attack and defence, were
+levelled with the ground. Spinola led them to the spots in which the
+most remarkable events had taken place; and, finally to that, in which
+the forces of the besieged had made their last stand; had, for want of
+space, found themselves unable to raise military works, and had, on that
+account, found themselves forced to surrender. The Archduke and the
+Infanta were moved to tears at the melancholy sight; and declared that
+such a victory was not worth its cost.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
+
+The success of the siege of Ostend covered Spinola with glory: his reply
+to a person, who asked him,--who, in his opinion was the greatest
+general of the age,--is generally known: "Prince Maurice," he said, "is
+the second."[014]
+
+The principal poetical performances of Grotius in the collection we have
+mentioned, are--_three tragedies_, "Adam in Banishment," "Christ
+Suffering," and "Sophomphaneos," which signifies in the language of
+Egypt, "the Saviour of the world:" it exhibits the story of Joseph.
+Sandys translated it into English verse, and dedicated his translation
+to Charles I. From the second of these tragedies, Lauder transcribed
+many of the verses, upon which he founded the charge of plagiarism
+against Milton.
+
+An eminent rank among modern Latin poets, has always been assigned to
+Grotius: his diction is always classical, his sentiments just. But those
+who are accustomed to the _wood notes_ of the Bard of Avon, will not
+admire the scenic compositions, however elegant or mellifluous, of the
+Batavian Bard.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THEIR DECLARATION OF
+INDEPENDENCE, TILL THE ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY.
+
+
+The present chapter will lead our readers to the public life of Grotius:
+in a former page we succinctly mentioned the principal events in the
+history of the United Provinces, from their first insurrection against
+Philip II. till their declaration of independence. On that event, they
+continued Prince William of Orange in the Stadtholderate: he was
+entitled to it by his civil and military talents. Application, activity,
+liberality, eloquence, intrepidity, enterprise and discretion, were
+united in him in an extraordinary degree: he could accommodate himself
+to all persons and occurrences, accelerate or retard events, as best
+served the interests of his cause, or his own designs. In the rare
+talent of governing popular assemblies, and procuring the co-operation
+of persons of opposite views, he has had few equals. He wanted no
+quality, which a chief of a party should possess, either to insure the
+success of the public object, or to further his private aims.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. IV. 1597-1610.]
+
+These had, for some time, been suspected: it was generally observed,
+that he affected the exercise of sovereign authority; that he
+endeavoured to attach the military to his own person; that he always
+sought to have the acts of the States issued in his own name; that, on
+many occasions, he avoided consulting the States, or doing any thing
+which could be considered an explicit recognition of their supremacy;
+and that in several instances, in which the constitution required the
+co-operation of the States, he acted independently of them. This gave
+rise to a party, which was jealous of his power, and on many occasions
+thwarted, what they thought the projects of his private ambition. From
+their attachment to the constitution, they were termed the republican
+party: Barneveldt, the Grand-Pensionary of the States General, was their
+leader.
+
+[Sidenote: Assassination of William Prince of Orange.]
+
+Whatever were the projects of the prince, there appeared to be great
+probability of their ultimate success. In 1684, he had gained so for,
+that the States of Holland, Zealand and Frizeland, had come to a
+resolution to confer upon him the sovereignty of their states, under the
+title of Count. All the conditions were settled: on one hand, the rights
+of the prince, on the other, the rights of the people, were defined and
+recognised; a contravention of them by any of the people was declared
+to be treason; the infringement of them by the prince, was declared to
+be a forfeiture of his sovereignty. Thus the prince seemed to be on the
+eve of receiving the fruit of all his exertions. But, as we have already
+mentioned, he was assassinated by Balthazar Gerard, a fanatic Spaniard.
+The last words of the prince were, "Lord! have mercy on my soul! have
+pity on my poor country!"
+
+In 1585, Prince Maurice, the second son of William, was, chiefly by the
+influence of Barneveldt, proclaimed Stadtholder by the States General.
+They were not less jealous of his views, than they had been of his
+father's; but the misconduct of the Earl of Leicester had made it
+necessary for them to throw themselves into the prince's arms. The
+weakness of Spain, and the troubles in France, now permitted the United
+Provinces to enjoy some repose. They availed themselves of it, to settle
+the constitution: the towns were repaired, the fortifications completed,
+Universities were founded or revived at Utrecht, Leyden and Franker; and
+the arts of peace began to be cultivated.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. IV. 1597-1610.]
+
+Maurice inherited all the civil talents of his father; he had greater
+military skill, and at least equal ambition. The art of war seems to
+consist, at the present time, in directing immense masses of men, by
+skilful evolutions and positions, to the destruction of the force
+opposed. In the wars of the Netherlands, it was principally shewn by
+surprising strong-holds, besieging towns, regular assaults, advantageous
+encampments, and wasting the army of the enemy by skilful marches. The
+camp of Maurice became a school, in which the nobility and gentry of the
+empire, France, and England, entered as volunteers, to learn the art of
+war. His taking of the city of Breda, raised his reputation to the
+highest: from this time, the war, which, on the part of the United
+Provinces, had till then, been a defensive war, became offensive, and
+their arms were attended with almost uninterrupted success: they equally
+triumphed on Sea.
+
+In 1698, the war between Spain and France was terminated. Philip II.
+soon afterwards died: he was succeeded by Philip III. a weak monarch.
+Then, began the naval glory of the United Provinces; their attacks on
+the West Indian and East Indian colonies of the Spaniards. In 1600,
+prince Maurice gained a decisive victory at Nieuport near Ostend: it was
+followed by other important successes. In 1607, Admiral Heemskirk
+obtained a complete victory over the Spanish fleet, though protected by
+the batteries of Cadiz, and seized their ships and treasures.
+
+[Sidenote: Armistice between Spain and the United Provinces.]
+
+The war between Spain and the United Provinces had now continued forty
+years: the resources of Spain were so exhausted, that she herself was
+forced to solicit an armistice. Prince Maurice objected to it, as the
+continuance of the war was essential to the furtherance of his own
+ambitious views. On this account, the truce was promoted by Barneveldt
+and the republican party. They justly thought that the aggrandizement of
+the house of Orange would be the extinction of the liberties of their
+country, so that the result of the war would only be, that the United
+Provinces would change their masters. After a long negotiation, an
+armistice of twelve years was agreed upon in 1609, and England and
+France guaranteed the execution of the treaty.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE FEUDS IN THE UNITED PROVINCES BETWEEN THE DISCIPLES OF CALVIN AND
+THE DISCIPLES OF ARMINIUS, UNTIL THE SYNOD AT DORT.
+
+1610-1617.
+
+
+It has generally happened, when a people have risen against their
+sovereign, that their first successes have been followed by divisions
+among themselves; and that these have endangered, and sometimes even
+ruined, their cause. Such a division took place, in a remarkable manner,
+in the conflict between the United Provinces and Spain. No sooner did
+the arms of the former begin to prosper, and promise ultimate success,
+than the ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY burst forth. At first, it was merely a
+religious dispute; but it soon mixed itself in the national politics;
+split the people into two very hostile parties, and produced contentions
+between them, which more than once brought their cause to the brink of
+destruction. Grotius was unfortunately involved in them. This part of
+the history now claims our attention.
+
+[Sidenote: Calvinism.]
+
+The reformed church, in the largest import of the word, comprises all
+the religious communities, which have separated themselves from the
+church of Rome. In this sense, the words are often used by English
+writers; but, having been adopted by the French Calvinists to describe
+_their_ church, these words are most commonly used, on the continent, as
+a general appellation of all the churches who profess the doctrines of
+Calvin.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+About the year 1541, the church of Geneva was placed by the magistrates
+of that city, under the direction of Calvin. He immediately conceived
+one of the boldest projects, that ever entered into the mind of an
+obscure individual. He undertook to new model the religious creed of the
+reformed church; to give it strength and consistency, and to render the
+church of Geneva the mother and mistress of all Protestant churches. His
+learning, eloquence, and talents for business, soon attracted general
+notice; and, while the fervour of his zeal, the austerity of his
+manners, and the devotional cast of his writings, attracted the
+multitude, the elegance of his compositions, and his insinuating style,
+equally captivated the gentleman and the scholar. By degrees, his fame
+reached every part of Europe. Having prevailed upon the senate of Geneva
+to found an academy, and place it under his superintendence, and having
+filled it with men eminent throughout Europe for their learning and
+talent, it became the favourite resort of all persons, who leaned to the
+new principles, and sought religious or literary instruction. From
+Germany, France, Italy, England and Scotland, numbers crowded to the new
+academy, and returned from it to their native countries, saturated with
+the doctrine of Geneva, and burning with zeal to propagate its creed.
+
+Calvin's peculiar doctrine on Predestination and Free-will soon
+attracted attention, and gave rise to _more than a civil war_[015] of
+controversy,[016]
+
+We feel that we are free: if we were not free, conscience could not
+exist; for, if a man had not freedom of action, conscience could not
+intimate to him either its approbation or its disapprobation of his
+actions.
+
+But--_how_ are we free? _How_ is free-will reconcileable, either with
+the influence of motive upon will? or with the order of the universe,
+prescribed by the Deity? or, with his prescience? For that, which his
+infinite mind prescribes or foresees, must be fixed.
+
+[Sidenote: Disputes on the Free-will of Man.]
+
+This question soon engaged the attention of the Greek Philosophers: some
+advocated the free-will of man; others denied it, and ascribed his
+actions to Fate or Destiny; a being or energy, which they were never
+able to define or describe. Among the Jews, the Sadducees embraced the
+former opinion; the Pharisees, the latter. Among the Mahometans, a like
+division took place between the followers of Omar, and those of Ali.
+
+Unfortunately, the Christians engaged in these ungrateful speculations:
+their disputes chiefly turned upon the effect, which motive, suggested
+by grace, or the divine favour, has upon will. Does it necessitate?
+then, there is no free-will,--no merit,--no demerit. Does it not
+necessitate? then, in the choice of good, man acts by his own power, and
+thus achieves a good of which God is not the author.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+The dispute was brought to an issue by _Pelagius_ and his disciples.
+They held, that man acts independently of divine grace, both in the
+choice and execution of good. This independence was denied by _St.
+Augustin_, he asserted, that man co-operates with grace, yet, that grace
+begins, advances and brings to perfection every thing in man, which can
+be justly called good. _St. Thomas of Aquin_ new-modelled the system of
+St. Augustin, and used new terms in describing it: his subtile
+distinctions, in the opinion of many, considerably improved it.
+
+_Calvin_ aggravated the doctrine of St. Augustin. He maintained,[017]
+that the everlasting condition of mankind in the future world, was
+determined from all eternity, by the _unchangeable order_ of the Deity;
+and that this _absolute_ determination of his will was the only source
+of _happiness or misery_ to individuals. Thus Calvin maintained, without
+any qualification, that God, from all eternity has doomed one part of
+mankind to everlasting happiness, the other to everlasting misery; and,
+was led to make this distinction, without regard to the merit or demerit
+of the object, and by no other reason or motive than his own pleasure.
+
+_Luther_,[018] in opposition to Calvin, maintained, that the _divine
+decrees_ respecting the salvation or misery of men, are founded upon a
+previous knowledge of their sentiments and characters; or, in other
+words, that God, foreseeing from all eternity the faith and virtue of
+some, and the incredulity or wickedness of others, has reserved eternal
+happiness for the former, and eternal misery for the latter.
+
+[Sidenote: Disputes on the Free-will of Man.]
+
+These, and other doctrinal differences, separated the Protestants into
+the adherents to the creed of Luther, and the adherents to the creed of
+Calvin. The United Provinces were among the latter: the creed of Calvin
+was, as we have mentioned, one of the fundamental laws of the Union.
+
+The Calvinistic doctrine, that God, from all eternity, consigns one
+portion of mankind, without any fault on their side, to everlasting
+torments, shocks our feelings, and is totally repugnant to the notions
+entertained by us of the goodness and justice of the Deity: it is not
+therefore surprising that it should be called in question. From the
+first, several objected to it; but it was not till the successes of the
+United Provinces appeared to afford them a near prospect of triumph,
+that the opposers of Calvin's doctrine formed themselves into a party,
+and occasioned a public sensation.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+The celebrated JAMES ARMINIUS[019] was at their head. He was born in
+1560, at Oudewater in Holland, of respectable parents. He lost his
+father in his infancy, and was indebted, for the first rudiments of his
+education, to a clergyman, who had imbibed some opinions of the reformed
+religion. Under his tuition, Arminius studied, during some time, at
+Utrecht. After the clergyman's decease, Rudolphus Snellius, a clergyman
+of eminence, took Arminius under his protection, and, in 1575, placed
+him at Marpurgh. There, he heard of the taking of Oudewater by the
+Spaniards, and their massacre of its inhabitants. His mother, sister,
+and two brothers were among the victims. On the first intelligence of
+the calamity he repaired to Oudewater, in hopes that the account of it
+might have been exaggerated. Finding it true, he retired to Leyden:
+there, his severe application to study, and the regularity of his
+morals, gained him universal esteem. In 1563, he was sent to Geneva, at
+the expense of the magistrates of Amsterdam, to perfect his studies
+under the care of Beza. Unfortunately, by adopting the philosophical
+principles, of _Ramus_, and unguardedly professing them, he displeased
+some leading men of the university, and was obliged to leave it: he then
+went to Bâsle. There, his reputation having preceded him, he was
+received with great kindness: the faculty of divinity offered him a
+doctor's degree; but a general wish for his return being expressed at
+Geneva, he declined the honour, and returned to that city. He then
+visited Italy, and, during some months, studied under Zabarella, a
+famous philosopher, who then lectured at Padua. In 1588, Arminius was
+ordained minister at Amsterdam.
+
+[Sidenote: Arminius.]
+
+Some theologians of Delft having attacked the sentiments of Calvin and
+Beza upon predestination, and given great offence by it, they defended
+themselves by a book, entitled; "An Answer to certain Arguments of Beza
+and Calvin, in the treatise concerning Predestination; or upon the ninth
+Chapter of the Epistle to the Romans." They transmitted their defence to
+Martin Lydius, a partisan of the divines whom it attacked; he sent it to
+Arminius, with a request that he would answer it. Arminius undertook the
+task, and attentively examined and weighed the arguments on each side;
+the result was, that he embraced the opinions which he had been called
+upon to confute, and even went further than the ministers of Delft. Upon
+this account, the friends of the rejected principles raised a great
+clamour against him; but were quieted by the intervention of the
+magistrates. The opinions, which Arminius adopted, he endeavoured to
+propagate. They are contained in the Remonstrance of his disciples,
+which we shall afterwards transcribe.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+As the language of Arminius seemed to express notions, more consonant
+than those of Calvin, to the sentiments entertained by rational
+Christians, of the goodness and justice of the Deity, it is not
+surprising that they found many advocates among the learned and
+moderate; but some ardent spirits were offended by them, and instilled
+their dislike of them into the populace. This, Arminius was soon made to
+feel. In 1603, he was appointed, on the death of Francis Junius, to a
+professorship of theology in the university of Leyden: great efforts
+were made, first to prevent, and afterwards to procure a recision of his
+appointment. He was accused of having said in a sermon, that "God had
+not yet sent his letter of divorce to the church of Rome;" but his
+friends produced a work of Francis Junius, his predecessor in the
+theological chair, in which that celebrated theologian had used the same
+expression. Arminius was also accused by his adversaries, of elevating
+the action of reason in the choice of good, at the expense of grace. To
+this Arminius replied, by accusing his adversaries of sacrificing reason
+entirely to grace. But the greater number of the enemies of Arminius
+supported their charges against him, by making it a question of
+authority: "the States," they said, "had decided the question, by
+adopting Calvin's doctrine at the union; so that the gainsayers of it
+were guilty of treason." The friends of Arminius replied, that he did
+not deny Calvin's doctrine, but merely explained it.
+
+[Sidenote: Arminius.]
+
+Thus they disputed;
+
+        "And found no end, in wandering mazes lost."
+                        Milton.
+
+In fact, the subject,--as the writer has more than once observed,--is
+above human reason: the day will come, "when the Almighty will be
+judged, and will overcome;"--when the secret of his councils will be
+unfolded, and their justice and goodness made manifest to all.[020]
+
+The friends of Arminius also observed, that he was by no means singular
+in his doctrine; that it was favoured by professors in Gueldres,
+Friesland, Utrecht, and other parts of Holland; and, that in all the
+provinces, it was patronized by the higher ranks of the laity. Was it
+fitting, they asked, that the peace of the church, and the tranquillity
+of the state, should be disturbed by such a dispute? by a dispute which
+affected no essential article of christianity; no civil, no moral, no
+religious observation?
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+The principal adversary of Arminius was _Gomarus_, also a professor of
+theology at Leyden. When the election of Arminius was proposed, Gomarus
+announced suspicions of his orthodoxy; he afterwards raised his tone,
+and accused Arminius of Pelagianism, of secretly inclining to the church
+of Rome, and holding principles which led to general scepticism and
+infidelity.
+
+Arminius died on the 19th October 1609.
+
+Grotius made his eulogium in verse. He had hitherto applied little to
+these matters; he acknowledges, in a letter written in 1609, his general
+ignorance of them. Entering afterwards into the dispute, he became
+convinced that the idea, which we ought to have of the goodness and
+justice of God, and even the language of the scriptures and the early
+fathers of the church, favoured the system of Arminius, and contradicted
+that of Gomarus.
+
+The prejudices against the Arminians increasing, they drew up a
+Remonstrance, dated the 14th January 1610, and addressed it to the
+States of Holland. It begins by stating what they do not believe: it
+afterwards propounds their own sentiments in the five articles
+following:[021]
+
+     [Sidenote: Remonstrance.]
+
+    1. "That God, by an eternal and immutable decree in Jesus Christ
+    his son, before the world was created, resolved to save in Jesus
+    Christ, on account of Jesus Christ, and through Jesus Christ,
+    those, from among mankind fallen in sin, who, by the grace of the
+    Holy Spirit believe in his same son Jesus; and through the same
+    grace continue in the faith and obedience to the end; and, on the
+    contrary, to leave under sin, and wrath, and to condemn the
+    obstinate and unbelieving, as having no part in Christ; according
+    to what is said _St. John_ iii. 36.
+
+    2. "That accordingly, Jesus Christ the Saviour of the world, died
+    for all and every man; and by his death on the cross has merited
+    for all, reconciliation with God, and remission of sin; in such
+    manner nevertheless, that no one can partake of them but believers,
+    according to the words of Jesus, _St. John_ iii. 16., 1 _John_ ii.
+    2.
+
+    3. "That man hath not saving faith of himself, and by the strength
+    of his own free will; since, while in a state of sin and apostasy,
+    he cannot of himself think, desire, or do, that which is truly
+    good, which is what is chiefly meant by saving faith; but it is
+    necessary that God in Jesus Christ, and by the Holy Spirit,
+    regenerate and renew him in his understanding and affections, or in
+    his will and all his powers; that he may know the true good,
+    meditate on it, desire, and do it. _St. John_ xv. 5.
+
+    [Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+    4. "That to this grace of God is owing the beginning, the
+    progression, and accomplishment of all good; in such manner, that
+    even the regenerate, without this antecedent, or preventing,
+    exciting, concomitant, and cooperating grace, cannot think that,
+    which is good, desire or practise it; nor resist any temptation to
+    evil; so that all the good works or actions he can conceive, spring
+    from the grace of God; that as to what regards the manner of
+    operation of this grace, it is not irresistible, since it is said
+    of several, they resisted the Holy Spirit. See _Acts_ vii. and
+    other places.
+
+    5. "That those, who by a lively faith are engrafted into Christ, and
+    consequently made partakers of his quickening spirit, are furnished
+    with sufficient strength to be able to combat, and even overcome
+    Satan, sin, the world, and their own lusts; and all this, as is
+    carefully to be observed, by the assistance of the grace and the
+    Holy Spirit; and that Jesus Christ succours them by his spirit in
+    all temptations, reaches to them his hand, (provided they be
+    willing to engage, ask his assistance, and are not wanting to
+    themselves,) supports and strengthens them: so, that they cannot be
+    led away by any wile or violence of Satan, or snatched out of
+    Christ's hands, as he says himself, _St. John_ x. _My sheep shall
+    no man pluck out of my hands_. For the rest, if it be asked whether
+    these may not through negligence let go the confidence they had
+    from the beginning, (Heb. iii. 6.) cleave again to the present
+    world, depart from the holy doctrine, which was delivered, make
+    shipwreck of a good conscience? (2 Pet. i. 10., Jude iii., 1 Tim.
+    i. 19., Heb. xii. 15.) This must be previously examined with more
+    care, by the Scriptures, to be able to teach it with full assurance
+    to others."
+
+Such is the Confession of Faith of the Arminians: they gave it the name
+of _Remonstrance_; and were styled from it REMONSTRANTS. It was drawn up
+by _Utengobard_, minister at the Hague, with the help, it is supposed,
+of Grotius: it was signed by forty-six ministers.
+
+[Sidenote: Contra-Remonstrance.]
+
+The Gomarists opposed to it a _Contra-Remonstrance_; which gave them the
+name of the CONTRA-REMONSTRANTS.
+
+It was about this time, that Grotius was elected Pensionary of
+Rotterdam, and ordered to England: it has been suggested, that he had
+secret instructions from the Arminians, to induce king James to favour
+their principles.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+We are informed, by Mr. Nichols, (_Calvinism and Arminianism
+compared_,)[022] that the Arminians sent to King James by Grotius, a
+true state of their case; that Grotius found an adversary in _Archbishop
+Abbott_, and friends in _Bishops Andrews_ and _Overal_; and that by
+their advice the monarch addressed to the States General, a wise and
+conciliatory letter.
+
+The irritation of the public mind increasing, the States of Holland, to
+restore tranquillity, published an edict of Pacification, by which they
+strongly enjoined forbearance, toleration, and silence. This was
+favourable to the Arminians, but it increased the violence of the
+_Contra-remonstrants_. Thus, it became a signal of war. The States of
+Holland transmitted it to King James: his Majesty, the archbishop of
+Canterbury, and the other English prelates, allowed its doctrine to be
+orthodox.
+
+[Sidenote: Remonstrants--Contra-Remonstrants.]
+
+Still, the troubles in Holland augmented: riots took place and greater
+riots were apprehended. In an evil hour, Barneveldt, the
+Grand-Pensionary, proposed to the States of Holland, that the
+magistrates of the cities of that province should he empowered to raise
+troops for the suppression of the rioters. Amsterdam, Dort, and other
+towns, that favoured the Gomarists, protested against this measure,
+styling it a declaration of war against the Contra-remonstrants. Yet,
+on the 4th August 1617, Barneveldt's proposition was agreed to, and
+promulgated.
+
+We have mentioned the enmity of Prince Maurice to Barneveldt, on account
+of his having promoted the armistice of 1609, and his favouring the
+republican party. The Prince professed to consider the edict of
+Pacification as derogatory of his authority, and forbade the soldiers to
+obey the States, if they should be ordered to act against the rioters.
+He publicly declared, that he favoured the Gomarists; he assisted, at
+the divine service, in their churches only, and shewed them every other
+mark of public favour. Exulting in this powerful support, the Gomarists
+separated themselves, formally, from the Arminians.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+To bring over Amsterdam to their sentiments, the States of Holland sent
+a deputation to the burgomasters of that city, and placed Grotius at its
+head. On the day after their arrival in Amsterdam, the burgomasters
+assembled to receive the deputies. Grotius addressed them in an
+argumentative and eloquent speech. He urged the necessity and advantage
+of religious toleration, particularly upon theoretical points of
+doctrine. He observed to the assembly, that Bullinger and Melancthon had
+been tolerated by Deza and Calvin; that James, the King of Great
+Britain, had advanced, in his writings, that each of the two opposite
+opinions on Predestination might be maintained without danger of
+reprobation; that Gomarus himself had declared that Arminius had not
+erred in any fundamental article of Christian doctrine; that the
+contested articles were of a very abstruse nature; that the affirmative
+or negative of the doctrines expressed in them, had not been determined;
+and that toleration would restore tranquillity and union, and favour the
+assembling of a numerous and respectable synod, which might labour with
+success in restoring peace to the church.
+
+Grotius delivered his speech in the Dutch language; it was afterwards
+translated into Latin; all, who heard, admired it; but it produced no
+effect on them. The deputies were uncivilly dismissed; and the oration
+of Grotius, by an order of the States General, was suppressed.[023]
+
+[Sidenote: Feuds of the Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants.]
+
+He was much affected by the bad success of his mission: he was seized
+with a fever, which nearly proved fatal to him. Many of his friends
+sought to persuade him to retire from the contest: he told them that he
+had taken his resolution after deep deliberation; that he was aware of
+his danger, and that he submitted the event to providence.
+
+The next effort of the States of Holland to pacify the troubles, was to
+prepare a _formula_ of peace, which the ministers of the two parties
+should be obliged to sign. It contained nothing contrary to the doctrine
+of Calvin; it referred the five articles to future examination, and
+prescribed, in the mean time, silence upon the parts in dispute. Grotius
+drew up the Formula; it was shewn to Prince Maurice, and rejected by
+him.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+Matters now converged to a crisis:--we have more than once mentioned the
+opposite politics of Prince Maurice and Barneveldt, the
+Grand-Pensionary; the former wishing to draw the whole sovereign power
+to himself; the latter endeavouring to preserve and stabilitate the the
+constitution of the Provinces, as it had been settled by the Act of
+Union. We noticed that the Gomarists sided with the Prince; the
+Arminians with the Grand-Pensionary. As the Prince was aware that the
+States of Holland were favourable to the Arminians, that the States
+General were opposed to them, and that the clergy of each denomination
+partook of the civil and ecclesiastical opinions of their flocks, he
+convened a national synod of the clergy; and, that be might the more
+overawe his opponents and strengthen his own party, he appointed the
+synod to meet in Holland. Against this synod the provinces of Holland,
+Utretcht, and Overyssell protested. Barneveldt was so much affected by
+the disturbances, and a view of the evils with which they appeared to
+threaten his country, that he sought to resign his place of
+Grand-Pensionary; but the States of the province of Holland, which
+needed more than ever the counsels of such an experienced minister, sent
+a deputation to him, beseeching him not to abandon them in times of so
+much difficulty. He thought it his duty to yield to their entreaty, and
+continued to exercise the functions of his office.
+
+[Sidenote: Imprisonment of Barneveldt, Grotius and Hoogerbetz.]
+
+To frustrate the designs of Prince Maurice, several cities favourable to
+the Arminians levied bodies of militia, and gave them the name of
+_Attendant Soldiers_. The States-General, at the instigation of Prince
+Maurice, enjoined the cities to disband them. The cities generally
+disobeyed these orders. In this they were justified by the established
+constitution: the Prince, however, treated their conduct as rebellious;
+and, in concert with the States General, marched in person, at the head
+of his troops, against the refractory cities. Wherever he came, he
+disarmed and disbanded the new levies; deposed the Arminian magistrates,
+and expelled the ministers of their party.
+
+In the provinces of Gueldres and Overyssell, he met with no resistance;
+and little at Arnheim: greater resistance was expected at Utretcht: the
+States of Holland sent Grotius and Hoogerbetz, the Pensionary of Leyden,
+to stimulate the inhabitants to resistance; but the fortune of the
+Prince prevailed. In an extraordinary assembly, which consisted of eight
+persons only, yet assuming to act as the States General, the Prince
+procured an ordonnance to be passed, which directed Barneveldt, Grotius,
+and Hoogerbetz to be taken into immediate custody. They were accordingly
+arrested, and confined in the Castle at the Hague.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+Thus the Prince's party prevailed in every part of the United Provinces.
+About this time, he succeeded, in consequence of the death of his elder
+brother, to the dignity of Prince of Orange.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE SYNOD OF DORT.
+
+1618.
+
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.]
+
+The States General determined that the Synod[024] should be composed of
+twenty-six divines of the United Provinces, twenty-eight foreign
+divines, five professors of divinity, and sixteen laymen;--seventy-five
+members in the whole. The expence was calculated at 100,000 florins. The
+English divines were, Dr. George Carlton, Bishop of Llandaff; Dr. Joseph
+Hall, Dean of Worcester; John Davenant, professor of divinity, and
+Master of Queen's college, Cambridge; Samuel Ward, Archdeacon of
+Taunton, and head of Sidney college, Cambridge. To these were added,
+Walter Balcanqual, a Scottish theologian, as representative of the
+Scottish churches. The ever-memorable John Hales of Eaton, as that
+learned and amiable person is justly termed by protestant writers, was
+permitted to attend the debates of the Synod, but was not allowed to
+speak, or take any part in its proceedings.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+We have mentioned that Arminius was converted to the opinions, which he
+defended afterwards so strenuously, by the perusal of a work in support
+of the opposite doctrine, which he had been desired to confute. In the
+same manner, the proceedings of the Contra-Remonstrants, at the Synod of
+Dort, made Mr. Hales a Remonstrant. We are informed by his friend Mr.
+Faringdon, that, in his younger days, he was a Calvinist; but that some
+explanations given by Episcopius of the text in John iii. 16, induced
+him, as he himself said, to "bid John Calvin, Good Night." His letters
+from Dort to Sir Dudley Carleton, the English ambassador at the Hague,
+contain an interesting account of the proceedings of the assembly.[025]
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.]
+
+Dr. Heylin says, in his "Quinquarticular History," that the theologians
+sent by King James to Dort, were inclined to condemn the Remonstrants;
+but he intimates that the monarch acted from reasons of state; and that
+he was more hostile to their persons than their doctrines: Brand makes
+the same remark upon Prince Maurice. It seems to be admitted, that, in
+the conference at Hampton Court, King James declared against absolute
+predestination.[026]
+
+The English divines arrived at the Hague on the 5th November 1618: they
+were immediately presented to the States General, and most honourably
+received.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+The King of France had permitted two Protestant theologians of his
+kingdom to attend the Synod; but afterwards revoked the permission. The
+French Protestant churches had deputed to it, the celebrated Peter de
+Moulin and Andrew Rivet; but the King prohibited their attending it,
+under severe penalties.
+
+After the election of the members was finally adjusted, the Synod
+appeared to be composed of about seventy Contra-Remonstrants and
+fourteen Arminians.
+
+It was opened on the 13th of November 1618. Two commissioners of the
+States placed themselves on the right side of the chimney of the room;
+the English divines were placed on the left; seats were kept vacant for
+the French; the third place was assigned to the deputies from the
+Palatinate; the fourth, to those from Hesse; the fifth, to the Swiss;
+the sixth to the Genevans; the seventh to the theologians from Bremen;
+and the eighth to those from Embden. The professors of theology were
+placed immediately after the commissioners; then, the ministers and
+elders of the country. By an arrangement, favoured by the States,
+thirty-six ministers and twenty elders were added to the five
+professors. Of this the Remonstrants complained, on the just ground,
+that it evidently gave their adversaries an undue preponderance.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.]
+
+The commissioners nominated the celebrated Daniel Heinsius secretary.
+The Remonstrants objected to him; they admitted his extensive
+acquaintance with polite literature, and his elegant taste; but
+asserted, that he possessed no theological learning, and was prejudiced
+against them. Episcopius was always considered to be at the head of the
+Remonstrants: he has seldom been excelled in learning, eloquence, or
+power of argumentation.
+
+No further business than arranging the forms of sitting and voting, was
+transacted at the _first session_ of the Synod. _At the second_, the
+Synod constituted John Bogerman its president, and appointed two
+assessors and two secretaries: all five were distinguished for their
+known hostility to the Remonstrants. The appointment of Bogerman
+particularly offended them, as he openly avowed it to be his opinion
+that heretics should be punished by death; and had translated into the
+Dutch language the celebrated treatise of Beza, _de hæreticis a civili
+magistratu puniendis_, in which this doctrine is explicitly maintained
+in its fullest extent.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+_In the third session_,--the deputies from Geneva produced their
+commission: it was expressed in terms decidedly hostile to the
+Remonstrants.
+
+_In the fourth session_,--the grand preliminary question,--in what
+manner the Remonstrants were to be summoned,--came under consideration.
+After much argument, it was settled, by a great majority of voices, that
+"Episcopius and some other Remonstrants should within a fortnight,
+appear before the Synod, as the sovereign ecclesiastical tribunal of the
+United States."
+
+The Remonstrants and the advocates of their cause protested against this
+proceeding: they called in question the authority of the Synod to sit as
+judges upon them, or even to decide any point of doctrine definitively:
+they averred it contrary to the evangelical liberty professed and taught
+by the first Reformers. Every friend to the true principles of the
+reformation must admit the force of this objection.
+
+The _5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th Sessions_
+of the intermediate fortnight, were consumed in debates upon a projected
+new translation of the Scriptures; _the 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th,
+19th, 20th_ and _21st Sessions_ were employed in discussions,
+upon a new catechism, and other ecclesiastical arrangements.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.]
+
+The _22d Session_ was held on the 6_th_ of December. The
+Remonstrants appeared before the Synod, and requested further time for
+preparing their defence on the articles with which they were charged.
+Their request was denied: and Episcopius having said, that "They wished
+to enter into a conference with the Synod," a resolution was passed, by
+which the Synod declared, that "the Remonstrants had not been cited to
+_confer_ with the Synod; but to propound their opinions, and submit
+to its judgment."
+
+The Remonstrants then paid their visits to the foreign theologians:
+these they found greatly prejudiced against them; they therefore
+published two short writings, explaining and justifying their
+sentiments.
+
+In _the 23d Session_, Episcopius made a long discourse. Mr.
+John Hales praised it highly, in a letter addressed by him to the
+English ambassador An oath was prescribed to the members, by which they
+promised, that, in the examination of the five articles, "or any other
+points of doctrine which should be discussed, they would confine
+themselves to the Scriptures, and resort to no human authority." But,
+what was the Synod itself more than human authority? The oath was not
+tendered to the Remonstrants; it was declined by the Swiss.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+The _24th Session_ was consumed in debates: _on the 25th_,
+Episcopius read a long document, and afterwards presented it to the
+Synod. He protested in it against the authority of the Synod, and asked
+the searching question, whether the Calvinists would "submit to a Synod
+of Lutherans?" To this question, no answer was given: an angry
+discussion followed.
+
+
+It continued during _the 27th and 28th Sessions_.
+
+On _the 29th_, the opinions of foreign divines were produced in
+favour of the authority of the Synod: those of the English divines, and
+the divines of Bremen, were expressed with more moderation than the
+others. The divines of Geneva stated, that, "if a person obstinately
+refused to submit to the just decisions of the church, he might be
+proceeded against in two ways; the _magistrate_ might coerce him,
+and the _church_ might publicly excommunicate him as a violator of
+the law of God."
+
+The dispute was more violent in _the 30th Session_.
+
+Finally, the Remonstrants agreed to propound their sentiments in
+writing; but with an express salvo, of their right to liberty of
+conscience, and to retain their objections to the authority of the
+Synod.
+
+In _the 31st Session_, the Remonstrants presented to the
+Synod a writing, containing their sentiments upon Predestination,--the
+first and most important of the five articles.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.]
+
+In _the 34th Session_, they presented their sentiments upon the
+four other articles; and in _the 39th Session_, upon the Catechism
+of Heidelberg. The Synod had enjoined them to confine themselves to
+explanations of their own doctrine, and to abstain from controverting
+the doctrines of the Calvinists. These debates carried the Synod to its
+_46th Session_.
+
+In that session, the resolution of the States General upon the
+proceedings of the Synod was produced. They declared by it, that "the
+Remonstrants were obliged to submit to the decrees of the Synod,"--and
+that "if they persisted in their disobedience to them, both the censures
+of the church, and the penalties by which the States punished violators
+of public authority, should be inflicted upon them." The States ordered
+the Remonstrants to remain, in the meantime, in the town.
+
+The Remonstrants persisting in their refusal to acknowledge the
+authority of the Synod, an assembly of it met on _the 57th
+Session_, and formally expelled the Remonstrants from the Synod.
+Episcopius exclaimed, "May God decide between the Synod and us!" "I
+appeal," said Niellius, "from the injustice of the Synod, to the throne
+of Jesus Christ." All remained firm in their protestation.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+Mr. Hales and Mr. Balcanqual, in their letters to the English
+ambassador, blame the proceedings of the Synod.[027] The only question
+between the Synod and the Remonstrants was, whether the latter would
+submit to acknowledge the authority of the former. This, the
+Remonstrants uniformly refused to do. In almost every Synod there was a
+repetition of the same demand, and of the same answer. By every English
+reader, the demand of the Synod will be thought exorbitant.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP VI. 1618.]
+
+The Synod relaxed afterwards so far, as to permit the Remonstrants to
+deliver their sentiments in writing: they did it at great length. But
+they still persisted in objecting to the authority of the Synod, and to
+be examined by it. The Synod therefore proceeded against them in their
+absence; and ultimately, on the 24th of April 1610, pronounced them
+guilty of pestilential errors, and corruptors of the true religion. The
+five articles were formally condemned; Episcopius and the other
+ministers were deposed.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+"There are conclusions," says Grotius,[028] in a letter written by him
+in the same year, "in the canons of the Synod of Dort, of which, if good
+Melancthon were again to make his appearance, he would express his
+disapprobation, and with which Bullinger would be no less grieved; there
+are others, which alienate all the Lutherans from the Calvinists;
+although amity and concord are desirable between them and us at this
+juncture. There are some points in them, which forbid the Greek churches
+from uniting with us, though they are very favourable to us; but there
+are others of the Dort canons, which admit of no controversy.--It is
+possible that they may recall to mind my labours for unity. Even those
+writings, which I published since my calamity, have not been diverted
+from the same peaceful object." If ever any Protestant divines deserved
+the reproach cast by Mr. Gibbon,[029] on the first reformers in general,
+"of being ambitious to succeed the tyrants whom they had dethroned,"
+they were the members of the Synod of Dort.
+
+The Synod was closed on the 29th of May.
+
+The sentence passed by it on the Remonstrants was approved by the States
+General on the 3d July 1619. On the same day, the Arminian ministers,
+who had been detained at Dort, were, by a sentence of the States
+General, banished or imprisoned, deprived of their employments, and the
+effects of some were confiscated. Similar severities were exercised on
+the Arminians in most of the territories subject to the States General.
+To avoid the persecution, some fled to Antwerp, some to France, the
+greater part to Holstein. There, under the wise protection of the
+reigning duke, they settled, and afterwards built a town, which from him
+they called Friedericstadt.
+
+They continued to assert the irregularity of the Synod: the Bishop of
+Meaux shrewdly observed, that "they employed against the authority of
+the Synod, the same arguments as the Protestants use against the
+authority of the Council of Trent."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP VI. 1618.]
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+For the publication of _Acts of the Council_, divines were chosen
+out of various districts of the United Provinces: their edition of the
+Acts was published at Dort in the year 1620, in folio, in the types of
+the Elzevirs; and was soon afterwards republished with greater
+correctness, in the same year, at Hanover, in quarto, with an addition
+of a copious index.--An Epistle of their High Mightinesses the States
+General, addressed to the Monarchs, Kings, Princes, Counts, Cities and
+Magistrates of the Christian world, and vouching for the authority and
+authenticity of the Acts,[030] is prefixed to this edition. The
+Remonstrants published an edition of the Acts in 1620, in 4to.: it is
+said,[031] that from a fear of their adversaries, it was printed on
+ship-board.
+
+Here, the history of the Arminians, so far as it is connected with that
+part of the Life of Grotius to which our subject has hitherto led us,
+seems to close. We shall hereafter be called upon to resume it.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT OF GROTIUS. HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON.
+
+1618-1621.
+
+
+While the Synod of Dort continued its sittings, Prince Maurice and his
+party were actively employed in increasing the popular ferment against
+Barneveldt, Grotius and Hoogerbetz; in collecting evidence of the
+designs and practices of which they were accused, and in framing the
+legal proceedings against them in such a manner as was most likely both
+to procure their conviction, and to persuade the public of their guilt.
+
+We have mentioned that their confinement took place on the 20th of
+August 1618, and that they were removed from the Hague, the original
+place of their imprisonment, to the Castle of Louvestein. On the 19th
+November, the States General, at the instigation of Prince Maurice,
+nominated twenty-six commissioners for their trial. All the prisoners
+objected both to the jurisdiction of the commissioners, and to that of
+the States General; and asserted that the States of Holland were their
+only competent judges. They observed, at the same time, that many of the
+judges were notoriously prejudiced against the Arminians.
+
+[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.]
+
+The act of accusation contained many general charges, and many averments
+of particular facts, supposed to substantiate them. It was alleged
+against the prisoners, that they had disturbed the established religion
+of the United Provinces; that, in direct contradiction of the articles
+of union, they had asserted the right of each province to decide for
+itself in matters of religion; that they had set up the authority and
+interests of the States of Holland and West Friesland against those of
+the States General; that they were the authors of the Insurrection at
+Utrecht; had levied, in opposition to the orders of government, the
+attendant soldiers; had raised jealousies between the Prince and several
+of the Provincial States, and between these and the States General; and
+that, by their habitual conduct, they had become public disturbers of
+the tranquillity of the republic, and councillors and practisers of
+schemes hostile to its welfare.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618-1621.]
+
+The Commissioners proceeded to the trial of Barneveldt. Uniformly
+protesting against the competency of the tribunal, Barneveldt defended
+himself with great firmness and ability. He controverted every article
+of the accusation, and concluded his defence, by a long and pathetic
+enumeration of the services, which he had rendered to the republic; and
+of the numerous actions, by which he had shewn his attachment to Prince
+William and Prince Maurice:--he proved that it had been principally
+owing to him, that the Stadtholderate had been conferred on the latter.
+He admitted that he had suspected the Prince of designs hostile to the
+constitution of the United Provinces, and had opposed the Prince in
+every measure, which appeared to have such a tendency; but he asserted
+that he never had resorted to means which the laws or constitution of
+the Provinces did not warrant. His arguments were unanswerable; but
+Prince Maurice was determined on his ruin; and the Commissioners were
+wholly subservient to the prince's views: they accordingly passed
+unanimously a sentence of death upon Barneveldt.
+
+[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.]
+
+Many of the princes of Europe expressed their dissatisfaction at these
+proceedings: none so much as the French monarch. To him, the great merit
+of Barneveldt had been long known. He considered that the conduct of
+Prince Maurice was likely to involve the United Provinces in troubles,
+of which Spain might take advantages. From personal regard to
+Barneveldt, and with a view of terminating the discord, the monarch sent
+an ambassador extraordinary to the United States, and ordered him to
+join Du Maurier, his ambassador in ordinary, in soliciting them in
+favour of the accused, and in labouring to restore the public
+tranquillity. The ambassadors executed their commission with the
+greatest zeal. They made many remonstrances, and had several audiences
+both with the States and the Prince. The States, instigated by the
+Prince, expressed great indignation at the proceedings of the
+ambassadors.
+
+All the accused were respectably allied, and had many friends: numerous
+applications were made in their favour. They undeviatingly demeaned
+themselves with the firmness and modest dignity of conscious innocence.
+They persisted in denying the guilt attributed to them, and in
+protesting against the competency of the tribunal. They made no
+degrading submission. At a subsequent time, a son of Barneveldt having
+been condemned to death, his mother applied to Prince Maurice, for his
+pardon. The Prince observed to her, that she had made no such
+application in behalf of her husband; "No," she replied, "I know my son
+is guilty, I therefore solicit his pardon; I knew my husband was
+innocent, I therefore solicited no pardon for him."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618--1621.]
+
+On Monday morning, May 13, 1619, Barneveldt was informed that he was to
+be executed upon that day. He received the notification of it with great
+firmness; he inquired whether Grotius and Hoogerbetz were to suffer:
+being answered in the negative, he expressed much satisfaction,
+observing that "they were of an age to be still able to serve the
+republic."
+
+    "The scaffold for his execution," says Burigni, "was erected in the
+    Court of the Castle at the Hague, facing the Prince of Orange's
+    apartments. He made a short speech to the people, which is yet
+    preserved in the _Mercure Françoise_. 'Burghers!' he said, 'I have
+    been always your faithful countryman; believe not that I die for
+    treason: I die for maintaining the rights and liberties of my
+    country!' After this speech, the executioner struck off his head at
+    one blow. It is affirmed that the Prince of Orange, to feast
+    himself with the cruel pleasure of seeing his enemy perish, beheld
+    the execution with a glass; the people looked on it with other
+    eyes: many came to gather the sand wet with his blood, to keep it
+    carefully in phials; and the crowd of those, who had the same
+    curiosity, continued next day, notwithstanding all they could do
+    to hinder them.
+
+    "Thus fell that great minister, who did the United Provinces as much
+    service in the cabinet, as the Prince of Orange did in the field.
+    It is highly probable that the melancholy end of this illustrious
+    and unfortunate man was owing to his steadiness in opposing the
+    design of making Prince Maurice Dictator."[032]
+
+[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.]
+
+The Prince pursued his triumph. Soon after the arrest of Grotius, the
+States of Holland presented a petition to the Prince, representing the
+arrest as a breach of their constitutional rights; the Prince referred
+it to the States General. To these, therefore, they presented a similar
+petition; praying at the same time, that Grotius might be tried by the
+laws and usages of the Provinces of Holland: no regard was shewn to
+their petitions.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618--1621.]
+
+Grotius had an invaluable friend:--he was no sooner arrested, than his
+wife petitioned to share his confinement throughout the whole of his
+imprisonment: it was denied. Grotius fell ill: she renewed the
+application: it was absolutely rejected: but neither his wife, nor any
+of the friends of Grotius ever recommended to him an unworthy
+submission. He always denied the competency of the tribunal appointed to
+try him: his wife and brother uniformly recommended him to persist in
+his plea.
+
+Much disregard of form took place, and many arbitrary acts were
+perpetrated, in the proceedings against Grotius. On the 18th of May
+1619, the Commissioners pronounced sentence against him. After
+enumerating all the charges, of which he was accused, and asserting that
+all were proved against him, the judges condemned him to perpetual
+imprisonment, and his estates to be confiscated. The same sentence was
+passed on Hoogerbetz; but the house of the latter was assigned to him
+for his imprisonment.
+
+On the 6th of June, Grotius was taken to Louvestein. It lies near
+Gorcum, in South Holland, at the point of the island formed by the Vaal
+and the Meuse. Twenty-four sous a day were allowed for his maintenance;
+but his wife undertook to support him, during his confinement, from her
+own estate. She was at length admitted into prison with him, on
+condition that she should remain in it, while his imprisonment lasted.
+
+[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.]
+
+At first, his confinement was very rigid: by degrees it was relaxed: his
+wife was allowed to leave the prison for a few hours, twice in every
+week. He was permitted to borrow books, and to correspond, except on
+politics, with his friends.
+
+He beguiled the tedious hours of confinement by study, relieving his
+mind by varying its objects. Antient and modern literature equally
+engaged his attention: Sundays he wholly dedicated to prayer and the
+study of theology.
+
+Twenty months of imprisonment thus passed away. His wife now began to
+devise projects for his liberty. She had observed that he was not so
+strictly watched as at first; that the guards, who examined the chest
+used for the conveyance of his books and linen, being accustomed to see
+nothing in it but books and linen, began to examine them loosely: at
+length, they permitted the chest to pass without any examination. Upon
+this, she formed her project for her husband's release.
+
+She began to carry it into execution by cultivating an intimacy with the
+wife of the commandant of Gorcum. To her, she lamented Grotius's
+immoderate application to study; she informed her that it had made him
+seriously ill; and that, in consequence of his illness, she had resolved
+to take all his books from him, and restore them to their owners. She
+circulated every where the account of his illness, and finally declared
+that it had confined him to his bed.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618--1621.]
+
+In the mean time, the chest was accommodated to her purpose; and
+particularly, some holes were bored in it, to let in air. Her maid and
+the valet of Grotius were entrusted with the secret. The chest was
+conveyed to Grotius's apartment. She then revealed her project to him,
+and, after much entreaty, prevailed on him to get into the chest, and
+leave her in the prison.
+
+The books, which Grotius borrowed, were usually sent to Gorcum; and the
+chest, which contained them, passed in a boat, from the prison at
+Louvestein, to that town.
+
+[Sidenote: His Escape from Prison.]
+
+Big with the fate of Grotius, the chest, as soon as he was enclosed in
+it, was moved into the boat. One of the soldiers, observing that it was
+uncommonly heavy, insisted on its being opened, and its contents
+examined; but, by the address of the maid, his scruples were removed,
+and the chest was lodged in the boat. The passage from Louvestein to
+Gorcum took a considerable time. The length of the chest did not exceed
+three feet and a half. At length, it reached Gorcum: it was intended
+that it should be deposited at the house of David Bazelaer, an Arminian
+friend of Grotius, who resided at Gorcum. But, when the boat reached the
+shore, a difficulty arose, how the chest was to be conveyed from the
+spot, upon which it was to be landed, to Bazelaer's house. This
+difficulty was removed by the maid's presence of mind; she told the
+bystanders, that the chest contained glass, and that it must be moved
+with particular care. Two chairmen were soon found, and they carefully
+moved it on a horse-chair to the appointed place.
+
+Bazelaer sent away his servants on different errands, opened the chest,
+and received his friend with open arms. Grotius declared, that while he
+was in the chest, he had felt much anxiety, but had suffered no other
+inconvenience. Having dressed himself as a mason, with a rule and
+trowel, he went, through the back door of Bazelaer's house, accompanied
+by his maid, along the market-place, to a boat engaged for the purpose.
+It conveyed them to Vervie in Brabant: there, he was safe. His maid then
+left him, and, returning to his wife, communicated to her the agreeable
+information of the success of the enterprise.
+
+[Sidenote: Chap. VII. 1618-1621.]
+
+As soon as Grotius's wife ascertained that he was in perfect safety, she
+informed the guards of his escape: these communicated the intelligence
+to the governor. He put her into close confinement; but in a few days,
+an order of the States General set her at liberty, and permitted her to
+carry with her every thing at Louvestein, which belonged to her. It is
+impossible to think without pleasure of the meeting of Grotius and his
+heroic wife. From Vervie he proceeded to Antwerp; a few days after his
+arrival in that city, he addressed a letter to the States General: he
+assured them, that, in procuring his liberty, he had used neither
+violence nor corruption. He solemnly protested that his public conduct
+had been blameless, and that the persecution he had suffered would never
+lessen his attachment to his country.
+
+[Sidenote: His Escape from Prison.]
+
+It was on the 22d March 1621, that Grotius obtained his liberty. In the
+same year, the truce, concluded for twelve years between Spain and the
+United Provinces expired: it was expected, that the war would be resumed
+with more fury than ever. But this did not happen; the war of thirty
+years, which we shall afterwards have occasion to mention, had mixed the
+contest between Spain and the United Provinces with the general military
+plans and operations of the parties engaged in it, and had carried much
+of the conflict from the Low Countries into Germany. Prince Maurice
+still appeared at the head of the army of the United Provinces; but he
+had lost, by his persecution of the Arminians, and his selfish
+intrigues, the confidence of the people. Conspiracies against his life
+were formed: fortune no longer favoured his arms. His attempts to compel
+the Marquis Spinola to raise the siege of Bréda were unsuccessful. This
+reverse of fortune preyed upon his mind. He thought himself haunted by a
+spectre of Barneveldt: he was frequently heard, during his last illness,
+to exclaim, "Remove this head from me!" "This anecdote," says the author
+of the _Resumé de l'histoire de la Hollande_, "is related by all the
+republican historians of the United Provinces; it is concealed by the
+flatterers of the House of Orange.... To relate the remorse of princes
+for their crimes, is one of the most useful duties of historians."
+
+Prince Maurice died in 1625.
+
+M. Le Clerc, in the 2d volume of the _Bibliotheque Choisée, art. 3_,
+shews, by unquestionable facts and irresistible arguments, that both
+Prince William and Prince Maurice sought to obtain the independent
+sovereignty of the United Provinces. It was the aim of all their
+successors: it has been effected in our times by means, which certainly
+were foreseen by none.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+VORSTIUS,--JAMES I.
+
+1622.
+
+
+We must now carry back our readers to events which preceded the Synod of
+Dort. We have mentioned the decease of Arminius: soon after it, a
+circumstance took place, which, to the exquisite delight of the monarch,
+who, at that time filled the British throne, involved him in the
+theological disputes of the Belgic theologians.
+
+Not long after the commencement of the Reformation, several bold
+inquirers began to deny the trinity of persons in the Deity, the divine
+authority of the Old and New Testament, and the existence of mystery in
+the Christian dispensation. Both Catholics and Protestants united
+against them. To avoid their hostilities, the maintainers of these
+opinions fled to Poland, and, forming themselves into a distinct
+congregation, published, in 1574, their First Catechism. They
+established congregations at Cracow, Lubin, Pinczow, Luck and Smila:
+but their most flourishing settlement was at Racow.
+
+[Sidenote: Vorstius--James I.]
+
+They spread their doctrines over each bank of the Danube, and at length
+penetrated Italy. There, they were adopted by Loelius Socinus. After
+many peregrinations in different parts of Europe, he finally settled at
+Zurich. Faustus Socinus, his nephew, inherited his sentiments; and, on
+this account, was obliged to quit Zurich. After many wanderings, he
+fixed his residence at Racow. There, he was received with open arms by
+the new communion, and completed their system of theology. From him,
+they derived their appellation of SOCINIANS. Their doctrine is expressed
+in the Racovian catechism, published, in the Polish language, in 1605.
+Other editions of it have appeared. An English translation of the
+edition of 1605, was published at Amsterdam in 1652: Dr. Toulmin, in his
+Life of Socinus, ascribes it, seemingly by conjecture, to Mr. John
+Biddle. In 1818, Mr. Rees published a new translation of it, prefixing
+to it an interesting historical preface.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VIII. 1622.]
+
+Among the disciples of Arminius, was the celebrated CONRADE VORSTIUS,
+born at Cologne in 1569, of parents in reduced circumstances: he was
+soon remarked for his diligence and irreproachable conduct; and was, in
+1605, appointed to a professor's chair at Steinfurth. In 1610, he
+quitted it, and was named to succeed Arminius, in the chair of Professor
+of Theology, at Leyden. "He was beloved and honoured," says Mr.
+Chalmers, "at Steinfurth; there, he enjoyed the utmost tranquillity, and
+was in the highest reputation; he doubtless foresaw, that in the state
+in which the controversies of Arminius and Gomarus were at that time, he
+should meet with great opposition in Holland. But he was tempted by the
+glory he should gain by supporting a party, which was weakened by
+Arminius's death."
+
+[Sidenote: Vorstius--James I.]
+
+He had previously published his Treatise "_de Deo_." Some passages
+in it were thought to favour the doctrine of Arminius; some, to lead to
+Socinianism; and some, to have an ulterior tendency. That Arminius
+himself discovers these views in his writings, has been frequently
+asserted. Doctor Maclaine, the learned translator of Mosheim's
+Ecclesiastical History,[033] observes it to be a common opinion, that
+"the disciples of Arminius, and more especially Episcopius, had boldly
+transgressed the bounds, that had been wisely prescribed by their
+master, and had gone ever to the Pelagians, and even to the Socinians."
+"Such," continues Dr. Maclaine, "is the opinion commonly entertained
+upon this matter. But it appears on the contrary evident to me, that
+Arminius himself had laid the plan of the theological system, that was,
+in after times embraced by his followers; that he had instilled the
+principles of it into the minds of his disciples; and that these latter
+did really no more than bring this plan to a greater degree of
+perfection, and propagate with more courage and perspicuity the
+doctrines it contains." To prove this assertion, the Doctor cites a
+passage from the Will of Arminius, in which he declares, that "his view
+in all his theological and ministerial labours, was to unite in one
+community, cemented by the bonds of fraternal charity, all sects and
+denominations of Christians, the papists excepted." "These words, on
+this account," continues Dr. Maclaine, "coincide perfectly with the
+modern system of Arminianism, which extends the limits of the christian
+church, and relaxes the bonds of fraternal communion in such a manner,
+that Christians of all sects and all denominations, whatever their sects
+and opinions may be, (Papists excepted) may be formed into one religious
+body, and live together in brotherly love and concord." It is not
+surprising that in the state of religious effervescence, in which the
+minds of men were at the time of which we are now speaking, a suspicion
+that Vorstius entertained the sentiments we have mentioned, or
+sentiments nearly approaching to them, should have rendered him a
+subject of jealousy. So greatly was this the case, that the
+Contra-remonstrants appealed against his doctrines to several Protestant
+states, and represented to them the doctrine of Vorstius in the most
+odious light. Our James I. accepted the appeal: by a royal proclamation,
+he caused Vorstius's Treatise _de Deo_ to be burnt in London, and each
+of the English Universities. He drew up a list, of the several heresies,
+which he had discovered in it, commanded his resident at the Hague to
+notify them to the States; to express his horror of them, and his
+detestation of those, who should tolerate them.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VIII. 1622.]
+
+[Sidenote: Vorstius.--James I.]
+
+With some intimation of their independence, the States replied, that
+"the case was of _their_ cognizance;" that "they would examine it;"
+and that, "if it should appear that Vorstius maintained the doctrines
+imputed to him, they would not suffer him to live among them." The
+monarch's orthodoxy was not satisfied with this answer. He repeated his
+suggestions, that the States should proceed against Vorstius; and
+hinted, that if the doctrines should be proved against him, and if he
+should persist in them, burning might be a proper punishment for him.
+The monarch added that, if the States did not use their utmost
+endeavours to extirpate the rising heresy, he should publicly protest
+against their conduct; that, in quality of defender of the faith, he
+would exhort all Protestant churches to join in one general resolution
+to extinguish the abomination, and would, as sovereign of his own
+dominions, prohibit his subjects to frequent so pestilential a place as
+the University of Leyden. To his menaces he added the terrors of his
+pen, and published a "Confutation of Vorstius."
+
+By the advice of the States, Vorstius replied to his royal adversary in
+a most respectful manner; still, the royal adversary was not satisfied.
+Finally, the States condemned the obnoxious doctrines of Vorstius,
+divested him of all his offices; and sentenced him to perpetual
+banishment. Vorstius remained concealed during two years; then found an
+asylum in the dominions of the Duke of Holstein, who, as we have
+mentioned, took the remains of the Arminians into his protection.
+
+Vorstius died in 1622.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+GROTIUS AFTER HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON, TILL HIS APPOINTMENT OF AMBASSADOR
+FROM SWEDEN TO THE COURT OF FRANCE.
+
+1621-1634.
+
+
+Soon after the escape of Grotius from prison, he repaired to Paris: in
+this, he followed the advice of Du Maurier, the French ambassador at the
+Hague. His works had made him known in every part of Europe, in which
+learning was cultivated: but persons properly qualified to appreciate
+their merit, existed no where in such abundance as at Paris: he was
+personally esteemed and regarded by the monarch; and the principal
+officers of state were attached to him. Paris was also recommended to
+him by its libraries, the easy access to them, and the habitual
+intercourse of the men of letters, who, during, at least, a great part
+of the year, made that city their place of residence.
+
+[Sidenote: From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of
+Ambassador.]
+
+Grotius arrived at Paris on the 13th of April 1621. He was immediately
+noticed by a multitude of persons of distinction and rank; but it was
+not till March 1622, that he was presented to the king. His majesty
+received him graciously, and settled upon him a pension of 3,000 livres.
+The Prince of Condé, the Chancellor, and the Keeper of the Seals, had
+exerted themselves to dispose the king in his favour. His majesty
+professed kindness towards those, who had been persecuted by the States;
+and issued an edict, dated the 22d April 1622, by which he took them
+under his protection, in the same manner as if they were his own
+subjects; he even extended this benefit to their children. The
+celebrated President Jeannin was one of the most active and useful of
+Grotius's friends; but he died soon after Grotius arrived at Paris.
+
+Grotius, during his stay in that city, attended frequently the courts of
+justice. He observed the wretched style of oratory, which at that time,
+prevailed in them. It was, in some measure, corrected by _Patru_ and _Le
+Maitre_; but it did not reach its best state, till the end of the reign
+of Lewis XIV. The rhetorical march and laboured amplifications allowed
+at the French bar, are offensive to English ears. Has any nation
+produced a more perfect style of forensic or judicial eloquence, than
+that of _Sir William Grant_? The wisdom and justice of _Lord Stowell's_
+decisions, and the admirable arguments by which he explains or
+illustrates them, are known and acknowledged by every Court.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. IX. 1621--1634]
+
+Grotius's love of his native country continued unabated; all his views,
+all his hopes, were directed thither. With these feelings he wrote his
+_Apology_. He composed it in the Dutch language, and translated it
+afterwards into Latin: it was published in 1622. He dedicated it to the
+people of Holland and West Friesland. It is divided into twenty
+chapters; in the first, he argues the important point, that each of the
+United Provinces is sovereign and independent of the States General, and
+that the authority of these is confined to the defence of the provinces
+against their enemies. In the second chapter, he applies the position to
+ecclesiastical concerns; these, he says, are subject to the sovereign
+power of each State. In the following chapters, he descends into the
+particular charges against him; defending himself against all the crimes
+and irregularities of which he was accused, and shewing the informality
+of the judicial proceedings by which he and his companions in misfortune
+were tried and condemned.
+
+[Sidenote: From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of
+Ambassador.]
+
+His answer was universally read and approved: It greatly incensed the
+States General: They proscribed it, and forbade all persons to have it
+in their possession, under pain of death; but no answer to it was
+published. The edict made Grotius and his friends entertain
+apprehensions for his personal safety. On this account, he obtained
+from the French monarch letters of naturalization, dated the 26th
+February 1623: By these, his majesty took him under his special
+protection.
+
+Grotius retained many friends in every part of the United Provinces:
+Prince Frederick Henry, the brother of Maurice, was among them. He had
+never entered into his brother's persecuting projects.
+
+"The Count d'Estrades has given us," says Burigni, "some anecdotes on
+this subject, which we shall relate on his authority. He assures us,
+that, being one day _tête a tête_ with Prince Henry Frederick in his
+coach, he heard him say, that he had much to do to keep well with his
+brother Maurice, who suspected him of secretly favouring Barneveldt and
+the Arminians. He told me, (these were the Count's own words), it was
+true that he kept a correspondence with them, to prevent their opposing
+his election, in case his brother should die; but that, as it imported
+him to be on good terms with his brother, and to efface the notion he
+had of his connection with the Arminians, he made use of Vandenuse, one
+of his particular friends, and Barneveldt's son-in-law, to let the cabal
+know, that it was necessary for him to accommodate himself to his
+brother, that he might be better able to serve them,--which Barneveldt
+approved of."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. IX. 1621--1634.]
+
+In the meantime, the situation of Grotius at Paris, became very
+uncomfortable. His resources, and those of his wife, were small; and his
+pension was paid irregularly. Cardinal de Richelieu wished to attach
+Grotius; but required from him an absolute and unqualified devotion to
+him, which was utterly irreconcileable with the slightest degree of
+honourable independence. Grotius therefore declined the offers of the
+Cardinal. From this time, the Cardinal regarded him with an evil eye,
+and often made him feel the effects of his displeasure.
+
+This rendered Grotius desirous of quitting France. Trusting to some
+protestations of friendship, which he had received from Prince
+Frederick; to his numerous friends, to his claims upon the gratitude of
+the States of Holland, to his feelings of innocence, and to the effect
+produced, as he flattered himself, by his _Apology_, he ventured into
+Holland in 1631. But he met with no countenance: and in that year was
+banished a second time. Upon this, he formally bade a final adieu to
+Holland, and determined to seek his fortune elsewhere: He then fixed his
+residence at Hamburgh.
+
+[Sidenote: From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of
+Ambassador.]
+
+He sought to preserve his friends in France; but announced to them his
+intention to receive no more money from the French government.
+
+"I shall always," he said in a letter to the First President of the Cour
+des Monnoies, "be grateful for the King's liberality; but it is enough
+that I was chargeable to you, while I resided in France. I have never
+done you any service, though I made you an offer of myself. But it would
+not be proper that I should now live, like an hornet, on the goods of
+other men. I shall not, however, forget the kindness of so great a king,
+and the good offices of so many friends."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. IX. 1621-1634.]
+
+It may appear surprising that Prince Frederick of Orange should
+pertinaciously exclude Grotius from his native country. But ambition
+listens to nothing that conflicts with its own views. Prince Frederick
+inherited from his father and brother the wish of becoming the sovereign
+of the United Provinces. To this, he knew he should always find a
+zealous and able opponent in Grotius: hence, notwithstanding his great
+personal regard for Grotius, he always kept him a banished man. Grotius
+wished to be employed by the Government of England, and Archbishop Laud
+was sounded upon this subject; but the application was coldly
+received[034]. Prince Frederick sustained, both in military and civil
+concerns, the character of the former princes of his family. Under his
+administration, the affairs of the republic prospered at sea and land.
+Peter Haim captured the Spanish flotilla, estimated at twelve millions
+of florins. The Prince took Bois-le duc, Maestricht, and Breda, and
+reduced the Dutchy of Limburgh. Under his auspices, the celebrated Van
+Tromp commenced his career of naval glory, by obtaining a complete
+victory over the Spanish fleet, consisting of seventy men of war. Prince
+Frederick died in 1658.
+
+From the close of his Stadtholderate, we may date the origin of the
+jealousy entertained, by France and England, of the rising power of the
+United Provinces. It is to be observed that Prince Frederick was
+Stadtholder only of the Provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres
+and Overyssell: Count Ernest Casimir of Nassau was Stadtholder of the
+provinces of Gröningen, Frizeland, and the county of the Drenta. In
+1631, their eldest sons were chosen, in the lifetime of their fathers,
+their successors in their respective Stadtholderates. This was a great
+step towards making the Stadtholderate hereditary in their
+families,--one of the leading objects of their ambitious views.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS OF GROTIUS.
+
+1. _His Edition of Stobæus_.
+
+2. _His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis_.
+
+3. _His Treatise de Veritate Religionis Christianæ_.
+
+4. _His Treatise de Jure summarum potestatum circa
+      sacra_.
+
+5. _His Commentary on the Scriptures_.
+
+6. _Some other Works of Grotius_
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634]
+
+
+That literature is an ornament in prosperity, and a comfort in adverse
+fortune, has been often said by the best and wisest men; but no one
+experienced the truth of this assertion in a higher degree than Grotius,
+during his imprisonment at Louvestein. In that wreck of his fortune and
+overthrow of all his hopes, books came to his aid, soothed his sorrows,
+and beguiled the wearisome hours of his gloomy solitude. His studies
+often stole him from himself, and from the sense of his misfortunes. In
+the exercise of his mental energies, he was sensible of their powers;
+and it was impossible that he should contemplate, without pleasure, the
+extent, the worth, or the splendour of his labours; the services, which
+he rendered by them to learning and religion, and the admiration and
+gratitude of the scholar, which he then enjoyed, and which would attend
+his memory to the latest posterity. He himself acknowledged that, in the
+ardour of his literary pursuits, he often forgot his calamities, and
+that the hours passed unheeded, if not in joy, at least without pain.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X 1.
+
+_His Edition of Stobæus_.
+
+
+Being ourselves unacquainted with this work, we cannot do better than
+present our readers with the account given of it by Burigni.
+
+    "The year after the publication of his _Apology_, that is to say in
+    1623, Nicholas Huon printed at Paris, _Grotius's improvements and
+    additions to Stobæus_. This author, as is well known, extracted
+    what he thought most important in the ancient Greek writers, and
+    ranged it under different heads, comprehending the principal points
+    of philosophy. His work is the more valuable, as it has preserved
+    several fragments of the Ancients, found no where else. Grotius,
+    when very young, purposed to extract from this author all the
+    maxims of the poets; to translate them into Latin verse, and to
+    print the original with the translation. He began this, when a boy;
+    he was employed in it at the time of his arrest; and continued it
+    as an amusement, whilst he had the use of books, in his prison at
+    the Hague. He tells us that, when he was deprived of pen and ink,
+    he was got to the forty-ninth title, which is an invective against
+    tyranny, that had a great relation to what passed at that time in
+    Holland. On his removal to Louvestein, he resumed this work, and
+    finished it at Paris. He made several happy corrections in the text
+    of Stobæus; some, from his own conjectures or those of his friends;
+    others, on the authority of manuscripts in the King's library,
+    which were politely lent him by the learned Nicholas Rigaut,
+    librarian to his majesty.
+
+    [Sidenote: His edition of Stobæus.]
+
+    [Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634]
+
+    "Prefixed to this book, are _Prolegomena_, in which the author shews
+    that the works of the ancient Pagans are filled with maxims
+    agreeable to the truths taught in holy writ. He intended to
+    dedicate this book to the Chancellor Silleri: he had even writ the
+    dedication, but his friends, to whom he shewed it, thought he
+    expressed himself with too much warmth, against the censurers of
+    his _Apology_. They advised him therefore to suppress it; and he
+    yielded to their opinion. It may be observed in reading the royal
+    privilege, that the present title of the book is different from
+    what it was to have had. To these extracts from the Greek poets
+    translated into Latin verse, Grotius annexed two pieces, one of
+    Plutarch, the other of St. Basil, on the use of the poets; giving
+    the Greek text with a Latin translation."
+
+The work was received with universal approbation.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X. 2.
+
+_His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis_.
+
+
+Grotius may be considered as the founder of the modern school of _the
+Law of Nature and of Nations_. He was struck with the ruthless manner,
+in which wars were generally conducted; the slight pretences, upon which
+they were generally begun; and the barbarity and injustice, with which
+they were generally attended. He attributed these evils to the want of
+settled principles respecting the rights and duties of nations and
+individuals in a state of war. These, he observed, must depend on the
+previous rights and duties of mankind, in a state of peace: this led him
+to the preliminary inquiry into their rights and duties in a state of
+nature.
+
+Thus, an ample field was opened to him. He brought to it, a vigorous
+discerning mind, and stupendous erudition. From antient and modern
+history, philosophy, oratory, and poetry, he collected facts and
+sayings, which appeared to him to establish a general agreement of all
+civilized nations upon certain principles. From these, he formed his
+system; applying them, as he proceeded in his work, to a vast multitude
+of circumstances. These are so numerous, that some persons have not
+scrupled to say, that no case or international law, either in war or in
+peace, can be stated, to which the work of Grotius does not contain an
+applicable rule.
+
+[Sidenote: X. 2. _The Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis._]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634]
+
+Three important objections have been made to this celebrated work,--one,
+that the author defers in it, too little, to principle, too much, to
+authority;--another, that the work is written in a very desultory
+manner, with small attention to order, or classification;--a third, that
+his authorities are often feeble, and sometimes whimsical. "Grotius,"
+says Condillac, "was able to think for himself; but he constantly
+labours to support his conclusions by the authority of others. Upon many
+occasions; even in support of the most obvious and indisputable
+propositions, he introduces a long string of quotations from the Mosaic
+law, from the Gospels, from the fathers of the church, from the
+casuists, and not unfrequently, even in the very same paragraph, from
+Ovid, and Aristophanes." This strange mixture is subject of many
+witticisms of Voltaire. But let us hear what is urged in the defence of
+Grotius, by a gentleman, of whose praise the ablest of writers may be
+proud:
+
+    "Few writers," says Sir James Mackintosh, in his Discourse on the
+    Study of the Law of Nature and Nations, "were more celebrated than
+    Grotius in his own days, and in the age which succeeded. It has,
+    however, been the fashion of the last half century to depreciate
+    his work, as a shapeless compilation, in which reason lies buried
+    under a mass of authorities and quotations. This fashion originated
+    among French wits and declaimers, and it has been, I know not for
+    what reason, adopted, though with far greater moderation and
+    decency, by some respectable writers among ourselves. As to those,
+    who first used this language, the most candid supposition that we
+    can make with respect to them is, that they never read the work;
+    for, if they had not been deterred from the perusal of it by such a
+    formidable display of Greek characters, they must soon have
+    discovered that Grotius never quotes, on any subject, till he has
+    first appealed to some principles; and often, in my humble opinion,
+    though, not always, to the soundest and most rational principles.
+
+    [Sidenote: His treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis.]
+
+    "But another sort of answer is due to some of those, who have
+    criticised Grotius; and that answer might be given in the words of
+    Grotius himself. He was not of such a stupid and servile cast of
+    mind as to quote the opinions of poets or orators, of historians
+    and philosophers, as those of judges, from whose decision there was
+    no appeal. He quotes them, as he tells us himself, as witnesses,
+    whose conspiring testimony, mightily strengthened and confirmed by
+    their discordance on almost every other subject, is a conclusive
+    proof of the unanimity of the whole human race on the great rules
+    of duty, and the fundamental principles of morals. Of such matters,
+    poets and orators are the most unexceptionable of all witnesses;
+    for they address themselves to the general feelings and sympathies
+    of mankind; they are neither warped by system, nor perverted by
+    sophistry; they can attain none of their objects; they can neither
+    please nor persuade, if they dwell on moral sentiments not in
+    unison with those of their readers. No system of moral philosophy
+    can surely disregard the general feelings of human nature, and the
+    according judgment of all ages and nations. But, where are these
+    feelings and that judgment recorded and preserved? In those very
+    writings which Grotius is gravely blamed for having quoted. The
+    usages and law of nations, the events of history, the opinions of
+    philosophers, the sentiments of orators and poets, as well as the
+    observation of common life, are, in truth, the materials out of
+    which the science of morality is formed; and those who neglect
+    them, are justly chargeable with a vain attempt to philosophise
+    without regard to fact and experience, the sole foundation of all
+    true philosophy.
+
+    [Sidenote: Chap. X. 1621-1634]
+
+    "If this were merely an objection of taste, I should be willing to
+    allow, that Grotius has indeed poured forth his learning with a
+    profusion, that sometimes rather encumbers than adorns his work,
+    and which is not always necessary to the illustration of his
+    subject. Yet, even in making, that concession, I should rather
+    yield to the tastes of others, than speak from my own feelings. I
+    own that such richness and splendour of literature have a powerful
+    charm for me. They fill my mind with an endless variety of
+    delightful recollections and associations. They relieve the
+    understanding in its progress through a vast science, by calling up
+    the memory of great men and of interesting events. By this means we
+    see the truths of morality clothed with all the eloquence (not that
+    could be produced by the powers of one man, but) that could be
+    bestowed on them by the collective genius of the world. Even virtue
+    and wisdom themselves acquire new majesty in my eyes, when I thus
+    see all the great masters of thinking and writing called together,
+    as it were, from all times and countries, to do them homage and to
+    appear in their train.
+
+    [Sidenote: X. 2. His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis]
+
+    "But this is no piece for discussions of taste, and I am very ready
+    to own, that mine may be corrupted. The work of Grotius is liable
+    to a more serious objection, though I do not recollect that it has
+    ever been made. His method is inconvenient and unscientific. He has
+    inverted the natural order. That natural order undoubtedly
+    dictates, that we should first search for the original principles
+    of the science, in human nature; then apply them to the regulation
+    of the conduct of individuals; and lastly employ them for the
+    decision of those difficult and complicated questions that arise
+    with respect to the intercourse of nations. But Grotius has chosen
+    the reverse of this method. He begins with the consideration of the
+    states of peace and war, and he examines original principles, only
+    occasionally and incidentally, as they grow out of the questions,
+    which he is called upon to decide. It is a necessary consequence of
+    this disorderly method, which exhibits the elements of the science
+    in the form of scattered digressions, that he seldom employs
+    sufficient discussion on those fundamental truths, and never in
+    the place where such a discussion would be most instructive to the
+    reader. This defect in the plan of Grotius was perceived, and
+    supplied by Puffendorf, who restored natural law to that
+    superiority which belonged to it, and with great propriety, treated
+    the law of nations as only one main branch of the parent stock."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP X. 1621-1634]
+
+Whatever may be the merit of the work of which we are speaking, it must
+be admitted, that few, on their first appearance, and during a long
+subsequent period after publication, have received greater or warmer
+applause. The stores of erudition displayed in it, recommended it to the
+classical scholar, while the happy application of the author's reading
+to the affairs of human life, drew to it the attention of common
+readers. Among those, whose approbation of it, deserved to be recorded,
+Gustavus Adolphus,--his prime minister the Chancellor Oxenstiern,--and
+the Elector Palatine Charles Lewis, deserve particular mention.[035] As
+the trophies of Miltiades are supposed to have kept Themistocles awake,
+it has been said that the trophies of Grotius drove sleep from Selden,
+till be produced his celebrated treatise, "_De Jure naturali et gentium
+secundum leges Ebræorim_." This important work equals that of Grotius
+in learning; but, from the partial and recondite nature of its subject,
+never equalled it in popularity.
+
+[Sidenote: X. 9. His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis]
+
+The supposed want of general elementary principles in the work of
+Grotius gave occasion to Puffendorf's treatise _de Jure Naturae et
+Gentium_; afterwards abridged by him into the small octavo volume _De
+Officio hominis et civis_: an edition of it in octavo was published by
+Professor Garschen Carmichael, of Glasgow, in 1724.
+
+The best edition of Grotius's treatise _de Jure Belli et Pacis_ was
+published at Amsterdam in 1730, by John Barbeyrac.
+
+Foreigners observe, that the study of the law of nature and nations is
+less cultivated in England than upon the continent. Is it not, because
+Englishmen are blessed with a free constitution; are admitted into a
+general participation of all its blessings; are thus personally
+interested in the national concerns; and have therefore a jurisprudence,
+which comes nearer to their bosoms? Is it not also, because the law of
+nature and nations, with all its merit, is so loose, that its principles
+seldom admit of that practical application, which renders them really
+useful; and which an English mind always requires?
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X.3.
+
+_De Veritate Religionis Christianæ._
+
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
+
+Grotius, while a prisoner in the Castle of Louvestein, had written, in
+the Dutch language, "A treatise on the Truth of the Christian Religion."
+He afterwards enlarged it, and translated it, so enlarged, into Latin.
+It was universally read and admired. French, German, English, modern
+Greek, Persic, and even Turkish versions of it have been made: it was
+equally approved by Catholics and Protestants.
+
+[Sidenote: De Veritate Religionis Christianæ.]
+
+It was invidiously objected, that he did not attempt to prove, or even
+mention, the Trinity, and some other gospel mysteries: he replied,
+satisfactorily in our opinion, that a discussion of any particular tenet
+of the Christian religion did not fall within the scope of his work. In
+this respect, he was afterwards imitated by _Abadie_ and _Houteville_,
+two of the most eminent apologists of Christianity. The latter expresses
+himself of the work of Grotius in the following terms:
+
+    "Grotius's work is the first, in which we find the characteristics
+    of just reasoning, accuracy, and strength: he is extremely concise;
+    but even this brevity will please us, when we find his work
+    comprehends so many things, without confounding them or lessening
+    their evidence or force. It is no wonder that the book should be
+    translated into so many languages."
+
+The best edition of it is that published by Le Clerc,[036] in 1709 at
+Amsterdam, in 8vo. To this edition, Le Clerc has added a curious
+_dissertation_ on _religious indifference_. He presumes that the
+supposed indifference is persuaded of the authenticity of the New
+Testament:--He then (says Le Clerc) must ascertain,--
+
+    1. Which are the denominations of religionists which avow their
+    belief of it:
+
+    2. Which of these are most worthy of the name of Christians:
+
+    3. And which profess the Christian religion in most purity and with
+    least extraneous alloy:
+
+    4. He will find, that all Christians agree in the fundamental
+    articles of faith:
+
+    5. That all these articles are clearly expressed in the New
+    Testament:
+
+    6. That no tenet should be believed to be of faith, unless the New
+    Testament contains it.
+
+    7. That the providence of God is admirable in the preservation of
+    these tenets, amidst the confused multitude of religious opinions,
+    which have prevailed in the world:
+
+    8. That this confusion was foreseen by God:
+
+    9. That he permitted it as a consequence of his gift of free-will
+    to man:
+
+    10. That the inquirer should aggregate himself to that religious
+    communion, which receives the New Testament as its only rule of
+    faith, and does not persecute others:
+
+    11. That episcopacy without tyranny is the most antient form of
+    ecclesiastical government, and most to be desired; but that it is
+    not essential to a Christian church:
+
+    12. That these were the opinions of Grotius:
+
+    13. Finally, that it is greatly to be desired that a belief of no
+    dogma, not explicitly propounded in the New Testament, should be
+    required.
+
+Such is the religious system propounded by Le Clerc.--Does any religious
+communion really profess it?--Many Protestant churches declare, that the
+Bible, and the Bible only, contains their creed: but, do they not all
+mean by this--the Bible, as it is explained by the Articles, the
+Formulary, or the Confession received by their church?
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X. 4.
+
+_Grotius's Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum circa sacra_.--And,
+_Commentatio ad loca quædam Novi Testamenti, quæ de Antichristo agunt,
+aut agere putantur_.
+
+
+Nothing in the life of Grotius places him in a more amiable or
+respectable point of view, than his constant attempts to put Catholics
+and Protestants into good humour with each other, and to put both into
+good humour among themselves.
+
+[Sidenote: X. 4. His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum. &c.]
+
+We have mentioned the _pacific decree of the States of Holland_, which
+ordered the contending communions to tolerate each other. Grotius is
+supposed to have framed this wise decree. The Contra-remonstrants
+attacked it: Grotius reprinted it, with a collection of proofs and
+authorities.
+
+It gave rise to a controversy on the nice question, respecting the
+authority of the temporal power to interfere in the ecclesiastical
+concerns of the state. Grotius adopted, upon this point, the sentiments
+of what is termed in England the Low Church: he seems to have pushed
+them to their utmost bearings. With these sentiments, he published his
+treatise _de Imperio summarum potestatum circa sacra_. It was disliked
+by King James and his bishops: Grotius, in their opinion, gave too much
+authority, in sacred things, to the secular power.
+
+On the work of Grotius, respecting _Anti-christ_, we prefer transcribing
+Burigni's sentiments to delivering our own.
+
+    "This deep study of the Holy Scriptures led Grotius to examine a
+    question, which made much noise at that time. Some Protestant
+    synods had ventured to decide that _the Pope was Antichrist_; and
+    this extravagance, gravely delivered by the ministers, was
+    regarded by the zealous schismatics, as a fundamental truth.
+    Grotius undertook to overturn such an absurd opinion, that stirred
+    up an irreconcileable enmity between the Roman Catholics and the
+    Protestants; and, of consequence, was a very great obstacle to
+    their re-union, which was the sole object of his desires. He
+    entered therefore upon the consideration of the passages of
+    Scripture relating to Antichrist, and employed his Sundays in it.
+
+    [Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
+
+    "It was this work, that raised him up most enemies. We see by the
+    letters he wrote to his brother, that his best friends were afraid
+    lest they should be suspected of having some hand in the
+    publication of the books, in which he treated of Antichrist. 'If
+    you are afraid of incurring ill will, (he writes thus to his
+    brother), you may easily find people that are far from a factious
+    spirit, who will take care of the impression. Nothing has incensed
+    princes against those, who separated from the church of Rome, more
+    than the injurious names, with which the Protestants load their
+    adversaries; and nothing is a greater hindrance to that re-union,
+    which we are all obliged to labour after, in consequence of
+    Christ's precept and the profession we make of our faith in the
+    creed. Perhaps the Turk, who threatens Italy, will force us to it.
+    In order to arrive at it, we must first remove whatever obstructs a
+    mutual quiet hearing. I hope I shall find assistance in this pious
+    design. I shall not cease to labour in it, and shall rejoice to die
+    employed in so good a work.'
+
+    [Sidenote: His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum, &c.]
+
+    "Reigersberg, Blaeu, Vossius himself, however much devoted to
+    Grotius, beheld with concern the printing of this book, because
+    they did not doubt but it would increase the number of his enemies.
+    Grotius informs his brother, of the uneasiness which Vossius gave
+    him on this subject. 'Among those, who wish this work destroyed,'
+    says he, 'I am astonished and grieved to see Vossius. Whence could
+    he have this idea? I imagine somebody has told him, that it would
+    injure the fortune of his children, if he approved of such books;
+    and that, on the contrary, he would find favour by hurting me. We
+    must therefore have recourse to Corcellius or Corvinus.' He
+    elsewhere complains of the too great timidity of this old friend,
+    who at bottom approved of Grotius's sentiments, but durst not own
+    them publicly, because he was not so independent as Grotius.
+
+    [Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
+
+    "The treatise on Anti-christ made much noise among all the declared
+    enemies of the Romish church. Michael Gettichius wrote to Ruarus,
+    that he had only glanced over Grotius's book on Antichrist; but as
+    far as he could judge by the first reading, that learned man, who
+    was possessed of such an excellent genius, and such singular
+    erudition, had no other intention than to engage the learned in a
+    further inquiry concerning Antichrist; and to determine them to
+    attack with greater strength, the Romish Antichrist; or, if he
+    wrote seriously, he wanted to cut out a path for going over,
+    without dishonour, to the Papists. Ruarus answers this letter Dec.
+    16, 1642, from Dantzic. 'I have always (he says) looked on Grotius
+    as a very honest and at the same time a very learned man. I am
+    persuaded that love of peace engaged him in this work. I don't deny
+    but he has gone too far; the love of antiquity perhaps seduced him:
+    no Remonstrant, that I know of, has as yet answered him; but he has
+    been confuted by some learned Calvinists, particularly Desmonets,
+    minister of Bois le duc, who has written against him with much
+    bitterness.'
+
+    "Grotius's work was printed in 1640, with this title: _Commentatio
+    ad loca quædam Novi Testamenti, quæ de Antichristo agunt aut agere
+    putantur:--Expedenda eruditis."_[037]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X.5.
+
+_His Commentary on the Scriptures._
+
+
+[Sidenote: X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures.]
+
+The theological works of Grotius are comprised in four volumes folio:
+the three first contain his Commentary, and Notes upon the Scriptures.
+On their merit, both Catholics and Protestants considerably differ. All
+allow that an abundance of sacred and profane learning is displayed in
+them; and that Grotius, by his references to the writings of the Rabbis,
+and his remarks upon the idiom of the sacred writings, has happily
+elucidated a multitude of passages in the text. He uniformly adopts the
+literal and obvious signification of the language used by the holy
+penmen. In explaining the predictions of the prophets, he maintains that
+they referred to events anterior to the coming of Christ, and were
+accomplished in these; so that the natural and obvious sense of the
+words and phrases, in which they were delivered, does not terminate in
+Christ; yet, that in some of the predictions, those particularly, which
+the writers of the New Testament apply to Christ, there is, _besides_
+the literal and obvious signification, a hidden and mysterious sense,
+which lies concealed under the external mark of certain _persons_,
+certain _events_, and certain _actions_, which are representative of the
+person, the ministry, the sufferings, and the merits of the Son of God.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
+
+It has been objected, that this system leads to Socinianism, and even
+beyond it. All Catholic, and several episcopalian Protestant divines
+object to it; they generally contend, that the sacred writings ought
+always to be understood in that sense _only_, which has been attributed
+to them, by the early fathers.--Against this system, Dr. Whitby
+published his celebrated work "Concerning the Interpretation of
+Scripture after the manner of the Fathers."[038]
+
+[Sidenote: X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures.]
+
+The system of Grotius was defended, to a certain extent, by _Father
+Simôn_, the oratorian, the father of the modern biblical school. Against
+both Simôn and Grotius, Bossuet wielded his powerful lance,--in his
+"Pastoral Instruction on the Works of Father Simôn," and his
+"Dissertations upon Grotius." In these works he says that, during thirty
+years,
+
+    "Grotius searched for truth in good faith, and at last was so near
+    it, that it is wonderful that he did not take the last step, to
+    which God called him. Shocked at Calvin's harsh doctrines, he
+    embraced Arminianism; then, abandoned it. More a lawyer than a
+    theologian, more a polite scholar than a philosopher, he throws the
+    doctrine of the immortality of the soul into obscurity. He
+    endeavours to weaken and steal from the church, her most powerful
+    proofs of the divinity of the Son of God, and strives to darken the
+    prophecies, which announce the arrival of the Messiah."
+
+Bossuet proceeds to particularize some of the principal errors of
+Grotius: Le Clerc replied to the prelate's criticism, by his _Sentimens
+de quelques Theologiens de la Hollande_.--Grotius had also an able
+advocate in Father Simôn. His defence of Grotius against the charge of
+_semi-Pelagianism_, in the _Bibliotheque de Sainjore_,[039] appears to
+be satisfactory. He cites the note of Grotius, on the Acts of the
+Apostles, (the celebrated ch. xiii. ver. 38), in which he says expressly
+that he does not exclude preventive grace: this the semi-Pelagians
+denied altogether. But in his defence of Grotius against the charge of
+_Socinianism_, he is not equally successful. Bossuet sent his _Pastoral
+Instruction_, and _Dissertations upon Grotius_, to the bishop of
+Fréjus, afterward Cardinal de Fleury: he accompanied them by a letter,
+which closes with these remarkable words:
+
+    "The spirit of incredulity gains ground in the world every day: you
+    have often heard me make this remark. It is now worse than ever, as
+    the Gospel itself is used for the corruption of religion. I thank
+    God that at my age he blesses me with sufficient strength to resist
+    the torrent."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621--1634.]
+
+Dom. Calmet[040] calls Grotius,
+
+    "one of the most able and moderate Protestant writers: one who
+    spreads throughout his notes a pleasing profusion of profane
+    literature, which causes his works to be sought for and read by
+    those, who have taste for that kind of literature. His high
+    reputation, great erudition, and rare modesty," says Dom. Calmet,
+    "render it easy for him to insinuate his particular sentiments
+    respecting the divinity of Christ, against which, his readers
+    should be guarded."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X.6.
+
+_Some other Works of Grotius_.
+
+
+1. The first which we shall mention is his history of the _Goths,
+Vandals, and Lombards_, written in the Latin language, and accompanied
+by learned dissertations. He composed it, as a testimony of his
+gratitude to the Swedes, by doing honour to their gothic ancestors. The
+preface has always been admired, for its erudition and sound criticism.
+But the Belgic friends of Grotius accused him of elevating the Swedes at
+their expense.
+
+
+[Sidenote: X. 6. Other Works of Grotius.]
+
+2. A more important work consists of his _Annals, and History of the
+United Provinces_. The Annals begin with the year 1588, when Prince
+Maurice had the greatest influence in the affairs of the United
+Provinces; and concludes with the truce of twelve years, signed between
+them and Spain. The impartiality, with which these works are written,
+has been praised by every writer.
+
+It is to be lamented that Grotius professed to imitate, both in his
+Annals and History, the style of Tacitus. Expressed by his own pen, the
+style of Tacitus is energetic, picturesque, and pleasing; but it is
+impossible to deny its frequent abruptness and obscurity. Generally
+speaking, an imitation of what is defective, contains a larger share,
+than the original, of its distinctive defect. It should however be
+added, that Grotius's own style is short, sententious and broken; and
+possesses nothing of the meliflous ease of the ultramontane Latinists;
+or of our Milton or Buchanan. None of the works of Grotius, which we
+have mentioned in this Article, were published till after his decease.
+
+
+3. It remains to notice the _Letters of Grotius_, published at Amsterdam
+in one volume folio, in 1687.--A multitude of his unpublished letters is
+said to exist in different public and private libraries.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
+
+His published letters are an invaluable treasure: they abound with wise
+maxims of sound policy, and curious discussions on points arising on
+Roman or Belgic jurisprudence. Many points of sacred and profane
+learning, and particularly of the civil and canon law, are treated in
+them with equal learning and taste. For the perfect understanding of
+them, the letters of the correspondents of Grotius should be perused:
+they are principally to be found, in the _Præstantium et Eruditorum
+Virorum Epistolæ Ecclesiasticæ et Theologicæ_, published at Amsterdam in
+1684. A critical account of the Letters of Grotius, executed with great
+taste and judgment, is inserted in the first volume of the _Bibliotheque
+Universelle et Historique_.[041]
+
+[Sidenote: X. 6. Other Works of Grotius.]
+
+It is acknowledged that the letters of Grotius, are written in the
+finest latinity, and contain much valuable information; but the point,
+the sprightliness, the genius, the vivid descriptions of men and
+things, which are so profusely scattered over the letters of Erasmus,
+are seldom discoverable in those of Grotius. A man of learning would
+have been gratified beyond measure, by the profound conversations of
+Grotius and Father Petau: but what a treat must it have been, to have
+assisted with one, two, or three good listeners, at the conversations
+between Erasmus and Sir Thomas More!
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER. XI.
+
+GROTIUS.--AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN TO THE COURT OF
+FRANCE.
+
+1634--1645.
+
+
+The embassy of Grotius is connected with an important period in the
+history of the War of Thirty years.
+
+This celebrated war was principally caused by the religious disputes of
+the sixteenth century. Very soon after Luther's first attack on the See
+of Rome, the Reformation was established in Saxony, Livonia, Prussia,
+and Hesse-cassell; in many imperial towns; in Friezland and Holland; in
+several of the Swiss Cantons; in Pomerania, Mecklenburgh, Anhalt;
+Sweden, Denmark, Norway; England, and Scotland. Its progress in Germany
+is particularly connected with the subject of these pages.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius in the Court of France.]
+
+At the diet of Augsburgh, in 1530, the Protestant princes of Germany
+delivered to the emperor their Confession of Faith; they afterwards, at
+Smalcald, entered into an offensive and defensive league against the
+emperor. Being sensible that they were unable to resist him, they
+engaged the French monarch in their cause. At first, the emperor was
+victorious; but a new league was formed. France then took a more active
+part in favour of the confederates, and the contest ended in the peace
+of Passau, in 1552, there the two parties, for the first time, treated
+as equals, and the free exercise of the Lutheran religion was allowed.
+Things remained quiet during the reigns of Ferdinand the First and
+Maximilian the Second; but, in consequence of the disputes, which arose
+on the succession to the dutchies of Cleves and Juliers, the religious
+differences broke out with fresh animosity:--the Protestant princes
+formed a confederacy called the _Evangelical Union_, and placed, at its
+head, the Elector Palatine; the Catholics formed a confederacy called
+the _Catholic League_, and placed, at its head, the Duke of Bavaria. In
+the year 1618, they burst into open war; every state in Europe, and even
+the Ottoman princes, at one time or other, took a part in it. France was
+the soul of the Protestant cause; she assisted it with her armies, and
+her subsidies:--it may be truly said, that, if there be a Protestant
+state from the Vistula to the Rhine, or a Mahometan, state between the
+Danube and the Mediterranean, its existence is owing to the Bourbon
+monarchs. From the period of its duration, it has been called the WAR
+OF THIRTY YEARS: it is divided, by its _Palatine, Danish, Swedish,_ and
+_French_ periods.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
+
+1. Frederick, the fifth _Elector Palatine_ of that name, being elected
+King of Bohemia, by the states of that kingdom, made war on the emperor
+Ferdinand the Second. Being defeated in 1620, at the battle of Prague,
+and abandoned by his allies, he was driven from Bohemia, and deprived of
+his other states.
+
+2. Christian the Fourth of _Denmark_, then placed himself at the head of
+the confederacy against the emperor; but, having in 1626, lost the
+battle of Lutter, in which Tilly commanded the Austrian forces; he
+signed, three years after that event, a separate peace with the emperor.
+
+In the following year, Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, was placed at
+the head of the confederacy. Their cause appeared desperate: Walstein,
+the Austrian general, had been uniformly successful, and almost the
+whole of Germany had submitted to the emperor: but the Austrians soon
+experienced a severe reverse of fortune.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
+
+3. Lewis XIII filled at that time, the throne of France; his councils
+were guided by Cardinal Richelieu, one of the ablest statesmen that has
+appeared upon the theatre of the world. Vast, but provident in his
+designs; daring, but considerate in his operations; capable of the
+largest views and the most minute attentions; he formed three immense
+projects, and succeeded in all.
+
+"When your Majesty," he thus addresses the monarch in his celebrated
+_Testament Politique_, "resolved at the same time to admit me into your
+councils, and to give me a great portion of your confidence, I can say
+with truth that the Hugonots divided the state with you; that the great,
+conducted themselves, as if they were not your subjects, and the
+governors of the provinces, as if they were the sovereigns of them; and
+that France was contemned by her foreign allies."
+
+To reduce the Hugonots, to lower the nobility, to elevate France to be
+the preponderating power in Europe, were the three objects, which the
+Cardinal proposed to himself. In each, he had difficulties to encounter,
+which extraordinary talents only could surmount. By a strict
+administration of justice, and severely punishing, without respect to
+rank or connections, those, who engaged in treasonable practices, he
+completely subdued the towering spirit of the nobility; by victorious
+armies and a vigorous dispensation of the laws, he reduced the Hugonots;
+and, by calling forth all the energies of his country, and arraying
+half the Continent against Austria and Spain, he gave to France an
+almost irresistible ascendant in the concerns of Europe.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI 1634-1645.]
+
+To the last only of these three designs our present subject leads us.
+
+_Sweden_ had long been engaged in a war against Denmark, and highly
+dissatisfied with Austria. By the persuasion of Richelieu, she made
+peace with the Danes, and entered into an offensive and defensive
+alliance with France. In consequence of it, Gustavus Adolphus was placed
+at the head of the Protestant confederacy: a large army of Swedes
+entered Germany; Gustavus was invested with the command of the
+confederate forces, and his brilliant campaigns turned the tide of
+success in their favour. At Lutzen he obtained a complete victory, but
+lost his life.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
+
+After the death of Gustavus, the States assembled, and the Mareschal of
+the Diet proposed, that the celebrated Christina, the only child of
+Gustavus, then an infant of very tender years, should be crowned: the
+Mareschal carried her in his arms into the midst of the assembly. On
+observing her, all were struck with her likeness to her father. "Yes!"
+they cried, "it is she herself! she has the eyes, the nose and the
+forehead of Gustavus! We will have her for our queen!" She was
+immediately seated on the throne, and proclaimed queen. The regency of
+the kingdom, during the minority of Christina, was conferred on the
+Chancellor Oxenstiern: he had been the confidential minister and friend
+of Gustavus, and shewed through life that he deserved that confidence,
+by his wisdom, eminent talents, and spotless integrity. Both the monarch
+and his minister entertained a high opinion of the abilities and virtue
+of Grotius: His treatise _De Jure Belli et Pacis_ was found, after the
+death of Gustavus, in the royal tent.
+
+4. Not long after the disastrous victory of the Swedes at Lutzen, the
+Austrian and confederate armies conflicted at Nordlingen, in one of the
+most obstinate and bloody battles recorded in history: the confederates
+were completely defeated. The blame was thrown on the Swedes; they were
+deserted by almost all their Protestant allies, and the weight of the
+war devolved almost entirely upon the Swedes and _the French_. Till this
+time, they had acted and negociated on an equality: the loss of this
+battle made the Swedes dependent upon France, and the haughty genius of
+Richelieu made them severely feel it.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
+
+The first object of Oxenstiern was to renew the treaty with France: a
+skilful negociator on the part of Sweden was necessary. Oxenstiern
+fixed his eye upon Grotius: the penetrating minister had several
+conversations with him. The embassy to France was certainly the most
+important commission, with which a minister from Sweden could be
+charged: Oxenstiern's appointment of Grotius to it, demonstrated the
+minister's high opinion of him. Some time in July 1634, he declared
+Grotius councillor to the Queen of Sweden, and her ambassador to the
+court of France. Grotius made his public entry into Paris on Friday the
+2d of March 1635. Nothing of the customary ceremonial or compliment was
+omitted in his regard, by the court of France.
+
+Unfortunately for the success of the embassy of Grotius, two envoys from
+some of the Protestant states in Germany had previously signed a treaty
+with France, which was generally considered by the confederates to be
+injurious to their interests.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
+
+The first interview of Grotius with the Cardinal took place on the 28th
+March. During their conference, a dispatch arrived from Oxenstiern to
+Grotius: it was immediately put into his bands, by the Cardinal's
+desire. It announced a resolution, taken by the Chancellor, to repair to
+Paris, and that he was actually on his journey thither. Richelieu was
+displeased: but he determined to give the chancellor the most
+honourable and flattering reception. On the 21st of April, Grotius met
+Oxenstiern at Soissons: they proceeded together to Paris. Conferences
+between the Cardinal and the Chancellor immediately took place. The
+matter in discussion between the courts were soon arranged: France
+undertook to declare war against the emperor, to subsidize Sweden, and
+to send an army to co-operate with her forces in Germany. It has always
+been considered highly creditable to the firmness and talents of
+Oxenstiern, that, in the reduced condition of the Swedes, he could
+obtain for them such advantageous terms. Immediately after the treaty
+was signed, the Chancellor quitted France. During his stay, he shewed a
+marked attention to Grotius, and expressed unqualified approbation of
+his conduct and views.
+
+The arms of Sweden again triumphed. In Pomerania, General Bannier
+obtained important advantages over the imperialists; in Alsace, the arms
+of the Duke of Saxe-Weimar were equally successful. In the following
+year, the two victorious generals carried their arms into the heart of
+the Austrian territories, and, were almost uniformly successful.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
+
+But it is foreign to these pages to dwell further on the military
+achievements or political intrigues of the times of which we are
+speaking. Humanity shudders at the perusal of the events of this war.
+Through the whole of its long period, Germany was a scene of
+devastation. In its northern and central parts, the ravages of advancing
+and retreating armies were repeatedly experienced in their utmost
+horrors: many of its finest towns were destroyed; whole villages
+depopulated; large territories laid waste. Frequently the women, the
+children, and the aged, naked, pale, and disfigured, were seen wandering
+over the fields, supporting themselves by the leaves of trees, by wild
+roots, and even grass. The war extended itself into Lorraine: an
+affecting account of the calamities, which it produced in that beautiful
+province, was published by Father Caussin, who accompanied Lewis XIII
+into it, as his confessor.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
+
+Struck with the scene of woe, St. Vincent of Paul, an humble missionary
+priest, who, at that time, resided at Paris, requested an audience of
+Cardinal de Richelieu. Being admitted, he represented to his eminence,
+with respect, but with firmness, the misery of the people, the sins, and
+all the other enormities, which are the usual consequences of war: he
+then fell upon his knees, and in a voice, equally animated by grief and
+charity, "Sir!" he said to the Cardinal "have mercy upon us! Have
+compassion upon the world! Give us peace!" The stern and vindictive
+genius of the Cardinal sunk before the man of God. He raised Vincent
+from the ground. He told him, with much apparent benignity, that "the
+general pacification of Europe was his great object, but that
+unfortunately it did not depend on him alone; there being, both within
+and without the kingdom, those who sought the contrary, and prevented
+peace." Few ministers have shewn greater ability, or produced greater
+public or private misery, than Richelieu. It may, on the other hand, be
+doubted, whether, at the day of general retribution, when every child of
+Adam will have to account for his works, even one will appear with more
+numerous deeds of useful and heroic charity than St. Vincent of
+Paul.[042]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
+
+The affairs of the important embassy entrusted to Grotius, prospered in
+his hands. In his conduct, there was an uniform assemblage of prudence,
+activity, moderation, and firmness. To the French monarch, he was always
+acceptable--not always so to the cardinal minister. It was the constant
+object of the latter, to delay the payments of the subsidies promised
+to Sweden, or to make deductions from them; and to lessen the number of
+soldiers, which France was bound, by treaty to supply. Sometimes by
+blandishments, sometimes by loftiness, the minister or his agents
+endeavoured to induce Grotius to sanction these irregularities: but
+Grotius was always true to the interests of the country which he
+represented: it does not appear, that the Cardinal gained a single point
+against him. Towards the close of his embassy, Grotius succeeded in
+renewing the treaty between Sweden and France, on terms which were
+considered to do great honour to his diplomatic talents.
+
+In the discharge of his embassy, Grotius had to sustain other
+unpleasantnesses. His pension was not regularly paid: this often
+subjected him to great inconveniences. He had disputes respecting rank
+and ceremonial, both with the French ministry and the ambassadors of
+other states. It must surprise an English reader to find, that Grotius
+questioned the right of the English ambassador to precedence over him:
+the French court often played one ambassador, against the other.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
+
+In the midst of these troubles, Grotius preserved the serenity of his
+mind; and his attachment to sacred and profane literature. He cultivated
+the acquaintance of the learned and the good, of every communion; and
+possessed their esteem and regard. His conduct as ambassador was always
+approved by the Chancellor Oxenstiern, while he lived, and after his
+decease, by his son and successor in his office. The Queen of Sweden was
+equally favourable to Grotius; but she unadvisedly took an adventurer
+into her confidence, and sent him, in an ambiguous character, to Paris.
+This disgusted Grotius: and age and infirmities now thickened upon him.
+He applied to the Queen for his recall. She granted it in the most
+flattering terms, and desired him to repair immediately to Stockholm, to
+receive, from her, distinguished marks of her favour. She wrote to the
+Queen of France, a letter, in which she expressed herself in a manner
+highly honourable to Grotius: she acknowledged her obligations to him
+and protested that she never would forget them. This was towards the
+month of March 1645.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
+
+About three years after this event, the war of thirty years was
+concluded by the peace of Westphalia. France and the Protestant princes
+of Europe dictated the terms: the Swedes were indemnified for their
+charges of the war, by Pomerania, Steten, Rugen, Wismar and Verden: the
+house of Brandenburgh obtained Magdeburgh, Halberstad, Minden and Camin;
+Alsace was conquered, and retained by France; Lusatia, was ceded to
+Saxony. The history of the treaty of Westphalia has been ably written by
+_Father Bougeant_, a French Jesuit: some critics have pronounced it the
+best historical work in the French language. Till the late revolution of
+France, it was the breviary of all French aspirants to political
+distinction.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS OF GROTIUS:--SOME OTHER OF HIS WORKS.
+
+1. _Subsequent History of Arminianism_. 2. _Grotius's Religious
+Sentiments_. 3. _His Projects of Religious Pacification_.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XII. 1.
+
+_Subsequent History of Arminianism._
+
+
+We left the Arminians under the iron arm of Prince Maurice:--He died in
+1625:--We have mentioned, that Prince Frederick-Henry his brother, and
+successor in the Stadtholderate, adopted more moderate councils in their
+regard; that he recalled the Remonstrants, with some exceptions, from
+banishment; that many settled at Amsterdam and Rotterdam; and that the
+Arminians founded a college in the former city:--_Episcopius_ was its
+first professor of theology:--it has never been without teachers, of
+eminence for learning, as Courcelles, Pollemberg, Limborch, Le Clerc,
+Cottemburgh, and Wetstein.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+It should be added, that the authority of the Synod of Dort insensibly
+declined:--its authority was never formally acknowledged by the provinces
+of _Friesland_, _Zealand_, _Utrecht_, _Gueldreland_ and
+_Gröningen_: In 1651, they were induced to intimate that they would see
+with pleasure, the reformed religion maintained upon the footing, upon
+which it had been maintained and confirmed by the Synod of Dort; but
+this intimation was never considered to have the force of a legislative
+enactment.[043]
+
+[Sidenote: XII.1. History of Arminianism.]
+
+The theological system of the Arminians, after their return to Holland,
+underwent, if we credit Dr. Mosheim,[044] a remarkable change. They
+appear, by his account, to have almost coincided with those, who exclude
+the necessity of divine grace in the work of conversion and
+sanctification; and think that Christ demands from men, rather virtue
+than faith; and has confined that belief, which is essential for
+salvation, to very few articles. Thus the modern Arminians, according
+to Dr. Mosheim, admit into their communion,--1st. All, with an exception
+of Catholics, who receive the holy scriptures; and more especially the
+New Testament; allowing at the same time to every individual, his own
+interpretation of the sacred books:--2dly. All whose lives are regulated
+by the law of God:--3dly. And all, who neither persecute nor bear ill
+will towards those who differ from them in their religious sentiments.
+Their _Confession of Faith_ was drawn up by Episcopius in 1622: four
+divines of the established church of Holland published a _Refutation_ of
+it: the authors of the _Confession_ replied to it in the following year,
+by their _Apology_.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+James I. of England directed his theological representatives in the
+Synod of Dort, to join the members in the condemnation of the doctrines
+of Arminius:--but, when the English divines returned from that assembly,
+and gave a full account of its proceedings, the King and the greatest
+part of the English clergy expressed their dissatisfaction with them,
+and declared that the sentiments of Arminius on the divine decrees, was
+preferable to those of Calvin and Gomarus. By the exertions of
+Archbishop Laud, and afterwards, in consequence of the general tendency
+of the public mind to doctrines of mildness and comprehension, an
+Arminian construction of the English articles on predestination and
+free-will was adopted:--it has since prevailed,--and the Arminian creed,
+by the number of its secret or open adherents, has insensibly found
+admittance into every Protestant church.
+
+[Sidenote: History of Arminianism.]
+
+If we believe the celebrated Jurieu[045], Arminianism even in its
+Socinian form, abounded, in less than a century, after the death of
+Arminius, in the United Provinces, and among the Hugonots of the
+adjacent part of France. By his account, the dispersion of the French
+Hugonots, in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
+revealed to the terrified reformers of the original school, the alarming
+secret of the preponderance of Socinianism in the reformed church. Its
+members, according to Jurieu, being no longer under the controul of the
+civil power, spread their Socinian principles every where, with the
+utmost activity and success: even in England, Jurieu professed to
+discover the effect of their exertions. He mentions that in 1698,
+thirty-four French refugee ministers residing in London addressed a
+letter to the synod, then sitting at Amsterdam, in which they declared,
+that Socinianism had spread so rapidly, that, if the ecclesiastical
+assemblies supplied no means for checking their growth, or used
+palliatives only, the mischief would be incurable.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+This charge, however, the Arminians have indignantly rejected. A writer
+in the _Bibliotheque Germanique_[046] relates, that
+
+    "the celebrated Anthony Collins called on M. Le Clerc of Amsterdam:
+    He was accompanied by some Frenchmen, of the fraternity of those,
+    who think freely. They expected to find the religious opinions of
+    Le Clerc in unison with their own, but, they were surprised to find
+    the strong stand which he made in favour of revelation. He proved
+    to them, with great strength of argument, the truth of the
+    Christian religion. Jesus Christ, he told them, was born among the
+    Jews; still, it was not the Jewish religion which he taught;
+    neither was it the religion of the Pagan neighbourhood; but, a
+    religion infinitely superior to both. One sees in it the most
+    striking marks of divinity. The Christians, who followed, were
+    incapable of imagining any thing so beautiful. Add to this, that
+    the Christian religion is so excellently calculated for the good of
+    society, that, if we did not derive so great a present from heaven,
+    the good and safety of men would absolutely demand from them an
+    equivalent."
+
+Throughout the conversation, M. Le Clerc reproached the Deists strongly,
+for the hatred, which they shewed to Christianity. He proved, that, by
+banishing it from the world,
+
+    "they would overturn whatever was most holy and respectable among
+    men; break asunder the surest bonds of humanity; teach men to shake
+    off the yoke of law; deprive them of their strongest incitement to
+    virtue, and bereave them of their best comfort. What," (he asked
+    them) "do you substitute in its place? Can you flatter yourself,
+    that you will discover something better? You expect, no doubt, that
+    men will erect statues to you, for your exertions to deprive them
+    of their religion! Permit me to tell you, that the part you act
+    makes you odious and despicable in the eyes of all honest men."
+
+He finished the conversation by requesting Mr. Collins to bring him no
+more such visitors.
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 1. History of Arminians.]
+
+From the close of the 17th century, till the present time, Arminianism
+has been continually on the increase. It is a just observation of Mr.
+Gibbon, that "the disciples of Arminius must not be computed by their
+separate congregations."
+
+Doctor Maclaine says, it is certain, that the most eminent philosophers
+have been found among the Arminians. "If both Arminians and Calvinists,"
+says Mr. Evans, in the excellent work we have cited,
+
+    "claim a _King_ (_James_ I.), it is certain that the latter alone
+    can boast of a _Newton_, a _Locke_, a _Clarke_, or a _Boyle_.
+    Archbishop _Usher_ is said to have lived a _Calvinist_; and died an
+    _Arminian_. The members of the episcopal church in Scotland; the
+    Moravians, the general Baptists, the Wesleyan Methodists, the
+    Quakers or Friends, are Arminians; and it is supposed that a great
+    proportion of the Kirk of Scotland teach the doctrines of Arminius,
+    though they have a Calvinistic confession of faith. What a pity it
+    is that the opinions either of Calvinists or Arminians,"
+
+--(we beg leave to add: or any other Catholic or Protestant opinions
+whatsoever)--
+
+    "cannot in the eyes of some persons be held without a diminution of
+    Christian charity!"
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XII. 2.
+
+_Grotius's Religious Sentiments_.
+
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+To the milder form of Arminianism, Grotius always inclined. During his
+embassy in France, he adopted it without reserve. He was soon disgusted
+with the French Calvinists. The ministers of Charenton accepted the
+decisions of the Synod of Dort, and, in conformity with them, refused,
+when Grotius repaired to Paris, after his escape from Louvestein, to
+admit him into their communion. On his arrival at Paris, in quality of
+ambassador, they offered to receive him: Grotius expressed pleasure at
+the proposal; and, intimated to them, that if he should go into any
+country, in which the Lutherans, knowing his sentiments on the sacrament
+of our Lord's Supper, should be willing to receive him into their
+communion, he would make no difficulty in joining them. Thus every thing
+appeared to be settled; but the ministers then objected to receive
+Grotius as ambassador from Sweden, because that kingdom was Lutheran.
+Grotius, upon this, resolved to have the divine service performed in his
+house. Lutherans publicly attended it. "We have celebrated," he writes
+to his brother, "the Feast of the Nativity in my house: the Duke of
+Wirtemberg, the Count de Saxenburgh, and several Swedish and German
+lords, attended at it." His first chaplain was imprudent, his second
+gave him great satisfaction.
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 2. Grotius' Religious Sentiments.]
+
+Burigni has collected, in the last chapter of his Life of Grotius, a
+multitude of passages, which shew his gradual leaning to the Roman
+Catholic faith. He produces several passages from his works, which
+prove,--
+
+_That_ he paid high regard to decisions of the councils, and the
+discipline of the primitive church; and thought the sentiments of the
+antient church should be deferred to, in the explanation of the
+Scriptures: [047]
+
+_That_, the early reformers were held by him in no great esteem:[048]
+
+_That_, mentioning Casaubon's sentiments, Grotius said that this learned
+man thought the Roman Catholics of France better informed than those of
+other countries, and came nearer to truth than the ministers of
+Charenton:--
+
+    "It cannot," says Grotius, "be denied, that there are several Roman
+    Catholic pastors here, who teach true religion, without any mixture
+    of superstition; it were to be wished that all did the same:"[049]
+
+_That_ the Calvinists were schismatics, and had no mission:[050]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+_That_ the Jesuits were learned men and good subjects. "I know many of
+them," he says, in one of his writings against Rivetus, "who are very
+desirous to see abuses abolished, and the church restored to its
+primitive unity."--We shall hereafter see that Father Petâu, an
+illustrious member of the society, possessed the confidence of
+Grotius:[051]
+
+_That_, Grotius looked upon the abolition of episcopacy and of a visible
+head of the church, as something very monstrous:[052]
+
+_That_, he acknowledged that some change was made in the eucharistic
+bread; that, when Jesus Christ, being sacramentally present, favours us
+with his substance,--as the Council of Trent expresses its doctrine on
+the Eucharist,--the appearances of bread and wine remain, and in their
+place succeed the body and blood of Christ: [053]
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 2. Grotius's Religious Sentiments.]
+
+_That_, Grotius did not approve of the sentiments of the Calvinists
+concerning the Eucharist, and reproached them with their contradiction.
+
+    "You will hear them state in their confessions," says Grotius,
+    "that they really, substantially and essentially partake of
+    Christ's body and his blood; but, in their disputes, they maintain
+    that Christ is received only spiritually, by faith. The antients
+    go much further: they admit a real incorporation of Jesus Christ
+    with us, and the reality of Christ's body, as Saint Hilarius
+    speaks."
+
+It must however be remarked that, although Grotius thought that the term
+_Transubstantiation_ adopted by the council of Trent, was capable of a
+good interpretation, it is not clear, what was his precise opinion
+respecting the Eucharist. He proposed the following formulary:
+
+    "We believe that, in the use of the supper, we truly, really, and
+    substantially,--that is to say,--in its proper substance,--receive
+    the true body and the true blood of Jesus Christ, in a spiritual
+    and ineffable manner: [054]"
+
+_That_, Grotius justified the decision of the Council of Trent,
+concerning the number of the sacraments:[055]
+
+_That_, after the year 1640, he took no offence at the use of images in
+churches, or at prayers for the dead:[056]
+
+_That_, he thought the bishops of Rome may be in error, but cannot long
+remain in it, if they adhere to the universal church;--this seems to
+presuppose the church's infallibility:[057]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+_That_ in the opinion of Grotius; fasting was early used in the church;
+the observance of Lent was a very early practice: the sign of the cross
+had something respectable in it; the fathers held virginity a more
+perfect state than marriage; and the celibacy of the priests conformable
+to the antient discipline of the church:[058]
+
+And
+
+    "that those, who shall read the decrees of the Council of Trent,
+    with a mind disposed to peace, will find that every thing is wisely
+    explained in them: and agreeable to what is taught by the
+    Scriptures and the antient fathers."[059]
+
+It is certain, that Grotius was intimate with Father Petâu, a Jesuit,
+inferior to none of his society, in genius and learning; that the good
+father used all his endeavours to convert Grotius to the Roman Catholic
+religion; and was, at length, so much persuaded of his friend's
+catholicity, that, when he heard of his death, he said prayers for the
+repose of his soul.[060]
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+As the religion of Grotius was a problem to many, Menâge wrote the
+following Epigram upon it: the sense of it is, that--
+
+    "As many sects claimed the religion of Grotius, as the towns, which
+    contended for the birth of Homer."
+
+        _Smyrna, Rhodos, Colophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos, Athenæ,
+          Siderei certant vatis de patriâ Homeri:
+        Grotiadæ certant de religione, Socinus,
+          Arrius, Arminius, Calvinus, Roma, Lutherus_.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XII. 3.
+
+_Grotius's Project of Religious Pacification._
+
+
+A wish for religious peace among Christians grew with the growth and
+strengthened with the strength of Grotius. It was known, before his
+imprisonment at Louvestein, that he entertained these sentiments: he
+avows them in the dedication to Lewis XIII. of his treatise _de Jure
+Belli et Pacis_.
+
+    "I shall never cease," he says in a letter to his brother,[061] "to
+    use my utmost endeavours for establishing peace among Christians;
+    And, if I should not succeed, it will be honourable to die in such
+    an enterprise." "I am not the only one, who has conceived such
+    projects," he writes in another letter to his brother:[062]
+    "Erasmus, Cassander; Wicelius and Casaubon had the same design. La
+    Meletiere is employed at present in it. Cardinal de Richelieu
+    declares that he will protect the coalition; and he is such a
+    fortunate man, that he never undertakes any thing, in which he
+    does not succeed. If there were no hopes of success at present,
+    ought we not to sow the seed, which may he useful to
+    posterity?[063] Even if we should only diminish the mutual hatred
+    among Christians, and render them more sociable, would not this be
+    worth purchasing at the price of some labour and reproaches?"[064]
+
+Grotius expressed himself in similar terms to Baron Oxenstiern: Surely
+it is the true language of the Gospel.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+In the first appendix to this work,--we shall insert, an account
+
+    "of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith, and Symbolic Books, of
+    the Roman Catholic, Greek, and principal Protestant churches:"--
+
+In the second appendix,--we shall insert an account of the principal
+attempts made, since the Reformation, for the re-union of
+Christians.--The former is abridged from the "Historical and Literary
+Account of the Confessions of Faith," which was formerly published by
+the present writer;--the second is an essay appended to that work:--both
+have been before referred to in the present publication.
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+Grotius[065] thought that the most compendious way to produce universal
+religious peace among Christians, would be to frame, with the
+concurrence of all the orthodox Eastern and Western churches, a
+formulary which should express, briefly and explicitly, all the articles
+of faith, the belief of which they agree in thinking essential to
+salvation. In a letter addressed from Paris in 1625,[066] he mentions
+that Gustavus Adolphus had entertained projects of religious
+pacification, and had taken measures to effect it; that he had procured
+a meeting of divines of the Lutheran and Reformed churches and that they
+had separated amicably: Grotius says that the differences between them
+were as slight as those between the Greek and Coptic churches.
+
+For some time, Grotius flattered himself that he should succeed in his
+project of pacification. In one of his letters to his brother, he
+mentions distinguished Protestants, who approved and encouraged them
+
+    "I perceive," he says, "that by conversing with men of the most
+    learning among the reformed, and explaining my sentiments to them,
+    they are of my opinion; and that their number will increase, if my
+    treatises are dispersed. I can truly affirm, that I have said
+    nothing in them from party spirit, but followed truth as closely as
+    I could."[067]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+He imagined that some Catholics entered into his views.
+
+    "The ablest men among the Catholics," he thus writes to his
+    brother, "think that what I have published is written with great
+    freedom and moderation, and approve of it."[068]
+
+These pacific projects of Grotius cemented the union between him and
+Father Petâu.
+
+    "I had," says that most learned Jesuit, in his 12th Letter, "a
+    great desire to see and converse with Grotius. We have been long
+    together, and very intimate. He is, as far as I can judge, a good
+    man, and possesses great candour. I do not think him far from
+    becoming a Catholic, after the example of Holstenius as you hoped.
+    I shall neglect nothing in my power to reconcile him to Christ, and
+    put him in the way of salvation."[069]
+
+[Sidenote: His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+As Grotius lays so much stress on the pacific labours of Erasmus,
+Wicelius, Cassander and Casaubon, we shall briefly mention, in the
+present chapter, the labours of the three first: Casaubon's we shall
+notice, in the second appendix to this work.
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] It appears that _Erasmus_ had it in
+contemplation to compose three dialogues, upon the important subject of
+religious pacification: the speakers were to have been Luther, under the
+name of Thrasimacus, and a Catholic divine, under that of Eubolus. In
+the first dialogue, they were to have discussed the proper methods of
+terminating the religious controversies of the times; in the second, to
+have investigated what were the points in controversy, the belief of
+which was essential to a member of the church of Christ; in the third,
+they were to have inquired what were the best means to procure a good
+understanding between the contending parties, and to effect their union.
+It is to be lamented that Erasmus did not execute his design. His
+general sentiments appear in his _Paraphrase upon the 83d Psalm_; they
+are expressed with great wisdom and moderation.[071]
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+_Wicelius_,--who is next mentioned by Grotius, had been professed in a
+religious order: had quitted it, and embraced Lutheranism: he afterwards
+forsook that communion, and returned to the Catholic: upon this, he was
+appointed to a curacy; and, in the discharge of his functions, obtained
+general esteem: he was much regarded by the Emperors Ferdinand and
+Maximilian. In 1537, he published at Leipsic a Latin work, "On the
+method of procuring Religious Concord,--_Methodus Concordiæ
+Ecclesiasticæ_." He addressed it to the pope, to all sovereigns,
+bishops, doctors, and generally to all christians, exhorting them to
+peace, and to desist from contention. He assumed in it, that the true
+religion had been preserved in the Catholic church; but he allows that
+modern doctors had involved it in numerous scholastic subtleties,
+unknown to antiquity. He complains that on one hand the reformers left
+nothing untouched; that, on the other, the scholastics would retain
+every abuse, and every superfluity: Wisdom, he thought, lay between
+them; the reformers should have respected what antiquity consecrated;
+the Catholics should have abandoned modern doctrines and modern
+practices to the discretion of individuals.
+
+The "Royal Road," or _Via Regia_ of Wicelius, a still more important
+work, was published by him at Helmstadt in 1537. Both works were
+approved, and the perusal of them warmly recommended, by the emperors:
+they have been often reprinted; they are inserted, with a life of their
+author, in the second volume of _Brown's Fasciculus_.
+
+    "If all the divines of those times," says Father Simôn the
+    oratorian,[073] "had possessed the same spirit as Wicelius, the
+    affairs of religion might have taken a different turn."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+[Sidenote: XII.3. His Project of Religious Pacification]
+
+_Cassander_, another peacemaker, mentioned with praise by Grotius, is
+the subject of a long and interesting article in _Dupin's Ecclesiastical
+History_:[074]
+
+    "He was," says Dupin, "solidly learned; and thoroughly versed in
+    ecclesiastical antiquity and the controversies of his own times.
+    The flaming zeal, which he had for the re-union and peace of the
+    church, made him yield much to the Protestants, and led him to
+    advance some propositions that were too bold. But he always kept in
+    the communion of the Catholic church. He declared that he submitted
+    to its judgments, and openly condemned the authors of the schism
+    and their principal errors. He was a gentle, humble and moderate
+    man; patient under afflictions, and entirely disinterested. In his
+    disputes, he never returned injury for injury; and neither in his
+    manners nor in his writings were presumption or arrogance ever
+    discoverable. He avoided glory, honor, or wealth; and lived private
+    and retired, having no other thought or wish, but to promote the
+    peace of the church; no employment, but study; no business, but to
+    compose books, which might be profitable to the public; and no
+    passion, but knowing and teaching the truth."
+
+His character procured him universal respect. The emperor and several
+Catholic princes in Germany fixed upon him as a mediator in the
+religious disputes, by which the empire was, at that time, agitated. In
+conformity with their views he published his celebrated, "_Consultatio
+de Articulis Religionis inter Catholicos et Protestantes Controversis_."
+
+    "In this work," says Mr. Chalmers, "he discusses the several
+    articles of the Augsburgh Confession, stating their difference from
+    the doctrines of the Catholic church, and the concessions that
+    might safely be made in respect to them. This work was written with
+    great liberality, was much applauded by those, who were desirous of
+    a coalition: they were too soon convinced that every attempt of
+    this kind was nugatory. Cassander presented it to the Emperors
+    Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. They received it favourably; the
+    former invited Cassander to Vienna, but his infirmities prevented
+    his accepting the offer."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+In 1542, Grotius published his "_Road to Religious Peace,--Via ad Pacem
+Ecclesiasticam_:" he inserted in it Cassander's "_Consultation_," and
+accompanied it with notes.
+
+All pacific persons reverenced Grotius, and still reverence his memory,
+for his attempts to restore the religious peace of Christendom: all the
+violent condemned him, and opposed his projects. The contradictions,
+which he met with, chagrined him; so that he sometimes lost that
+tranquillity of mind, which he had possessed in his deepest adversity.
+But, to use his own words, he looked to the blessed Peacemaker for his
+reward, and trusted that posterity would do justice to its intentions.--
+
+    "Perhaps, by writing to reconcile such as entertain very opposite
+    sentiments, I shall," says Grotius, "offend both parties: but, if
+    that should so happen, I shall comfort myself with the example of
+    him, who said, If I please men, I am not the servant of Christ."
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+    "Grotius," says Burigni, "content with gratifying his pacific
+    desires, expected his reward from posterity. This he clearly
+    intimates in the following verses, written by him on the subject:
+
+        "_Accipe, sed placidé, quæ, si non optimo, certé
+          Espressit nobis non mala pacis amor.
+        Et tibi dic, nostro labor hic si displicet avo,
+          A gratia pretium posteritate feret_."
+
+The projects of religious pacification did not cease with Grotius:
+several divines of distinction adopted it; and attempted, some with more
+prudence and ability than others, to carry it into effect. The principal
+of these are noticed in the second appendix to the present work. None
+succeeded: One description of persons, who engaged in this design, was
+denominated _Syncretists_, or _Calixtines_, from _George Calixtus_ their
+leader: the other, from their calling men from controversy to holiness
+of life, received the appellation of _Pietists_: A third party,--perhaps
+we may style them, the _Ultra-orthodox_,--more hostile to the former
+than to the latter--arose in opposition to both, and accused them of
+sacrificing the doctrines of faith to a mistaken zeal for union and
+sanctity.[075]
+
+It is certain[076] that the friends of union too often erred in
+this,--that they aimed rather at an uniformity of _terms_ than of
+_sentiments_; and thus seemed satisfied, when they engaged the
+contending parties to use the same _words and phrases_, though their
+_real difference_ in opinion remained the same. This could not be
+justified: it tended evidently to extinguish truth and honour, and to
+introduce equivocation.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+THE DEATH OF GROTIUS.
+
+1645
+
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XIII. 1645.]
+
+Every thing respecting the recall of Grotius being settled, he embarked
+at Dieppe for Holland. He was extremely well received at Amsterdam and
+Rotterdam: the constituted authorities, of the former city fitted a
+vessel, which was to take him to Hamburgh: there, after along and
+harassing journey, he arrived on the 16th of May. From Hamburgh he
+proceeded to Lübec: the magistrates of that city gave him an honourable
+reception. He proceeded to Wismar; where Count Wismar, the admiral of
+the Swedish fleet, gave him a splendid entertainment, and afterwards
+sent him in a man-of-war to Colmar: thence, he went by land to
+Stockholm. When he arrived there, Queen Christina was at Upsal; but,
+hearing that Grotius was at Stockholm, she returned to that city to meet
+him. On the day after her arrival, she favoured him with a long
+audience: she expressed to him great satisfaction at his conduct, and
+made him large promises. These audiences were often repeated; and once
+she permitted him to have the honour of dining with her. She assured
+him, that if he would continue in her service, as Councillor of State,
+and bring his family into Sweden, he should have no reason to complain
+of her. But Grotius was anxious to leave Sweden; and his passport being
+delayed, he resolved to quit it without one, and actually proceeded to a
+seaport about seven leagues distant from Stockholm. The Queen, being
+informed of his departure, sent a gentleman to inform him, that she
+wished to see him once more. On this invitation he returned to
+Stockholm, and was immediately admitted into the Queen's presence; he
+then explained to her his reasons for wishing to quit Sweden. The Queen
+appeared to be satisfied with them: she made him a present in money of
+twelve or thirteen thousand Swedish imperials, of the value of about ten
+thousand French crowns; she added to the present, some plate, the
+finishing of which had, she told him, been the only cause of the delay
+of his passport. She then put it into his hands, and a vessel was
+appointed to carry him to Lübec. On the 12th August he embarked for that
+city.
+
+[Sidenote: The Death of Grotius.]
+
+What were his real motives for refusing Christina's offers, or in what
+place he ultimately intended to fix himself, is not known.
+
+The vessel in which he embarked had scarcely sailed from Lübec, when it
+was overtaken by a violent storm, and obliged, on the 17th August, to
+take shelter in a port fourteen miles distant from Dantzic. Grotius went
+from it in an open wagon to Lübec, and arrived very ill at Rostock[077]
+on the 26th August. No one, there, knew him: his great weakness
+determined him to call in the aid of a physician: one accordingly
+attended him: his name was Stochman. On feeling Grotius's pulse, he said
+his indisposition proceeded from weakness and fatigue, and that, with
+rest and some restoratives, he might recover; but, on the following day
+he changed his opinion. Perceiving that the weakness of Grotius
+increased, and that it was accompanied with a cold sweat and other
+symptoms indicating an exhaustion of nature, the physician announced
+that the end of his patient was near. Grotius then asked for a
+clergyman. _John Quistorpius_ was brought to him. Quistorpius, in a
+letter to Calovius, gives the following particulars of Grotius's last
+moments:
+
+    "You are desirous of hearing from me, how that Phoenix of
+    Literature, Hugo Grotius, behaved in his last moments, and I am
+    going to tell you. He embarked at Stockholm for Lübec, and after
+    having been tossed for the three days, by a violent tempest, he was
+    shipwrecked, and got to shore on the coast of Pomerania, from
+    whence he came to our town of Rostock, distant above sixty miles,
+    in an open wagon through wind and rain. He lodged with Balleman;
+    and sent for M. Stochman, the physician, who observing that he was
+    extremely weakened by years, by what he suffered at sea, and by the
+    inconveniences attending the journey, judged that he could not live
+    long. The second day after Grotius's arrival in this town, that is,
+    on the 18th of August, O.S. he sent for me, about nine at night, I
+    went, and found him almost at the point of death: I said, 'There
+    was nothing I desired more, than to have seen him in health, that I
+    might have the pleasure of his conversation.' He answered, 'God had
+    ordered it otherwise.' I desired him: to prepare himself for a
+    happier life, to acknowledge that he was a sinner, and to repent of
+    his faults: and, happening to mention the publican, who
+    acknowledged that he was a sinner, and asked God's mercy; he
+    answered, '_I am that publican_.' I went on, and told him that he
+    must have recourse to Jesus Christ, without whom there is no
+    salvation.'
+
+    "He replied, '_I place all my hope in Jesus Christ_.'
+
+[Sidenote: The Death of Grotius.]
+
+    "I began to repeat aloud in German, the prayer which begins _Herr
+    Jesu:_[078] he followed me in a very low voice; with his hands
+    clasped. When I had done, I asked him, 'if he understood me.' He
+    answered, '_I understand you very well_.' I continued to repeat to
+    him those passages of the word of God, which are commonly offered
+    to the remembrance of dying persons; and asking him, 'if he
+    understood me,' he answered, '_I heard your voice, but I did not
+    understand what you said._'
+
+    "These were his last words; soon afterwards he expired; just at
+    midnight. His body was delivered to the physicians, who took out
+    his bowels. I easily obtained leave to bury them in our principal
+    church, which is dedicated to the Virgin."
+
+His corpse, was afterwards carried to Delft, and deposited in the tomb
+of his ancestors. He wrote this modest epitaph for himself,
+
+        "GROTIUS HIC HUGO EST, BATAVUM
+          CAPTIVUS ET EXSUL,
+        LEGATUS REGNI, SUECIA MAGNA, TUI."
+
+Burigni informs us that Grotius had a very agreeable person, a good
+complexion, an aquiline nose, sparkling eyes, a serene and smiling
+countenance; that he was not tall, but very strong, and well built. The
+engraving of him prefixed to the _Hugonis Grotii Manes_ answers this
+description.
+
+It is needless to give an account of his descendants, or their
+prosperous or adverse fortunes: they are noticed at length by Burigni.
+In _Mr. Boswell's Life of Johnson_, mention is made of one who was then
+in a state of want. Dr. Johnson, in a letter to Dr. Vyse,
+
+    "requests him to recommend, an old friend, to his grace the
+    Archbishop of Canterbury. His name," says the Doctor, "is De Groot.
+    He has all the common claims to charity; he is poor and infirm in a
+    great degree. He has likewise another claim, to which no scholar
+    can refuse attention: he is, by several descents, the nephew of
+    Hugo Grotius; of him, of whom every man of learning has perhaps
+    learned something. Let it not be said, that, in any lettered
+    country, the nephew of Grotius, ever asked a charity, and was
+    refused."
+
+The reader must be pleased, to be informed, that the application,--it
+was for some situation, in the charter-house,--was successful. Dr. Vyse
+informed Dr. Johnson of it, by letter. In his answer,
+
+    "Dr. Johnson," by Dr. Vyse's account, "rejoiced much, and was
+    lavish of the praise he bestowed upon his favourite Hugo
+    Grotius."[079]
+
+[Sidenote: The Death of Grotius.]
+
+Three points were united in Grotius, each of which would strongly
+recommend him to Dr. Johnson: he was learned, pious, and opposed to the
+doctrines of Calvin. It is still more unnecessary to mention the various
+encomiums, which the learned of all nations have made of Grotius, in
+prose and verse. That he was one of the most universal scholars, whom
+the world has produced, and that he possessed sense, taste, and genius
+in a high degree, is universally confessed. It is equally true, that
+both his public and his private character, are entitled to a high degree
+of praise.
+
+When Queen Christina, heard of his death, she wrote to his widow, a
+letter of condolence, and requested, that the manuscripts which he had
+left, might be sent to her:
+
+    "My ambassador," the Queen says in this letter, "has made you
+    acquainted, with my high esteem, for his learning, and the good
+    services he did me; but he could not express, how dear I hold his
+    memory, and the effects of his great labours. If gold, or silver,
+    could do any thing towards redeeming such a valuable life, I would
+    gladly employ all, I am mistress of, for that purpose."
+
+She concludes by asking his widow, for all the manuscripts "of that
+learned man, whose works had given her such pleasure." The Queen assures
+her, that "they could not fall into better hands," and that, "the
+author, having been useful to her in his lifetime, it was not just that
+she should be deprived, after his death, of the fruits of his labours."
+
+It remains to mention, that, after the death of Grotius, his wife
+communicated with the Church of England: this, it is said, she did in
+conformity to the dying injunctions of her husband: it is certain, that
+Grotius respected the Church of England. His wife died at the Hague, in
+the communion of the Remonstrants. Through life, she was uniformly
+respected; and, whenever the services of Grotius, to sacred and profane
+literature, are recorded, her services to him, should be mentioned with
+praise.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SEVEN
+UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THE DEATH OF WILLIAM II. TILL THE ESTABLISHMENT
+OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+1680-1815.
+
+
+In some of the preceding pages, the principal events in the history of
+the Seven United Provinces, till the death of William II, in 1680, have
+been briefly mentioned: in the present chapter, we shall insert a
+summary account of the revolutions of their government, till the present
+time.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XIV. 1.
+
+_William III._
+
+1650-1702.
+
+
+William III. was born after the death of William II. his father.
+Immediately after that event, his mother claimed for him the
+stadtholderate, and all the other dignities, pre-eminences, and rights,
+which his father and grandfather had enjoyed; but, so great, at that
+time, was the public jealousy of the ambitious views of the house of
+Orange, that the States General would not even take her claims into
+deliberation. A general assembly of the States was held in 1661. They
+confirmed the Treaty of Union, of 1579; attributed to themselves, the
+appointment of all civil and military offices; placed the army under the
+authority of the provinces and municipalities, and invested the council
+of state with the general direction of the military concerns of the
+nation. A war with England, which was then governed by Cromwell, soon
+followed; it was the commencement of the naval glory of the United
+States. But the government was distracted by the contests and
+dissensions between the republican and the Orange factions. The former
+were headed by John de Witt. He possessed transcendent abilities, was a
+true lover of his country, and, on every occasion, advised the wisest
+measures. Some of the military operations of the States proving
+unsuccessful, the Orange faction endeavoured to persuade the people,
+that this reverse of fortune was owing to the want of a Stadtholder; and
+exhorted them to confer this dignity on the young prince, to be
+exercised, during his minority, by one of the family. This proposition
+was successfully resisted by De Witt. Peace between England and the
+United Provinces being concluded, Cromwell endeavoured to unite them to
+England by a federative alliance; but they rejected the proposition. At
+the suggestion of De Witt, the States of Holland passed an Act, by which
+they bound themselves never to appoint the Prince of Orange, or any of
+his descendants, to the office of Stadtholder, or Captain General; and
+to prevent, to their utmost power, the other States from making such an
+appointment. This measure displeased the other States. In 1665, the
+office of Commander in Chief becoming vacant, the opposite party
+endeavoured to procure it for one of the Orange family; this attempt
+also proved abortive. In 1661 a war broke out between England,--which
+was then governed by Charles II., and the United States; these displayed
+in it, chiefly under the command of De Ruyter, prodigies of valour and
+naval skill; the year 1667 was famous in their annals, by their fleet's
+sailing up the river Thames, and burning the English fleet at Chatham.
+The peace of Breda immediately followed.
+
+[Sidenote: XIV. 1. William III.]
+
+Still, the civil discord continued. The States of Holland renewed the
+_Edict of Exclusion_, with the addition of a clause, that, whenever a
+person should be invested, with the office of Captain, or Admiral
+General, he should swear never to aspire to the office of Stadtholder,
+and to refuse it, if it should be offered to him.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XIV 1650--1702.]
+
+The year 1671 is remarkable for the league entered into by Louis XIV.
+and Charles II. against the United States, and by their vigourous
+resistance to it. The circumstances into which it drove the United
+States, compelled them to appoint the Prince of Orange Captain General
+and Admiral: he took the oath prescribed by the Perpetual Edict, not to
+aspire to the stadtholderate, and to reject it, if offered. He was at
+this time in his twenty-second year: he owed his elevation to the
+critical situation in which the United States were then placed; but it
+was also owing to the great prudence with which he had conducted himself
+when fortune was opposed to him; and to the talents and application to
+business which he then discovered.
+
+At sea, the navy of the United States was generally successful. At land,
+the arms of Lewis XIV. triumphed; he conquered Gueldres, Overyssell, and
+the city and province of Utretcht. This maddened the populace. They
+massacred John De Witt, and Cornelius De Witt, his brother, after having
+subjected them to the cruellest tortures and the most brutal
+indignities. To the indelible reproach of William III. he did not
+interfere to prevent or stop these horrors. His measures for obtaining
+the stadtholderate succeeded.
+
+[Sidenote: XIV. 1. William III.]
+
+On the 4th of July 1672, it was re-established in the person of William
+III.; and all the dignities and rights enjoyed by his predecessors were
+conferred upon him. These, in 1674, were made hereditary in his family.
+His subsequent conduct is entitled, on many accounts, to the warmest
+praise. The success of the United States at sea compelled Charles II. to
+make peace with them, so that Lewis XIV. was their only enemy. The war
+with him was terminated by the peace of Nimeguen in 1678. Ten years
+after it, the Stadtholder, on the abdication of James II. became King of
+England. In 1690, England, Spain, Austria, and the United Provinces,
+entered into the Grand Alliance against France. The Duke of Savoy and
+several Princes of Germany afterwards joined it. In general, the
+proceedings of the confederacy were unsuccessful; the war was terminated
+in 1697 by the peace of Ryswick. In 1700, the disputes on the succession
+to the Spanish monarchy, in consequence of the death of Charles II. of
+Spain, without issue, called the world again to arms. William III. died
+in 1702.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XIV. 2.
+
+_John William Count of Nassau Dietz_, 1702-1711; _William IV_.
+1711-1751.
+
+
+The government of William III. was generally displeasing to the United
+States: they accused him of sacrificing them to the interests of his
+English monarchy, and to the hatred which he always bore to the French.
+He was also suspected, and not without reason, of a design to acquire
+the independent sovereignty of the provinces. At first, his influence
+within them was so great, that he was said to be King in the United
+States, and Stadtholder in England; but it declined gradually; and an
+attempt by him to obtain the succession to the stadtholderate for John
+Friso, Prince of Nassau and Hereditary Stadtholder of Frizeland,
+absolutely failed. He made, by his will, that prince his testamentary
+heir.
+
+Upon the decease of William III. a general wish to discontinue the
+stadtholderate was expressed in most of the provinces; those of Holland,
+Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres, and Overyssell, came to a formal resolution
+to this effect They recognised the supreme power of the States General,
+and conferred the direction of their political concerns on Heinsius, the
+actual Grand Pensionary, a person of great learning, uncommon talents
+for business, and acknowledged integrity.
+
+[Sidenote: XIV. 2. John William Count of Nassau Diets, 1702-1711;
+William IV. 1711-1749.]
+
+As testamentary heir of William III., John-William assumed the title of
+Prince of Orange: he died in 1711, without having exercised the power of
+the stadtholderate, except in the province of Frizeland.
+
+The war of the succession terminated in 1713, by the peace of Utretcht:
+it was succeeded in 1715 by the Barrier Treaty, and in 1719 by the
+Quadruple Alliance, ever memorable for the triumphant campaigns of
+Marlborough, by which it was followed. The pensionary Heinsius died in
+1720. In his life-time, several weak attempts had been made, in
+different provinces, to restore in them the stadtholderate. They
+succeeded only at Gueldres; and even there, it was restored with great
+limitations.
+
+Upon the decease of Prince William-John, his rights and pretensions
+descended to Prince William, his son. In 1733, he married Mary, the
+daughter of George II. of England. This strengthened his cause; but the
+general spirit of the United Provinces was so averse to the
+Stadtholderate, that it was not till the invasion of Holland, by the
+French, in 1747, that the prince's party judged it advisable to bring
+forward his claim. At first they met with resistance, but finally
+prevailed, and Prince William of Orange became the sole Stadtholder of
+every province: until his time each of the provinces of Frizeland and
+Groningen had its particular Stadtholder. The dignities of Captain
+General and Admiral were also conferred on him; and, in addition to
+these, some rights and privileges which no former Stadtholder had
+enjoyed.
+
+The reverses of the United Provinces continued, and the aggrandisement
+of the Stadtholderate increased proportionally. As yet William IV. had
+no male issue. In 1748, the Orange faction proposed that the
+Stadtholderate should be declared hereditary; and that, in default of
+males, females should be admitted into the succession. After some
+opposition the measure was carried in all the provinces, except
+Frizeland and Groningen. From this time the United Provinces ceased to
+be a republic, and became a monarchy, limited by the antient usages and
+institutions. William IV. died in 1749.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XIV. 3.
+
+_From the Death of William IV. till the Erection of the Kingdom of the
+Netherlands_.
+
+1749-1815.
+
+
+At the death of William IV. William, his son, and afterwards his
+successor in the Stadtholderate, was an infant, in very tender years.
+His mother was named by the states Governess of the United Provinces.
+She appointed the Duke of Brunswick to the command of their armies;
+thus, after all their exertions and sacrifices for liberty, the United
+Provinces became subject to the government of an English princess and a
+German prince; and an English party became predominant in their
+politics; William V. married a princess of Prussia, and thus the Orange
+party was strengthened by Prussian influence.
+
+[Sidenote: XIV. 3. From the death of William IV. till the erection of
+the Kingdom of the Netherlands.]
+
+These opposite, and conflicting interests, filled every province, with
+dissension; and, on some occasions, armed one body of citizens against
+another. The English party, sided with the Orange faction; the French,
+with the republicans. At first the latter prevailed; they led the states
+into measures, which forced England to declare war against them. In
+1782, they acknowledged the independence of the United States of
+America. Still, the dissensions continued. After a long conflict, the
+republican party acquired the ascendant; they suspended the Prince of
+Orange from his functions, and filled all the principal places of trust
+with their own adherents. But the Orange party soon rallied; the Duke of
+Brunswick entered Holland at the head of a victorious army, and, in
+1787, re-established the Stadtholderate.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XIV. 1749-1816.]
+
+His victorious career, was soon terminated. In 1799, the revolutionary
+army of France made themselves masters of the whole territory of the
+United States; and established _The Batavian Republic_. It was
+successively governed, but always under the overpowering controul of
+France, by a Convention, a Directory, and a Consul, with the appellation
+of Grand Pensionary. In 1806, even these forms of her antient government
+were abolished; Napoleon sending Louis, one of his brothers, to reign
+over the United Provinces, with the title and powers of royalty; but
+with an intimation, that France was entitled to his first attentions and
+a priority of duty. The demands of Napoleon for attentions and duties
+were so exorbitant, that rather than be instrumental in the infliction
+of the miseries which a compliance with them must occasion, Louis
+resigned his throne. Napoleon then incorporated the United Provinces
+into his empire, "as an alluvion," for such he termed them, "to the
+Rivers of France." Scenes of the most grinding oppression followed: the
+Batavians were relieved from it by the fall and abdication of Napoleon.
+
+[Sidenote: XIV. 3. Establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.]
+
+Before this event, William V. died, leaving a son, called from his
+pretensions to the stadtholderate, William VI. We have seen that, on the
+death of the Emperor Charles V. all the seventeen provinces, composing
+the Netherlands, devolved to Philip II. his son; the successful
+defection of the Seven United Provinces has been mentioned; the ten
+remaining provinces were afterwards transferred to the House of Austria,
+and were inherited by the Emperor Joseph II. The French made an easy
+conquest of them in an early stage of the Revolution.
+
+We now reach the ultimate fate of both the divisions of the Netherlands.
+The congress of Vienna, by an act of the 9th June 1815, created and
+conferred upon this prince, THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS, consisting
+of the seventeen provinces, and a portion of Luxemburgh. It is
+confessedly the first among the kingdoms of the second order.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+It was our wish to present our readers with a sketch of the literary
+history of the Netherlands, during the period treated of in this
+chapter; but after most diligent and extensive searches, both in the
+British and foreign markets, we have not been able to discover materials
+for it; persons of acknowledged learning, both in Germany and the
+Netherlands, have assured us that no such history exists.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+I.
+
+REFERRED TO IN PAGE 188.
+
+SOME ACCOUNT OF THE FORMULARIES, CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, OR SYMBOLIC
+BOOKS, OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC, GREEK, AND PRINCIPAL PROTESTANT CHURCHES.
+
+
+The constitutions of the Roman Catholic, and Protestant Churches, differ
+in nothing more, than in the following important points: The Catholic
+Church, acknowledges the authority of the Scriptures, and, in addition
+to them, a body of traditionary law. She receives both under the
+authority, and with the interpretation of the Church, and believes that
+the authority of the Church in receiving and interpreting them is
+infallible. The Protestant Churches generally profess to acknowledge no
+law but the Scriptures, no interpreter of the Scriptures, but the
+understanding and conscience of the individual who peruses them.
+
+That the Roman Catholic Church should propound a formulary of her faith,
+enlarge this formulary from time to time, as further interpretation is
+wanted, and enforce acquiscence in it by spiritual censures, is
+consistent with _her_ principles. Whether such a pretension can be
+avowed, without inconsistency, by any Protestant Church, has been a
+subject of much discussion. In point of fact, however, no Protestant
+Church is without her formulary, or abstains from enforcing it by
+temporal provisions and spiritual censures. To enforce their formularies
+by civil penalties, is inconsistent with the principles, of every
+christian church. All churches howsoever have so enforced, and have
+blamed the others, for so enforcing them.
+
+Such formularies, from the circumstance of their collecting into one
+instrument, several articles, of religious belief, are generally known
+on the Continent, by the appellation of SYMBOLIC BOOKS.
+
+
+I. The symbolic books, received by ALL TRINITARIAN CHRISTIAN
+CHURCHES,--are,
+
+    1. _The Symbol of the Apostles_; and
+
+    2. _The Nicene Symbol_.
+
+
+II. The symbolic books, received by the ROMAN CATHOLIC Church,--are,
+
+    1. The General Councils;
+
+    2. Among these,--_the Council of Trent_,--as immediately applying
+    to the controversies between the Catholic and Protestant Churches,
+    is particularly regarded;
+
+    3. _The Symbol of Pope Pius IV_.;
+
+    4. _The Catechism of the Council of Trent_.
+
+
+III. The symbolic books of the GREEK CHURCH,--are,
+
+    1. _The Confession, of her true and sincere faith_, which, on the
+    taking of Constantinople, by Mahomet II, in 1453, Gennadius, its
+    patriarch, presented to the conqueror;
+
+    2. _The Orthodox Confession, of the Catholic and Apostolic Greek
+    Church_, published in 1642, by Mogilow, the Metropolitan of Kiow.
+
+
+IV. The symbolic books of the LUTHERAN CHURCHES, are
+
+    1. _The Confession of Augsburgh_;
+
+    2. _The Apology of the Confession of Augsburgh_;
+
+    3. _The Articles of Smalcald_;
+
+    4. _And_, (in the opinion of some Lutheran Churches),--_The Form of
+    Concord_;
+
+    5. _The Saxon, Wirtenburgian, Suabian, Pomeranian, Mansfeldian,
+    Antwerpensian, and Copenhagen Confessions_, possess, in particular
+    places, the authority of Symbolic books:--the two first are
+    particularly respected.
+
+
+V. The symbolic books of the REFORMED CHURCHES. The reformed Church, in
+the largest extent of that expression, comprises all the religious
+communities, which have separated from the Church of Rome. In this
+sense, it is often used by English writers: but, having, soon after the
+Reformation, been used by the French Protestants to describe their
+church, which was Calvinistic, it became, insensibly, the appellation of
+all Calvinistic churches on the Continent. The principal symbolic books
+of these churches,--are,
+
+    1. _The Confession of the Helvetian Churches_;
+
+    2. _The Tetrapolitan Confession_,--signed by the four cities of
+    Strasburgh, Constance, Memmingen, and Lindau;
+
+    3. _The Catechism of Heidelbergh_;
+
+    4. _The Gallic Confession of Faith_;
+
+    5. _The Belgic Confession of Faith_;
+
+    6. _The Canons of the Council of Dort_.
+
+
+    VI. The symbolic books of the WALDENSES,--are,
+
+    _Their original and reformed Creeds_.
+
+
+VII. The symbolic books of the _Bohemians_,--are,
+
+    1. _The Confession of faith of the Calixtines and Taborites_,
+    signed at the Synod of Cuttenburgh in 1541;
+
+    2. _The Confession of the faith of the Bohemians_,--inserted in the
+    "Harmony of Confessions," published at Cambridge in 1680.
+
+    3. _The Consent of faith at Sendomer_.
+
+
+VIII. The symbolic book of the ARMINIANS,--is
+
+    _The Declaration of the Remonstrants_, drawn up by Episcopius, and
+    signed in 1622.
+
+
+IX. The symbolic book of the SOCINIANS is _The Catechism of Racow_;--the
+best edition of it was published in 1609, reprinted at Frankfort, in
+1739. An English translation of it has been published by Mr. Rees.
+
+
+X. The UNITARIANS have no symbolic book. To Doctor Lardner's _Letter on
+the Logos_ they shew universal respect.
+
+
+XI. The symbolic books of THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND,--are,
+
+    1. _The Theological Oaths_,--containing a Declaration of the belief
+    of the Monarch's spiritual supremacy;--and Declarations against
+    Transubstantiation,--the invocation of Saints,--and the sacrifice
+    of the Mass;
+
+    2. _The Thirty-nine Articles_.
+
+
+XII. The symbolic book of the ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH PRESBYTERIANS,--is
+
+    "_The Articles of Religion_ approved and passed by both Houses of
+    Parliament after advice had with an assembly of divines, called
+    together for that purpose." These were sent into Scotland, and
+    immediately sanctioned by the General Assembly, and Parliament of
+    that kingdom; and thus became a law of the Church and State.
+
+
+XIII. The symbolic books of the Anabaptists may be said to be,--
+
+    THEIR SEVERAL CONFESSIONS OF FAITH:--Five were published at
+    Amsterdam, in 1675, in one volume 8vo.
+
+
+XIV. The symbolic books of the Quakers,--are,
+
+    1. _Barclay's Catechism and Confession of Faith_, published in
+    1675;
+
+    2. His _Theses Theologicæ_;
+
+    3. His _Apology_,--a logical demonstration of the propositions in
+    the Theses. It was translated into almost every language and
+    presented to all the ministers assembled at Nimeguen;
+
+    4. But some persons assert that the real doctrines of the Quakers
+    are more easily discoverable from _The Christian Quaker and his
+    divine testimony, vindicated by Scripture reason and authorities
+    against the injurious attempts that have been lately made by
+    several adversaries_.--This work appeared in 1674; the first part
+    of it was written by Penn, the second by Whithead, one of his most
+    distinguished disciples.
+
+
+XV. It may be added, that the symbolic book of the Jews,--is
+
+    _The Schelosch aikara ikkarim,--the Thirteen Articles of Faith_
+    framed by Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon in the 12th century: it is
+    frequently inserted in the Jewish prayer books. Sebastian Munster
+    published it with a Latin translation and an abridgment of the
+    History of Josephus, in one vol. 8vo. at Worms in 1529.
+
+Many Christian Catechisms have been translated into Hebrew for the
+benefit of the Jews.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+An historical and literary account of all these Confessions of Faith,
+and of several works and circumstances connected with them, is attempted
+to be given, by the Author of these pages, in his "_Historical and
+Literary Account of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith, and Symbolic
+Books, of the Roman Catholic, Greek, and principal Protestant
+Churches._"
+
+THE SYLLOGE CONFESSIONUM printed at the Clarendon Press in 1804,
+contains the _Professio Fidei Tridentinæ, Confessio Helvetica,
+Augustana, Saxonica, Belgica_."
+
+"The Harmony of the Confessions of the Faith of the Christian and
+Reformed Churches" published at Cambridge in 1586, 8_vo_. attempts to
+reconcile the Confession of Augsburgh, the Confession of the Four
+Cities, the Confession of Bâsle, the first Confession of Helvetia; the
+Confession of Saxony, the Confession of Wirtemburgh, the French
+Confession, the English Confession, the latter Confession of Helvetia,
+the Belgic Confession, and that of Bohemia.
+
+On the general subject, _Walchius's Bibliotheca Theologica Selecta_, may
+be usefully consulted.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX II.
+
+REFERRED TO IN PAGE 188.
+
+ON THE REUNION OF CHRISTIANS.
+
+
+The attempts, made at different times for the re-union of Christians,
+are the subject of a learned and interesting work, published at Paris,
+with the title of "_Histoire critique des projéts formés depuis trois
+cents ans pour la Reunion des communions Chretiennes, par M. Tabaraud,
+ancien Prétre de L'Oratoire, Paris_, 1824." An excellent sketch of these
+attempts had been previously given by _Doctor Mosheim, in his
+Ecclesiastical History, Cent. XVI. Ch. III. sect. 3. part 2. c. 1. and
+Cent. XVII. Cha. I. sect. 2. p_. 1. To these publications the reader is
+referred:--the present Essay may be found to contain,
+
+    I. A general view of the attempts made after the Reformation, to
+    unite the Lutheran and Calvinist churches:
+
+    II. Some account of the Attempts made at different times by the
+    sovereigns of France for the conversion of their protestant subjects:
+
+    III. The correspondence of Bossuet and Leibniz, under the auspices of
+    Lewis the Fourteenth, for the reunion of the Lutheran Churches to the
+    Church of Rome:
+
+    IV. Some account of an attempt made in the reign of George the First,
+    to reunite the Church of England to the Church of Rome:
+
+    V. And some general remarks on the Reunion of Christians.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+_Attempts made to unite the Lutheran, and Calvinist Churches._
+
+
+The great division of Protestant Churches is, into the Lutheran, and
+Calvinist communions. The Abbé Tabaraud relates in the work, which we
+have just cited, not fewer than fifteen different attempts to effect a
+reunion of their churches. In reading his account and that given by
+Mosheim of these attempts, the writer thinks that, on each side, there
+was something to commend and something to blame. It seems to him, that
+the Lutherans deserve credit for the open and explicit manner, in which,
+on these occasions, they propounded the tenets of their creed to the
+Calvinists; that the conduct of the Calvinists was more liberal and
+conciliating; but that, on the other hand, the conduct of the Lutherans
+towards the Calvinists, was generally repulsive, and sometimes deserving
+a much harsher name; while the conduct of the Calvinists, was sometimes
+chargeable, with ambiguity.
+
+    "It was deplorable," says Mosheim, (Cent. xvii. sect. 2. part 2.
+    art. 3.) "to see two churches, which had discovered, an equal
+    degree of pious zeal, and fortitude, in throwing off the despotic
+    yoke of Rome, divided among themselves, and living in discords,
+    that were highly detrimental, to the interests of religion, and the
+    well-being of society. Hence, several eminent divines, and leading
+    men, both among the Lutherans, and Calvinists, sought anxiously,
+    after some method, of uniting the two churches, though divided in
+    their opinions, in the bonds of Christian charity, and
+    ecclesiastical communion. A competent knowledge, of human nature,
+    and human passions, was sufficient, to persuade these wise, and
+    pacific mediators, that a perfect uniformity in religious opinions,
+    was not practicable, and that it would be entirely extravagant, to
+    imagine that any of these communities, could ever be brought, to
+    embrace universally, and without limitation, the doctrines of the
+    other. They made it, therefore, their principal business, to
+    persuade those, whose spirits were inflamed with the heat of
+    controversy, that the points in debate between the two churches,
+    were not essential, to true religion;--that the fundamental
+    doctrines, of Christianity, were received, and professed, in both
+    communions; and that the difference of opinion, between the
+    contending parties, turned, either upon points of an abstruse, and
+    incomprehensible nature, or upon matters of indifference, which
+    neither tended, to make mankind wiser, or better, and in which the
+    interests of genuine piety, were in no wise concerned. Those, who
+    viewed things in this point of light, were obliged to acknowledge,
+    that the diversity of opinions, between the two churches, was by no
+    means, a sufficient reason, for their separation; and that of
+    consequence, they were called, by the dictates of that gospel,
+    which they both professed, to live, not only in the mutual
+    exercise, of Christian charity, but also to enter, into the
+    fraternal bonds, of church communion. The greatest part, of the
+    reformed doctors, seemed disposed, to acknowledge, that the errors
+    of the Lutherans, were not, of a momentous nature, nor of a
+    pernicious tendency; and that the fundamental doctrines of
+    Christianity, had not undergone, any remarkable alteration, in that
+    communion; and thus, on their side, an important step, was made,
+    towards peace, and union, between the two churches. But the
+    greatest part of the Lutheran doctors declared, that they could not
+    form, a like judgment, with respect, to the doctrine, of the
+    Reformed churches; they maintained tenaciously, the importance of
+    the points, which divided the two communions, and affirmed, that a
+    considerable part of the controversy turned upon the fundamental
+    principles, of all religion, and virtue. It is not at all
+    surprising, that this steadiness and constancy of the Lutherans,
+    was branded by the opposite party, with the epithets, of morose
+    obstinacy, supercilious arrogance, and such like odious
+    denominations. The Lutherans, were not behind hand with their
+    adversaries, in acrimony, of style; they recriminated with
+    vehemence, and charged their accusers with instances of misconduct,
+    different in kind, but equally condemnable. They reproached them
+    with having dealt disingenuously, by disguising, under ambiguous
+    expressions, the real doctrine of the Reformed churches; they
+    observed further, that their adversaries, notwithstanding their
+    consummate prudence and circumspection, gave plain proofs, on many
+    occasions, that their propensity to a reconciliation, between the
+    two churches, arose from views of private interest, rather than
+    from a zeal for the public good."
+
+It is observable that Mosheim applies these observations to a late
+stage of the reformation, when much of its first violence had subsided.
+
+The nearest approach[080] to a reunion, between any Protestant
+churches, seems to be that, which took place at Sendomer, in the year
+1570.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+_Attempts for a Reunion of the Calvinist Churches to the See of Rome._
+
+
+Having thus summarily noticed, the unsuccessful attempts, to effect an
+union, between the Lutheran, and Calvinist churches, we proceed to a
+similar summary mention of the attempts, equally unsuccessful, to effect
+the reunion of the Calvinists, to the church of Rome, which were made,
+
+1st, during the reign of Henry the Fourth:
+
+2dly, during the reign of Lewis the Thirteenth: and
+
+3dly, during the reign of Lewis the Fourteenth:
+
+4thly, we shall afterwards notice, the Revocation of the edict of
+Nantes, and the complete restoration of the protestants of France, to
+their civil rights, in the reign of Lewis the Eighteenth.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 1.
+
+
+An attempt to reunite the Calvinists to the church of Rome was made at
+the celebrated Conference held at Poissi in 1561. In the work which we
+have cited, the Abbé Tabaraud gives a short and clear account of this
+conference. It failed of success, and a long civil war of religion
+ensued. It was closed by the conversion of _Henry the Fourth_ to the
+Roman Catholic religion. He was no sooner quietly seated on the throne,
+than he conceived the arduous, but certainly noble project of pacifying
+the religious contests of the world. It appears that he was induced to
+entertain hopes of the success of this measure, by the assurances given
+him by the Calvinist ministers, when his change of religion, was in
+agitation, that salvation might be obtained in the church of Rome; and
+from his expectation of finding a spirit of conciliation, and
+concession, in the see of Rome.
+
+    "I have heard, from persons of distinction," says Grotius[081],
+    "that Henry the Fourth declared that he had great hopes of
+    procuring for the King of England, and the other protestant
+    princes, who were his allies, conditions, which they could not
+    honorably refuse, if they had any real wish of returning to the
+    unity of the church; and that he had once an intention of employing
+    bishops of his own kingdom on this project; but that this project
+    failed by his death."
+
+It is said, that with these views he had sent for _Isaac Casaubon_, a
+protestant divine of equal learning and moderation, and appointed him
+his librarian; and that he intended confidentially employing him in
+preparing means for the success of the measure, and smoothing the
+obstacles which might impede its progress. Grotius[082] mentions, as a
+saying of Casaubon, that "the catholics of France had a juster way of
+thinking than the ministers of Charenton:" these were the most rigid of
+the French Hugonot ministers. It is observable that the French
+government always considered the Hugonots of a much more refractory
+disposition than the Lutherans.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 2.
+
+
+The pacific views of Henry the Fourth, were terminated by his decease.
+The capture of la Rochelle by the arms of _Lewis the XIIIth_, was a
+fatal blow to the political consequence of the Protestant party in
+France. Cardinal Richelieu immediately set on foot a project, for the
+general conversion, of the body: two persons, of very different
+characters, were employed by him, in this measure; Father Joseph, a
+capuchin friar, the confident, of all the cardinal's political and
+private schemes, and Father P. Dulaurens, an oratorian, who lived in
+retirement, wholly absorbed in the exercises of religion. They began
+the work of reunion by holding frequent conferences, on an amicable
+footing, with several of the protestant ministers; and it was resolved,
+that, with the permission of the pope, and the authority of the king, an
+assembly, should be convened, of ecclesiastics of each communion. Father
+Dulaurens, recommended that the intended communications with the
+ministers, should not take place, till they reached, the capital; but,
+the cardinal, thought it more advisable, that the ministers, should be
+separately informed, of the project, before they left the provinces. It
+was accordingly communicated to them, and favourably received, by the
+ministers, of Languedoc, and Normandy, but met with an unfavourable
+reception, from the ministers of Sedan. It was resolved, that the
+assembly, should meet, and begin their deliberations, with the
+differences in the opinions, of the two churches, respecting the
+Sacraments. Father Dulaurens recommended, that for some time, at least,
+the Bible, even in the Calvinist version, of Olivétan, should be the
+only book appealed to, on either side, as authority: but the Cardinal
+insisted, on a resort to tradition. Grotius mentions that in several
+articles, (as communion under both kinds, and the invocation of saints),
+the Cardinal was willing, that concessions, should be made to the
+Protestants; and suggested, that, as a medium, to reconcile them to the
+Pope, a patriarchate should be established, in France, and he himself,
+be the first patriarch[083].
+
+Notwithstanding the general loftiness, and overbearing nature, of his
+manners, it appears, particularly from M. de Rullhiêres[084] (6.) that
+the Cardinal, acted on this occasion, with great moderation, and
+recommended to his royal master, a similar line of moderation, in all
+his conduct, towards his Protestant subjects.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 3.
+
+
+The Cardinal's project, was suspended, by his decease; and resumed,
+under _Lewis the Fourteenth_. In 1662, a plan, drawn up by M. le Blanc
+de Beaulieu, a professor of Divinity, at Sedan, singularly esteemed,
+both by the Roman Catholics, and Protestants, by which the essential
+articles, in dispute, were reduced to a small number, was adopted, by
+the Court, to serve as the basis of discussion. It was resolved, that
+different synods of Protestant ministers, should be convened; that
+these, should be composed, of ministers of known moderation, and pacific
+views, and the articles, drawn up by M. le Blanc de Beaulieu, presented
+to them. Three years were employed, in negotiations for effecting this
+project: several ministers in the lower Languedoc, and the Isle of
+France, expressed themselves, in terms favourable, to the measure, but
+the synod of Charenton, took the alarm, and the project, was abandoned.
+
+The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, a measure equally unwise, and
+unjust, too soon followed. It is more to be attributed, to his ministers
+and advisers, than to Lewis the Fourteenth himself. From the
+_Eclaircissemens Historiques_ of M. de Rullhiêres, and the life of
+Bossuet, by M. Baussét[085], it seems evident, that Lewis the
+Fourteenth, had been induced, to believe, that the number of Protestants
+was much smaller; that the conversions of them, would be much more
+rapid, general, and sincere; and that the measures, for hastening their
+conversion, would be much less violent than they really were. It is also
+due, to the monarch, to add, that from the authors, whom we have cited,
+it is evident, that when he began to perceive the true state, of the
+transaction, though from false principles of honour, and policy, he
+would not revoke the edict, he wished it not to be put into great
+activity, and checked the forwardness, of the Intendants general in its
+execution.
+
+It is whimsical, (if on so serious a subject such a word may be used),
+that the dragonâde, or employment of the dragoon troops, in forcing the
+conversion, of the Hugonots, was owing to the wish of Louvois, the
+minister, of Lewis the Fourteenth, to become himself, a missionary.
+Observing how much the apparent success, of the missionaries,
+recommended them, to Lewis the Fourteenth, he began to consider them as
+dangerous rivals for the favour of his royal master, and determined,
+therefore, to become himself, a principal performer. With this view, he
+instituted the dragoon missions, and thus brought a material part, of
+the work of conversion, into the war department.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 4.
+
+
+The death of Lewis, and the known disposition of the Regent, appeared to
+the Protestant party, in France, to afford a proper opportunity of
+recovering their rights. Duclos, in his _Mémoires secréts sur les regnes
+de Louis XIV. et de Louis XV_., says, that the Regent himself wished to
+restore the Protestants, to their civil rights, but was dissuaded by his
+council. Still, he seldom permitted the edicts against them to be
+executed; and speaking generally, the Protestants seem to have suffered
+no active persecution in any part of the reign of Lewis, the XVth. One
+intolerable grievance, however, they unquestionably suffered in every
+part of it. Their religious principles did not permit them to be married
+by a Roman Catholic priest, in the manner prescribed by the law of the
+state, and that law did not recognize the legal validity of a marriage,
+celebrated in any other form. The consequence was, that in the eye of
+the law, the marriage of Protestants was a mere concubinage, and the
+offspring of it illegitimate. To his immortal honour, _Lewis the XVIth_,
+by his edict of the 17th of November, 1787, accorded to all his
+Non-catholic subjects the full and complete enjoyment of all the rights
+of his Roman-catholic subjects. On a division in the Parliament, this
+edict was registered by a majority of 96 votes against 16.
+
+The persecution of the Hugonots in consequence of the revocation of the
+Edict of Nantes, was condemned by the greatest men in France. M.
+d'Aguesseau, the father of the celebrated chancellor, resigned his
+office of Intendant of Languedoc rather than remain a witness of it: his
+son repeatedly mentions it with abhorrence. Fénélon, Flechier, and
+Bossuet,[086] confessedly the ornaments of the Gallican church, lamented
+it. To the utmost of their power, they prevented the execution of the
+edict, and lessened its severities, when they could not prevent them.
+Most sincerely lamenting and condemning the outrages committed by the
+Roman Catholics against the Protestants at Nismes, as violations of the
+law of God and man, but doubting of the nature and extent, which some
+have attributed to them, the writer of these pages begs leave to refer
+to the sermon preached on them by the Reverend James Archer, a Roman
+Catholic priest, and printed for Booker, in Bond-street, by the desire
+of two Roman Catholic congregations, as expressing the doctrine of the
+Roman Catholic church, and of all real christians on heretics and the
+persecution of heretics.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+
+_The Correspondence of Bossuet and Leibniz, under the auspices of Lewis
+the XIVth, for the Reunion of the Lutheran Protestants to the Roman
+Catholic Church._
+
+This correspondence forms one of the most interesting events in the life
+of Bossuet; the letters, of which it consists, and the other written
+documents, which relate to it, are highly interesting. We shall attempt
+to present our readers with a short account--
+
+    1st. Of the circumstances which led to this correspondence;
+
+    2ndly. Of the Project of Reunion, delivered by Molanus, a Lutheran
+    Divine, and Bossuet's sentiments on that Project;
+
+    3dly. Of the intervention of Leibniz in the negotiation; and
+
+    4thly. Of the Project suggested by Bossuet, and the principal
+    reasons, by which he contended for its reception.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 1.
+
+
+It appears that, towards the 17th century, the Emperor Leopold, and
+several sovereign princes in Germany, conceived a project of re-uniting
+the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches. The Duke of Brunswick, who had
+recently embraced the Roman Catholic religion, and published his _Fifty
+Reasons for his conversion_, (once a popular work of controversy), and
+the Duke of Hanover, the father of the first prince of the illustrious
+house, which now fills the throne of England, were the original
+promoters of the attempt. It was generally approved; and the mention of
+it at the Diet of the Empire was favourably received. Some
+communications upon it took place between the Emperor and the ducal
+Princes: and with all their knowledge, several conferences were held
+upon the subject, between certain distinguished Roman Catholic and
+Protestant Divines. In these, the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus, the
+Abbot of Lokkum, took the lead. The first had been consecrated Bishop of
+Tina in Bosnia, then under the dominion of the Turks, with Ordinary
+Jurisdiction over some parts of the Turkish territories. His conduct had
+recommended him to Innocent the XIth, and that pope had directed him to
+visit the Protestant states in Germany, and inform him of their actual
+dispositions in respect to the Church of Rome. In consequence of this
+mission, he became known to the Emperor, who appointed him to the See of
+Neustadt, in the neighbourhood of Vienna. Molanus, was Director of the
+Protestant Churches and Consistories of Hanover. Both were admirably
+calculated for the office intended them, on this occasion. Each
+possessed the confidence of his own party, and was esteemed by the
+other; each was profoundly versed in the matters in dispute; each
+possessed good sense, moderation, and conciliating manners; and each had
+the success of the business at heart, with a fixed purpose, that
+nothing, but a real difference on some essential article of doctrine,
+should frustrate the project.
+
+The effect of the first conferences was so promising, that the Emperor
+and the two Princes resolved, that they should be conducted in a manner
+more regular, and more likely to bring the object of them to a
+conclusion. With this view, the business was formally entrusted by both
+the princes to Molanus alone, and the Emperor published a rescript,
+dated the 20th March, 1691, by which he gave the Bishop of Neustadt full
+authority to treat, on all matters of religion, with the states,
+communities, and individuals of the empire, reserving to the
+ecclesiastical and imperial powers, their right to confirm the acts of
+the Bishop, as they should judge adviseable. Under these auspicious
+circumstances, the conference between the Bishop of Neustadt and Molanus
+began.
+
+But, before the events which we have mentioned took place, a
+correspondence on the subject of a general reunion between Catholics and
+Protestants had been carried on for some time, between Pelisson and
+Leibniz. The former held a considerable rank among the French writers,
+who adorned the reign of Lewis the Fourteenth; the latter was eminently
+distinguished in the literary world. In the exact sciences, he was
+inferior to Newton alone; in metaphysics, he had no superior; in general
+learning, he had scarcely a rival. He had recommended himself to the
+Brunswick family, by three volumes, which he had recently published, on
+the Antiquities of that illustrious House; and was then engaged in the
+investigation of its Italian descent, and early German shoots. The
+result of it, under the title of _Origines Guelphicæ_, was published,
+after his decease, by Scheidius, and is considered to be a perfect model
+of genealogical history. He was also thoroughly conversant in the
+theological disputes of the times; and in all the questions of dogma,
+or history, which enter into them.
+
+His correspondence with Pelisson, came to the knowledge of Louisa,
+Princess Palatine, and Abbess of Maubrusson. She was a daughter of
+Frederick, the Elector, and Count Palatine of the Rhine, and a sister,
+of the Duchess of Hanover. In early life, she had been converted to the
+Roman Catholic religion, and had the conversion of her sister, very much
+at heart. With this view, she sent to her, the correspondence between
+Leibniz and Pelisson, and received from her an account of what was
+passing, between the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus. Both the ladies
+were anxious, to promote the measure, and that Bossuet should take in
+it, the leading part, on the side of the Catholics. This was mentioned
+to Lewis the Fourteenth, and had his approbation. The Emperor and both
+the Princes, by all of whom Bossuet, was personally esteemed, equally
+approved of it, and it was finally settled that Bossuet and Leibniz,
+should be joined, to the Bishops of Neustadt, and Molanus, and that the
+correspondence with Bossuet, should pass through the hands of Madame de
+Brinon, who acted, as secretary to the Abbess of Maubrusson, and is
+celebrated, by the writers of the times, for her wit and dexterity in
+business. Thus the matter assumed, a still more regular form, and much
+was expected from the acknowledged talents, learning, and moderation of
+the actors in it, and their patrons.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 2.
+
+
+The conferences between the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus continued
+for seven months, and ended in their agreeing on 12 articles, to serve
+for the basis of the discussion, on the terms of the reunion.
+
+The Bishop of Neustadt, communicated these articles to Bossuet. He
+seems, to have approved of them generally, but to have thought, that
+some alteration in them, was adviseable. This being mentioned to
+Molanus, he published his _Cogitationes Privatæ_, a profound and
+conciliating dissertation. Without entering into any discussion, on the
+points in dispute, between the churches, he suggested in it a kind of
+truce, during which, there should be ecclesiastical communion between
+them: the Lutherans, were to acknowledge the Pope, as the first of
+Bishops, in order, and dignity: the Church of Rome, was to receive the
+Lutherans, as her children, without exacting from them, any retractation
+of their alledged errors, or any renunciation, of the articles in their
+creed, condemned by the Council of Trent. The anathemas of that council,
+were to be suspended, and a general council was to be convened, in which
+the Protestants were to have a deliberative voice: the sentence of that
+council, was to be definitive, and, in the mean time, the members of
+each party, were to treat the members of the other, as brethren, whose
+errors, however great they might appear, were to be tolerated, from
+motives of peace, and in consideration, of their engagements to abandon
+them, if the council should pronounce against them. To show the
+probability of a final accommodation, Molanus notices, in his
+Dissertation, several points, in which one party imputed to the other
+errors, not justly chargeable on them; several, on which they disputed,
+merely for want of rightly understanding each other; and several, in
+which the dispute was of words only.
+
+It appears that the Bishop of Neustadt, communicated this dissertation,
+to Bossuet, and that Bossuet was delighted, with the good sense,
+candour, and true spirit of conciliation, which it displayed. In his
+letters he frequently mentions the author, and always in terms, Of the
+highest praise. His own language was equally moderate and conciliating.
+
+    "The Council of Trent," he says in one of his letters,
+    "is our stay; but we shall not use it to prejudice the cause. This
+    would be, to take for granted, what is in dispute between us. We
+    shall deal more fairly with our opponents. We shall make the
+    council serve, for a statement, and explanation, of our doctrines.
+    Thus, we shall come to an explanation, on those points, in which
+    either of us imputes to the other, what he does not believe, and in
+    which we dispute, only because we misconceive each other. This may
+    lead us far; for _the Abbot of Lokkum, has actually conciliated the
+    points so essential, of Justification, and the Eucharist: nothing
+    is wanting in him, on that side, but that he should be avowed. Why
+    should we not hope to conclude, in the same manner, disputes, less
+    difficult, and of less importance? Cela se peut pousser si avant,
+    que M. l'Abbé de Lokkum, a concilié, actuellement les points si
+    essentiels, de la justification, et du sacrifice de l'Eucharistie,
+    et il ne lui manque de ce coté la, que de se faire avouer. Pourquoi
+    ne pas espérer de finir, par les mêmes moyens, des disputes, moins
+    difficiles, et moins importantes?"_
+
+With these rational and conciliatory dispositions, Bossuet, and Molanus,
+proceeded. But, after this stage of the business, Molanus disappears,
+and Leibniz comes on the scene.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 3.
+
+
+A Letter, written by Bossuet to M^me de Brinon, having been communicated
+by her to Leibniz, opened the correspondence between him and Bossuet. In
+that letter, Bossuet declared explicitly, that the Church of Rome, was
+ready, to make concessions, on points of discipline, and to explain
+doctrines, but would make no concession in respect to defined articles
+of faith; and, in particular, would make no such concession, in respect
+to any which had been defined by the Council of Trent. Leibniz's Letter
+to M^me de Brinon, in answer to this communication, is very important.
+He expresses himself in these terms;
+
+    "The Bishop of Meaux says,
+
+    "1st. That the Project delivered to the Bishop of Neustadt, does not
+    appear to him quite sufficient;
+
+    "2dly. That it is, nevertheless, very useful, as every thing must
+    have its beginning:
+
+    "3dly. That Rome will never relax from any point of doctrine,
+    defined by the church, and cannot capitulate, in respect to any
+    such article;
+
+    "4thly. That the doctrine, defined in the Council of Trent, is
+    received in and out of France by all Roman Catholics;
+
+    "5thly, That satisfaction may be given to Protestants, in respect to
+    certain points of discipline, or in the way of explanation, and
+    that this had been already done in an useful manner, in some
+    points, mentioned in the Project of the Bishop of Neustadt.
+
+    "These are the material propositions, in the letter of the Bishop of
+    Meaux, and I believe all these propositions true. Neither the
+    Bishop of Neustadt, nor those who negotiated with them, make any
+    opposition to them. There is nothing in them, which is not
+    conformable to the sentiments of those persons. The third of them
+    in particular, which might be thought, an obstacle, to these
+    Projects of Accommodation, could not be unknown to them; one may
+    even say, that they built on it."
+
+It seems difficult to deny, that, in this stage of the business, much
+had been gained to the cause of reunion. The parties were come to a
+complete understanding on the important articles of Justification, and
+the Eucharist; and it was admitted, both by Leibniz, and Molanus, that,
+in their view of the concern, an accommodation might be effected,
+between the Roman Catholic, and Lutheran churches, though the former,
+retained all her defined doctrines, and, in particular, all her
+doctrines, defined by the Council of Trent. The question then was, what
+should be done in respect to the remaining articles in difference
+between the churches? It is to be wished, that it had been left to
+Bossuet, and Molanus, to settle them, in the way of amicable
+explanation, in which they had settled, the two important articles,
+which we have mentioned. It is evident, from the passages, which we have
+cited, from Bossuet, that it was his wish, that the business should
+proceed on that plan, and that he had hopes of its success.
+Unfortunately, the business took, another direction: Leibniz proclaimed,
+that after every possible explanation should be given, the Lutheran
+church would, still retain, some articles, contrary to the defined
+doctrines, of the Church of Rome, and anathematized, by the Council of
+Trent. To remove the final effect of this objection, Leibniz held out
+Molanus's first project, that the Lutherans should express a general
+acquiescence, in the authority of the church, and promise obedience, to
+the decisions of a General Council, to be called, for the purpose of
+pronouncing, on these points; and that, in consequence of these
+advances, on their part, the anathemas of the Council of Trent, should
+be suspended, and the Lutherans received, provisionally, within the
+pale, of the Catholic church. To bring over Bossuet to this plan, he
+exerted great eloquence, and displayed, no common learning.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 4.
+
+
+But the eloquence, and learning, of Leibniz, were without effect. In
+language, equally temperate and firm, Bossuet, adhered to his text,
+that in matters of discipline, or any other matter, distinct from faith,
+the Church of Rome, would show the utmost indulgence to the Lutherans;
+but that, on articles of faith, and specifically, on those propounded by
+the Council of Trent, there could be no compromise. This, however, he
+confined to articles of faith alone: and even on articles of faith, he
+wished to consult the feelings of Protestants, as much as possible. He
+offered them every fair explanation of the tenets of the council; he
+required from them no retractation, of their own tenets:
+
+    "Molanus," he says, "will not allow retractation to be mentioned.
+    It may be dispensed with; it will be sufficient, that the parties
+    acknowledge, the truth, by way of declaration or explanation. To
+    this, the Symbolical Books, give a clear opening, as appears by the
+    passages, which have been produced from them, and will appear, by
+    other passages, which may be produced from them."
+
+If Bossuet was thus considerate, in what regarded faith, it will easily
+be supposed, how indulgent his sentiments were, in respect to all, that
+merely regarded discipline. A complete confession of faith, being once
+obtained from the Lutherans, he was willing, to allow them, if they
+required it, communion under both kinds; that their Bishops, should
+retain their Sees; and that, where there was no Bishop, and the whole
+body of the people, was Protestant, under the care, of a superintendant,
+_that_ superintendant, should be consecrated their Bishop; that, where
+there was a Catholic Bishop, and a considerable part of the diocese, was
+Lutheran, the superintendant, should be consecrated priest, and invested
+with rank, and office, that the Lutheran ministers, should be
+consecrated priests; that provision should be made for their support;
+that such of their bishops, and ministers, as were married, might
+retain their wives, and that the consciences of those, who held
+possessions of the church, should be quieted, except in respect, to
+hospitals, whose possessions he thought, could not conscientiously be
+withheld, from the poor objects of their foundations; and that every
+other arrangement should be made, by the church and state, which would
+be agreeable, to the feelings, and prejudices, of their new brethren.
+
+Such were the advances made by Bossuet; and much discussion on them,
+took place, between him, and Leibniz. It continued ten years. They are
+very learned, and a scholar will read them with delight; but,
+unfortunately, they rather retarded, than promoted, their object. The
+real business ended, when Molanus quitted the scene. We shall close this
+article, with the following extract from the last letter but one,
+written by Bossuet, on the subject. It is addressed to Leibniz, and
+bears date the 12th August, 1701, ten years, after his first letter, on
+it was written:
+
+    "Among the divines of the Confession of Augsburg, I always placed
+    M. Molanus, in the first rank, as a man, whose learning, candour
+    and moderation made him one of the persons, the most capable I have
+    known, of advancing the NOBLE PROJECT OF REUNION. In a letter,
+    which I wrote to him some years ago, by the Count Balati, I assured
+    him, that, if he could obtain, the general consent of his party, to
+    what he calls, his Private Thoughts, _Cogitationes Privatæ_, I
+    promised myself, that, by joining to them, the remarks, which I
+    sent to him, on the Confession of Augsburg, and the other Symbolic
+    writings of the Protestants, the work of the Reunion would be
+    perfected, in all its most difficult and most essential points; so
+    that well disposed persons might, in a short time, bring it to a
+    conclusion."
+
+The passage is so important, that it is proper to present it to the
+reader in Bossuet's own words.
+
+    "Parmi les Théologiens de la Confession d'Ausbourg, j'ai toujours
+    mis, au premier rang, M. l'Abbé de Lokkum, comme un homme, dont le
+    sçavoir, la candeur, et la modération le rendolent un des plus
+    capables, que je connusse, pour avancer CE BEAU DESSEIN. Cela est
+    si véritable, que j'ai cru devoir assurer ce docte Abbé, dans la
+    réponse que je luis fis, il y a dejà, plusieurs années, par M. le
+    Comte Balati, que s'il pouvoit faire passer ce qu'il appelle ses
+    Pensées Particulières _Cogitationes Privatæ_, à un consentement
+    suffisent, je me promettois qu'en y joignant les remarques, que je
+    lui envoyois, sur la Confession d'Ausbourg, et les autres écrits
+    Symboliques des Protestans, l'ouvrage de la Réunion seroit achevé
+    dans ses parties les plus difficiles et les plus essentielles; en
+    sorte qu'il ne faudroit à des personnes bien disposées, que très
+    peu de tems pour la conclure[087]."
+
+Dom. de Foris, the Benedictine Editor of the new edition of the works of
+Bossuet and the Abbé Racine, _Abrégé de l'Histoire Ecclésiastique_[088]
+are very severe in their censures of the conduct of Leibniz in the
+negotiations for the Reunion, and attribute its failure to his
+presumption and duplicity. To the writer of these pages, it appears
+clear, that Leibniz was sincere in his wishes for the reunion; and that,
+if he occasioned its failure, it was unintentionally. While the
+business was in the hands of Bossuet, and Molanus, it was a treaty, not
+for the reunion of the Roman Catholic church, and all Protestant
+churches, but for the reunion of the Roman Catholic church, and the
+Lutheran church; and to this, Molanus's endeavours to reconcile
+differences, were directed. Leibniz, whose principles in religion, were
+much wider, than those of Molanus, seems to have wished, that the
+negotiation should be placed, on a broader basis, and extended to a
+reunion of the church of Rome, with every denomination of Christians.
+This gave the negotiation a different direction, and in a great measure,
+undid what had been, so happily begun. We have seen, that, to the very
+last, Bossuet, called out for Molanus, and entertained great hopes,
+that, if the matter were left to Molanus, and him, the noble Project of
+Reunion, would be crowned with success. There is no part of Bossuet's
+literary or active life, in which he appears to greater advantage, or in
+a more amiable light, than on this occasion.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+_Attempt in the reign of Lewis the XV. to effect an union between the
+Church of Rome and the Church of England._
+
+
+Of all Protestant churches, the national church of England most nearly
+resembles the church of Rome. It has retained much of the dogma, and
+much of the discipline of Roman Catholics. Down to the sub-deacon it has
+retained the whole of their hierarchy; and, like them, has its deans,
+rural deans, chapters, prebends, archdeacons, rectors, and vicars; a
+liturgy, taken in a great measure, from the Roman Catholic liturgy; and
+composed like that, of Psalms, Canticles, the three creeds, litanies,
+epistles, gospels, prayers, and responses. Both churches have the
+sacraments of baptism, and the eucharist, the absolution of the sick,
+the burial service, the sign of the cross in baptism, the reservation of
+confirmation, and order to bishops, the difference of episcopal, and
+sacerdotal dress, feasts, and fasts. Without adopting all the general
+councils of the church of Rome, the church of England has adopted the
+first four of them; and, without acknowledging the authority of the
+other councils, or the authority of the early fathers, the English
+divines of the established church, allow them to be entitled, to a high
+degree of respect.[089] On the important article of the eucharist, the
+language, of the Thirty-nine Articles, sounds very like, the doctrine of
+the church of Rome.
+
+At the time, of which we are speaking, the doctrines of the high church,
+which are generally considered to incline to those of the Roman
+Catholics, more than the doctrines of the low church, were in their
+zenith; and in France, where the ultramontane principles on the power of
+the Pope had always been discountenanced, the disputes of Jansenism were
+supposed to reduce it very low. On each side, therefore, the time was
+thought favourable to the project of Reunion.
+
+It was also favourable to it, that, a few years before this time, an
+event had taken place, which naturally tended to put both sides into
+good humour.
+
+On the occasion of the marriage of the Princess Christina of
+Wolfenbuttell, a Lutheran, with the archduke of Austria, her court
+consulted the faculty of theology of the University of Helmstadt, on
+the question,
+
+    "Whether a Protestant Princess, destined to marry a catholic
+    prince, could, without wounding her conscience, embrace the Roman
+    Catholic religion?" The faculty replied, that, "it could not answer
+    the proposed question, in a solid manner, without having previously
+    decided, whether the catholics were, or were not engaged in errors,
+    that were fundamental, and opposed to salvation; or, (which was the
+    same thing), whether the state of the catholic church was such,
+    that persons might practise in it, the true worship of God, and
+    arrive at salvation." This question the divines of Helmstadt,
+    discussed at length; and concluded in these terms: "After having
+    shown, that the foundation of religion, subsists in the Roman
+    Catholic religion, so that a person may be orthodox in it, live
+    well in it, die well in it, and obtain salvation in it, the
+    discussion of the proposed question, is easy. We are, therefore, of
+    opinion, that the most Serene Princess of Wolfenbuttell, may, in
+    favour of her marriage, embrace the catholic religion."
+
+This opinion is dated the 28th of April 1707, and was printed in the
+same year at Cologne. The Journalists of Trevoux inserted both the
+original and a French translation of it in their journal of May, 1708.
+
+Under these circumstances, the correspondence in question took place. It
+began, in 1718, through Doctor Beauvoir, chaplain to Lord Stair, his
+Britannic majesty's ambassador at Paris. Some conversation, on the
+reunion of the two churches, having taken place, between Doctor Dupin,
+and him, he acquainted the archbishop of Canterbury, with the subject of
+them. This communication, produced some compliments from the archbishop,
+to Dr. Dupin, and these, led the latter, to address, to his grace, a
+letter, in which he mentioned generally, that, on some points in
+dispute, the supposed difference between the two communions was
+reconcileable. The correspondence getting wind, Doctor Piers, pronounced
+a discourse in the Sorbonne, in which he earnestly exhorted his
+colleagues, to promote the reunion, by revising those articles, of
+doctrine, and discipline, which protestants branded with the name of
+papal tyranny; and contended, that, by proscribing the ultramontane
+doctrines, the first step to the reunion would be made. The discourse,
+was communicated to Dr. Wake: in his answer, he pressed Dr. Dupin, for a
+more explicit declaration, on the leading points, in controversy.
+
+In compliance with this requisition, Doctor Dupin drew up his
+_Commonitorium_, and communicated it, to several persons of distinction,
+both in the state, and church of France. He discussed in it, the
+Thirty-nine Articles, as they regarded doctrine, morality, and
+discipline. He insisted on the necessity of tradition, to interpret the
+scriptures, and to establish the canonicity of the books, of the Old and
+New Testament. He insisted on the infallibility, of the church, in
+faith, and morals; he contended, that the sacrifice of the mass, was not
+a simple sacrament, but a continuation of the sacrifice of the cross.
+
+The word Transubstantiation, he seemed willing to give up, if the Roman
+Catholic doctrine, intended to be expressed by it, were retained. He
+proposed, that communion under both kinds, or under bread alone, should
+be left, to the discretion of the different churches, and consented,
+that persons in holy orders should retain their state, with such
+provisions, as would place the validity of their ordination, beyond
+exception. The marriage of priests, in the countries, in which such
+marriages were allowed, and the recitation of the divine service in the
+vulgar tongue, he allowed; and intimated that no difficulty would be
+found in the ultimate settlement of the doctrine, respecting purgatory,
+indulgences, the veneration of saints, relics, or images. He seems to
+have thought, that the Pope can exercise, no immediate jurisdiction,
+within the dioceses of bishops, and that his primacy invested him, with
+no more than a general conservation, of the deposit of the faith, a
+right to enforce, the observance of the sacred canons, and the general
+maintenance of discipline. He allowed, in general terms, that there was
+little substantially wrong, in the discipline of the Church of England;
+he deprecated all discussion, on the original merit of reformation, and
+he professed to see no use in the Pope's intervention, till the basis of
+the negotiation, should be settled.
+
+The answer of the archbishop, was not very explicit. It is evident from
+it, that he thought, the quarrels on Jansenism, had alienated the
+Jansenists and their adherents, from the Pope, much more, than they had
+done, in reality. He was willing to concede, to the Pope, a primacy of
+rank and honour, but would by no means allow him, a primacy of
+jurisdiction, or any primacy, by divine right. On the other points, he
+seemed to have thought, that they might come to an agreement, on what
+they should declare, to be the fundamental doctrine of the churches, and
+adopt, on every other point of doctrine, a general system, of christian
+toleration.
+
+The correspondence, which is very interesting, may be seen, in the last
+volume of the English translation, of Doctor Mosheim's Ecclesiastical
+History. To facilitate, the accomplishment of the object of it, Doctor
+Courayer, published his celebrated treatise, on _the Validity of English
+Ordinations_.
+
+Both Dr. Wake, and Dr. Dupin. were censured, by the members of their
+respective communions, for the parts, which they had taken, in this
+business. Several rigid members of the English Church, and even some
+foreign protestants, blamed Dr. Wake, for what they termed, his too
+great concessions. In France, the worst of motives, were imputed to Dr.
+Dupin, and his associates; they were accused, of making unjustifiable
+sacrifices, in order to form an union, between the Jansenists, and the
+members of the English Church. Even the regent, took the alarm: he
+ordered Dr. Dupin, to discontinue the correspondence, and to leave all
+the papers, respecting it, with the minister. This was done, but the
+most important of them, have been printed, in the interesting and
+extensively circulated publication, which has been mentioned.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+_Miscellaneous Remarks on the Reunion of Christians._
+
+
+It does not appear, that subsequently to the communications, between
+Archbishop Wake, and Dr. Dupin, any attempts for a general, or partial
+reunion of christians, were made in the last century: but, early in the
+present, _Napoleon_, conceived the project, of effecting, such a
+reunion. He is said, to have particularly had in view, the
+catholicizing, as it was termed, the northern part, of Germany. To
+forward his design, many works were published: one of them, the _Essai
+sur l'Unité des Cultes_, of M. Bonald, is written, with great ingenuity.
+That Essay, and several others by the same author, were inserted in the
+_Ambigu_ of Peltier, and deserve the attention, of every reader. Though
+they contain some things, to which a Roman Catholic writer, would
+object, they are evidently written, by a Roman Catholic pen.
+
+The first point to be considered, by those, who meditate the project of
+reunion, is, its practicability--those, who are disposed, to contend for
+the affirmative, will observe, the number of important articles, of
+Christian Faith, in which, all Christians, are agreed, and the
+proportionally small number of those, in which, any Christians disagree.
+
+All Christians believe,
+
+    1st. That there is one God;
+
+    2d. That he is a Being, of infinite perfection;
+
+    3d. That he directs all things, by his providence;
+
+    4th. That it is our duty to love him, with all our hearts, and our
+    neighbour, as ourselves;
+
+    5th. That it is our duty, to repent, of the sins we commit;
+
+    6th. That God, pardons the truly penitent;
+
+    7th. That there is a future state, of rewards, and punishments,
+    when all mankind shall be judged, according to their works;
+
+    8th. That God, sent his Son, into the world, to be its saviour, the
+    author of eternal salvation, to all, that obey him;
+
+    9th. That he is the true Messiah;
+
+    10th. That he taught, worked miracles, suffered, died, and rose
+    again, as is related in the four gospels;
+
+    11th. That he will hereafter, make a second appearance on the
+    earth, raise all mankind from the dead, judge the world in
+    righteousness, bestow eternal life on the virtuous, and punish the
+    workers of iniquity.
+
+In the belief of these articles, all Christians, the Roman Catholic, all
+the Oriental churches, all the members of the Church of England, all
+Lutherans, Calvinists, Socinians, and Unitarians, are agreed. In
+addition to these, each division, and subdivision of Christians, has its
+own tenets. Now, let each settle among its own members, what are the
+articles of belief, peculiar to them, which, in their cool deliberate
+judgment, they consider as _absolutely necessary_ that a person should
+believe, to be a member of the church of Christ; let these articles be
+divested of all foreign matter, and expressed in perspicuous, exact, and
+unequivocal terms; and, above all, let each distinction of Christians,
+earnestly wish, to find an agreement, between themselves and their
+fellow Christians:--the result of a discussion conducted on this plan,
+would most assuredly be, to convince all Christians, that the essential
+articles of religious credence, in which there is, a real difference
+among Christians, are not so numerous, as the verbal disputes, and
+extraneous matter, in which controversy is too often involved, make them
+generally thought.
+
+Still,--some articles will remain, the belief of which, one denomination
+of Christians, will consider to be the obligation of every Christian,
+and which other Christian denominations, will condemn. On some of those,
+a _speedy_ reunion of Christians is not to be expected: but, to use the
+language of Mr. _Vansittart_, in His excellent letter to the reverend
+Dr. Marsh and John Coker, Esq.,
+
+    "There is an inferior degree of Reunion, more within our prospect,
+    and yet perhaps as perfect as human infirmity allows us to hope
+    for; wherein, though all differences of opinion, should not be
+    extinguished, yet they may be refined, from all party prejudices,
+    and interested views, so softened by the spirit of charity, and
+    mutual concession, and so controuled by agreement, on the leading
+    principles, and zeal, for the general interests of christianity,
+    that no sect, or persuasion, should be tempted to make religion,
+    subservient to secular views, or to employ political power, to the
+    prejudice of others.--The existence of Dissent, will, perhaps, be
+    inseparable from religious freedom, so long, as the mind of man, is
+    liable to error: but it is not unreasonable to hope, that
+    hostility, may cease, though perfect agreement, cannot be established.
+    IF WE CANNOT RECONCILE ALL OPINIONS, LET US RECONCILE ALL HEARTS."
+
+These pages, cannot be closed better, than by these golden words!!!
+
+
+
+
+
+FINIS.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES.
+
+
+[Footnote 001: Tom. xi. p. 1. 200.]
+
+[Footnote 002: De Institutiones Clericorum, L. iii. c. xviii. &c.]
+
+[Footnote 003: In his "Recueil des Ecrits pour servir d'eclaircissement
+de l'histoire de France, 2 vol. Paris 1798."]
+
+[Footnote 004: "Roswede, or Aroswethe, a nun in the monastery of
+Gardersheim, lived in the reigns of Otho II. and III. towards the end of
+the tenth century. She composed many works in prose and verse. In 1501,
+some of her poems, on the Martyrdom of St. Denys, the Blessed Virgin,
+St. Ann, &c. were printed at Nuremburgh. Her verses in praise of Otto
+II. would be tolerable, if they were not Leonines: there are in them
+some errors of prosody." Bib. Univers. et Histor. Vol. ii. p. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 005: For a fuller account of Feudal and Civil Jurisprudence,
+the writer of these pages begs leave to refer to his work, entitled,
+"HORÆ JURIDICÆ SUBSECIVÆ, being a connected series of Notes respecting
+the Geography, Chronology, and Literary History of the principal Codes
+and original Documents of the Grecian, Roman, Feudal, and Canon Law." 1
+vol. 8vo.]
+
+[Footnote 006: It is entitled, "_Martiani Minei Felicis Capellæ
+Carthaginiensis, Viri Procunsularis, Satyricon, in quo de Nuptiis
+Philologiæ et Mecurii libri duo, & de septem artibus liberalibus libri
+singulares. Omnes, et emendati et Notis sive Februis Hug. Grotii
+illustrati. Ex Officina Plantiniana, Apud Christophorum Raphelingium
+Academiæ Lugduno-Bat. Typographum_ M. D. C." [Transcriber's note:
+Apostrophic date 1600] The Dedication to the Prince of Condé follows:
+then, Encomiastic Verses by Scaliger, and Tiliabrogus. The two works are
+then inserted, with an address to the reader, Errata, and Various
+Readings. Afterwards, _Hugeiani Grotii Februa[007] in Satyricon Martiani
+Capellæ:_ this contains his notes. They are preceded by an Engraving of
+Grotius. Round it, is written, "_Anno_ M. D. C." [Transcriber's note:
+Apostrophic date 1600] Hora Ruit.[008] Æt.xv. Under the engraving the
+following verses are printed,
+
+        "_Quem sibi quindenis_ ASTRÆA _sacravit ab annis,
+        Talis,_ HUGEIANI GROTII _ora fero_."]
+
+[Footnote 007: "Corrections"--or more literarily, "Purifications".]
+
+[Footnote 008: These words were used by Grotius for his motto.]
+
+[Footnote 009: Fabricii Bibliotheca Latina, Lib iii. c. 15. In 1794,
+John Adam Goez published the "Treatise on the Marriage of Philology and
+Mercury" separately, in a duodecimo volume: he mentions, in the preface,
+an edition of it by Walthard. It is on the authority of Goez that we
+have assigned the age of Capella to the third century: others place him
+in a much later period.]
+
+[Footnote 010: Montucla. Histoire des Mathematiques, Vol.ii. p.657.]
+
+[Footnote 011: Vol. 9. p. 147. ii. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 012: A similar exclusive claim in respect to the Indian seas,
+under the grant of Pope Alexander VI., was set up by the Portuguese;
+similar claims to the Ligustic and Adriatic seas, have been and still
+continue to be made by the Genoese and Venetians. Those, who seek for
+information on the subject, should consult the _Dissertation of
+Bynkershook de Dominio Maris_, and note 61 to the recent edition of Sir
+Edward Coke's Commentary upon Littleton.]
+
+[Footnote 013: "Mais, dites vous, dans ce tems même, le jeune Pison
+pouvolt avoir dix ans: Grotius faisoit bien des vers a cet âge. Je le
+sçais, mais les Grotius sont ils bien commune! combien d'enfans
+trouveres vous de dix ans, qui ayent nonseulement assez du feu pour
+faire des vers, mais encore assez de jugement pour en juger sainement."
+Gibbon's Posthumous Works, 8vo. vol. i. p. 520.--"Salmasius," says Mr.
+Gibbon in another part of the same entertaining publication, (vol. v. p.
+209), "had read as much as Grotius; but their different modes of reading
+had made the one an enlighten'd philosopher; and the other, to speak
+plainly, a pedant puffed up with an useless erudition."]
+
+[Footnote 014: Bentivoglio, Histoire des Guerres de Flandres, l,
+xxviii.]
+
+[Footnote 015: _Bella plusquam civilia._ Lucan.]
+
+[Footnote 016: Those who wish to obtain a clear, concise, and exact
+notion of Calvinism and Arminianism, will usefully peruse the account of
+them in Mr. Evans's "_Sketch of the Denominations of the Christian
+World_." The thirteenth Edition is now before us, and we believe that it
+has been often since reprinted.]
+
+[Footnote 017: Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. Cent. xvi, ch. 2. § 3. part 2.]
+
+[Footnote 018: Chalmer's Biographical Dictionary, Title "Arminius."]
+
+[Footnote 019: A short and clear account of Arminianism is given by Le
+Clere, in his Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne, Vol. II. Art. 3. p.
+123.]
+
+[Footnote 020: The best discussion of this subject, which has fallen
+into the hands of the writer, is Bourduloué's Sermon _sur la
+Predestination_.]
+
+[Footnote 021: English Translation of Burigni's Life of Grotius, pp. 43,
+44, 45.]
+
+[Footnote 022: Vol. i.]
+
+[Footnote 023: _Letters from and to Sir Dudley Carleton, during his
+Embassy in Holland, from January 1615-16[**Modern presentation.] to
+December 1620. London, 1757, p. 84_,--Sir Dudley Carleton's Letters
+abound with harsh expressions respecting Grotius. The Editor of this
+correspondence has inserted (p. 415) a letter from Grotius to Dr.
+Lancelot Andrews, written from the Castle at Louvestein. "This letter,"
+says the Editor, "which was never printed before, deserves a place here,
+not only for its elegance and spirit, and its connection with the
+subject of the work, but likewise in justice to the memory of the great
+writer, as it contains his own justification of his conduct, which may
+be compared with the less favourable accounts of it in the preceding
+letters of Sir Dudley Carleton. The original is extant among the
+manuscripts in the library of the late Sir Hans Sloane, bart. now part
+of the British Museum."--"Utinam," says Grotius in this letter, "D.
+Carleton mihi esset plus æquior; cui mitigando propinqui mei operam
+dant. Sed partium, studia mire homines obcæcant."]
+
+[Footnote 024: The history of this Synod, and of the whole controversy
+upon Arminianism, is contained in Brand's _History of the Reformation_:
+the account of the synod in these pages, is principally extracted from
+the French abridgment of that work, in 3 volumes 8vo. The Calvinian
+representation of the Arminian doctrines, and the proceedings of the
+synod, may be seen in the late Mr. Scott's _Articles of the Synod of
+Dort_, to which he has prefixed the History of the Events which _made
+way for that Synod_: it is severely censured by Mr. James Nichols, in
+his _Calvinism and Arminianism compared_. Introd. cxlii.
+
+The Abridgment of Brand's History, was translated into the English
+language and published in 1724-25[**Modern presentation.] by _M. de la
+Roche_. He concludes his Preface to it by observing, that "No good man
+can read the work without abhorring arbitrary power, and all manner of
+persecution." The persecution of the Scottish Non-conformists by the
+Episcopalians, and the persecution of the Remonstrants by the
+Contra-Remonstrants, were attended with this enormity, that, in most
+other instances, when one denomination of christians has persecuted
+another, it has been on the ground that the errors of the sufferers were
+impious, and led the maintainers of them to eternal perdition, and
+therefore rendered these wholesome severities, as the persecutors term
+them, a salutary infliction. But, when the Protestant Episcopalian
+persecuted the Scottish Non-conformist, or the Contra-Remonstrant
+persecuted the Remonstrant, he persecuted a Christian who agreed with
+him in all which he himself deemed to be substantial articles of faith,
+and differed from him only about rites and opinions, which he himself
+allowed to be indifferent.--See Mr. Neale's just remark, Vol. II. ch.
+vi.]
+
+[Footnote 025: In 1765, Lord Hailes published a beautiful edition of
+"The Works of the Ever-memorable Mr. John Hales of Eaton, then first
+collected together," in three volumes, at Glasgow. It is to be lamented
+that he did not accompany it with a full biographical account of Mr.
+Hales.
+
+"His biographers," says Mr. Chalmers, "all allow that he may be classed
+among those divines who were afterwards called Latitudinarians." May he
+not be termed the founder of that splendid school? Perceiving that the
+minds of men required to be more liberally enlightened, and their
+affections to be more powerfully engaged on the side of religion than
+was formerly thought necessary, they set themselves, to use the language
+of Bishop Burnet, "to raise those who conversed with them to another
+sort of thoughts, and to consider the Christian religion as a doctrine
+sent from God, both to elevate and to sweeten human nature. With this
+view, they laboured chiefly to take men from being in parties from
+narrow notions, and from fierceness about opinions. They also continued
+to keep a good correspondence with those who differed from them in
+opinion and allowed a great freedom both in philosophy and divinity."
+(Burnet's History of his own Times. Vol. I. p. 261-268, oct. edit.)
+Hales, Chillingworth, Taylor, Cudworth, Wilkins, Tillotson,
+Stillingfleet, and Patrick, were among their brightest ornaments. They
+were in some respects hostile to the Roman Catholics: _in hoc non
+laudo_.--See the Writer's History of the English, Irish, and Scottish
+Catholics. Vol. III. c. lxviii. sect. 1. 3d edition.]
+
+[Footnote 026: "King James," says Mr. James Nichols, in his Calvinism
+and Arminianism compared, p. 242, "sent a deputation of respectable
+British divines, for the double and undisguised purpose of condemning
+the Remonstrants, but especially Vórstius, (whom his Majesty had long
+before exposed to the world as an arch-heretic), and of assisting the
+Prince of Orange in his design of usurping the liberties of the United
+Provinces, and assuming the supreme authority. The Elector Palatine sent
+his Heidelberg divines for the same family purpose; and the Duke of
+Bouillon employed all his influence with the chief pastors among the
+French reformed."]
+
+[Footnote 027: The words of the former are remarkable: "The errors of
+public actions, if they be not very gross, are with less inconvenience
+tolerated than amended. For the danger of alteration, of disgracing and
+disabling authority, makes that the fortune of such proceeding admits of
+no redress; but being howsoever well or ill done, they must ever after
+be upheld. The most partial spectator of our synodal acts cannot but
+confess, that, in the late discussion of the Remonstrants, with so much
+choler and heat, there was a great oversight committed, and
+that,--whether we respect our common profession of Christianity, 'quæ
+nil nisi justum suadet et lene,' or the quality of this people, apt to
+mutiny by reason of long liberty, and not having learned to be
+imperiously commanded,--in which argument the clergy should not have
+read their first lesson. The synod, therefore, to whom it is not now _in
+integro_ to go back and rectify what is amiss, without disparagement,
+must now go forward and leave events to God, and for the countenance of
+their actions do the best they may." Letter to Sir Dudley Carleton, 11
+January 1619.]
+
+[Footnote 028: _Nichol's Calvinism and Arminianism compared_, Vol. II.
+p.592]
+
+[Footnote 029: _Decline and Fall_, Ch. LIV. towards the end.]
+
+[Footnote 030: The writers who have given an account of the Synod of
+Dort are mentioned by Fabricius, Bib. Græca, Vol. XI. p. 723. Some
+useful observations upon the proceedings of the Synod may be found in
+"Mr. Nichols's _Calvinism and Arminianism compared_." It is much to be
+wished that the promised continuation of this work should speedily make
+its appearance.
+
+But no work upon this famous Synod deserves more attention than
+"_Johannis Halesii, Historia Concilii Dordraceni, J. Laur. Moshemius
+Theol. Doct. et P.P.C. ex Anglico Sermone latine vertit, variis
+observationibus et Vitâ Halesii ausit. Accessit ejusdem de auctoritate
+Concilii Dordraceni Paci Sacræ noxii, Consultatio. Hamburgi_, 8vo." M.
+Le Clere's criticism on this work (_Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne_
+Vol. 23, art. 4.) contains much valuable information upon the Synod, and
+a summary of the life and writings of Mr. Hales.--Des Maizeaux published
+a curious account of them in 1719.]
+
+[Footnote 031: Pfaffii Hist. Literaria, vol. ii. p. 303.]
+
+[Footnote 032: Burigni's Life of Grotius, lib. ii. sect. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 033: Cent XVII, sect. 2, Part 2 (Note Y.)]
+
+[Footnote 034: Mr. James Nicholls's Calvinism and Arminianism compared.
+Vol. i. p. 597, 600, 634, 636.]
+
+[Footnote 035: See Mr. Dugald Stewart's first Dissertation, sect. III.]
+
+[Footnote 036: See Joannis Christopheri Locheri Dissertatio Epistolica
+Historiam libelli Grotiani _De Veritate Religionis Christianæ_
+complectens, 1725, in quarto; and the Journal de Scavans for the year
+1724.]
+
+[Footnote 037: See Nichols's Calvinism and Arminianism compared, vol. i.
+p. 289.]
+
+[Footnote 038: On the respect, which the Church of England considers to
+be due to the writings of the early Fathers, see the excellent Appendix
+to the Sermons of Dr. Jebb, the Right Reverend Bishop of Limerick.]
+
+[Footnote 039: Vol. iii. L. 38. This letter merits a serious perusal.]
+
+[Footnote 040: Dict. Historique, Preliminaire, p. xxix.]
+
+[Footnote 041: Vol.1. p. 121]
+
+[Footnote 042: Those, who will read his life, published by the writer of
+these pages, with other Tracts, in 1819, will not, it is believed, think
+this too strong an assertion. Is it not to be earnestly hoped, that in
+the distress by which we are now visited, and the greater distress with
+which we are threatened, many St. Vincents will appear?]
+
+[Footnote 043: Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. ch. ii. sect. ii. part. ii. and
+Bynkershock's Quest. Juris publici, lib. ii. ch. 18.]
+
+[Footnote 044: Le Clerc, (Bib. Anc. et Mod. vol. xxiii. Art. iv.)
+strenuously objects to this representation of Dr. Mosheim. "The
+Arminians," he says, "have introduced no dogma as necessary to
+salvation, which was unknown to the framers of their Confession of
+Faith; neither have they retrenched from it, any article essential to
+faith." He however observes, "that there are many ways of explaining
+dogmas." Now, the same dogma explained in two ways, amounts to two
+dogmas.]
+
+[Footnote 045: See the third part of "_the last of Bossuet's Six
+Addresses to the Protestants_," and the passages which he cites in it
+from Jurieu.
+
+For the actual state of Religious Doctrine, both in the Lutheran and
+Reformed Churches of Germany, the reader may usefully consult, "_The
+State of the Protestant Religion in Germany, in a series of Discourses
+preached before the University of Cambridge, by the Rev. Hugh James
+Rose, M.A. 8vo. 1825_;" and "_Entretiens Philosophiques sur la Re-union
+des differens communions chretiens, par feu M. le Baron Starck, Ministre
+Protestant, et premier predicateur, de la Cour de Hesse Darmstadt, &c.
+8vo. 1818_;" and "_Tabaraud's Histoire des Re-unions des Chrêtiens._"]
+
+[Footnote 046: Tom. XLVI. Art. 12. p. 208.]
+
+[Footnote 047: Page 283.]
+
+[Footnote 048: Page 284, 285.]
+
+[Footnote 049: Page 286.]
+
+[Footnote 050: Page 287.]
+
+[Footnote 051: Page 288.]
+
+[Footnote 052: Page 288.]
+
+[Footnote 053: Page 291.]
+
+[Footnote 054: Page 292.]
+
+[Footnote 055: Page 293.]
+
+[Footnote 056: Page 294.]
+
+[Footnote 057: Page 296.]
+
+[Footnote 058: Page 298.]
+
+[Footnote 059: Page 299.]
+
+[Footnote 060: Page 300. M. Le Clerc, (_Sentimens de quelques
+Theologiens de Hollande, dix-septieme Lettre_) defends Grotius with
+great ability against the charge of Socinianism: he justly observes,
+that, his abstaining from unpleasing propositions, his silence on
+offensive doctrines, and his conciliating expressions, should not too
+easily be accounted proofs, of belief of his precise sentiments of any
+particular tenets. Grotius, says Le Clerc, was like an arbitrator, who,
+to bring to amity the parties in difference, recommends to each, that he
+should give something of what he himself considers to be his strict
+right.]
+
+[Footnote 061: Ep. 363. p. 364]
+
+[Footnote 062: Ep. 491. p. 195.]
+
+[Footnote 063: Ep. 494. p. 896.]
+
+[Footnote 064: Ep. 1706. p. 736.]
+
+[Footnote 065: _Comparison of Calvinism and Arminianism_. vol. ii. p.
+560.]
+
+[Footnote 066: Ib. Vol. ii. p. 609.]
+
+[Footnote 067: Ep. 1538. p. 573, 690, 926.]
+
+[Footnote 068: Ep. 528. p. 400.]
+
+[Footnote 069: "Those," says Mr. James Nichols,[070]
+
+    "who wish to behold the praises to which HUGO GROTIUS or HUGH DE
+    GROOT, is justly entitled, and which he has received in ample
+    measure from admiring friends and reluctant foes, may consult SIR
+    THOMAS POPE BLOUNT's _Censura celebriorum Authorum_. His well
+    earned reputation is founded on too durable a basis to be moved by
+    such petty attacks as those to which I have alluded in a previous
+    part of this introduction (p. xxi.), or those of Mr. Orme in page
+    641.
+
+    "That a man so accomplished, virtuous, fearless, and unfortunate,
+    should have had many enemies, among his contemporaries, is not
+    wonderful. But the number of those who evinced their hatred to him,
+    or to his philanthropic labours, increased after his decease, when
+    they could display it with impunity. 'This very pious, learned, and
+    judicious man,' says Dr. Hammond, 'hath of late, among many, fallen
+    under a very unhappy fate, being most unjustly calumniated,
+    sometimes as a SOCINIAN, sometimes as a PAPIST, and, as if he had
+    learnt to reconcile contradictions, sometimes _as both of them
+    together._'
+
+    "One cause of the Charge of SOCINIANISM being preferred against him,
+    has been already mentioned, (p. xxxiii.) and it is more fully
+    explained in pages 637, 642. The reader will not require many
+    additional reasons to convince him of the untenable ground for such
+    an accusation, when he is told that VOETIUS, one of the most
+    violent of his enemies, laid down this grand axiom--'To place the
+    principal part of religion in an _observance of Christ's commands
+    is_ RANK SOCIANISM!' To such a _practical observance of the_
+    requisitions of the Gospel, by what name soever it might be
+    stigmatized, Grotius pleaded guilty. He says (p. 637) 'I perceive
+    this was accounted the principal part of religion by the Christians
+    of the primitive ages; and their various assemblies, divines, and
+    martyrs taught, 'that the doctrines _necessary to be known_ are
+    exceedingly few, but that God forms his estimate of us from the
+    purpose and intention of an obedient spirit.' I am likewise of the
+    same opinion, and shall never repent of having maintained it.'
+
+    "But as the charge of POPERY is of the utmost consequence, I have
+    discussed this topic at great length, (pp. 566, 746), and have
+    proved (pp. 549, 561), that Grotius was as little attached to the
+    principles or the practice of the Romish church as the most zealous
+    of his accusers. Whatever tends to vindicate the conduct of Grotius
+    in this matter, will operate still more powerfully in favour of
+    Archbishop Laud. The design of Grotius is well described by Dr.
+    Hammond, in a _Digression_ which he added to his _Answer_ to the
+    _Animadversions on his Dissertations_; in which he says,
+
+    "'For the charge of Popery that is fallen upon him, it is evident
+    from whence that flows,--either from his _profest opposition to
+    many doctrines of some Reformers, Zuinglius and Calvin, &c_. or
+    from his _Annotations on Cassander, and the Debates with Rivet
+    consequent thereto, the Votum pro pace and Discussio_.'
+
+    "For the former of these, it is sufficiently known what contests
+    there were, and at length how profest the divisions betwixt the
+    Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants; and it is confessed that he
+    maintained (all his time) the Remonstrants party, vindicating it
+    from all charge, whether of Pelagianism or Semi-Pelagianism, which
+    was by the opposers objected to it, and pressing the favourers of
+    the doctrine of Irrespective Decrees with the odious consequences
+    of making God the _author and favourer of sin_, and frequently
+    expressing his sense of the evil influences that some of those
+    doctrines were experimented to have on men's lives. And by these
+    means it is not strange that he should fall under great displeasure
+    from those who, having espoused the opinion of Irrespective
+    Decrees, did not only publish it as the THE TRUTH and TRUTH OF GOD,
+    but farther asserted the questioning of it to be injurious to God's
+    free grace and his Eternal Election, and consequently retained no
+    ordinary patience for or charity to opposers. But, then, still this
+    is no medium to to infer that charge. The doctrines which he thus
+    maintained were neither branches nor characters of Popery, but
+    asserted by some of the first and most learned and pious Reformers.
+    Witness the writings of Hemingius in his _Opuscula_, most of which
+    are on these subjects. Whereas on the contrary side, Zuinglius and
+    others, who maintained the rigid way of Irrespective Decrees, and
+    infused them into some of this nation of ours, are truly said, by
+    an excellent writer of ours, Dr. Jackson, to _have had it first
+    from some ancient Romish Schoolmen_, and so to have had as much or
+    more of that guilt adherent to them, as can be charged on their
+    opposers. So that from hence to found the jealousy, to affirm him a
+    papist because he was not a contra-remonstrant, is but the old
+    method of speaking all that is ill of those who differ from our
+    opinions on any thing; as the Dutchman in his rage calls his horse
+    an ARMINIAN, because he doth not not go as he would have him. And
+    this is all that can soberly be concluded from such suggestions,
+    that they are displeased and passionate that thus speak.
+
+    "As for the _Annotations on Cassander_, &c. and the consequent
+    vindications of himself against _Rivet_, those have with some
+    colour been deemed more favourable toward Popery; but yet I suppose
+    will be capable of benign interpretations, if they be read with
+    these few cautions or remembrances:
+
+    "_First_. That they were designed to shew a way to peace whensoever
+    men's minds on both sides should be piously affected to it.
+
+    "_Secondly_. That he did not hope for this temper in his age, the
+    humour on both sides being so turgent, and extremely contrary to
+    it, and the controversy debated on both sides by those 'who,' saith
+    he, '_desire to eternize, and not to compose contentions_,' and
+    therefore makes his appeal to posterity, when this paroxysm shall
+    be over.
+
+    "_Thirdly_. That for the chief usurpations of the papacy; he leaves
+    it to Christian princes to join together to vindicate their own
+    rights, and reduce the Pope _ad Canones_, to that temper, which the
+    ancient canons allow and require of him; and if that will not be
+    done, to reform every one in their own dominions.
+
+    "_Fourthly_. That what he saith in favour of some Popish doctrines,
+    above what some other learned Protestants have said, is not so much
+    by way of _assertion_ or _justification_ of them, as to shew what
+    reasons they may justly be thought to proceed upon, and so not to
+    be go irrational or impious as they are ordinarily accounted; and
+    this only in order to the peace of the christian world, that we may
+    have as much charity to others and not as high animosities, live
+    with all men as sweetly and amicably, and peaceably, and not as
+    bitterly as is possible, accounting the wars and seditions, and
+    divisions and rebellions, that are raised and managed upon the
+    account of religion, far greater and more scandalous unchristian
+    evils, than are the errors of some Romish doctrines, especially as
+    they are maintained by the more sober and moderate men among them,
+    Cassander, Picherel, &c.
+
+    "_Fifthly_. What he saith in his _Discussio_, of a conjunction of
+    Protestants with those that adhere to the Bishop of Rome, is no
+    farther to be extended, than his words extend it. That there is not
+    any other visible way to the end there mentioned by him, of
+    acquiring or preserving universal unity. That this is to be done,
+    not crudely, by returning to them as they are, submitting our necks
+    to our former yokes, but by taking away at once the division, and
+    the causes of it, on which side soever; adding only in the third
+    place, that the bare primacy of the Bishop of Rome, _secundum
+    Canones_, such as the ancient canons allow of, (which hath nothing
+    of _supreme universal power_, or authority in it,) is none of those
+    causes, nor consequently necessary to be excluded in the [Greek:
+    diallaktikon], citing that as the confession of that excellent
+    person Philip Melancthon. So that in effect, that whole speech of
+    his which is so solemnly vouched by Mr. Knott, and looked on so
+    jealously by many of us, is no more than this, 'that such a Primacy
+    of the Bishop of Rome, as the ancient canons allowed him, were, for
+    so glorious an end as is the regaining the peace of christendom,
+    very reasonably to be afforded him, nay absolutely necessary to be
+    yielded him, whensoever any such catholic union shall be attempted,
+    which as it had been the express opinion of Melancthon, one of the
+    first and wisest Reformers, so it is far from any design of
+    establishing the usurpations of the Papacy, or any of their false
+    doctrines attending them, but only designed as an expedient for the
+    restoring the peace of the whole christian world, which every
+    disciple of Christ is so passionately required to contend and pray
+    for.'
+
+"At the conclusion of the Doctor's _Continuation of the Defence of_ HUGO
+GROTIUS, he thus expresses himself:
+
+    "'As this is an act of mere justice and charity to the dead,--and no
+    less to those who, by their sin of uncharitable thoughts towards
+    him, are likely to deprive themselves of the benefit of his
+    labours,--so is it but a proportionable return of debt and
+    gratitude to the signal value and kindness, which in his lifetime,
+    he constantly professed to pay to this church and nation,
+    expressing his opinion, "that of all churches in the world, it was
+    the most careful observer and transcriber of primitive antiquity,"
+    and more than intimating his desire to end his days in the bosom
+    and communion of our mother. Of this I want not store of witnesses,
+    which from time to time have heard it from his own mouth whilst he
+    was ambassador in France, and even in his return to Sweden,
+    immediately before his death; and for a real evidence of this
+    truth, it is no news to many, that, at the taking his journey from
+    Paris, he appointed his wife, whom he left behind, to resort to the
+    English Assembly at the Agent's house, which accordingly she is
+    known to have practised.'"]
+
+[Footnote 070: Calvinism and Arminianism compared, Introduction,
+cxxxii.]
+
+[Footnote 071: A dialogue on the Reformation was also in the
+contemplation of Mr. Gibbon: "I have," he says in the Memoirs of his
+life and writings,[072] "sometimes thought of writing a dialogue of the
+dead, in which Luther, Erasmus and Voltaire should mutually acknowledge
+the danger of exposing an old superstition to the contempt of the blind
+and fanatic multitude."]
+
+[Footnote 072: Vol. i. p. 269, of the 8vo. edition of his works.]
+
+[Footnote 073: A full account of the writings of _Wicelius_, and of his
+projects of Pacification, is given by _Father Simon_ in the _Biblioteque
+Critique, par M. de Sainjore_, Tom. ii. ch. 18. He concludes it, by
+observing, that
+
+    "the great love which Wicelius had for the peace of the church,
+    might induce him to use expressions, somewhat harsh, but which
+    really ought not to be censured with too much rigour. It is evident
+    that his only view was to be useful to persons of his own time, to
+    whom he consecrated the latter part of his life.--I do not
+    recollect to have read that he was censured at Rome, and the
+    Spanish Inquisitors seem to have observed the same moderation in
+    his regard."]
+
+[Footnote 074: XVI. Cent. Book V. p. 41, in the Englsh translation.]
+
+[Footnote 075: See Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, Cent. XVII. ch. ii.
+sect. ii. Part II.]
+
+[Footnote 076: Eccles. Hist. Cent. XVI. ch. ii. sect. iii. Part. II.]
+
+[Footnote 077: Observat. Hallen, 15 t. p. 341.]
+
+[Footnote 078: It is a prayer addressed to Jesus Christ, and suited to
+the condition of a dying person who builds his hope on the Mediator. _M.
+Le Clerc_ has inserted it at length in the _Sentimens de quelques
+Theologiens de Hollande_, 17 Lettre, p. 397.]
+
+[Footnote 079: Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson, 2d Vol. p. 502. 2d
+Edition.]
+
+[Footnote 080: The author's "Confessions of Faith," mention this
+convention, its dissolution, and the subsequent union of the Helvetian,
+and Bohemian protestant congregations, in the Synods, held at Astrog, in
+the years 1620, and 1627. The original settlement of these churches, was
+in Bohemia, and Moravia. Persecution scattered the members of them: a
+considerable number of the fugitives, settled at Herrenhut, a village in
+Lusatia. There, under the protection and guidance of Count Zinzendorf,
+they formed themselves into a new community, which was designed to
+comprehend their actual and future congregations, under the title of
+"_The Protestant Church of the Unitas Fratrum, or United Brethren of the
+Confession of Augsburgh_." That Confession is their only symbolic book;
+but they profess great esteem for the eighteen first chapters of the
+Synodical Document of the church of Berne in 1532, as a declaration of
+true Christian Doctrine. They also respect, the writings of Count
+Zinzendorf, but do not consider themselves, bound by any opinion,
+sentiment, or expression, which these contain. It is acknowledged, that,
+towards the middle of the last century, they used in their devotional
+exercises, particularly in their hymns, many expressions justly
+censurable: but these have been corrected. They consider Lutherans and
+Calvinists, to be their brethren in faith, as according with them in the
+essential articles of religion; and therefore, when any of their members
+reside at a distance from a congregation of the United Brethren, they
+not only attend a Lutheran, or Calvinist church, but receive the
+Sacrament, from its ministers, without scruple. In this, they profess to
+act in conformity to the Convention at Sendomer. The union, which
+prevails both among the congregations, and the individuals which compose
+them, their modest and humble carriage, their moderation in lucrative
+pursuits, the simplicity of their manners, their laborious industry,
+their frugal habits, their ardent but mild piety, and their regular
+discharge of all their spiritual observances, are universally
+acknowledged and admired. Their charities are boundless, their kindness
+to their poor brethren is most edifying; there is not among them a
+beggar. The care, which they bestow, on the education of their children,
+in forming their minds, chastening their hearts, and curbing their
+imaginations,--particularly in those years,
+
+                       "When youth, elate and gay,
+    Steps into life and follows, unrestrained,
+    Where passion leads, or reason points the way."     _Lowth._
+
+are universally acknowledged, universally admired, and deserve universal
+imitation.
+
+But, it is principally, by the extent and success of their missionary
+labours, that they now engage, the attention of the public. These began,
+in 1732. In 1812, they had thirty-three settlements, in heathen nations.
+One hundred and thirty-seven missionaries, were employed in them: they
+had baptized, twenty-seven thousand, four hundred converts: and such had
+been their care, in admitting them to that sacred rite, and such their
+assiduity, in cultivating a spirit of religion, among them, that
+scarcely an individual, had been known, to relapse into paganism. All
+travellers, who have visited their settlements, speak with wonder, and
+praise, of the humility, the patient endurance of privation, and
+hardship, the affectionate zeal, the mild, and persevering exertions of
+the missionaries; and the innocence, industry and piety of the
+converts:--the European, the American, the African, and the Asiatic
+traveller speaks of them, in the same terms: and, that they speak
+without exaggeration, the conduct both of the pastor, and the flock in
+the different settlements of the United Brethren in England,
+incontestibly proves. Whatever he may think of their religious tenets,
+_Talis cum sitis, utinam nostri essetis_, must be the exclamation of
+every christian, who considers their lives. Those, who desire further
+knowledge of this amiable, and worthy denomination of Christians, will
+find it in _David Cranz's ancient and modern History of the Brethren,
+printed at Barby, 1771, and the two continuations of it, Barby_, 1791,
+and 1804. The History has been translated into English; and is become
+exceedingly scarce; the Continuations have not been translated. Mr. La
+Trobe, the Pastor of the United Brethren in London, has published a
+_Concise Historical Account of the Protestant Church of the United
+Brethren adhering to the Confession of Augsburgh_.]
+
+[Footnote 081: Epist. 1706, p. 736.]
+
+[Footnote 082: Ib. Epist. 613.]
+
+[Footnote 083: Epist. part. I. Epist. 432. part II. Epist. 53. The
+French public strongly suspected the Cardinal of this design. It gave
+rise to the celebrated libel, entitled "_Optatus Gallus,_" _Grotius_,
+(Lit. 982.) notices a prophecy of Nostradamus, then in circulation:
+
+        "_Celui qui était bien avant dans le regne,
+        Ayant chat rouge, proche, hierarchie,
+        Apre et cruel, et se fera tant craindre,
+        Succedera, a sacrée Monarchie._"
+
+If the event in question had happened, Nostradamus would have passed,
+with many for a prophet.]
+
+[Footnote 084: Eclaircissemens de l'édit de Nantes, page 1. c. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 085: V. 2. p. 38, 148.]
+
+[Footnote 086: We are grieved to add, that he allowed the _right_ of a
+sovereign to persecute for religion.]
+
+[Footnote 087: This article is extracted from Oeuvres Posthumes de
+Bossuet, vol. i. Nouvelle édition des Oeuvres de Bossuet, vol. ii.
+Leibnizii Opera, studio Ludovici Dutens, vol. i. and v. And the Pensées
+de Leibniz, vol. ii. 8vo.]
+
+[Footnote 088: Tom. xiii.]
+
+[Footnote 089: See the Appendix to the Sermons of Dr. Jebb, the present
+excellent Bishop of Limerick.--Cadel, 1824.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+                              Luke Hansard & Sons,
+                       near Lincoln's-Inn Fields, London.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+                              By the same Author,
+
+                              THE LIFE OF ERASMUS:
+
+                                      WITH
+
+    HISTORICAL REMARKS ON THE STATE OF LITERATURE BETWEEN THE TENTH AND
+                             SIXTEENTH CENTURIES.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF HUGO GROTIUS***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 14037-8.txt or 14037-8.zip *******
+
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+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1">
+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Life of Hugo Grotius, by Charles Butler</title>
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+<body>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Life of Hugo Grotius, by Charles Butler</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: The Life of Hugo Grotius</p>
+<p>Author: Charles Butler</p>
+<p>Release Date: November 13, 2004  [eBook #14037]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF HUGO GROTIUS***</p>
+<br><br><h3>E-text prepared by Frank van Drogen, David Gundry,<br>
+            and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br>
+            from images generously made available by the<br>
+            Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica)<br>
+            at <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr">http://gallica.bnf.fr</a></h3><br><br>
+  <hr class="full" noshade>
+  <br>
+  <br>
+    <h3>
+      THE
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      LIFE
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      OF
+    </h3>
+    <h1>
+      HUGO GROTIUS:
+    </h1>
+    <h3>
+      WITH
+    </h3>
+    <h3 class="c1">
+      BRIEF MINUTES
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      OF THE
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      CIVIL, ECCLESIASTICAL, AND LITERARY
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+    </h3>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <h3>
+      BY CHARLES BUTLER, ESQ.
+    </h3>
+    <h4>
+      OF LINCOLN'S-INN.
+    </h4>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <h4>
+      LONDON:
+    </h4>
+    <h4>
+      JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET.
+    </h4>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <h4>
+      M.DCCC.XXVI.
+    </h4>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class="c3">
+      Luke Hansard &amp; Sons,<br>
+      near Lincoln's-Inn Fields, London.
+    </div>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class="c3">
+      TO<br>
+      <br>
+       HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS<br>
+      <br>
+       <span class="c4">THE DUKE OF SUSSEX,</span><br>
+      <br>
+       THIS BIOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT<br>
+      <br>
+       OF<br>
+      <br>
+       ONE OF THE MOST AMIABLE AND<br>
+       RESPECTABLE DEFENDERS OF THE NOBLE<br>
+       CAUSE OF CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY,<br>
+      <br>
+       OF WHICH<br>
+      <br>
+       HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS HAS UNIFORMLY<br>
+       BEEN A CONSTANT AND POWERFUL<br>
+       ADVOCATE,<br>
+      <br>
+       IS<br>
+      <br>
+       (WITH HIS PERMISSION),<br>
+      <br>
+       MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED,<br>
+      <br>
+       BY<br>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class="c5">
+      THE AUTHOR,
+    </div>
+    <p class="c6">
+      <i>Great Ormond Street</i>,<br>
+       29 <i>Sept</i>. 1826.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <h2>
+      CONTENTS
+    </h2>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      In the following pages we shall attempt to present our
+      Readers, with a Life of HUGO GROTIUS; and MINUTES OF THE
+      CIVIL, ECCLESIASTICAL, AND LITERARY HISTORY OF THE
+      NETHERLANDS.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In writing these pages, we principally consulted his life,
+      written in the French language, by <i>M. de Burigni</i>,
+      Member of the French Royal Academy of Inscriptions and
+      Belles Lettres; an English translation of it, was published
+      in 1754, in one Volume, 8vo.;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Hugonis Grotii Manes, ab iniquis obtrectationibus
+      vindicati</i>; 2 vols. 8vo. 1727: the author of this work
+      is said to be M. Lehman;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The article <i>Grotius</i>, in <i>Bayle's and Chalmers's
+      Dictionaries</i>;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And many of the letters in <i>Hugonis Grotii
+      Epistol&aelig;</i>, published at Amsterdam in 1687, in one
+      volume, folio; and many in the <i>Pr&aelig;stantium et
+      Eruditorum Virorum Epistol&aelig; Ecclesiastic&aelig;</i>,
+      published at Amsterdam in 1684, in one volume, 4to.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      For what we have said on GERMANY AND THE NETHERLANDS, we
+      principally consulted,
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Schmidt's Histoire des Allemands</i>;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Pfeffell's Histoire Abreg&eacute; de l'Allemagne</i>, 2
+      vols. 8vo.;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Mr. Durnford's excellent Translation, of Professor
+      P&uuml;tter's Historical Developement, of the Political
+      History of the German Empire</i>; 3 vols. 8vo.;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And <i>Hugonis Grotii Annales, et Histori&aelig; de Rebus
+      Belgicis</i>, one vol. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1658.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In our account of the troubles on <i>Arminianism</i>, and
+      the Synod of Dort; we principally consulted, the French
+      Abridgment, in 3 vols. 8vo. of <i>Brand's History of the
+      Netherlands</i>, and <i>Grotius's</i> excellent
+      <i>Apology</i>:
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In every part of the work, we have consulted other
+      publications;-three only of these we shall mention;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The three <i>Biblioth&egrave;cques</i> of Le Clerc;
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>The Life of Arminius</i>, and
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Calvinism and Arminianism Compared</i>, by Mr. James
+      Nichols.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      From these materials the following pages have been
+      composed: they may be found to contain,-
+    </p>
+    <p>
+
+    </p>
+    <table width="700" summary="TOC" border="0" align="center">
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c_intro'></a><a href=
+          '#INTRODUCTION'><b>INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 800-911. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <b>I.</b>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <a name='c_1.1'></a><a href='#intro_I_1'><b>1.</b></a>
+           <i>Boundaries, and Devolution of the Empire of
+          Germany, during the Carlovingian dynasty</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <a name='c_1.2'></a><a href='#intro_I_2'><b>2.</b></a>
+           <i>State of Literature, in the time of
+          Charlemagne</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c_1.3'></a><a href='#intro_I_3'>3.</a></b>
+           <i>Decline of Literature, under the Descendants of
+          Charlemagne</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 911-1024. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <b>II.</b>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <a name='c_2.1'></a><a href='#intro_II_1'><b>1.</b></a>
+           <i>Boundaries, and Devolution of the empire of
+          Germany, during the Saxon dynasty</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c_2.2'></a><a href='#intro_II_2'>2.</a></b>
+           <i>State of Literature, during the Saxon dynasty</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1024-1138. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <b>III.</b>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <a name='c_3.1'></a><a href=
+          '#intro_III_1'><b>1.</b></a>  <i>Boundaries, and State
+          of Germany, during the Franconian dynasty</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c_3.2'></a><a href=
+          '#intro_III_2'>2.</a></b>  <i>State of German
+          Literature, during the Franconian dynasty</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1138-1519 </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="40">
+          <b>IV.</b>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="40">
+          <b><a name='c_iv.1'></a><a href=
+          '#intro_IV_1'>1.</a></b>  <i>State of Germany, from the
+          beginning of the Suabian dynasty, until the accession
+          of the Emperor Charles V.</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c_iv.2'></a><a href=
+          '#intro_IV_2'>2.</a></b>  <i>State of German
+          Literature, during this period</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1138-1519 </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <b>V. </b>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c_v.1'></a><a href='#intro_V_1'>1.</a></b>
+           <i>Antient, and modern Geography of the
+          Netherlands</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <a name='c_v.2'></a><a href='#intro_V_2'><b>2.</b></a>
+           <i>The formation, of the different provinces of the
+          Netherlands, into one State</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="40">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="40">
+          <a name='c_v.3'></a><a href='#intro_V_3'><b>3.</b></a>
+           <i>Brief view, of the History of the Netherlands,
+          until the acknowledgment of the Seven United Provinces,
+          by the Spanish monarch</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c_v.4'></a><a href='#intro_V_4'>4.</a></b>
+           <i>Their constitution, and principal officers</i>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c01'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_I'><b>CHAPTER
+          I.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1582-1597.</b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          BIRTH, AND EDUCATION OF GROTIUS
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c02'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_II'><b>CHAPTER
+          II </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1597-1610.</b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          GROTIUS, EMBRACES THE PROFESSION OF THE LAW
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c03'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_III'><b>CHAPTER
+          III. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          THE EARLY PUBLICATIONS, OF GROTIUS
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c04'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_IV'><b>CHAPTER
+          IV. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="40">
+          HISTORICAL MINUTES, OF THE UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THEIR
+          DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, TILL THE ARMINIAN
+          CONTROVERSY
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c05'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_V'><b>CHAPTER
+          V. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1610-1617. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="40">
+          THE FEUDS, IN THE UNITED PROVINCES, BETWEEN THE
+          DISCIPLES OF CALVIN, AND THE DISCIPLES OF ARMINIUS,
+          UNTIL THE SYNOD OF DORT
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c06'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_VI'><b>CHAPTER
+          VI.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1618. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          THE SYNOD OF DORT
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c07'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_VII'><b>CHAPTER
+          VII. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1618-1621. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT OF GROTIUS; HIS ESCAPE FROM
+          PRISON
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c08'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_VIII'><b>CHAPTER
+          VIII.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1622 </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          JAMES I.
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+           VORSTIUS
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c09'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_IX'><b>CHAPTER
+          IX.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1621-1634. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="40">
+          GROTIUS, AFTER HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON, UNTIL HIS
+          APPOINTMENT OF AMBASSADOR, FROM SWEDEN, TO THE COURT OF
+          FRANCE
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c10'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_X'><b>CHAPTER
+          X. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS, OF GROTIUS
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <a name='c10.1'></a><a href='#X_1'><b>1.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          New edition of Stob&aelig;us
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <a name='c10.2'></a><a href='#X_2'><b>2.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+          His treatise
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+          de Jure Belli et Pacis
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="27">
+          <a name='c10.3'></a><a href='#X_3'><b>3.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" align="center" height="27">
+          ----
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="27">
+          de Veritate Religionis Christian&aelig;
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="47">
+          <a name='c10.4'></a><a href='#X_4'><b>4.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" align="center" height="47">
+          ----
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="47">
+          de Jure summarum potestatum circa sacra.--And
+          Commentatio ad loca qu&aelig;dam Novi Testamenti,
+          qu&aelig; de Antichristo agunt, aut agere videntur
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c10.5'></a><a href='#X_5'>5.</a> </b>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          His Commentaries on the Scriptures
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <b><a name='c10.6'></a><a href='#X_6'>6.</a> </b>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          His other works
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c11'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_XI'><b>CHAPTER
+          XI. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1634-1645. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="40">
+          GROTIUS, AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN, TO
+          THE COURT OF FRANCE
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c12'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_XII'><b>CHAPTER
+          XII. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS OF GROTIUS; SOME OTHER OF HIS
+          WORKS,
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <a name='c12.1'></a><a href='#XII_1'><b>1.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          Subsequent History of Arminianism
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <a name='c12.2'></a><a href='#XII_2'><b>2.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          Grotius's religious sentiments
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <a name='c12_3'></a><a href='#XII_3'><b>3.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          Projects of religious Pacification
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c13'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_XIII'><b>CHAPTER
+          XIII.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          THE DEATH OF GROTIUS
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='c14'></a><a href='#CHAPTER_XIV'><b>CHAPTER
+          XIV. </b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <b>A.D. 1680-1815. </b>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="59">
+          HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT
+          OF THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THE DEATH OF
+          WILLIAM II. TILL THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM OF
+          THE NETHERLANDS.
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <a name='c14.1'></a><a href='#XIV_1'><b>1.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          William III.
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="40">
+          <a name='c14.2'></a><a href='#XIV_2'><b>2.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="40">
+          John William Count of Nassau Dietz, 1702-1711;<br
+          clear="all">
+           William IV. 1711-1751
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+          <a name='c14.3'></a><a href='#XIV_3'><b>3.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="677" valign="top" colspan="2" height="21">
+          From the death of William IV. till the erection of the
+          Kingdom of the Netherlands
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='cAp.1'></a><a href='#APPENDIX_I'><b>APPENDIX
+          I.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="40">
+          Some Account of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith,
+          or Symbolic Books, of the Roman-Catholic, Greek, and
+          principal Protestant Churches
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='cAp.2'></a><a href='#APPENDIX_II'><b>APPENDIX
+          II.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          On the Reunion of Christians
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='ci'></a><a href='#I'><b>I.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='cii'></a><a href='#II'><b>II.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='cii.1'></a><a href='#II_1'><b>II. 1.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='cii.2'></a><a href='#II_2'><b>II. 2.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='cii.3'></a><a href='#II_3'><b>II. 3.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='cii.4'></a><a href='#II_4'><b>II. 4.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='ciii'></a><a href='#III'><b>III.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='ciii.1'></a><a href='#c_III_1'><b>III.
+          1.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='ciii.2'></a><a href='#c_III_2'><b>III.
+          2.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='ciii.3'></a><a href='#c_III_3'><b>III.
+          3.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='ciii.4'></a><a href='#III_4'><b>III.
+          4.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='civ'></a><a href='#IV'><b>IV.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="122" valign="top" height="21" colspan="2">
+          <a name='cv'></a><a href='#V'><b>V.</b></a>
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="718" valign="top" colspan="3" height="74">
+          <hr width="45%">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="690" valign="top" colspan="3" height="21">
+          <a name='FOOTNOTES_1'></a><a href=
+          '#FOOTNOTES'><b>FOOTNOTES.</b></a>
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+      <tr>
+        <td width="13" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="109" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+        <td width="568" valign="top" height="21">
+
+        </td>
+      </tr>
+    </table>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <h3>
+      THE
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      LIFE
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      OF
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      HUGO GROTIUS,
+    </h3>
+    <h3>
+      WITH MINUTES OF THE CIVIL, ECCLESIASTICAL,<br>
+			AND LITERARY HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+    </h3>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='INTRODUCTION'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_intro'>INTRODUCTION.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      SUCCINCT NOTICE OF THE GEOGRAPHY, PRINCIPAL POLITICAL
+      EVENTS, AND LITERATURE, OF THE NETHERLANDS, BEFORE THE
+      BIRTH OF GROTIUS.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      800-1581.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      We propose to present to our readers, in this chapter, a
+      succinct account, of the Geography, Devolution, and
+      Literature of the Netherlands,-considering them, until they
+      became subject to the princes of the House of Burgundy, as
+      a portion of the German Empire, and included in its
+      history:-and from that time, as forming a separate
+      territory.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      800-1581.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Contemplating the Netherlands in the first of these
+      views,-we shall briefly mention the Boundaries and
+      Government, of the German Empire, and the state of learning
+      in its territories, during the Carlovingian, Saxon,
+      Franconian and Suabian Dynasties, and the period, which
+      intervened, between the last Suabian emperor and the
+      election of the Emperor Charles the fifth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      From this time, we shall confine ourselves to the History
+      of the Netherlands. We shall then, therefore, endeavour to
+      give a short view of the geography of these countries, and
+      of the manner in which they were acquired by the Princes of
+      Burgundy; then, shortly mention the successful revolt of
+      the Seven United Provinces.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In one of them, GROTIUS, the subject of these pages, was
+      born; the part which he took in the public events of his
+      times, forms the most important portion of his biography.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_I_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_1.1'>I. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Boundaries and Devolution of the Empire of Germany
+      during the Carlovingian Dynasty</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      800-911.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The Ocean on the north, the Danube on the south, the Rhine
+      on the west, and the Sarmatian Provinces on the east, are
+      the boundaries assigned by Tacitus to Antient Germany. It
+      formed the most extensive portion of the territories of
+      Charlemagne; descended, at his decease, to his son, Lewis
+      the Debonnaire; and, on the partition between his three
+      sons, was allotted to Lewis, his second son.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All the territories of Charlemagne were united in Charles
+      the Fat; he was deposed by his subjects, and his empire
+      divided. Germany was assigned to his third son, Charles the
+      Brave. On his decease, it was possessed by Arnold, a
+      natural son of Carloman, the elder brother of Charles: from
+      him it descended to Hedwiges, the wife of Otho, Duke of
+      Saxony, and she transmitted it to their son Henry the
+      Fowler, the first emperor of that house.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      800-911.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      From the skirts of Germany and France two new kingdoms
+      arose: the kingdom of Lorraine, which comprised the
+      countries between the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Scheld; or
+      the modern Lorraine, the province of Alsace, the
+      Palatinate, Treves, Cologne, Juliers, Li&ecirc;ge and the
+      Netherlands;-and the kingdom of Burgundy: This was divided
+      into the Cis-juranan, or the part of it on the east, and
+      the Trans-juranan, or the part of it on the west of Mount
+      Jura. The former comprised Proven&ccedil;e,
+      Dauphin&eacute;, the Lyonese, Franche-comt&eacute;, Bresse,
+      Bugey, and a part of Savoy; the latter comprised the
+      countries between Mount Jura and the Pennine Alps, or the
+      part of Switzerland between the Reus, the Valais, and the
+      rest of Savoy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Such was the geographical state of Germany at the close of
+      the Carlovingian Dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_I_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_1.2'>I. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne</i>.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      So far as Literature depends upon the favour of the
+      monarch, no &aelig;ra in history promised more than the
+      reign of Charlemagne. His education had been neglected; but
+      he had real taste for learning and the arts, was sensible
+      of their beneficial influence both upon the public and the
+      private welfare of a people; and possessed the amplest
+      means of encouraging and diffusing them; his wisdom would
+      suggest to him the properest means of doing it, and the
+      energy of his mind would excite him to constant exertions.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      I. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Nothing that could be effected by a prince thus gifted and
+      disposed, was left untried by Charlemagne. He drew to him
+      the celebrated Alcuin, Peter of Pisa, Paul Warnefrid, and
+      many other distinguished literary characters: he heaped
+      favours upon them; and a marked distinction was always
+      shewn them at his court. He formed them into a literary
+      society, which had frequent meetings. Their conversation
+      was literary, he often bore a part in it; and, what was at
+      least equally gratifying, he always listened with a polite
+      and flattering attention while others spoke. To establish
+      perfect equality among them, the monarch, and, after his
+      example, the other members of this society, dropt their own
+      and adopted other names. Angelbert was called Homer, from
+      his partiality to that poet; Riculphus, archbishop of
+      Mentz, chose the name of Dam&eacute;tas, from an eclogue of
+      Virgil: another member took that of Candidus; Eginhard, the
+      Emperor's biographer, was called Calliopus, from the Muse
+      Calliope; Alcuin received, from his country, the name of
+      Albinus; the archbishop Theodulfe was called Pindar; the
+      abbot Adelard was called Augustine; Charlemagne, as the man
+      of God's own heart, was called David.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      800-911
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Emperor corresponded with men of learning, on subjects
+      of literature; they generally related to religion. In one
+      of his letters, he requires of Alcuin an explanation of the
+      words Septuagesima, Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima, which
+      denote the Sundays which immediately precede, and the word
+      Quadragesima, which denotes the first Sunday which occurs
+      in Lent. The denominations of those Sundays give rise to
+      two difficulties; one, that they seem to imply that each
+      week consists of ten, not of seven days; the other, that
+      the words sound as if Septuagesima were the seventieth,
+      when it is only the sixty-third day before Easter Sunday;
+      Sexagesima, as if it were the sixtieth, when it is only the
+      fifty-sixth; Quinquagesima, as if it were the fiftieth,
+      when it is the forty-ninth; Quadragesima, as if it were the
+      fortieth, when it is the forty-second. Alcuin's answer is
+      more subtle than satisfactory.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At the meals of Charlemagne some person always read to him.
+      His example was followed by many of his successors,
+      particularly by Francis I. of France, who, in an happier
+      era for learning, imitated with happier effects, the
+      example of the Emperor.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      I. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Alcuin was general director of all the literary schemes of
+      Charlemagne. He was an Englishman by birth; skilled both in
+      the Greek and Latin language, and in many branches of
+      philosophy. Having taught, with great reputation and
+      success, in his own country, he travelled to Rome. In 780,
+      Charlemagne attracted him to his court.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      There, Alcuin gave lectures, and published several
+      treatises. In these, he began with Orthography; then
+      proceeded to Grammar; afterwards to Rhetoric, and
+      Dialectic. He composed his treatises in the form of
+      dialogues; and, as Charlemagne frequently attended them,
+      Alcuin made him one of his interlocutors. Few scholars of
+      Alcuin were more attentive than his imperial pupil; he had
+      learned grammar from Peter of Pisa; he was instructed in
+      rhetoric, dialectic, and astronomy by Alcuin. He also
+      engaged in the study of divinity; and had the good sense to
+      stop short of those subtleties, in which Justinian,
+      Heraclius, and other princes, unfortunately both for
+      themselves and their subjects, bewildered themselves.
+      Letters from Gis&eacute;la and Richtrudis, the daughters of
+      Charlemagne, to Alcuin, shew that they partook of their
+      father's literary zeal: his favourite study was astronomy.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      800-911.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The number of persons in his court, who addicted themselves
+      to pursuits of literature, was so great, and their
+      application so regular, that their meetings acquired the
+      appellation of "The School of Charlemagne." Their library
+      was at Aix-la-Chapelle, the favourite residence of the
+      monarch: but they accompanied him in many of his journies.
+      Antiquarians have tracked them at Paris, Thionville,
+      Wormes, Ratisbon, Wurtzburgh, Mentz, and Frankfort.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Charlemagne established schools in every part of his
+      dominions. In 787, he addressed a circular letter to all
+      the metropolitan prelates of his dominions, to be
+      communicated by them to their suffragan bishops, and to the
+      abbots within their provinces. He exhorted them to erect
+      schools in every cathedral and monastery. Schools were
+      accordingly established throughout his vast dominions: they
+      were divided into two classes; arithmetic, grammar, and
+      music were taught in the lower, the liberal arts and
+      theology in the higher.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      1. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In France, the abbeys of Corbie, Fontenelles, Ferrieres,
+      St. Denis, St Germain of Paris, St. Germain of Auxerre, and
+      St. Benedict on the Loire;-in Germany, the abbeys of Proom,
+      Fulda, and of St Gall;-in Italy, the abbey of Mount Casino,
+      were celebrated for the excellence of their schools. One,
+      for the express purpose of teaching the Greek language, was
+      founded by Charlemagne at Osnabruck. All were equally open
+      to the children of the nobility and the children of
+      peasants; all received the same treatment. It happened
+      that, on a public examination of the children, the peasant
+      boys were found to have made greater progress than the
+      noble. The Emperor remarked it to the latter, and declared
+      with an oath, that "the bishopricks and abbeys should be
+      given to the diligent poor." "You rely," he said to the
+      patrician youths, "on the merit of your ancestors; these
+      have already been rewarded. The state owes them nothing;
+      those only are entitled to favour, who qualify themselves
+      for serving and illustrating their country by their talents
+      and their merits."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      800-911.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The civil law then consisted of the Theodosian code, the
+      Salic, Ripuarian, Allemannic, Bavarian, Burgundian, and
+      other <i>codes</i>; and of the <i>formularies</i> of
+      Angesise and Marculfus. To these Charlemagne added his own
+      <i>capitularies</i>. The whole collection, in opposition to
+      the canon or ecclesiastical law, received the appellation
+      of <i>Lex Mundana</i>, or <i>worldly law</i>. The canon law
+      consisted of the code of canons which Charlemagne brought
+      with him from Rome in 784; a code of the canons of the
+      church of France; the canons inserted in the collection of
+      Angelram, bishop of Metz; the apostolic canons, published
+      by St. Martin, bishop of Braga; the capitularies of
+      Theodulfus, of Orleans; and the penitential canons,
+      published in the Spicilegium of d'Acheri.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_001_1'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_001_1'><sup>[001]</sup></a> To the study, both
+      of the canon and civil law, schools were appropriated by
+      Charlemagne: few, except persons intended for the
+      ecclesiastical state, frequented them. Rabanus Maurus,<a
+      name='FNanchor_002_2'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_002_2'><sup>[002]</sup></a> abbot of Fulda, and
+      afterwards archbishop of Mentz, has left an interesting
+      account of the studies of this period; it shews that all
+      were referred to theology, and only considered to be useful
+      so far as they could be made serviceable to sacred
+      learning. Such a plan of study could conduce but little to
+      the advancement of general literature or science. Still, it
+      was productive of good, and led to improvement.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      I.2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is observable that both antient and modern civilizers of
+      nations, have called music to their aid; among these we may
+      mention Charlemagne. In his residence at Rome, he was
+      delighted with the Gregorian chant. After his return to
+      Germany, he endeavoured to introduce it, both into his
+      French and German dominions. The former had a chant of
+      their own; they called it an improvement, but other nations
+      considered it a corruption of the Gregorian. Greatly
+      against the wish of Charlemagne, his Gallic subjects
+      persisted in their attachment to their national music; the
+      merit of it was gravely debated before the Emperor; they
+      vehemently urged the superiority of their own strains.
+      "Tell me," said the Emperor, "which is purer, the fountain
+      or the rivulet?" They answered, "the former." "Return ye,
+      then," (said the Emperor) "to St. Gregory: he is the
+      fountain, the rivulets are evidently corrupted." The
+      Emperor was obeyed, and the Gregorian chant was taught,
+      both in France and Germany, by Italian choristers. The
+      Italian writers of the times describe the difficulties
+      which they experienced in forming the rough and almost
+      untuneable voices of their French and German pupils to the
+      softness of the Gregorian song. They appear to have
+      succeeded better with the Germans than the French. By
+      these, their lessons were so soon and so completely
+      forgotten, after the decease of Charlemagne, that Lewis the
+      Debonnaire, his son, was obliged to request Pope Gregory
+      IV. to send him from Rome, a new supply of singers to
+      instruct the people.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But music continued to prosper in Germany; it abounded in
+      songs. Some were amatory, (<i>m&uuml;nnelier</i>); some
+      were satirical, (<i>cantica in malitiam</i>); some heroic,
+      (<i>cantica in honorem,</i>); some diabolical, (<i>cantica
+      diabolica</i>.) These consisted of incantations, and of
+      narratives of the feats of evil spirits.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      800-911.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Vernacular poetry, and vernacular composition, of every
+      kind, were almost wholly left to the vulgar; all, who aimed
+      at literary eminence, wrote in the Latin language. Some
+      discerning spirits became sensible that the German language
+      was susceptible of great improvement, and excited their
+      countrymen to its cultivation. Among these was Otfroid; he
+      translated the Gospel into German verse. He describes, in
+      strong terms, the difficulties which he had to encounter:
+      "The barbarousness of the German language is," he says, "so
+      great, and its sounds are so incoherent and strange, that
+      it is very difficult to subject them to the rules of
+      grammar, to represent them by syllables, or to find in the
+      alphabet letters which correspond to them." It is however
+      remarkable, that, although he complains of the dissonance
+      of the German language, he never accuses it of poverty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      While France and Germany continued subject to the same
+      monarch, German was the language of the court, and
+      generally used in every class of society. When the treaty
+      of Verdun divided the territories of Charlemagne, the
+      <i>Romande</i>, or <i>Roman&ccedil;e</i> language, a
+      corruption of the Latin, superseded the German in every
+      part of France: it was insensibly refined into the modern
+      French, but the German continued to be the only language
+      spoken in Germany.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Great progress was made in architecture: the churches and
+      palaces constructed by the direction of Charlemagne at
+      Aix-la-Chapelle, the Basilisc at Germani, the church of St.
+      Recquier at Ponthieu, and many other monuments of great
+      architectural skill and expense, belong to the age of
+      Charlemagne, and bear ample testimony to the well-directed
+      exertions of the monarch, and of some of his descendants,
+      and to their wise and splendid magnificence.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_I_3'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_1.3'>I. 3.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Decline of Literature under the Descendants of Charlemagne.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      800-911
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      I. 3. Decline of Literature under the Descendants of
+      Charlemagne.
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      That literature began to decline immediately after the
+      decease of Charlemagne, in every part of his extensive
+      dominions, and that its decline was principally owing to
+      the wars among his descendants, which devastated every
+      portion of his empire, seems to be universally
+      acknowledged; yet there are strong grounds for contending
+      that it was not so great as generally represented.
+      <i>Abb&eacute; le Beuf</i>,<a name='FNanchor_003_3'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_003_3'><sup>[003]</sup></a> in an excellent
+      dissertation on the state of the sciences in the Gauls
+      during the period which elapsed between the death of
+      Charlemagne and the reign of Robert, king of France,
+      attempts to prove the contrary; and the preliminary
+      discourses of the authors of "l'Histoire Literaire de la
+      France," on the state of learning during the ninth and
+      tenth centuries, strongly confirm the abb&eacute;'s
+      representations. It is surprising how many works were
+      written during these dark, and, as they are too harshly
+      called, ignorant ages. It is more to be wondered, that
+      while so much was written, so little was written well. The
+      classical works of antiquity were not unknown in those
+      times; the Latin Vulgate translation of the Old and New
+      Testament was daily read by the clergy, and heard by the
+      people. Now, although the language of the Vulgate be not
+      classical, it is not destitute of elegance, and it
+      possesses throughout the exquisite charms of clearness and
+      simplicity. It is surprising that these circumstances did
+      not lead the writers to a better style. They had no such
+      effect; the general style of the time was hard, inflated
+      and obscure. It should, however, be observed, that Simonde
+      de Sismondi, as he is translated by Mr. Roscoe, justly
+      observes, that "during the reign of Charlemagne, and during
+      the four centuries which immediately preceded it, there
+      appeared, both in France and Italy, some judicious
+      historians, whose style possesses considerable vivacity,
+      and who gave animated pictures of their times; some subtle
+      philosophers, who astonished their contemporaries, rather
+      by the fineness of their speculations than by the justness
+      of their reasoning; some learned theologians, and some
+      poets. The names of Paul Warnefrid, of Alcuin, of
+      Luitprand, and Eginhard, are even yet universally
+      respected. They all, however, wrote in Latin. They had all
+      of them, by the strength of their intellect, and the happy
+      circumstances in which they were placed, learned to
+      appreciate the beauty of the models which antiquity had
+      left them. They breathed the spirit of a former age, as
+      they had adopted its language: we do not find them
+      representatives of their contemporaries: it is impossible
+      to recognize in their style the times in which they lived;
+      it only betrays the relative industry and felicity with
+      which they imitated the language and thoughts of a former
+      age. They were the last monuments of civilized antiquity,
+      the last of a noble race, which, after a long period of
+      degeneracy, became extinct in them."
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_II_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_2.1'>II. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Boundaries and Devolution of the German Empire during the
+      Saxon Dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      911-1024.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      We have mentioned that, on the death of Lewis, the son of
+      Arnhold, the empire descended to Henry I. in the right of
+      his mother. From him, it devolved through Otho, surnamed
+      the Great, Otho II., and Otho III., to Henry II. the last
+      emperor of the Saxon line.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In this period of the German history, the attention of the
+      reader is particularly directed to two circumstances,-the
+      principal states, of which Germany was composed, the
+      cradles, as they may be called, of the present electorates,
+      and the erection of the principal cities and monasteries in
+      Germany.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      A curious altercation between Nicephorus Phocas, the Greek
+      emperor, and Luitprand bishop of Cremona, ambassador from
+      Otho I. to the Greek sovereign, shews the state of Germany
+      during this period. "Your nation," said the empire to the
+      ambassador, "does not know how to sit on horseback; or how
+      to fight on foot: your large shields, massive armour, long
+      swords, and heavy helmets, disable you for
+      battle."-Luitprand told the emperor that "he would, the
+      first time they should meet in the field, feel the
+      contrary." Luitprand observed, that "Germany was so little
+      advanced in ecclesiastical worth; that no council had been
+      held within its precincts:" the ambassador remarked, that
+      "all heresies had originated in Greece." The emperor
+      asserted, that "the Germans were gluttons and drunkards:"
+      Luitprand replied, that "the Greeks were effeminate." All
+      writers agree, that, in what each party to this
+      conversation asserted, there was too much truth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We have noticed the advance towards civilization which
+      Henry I, made by the construction of towns; he effected
+      another, by the introduction of tournaments and field
+      sports, on a large, orderly and showy plan. Speaking
+      generally, society in Germany during the Saxon line of its
+      princes, was always improving.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_II_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_2.2'>II. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty</i>.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      911-1024.
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      "In the school of Paderborn," says the biographer of
+      Meinwert, as he is cited by Schmidt, "there are famous
+      musicians, dialecticians, orators, grammarians,
+      mathematicians, astronomers and geometricians. Horace, the
+      great Virgil, Sallust, and Statius, are highly esteemed.
+      The monks amuse themselves with poetry, books and music.
+      Several are incessantly employed in transcribing and
+      painting."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      A German translation of the Psalms, by Notker, a monk of
+      the abbey of St. Gall, shews that some attention was paid
+      to the language of the country. The Greek was cultivated;
+      the writers of the times mention several persons skilled in
+      it. Notker, in a letter to one of his correspondents,
+      informs him, that "his Greek brothers salute him."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Poetry was a favourite study: the celebrated
+      <i>Gerbert</i>, afterwards Pope Silvester II, and
+      <i>Waldram</i>, bishop of Strasburgh, were the best poets
+      of their times. Hroswith,<a name='FNanchor_004_4'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_004_4'><sup>[004]</sup></a> a nun in the
+      monastery of Gardersheim, published comedies: "Many
+      Catholics," she says, in her preface to them, "are guilty
+      of a fault, from which I myself am not altogether free;
+      they prefer profane works, on account of their style, to
+      the holy Scriptures. Others have the Scriptures always in
+      their hands, and despise profane authors; yet they often
+      read Terence, and their attention to the beauties of his
+      style does not prevent the objectionable passages in his
+      writings from making an impression on them."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To this age, the origin of Romances is usually assigned:
+      but these belong to the French; no specimen of them has
+      been discovered in Germany. Music was much cultivated.
+      Hroswith introduced it into her comedies.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It has been mentioned, that Sallust was read in the school
+      at Paderborn. It is supposed that Tacitus was known to
+      Wittikind or Dittmar: both relate visions, and several
+      puerile circumstances; but they write with precision, and
+      shew, on many occasions, great good sense.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The same cannot be said of the Legend-writers; the account
+      which the authors of "The Literary History of France" give
+      of them is very just. "The ancient legends," they say,
+      "were lost, in consequence either of the plunder or the
+      burning of the churches; it was considered necessary to
+      replace them, as it was thought impossible to honour the
+      memory, or to preserve the veneration of the saints,
+      without some knowledge of their lives. It is to be
+      remarked, that the saints, whose memories were thus sought
+      to be honoured, had been long dead, or had lived in foreign
+      countries, so that little was known of them except by oral
+      tradition. From this it may be easily guessed, that those
+      who employed themselves upon the legends, were deprived of
+      necessary information, and upon that account could not
+      produce exact and true histories. Thus, to the general
+      defects of the age in which they lived, they added
+      uncertainty, confusion, and some falsehood. Their pages
+      abound with visions. In the place of the simple and
+      natural, they substituted the wonderful and extraordinary.
+      It even happened too frequently that they took leave to
+      tell untruths. Heriger, the abbot of St Lupus, says, in
+      direct terms, that they piously lied."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      911-1024.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Dialectic was in great favour: it was called philosophy; no
+      work was more read than "the Book of Categories,"
+      erroneously ascribed to St. Augustine; and a work, upon the
+      same subject, imputed to Porphyry.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The schools of the cathedrals and principal monasteries
+      contributed essentially to the increase and diffusion of
+      literature. Among the monasteries, those of Fulda, St.
+      Gall, Corbie and Kershaw, were particularly renowned.
+      Bishops and abbots exerted themselves to procure books, and
+      to have copies of them made and circulated: they were often
+      splendidly illuminated. Henry I. caused a painting to be
+      made, of a battle which he had gained over the Hungarians.
+      Bernard, bishop of Hildersheim, in imitation of what he had
+      seen in Italy, ornamented the churches of his diocese with
+      mosaic paintings; he also introduced, among his countrymen,
+      the art of fusing and working metals; he caused precious
+      and highly ornamented vases to be made in imitation of the
+      antients. Large and small bells were cast; chalices,
+      patines, incensories, images, and even altars of gold and
+      silver, or ornamented with them, were fabricated. Aventin
+      relates, that at Mauverkirchen, in Bavaria, figures in
+      plaster, hardened by fire, had, in 948, been made of a duke
+      of Bavaria and his general.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      911-1024.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The establishment of schools, and the protection given to
+      the arts and sciences, invited the whole body of the nation
+      to the acquisition of useful and ornamental knowledge; but
+      the invitation was not even generally accepted. There was
+      much superstition in every order of the laity. An opinion
+      prevailed among them, that the world was to end, and the
+      day of judgment arrive, in the year 1000. An universal
+      panic spread itself over Europe. Strange to relate, the
+      people sought to avoid the catastrophe, by hiding
+      themselves in caverns and tombs.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The existence of this ignorance cannot be denied: but, to
+      the ecclesiastics, who strove against it, who erected and
+      fostered so many schools to dispel it, and who exerted
+      themselves in the manner we have mentioned, to establish
+      another and a better order of things, a great share of
+      praise and gratitude should never be denied.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The mines of Hartz were discovered in the time of Otho I.
+      and diffused so much wealth over Saxony, and afterwards
+      over all Germany, as gave the reign of that emperor the
+      appellation of "the age of gold." Before this time,
+      Nicephorus Phocas had called Saxony, from the dress, or
+      rather the coverings of its inhabitants, "the land of
+      skins." But all the wealth of the country still continued
+      to be concentrated among the great landowners.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_III_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_3.1'>III. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Boundaries and State of Germany during the Franconian
+      Dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1024-1138.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Under Henry III. the second prince of this line, the German
+      empire had its greatest extent. It comprised Germany,
+      Italy, Burgundy and Lorraine. Poland, and other parts of
+      the Sclavonian territories, were subject to it. Denmark and
+      Hungary acknowledged themselves its vassals.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The emperors affected to consider all kingdoms as forming a
+      royal republic, of which the emperor was chief. For their
+      right to this splendid prerogative, they always found
+      advocates in their own dominions: they reckon, among these,
+      the illustrious Leibniz. Out of Germany, nothing of the
+      claim, beyond precedence in rank, has ever been allowed.
+      This, no sovereign in Europe has contested with the
+      emperors: it is observable, that, as the French monarchs
+      insisted on the Carlovingian extraction of Hugh Capet, they
+      affected to consider Henry the Fowler the first prince of
+      the Saxon dynasty, and all his successors in the empire as
+      usurpers. Lewis XIV. expresses himself in this manner in
+      some memoirs recently attributed to him.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_III_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_3.2'>III. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      State of German Literature during the Franconian Dynasty.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      1024-1138.
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Throughout this period, commerce was always upon the
+      increase; and literature, science and art, increased with
+      it. The monuments of the antient grandeur of the eternal
+      city, began about this time to engage the attention of the
+      inhabitants of Germany, and to attract to Rome many
+      literary pilgrims. They returned home impressed with
+      admiration of what they had seen, and related the wonders
+      to their countrymen. "The gods themselves (they told their
+      hearers) behold their images in Rome with admiration, and
+      wish to resemble them. Nature herself does not raise forms
+      as beautiful as those, which the artist creates. One is
+      tempted to say that they breathe; and to adore the skill of
+      the artist rather than the inhabitant of Olympus
+      represented by his art." Thus the uncultivated Germans
+      began to perceive the beauty of these relics of antiquity,
+      and to feel the wish of imitation. This first appeared on
+      the seals of the emperors and bishops; several of
+      distinguished beauty have reached our times. The German
+      artists soon began to engrave on precious stones, and to
+      work in marble and bronze. Four statues of emperors of the
+      house of Saxony, of the workmanship of these times, are
+      still to be seen at Spires; they are rudely fashioned, but
+      are animated, and have distinct and expressive
+      countenances.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      III. 2. State of German Literature during the Franconian
+      Dynasty.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      When the emperors or nobility travelled, they were
+      frequently accompanied by artists. These sometimes made
+      drawings of foreign churches and edifices, and on their
+      return home, raised others in imitation of them. Thus the
+      cathedral at Bremen was built on the model of that of
+      Benevento. The cathedral of Strasburgh, and many other
+      churches, were built about this time.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Music was considerably improved; the system of Guido
+      Aretinus was no where understood better, or cultivated with
+      greater ardour, than in Germany. Some improvement was made
+      in poetry, but it chiefly appeared in the songs of the
+      common people. A monk of Togernsee, in Bavaria, composed a
+      collection of poems under the title of Bucolics; they
+      resemble those of Virgil only in their title. Lambert, of
+      Aschaffenburgh, published a history of his own times,
+      inferior to none which have reached us from the middle
+      ages.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      1024-1138
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Dialectic, however, still continued the favourite study;
+      and the art of disputation was never carried so far: the
+      interest which the public took in these disputes was
+      surprising. When it was announced that two celebrated
+      dialecticians were to hold a public dispute, persons
+      flocked from all parts to witness the conflict; they
+      listened with avidity, and with all the feelings of
+      partisans. This appears ridiculous; but, in the present
+      times, is there no <i>fancy</i> which deserves equal
+      ridicule?
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_IV_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_iv.1'>IV. 1</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      The State of Germany, from the beginning of the Suabian
+      Dynasty, till the Accession of the Emperor Charles V.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1138-1519.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The principal events in the reigns of the latter princes of
+      the Franconian, and of all the princes of the Suabian line,
+      were produced or influenced by the contests between the
+      popes and emperors, respecting investitures, or the right
+      of nominating to vacant bishoprics;-by the pretensions of
+      the popes to hold their antient territories independent of
+      the emperors;-or by the new acquisitions of the popes in
+      Italy.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      1264-1272.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      These contests reduced the empire to a state of anarchy,
+      which produced what is generally called, by the German
+      writers, the Great Interregnum. While it continued, six
+      princes successively claimed to be emperors of Germany.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      1272-1438.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The interregnum was determined by the election of Rodolph,
+      count of Hapsburgh. From him, till the ultimate accession
+      of the house of Austria, in the person of Albert the
+      Second, the empire was held by several princes of different
+      noble families.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      1438-1519.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Albert was succeeded by Frederick III.; Frederick, by
+      Maximilian I.; and Maximilian, by Charles V.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To the period between the extinction of the Suabian dynasty
+      and the accession of the emperor Albert, may be assigned
+      the rise of the Italian republics, particularly Venice,
+      Genoa and Florence; the elevations of the princes of Savoy
+      and Milan, and the revolutions of Naples, and the Two
+      Sicilies.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      IV. 1. The State of Germany, from the beginning of the
+      Suabian Dynasty till the Accession of the Emperor Charles
+      V.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The boundaries of Germany, during this period, were the
+      Eider and the sea, on the north; the Scheld, the Meuse, the
+      Saone and the Rhone, on the west; the Alps and the Rhine,
+      on the south; and the Lech and Vistula, on the east. They
+      contained,-1. The duchy of Burgundy; 2. The duchy of
+      Lorraine; 3. The principalities into which Allemmania and
+      Franconia were divided; 4. The Bavarian territories, which
+      the Franks had acquired in Rhoetia, Noricum, and Pannonia;
+      5. Saxony; 6. The Sclavic territories between the Oder and
+      the Vistula: these were possessed by the margraves of
+      Brandenburgh, and the dukes of Poland and Bohemia, and the
+      princes dependent upon them in Moravia, Silesia and
+      Lusatia;-7. by the provinces of Pomerania and Prussia, on
+      the east of Saxony; 8. and the Marchia Orientalis,
+      Oostrich, or Austria, on the east of Bavaria.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At first, the emperor was chosen by the people at large;
+      the right of election was afterwards confined to the
+      nobility and the principal officers of state: insensibly,
+      it was engrossed by the five great officers,-the
+      chancellor, the great marshal, the great chamberlain, the
+      great butler, and the great master of the palace. But their
+      exclusive pretensions were much questioned. At length,
+      their right of election was settled; first, by the
+      Electoral Union, in 1337; and finally, in the reign of the
+      emperor Charles IV. by the celebrated constitution, called,
+      from the seal of gold appended to it, <i>the Golden
+      Bull</i>. By this, the right of election was vested in
+      three spiritual and four temporal electors: two temporal
+      electors have since been added to their numbers.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_IV_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_iv.2'>IV. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>State of German literature during this period</i>.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      1438-1519
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      While the empire was possessed by the princes of the house
+      of Saxony, a copy of the Pandects of Justinian was
+      discovered at Amalfi. "The discovery of them," says Sir
+      William Blackstone, in his Introductory discourse to his
+      Commentaries, "soon brought the civil law into vogue all
+      over the west of Europe, where before it was quite laid
+      aside, and in a manner wholly forgotten; though some traces
+      of its authority remained in Italy, and the eastern
+      provinces of the empire.-The study of it was introduced
+      into many universities abroad, particularly that of
+      Bologna, where exercises were performed, lectures read, and
+      degrees conferred in this faculty, as in other branches of
+      science; and many nations of the continent, just then
+      beginning to recover from the convulsions consequent to the
+      overthrow of the Roman empire, and settling by degrees into
+      peaceable forms of government, adopted the civil law (being
+      the best written system then extant,) as the basis of their
+      several constitutions; blending or interweaving in it their
+      own feudal customs, in some places, with a more extensive,
+      in others, a more confined authority."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      IV. 2. State of German Literature, from the Suabian Dynasty
+      to Charles V.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This was a great step toward the civilization of Germany,
+      and of the other countries in which the institutions of the
+      civil law were thus introduced. They certainly tended to
+      animate the nations, by whom they were received, to the
+      study of the history and literature of the people from the
+      works of whose writers they had been compiled. They
+      produced this effect in several countries of Europe; but
+      their influence in Germany was very limited: the
+      disposition to subtilize, which was at that time universal
+      throughout the German empire, led those who cultivated
+      literature rather to refine upon what was before them, than
+      to new inquiries. The language of the Pandects is of the
+      silver age; it might therefore be expected, that it would
+      have improved the general style of the times; but this
+      improvement is seldom discernible.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      1438-1519
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      IV. 2. State of German Literature, from the Suabian Dynasty
+      to Charles V.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Good or evil is seldom unmixed: civil contests and
+      dissensions, generally produce both public and private
+      misery; sometimes, however, they generate mental
+      excitement. This is favourable to Literature and Science.
+      Its good effects appeared in the contests between the Popes
+      and the Emperors. Great were the public and the private
+      calamities which they caused, both in church and state; but
+      they promoted inquiry and intellectual exertions. These
+      were often attended with happy results. Irnerius, by birth
+      a German, had studied Justinian's law at Constantinople.
+      Towards the year 1130, he was appointed professor of civil
+      law at Bologna: the contests between the popes and the
+      emperors produced a warfare of words among the disciples of
+      Irnerius. It has been mentioned that the German emperors
+      pretended to succeed to the empire of the C&aelig;sars. The
+      language and spirit of the Justinianean code, being highly
+      favourable to this claim, the emperors encouraged the
+      civilians, and in return for it, had their pens at command.
+      The decree of Gratian was favourable to the pretensions of
+      the popes; and on this account was encouraged by the
+      canonists. Hence, generally speaking, the civilians were
+      partisans of the emperors, the canonists of the popes. From
+      their adherence to the law of Justinian, the former were
+      called Legist&aelig;; from their adherence to the decree of
+      Gratian, the latter were called Decretist&aelig;. The
+      controversy was carried on with great ardour and
+      perseverance; the schools both of Italy and Germany
+      resounded with the disputes, and in both, numerous tracts
+      in support of the opposite claims, were circulated. The
+      question necessarily carried the disputants to many
+      incidental topics: these equally increased the powers and
+      curiosity of the disputants, and stimulated them to better
+      and more interesting studies.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_V_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_v.1'>V. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Antient and Modern Geography of the Netherlands.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      We have thus brought down our historical deduction of the
+      German Empire to the accession of the Emperor Charles the
+      Fifth.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      About 160 years before this event, that portion of the
+      empire, to which its situation has given the appellation of
+      THE NETHERLANDS, began to have a separate history, and both
+      a separate and important influence on the events of the
+      times. To them we shall now direct our attention.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These spacious territories are bounded on the north, by the
+      German Ocean; on the west, by the British Sea and part of
+      Picardy; on the south, by Champagne or Lorraine; on the
+      east, by the archbishoprics of Triers and Tr&ecirc;ves, the
+      dutchies of Juliers and Cl&eacute;ves, the bishopric of
+      Munster, and the county of Embden or East Friesland.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      V. 1. Antient and Modern Geography of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      When the Romans invaded Gaul, it was divided among three
+      principal clans: the Rhine then formed its western
+      boundary. The left banks of this river were occupied by the
+      Belgians: this tract of land now comprises the catholic
+      Netherlands, and the territory of the United States; the
+      right bank of the Rhine was then filled by the Frisians,
+      and now comprises the modern Gr&ouml;ningen, east and west
+      Friesland, a part of Holland, Gueldres, Utrecht, and
+      Overyssell: the Batavians inhabited the island which
+      derives its name from them; it now comprises the upper part
+      of Holland, Utrecht, Gueldres, and Overyssell, the modern
+      Cl&eacute;ves between the Lech and the Waal.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In antient geography, the Netherlands were separated into
+      the Cisrhenahan and Transrhenahan divisions: the
+      Cisrhenahan lay on the western side of the Rhine, and
+      included the Belgic Gaul; it was bounded by the Rhenus, the
+      Rhodanus, the Sequana, the Matrona, and the Oceanus
+      Britannicus: the Transrhenahan lay on the eastern side of
+      the Rhine; it was a part of Lower Germany, and bounded on
+      the north by the eastern Frisia, Westphalia, the
+      Ager-Colonensis, the Juliacensis-Ducatus, and the Treveri.
+      The classical reader will have no difficulty in assigning
+      to these denominations, their actual names in the language
+      of modern geography.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The whole of these territories is called the Netherlands by
+      the English; and Flanders by the Italians, Spaniards, and
+      French.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_V_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_v.2'>V. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>The formation of the different Provinces of the
+      Netherlands into one State</i>.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      In 1363, John the Good, the king of France, gave to Philip
+      the Bold, his third son, the dutchy of Burgundy: it then
+      comprised the county of Burgundy, Dauphin&eacute;, and a
+      portion of Switzerland. The monarch at the same time
+      created his son duke of Burgundy. Thus Philip, became the
+      patriarch of the second line of that illustrious house.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      History does not produce an instance of a family, which has
+      so greatly aggrandized itself by marriage, as the house of
+      Austria. The largest part by far of the Netherlands was
+      derived to it, 1st, from Margaret of Franche Comt&egrave;;
+      2dly, from Margaret of Flanders; 3dly, from Jane of
+      Brabant; 4thly, from Mary of Burgundy; 5thly, from
+      Jacqueline of Holland; and 6thly, from Elizabeth of
+      Luxemburgh.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Formation of the Provinces of the Netherlands into one
+      State.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The possessions of the three first of these splendid
+      heiresses, descended to Margaret of Flanders. She married
+      Phillip the Bold, who, as we have just mentioned, was the
+      first of the modern Dukes of Burgundy. By this marriage, he
+      acquired, in right of his wife, the provinces of Flanders,
+      Artois, Mechlin, and Rhetel; and transmitted them and his
+      own dukedom of Burgundy to his son Charles the Intrepid.
+      From Charles, they descended to his son Philip the Good. He
+      purchased Namur; and by a transaction with Jacqueline of
+      Holland, acquired that province, Zealand, Hainault, and
+      Friesland. By other means, he obtained Brabant, Antwerp,
+      Luxemburgh, Limburgh, Gueldres, and Zutphen. On the failure
+      of issue male of Philip the Good, all these fourteen
+      provinces descended to Mary his only daughter. She married
+      the Emperor Maximilian. He had two sons by her, the Emperor
+      Charles V. and Ferdinand. The former acquired, by purchase
+      or force, Utrecht, Overyssell and Gr&ouml;ningen.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      These territories formed what are generally called the
+      SEVENTEEN PROVINCES OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the language of the middle ages, they consisted of the
+      Dutchies of Brabant, Limburgh, Luxemburgh, and Gueldres;
+      the Earldoms of Flanders, Artois, Hainault, Holland,
+      Zealand, Namur, Zutphen, Antwerp, (sometimes called the
+      Marquisate of the Holy Empire) and the Lordships of
+      Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssell, and
+      Gr&ouml;ningen. Cambrai, the Cambresis, and the County of
+      Burgundy, though a separate territory, were considered to
+      be appendages, but not part of them.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_V_3'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_v.3'>V. 3.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Brief View of the History of the Netherlands, till the
+      acknowledgement of the Independence of the Seven United
+      Provinces by the Spanish Monarch.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The laws, the customs, and the government of all these
+      provinces were nearly alike: each had its representative
+      assembly of the three orders, of the clergy, nobility, and
+      burghers: each had its courts of justice; and an appeal
+      from the superior tribunal of each lay to the supreme court
+      at Mechlin.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Public and fiscal concerns of moment fell under the
+      cognizance of the sovereign. The people enjoyed numerous
+      and considerable privileges: the most important of them was
+      the <i>Droit de Joyeuse entr&eacute;e</i>, the right of not
+      being taxed without the consent of the three estates.
+      Commerce, agriculture, and the arts, particularly music and
+      painting, flourished among them. The people were honest,
+      frugal, regular and just in their general habits; more
+      steady than active; not easily roused; but, when once
+      roused, not easily appeased.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Charles V. made over his hereditary territories in Germany
+      to his brother Ferdinand; but retained the Netherlands, and
+      annexed them to the crown of Spain.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      With that crown, they descended to Philip the Second, the
+      only son of Charles.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Unwise and unjust measures of that monarch drove the
+      inhabitants into rebellion.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the 5th of April 1566, a deputation of 400 gentlemen,
+      with Lewis of Nassau, a brother of the prince of Orange, at
+      their head, presented a petition to Margaret of Austria,
+      the Governor of the Netherlands. From the coarseness of
+      their dress, they acquired the name of <i>gueux</i> or
+      <i>beggars</i>, and retained it throughout the whole of the
+      troubles which followed.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Calvinism had, before this time, made great progress in
+      these countries, and gained over to it numbers of the
+      discontented party. Philip proceeded to the most violent
+      measures, and sent the Duke of Alva, with an army of 20,000
+      men, into the Netherlands. William, Prince of Orange,
+      placed himself at the head of the malcontents, and raised
+      an army. At an assembly of the States of Holland and
+      Zealand in 1559, he was declared Stadtholder, or Governor
+      of Holland, Friesland, and Utrecht: Calvinism was declared
+      to be the religion of the States. In 1579, the three
+      provinces were joined by those of Gueldres, Zutphen,
+      Overyssell, and Gr&ouml;ningen. All signed, by their
+      deputies, the TREATY OF UNION; it became the basis of their
+      constitution: still, however, they acknowledged Philip for
+      their sovereign. But in 1581, the deputies of the United
+      States assembled at Amsterdam, subscribed a solemn act, by
+      which they formally renounced allegiance to Philip and his
+      successors, and asserted their independence. They declared
+      in their manifesto, that "the prince is made for the
+      people, not the people for the prince;" that "the prince,
+      who treats his subjects as slaves, is a tyrant, whom his
+      subjects have a right to dethrone, when they have no other
+      means of preserving their liberty;" that "this right
+      particularly belongs to the Netherlands; their sovereign,
+      being bound by his coronation oath to observe the laws,
+      under pain of forfeiting his sovereignty."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In 1584, the Prince of Orange was assassinated by Balthazar
+      Gerard, a Catholic fanatic: the war was continued till
+      1609, when it was suspended by a truce of twelve years. At
+      the expiration of it, the war burst forth with fresh fury:
+      it was finally terminated by the peace of Munster, or
+      Westphalia, in 1648, when the King of Spain acknowledged,
+      in the fullest manner, the INDEPENDENCE OF THE SEVEN UNITED
+      PROVINCES, and of all their possessions in Asia, Africa,
+      and America.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='intro_V_4'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c_v.4'>V. 4.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Their Constitution and principal Officers.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Constitution of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Thus the United Provinces became a confederacy of seven
+      independent principalities, called in the aggregate the
+      States General. Several years elapsed before their
+      constitution was finally settled. Then, the supreme
+      sovereignty of the whole was considered to be vested in the
+      people of every province represented by the States. These
+      consisted of deputies appointed to them from the different
+      provinces. Each province might send to the assembly more
+      than one deputy; but, whatever was the number of deputies
+      sent by them, they had one vote only in the proceedings of
+      the assembly. The government of each province was vested in
+      its states: these were composed of two orders, the deputies
+      from the towns, and those from the equestrian order.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Each province contained several independent republics.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The States General could not make war or peace, or enter
+      into alliances, or raise money, without the consent of all
+      the seven provinces; nor did the decrees of any one of the
+      States bind the constituent parts of it, without their
+      consent.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Constitution of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Stadtholder was appointed by the States General, and
+      held his office at their will. The offices of
+      captain-general and admiral were united in him: thus he had
+      the appointment of all military commands, both by sea and
+      land; and had considerable influence and power in the
+      nomination to civil offices. Three officers,-the
+      <i>treasurer, the conservator of the peace, and the grand
+      pensionary,</i> were appointed by the States General, and
+      were immediately subject to their controul; they were
+      wholly independent of the Stadtholder. The grand pensionary
+      was always supposed to be profoundly versed in civil,
+      ecclesiastical, and consuetudinary law; and in foreign
+      diplomacy. All transactions between subjects or foreigners
+      with the States General, passed through his hands. He
+      attended the deliberations of the States; he was not
+      entitled to vote, but was expected to sum up the arguments
+      on each side, and to deliver his opinion upon them. Each
+      province had its advocate, syndic or pensionary; a public
+      officer who superintended their public concerns; and
+      represented them, but only with a deliberative voice, in
+      the assembly of the States.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      We now reach the &aelig;ra, at which our intended biography
+      commences. A Literary History of the Netherlands, from the
+      time of their becoming subjects to the Dukes of Burgundy,
+      till this &aelig;ra, is much wanted.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_I'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c01'>CHAPTER I.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      THE BIRTH AND EDUCATION OF HUGO GROTIUS.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      1582-1597.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The Life of Erasmus, which we have offered to the public,
+      presents to its readers, the interesting spectacle of a
+      person, born under every, disadvantage for the acquisition
+      of literature, surmounting them all by his genius and
+      perseverance, and reaching, at an early age, the highest
+      summit of literary eminence: the Life of GROTIUS, which we
+      now attempt, exhibits the successful literary career of a
+      person, born with every advantage, undeviatingly availing
+      himself of them, and attaining equal eminence; with the
+      addition of high reputation for great political wisdom and
+      public integrity.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      His Birth and Education.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He was born at Delft, on the 10th April 1582. His parents
+      were John de Groote, and Alida Averschie. John was the
+      second son of Hugo de Groote by Elselinda Heemskirke. Hugo
+      was the son of Cornelius Cornet by Ermingarde, the daughter
+      and sole heiress of Diederic de Groote. Upon their
+      marriage, Diederic stipulated that Cornet should adopt the
+      surname of Groote: it signifies <i>Great</i>, and is said
+      to have been given to Diederic for some signal service,
+      which he had rendered to his sovereign. All the males and
+      females mentioned in the genealogy of Grotius were of noble
+      extraction.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Learning appears to have been hereditary in the family:
+      John, the father of Hugo, the subject of our biography, was
+      both a lawyer in great practice, and a general scholar.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The 10th of April, on which GROTIUS was born, was Easter
+      Sunday in that year: he always observed his birthday with
+      religious solemnity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All the biographers of Grotius assert, and their assertion
+      will be easily believed, that he discovered, in his
+      earliest years, great aptitude for the acquisition of
+      learning, great taste, judgment and application, and a
+      wonderful memory. He found, in his father, an excellent
+      tutor: by him, Grotius was instructed in the rudiments of
+      the Christian doctrine, and his infant mind impressed with
+      sound principles of morality and honour; in this, he was
+      aided by the mother of Grotius. The youth corresponded with
+      their cares. He has celebrated, in elegant verses, their
+      pious attention to his early education. The mention of
+      these verses will bring to the recollection of every
+      English reader, the magnificent strains, in which, Milton
+      addressed <i>his</i> father.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. I. 1582-1597.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As soon as Grotius had passed his childhood, he was placed
+      with Utengobard, an Arminian clergyman: we shall see that
+      this circumstance had a decisive influence upon his future
+      life. He retained a lasting regard for Utengobard, and a
+      grateful recollection of his obligations to him. At the age
+      of twelve years, Grotius was sent to the university of
+      Leyden, and committed to the care of Francis Junius. Here,
+      he distinguished himself so much by his diligence, his
+      talents, and his modesty, as to obtain the notice and
+      regard of several of the most famous scholars of the times.
+      Even Joseph Scaliger, equally distinguished by his learning
+      and caustic arrogance, noticed him, and condescended to
+      direct his studies. He was scarcely eleven years of age
+      when Douza, one of the princes of the republic of letters
+      in those times, celebrated his praises in verse: He
+      declared that "he could scarcely believe that Erasmus
+      promised so much as Grotius at his age:" he announced that
+      "Grotius would soon excel all his contemporaries, and bear
+      a comparison with the most leaned of the antients."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Grotius also gained the esteem of Barneveldt, the grand
+      pensionary, in whose fate he was afterward involved. In
+      1587, the Dutch sent Count Justin of Nassau and Barneveldt,
+      at the head of an embassy, to Henry IV. of France.
+      Barneveldt permitted Grotius to accompany him.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      His Birth and Education.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius had been preceded by his reputation. He was known
+      to M. de Busenval, the monarch's ambassador in Holland.
+      Busenval described him favourably to the monarch. Henry
+      gave Grotius a gracious reception, and was so pleased with
+      his conversation and demeanour, that he presented him with
+      his picture and a golden chain. Grotius gives an account of
+      this embassy, in the seventh book of his Annals: he
+      abstains, with a praiseworthy modesty, from any mention of
+      himself: but, in one of his poems, he dwells with
+      complacency on his having seen the monarch, "who owed his
+      kingdom only to his valour"-
+    </p>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>" ... <i>Le Heros, qui regna sur la
+      Fran&ccedil;e,</i></span><br>
+      <span><i>Et par droit de conqu&ecirc;te et par droit de
+      naissan&ccedil;e</i>."</span>
+    </div>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span class='c9'>VOLTAIRE, <i>Henriade</i>.</span><br>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius was so much pleased with his reception, and the
+      present which he received from Henry, that he caused a
+      print of himself, adorned with the chain presented to him
+      by Henry, to be engraved. He was introduced to many of the
+      most distinguished persons at Paris: there was one, whom he
+      particularly esteemed, but whom, from some unexplained
+      circumstance, he missed seeing.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Chap. 1. 1582-1597
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This was <i>the President de Thou</i>, a name never to be
+      mentioned without veneration. He had been employed by his
+      sovereign on many delicate and important commissions, and
+      had acquitted himself in all, with ability and honour. He
+      had filled the office of <i>Maitre des Requ&eacute;tes</i>,
+      and been advanced to that of <i>President a
+      Morti&eacute;r</i>. He was employed, at this time, upon his
+      immortal History. In the account which it gives of the
+      events, that took place in France, it is entitled to almost
+      unqualified praise: in regard to what happened to other
+      countries, he necessarily depended on the information which
+      he received from them, and cannot therefore be equally
+      relied upon. The prolixity, with which he is now
+      reproached, was not felt at the time in which he wrote;
+      every event, however small, was then thought to be
+      important, and multitudes were personally interested in it.
+      But the charm of his work is, that every page of it shews a
+      true lover of his country, an impartial judgment, and an
+      honourable mind. The memoirs, which he has left us of his
+      own life, recently translated into English by Mr.
+      Collinson, are interesting and entertaining. He collected a
+      very large library, both of printed books and manuscripts,
+      and had them splendidly bound. The whole was sold by
+      auction in the reign of Louis XIV, and scarcely produced
+      half the sum which the binding of its volumes had cost: The
+      same has been said of the Harleian collection, sold in our
+      times.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      His Birth and Education.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Having remained a twelvemonth at Paris, Grotius returned to
+      Holland. Immediately after his arrival, he addressed a
+      letter to the president de Thou, in which he expressed
+      great mortification at not having seen him, and requested
+      his acceptance of a book accompanying his letter, which he
+      had dedicated to the Prince of Cond&eacute;. The president
+      de Thou was highly pleased with this letter: a
+      correspondence took place between them. Grotius furnished
+      the president with materials for that portion of his
+      history which related to the troubles in the Low Countries.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the last letter of the President de Thou, in this
+      correspondence, he earnestly dissuades Grotius from
+      engaging in the religious disputes of the times. In reply
+      to it, Grotius respectfully intimates to the president,
+      that "he found himself obliged to enter into them by his
+      love of his country; his wish to serve his church, and the
+      request of those to whom he owed obedience:" promising, at
+      the same time, "to abstain from all disputes that were not
+      necessary." After the death of the President, Grotius
+      celebrated his memory in a poem, which was considered by
+      the bard's admirers to be one of his best performances.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_II'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c02'>CHAPTER II.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      GROTIUS EMBRACES THE PROFESSION OF THE LAW. HIS FIRST
+      PROMOTIONS.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1597-1610.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      In the ruin of the Roman Empire, her laws were lost in the
+      general wreck. During the 200 years, which followed the
+      reign of Constantine the Great, Europe was a scene of every
+      calamity, which the inroads of barbarians could inflict,
+      either on the countries through which they passed, or those
+      in which they settled. About the sixth century, Europe
+      obtained some degree of tranquillity, in consequence of the
+      introduction of feudalism; the most singular event in the
+      annals of history. At first, it produced a general anarchy;
+      but the system of subordination upon which it was grounded,
+      contained in it the germ of regular government, and even,
+      of jurisprudence. Its effects were first visible in the
+      <i>various codes of law</i> which the barbarous nations
+      promulgated. Such are the Salic, the Ripuarian, the
+      Alemannic, the Burgundian, the Visigothic, and the Lombard
+      laws.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Feudal Jurisprudence.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      A complicated or refined system of jurisprudence is not to
+      be looked for in them; but, if they are considered with due
+      regard to the state of society for which they were
+      calculated, they will be found to contain much that
+      deserves praise. The <i>capitularies</i>, or short
+      legislative provisions, propounded by the sovereign, and
+      adopted by the public assemblies of the nation, were a
+      further advance in legislation. By degrees, so much
+      regularity prevailed in the judicial proceedings and legal
+      transactions, that they were regulated by established
+      <i>formularies</i>; and, in addition to those provisions,
+      every nation contained a collection of unwritten usages or
+      <i>customs</i>, which had the force of law. The natural
+      tendency of these institutions to introduce order and
+      peaceful habits into society was great; but it was so much
+      counteracted by the turbulent spirit of every class of men,
+      that it was not till the beginning of the thirteenth
+      century that this effect of them became discernible.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. II. 1597-1610
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      From this time, the governments of Europe sensibly
+      improved. A better spirit of legislation shewed itself; the
+      administration of justice became more regular; trade and
+      husbandry were protected, several arts were encouraged; and
+      a general wish for a better order of things prevailed in
+      every part of Europe. While the public mind was in this
+      state of improvement, an event fortunately happened, which
+      gave it a very salutary direction. This was, (what we have
+      already noticed), the discovery of a complete copy of the
+      <i>Pandects of Justinian</i> at Amalfi, a town in Italy,
+      near Salerno. From Amalfi, it found its way to Pisa; and in
+      1406, was carried to Florence, where it has since remained.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Civil Law
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Few events in history can be mentioned which have conduced
+      more to the welfare of Europe than this discovery. The
+      codes, the capitularies, the formularies, and the customs,
+      by which, till that time, the feudal nations had been
+      governed, fell very short of affording them the legal
+      provisions, which society, in the improved state of
+      civilization, to which it was then advancing, evidently
+      required. Unexpectedly, a system of law presented itself,
+      which seemed to contain every thing that the most
+      enlightened men of those times could have desired. The
+      wisdom and justice of the system of law expressed in the
+      Pandects seem to have been universally felt. The study of
+      it was immediately pursued with ardour. It was introduced
+      into several universities; exercises were performed,
+      lectures read, and degrees conferred in that, as in other
+      branches of science; and most of the nations of the
+      continent adopted it, if not as the basis, at least as an
+      important portion of their civil jurisprudence. A regular
+      <i>succession of civil</i> lawyers followed. At first, they
+      rather incumbered the text with their subtleties, than
+      illustrated it by learning and discrimination. <i>Andrew
+      Alciat</i> was the first who united the study of polite
+      learning with the study of the civil law: he was founder of
+      a school called the <i>Cujacian</i>, from <i>Cujas</i>, the
+      glory of civilians. Of him, it may be truly said, that he
+      found the civil law in wood and left it in marble.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This school has subsisted until our time: it has never been
+      without writers of the greatest taste, judgment and
+      erudition; the names of Cujacius, Augustinus, the
+      Gothofredi, Heineccius, Voetius, Vinnius, Gravina and
+      Pothier, are as dear to the scholar as they are to the
+      lawyer; an Englishman however must reflect with pleasure,
+      that the Commentaries of his countryman, Sir William
+      Blackstone, will not suffer in a comparison with any
+      foreign work of jurisprudence. So far as the researches of
+      the present writer extend, the only one that can be put
+      into competition with them, is the <i>Jus Canonicum of
+      Van-Espen</i>.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. II. 1597-1610
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The judicial process of the nations on the continent
+      differed considerably from that of England. Trial by jury,
+      and separate courts of equity, were unknown to them. Some
+      causes were heard and decided by all the magistrates of the
+      courts; others were referred to one or more of their
+      number. The king's advocate, or the advocate of the state,
+      as he was termed in a republic, held a situation between
+      the judges and the suitors: his province was to sum the
+      facts and arguments of the cause, and to suggest his
+      opinions upon them to the judges.-We trust our readers will
+      excuse this summary view of foreign jurisprudence.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Grotius, by the advice of his father, addicted himself to
+      the profession of the law. He was only in his seventeenth
+      year, when he pleaded his first cause. He acquired by it,
+      great reputation; and this was constantly upon the
+      increase, through the whole of his professional career. He
+      observed in his pleadings a rule, which he afterwards
+      recommended to his son: "That you may not," he told him,
+      "be embarrassed by the little order observed by the
+      adversary counsel, attend to one thing, which I have found
+      eminently useful: Distribute all that can be said on both
+      sides, under certain heads; imprint these strongly in your
+      memory; and, whatever your adversary says, refer it not to
+      his division, but to your own."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Grotius embraces the profession of the Law.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The brilliant success of Grotius at the bar soon procured
+      him very considerable promotions. The place of
+      Advocate-General of the Fisc of the provinces of Holland
+      and Zealand becoming vacant, it was unanimously conferred
+      on him. This situation was attended with great distinction
+      and authority; the person invested with it, being charged
+      with the preservation of the public peace, and the
+      prosecution of public offenders. In 1613, Grotius was
+      advanced to the situation of Pensionary of Rotterdam; and
+      his high character authorized him to stipulate before he
+      accepted it, that he should hold it during his life, and
+      not, at will, its usual tenure. It immediately gave him a
+      seat in the assembly of the States of Holland; and, at a
+      future time, a seat in the assembly of the States General.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Between the time of his appointment to the advocacy of the
+      Fisc of Holland and Zealand, and his being appointed
+      Pensionary of Rotterdam, he married Mary Reygersburgh, of
+      an illustrious family in Zealand. It proved a marriage of
+      happiness. The most perfect harmony subsisted between
+      Grotius and his consort: we shall find that she was an
+      ornament to him in prosperity, his comfort and aid in
+      adverse fortune. The marriage was solemnized in July 1608,
+      and celebrated by many a Belgic bard.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP II. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      A dispute arising about this time between England and the
+      States General, upon the exclusive right claimed by the
+      former to fish in the Northern seas, the States, with a
+      view to an amicable adjustment of it, sent Grotius to
+      England. Several meetings took place between him and
+      commissioners appointed by James, the British sovereign. If
+      we credit the account, given by Grotius, of the point in
+      dispute, and the negociation to which it gave rise, justice
+      was decidedly on the side of the States General; and
+      England only carried the point by the lion's right,-the
+      <i>droit du plus fort</i>.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Grotius embraces the profession of the Law.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius had every reason to be pleased with his reception
+      by the English monarch and his court. Between Grotius and
+      Casaubon, who, at this time, resided in England, an
+      intimacy had long subsisted. It was cemented by mutual
+      esteem, similarity of studies, and the earnest wish of each
+      for an amicable termination of religious differences: each
+      respected the antient doctrines and discipline of the
+      church; each thought that many of the points in controversy
+      were disputes of words; that much might be gained by mutual
+      concessions; and that the articles, upon which there was
+      any substantial difference, were few. "I esteem Grotius
+      highly,"-Casaubon writes in a letter to the president de
+      Thou, "on account of his other great qualities; but
+      particularly because he judges of the modern subjects of
+      religious controversy like a learned and good man. In his
+      veneration for antiquity, he agrees with the wisest men."
+      ... "I heartily pray God," says Casaubon in a letter to
+      Grotius, "to; preserve you: as long as I shall live, I
+      shall hold you in the highest esteem: so much am I taken
+      with your piety, your probity, and your admirable
+      learning."<a name='FNanchor_005_5'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_005_5'><sup>[005]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_III'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c03'>CHAPTER III.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      THE EARLY PUBLICATIONS OF GROTIUS.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      There is not, perhaps, an instance of a person's acquiring
+      at an age equally early, the reputation, which attended the
+      first publication of Grotius. It was an edition, with
+      notes, of the work of "<i>Martianus Mineus Felix
+      Capella</i>, on the Marriage of Mercury and Philology, in
+      two books; and of the same writer's Seven Treatises on the
+      Liberal Arts." They had been often printed; but all the
+      editions were faulty: a manuscript of them having been put
+      into the hands of Grotius by his father, he communicated it
+      to Scaliger, and by his advice undertook a new edition of
+      them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The time, in which Capella lived, and the place of his
+      birth, are uncertain; the better opinion seems to be, that
+      he flourished towards the third century, resided at Rome,
+      and attained the consular dignity. His works are written in
+      prose, intermixed with poetry. His diction has some
+      resemblance to that of Tertullian, but is much more crabbed
+      and obscure: none, but the ablest Latin scholars, can
+      understand him. The Marriage of Mercury and Philology,-or
+      of Speech with Learning, is not uninteresting. His other
+      treatises contain nothing remarkable: that upon music, is
+      hardly intelligible; it is printed separately in the
+      collection of <i>Meibomius</i>. With all his harshness and
+      obscurity, Capella seems to have been much studied in the
+      middle ages,-some proof that there was more learning in
+      them, than is generally supposed,-he is so often quoted by
+      the writers of those times, that some persons have supposed
+      that his work was then a text book in the schools.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The early publications of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. III. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      When Grotius undertook his edition of Capella, he was only
+      twelve years of age: he published it in his fourteenth
+      year, and dedicated it to the Prince of Cond&eacute;. The
+      learning and critical discernment displayed by him in this
+      publication excited astonishment, and obtained for him the
+      applause of all the literary world. Grotius himself gives
+      the following account of his work: "We have collated
+      Capella with the several authors, who have investigated the
+      same subjects. In the two first books, we have consulted
+      those whose writings contain the sentiments of the antient
+      philosophers, as Apuleius, Albericus and others, too
+      tedious to name; on grammar, we have compared, Capella with
+      the antient grammarians; in what he has said on rhetoric,
+      with Cicero and Aquila; on logic, with Porphyry, Aristotle,
+      Cassiodorus and Apuleius; on geography, with Strabo, Mela,
+      Solinus, and Ptolemy, but chiefly Pliny; on arithmetic,
+      with Euclid; on astronomy, with Hyginus, and others, who
+      have treated on that subject; on music, with Cleonides,
+      Vitruvius and Boethius." In Grotius's Annotations all these
+      writers are mentioned in a manner, which shews that he was
+      thoroughly conversant with their works. Grotius's edition
+      is become, from its extreme scarcity, a typographical
+      curiosity: all the other editions are scarce. The writer of
+      these pages found, with great difficulty, a copy of it in
+      the London market.<a name='FNanchor_006_6'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_006_6'><sup>[006]</sup></a> That of Bonhomme,
+      published at Lyons in 1539, he procured by loan. The
+      celebrated Leibniz began to prepare an edition of Capella
+      <i>in usum Delphini</i>; but his collections being
+      purloined from him, he desisted from his project: it must
+      be owned that the general learning of Leibniz qualified him
+      admirably for such a task.<a name='FNanchor_009_9'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_009_9'><sup>[009]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The early Publications of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      While yet in his fourteenth year, Grotius published a
+      translation of a work, published by Simon Steven in 1586,
+      upon Navigation, and shewed by it a profound knowledge of
+      mathematics:<a name='FNanchor_010_10'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_010_10'><sup>[010]</sup></a> he dedicated it to
+      the republic of Venice.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. III. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the following year, Grotius published <i>the Phenomena
+      of Aratus</i>, a poetical treatise of that author upon
+      astronomy, with Cicero's translation of it, so far as it
+      has reached us. Grotius supplied the vacancies. It is
+      universally admitted that the parts supplied by him, are
+      not inferior to those of Cicero. The abb&eacute; d'Olivet,
+      the editor of Cicero's works, and an enthusiastic admirer
+      of his style, declares that "the Muse of Cicero<a name=
+      'FNanchor_011_11'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_011_11'><sup>[011]</sup></a> did not throw the
+      Muse of Grotius into the shade:" he therefore inserted the
+      supplementary verses of Grotius in his edition. Grotius
+      dedicated his work to the States of Holland and West
+      Friseland; and promised them in his dedication something
+      more considerable. He was complimented upon it by several
+      of the greatest men of the age.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The following simile, taken from Cicero's translation of
+      Aratus, and Voltaire's version of it, are greatly admired:
+    </p>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>Sic Jovis altisoni subito pennata
+      satelles,</span><br>
+      <span>Arboris &egrave; trunco, serpentis saucia
+      morsu;</span><br>
+      <span>Ipsa feris subigit transfigens unguibus
+      anguem</span><br>
+      <span>Semianimum, et vari&acirc; graviter cervice
+      micantem;</span><br>
+      <span>Quem se intorquentem laniens rostroque
+      craentans,</span><br>
+      <span>Abjicit efflantem, et laceratum effundit in
+      undas,</span><br>
+      <span>Seque obitu a solis nitidos convertit ad
+      ortus.</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span class='c9'><i>CICERO.</i></span>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+
+    </p>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>Tel on voit cet oiseau, qui porte le
+      tonnere,</span><br>
+      <span>Bless&eacute; par un serpent &eacute;lanc&eacute; de
+      la terre;</span><br>
+      <span>Il s'envole, il entraine au sejour
+      azur&eacute;</span><br>
+      <span>L'ennemi tortueux dont il est
+      entour&eacute;.</span><br>
+      <span>Le sang tombe des airs: il dechire, il
+      devore</span><br>
+      <span>Le reptile acharn&eacute;, qui le combat
+      encore;</span><br>
+      <span>Il le per&ccedil;e, il le tient sous ses ongles
+      vainqeurs,</span><br>
+      <span>Par cent coups r&eacute;doubl&eacute;s il venge ses
+      douleurs;</span><br>
+      <span>Le Monstre en expirant, se debat, se
+      replie;</span><br>
+      <span>Il exhale en poison le reste de sa vie;</span><br>
+      <span>Et l'aigle tout sanglant, fier et
+      victorieux,</span><br>
+      <span>Le rejette en fureur, et plane au haut des
+      cieux.</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span class='c9'><i>VOLTAIRE.</i></span>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The early Publications of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      About the year 1608, Grotius published his celebrated work
+      <i>Mare Liberum</i>, to assert in it against the English,
+      the general freedom of the sea. The controversy arose upon
+      the claim of Great Britain to enjoy the dominion of the
+      British seas, in the most extensive sense of those words,
+      both as to the right of navigating them, and the right of
+      fishing within them. Against this claim, Grotius attempted
+      to shew that the sea was, from its nature, insusceptible of
+      exclusive right; and that, if it were susceptible of it,
+      England did not prove her title to it. Selden, in
+      opposition to Grotius, asserted the British claim, by his
+      treatise <i>Mare Clausam</i>,-a noble exertion of a
+      vigorous mind, fraught with profound and extensive
+      erudition. It is pleasing to add, that he treats Grotius
+      with the respect due to his learning and character.
+      Selden's treatise was thought of so much importance to his
+      cause, that a copy of it was directed to be deposited in
+      the British Admiralty. Grotius was highly pleased with the
+      respect, which was shewn to him by Selden.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On Selden's <i>Mare Clausum</i> he composed the following
+      epigram:-
+    </p>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>Ipsum compedibus qui vinxerat
+      Ennegis&aelig;um,</span><br>
+      <span class='c10'><i>Est Grec&acirc; Xerxes multus in
+      historia:</i></span><br>
+      <span>Lucullum Latii Xerxem dixere togatum;</span><br>
+      <span class='c10'><i>Seldenus Xerxes ecce Britannus
+      erit.</i></span><br>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. III. 1597-1610
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The States General were gratified by his work; but at that
+      time it was so much their interest to preserve the
+      strictest amity with England, that they discountenanced any
+      further advocation of their claim.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_012_12'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_012_12'><sup>[012]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The year after his publication of his "Treatise on the
+      Freedom of the Sea," Grotius printed his work on the
+      "<i>Antiquity of the Batavian Republic</i>." He gives in it
+      an account of the antient <i>Batavians;</i> he professes to
+      shew that they were the allies, not the subjects of the
+      Romans; that, after a period of anarchy, during which
+      little is known of their history, they became subjects of
+      the Counts of Holland; that these were not vassals of the
+      empire, but independent princes; and, strictly speaking,
+      elected by the people, although, in the election of them,
+      great regard was always shewn to the hereditary line: that
+      they were bound to conform to the laws of the state; and
+      always required, before their election, to swear to the
+      observance of the constitution; that the taxes were always
+      imposed by the States, and that Philip the Second had
+      occasioned the grand war, by repeated infractions of the
+      public and private right of the people of the United
+      Provinces.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The early Publications of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The States of Holland were highly pleased with this work;
+      they voted thanks to its author, and accompanied them with
+      a present. It is considered that his partiality to his
+      country led him to advance some positions favourable to its
+      antient independence, which his proofs did not justify.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      For the use of <i>Du Maurier</i>, the French ambassador to
+      the States General, Grotius published, about this time, his
+      "Directions for a Course of general Study," <i>De omni
+      genere studiorum recte instituendo</i>. It was favourably
+      received, both by the diplomatist for whose use it was
+      composed, and the public at large; but, on account of the
+      great extension of literature, since the time of Grotius,
+      it is now little read. Mentioning the Roman history, he
+      shews that a knowledge of it is better acquired by reading
+      its Greek than by reading its Latin historians; because
+      foreigners give more attention to the public manners and
+      customs of a country than natives.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. III. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      All the works, which we have mentioned, were most
+      favourably received in every part of the United Provinces.
+      It was now become evident that the exertions for their
+      independence were on the eve of being crowned with complete
+      success. All the European Powers had deserted Spain, so
+      that she was left to her own single and unaided strength,
+      to maintain the contest against the insurgent provinces.
+      The glory, which they acquired by their successful
+      resistance to her, determined them to make choice of an
+      historian, who should transmit to future ages the signal
+      exploits of their memorable struggle. With this view, they
+      appointed Grotius their historiographer.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Poems of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It remains to mention the "<i>Poems of Grotius:</i>"
+      throughout his life, he sacrificed to the Muses. The
+      <i>Prosopopoeia,</i> in which he introduces the City of
+      Ostend addressing the world, when, in the third year of her
+      siege, the Marquis Spinola led the troops of Spain against
+      her, was greatly, admired. All the adjacent territory had
+      been taken by the Spaniards, so that nothing remained of it
+      to the confederates, but the precinct within the walls of
+      the city; and even much of this had been wrested from the
+      besieged. All Europe had its eye fixed on the operations of
+      Spinola. It is therefore, with great propriety of language,
+      that Grotius makes Ostend thus address herself to the
+      world, in the following lines:-
+    </p>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>"Area parva ducum, totus quam respicit
+      orbis;</span><br>
+      <span>Celsior una malis, et quam damnare ruinae</span><br>
+      <span>Nunc quoque fata timent,-alieno in litore
+      resto.</span><br>
+      <span>Tertius annus abit; toties mutavimus
+      hostem:</span><br>
+      <span>S&aelig;vit hyems pelago, morbisque furentibus
+      &aelig;stas;</span><br>
+      <span>Et minimum est quod fecit Iber,-crudelior
+      armis</span><br>
+      <span>In nos orta lues,-nullum est sine funere
+      funus.</span><br>
+      <span>Nec perimit mors una semel:-Fortuna quid
+      haeres?</span><br>
+      <span>Qu&acirc; mercede tenes mixtos in sanguine
+      manes?</span><br>
+      <span>Quis tumulos moriens hos occupet hoste
+      perempto?</span><br>
+      <span>Queritur,-et sterili tantum de pulvere pugna
+      est."</span>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+    <br>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>"A small area of chiefs, whom the whole world
+      contemplates;</span><br>
+      <span>alone loftier than my woes; I, whom the</span><br>
+      <span>Fates even yet, fear to condemn to ruin;-remain on a
+      foreign shore.</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span>"The third year now passes away; thrice has my foe
+      been changed:</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span>"The winter rages on the sea; the summer, by its
+      furious heats.</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span>"The Spaniard has been my least enemy;-more
+      cruel</span><br>
+      <span>than arms, a pestilence has risen among us; no
+      funeral is</span><br>
+      <span>without another; the dying never perish by a single
+      death.</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span>"Fortune! why do'st thou hesitate? By what
+      reward</span><br>
+      <span>do'st thou detain the manes mingled in
+      blood?</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span>"Who, dying, will, after the destruction of the
+      enemy,</span><br>
+      <span>occupy these tombs?-This is enquired.-</span><br>
+      <span>The contest is only for sterile dust."</span><br>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      With the following poetical translation of these verses,
+      the writer has been favoured by Mr. Sotheby, the elegant
+      translator of "Oberon."
+    </p>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>Scant battle-field of Chiefs, thro' earth
+      renown'd,</span><br>
+      <span>Opprest, I loftier tow'r;-and, now, while
+      Fate</span><br>
+      <span>Dreads to destroy, in foreign soil I
+      stand.</span><br>
+      <span>Thrice chang'd the year, thrice have we chang'd the
+      Foe.</span><br>
+      <span>Fierce Winter chafes the Deep, the Summer
+      burns</span><br>
+      <span>With fell disease: less fell th' Iberian
+      sword.</span><br>
+      <span>Dire Pestilence spreads;-on funerals funerals
+      swell:</span><br>
+      <span>Nor does one death at once extirpate all.</span><br>
+      <span>Why, Fortune! linger? why our souls detain</span><br>
+      <span>With blood immingled? Who, the Foe
+      extinct,</span><br>
+      <span>Who, dying, shall these sepulchres
+      possess,</span><br>
+      <span>And in this sterile dust the conflict
+      close?</span><br>
+      <br>
+      <span class='c9'><i>W.S.</i></span><br>
+      <span class='c11'><i>March 28,1826.</i></span><br>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. III. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These verses produced a great sensation in the literary
+      world: they were ascribed by many to Scaliger, as the best
+      Latin poet of the age; the only person considered to be
+      capable of writing them. The celebrated Peyresck hinted
+      this to that learned man: Scaliger answered, that "he was
+      too old not to be the aversion of the virgins of Helicon,"
+      and announced that the verses were written by Grotius. They
+      were translated into French by Du Vair, afterwards the
+      keeper of the seals; by Rapin, grand-provost of the
+      Constabulary of France; by Stephen Pasquier, and by
+      Malherbes: Casaubon translated them into Greek.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_013_13'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_013_13'><sup>[013]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Poems of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Three Generals had successively been entrusted with the
+      siege of Ostend; nine commanders had successively been
+      entrusted with its defence: the siege had cost the
+      besiegers and besieged 100,000 lives: all the historians of
+      the times agree, that few important consequences were
+      derived to either side by the success of the Spaniards. The
+      Archduke and Infanta, had the curiosity to view the city,
+      after it was taken. They found in it nothing but heaps of
+      ruins: little that shewed the former state of the town; its
+      ditches were filled, its fortifications overthrown, its
+      buildings, and the works of attack and defence, were
+      levelled with the ground. Spinola led them to the spots in
+      which the most remarkable events had taken place; and,
+      finally to that, in which the forces of the besieged had
+      made their last stand; had, for want of space, found
+      themselves unable to raise military works, and had, on that
+      account, found themselves forced to surrender. The Archduke
+      and the Infanta were moved to tears at the melancholy
+      sight; and declared that such a victory was not worth its
+      cost.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. III. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The success of the siege of Ostend covered Spinola with
+      glory: his reply to a person, who asked him,-who, in his
+      opinion was the greatest general of the age,-is generally
+      known: "Prince Maurice," he said, "is the second."<a name=
+      'FNanchor_014_14'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_014_14'><sup>[014]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The principal poetical performances of Grotius in the
+      collection we have mentioned, are-<i>three tragedies</i>,
+      "Adam in Banishment," "Christ Suffering," and
+      "Sophomphaneos," which signifies in the language of Egypt,
+      "the Saviour of the world:" it exhibits the story of
+      Joseph. Sandys translated it into English verse, and
+      dedicated his translation to Charles I. From the second of
+      these tragedies, Lauder transcribed many of the verses,
+      upon which he founded the charge of plagiarism against
+      Milton.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      An eminent rank among modern Latin poets, has always been
+      assigned to Grotius: his diction is always classical, his
+      sentiments just. But those who are accustomed to the
+      <i>wood notes</i> of the Bard of Avon, will not admire the
+      scenic compositions, however elegant or mellifluous, of the
+      Batavian Bard.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_IV'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c04'>CHAPTER IV.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THEIR
+      DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, TILL THE ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The present chapter will lead our readers to the public
+      life of Grotius: in a former page we succinctly mentioned
+      the principal events in the history of the United
+      Provinces, from their first insurrection against Philip II.
+      till their declaration of independence. On that event, they
+      continued Prince William of Orange in the Stadtholderate:
+      he was entitled to it by his civil and military talents.
+      Application, activity, liberality, eloquence, intrepidity,
+      enterprise and discretion, were united in him in an
+      extraordinary degree: he could accommodate himself to all
+      persons and occurrences, accelerate or retard events, as
+      best served the interests of his cause, or his own designs.
+      In the rare talent of governing popular assemblies, and
+      procuring the co-operation of persons of opposite views, he
+      has had few equals. He wanted no quality, which a chief of
+      a party should possess, either to insure the success of the
+      public object, or to further his private aims.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. IV. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These had, for some time, been suspected: it was generally
+      observed, that he affected the exercise of sovereign
+      authority; that he endeavoured to attach the military to
+      his own person; that he always sought to have the acts of
+      the States issued in his own name; that, on many occasions,
+      he avoided consulting the States, or doing any thing which
+      could be considered an explicit recognition of their
+      supremacy; and that in several instances, in which the
+      constitution required the co-operation of the States, he
+      acted independently of them. This gave rise to a party,
+      which was jealous of his power, and on many occasions
+      thwarted, what they thought the projects of his private
+      ambition. From their attachment to the constitution, they
+      were termed the republican party: Barneveldt, the
+      Grand-Pensionary of the States General, was their leader.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Assassination of William Prince of Orange.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Whatever were the projects of the prince, there appeared to
+      be great probability of their ultimate success. In 1684, he
+      had gained so for, that the States of Holland, Zealand and
+      Frizeland, had come to a resolution to confer upon him the
+      sovereignty of their states, under the title of Count. All
+      the conditions were settled: on one hand, the rights of the
+      prince, on the other, the rights of the people, were
+      defined and recognised; a contravention of them by any of
+      the people was declared to be treason; the infringement of
+      them by the prince, was declared to be a forfeiture of his
+      sovereignty. Thus the prince seemed to be on the eve of
+      receiving the fruit of all his exertions. But, as we have
+      already mentioned, he was assassinated by Balthazar Gerard,
+      a fanatic Spaniard. The last words of the prince were,
+      "Lord! have mercy on my soul! have pity on my poor
+      country!"
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In 1585, Prince Maurice, the second son of William, was,
+      chiefly by the influence of Barneveldt, proclaimed
+      Stadtholder by the States General. They were not less
+      jealous of his views, than they had been of his father's;
+      but the misconduct of the Earl of Leicester had made it
+      necessary for them to throw themselves into the prince's
+      arms. The weakness of Spain, and the troubles in France,
+      now permitted the United Provinces to enjoy some repose.
+      They availed themselves of it, to settle the constitution:
+      the towns were repaired, the fortifications completed,
+      Universities were founded or revived at Utrecht, Leyden and
+      Franker; and the arts of peace began to be cultivated.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. IV. 1597-1610.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Maurice inherited all the civil talents of his father; he
+      had greater military skill, and at least equal ambition.
+      The art of war seems to consist, at the present time, in
+      directing immense masses of men, by skilful evolutions and
+      positions, to the destruction of the force opposed. In the
+      wars of the Netherlands, it was principally shewn by
+      surprising strong-holds, besieging towns, regular assaults,
+      advantageous encampments, and wasting the army of the enemy
+      by skilful marches. The camp of Maurice became a school, in
+      which the nobility and gentry of the empire, France, and
+      England, entered as volunteers, to learn the art of war.
+      His taking of the city of Breda, raised his reputation to
+      the highest: from this time, the war, which, on the part of
+      the United Provinces, had till then, been a defensive war,
+      became offensive, and their arms were attended with almost
+      uninterrupted success: they equally triumphed on Sea.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In 1698, the war between Spain and France was terminated.
+      Philip II. soon afterwards died: he was succeeded by Philip
+      III. a weak monarch. Then, began the naval glory of the
+      United Provinces; their attacks on the West Indian and East
+      Indian colonies of the Spaniards. In 1600, prince Maurice
+      gained a decisive victory at Nieuport near Ostend: it was
+      followed by other important successes. In 1607, Admiral
+      Heemskirk obtained a complete victory over the Spanish
+      fleet, though protected by the batteries of Cadiz, and
+      seized their ships and treasures.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Armistice between Spain and the United Provinces.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The war between Spain and the United Provinces had now
+      continued forty years: the resources of Spain were so
+      exhausted, that she herself was forced to solicit an
+      armistice. Prince Maurice objected to it, as the
+      continuance of the war was essential to the furtherance of
+      his own ambitious views. On this account, the truce was
+      promoted by Barneveldt and the republican party. They
+      justly thought that the aggrandizement of the house of
+      Orange would be the extinction of the liberties of their
+      country, so that the result of the war would only be, that
+      the United Provinces would change their masters. After a
+      long negotiation, an armistice of twelve years was agreed
+      upon in 1609, and England and France guaranteed the
+      execution of the treaty.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_V'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c05'>CHAPTER V.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      THE FEUDS IN THE UNITED PROVINCES BETWEEN THE DISCIPLES OF
+      CALVIN AND THE DISCIPLES OF ARMINIUS, UNTIL THE SYNOD AT
+      DORT.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1610-1617.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      It has generally happened, when a people have risen against
+      their sovereign, that their first successes have been
+      followed by divisions among themselves; and that these have
+      endangered, and sometimes even ruined, their cause. Such a
+      division took place, in a remarkable manner, in the
+      conflict between the United Provinces and Spain. No sooner
+      did the arms of the former begin to prosper, and promise
+      ultimate success, than the ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY burst
+      forth. At first, it was merely a religious dispute; but it
+      soon mixed itself in the national politics; split the
+      people into two very hostile parties, and produced
+      contentions between them, which more than once brought
+      their cause to the brink of destruction. Grotius was
+      unfortunately involved in them. This part of the history
+      now claims our attention.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Calvinism.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The reformed church, in the largest import of the word,
+      comprises all the religious communities, which have
+      separated themselves from the church of Rome. In this
+      sense, the words are often used by English writers; but,
+      having been adopted by the French Calvinists to describe
+      <i>their</i> church, these words are most commonly used, on
+      the continent, as a general appellation of all the churches
+      who profess the doctrines of Calvin.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      About the year 1541, the church of Geneva was placed by the
+      magistrates of that city, under the direction of Calvin. He
+      immediately conceived one of the boldest projects, that
+      ever entered into the mind of an obscure individual. He
+      undertook to new model the religious creed of the reformed
+      church; to give it strength and consistency, and to render
+      the church of Geneva the mother and mistress of all
+      Protestant churches. His learning, eloquence, and talents
+      for business, soon attracted general notice; and, while the
+      fervour of his zeal, the austerity of his manners, and the
+      devotional cast of his writings, attracted the multitude,
+      the elegance of his compositions, and his insinuating
+      style, equally captivated the gentleman and the scholar. By
+      degrees, his fame reached every part of Europe. Having
+      prevailed upon the senate of Geneva to found an academy,
+      and place it under his superintendence, and having filled
+      it with men eminent throughout Europe for their learning
+      and talent, it became the favourite resort of all persons,
+      who leaned to the new principles, and sought religious or
+      literary instruction. From Germany, France, Italy, England
+      and Scotland, numbers crowded to the new academy, and
+      returned from it to their native countries, saturated with
+      the doctrine of Geneva, and burning with zeal to propagate
+      its creed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Calvin's peculiar doctrine on Predestination and Free-will
+      soon attracted attention, and gave rise to <i>more than a
+      civil war</i><a name='FNanchor_015_15'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_015_15'><sup>[015]</sup></a> of controversy,<a
+      name='FNanchor_016_16'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_016_16'><sup>[016]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We feel that we are free: if we were not free, conscience
+      could not exist; for, if a man had not freedom of action,
+      conscience could not intimate to him either its approbation
+      or its disapprobation of his actions.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But-<i>how</i> are we free? <i>How</i> is free-will
+      reconcileable, either with the influence of motive upon
+      will? or with the order of the universe, prescribed by the
+      Deity? or, with his prescience? For that, which his
+      infinite mind prescribes or foresees, must be fixed.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Disputes on the Free-will of Man.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This question soon engaged the attention of the Greek
+      Philosophers: some advocated the free-will of man; others
+      denied it, and ascribed his actions to Fate or Destiny; a
+      being or energy, which they were never able to define or
+      describe. Among the Jews, the Sadducees embraced the former
+      opinion; the Pharisees, the latter. Among the Mahometans, a
+      like division took place between the followers of Omar, and
+      those of Ali.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Unfortunately, the Christians engaged in these ungrateful
+      speculations: their disputes chiefly turned upon the
+      effect, which motive, suggested by grace, or the divine
+      favour, has upon will. Does it necessitate? then, there is
+      no free-will,-no merit,-no demerit. Does it not
+      necessitate? then, in the choice of good, man acts by his
+      own power, and thus achieves a good of which God is not the
+      author.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The dispute was brought to an issue by <i>Pelagius</i> and
+      his disciples. They held, that man acts independently of
+      divine grace, both in the choice and execution of good.
+      This independence was denied by <i>St. Augustin</i>, he
+      asserted, that man co-operates with grace, yet, that grace
+      begins, advances and brings to perfection every thing in
+      man, which can be justly called good. <i>St. Thomas of
+      Aquin</i> new-modelled the system of St. Augustin, and used
+      new terms in describing it: his subtile distinctions, in
+      the opinion of many, considerably improved it.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Calvin</i> aggravated the doctrine of St. Augustin. He
+      maintained,<a name='FNanchor_017_17'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_017_17'><sup>[017]</sup></a> that the
+      everlasting condition of mankind in the future world, was
+      determined from all eternity, by the <i>unchangeable
+      order</i> of the Deity; and that this <i>absolute</i>
+      determination of his will was the only source of
+      <i>happiness or misery</i> to individuals. Thus Calvin
+      maintained, without any qualification, that God, from all
+      eternity has doomed one part of mankind to everlasting
+      happiness, the other to everlasting misery; and, was led to
+      make this distinction, without regard to the merit or
+      demerit of the object, and by no other reason or motive
+      than his own pleasure.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Luther</i>,<a name='FNanchor_018_18'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_018_18'><sup>[018]</sup></a> in opposition to
+      Calvin, maintained, that the <i>divine decrees</i>
+      respecting the salvation or misery of men, are founded upon
+      a previous knowledge of their sentiments and characters;
+      or, in other words, that God, foreseeing from all eternity
+      the faith and virtue of some, and the incredulity or
+      wickedness of others, has reserved eternal happiness for
+      the former, and eternal misery for the latter.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Disputes on the Free-will of Man.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These, and other doctrinal differences, separated the
+      Protestants into the adherents to the creed of Luther, and
+      the adherents to the creed of Calvin. The United Provinces
+      were among the latter: the creed of Calvin was, as we have
+      mentioned, one of the fundamental laws of the Union.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Calvinistic doctrine, that God, from all eternity,
+      consigns one portion of mankind, without any fault on their
+      side, to everlasting torments, shocks our feelings, and is
+      totally repugnant to the notions entertained by us of the
+      goodness and justice of the Deity: it is not therefore
+      surprising that it should be called in question. From the
+      first, several objected to it; but it was not till the
+      successes of the United Provinces appeared to afford them a
+      near prospect of triumph, that the opposers of Calvin's
+      doctrine formed themselves into a party, and occasioned a
+      public sensation.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The celebrated JAMES ARMINIUS<a name=
+      'FNanchor_019_19'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_019_19'><sup>[019]</sup></a> was at their head.
+      He was born in 1560, at Oudewater in Holland, of
+      respectable parents. He lost his father in his infancy, and
+      was indebted, for the first rudiments of his education, to
+      a clergyman, who had imbibed some opinions of the reformed
+      religion. Under his tuition, Arminius studied, during some
+      time, at Utrecht. After the clergyman's decease, Rudolphus
+      Snellius, a clergyman of eminence, took Arminius under his
+      protection, and, in 1575, placed him at Marpurgh. There, he
+      heard of the taking of Oudewater by the Spaniards, and
+      their massacre of its inhabitants. His mother, sister, and
+      two brothers were among the victims. On the first
+      intelligence of the calamity he repaired to Oudewater, in
+      hopes that the account of it might have been exaggerated.
+      Finding it true, he retired to Leyden: there, his severe
+      application to study, and the regularity of his morals,
+      gained him universal esteem. In 1563, he was sent to
+      Geneva, at the expense of the magistrates of Amsterdam, to
+      perfect his studies under the care of Beza. Unfortunately,
+      by adopting the philosophical principles, of <i>Ramus</i>,
+      and unguardedly professing them, he displeased some leading
+      men of the university, and was obliged to leave it: he then
+      went to B&acirc;sle. There, his reputation having preceded
+      him, he was received with great kindness: the faculty of
+      divinity offered him a doctor's degree; but a general wish
+      for his return being expressed at Geneva, he declined the
+      honour, and returned to that city. He then visited Italy,
+      and, during some months, studied under Zabarella, a famous
+      philosopher, who then lectured at Padua. In 1588, Arminius
+      was ordained minister at Amsterdam.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Arminius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Some theologians of Delft having attacked the sentiments of
+      Calvin and Beza upon predestination, and given great
+      offence by it, they defended themselves by a book,
+      entitled; "An Answer to certain Arguments of Beza and
+      Calvin, in the treatise concerning Predestination; or upon
+      the ninth Chapter of the Epistle to the Romans." They
+      transmitted their defence to Martin Lydius, a partisan of
+      the divines whom it attacked; he sent it to Arminius, with
+      a request that he would answer it. Arminius undertook the
+      task, and attentively examined and weighed the arguments on
+      each side; the result was, that he embraced the opinions
+      which he had been called upon to confute, and even went
+      further than the ministers of Delft. Upon this account, the
+      friends of the rejected principles raised a great clamour
+      against him; but were quieted by the intervention of the
+      magistrates. The opinions, which Arminius adopted, he
+      endeavoured to propagate. They are contained in the
+      Remonstrance of his disciples, which we shall afterwards
+      transcribe.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As the language of Arminius seemed to express notions, more
+      consonant than those of Calvin, to the sentiments
+      entertained by rational Christians, of the goodness and
+      justice of the Deity, it is not surprising that they found
+      many advocates among the learned and moderate; but some
+      ardent spirits were offended by them, and instilled their
+      dislike of them into the populace. This, Arminius was soon
+      made to feel. In 1603, he was appointed, on the death of
+      Francis Junius, to a professorship of theology in the
+      university of Leyden: great efforts were made, first to
+      prevent, and afterwards to procure a recision of his
+      appointment. He was accused of having said in a sermon,
+      that "God had not yet sent his letter of divorce to the
+      church of Rome;" but his friends produced a work of Francis
+      Junius, his predecessor in the theological chair, in which
+      that celebrated theologian had used the same expression.
+      Arminius was also accused by his adversaries, of elevating
+      the action of reason in the choice of good, at the expense
+      of grace. To this Arminius replied, by accusing his
+      adversaries of sacrificing reason entirely to grace. But
+      the greater number of the enemies of Arminius supported
+      their charges against him, by making it a question of
+      authority: "the States," they said, "had decided the
+      question, by adopting Calvin's doctrine at the union; so
+      that the gainsayers of it were guilty of treason." The
+      friends of Arminius replied, that he did not deny Calvin's
+      doctrine, but merely explained it.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Arminius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Thus they disputed;
+    </p>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span>"And found no end, in wandering mazes
+      lost."</span><br>
+      <span class='c9'><i>Milton.</i></span>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      In fact, the subject,-as the writer has more than once
+      observed,-is above human reason: the day will come, "when
+      the Almighty will be judged, and will overcome;"-when the
+      secret of his councils will be unfolded, and their justice
+      and goodness made manifest to all.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_020_20'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_020_20'><sup>[020]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The friends of Arminius also observed, that he was by no
+      means singular in his doctrine; that it was favoured by
+      professors in Gueldres, Friesland, Utrecht, and other parts
+      of Holland; and, that in all the provinces, it was
+      patronized by the higher ranks of the laity. Was it
+      fitting, they asked, that the peace of the church, and the
+      tranquillity of the state, should be disturbed by such a
+      dispute? by a dispute which affected no essential article
+      of christianity; no civil, no moral, no religious
+      observation?
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The principal adversary of Arminius was <i>Gomarus</i>,
+      also a professor of theology at Leyden. When the election
+      of Arminius was proposed, Gomarus announced suspicions of
+      his orthodoxy; he afterwards raised his tone, and accused
+      Arminius of Pelagianism, of secretly inclining to the
+      church of Rome, and holding principles which led to general
+      scepticism and infidelity.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Arminius died on the 19th October 1609.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Grotius made his eulogium in verse. He had hitherto applied
+      little to these matters; he acknowledges, in a letter
+      written in 1609, his general ignorance of them. Entering
+      afterwards into the dispute, he became convinced that the
+      idea, which we ought to have of the goodness and justice of
+      God, and even the language of the scriptures and the early
+      fathers of the church, favoured the system of Arminius, and
+      contradicted that of Gomarus.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The prejudices against the Arminians increasing, they drew
+      up a Remonstrance, dated the 14th January 1610, and
+      addressed it to the States of Holland. It begins by stating
+      what they do not believe: it afterwards propounds their own
+      sentiments in the five articles following:<a name=
+      'FNanchor_021_21'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_021_21'><sup>[021]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        Remonstrance.
+      </div>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        1. "That God, by an eternal and immutable decree in Jesus
+        Christ his son, before the world was created, resolved to
+        save in Jesus Christ, on account of Jesus Christ, and
+        through Jesus Christ, those, from among mankind fallen in
+        sin, who, by the grace of the Holy Spirit believe in his
+        same son Jesus; and through the same grace continue in
+        the faith and obedience to the end; and, on the contrary,
+        to leave under sin, and wrath, and to condemn the
+        obstinate and unbelieving, as having no part in Christ;
+        according to what is said <i>St. John</i> iii. 36.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. "That accordingly, Jesus Christ the Saviour of the
+        world, died for all and every man; and by his death on
+        the cross has merited for all, reconciliation with God,
+        and remission of sin; in such manner nevertheless, that
+        no one can partake of them but believers, according to
+        the words of Jesus, <i>St. John</i> iii. 16., 1
+        <i>John</i> ii. 2.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3. "That man hath not saving faith of himself, and by the
+        strength of his own free will; since, while in a state of
+        sin and apostasy, he cannot of himself think, desire, or
+        do, that which is truly good, which is what is chiefly
+        meant by saving faith; but it is necessary that God in
+        Jesus Christ, and by the Holy Spirit, regenerate and
+        renew him in his understanding and affections, or in his
+        will and all his powers; that he may know the true good,
+        meditate on it, desire, and do it. <i>St. John</i> xv. 5.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+      </div>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        4. "That to this grace of God is owing the beginning, the
+        progression, and accomplishment of all good; in such
+        manner, that even the regenerate, without this
+        antecedent, or preventing, exciting, concomitant, and
+        cooperating grace, cannot think that, which is good,
+        desire or practise it; nor resist any temptation to evil;
+        so that all the good works or actions he can conceive,
+        spring from the grace of God; that as to what regards the
+        manner of operation of this grace, it is not
+        irresistible, since it is said of several, they resisted
+        the Holy Spirit. See <i>Acts</i> vii. and other places.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        5. "That those, who by a lively faith are engrafted into
+        Christ, and consequently made partakers of his quickening
+        spirit, are furnished with sufficient strength to be able
+        to combat, and even overcome Satan, sin, the world, and
+        their own lusts; and all this, as is carefully to be
+        observed, by the assistance of the grace and the Holy
+        Spirit; and that Jesus Christ succours them by his spirit
+        in all temptations, reaches to them his hand, (provided
+        they be willing to engage, ask his assistance, and are
+        not wanting to themselves,) supports and strengthens
+        them: so, that they cannot be led away by any wile or
+        violence of Satan, or snatched out of Christ's hands, as
+        he says himself, <i>St. John</i> x. <i>My sheep shall no
+        man pluck out of my hands</i>. For the rest, if it be
+        asked whether these may not through negligence let go the
+        confidence they had from the beginning, (Heb. iii. 6.)
+        cleave again to the present world, depart from the holy
+        doctrine, which was delivered, make shipwreck of a good
+        conscience? (2 Pet. i. 10., Jude iii., 1 Tim. i. 19.,
+        Heb. xii. 15.) This must be previously examined with more
+        care, by the Scriptures, to be able to teach it with full
+        assurance to others."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Such is the Confession of Faith of the Arminians: they gave
+      it the name of <i>Remonstrance</i>; and were styled from it
+      REMONSTRANTS. It was drawn up by <i>Utengobard</i>,
+      minister at the Hague, with the help, it is supposed, of
+      Grotius: it was signed by forty-six ministers.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Contra-Remonstrance.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Gomarists opposed to it a <i>Contra-Remonstrance</i>;
+      which gave them the name of the CONTRA-REMONSTRANTS.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was about this time, that Grotius was elected Pensionary
+      of Rotterdam, and ordered to England: it has been
+      suggested, that he had secret instructions from the
+      Arminians, to induce king James to favour their principles.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      We are informed, by Mr. Nichols, (<i>Calvinism and
+      Arminianism compared</i>,)<a name='FNanchor_022_22'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_022_22'><sup>[022]</sup></a> that the
+      Arminians sent to King James by Grotius, a true state of
+      their case; that Grotius found an adversary in
+      <i>Archbishop Abbott</i>, and friends in <i>Bishops
+      Andrews</i> and <i>Overal</i>; and that by their advice the
+      monarch addressed to the States General, a wise and
+      conciliatory letter.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The irritation of the public mind increasing, the States of
+      Holland, to restore tranquillity, published an edict of
+      Pacification, by which they strongly enjoined forbearance,
+      toleration, and silence. This was favourable to the
+      Arminians, but it increased the violence of the
+      <i>Contra-remonstrants</i>. Thus, it became a signal of
+      war. The States of Holland transmitted it to King James:
+      his Majesty, the archbishop of Canterbury, and the other
+      English prelates, allowed its doctrine to be orthodox.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Remonstrants-Contra-Remonstrants.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Still, the troubles in Holland augmented: riots took place
+      and greater riots were apprehended. In an evil hour,
+      Barneveldt, the Grand-Pensionary, proposed to the States of
+      Holland, that the magistrates of the cities of that
+      province should he empowered to raise troops for the
+      suppression of the rioters. Amsterdam, Dort, and other
+      towns, that favoured the Gomarists, protested against this
+      measure, styling it a declaration of war against the
+      Contra-remonstrants. Yet, on the 4th August 1617,
+      Barneveldt's proposition was agreed to, and promulgated.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We have mentioned the enmity of Prince Maurice to
+      Barneveldt, on account of his having promoted the armistice
+      of 1609, and his favouring the republican party. The Prince
+      professed to consider the edict of Pacification as
+      derogatory of his authority, and forbade the soldiers to
+      obey the States, if they should be ordered to act against
+      the rioters. He publicly declared, that he favoured the
+      Gomarists; he assisted, at the divine service, in their
+      churches only, and shewed them every other mark of public
+      favour. Exulting in this powerful support, the Gomarists
+      separated themselves, formally, from the Arminians.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      To bring over Amsterdam to their sentiments, the States of
+      Holland sent a deputation to the burgomasters of that city,
+      and placed Grotius at its head. On the day after their
+      arrival in Amsterdam, the burgomasters assembled to receive
+      the deputies. Grotius addressed them in an argumentative
+      and eloquent speech. He urged the necessity and advantage
+      of religious toleration, particularly upon theoretical
+      points of doctrine. He observed to the assembly, that
+      Bullinger and Melancthon had been tolerated by Deza and
+      Calvin; that James, the King of Great Britain, had
+      advanced, in his writings, that each of the two opposite
+      opinions on Predestination might be maintained without
+      danger of reprobation; that Gomarus himself had declared
+      that Arminius had not erred in any fundamental article of
+      Christian doctrine; that the contested articles were of a
+      very abstruse nature; that the affirmative or negative of
+      the doctrines expressed in them, had not been determined;
+      and that toleration would restore tranquillity and union,
+      and favour the assembling of a numerous and respectable
+      synod, which might labour with success in restoring peace
+      to the church.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Grotius delivered his speech in the Dutch language; it was
+      afterwards translated into Latin; all, who heard, admired
+      it; but it produced no effect on them. The deputies were
+      uncivilly dismissed; and the oration of Grotius, by an
+      order of the States General, was suppressed.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_023_23'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_023_23'><sup>[023]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Feuds of the Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He was much affected by the bad success of his mission: he
+      was seized with a fever, which nearly proved fatal to him.
+      Many of his friends sought to persuade him to retire from
+      the contest: he told them that he had taken his resolution
+      after deep deliberation; that he was aware of his danger,
+      and that he submitted the event to providence.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The next effort of the States of Holland to pacify the
+      troubles, was to prepare a <i>formula</i> of peace, which
+      the ministers of the two parties should be obliged to sign.
+      It contained nothing contrary to the doctrine of Calvin; it
+      referred the five articles to future examination, and
+      prescribed, in the mean time, silence upon the parts in
+      dispute. Grotius drew up the Formula; it was shewn to
+      Prince Maurice, and rejected by him.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Matters now converged to a crisis:-we have more than once
+      mentioned the opposite politics of Prince Maurice and
+      Barneveldt, the Grand-Pensionary; the former wishing to
+      draw the whole sovereign power to himself; the latter
+      endeavouring to preserve and stabilitate the the
+      constitution of the Provinces, as it had been settled by
+      the Act of Union. We noticed that the Gomarists sided with
+      the Prince; the Arminians with the Grand-Pensionary. As the
+      Prince was aware that the States of Holland were favourable
+      to the Arminians, that the States General were opposed to
+      them, and that the clergy of each denomination partook of
+      the civil and ecclesiastical opinions of their flocks, he
+      convened a national synod of the clergy; and, that be might
+      the more overawe his opponents and strengthen his own
+      party, he appointed the synod to meet in Holland. Against
+      this synod the provinces of Holland, Utretcht, and
+      Overyssell protested. Barneveldt was so much affected by
+      the disturbances, and a view of the evils with which they
+      appeared to threaten his country, that he sought to resign
+      his place of Grand-Pensionary; but the States of the
+      province of Holland, which needed more than ever the
+      counsels of such an experienced minister, sent a deputation
+      to him, beseeching him not to abandon them in times of so
+      much difficulty. He thought it his duty to yield to their
+      entreaty, and continued to exercise the functions of his
+      office.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Imprisonment of Barneveldt, Grotius and Hoogerbetz.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      To frustrate the designs of Prince Maurice, several cities
+      favourable to the Arminians levied bodies of militia, and
+      gave them the name of <i>Attendant Soldiers</i>. The
+      States-General, at the instigation of Prince Maurice,
+      enjoined the cities to disband them. The cities generally
+      disobeyed these orders. In this they were justified by the
+      established constitution: the Prince, however, treated
+      their conduct as rebellious; and, in concert with the
+      States General, marched in person, at the head of his
+      troops, against the refractory cities. Wherever he came, he
+      disarmed and disbanded the new levies; deposed the Arminian
+      magistrates, and expelled the ministers of their party.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the provinces of Gueldres and Overyssell, he met with no
+      resistance; and little at Arnheim: greater resistance was
+      expected at Utretcht: the States of Holland sent Grotius
+      and Hoogerbetz, the Pensionary of Leyden, to stimulate the
+      inhabitants to resistance; but the fortune of the Prince
+      prevailed. In an extraordinary assembly, which consisted of
+      eight persons only, yet assuming to act as the States
+      General, the Prince procured an ordonnance to be passed,
+      which directed Barneveldt, Grotius, and Hoogerbetz to be
+      taken into immediate custody. They were accordingly
+      arrested, and confined in the Castle at the Hague.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. V. 1610-1617.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Thus the Prince's party prevailed in every part of the
+      United Provinces. About this time, he succeeded, in
+      consequence of the death of his elder brother, to the
+      dignity of Prince of Orange.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_VI'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c06'>CHAPTER VI.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      THE SYNOD OF DORT.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1618.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VI. 1618.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The States General determined that the Synod<a name=
+      'FNanchor_024_24'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_024_24'><sup>[024]</sup></a> should be composed
+      of twenty-six divines of the United Provinces, twenty-eight
+      foreign divines, five professors of divinity, and sixteen
+      laymen;-seventy-five members in the whole. The expence was
+      calculated at 100,000 florins. The English divines were,
+      Dr. George Carlton, Bishop of Llandaff; Dr. Joseph Hall,
+      Dean of Worcester; John Davenant, professor of divinity,
+      and Master of Queen's college, Cambridge; Samuel Ward,
+      Archdeacon of Taunton, and head of Sidney college,
+      Cambridge. To these were added, Walter Balcanqual, a
+      Scottish theologian, as representative of the Scottish
+      churches. The ever-memorable John Hales of Eaton, as that
+      learned and amiable person is justly termed by protestant
+      writers, was permitted to attend the debates of the Synod,
+      but was not allowed to speak, or take any part in its
+      proceedings.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Synod of Dort.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      We have mentioned that Arminius was converted to the
+      opinions, which he defended afterwards so strenuously, by
+      the perusal of a work in support of the opposite doctrine,
+      which he had been desired to confute. In the same manner,
+      the proceedings of the Contra-Remonstrants, at the Synod of
+      Dort, made Mr. Hales a Remonstrant. We are informed by his
+      friend Mr. Faringdon, that, in his younger days, he was a
+      Calvinist; but that some explanations given by Episcopius
+      of the text in John iii. 16, induced him, as he himself
+      said, to "bid John Calvin, Good Night." His letters from
+      Dort to Sir Dudley Carleton, the English ambassador at the
+      Hague, contain an interesting account of the proceedings of
+      the assembly.<a name='FNanchor_025_25'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_025_25'><sup>[025]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VI. 1618.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Dr. Heylin says, in his "Quinquarticular History," that the
+      theologians sent by King James to Dort, were inclined to
+      condemn the Remonstrants; but he intimates that the monarch
+      acted from reasons of state; and that he was more hostile
+      to their persons than their doctrines: Brand makes the same
+      remark upon Prince Maurice. It seems to be admitted, that,
+      in the conference at Hampton Court, King James declared
+      against absolute predestination.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_026_26'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_026_26'><sup>[026]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The English divines arrived at the Hague on the 5th
+      November 1618: they were immediately presented to the
+      States General, and most honourably received.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Synod of Dort.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The King of France had permitted two Protestant theologians
+      of his kingdom to attend the Synod; but afterwards revoked
+      the permission. The French Protestant churches had deputed
+      to it, the celebrated Peter de Moulin and Andrew Rivet; but
+      the King prohibited their attending it, under severe
+      penalties.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      After the election of the members was finally adjusted, the
+      Synod appeared to be composed of about seventy
+      Contra-Remonstrants and fourteen Arminians.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was opened on the 13th of November 1618. Two
+      commissioners of the States placed themselves on the right
+      side of the chimney of the room; the English divines were
+      placed on the left; seats were kept vacant for the French;
+      the third place was assigned to the deputies from the
+      Palatinate; the fourth, to those from Hesse; the fifth, to
+      the Swiss; the sixth to the Genevans; the seventh to the
+      theologians from Bremen; and the eighth to those from
+      Embden. The professors of theology were placed immediately
+      after the commissioners; then, the ministers and elders of
+      the country. By an arrangement, favoured by the States,
+      thirty-six ministers and twenty elders were added to the
+      five professors. Of this the Remonstrants complained, on
+      the just ground, that it evidently gave their adversaries
+      an undue preponderance.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VI. 1618.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The commissioners nominated the celebrated Daniel Heinsius
+      secretary. The Remonstrants objected to him; they admitted
+      his extensive acquaintance with polite literature, and his
+      elegant taste; but asserted, that he possessed no
+      theological learning, and was prejudiced against them.
+      Episcopius was always considered to be at the head of the
+      Remonstrants: he has seldom been excelled in learning,
+      eloquence, or power of argumentation.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      No further business than arranging the forms of sitting and
+      voting, was transacted at the <i>first session</i> of the
+      Synod. <i>At the second</i>, the Synod constituted John
+      Bogerman its president, and appointed two assessors and two
+      secretaries: all five were distinguished for their known
+      hostility to the Remonstrants. The appointment of Bogerman
+      particularly offended them, as he openly avowed it to be
+      his opinion that heretics should be punished by death; and
+      had translated into the Dutch language the celebrated
+      treatise of Beza, <i>de h&aelig;reticis a civili magistratu
+      puniendis</i>, in which this doctrine is explicitly
+      maintained in its fullest extent.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Synod of Dort.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <i>In the third session</i>,-the deputies from Geneva
+      produced their commission: it was expressed in terms
+      decidedly hostile to the Remonstrants.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>In the fourth session</i>,-the grand preliminary
+      question,-in what manner the Remonstrants were to be
+      summoned,-came under consideration. After much argument, it
+      was settled, by a great majority of voices, that
+      "Episcopius and some other Remonstrants should within a
+      fortnight, appear before the Synod, as the sovereign
+      ecclesiastical tribunal of the United States."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Remonstrants and the advocates of their cause protested
+      against this proceeding: they called in question the
+      authority of the Synod to sit as judges upon them, or even
+      to decide any point of doctrine definitively: they averred
+      it contrary to the evangelical liberty professed and taught
+      by the first Reformers. Every friend to the true principles
+      of the reformation must admit the force of this objection.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The <i>5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th
+      Sessions</i> of the intermediate fortnight, were consumed
+      in debates upon a projected new translation of the
+      Scriptures; <i>the 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th,
+      20th</i> and <i>21st Sessions</i> were employed in
+      discussions, upon a new catechism, and other ecclesiastical
+      arrangements.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VI. 1618.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The <i>22d Session</i> was held on the 6<i>th</i> of
+      December. The Remonstrants appeared before the Synod, and
+      requested further time for preparing their defence on the
+      articles with which they were charged. Their request was
+      denied: and Episcopius having said, that "They wished to
+      enter into a conference with the Synod," a resolution was
+      passed, by which the Synod declared, that "the Remonstrants
+      had not been cited to <i>confer</i> with the Synod; but to
+      propound their opinions, and submit to its judgment."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Remonstrants then paid their visits to the foreign
+      theologians: these they found greatly prejudiced against
+      them; they therefore published two short writings,
+      explaining and justifying their sentiments.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In <i>the 23d Session</i>, Episcopius made a long
+      discourse. Mr. John Hales praised it highly, in a letter
+      addressed by him to the English ambassador An oath was
+      prescribed to the members, by which they promised, that, in
+      the examination of the five articles, "or any other points
+      of doctrine which should be discussed, they would confine
+      themselves to the Scriptures, and resort to no human
+      authority." But, what was the Synod itself more than human
+      authority? The oath was not tendered to the Remonstrants;
+      it was declined by the Swiss.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Synod of Dort.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The <i>24th Session</i> was consumed in debates: <i>on the
+      25th</i>, Episcopius read a long document, and afterwards
+      presented it to the Synod. He protested in it against the
+      authority of the Synod, and asked the searching question,
+      whether the Calvinists would "submit to a Synod of
+      Lutherans?" To this question, no answer was given: an angry
+      discussion followed.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      It continued during <i>the 27th and 28th Sessions</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On <i>the 29th</i>, the opinions of foreign divines were
+      produced in favour of the authority of the Synod: those of
+      the English divines, and the divines of Bremen, were
+      expressed with more moderation than the others. The divines
+      of Geneva stated, that, "if a person obstinately refused to
+      submit to the just decisions of the church, he might be
+      proceeded against in two ways; the <i>magistrate</i> might
+      coerce him, and the <i>church</i> might publicly
+      excommunicate him as a violator of the law of God."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The dispute was more violent in <i>the 30th Session</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Finally, the Remonstrants agreed to propound their
+      sentiments in writing; but with an express salvo, of their
+      right to liberty of conscience, and to retain their
+      objections to the authority of the Synod.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In <i>the 31st Session</i>, the Remonstrants presented to
+      the Synod a writing, containing their sentiments upon
+      Predestination,-the first and most important of the five
+      articles.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VI. 1618.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In <i>the 34th Session</i>, they presented their sentiments
+      upon the four other articles; and in <i>the 39th
+      Session</i>, upon the Catechism of Heidelberg. The Synod
+      had enjoined them to confine themselves to explanations of
+      their own doctrine, and to abstain from controverting the
+      doctrines of the Calvinists. These debates carried the
+      Synod to its <i>46th Session</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In that session, the resolution of the States General upon
+      the proceedings of the Synod was produced. They declared by
+      it, that "the Remonstrants were obliged to submit to the
+      decrees of the Synod,"-and that "if they persisted in their
+      disobedience to them, both the censures of the church, and
+      the penalties by which the States punished violators of
+      public authority, should be inflicted upon them." The
+      States ordered the Remonstrants to remain, in the meantime,
+      in the town.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Remonstrants persisting in their refusal to acknowledge
+      the authority of the Synod, an assembly of it met on <i>the
+      57th Session</i>, and formally expelled the Remonstrants
+      from the Synod. Episcopius exclaimed, "May God decide
+      between the Synod and us!" "I appeal," said Niellius, "from
+      the injustice of the Synod, to the throne of Jesus Christ."
+      All remained firm in their protestation.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Synod of Dort.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Mr. Hales and Mr. Balcanqual, in their letters to the
+      English ambassador, blame the proceedings of the Synod.<a
+      name='FNanchor_027_27'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_027_27'><sup>[027]</sup></a> The only question
+      between the Synod and the Remonstrants was, whether the
+      latter would submit to acknowledge the authority of the
+      former. This, the Remonstrants uniformly refused to do. In
+      almost every Synod there was a repetition of the same
+      demand, and of the same answer. By every English reader,
+      the demand of the Synod will be thought exorbitant.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP VI. 1618.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Synod relaxed afterwards so far, as to permit the
+      Remonstrants to deliver their sentiments in writing: they
+      did it at great length. But they still persisted in
+      objecting to the authority of the Synod, and to be examined
+      by it. The Synod therefore proceeded against them in their
+      absence; and ultimately, on the 24th of April 1610,
+      pronounced them guilty of pestilential errors, and
+      corruptors of the true religion. The five articles were
+      formally condemned; Episcopius and the other ministers were
+      deposed.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Synod of Dort.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      "There are conclusions," says Grotius,<a name=
+      'FNanchor_028_28'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_028_28'><sup>[028]</sup></a> in a letter written
+      by him in the same year, "in the canons of the Synod of
+      Dort, of which, if good Melancthon were again to make his
+      appearance, he would express his disapprobation, and with
+      which Bullinger would be no less grieved; there are others,
+      which alienate all the Lutherans from the Calvinists;
+      although amity and concord are desirable between them and
+      us at this juncture. There are some points in them, which
+      forbid the Greek churches from uniting with us, though they
+      are very favourable to us; but there are others of the Dort
+      canons, which admit of no controversy.-It is possible that
+      they may recall to mind my labours for unity. Even those
+      writings, which I published since my calamity, have not
+      been diverted from the same peaceful object." If ever any
+      Protestant divines deserved the reproach cast by Mr.
+      Gibbon,<a name='FNanchor_029_29'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_029_29'><sup>[029]</sup></a> on the first
+      reformers in general, "of being ambitious to succeed the
+      tyrants whom they had dethroned," they were the members of
+      the Synod of Dort.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Synod was closed on the 29th of May.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The sentence passed by it on the Remonstrants was approved
+      by the States General on the 3d July 1619. On the same day,
+      the Arminian ministers, who had been detained at Dort,
+      were, by a sentence of the States General, banished or
+      imprisoned, deprived of their employments, and the effects
+      of some were confiscated. Similar severities were exercised
+      on the Arminians in most of the territories subject to the
+      States General. To avoid the persecution, some fled to
+      Antwerp, some to France, the greater part to Holstein.
+      There, under the wise protection of the reigning duke, they
+      settled, and afterwards built a town, which from him they
+      called Friedericstadt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      They continued to assert the irregularity of the Synod: the
+      Bishop of Meaux shrewdly observed, that "they employed
+      against the authority of the Synod, the same arguments as
+      the Protestants use against the authority of the Council of
+      Trent."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP VI. 1618.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      The Synod of Dort.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      For the publication of <i>Acts of the Council</i>, divines
+      were chosen out of various districts of the United
+      Provinces: their edition of the Acts was published at Dort
+      in the year 1620, in folio, in the types of the Elzevirs;
+      and was soon afterwards republished with greater
+      correctness, in the same year, at Hanover, in quarto, with
+      an addition of a copious index.-An Epistle of their High
+      Mightinesses the States General, addressed to the Monarchs,
+      Kings, Princes, Counts, Cities and Magistrates of the
+      Christian world, and vouching for the authority and
+      authenticity of the Acts,<a name='FNanchor_030_30'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_030_30'><sup>[030]</sup></a> is prefixed to
+      this edition. The Remonstrants published an edition of the
+      Acts in 1620, in 4to.: it is said,<a name=
+      'FNanchor_031_31'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_031_31'><sup>[031]</sup></a> that from a fear of
+      their adversaries, it was printed on ship-board.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Here, the history of the Arminians, so far as it is
+      connected with that part of the Life of Grotius to which
+      our subject has hitherto led us, seems to close. We shall
+      hereafter be called upon to resume it.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_VII'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c07'>CHAPTER VII.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT OF GROTIUS. HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1618-1621.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      While the Synod of Dort continued its sittings, Prince
+      Maurice and his party were actively employed in increasing
+      the popular ferment against Barneveldt, Grotius and
+      Hoogerbetz; in collecting evidence of the designs and
+      practices of which they were accused, and in framing the
+      legal proceedings against them in such a manner as was most
+      likely both to procure their conviction, and to persuade
+      the public of their guilt.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We have mentioned that their confinement took place on the
+      20th of August 1618, and that they were removed from the
+      Hague, the original place of their imprisonment, to the
+      Castle of Louvestein. On the 19th November, the States
+      General, at the instigation of Prince Maurice, nominated
+      twenty-six commissioners for their trial. All the prisoners
+      objected both to the jurisdiction of the commissioners, and
+      to that of the States General; and asserted that the States
+      of Holland were their only competent judges. They observed,
+      at the same time, that many of the judges were notoriously
+      prejudiced against the Arminians.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The act of accusation contained many general charges, and
+      many averments of particular facts, supposed to
+      substantiate them. It was alleged against the prisoners,
+      that they had disturbed the established religion of the
+      United Provinces; that, in direct contradiction of the
+      articles of union, they had asserted the right of each
+      province to decide for itself in matters of religion; that
+      they had set up the authority and interests of the States
+      of Holland and West Friesland against those of the States
+      General; that they were the authors of the Insurrection at
+      Utrecht; had levied, in opposition to the orders of
+      government, the attendant soldiers; had raised jealousies
+      between the Prince and several of the Provincial States,
+      and between these and the States General; and that, by
+      their habitual conduct, they had become public disturbers
+      of the tranquillity of the republic, and councillors and
+      practisers of schemes hostile to its welfare.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VII. 1618-1621.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Commissioners proceeded to the trial of Barneveldt.
+      Uniformly protesting against the competency of the
+      tribunal, Barneveldt defended himself with great firmness
+      and ability. He controverted every article of the
+      accusation, and concluded his defence, by a long and
+      pathetic enumeration of the services, which he had rendered
+      to the republic; and of the numerous actions, by which he
+      had shewn his attachment to Prince William and Prince
+      Maurice:-he proved that it had been principally owing to
+      him, that the Stadtholderate had been conferred on the
+      latter. He admitted that he had suspected the Prince of
+      designs hostile to the constitution of the United
+      Provinces, and had opposed the Prince in every measure,
+      which appeared to have such a tendency; but he asserted
+      that he never had resorted to means which the laws or
+      constitution of the Provinces did not warrant. His
+      arguments were unanswerable; but Prince Maurice was
+      determined on his ruin; and the Commissioners were wholly
+      subservient to the prince's views: they accordingly passed
+      unanimously a sentence of death upon Barneveldt.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Many of the princes of Europe expressed their
+      dissatisfaction at these proceedings: none so much as the
+      French monarch. To him, the great merit of Barneveldt had
+      been long known. He considered that the conduct of Prince
+      Maurice was likely to involve the United Provinces in
+      troubles, of which Spain might take advantages. From
+      personal regard to Barneveldt, and with a view of
+      terminating the discord, the monarch sent an ambassador
+      extraordinary to the United States, and ordered him to join
+      Du Maurier, his ambassador in ordinary, in soliciting them
+      in favour of the accused, and in labouring to restore the
+      public tranquillity. The ambassadors executed their
+      commission with the greatest zeal. They made many
+      remonstrances, and had several audiences both with the
+      States and the Prince. The States, instigated by the
+      Prince, expressed great indignation at the proceedings of
+      the ambassadors.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All the accused were respectably allied, and had many
+      friends: numerous applications were made in their favour.
+      They undeviatingly demeaned themselves with the firmness
+      and modest dignity of conscious innocence. They persisted
+      in denying the guilt attributed to them, and in protesting
+      against the competency of the tribunal. They made no
+      degrading submission. At a subsequent time, a son of
+      Barneveldt having been condemned to death, his mother
+      applied to Prince Maurice, for his pardon. The Prince
+      observed to her, that she had made no such application in
+      behalf of her husband; "No," she replied, "I know my son is
+      guilty, I therefore solicit his pardon; I knew my husband
+      was innocent, I therefore solicited no pardon for him."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VII. 1618-1621.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      On Monday morning, May 13, 1619, Barneveldt was informed
+      that he was to be executed upon that day. He received the
+      notification of it with great firmness; he inquired whether
+      Grotius and Hoogerbetz were to suffer: being answered in
+      the negative, he expressed much satisfaction, observing
+      that "they were of an age to be still able to serve the
+      republic."
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "The scaffold for his execution," says Burigni, "was
+        erected in the Court of the Castle at the Hague, facing
+        the Prince of Orange's apartments. He made a short speech
+        to the people, which is yet preserved in the <i>Mercure
+        Fran&ccedil;oise</i>. 'Burghers!' he said, 'I have been
+        always your faithful countryman; believe not that I die
+        for treason: I die for maintaining the rights and
+        liberties of my country!' After this speech, the
+        executioner struck off his head at one blow. It is
+        affirmed that the Prince of Orange, to feast himself with
+        the cruel pleasure of seeing his enemy perish, beheld the
+        execution with a glass; the people looked on it with
+        other eyes: many came to gather the sand wet with his
+        blood, to keep it carefully in phials; and the crowd of
+        those, who had the same curiosity, continued next day,
+        notwithstanding all they could do to hinder them.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Thus fell that great minister, who did the United
+        Provinces as much service in the cabinet, as the Prince
+        of Orange did in the field. It is highly probable that
+        the melancholy end of this illustrious and unfortunate
+        man was owing to his steadiness in opposing the design of
+        making Prince Maurice Dictator."<a name=
+        'FNanchor_032_32'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_032_32'><sup>[032]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The Prince pursued his triumph. Soon after the arrest of
+      Grotius, the States of Holland presented a petition to the
+      Prince, representing the arrest as a breach of their
+      constitutional rights; the Prince referred it to the States
+      General. To these, therefore, they presented a similar
+      petition; praying at the same time, that Grotius might be
+      tried by the laws and usages of the Provinces of Holland:
+      no regard was shewn to their petitions.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VII. 1618-1621.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius had an invaluable friend:-he was no sooner
+      arrested, than his wife petitioned to share his confinement
+      throughout the whole of his imprisonment: it was denied.
+      Grotius fell ill: she renewed the application: it was
+      absolutely rejected: but neither his wife, nor any of the
+      friends of Grotius ever recommended to him an unworthy
+      submission. He always denied the competency of the tribunal
+      appointed to try him: his wife and brother uniformly
+      recommended him to persist in his plea.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Much disregard of form took place, and many arbitrary acts
+      were perpetrated, in the proceedings against Grotius. On
+      the 18th of May 1619, the Commissioners pronounced sentence
+      against him. After enumerating all the charges, of which he
+      was accused, and asserting that all were proved against
+      him, the judges condemned him to perpetual imprisonment,
+      and his estates to be confiscated. The same sentence was
+      passed on Hoogerbetz; but the house of the latter was
+      assigned to him for his imprisonment.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the 6th of June, Grotius was taken to Louvestein. It
+      lies near Gorcum, in South Holland, at the point of the
+      island formed by the Vaal and the Meuse. Twenty-four sous a
+      day were allowed for his maintenance; but his wife
+      undertook to support him, during his confinement, from her
+      own estate. She was at length admitted into prison with
+      him, on condition that she should remain in it, while his
+      imprisonment lasted.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      At first, his confinement was very rigid: by degrees it was
+      relaxed: his wife was allowed to leave the prison for a few
+      hours, twice in every week. He was permitted to borrow
+      books, and to correspond, except on politics, with his
+      friends.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      He beguiled the tedious hours of confinement by study,
+      relieving his mind by varying its objects. Antient and
+      modern literature equally engaged his attention: Sundays he
+      wholly dedicated to prayer and the study of theology.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Twenty months of imprisonment thus passed away. His wife
+      now began to devise projects for his liberty. She had
+      observed that he was not so strictly watched as at first;
+      that the guards, who examined the chest used for the
+      conveyance of his books and linen, being accustomed to see
+      nothing in it but books and linen, began to examine them
+      loosely: at length, they permitted the chest to pass
+      without any examination. Upon this, she formed her project
+      for her husband's release.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      She began to carry it into execution by cultivating an
+      intimacy with the wife of the commandant of Gorcum. To her,
+      she lamented Grotius's immoderate application to study; she
+      informed her that it had made him seriously ill; and that,
+      in consequence of his illness, she had resolved to take all
+      his books from him, and restore them to their owners. She
+      circulated every where the account of his illness, and
+      finally declared that it had confined him to his bed.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VII. 1618-1621.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the mean time, the chest was accommodated to her
+      purpose; and particularly, some holes were bored in it, to
+      let in air. Her maid and the valet of Grotius were
+      entrusted with the secret. The chest was conveyed to
+      Grotius's apartment. She then revealed her project to him,
+      and, after much entreaty, prevailed on him to get into the
+      chest, and leave her in the prison.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The books, which Grotius borrowed, were usually sent to
+      Gorcum; and the chest, which contained them, passed in a
+      boat, from the prison at Louvestein, to that town.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      His Escape from Prison.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Big with the fate of Grotius, the chest, as soon as he was
+      enclosed in it, was moved into the boat. One of the
+      soldiers, observing that it was uncommonly heavy, insisted
+      on its being opened, and its contents examined; but, by the
+      address of the maid, his scruples were removed, and the
+      chest was lodged in the boat. The passage from Louvestein
+      to Gorcum took a considerable time. The length of the chest
+      did not exceed three feet and a half. At length, it reached
+      Gorcum: it was intended that it should be deposited at the
+      house of David Bazelaer, an Arminian friend of Grotius, who
+      resided at Gorcum. But, when the boat reached the shore, a
+      difficulty arose, how the chest was to be conveyed from the
+      spot, upon which it was to be landed, to Bazelaer's house.
+      This difficulty was removed by the maid's presence of mind;
+      she told the bystanders, that the chest contained glass,
+      and that it must be moved with particular care. Two
+      chairmen were soon found, and they carefully moved it on a
+      horse-chair to the appointed place.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Bazelaer sent away his servants on different errands,
+      opened the chest, and received his friend with open arms.
+      Grotius declared, that while he was in the chest, he had
+      felt much anxiety, but had suffered no other inconvenience.
+      Having dressed himself as a mason, with a rule and trowel,
+      he went, through the back door of Bazelaer's house,
+      accompanied by his maid, along the market-place, to a boat
+      engaged for the purpose. It conveyed them to Vervie in
+      Brabant: there, he was safe. His maid then left him, and,
+      returning to his wife, communicated to her the agreeable
+      information of the success of the enterprise.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Chap. VII. 1618-1621.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As soon as Grotius's wife ascertained that he was in
+      perfect safety, she informed the guards of his escape:
+      these communicated the intelligence to the governor. He put
+      her into close confinement; but in a few days, an order of
+      the States General set her at liberty, and permitted her to
+      carry with her every thing at Louvestein, which belonged to
+      her. It is impossible to think without pleasure of the
+      meeting of Grotius and his heroic wife. From Vervie he
+      proceeded to Antwerp; a few days after his arrival in that
+      city, he addressed a letter to the States General: he
+      assured them, that, in procuring his liberty, he had used
+      neither violence nor corruption. He solemnly protested that
+      his public conduct had been blameless, and that the
+      persecution he had suffered would never lessen his
+      attachment to his country.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      His Escape from Prison.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It was on the 22d March 1621, that Grotius obtained his
+      liberty. In the same year, the truce, concluded for twelve
+      years between Spain and the United Provinces expired: it
+      was expected, that the war would be resumed with more fury
+      than ever. But this did not happen; the war of thirty
+      years, which we shall afterwards have occasion to mention,
+      had mixed the contest between Spain and the United
+      Provinces with the general military plans and operations of
+      the parties engaged in it, and had carried much of the
+      conflict from the Low Countries into Germany. Prince
+      Maurice still appeared at the head of the army of the
+      United Provinces; but he had lost, by his persecution of
+      the Arminians, and his selfish intrigues, the confidence of
+      the people. Conspiracies against his life were formed:
+      fortune no longer favoured his arms. His attempts to compel
+      the Marquis Spinola to raise the siege of Br&eacute;da were
+      unsuccessful. This reverse of fortune preyed upon his mind.
+      He thought himself haunted by a spectre of Barneveldt: he
+      was frequently heard, during his last illness, to exclaim,
+      "Remove this head from me!" "This anecdote," says the
+      author of the <i>Resum&eacute; de l'histoire de la
+      Hollande</i>, "is related by all the republican historians
+      of the United Provinces; it is concealed by the flatterers
+      of the House of Orange.... To relate the remorse of princes
+      for their crimes, is one of the most useful duties of
+      historians."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Prince Maurice died in 1625.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      M. Le Clerc, in the 2d volume of the <i>Bibliotheque
+      Chois&eacute;e, art. 3</i>, shews, by unquestionable facts
+      and irresistible arguments, that both Prince William and
+      Prince Maurice sought to obtain the independent sovereignty
+      of the United Provinces. It was the aim of all their
+      successors: it has been effected in our times by means,
+      which certainly were foreseen by none.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_VIII'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c08'>CHAPTER VIII.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      VORSTIUS,-JAMES I.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1622.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      We must now carry back our readers to events which preceded
+      the Synod of Dort. We have mentioned the decease of
+      Arminius: soon after it, a circumstance took place, which,
+      to the exquisite delight of the monarch, who, at that time
+      filled the British throne, involved him in the theological
+      disputes of the Belgic theologians.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Not long after the commencement of the Reformation, several
+      bold inquirers began to deny the trinity of persons in the
+      Deity, the divine authority of the Old and New Testament,
+      and the existence of mystery in the Christian dispensation.
+      Both Catholics and Protestants united against them. To
+      avoid their hostilities, the maintainers of these opinions
+      fled to Poland, and, forming themselves into a distinct
+      congregation, published, in 1574, their First Catechism.
+      They established congregations at Cracow, Lubin, Pinczow,
+      Luck and Smila: but their most flourishing settlement was
+      at Racow.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Vorstius-James I.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      They spread their doctrines over each bank of the Danube,
+      and at length penetrated Italy. There, they were adopted by
+      Loelius Socinus. After many peregrinations in different
+      parts of Europe, he finally settled at Zurich. Faustus
+      Socinus, his nephew, inherited his sentiments; and, on this
+      account, was obliged to quit Zurich. After many wanderings,
+      he fixed his residence at Racow. There, he was received
+      with open arms by the new communion, and completed their
+      system of theology. From him, they derived their
+      appellation of SOCINIANS. Their doctrine is expressed in
+      the Racovian catechism, published, in the Polish language,
+      in 1605. Other editions of it have appeared. An English
+      translation of the edition of 1605, was published at
+      Amsterdam in 1652: Dr. Toulmin, in his Life of Socinus,
+      ascribes it, seemingly by conjecture, to Mr. John Biddle.
+      In 1818, Mr. Rees published a new translation of it,
+      prefixing to it an interesting historical preface.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VIII. 1622.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Among the disciples of Arminius, was the celebrated CONRADE
+      VORSTIUS, born at Cologne in 1569, of parents in reduced
+      circumstances: he was soon remarked for his diligence and
+      irreproachable conduct; and was, in 1605, appointed to a
+      professor's chair at Steinfurth. In 1610, he quitted it,
+      and was named to succeed Arminius, in the chair of
+      Professor of Theology, at Leyden. "He was beloved and
+      honoured," says Mr. Chalmers, "at Steinfurth; there, he
+      enjoyed the utmost tranquillity, and was in the highest
+      reputation; he doubtless foresaw, that in the state in
+      which the controversies of Arminius and Gomarus were at
+      that time, he should meet with great opposition in Holland.
+      But he was tempted by the glory he should gain by
+      supporting a party, which was weakened by Arminius's
+      death."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Vorstius-James I.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He had previously published his Treatise "<i>de Deo</i>."
+      Some passages in it were thought to favour the doctrine of
+      Arminius; some, to lead to Socinianism; and some, to have
+      an ulterior tendency. That Arminius himself discovers these
+      views in his writings, has been frequently asserted. Doctor
+      Maclaine, the learned translator of Mosheim's
+      Ecclesiastical History,<a name='FNanchor_033_33'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_033_33'><sup>[033]</sup></a> observes it to
+      be a common opinion, that "the disciples of Arminius, and
+      more especially Episcopius, had boldly transgressed the
+      bounds, that had been wisely prescribed by their master,
+      and had gone ever to the Pelagians, and even to the
+      Socinians." "Such," continues Dr. Maclaine, "is the opinion
+      commonly entertained upon this matter. But it appears on
+      the contrary evident to me, that Arminius himself had laid
+      the plan of the theological system, that was, in after
+      times embraced by his followers; that he had instilled the
+      principles of it into the minds of his disciples; and that
+      these latter did really no more than bring this plan to a
+      greater degree of perfection, and propagate with more
+      courage and perspicuity the doctrines it contains." To
+      prove this assertion, the Doctor cites a passage from the
+      Will of Arminius, in which he declares, that "his view in
+      all his theological and ministerial labours, was to unite
+      in one community, cemented by the bonds of fraternal
+      charity, all sects and denominations of Christians, the
+      papists excepted." "These words, on this account,"
+      continues Dr. Maclaine, "coincide perfectly with the modern
+      system of Arminianism, which extends the limits of the
+      christian church, and relaxes the bonds of fraternal
+      communion in such a manner, that Christians of all sects
+      and all denominations, whatever their sects and opinions
+      may be, (Papists excepted) may be formed into one religious
+      body, and live together in brotherly love and concord." It
+      is not surprising that in the state of religious
+      effervescence, in which the minds of men were at the time
+      of which we are now speaking, a suspicion that Vorstius
+      entertained the sentiments we have mentioned, or sentiments
+      nearly approaching to them, should have rendered him a
+      subject of jealousy. So greatly was this the case, that the
+      Contra-remonstrants appealed against his doctrines to
+      several Protestant states, and represented to them the
+      doctrine of Vorstius in the most odious light. Our James I.
+      accepted the appeal: by a royal proclamation, he caused
+      Vorstius's Treatise <i>de Deo</i> to be burnt in London,
+      and each of the English Universities. He drew up a list, of
+      the several heresies, which he had discovered in it,
+      commanded his resident at the Hague to notify them to the
+      States; to express his horror of them, and his detestation
+      of those, who should tolerate them.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. VIII. 1622.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Vorstius.-James I.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      With some intimation of their independence, the States
+      replied, that "the case was of <i>their</i> cognizance;"
+      that "they would examine it;" and that, "if it should
+      appear that Vorstius maintained the doctrines imputed to
+      him, they would not suffer him to live among them." The
+      monarch's orthodoxy was not satisfied with this answer. He
+      repeated his suggestions, that the States should proceed
+      against Vorstius; and hinted, that if the doctrines should
+      be proved against him, and if he should persist in them,
+      burning might be a proper punishment for him. The monarch
+      added that, if the States did not use their utmost
+      endeavours to extirpate the rising heresy, he should
+      publicly protest against their conduct; that, in quality of
+      defender of the faith, he would exhort all Protestant
+      churches to join in one general resolution to extinguish
+      the abomination, and would, as sovereign of his own
+      dominions, prohibit his subjects to frequent so
+      pestilential a place as the University of Leyden. To his
+      menaces he added the terrors of his pen, and published a
+      "Confutation of Vorstius."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      By the advice of the States, Vorstius replied to his royal
+      adversary in a most respectful manner; still, the royal
+      adversary was not satisfied. Finally, the States condemned
+      the obnoxious doctrines of Vorstius, divested him of all
+      his offices; and sentenced him to perpetual banishment.
+      Vorstius remained concealed during two years; then found an
+      asylum in the dominions of the Duke of Holstein, who, as we
+      have mentioned, took the remains of the Arminians into his
+      protection.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Vorstius died in 1622.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_IX'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c09'>CHAPTER IX.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      GROTIUS AFTER HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON, TILL HIS APPOINTMENT
+      OF AMBASSADOR FROM SWEDEN TO THE COURT OF FRANCE.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1621-1634.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Soon after the escape of Grotius from prison, he repaired
+      to Paris: in this, he followed the advice of Du Maurier,
+      the French ambassador at the Hague. His works had made him
+      known in every part of Europe, in which learning was
+      cultivated: but persons properly qualified to appreciate
+      their merit, existed no where in such abundance as at
+      Paris: he was personally esteemed and regarded by the
+      monarch; and the principal officers of state were attached
+      to him. Paris was also recommended to him by its libraries,
+      the easy access to them, and the habitual intercourse of
+      the men of letters, who, during, at least, a great part of
+      the year, made that city their place of residence.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of
+      Ambassador.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius arrived at Paris on the 13th of April 1621. He was
+      immediately noticed by a multitude of persons of
+      distinction and rank; but it was not till March 1622, that
+      he was presented to the king. His majesty received him
+      graciously, and settled upon him a pension of 3,000 livres.
+      The Prince of Cond&eacute;, the Chancellor, and the Keeper
+      of the Seals, had exerted themselves to dispose the king in
+      his favour. His majesty professed kindness towards those,
+      who had been persecuted by the States; and issued an edict,
+      dated the 22d April 1622, by which he took them under his
+      protection, in the same manner as if they were his own
+      subjects; he even extended this benefit to their children.
+      The celebrated President Jeannin was one of the most active
+      and useful of Grotius's friends; but he died soon after
+      Grotius arrived at Paris.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Grotius, during his stay in that city, attended frequently
+      the courts of justice. He observed the wretched style of
+      oratory, which at that time, prevailed in them. It was, in
+      some measure, corrected by <i>Patru</i> and <i>Le
+      Maitre</i>; but it did not reach its best state, till the
+      end of the reign of Lewis XIV. The rhetorical march and
+      laboured amplifications allowed at the French bar, are
+      offensive to English ears. Has any nation produced a more
+      perfect style of forensic or judicial eloquence, than that
+      of <i>Sir William Grant</i>? The wisdom and justice of
+      <i>Lord Stowell's</i> decisions, and the admirable
+      arguments by which he explains or illustrates them, are
+      known and acknowledged by every Court.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. IX. 1621-1634
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius's love of his native country continued unabated;
+      all his views, all his hopes, were directed thither. With
+      these feelings he wrote his <i>Apology</i>. He composed it
+      in the Dutch language, and translated it afterwards into
+      Latin: it was published in 1622. He dedicated it to the
+      people of Holland and West Friesland. It is divided into
+      twenty chapters; in the first, he argues the important
+      point, that each of the United Provinces is sovereign and
+      independent of the States General, and that the authority
+      of these is confined to the defence of the provinces
+      against their enemies. In the second chapter, he applies
+      the position to ecclesiastical concerns; these, he says,
+      are subject to the sovereign power of each State. In the
+      following chapters, he descends into the particular charges
+      against him; defending himself against all the crimes and
+      irregularities of which he was accused, and shewing the
+      informality of the judicial proceedings by which he and his
+      companions in misfortune were tried and condemned.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of
+      Ambassador.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      His answer was universally read and approved: It greatly
+      incensed the States General: They proscribed it, and
+      forbade all persons to have it in their possession, under
+      pain of death; but no answer to it was published. The edict
+      made Grotius and his friends entertain apprehensions for
+      his personal safety. On this account, he obtained from the
+      French monarch letters of naturalization, dated the 26th
+      February 1623: By these, his majesty took him under his
+      special protection.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Grotius retained many friends in every part of the United
+      Provinces: Prince Frederick Henry, the brother of Maurice,
+      was among them. He had never entered into his brother's
+      persecuting projects.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "The Count d'Estrades has given us," says Burigni, "some
+      anecdotes on this subject, which we shall relate on his
+      authority. He assures us, that, being one day <i>t&ecirc;te
+      a t&ecirc;te</i> with Prince Henry Frederick in his coach,
+      he heard him say, that he had much to do to keep well with
+      his brother Maurice, who suspected him of secretly
+      favouring Barneveldt and the Arminians. He told me, (these
+      were the Count's own words), it was true that he kept a
+      correspondence with them, to prevent their opposing his
+      election, in case his brother should die; but that, as it
+      imported him to be on good terms with his brother, and to
+      efface the notion he had of his connection with the
+      Arminians, he made use of Vandenuse, one of his particular
+      friends, and Barneveldt's son-in-law, to let the cabal
+      know, that it was necessary for him to accommodate himself
+      to his brother, that he might be better able to serve
+      them,-which Barneveldt approved of."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. IX. 1621-1634.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the meantime, the situation of Grotius at Paris, became
+      very uncomfortable. His resources, and those of his wife,
+      were small; and his pension was paid irregularly. Cardinal
+      de Richelieu wished to attach Grotius; but required from
+      him an absolute and unqualified devotion to him, which was
+      utterly irreconcileable with the slightest degree of
+      honourable independence. Grotius therefore declined the
+      offers of the Cardinal. From this time, the Cardinal
+      regarded him with an evil eye, and often made him feel the
+      effects of his displeasure.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This rendered Grotius desirous of quitting France. Trusting
+      to some protestations of friendship, which he had received
+      from Prince Frederick; to his numerous friends, to his
+      claims upon the gratitude of the States of Holland, to his
+      feelings of innocence, and to the effect produced, as he
+      flattered himself, by his <i>Apology</i>, he ventured into
+      Holland in 1631. But he met with no countenance: and in
+      that year was banished a second time. Upon this, he
+      formally bade a final adieu to Holland, and determined to
+      seek his fortune elsewhere: He then fixed his residence at
+      Hamburgh.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of
+      Ambassador.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He sought to preserve his friends in France; but announced
+      to them his intention to receive no more money from the
+      French government.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "I shall always," he said in a letter to the First
+      President of the Cour des Monnoies, "be grateful for the
+      King's liberality; but it is enough that I was chargeable
+      to you, while I resided in France. I have never done you
+      any service, though I made you an offer of myself. But it
+      would not be proper that I should now live, like an hornet,
+      on the goods of other men. I shall not, however, forget the
+      kindness of so great a king, and the good offices of so
+      many friends."
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. IX. 1621-1634.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It may appear surprising that Prince Frederick of Orange
+      should pertinaciously exclude Grotius from his native
+      country. But ambition listens to nothing that conflicts
+      with its own views. Prince Frederick inherited from his
+      father and brother the wish of becoming the sovereign of
+      the United Provinces. To this, he knew he should always
+      find a zealous and able opponent in Grotius: hence,
+      notwithstanding his great personal regard for Grotius, he
+      always kept him a banished man. Grotius wished to be
+      employed by the Government of England, and Archbishop Laud
+      was sounded upon this subject; but the application was
+      coldly received<a name='FNanchor_034_34'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_034_34'><sup>[034]</sup></a>. Prince Frederick
+      sustained, both in military and civil concerns, the
+      character of the former princes of his family. Under his
+      administration, the affairs of the republic prospered at
+      sea and land. Peter Haim captured the Spanish flotilla,
+      estimated at twelve millions of florins. The Prince took
+      Bois-le duc, Maestricht, and Breda, and reduced the Dutchy
+      of Limburgh. Under his auspices, the celebrated Van Tromp
+      commenced his career of naval glory, by obtaining a
+      complete victory over the Spanish fleet, consisting of
+      seventy men of war. Prince Frederick died in 1658.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      From the close of his Stadtholderate, we may date the
+      origin of the jealousy entertained, by France and England,
+      of the rising power of the United Provinces. It is to be
+      observed that Prince Frederick was Stadtholder only of the
+      Provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres and
+      Overyssell: Count Ernest Casimir of Nassau was Stadtholder
+      of the provinces of Gr&ouml;ningen, Frizeland, and the
+      county of the Drenta. In 1631, their eldest sons were
+      chosen, in the lifetime of their fathers, their successors
+      in their respective Stadtholderates. This was a great step
+      towards making the Stadtholderate hereditary in their
+      families,-one of the leading objects of their ambitious
+      views.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_X'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c10'>CHAPTER X.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS OF GROTIUS.
+    </p>
+    1. <i>His Edition of Stob&aelig;us</i>.<br>
+    <br>
+    2. <i>His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis</i>.<br>
+    <br>
+    3. <i>His Treatise de Veritate Religionis
+    Christian&aelig;</i>.<br>
+    <br>
+    4. <i>His Treatise de Jure summarum potestatum circa</i><br>
+    <span class='c12'><i>sacra</i>.</span><br>
+    <br>
+    5. <i>His Commentary on the Scriptures</i>.<br>
+    <br>
+    6. <i>Some other Works of Grotius</i><br>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. X. 1621-1634
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      That literature is an ornament in prosperity, and a comfort
+      in adverse fortune, has been often said by the best and
+      wisest men; but no one experienced the truth of this
+      assertion in a higher degree than Grotius, during his
+      imprisonment at Louvestein. In that wreck of his fortune
+      and overthrow of all his hopes, books came to his aid,
+      soothed his sorrows, and beguiled the wearisome hours of
+      his gloomy solitude. His studies often stole him from
+      himself, and from the sense of his misfortunes. In the
+      exercise of his mental energies, he was sensible of their
+      powers; and it was impossible that he should contemplate,
+      without pleasure, the extent, the worth, or the splendour
+      of his labours; the services, which he rendered by them to
+      learning and religion, and the admiration and gratitude of
+      the scholar, which he then enjoyed, and which would attend
+      his memory to the latest posterity. He himself acknowledged
+      that, in the ardour of his literary pursuits, he often
+      forgot his calamities, and that the hours passed unheeded,
+      if not in joy, at least without pain.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='X_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c10.1'>X. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>His Edition of Stob&aelig;us</i>.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Being ourselves unacquainted with this work, we cannot do
+      better than present our readers with the account given of
+      it by Burigni.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "The year after the publication of his <i>Apology</i>,
+        that is to say in 1623, Nicholas Huon printed at Paris,
+        <i>Grotius's improvements and additions to
+        Stob&aelig;us</i>. This author, as is well known,
+        extracted what he thought most important in the ancient
+        Greek writers, and ranged it under different heads,
+        comprehending the principal points of philosophy. His
+        work is the more valuable, as it has preserved several
+        fragments of the Ancients, found no where else. Grotius,
+        when very young, purposed to extract from this author all
+        the maxims of the poets; to translate them into Latin
+        verse, and to print the original with the translation. He
+        began this, when a boy; he was employed in it at the time
+        of his arrest; and continued it as an amusement, whilst
+        he had the use of books, in his prison at the Hague. He
+        tells us that, when he was deprived of pen and ink, he
+        was got to the forty-ninth title, which is an invective
+        against tyranny, that had a great relation to what passed
+        at that time in Holland. On his removal to Louvestein, he
+        resumed this work, and finished it at Paris. He made
+        several happy corrections in the text of Stob&aelig;us;
+        some, from his own conjectures or those of his friends;
+        others, on the authority of manuscripts in the King's
+        library, which were politely lent him by the learned
+        Nicholas Rigaut, librarian to his majesty.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        His edition of Stob&aelig;us.
+      </div>
+      <br>
+      <br>
+
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        CHAP. X. 1621-1634
+      </div>
+      <br>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        "Prefixed to this book, are <i>Prolegomena</i>, in which
+        the author shews that the works of the ancient Pagans are
+        filled with maxims agreeable to the truths taught in holy
+        writ. He intended to dedicate this book to the Chancellor
+        Silleri: he had even writ the dedication, but his
+        friends, to whom he shewed it, thought he expressed
+        himself with too much warmth, against the censurers of
+        his <i>Apology</i>. They advised him therefore to
+        suppress it; and he yielded to their opinion. It may be
+        observed in reading the royal privilege, that the present
+        title of the book is different from what it was to have
+        had. To these extracts from the Greek poets translated
+        into Latin verse, Grotius annexed two pieces, one of
+        Plutarch, the other of St. Basil, on the use of the
+        poets; giving the Greek text with a Latin translation."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The work was received with universal approbation.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='X_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c10.2'>X. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis</i>.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Grotius may be considered as the founder of the modern
+      school of <i>the Law of Nature and of Nations</i>. He was
+      struck with the ruthless manner, in which wars were
+      generally conducted; the slight pretences, upon which they
+      were generally begun; and the barbarity and injustice, with
+      which they were generally attended. He attributed these
+      evils to the want of settled principles respecting the
+      rights and duties of nations and individuals in a state of
+      war. These, he observed, must depend on the previous rights
+      and duties of mankind, in a state of peace: this led him to
+      the preliminary inquiry into their rights and duties in a
+      state of nature.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Thus, an ample field was opened to him. He brought to it, a
+      vigorous discerning mind, and stupendous erudition. From
+      antient and modern history, philosophy, oratory, and
+      poetry, he collected facts and sayings, which appeared to
+      him to establish a general agreement of all civilized
+      nations upon certain principles. From these, he formed his
+      system; applying them, as he proceeded in his work, to a
+      vast multitude of circumstances. These are so numerous,
+      that some persons have not scrupled to say, that no case or
+      international law, either in war or in peace, can be
+      stated, to which the work of Grotius does not contain an
+      applicable rule.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      X. 2. <i>The Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis.</i>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. X. 1621-1634
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Three important objections have been made to this
+      celebrated work,-one, that the author defers in it, too
+      little, to principle, too much, to authority;-another, that
+      the work is written in a very desultory manner, with small
+      attention to order, or classification;-a third, that his
+      authorities are often feeble, and sometimes whimsical.
+      "Grotius," says Condillac, "was able to think for himself;
+      but he constantly labours to support his conclusions by the
+      authority of others. Upon many occasions; even in support
+      of the most obvious and indisputable propositions, he
+      introduces a long string of quotations from the Mosaic law,
+      from the Gospels, from the fathers of the church, from the
+      casuists, and not unfrequently, even in the very same
+      paragraph, from Ovid, and Aristophanes." This strange
+      mixture is subject of many witticisms of Voltaire. But let
+      us hear what is urged in the defence of Grotius, by a
+      gentleman, of whose praise the ablest of writers may be
+      proud:
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Few writers," says Sir James Mackintosh, in his
+        Discourse on the Study of the Law of Nature and Nations,
+        "were more celebrated than Grotius in his own days, and
+        in the age which succeeded. It has, however, been the
+        fashion of the last half century to depreciate his work,
+        as a shapeless compilation, in which reason lies buried
+        under a mass of authorities and quotations. This fashion
+        originated among French wits and declaimers, and it has
+        been, I know not for what reason, adopted, though with
+        far greater moderation and decency, by some respectable
+        writers among ourselves. As to those, who first used this
+        language, the most candid supposition that we can make
+        with respect to them is, that they never read the work;
+        for, if they had not been deterred from the perusal of it
+        by such a formidable display of Greek characters, they
+        must soon have discovered that Grotius never quotes, on
+        any subject, till he has first appealed to some
+        principles; and often, in my humble opinion, though, not
+        always, to the soundest and most rational principles.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        His treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis.
+      </div>
+      <br>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        "But another sort of answer is due to some of those, who
+        have criticised Grotius; and that answer might be given
+        in the words of Grotius himself. He was not of such a
+        stupid and servile cast of mind as to quote the opinions
+        of poets or orators, of historians and philosophers, as
+        those of judges, from whose decision there was no appeal.
+        He quotes them, as he tells us himself, as witnesses,
+        whose conspiring testimony, mightily strengthened and
+        confirmed by their discordance on almost every other
+        subject, is a conclusive proof of the unanimity of the
+        whole human race on the great rules of duty, and the
+        fundamental principles of morals. Of such matters, poets
+        and orators are the most unexceptionable of all
+        witnesses; for they address themselves to the general
+        feelings and sympathies of mankind; they are neither
+        warped by system, nor perverted by sophistry; they can
+        attain none of their objects; they can neither please nor
+        persuade, if they dwell on moral sentiments not in unison
+        with those of their readers. No system of moral
+        philosophy can surely disregard the general feelings of
+        human nature, and the according judgment of all ages and
+        nations. But, where are these feelings and that judgment
+        recorded and preserved? In those very writings which
+        Grotius is gravely blamed for having quoted. The usages
+        and law of nations, the events of history, the opinions
+        of philosophers, the sentiments of orators and poets, as
+        well as the observation of common life, are, in truth,
+        the materials out of which the science of morality is
+        formed; and those who neglect them, are justly chargeable
+        with a vain attempt to philosophise without regard to
+        fact and experience, the sole foundation of all true
+        philosophy.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        Chap. X. 1621-1634
+      </div>
+      <br>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        "If this were merely an objection of taste, I should be
+        willing to allow, that Grotius has indeed poured forth
+        his learning with a profusion, that sometimes rather
+        encumbers than adorns his work, and which is not always
+        necessary to the illustration of his subject. Yet, even
+        in making, that concession, I should rather yield to the
+        tastes of others, than speak from my own feelings. I own
+        that such richness and splendour of literature have a
+        powerful charm for me. They fill my mind with an endless
+        variety of delightful recollections and associations.
+        They relieve the understanding in its progress through a
+        vast science, by calling up the memory of great men and
+        of interesting events. By this means we see the truths of
+        morality clothed with all the eloquence (not that could
+        be produced by the powers of one man, but) that could be
+        bestowed on them by the collective genius of the world.
+        Even virtue and wisdom themselves acquire new majesty in
+        my eyes, when I thus see all the great masters of
+        thinking and writing called together, as it were, from
+        all times and countries, to do them homage and to appear
+        in their train.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        X. 2. His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis
+      </div>
+      <br>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        "But this is no piece for discussions of taste, and I am
+        very ready to own, that mine may be corrupted. The work
+        of Grotius is liable to a more serious objection, though
+        I do not recollect that it has ever been made. His method
+        is inconvenient and unscientific. He has inverted the
+        natural order. That natural order undoubtedly dictates,
+        that we should first search for the original principles
+        of the science, in human nature; then apply them to the
+        regulation of the conduct of individuals; and lastly
+        employ them for the decision of those difficult and
+        complicated questions that arise with respect to the
+        intercourse of nations. But Grotius has chosen the
+        reverse of this method. He begins with the consideration
+        of the states of peace and war, and he examines original
+        principles, only occasionally and incidentally, as they
+        grow out of the questions, which he is called upon to
+        decide. It is a necessary consequence of this disorderly
+        method, which exhibits the elements of the science in the
+        form of scattered digressions, that he seldom employs
+        sufficient discussion on those fundamental truths, and
+        never in the place where such a discussion would be most
+        instructive to the reader. This defect in the plan of
+        Grotius was perceived, and supplied by Puffendorf, who
+        restored natural law to that superiority which belonged
+        to it, and with great propriety, treated the law of
+        nations as only one main branch of the parent stock."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP X. 1621-1634
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Whatever may be the merit of the work of which we are
+      speaking, it must be admitted, that few, on their first
+      appearance, and during a long subsequent period after
+      publication, have received greater or warmer applause. The
+      stores of erudition displayed in it, recommended it to the
+      classical scholar, while the happy application of the
+      author's reading to the affairs of human life, drew to it
+      the attention of common readers. Among those, whose
+      approbation of it, deserved to be recorded, Gustavus
+      Adolphus,-his prime minister the Chancellor Oxenstiern,-and
+      the Elector Palatine Charles Lewis, deserve particular
+      mention.<a name='FNanchor_035_35'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_035_35'><sup>[035]</sup></a> As the trophies of
+      Miltiades are supposed to have kept Themistocles awake, it
+      has been said that the trophies of Grotius drove sleep from
+      Selden, till be produced his celebrated treatise, "<i>De
+      Jure naturali et gentium secundum leges
+      Ebr&aelig;orim</i>." This important work equals that of
+      Grotius in learning; but, from the partial and recondite
+      nature of its subject, never equalled it in popularity.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      X. 9. His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The supposed want of general elementary principles in the
+      work of Grotius gave occasion to Puffendorf's treatise
+      <i>de Jure Naturae et Gentium</i>; afterwards abridged by
+      him into the small octavo volume <i>De Officio hominis et
+      civis</i>: an edition of it in octavo was published by
+      Professor Garschen Carmichael, of Glasgow, in 1724.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The best edition of Grotius's treatise <i>de Jure Belli et
+      Pacis</i> was published at Amsterdam in 1730, by John
+      Barbeyrac.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Foreigners observe, that the study of the law of nature and
+      nations is less cultivated in England than upon the
+      continent. Is it not, because Englishmen are blessed with a
+      free constitution; are admitted into a general
+      participation of all its blessings; are thus personally
+      interested in the national concerns; and have therefore a
+      jurisprudence, which comes nearer to their bosoms? Is it
+      not also, because the law of nature and nations, with all
+      its merit, is so loose, that its principles seldom admit of
+      that practical application, which renders them really
+      useful; and which an English mind always requires?
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='X_3'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c10.3'>X. 3.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      De Veritate Religionis Christian&aelig;.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. X. 1621-1634.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius, while a prisoner in the Castle of Louvestein, had
+      written, in the Dutch language, "A treatise on the Truth of
+      the Christian Religion." He afterwards enlarged it, and
+      translated it, so enlarged, into Latin. It was universally
+      read and admired. French, German, English, modern Greek,
+      Persic, and even Turkish versions of it have been made: it
+      was equally approved by Catholics and Protestants.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      De Veritate Religionis Christian&aelig;.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It was invidiously objected, that he did not attempt to
+      prove, or even mention, the Trinity, and some other gospel
+      mysteries: he replied, satisfactorily in our opinion, that
+      a discussion of any particular tenet of the Christian
+      religion did not fall within the scope of his work. In this
+      respect, he was afterwards imitated by <i>Abadie</i> and
+      <i>Houteville</i>, two of the most eminent apologists of
+      Christianity. The latter expresses himself of the work of
+      Grotius in the following terms:
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Grotius's work is the first, in which we find the
+        characteristics of just reasoning, accuracy, and
+        strength: he is extremely concise; but even this brevity
+        will please us, when we find his work comprehends so many
+        things, without confounding them or lessening their
+        evidence or force. It is no wonder that the book should
+        be translated into so many languages."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The best edition of it is that published by Le Clerc,<a
+      name='FNanchor_036_36'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_036_36'><sup>[036]</sup></a> in 1709 at
+      Amsterdam, in 8vo. To this edition, Le Clerc has added a
+      curious <i>dissertation</i> on <i>religious
+      indifference</i>. He presumes that the supposed
+      indifference is persuaded of the authenticity of the New
+      Testament:-He then (says Le Clerc) must ascertain,-
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. Which are the denominations of religionists which avow
+        their belief of it:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. Which of these are most worthy of the name of
+        Christians:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3. And which profess the Christian religion in most
+        purity and with least extraneous alloy:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4. He will find, that all Christians agree in the
+        fundamental articles of faith:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        5. That all these articles are clearly expressed in the
+        New Testament:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        6. That no tenet should be believed to be of faith,
+        unless the New Testament contains it.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        7. That the providence of God is admirable in the
+        preservation of these tenets, amidst the confused
+        multitude of religious opinions, which have prevailed in
+        the world:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        8. That this confusion was foreseen by God:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        9. That he permitted it as a consequence of his gift of
+        free-will to man:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        10. That the inquirer should aggregate himself to that
+        religious communion, which receives the New Testament as
+        its only rule of faith, and does not persecute others:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        11. That episcopacy without tyranny is the most antient
+        form of ecclesiastical government, and most to be
+        desired; but that it is not essential to a Christian
+        church:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        12. That these were the opinions of Grotius:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        13. Finally, that it is greatly to be desired that a
+        belief of no dogma, not explicitly propounded in the New
+        Testament, should be required.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Such is the religious system propounded by Le Clerc.-Does
+      any religious communion really profess it?-Many Protestant
+      churches declare, that the Bible, and the Bible only,
+      contains their creed: but, do they not all mean by this-the
+      Bible, as it is explained by the Articles, the Formulary,
+      or the Confession received by their church?
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='X_4'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c10.4'>X. 4.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Grotius's Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum circa
+      sacra</i>.-And, <i>Commentatio ad loca qu&aelig;dam Novi
+      Testamenti, qu&aelig; de Antichristo agunt, aut agere
+      putantur</i>.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Nothing in the life of Grotius places him in a more amiable
+      or respectable point of view, than his constant attempts to
+      put Catholics and Protestants into good humour with each
+      other, and to put both into good humour among themselves.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      X. 4. His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum. &amp;c.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      We have mentioned the <i>pacific decree of the States of
+      Holland</i>, which ordered the contending communions to
+      tolerate each other. Grotius is supposed to have framed
+      this wise decree. The Contra-remonstrants attacked it:
+      Grotius reprinted it, with a collection of proofs and
+      authorities.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It gave rise to a controversy on the nice question,
+      respecting the authority of the temporal power to interfere
+      in the ecclesiastical concerns of the state. Grotius
+      adopted, upon this point, the sentiments of what is termed
+      in England the Low Church: he seems to have pushed them to
+      their utmost bearings. With these sentiments, he published
+      his treatise <i>de Imperio summarum potestatum circa
+      sacra</i>. It was disliked by King James and his bishops:
+      Grotius, in their opinion, gave too much authority, in
+      sacred things, to the secular power.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the work of Grotius, respecting <i>Anti-christ</i>, we
+      prefer transcribing Burigni's sentiments to delivering our
+      own.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "This deep study of the Holy Scriptures led Grotius to
+        examine a question, which made much noise at that time.
+        Some Protestant synods had ventured to decide that <i>the
+        Pope was Antichrist</i>; and this extravagance, gravely
+        delivered by the ministers, was regarded by the zealous
+        schismatics, as a fundamental truth. Grotius undertook to
+        overturn such an absurd opinion, that stirred up an
+        irreconcileable enmity between the Roman Catholics and
+        the Protestants; and, of consequence, was a very great
+        obstacle to their re-union, which was the sole object of
+        his desires. He entered therefore upon the consideration
+        of the passages of Scripture relating to Antichrist, and
+        employed his Sundays in it.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        CHAP. X. 1621-1634.
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        "It was this work, that raised him up most enemies. We see
+        by the letters he wrote to his brother, that his best
+        friends were afraid lest they should be suspected of
+        having some hand in the publication of the books, in
+        which he treated of Antichrist. 'If you are afraid of
+        incurring ill will, (he writes thus to his brother), you
+        may easily find people that are far from a factious
+        spirit, who will take care of the impression. Nothing has
+        incensed princes against those, who separated from the
+        church of Rome, more than the injurious names, with which
+        the Protestants load their adversaries; and nothing is a
+        greater hindrance to that re-union, which we are all
+        obliged to labour after, in consequence of Christ's
+        precept and the profession we make of our faith in the
+        creed. Perhaps the Turk, who threatens Italy, will force
+        us to it. In order to arrive at it, we must first remove
+        whatever obstructs a mutual quiet hearing. I hope I shall
+        find assistance in this pious design. I shall not cease
+        to labour in it, and shall rejoice to die employed in so
+        good a work.'
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum, &amp;c.
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        "Reigersberg, Blaeu, Vossius himself, however much devoted
+        to Grotius, beheld with concern the printing of this
+        book, because they did not doubt but it would increase
+        the number of his enemies. Grotius informs his brother,
+        of the uneasiness which Vossius gave him on this subject.
+        'Among those, who wish this work destroyed,' says he, 'I
+        am astonished and grieved to see Vossius. Whence could he
+        have this idea? I imagine somebody has told him, that it
+        would injure the fortune of his children, if he approved
+        of such books; and that, on the contrary, he would find
+        favour by hurting me. We must therefore have recourse to
+        Corcellius or Corvinus.' He elsewhere complains of the
+        too great timidity of this old friend, who at bottom
+        approved of Grotius's sentiments, but durst not own them
+        publicly, because he was not so independent as Grotius.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        CHAP. X. 1621-1634.
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        "The treatise on Anti-christ made much noise among all the
+        declared enemies of the Romish church. Michael Gettichius
+        wrote to Ruarus, that he had only glanced over Grotius's
+        book on Antichrist; but as far as he could judge by the
+        first reading, that learned man, who was possessed of
+        such an excellent genius, and such singular erudition,
+        had no other intention than to engage the learned in a
+        further inquiry concerning Antichrist; and to determine
+        them to attack with greater strength, the Romish
+        Antichrist; or, if he wrote seriously, he wanted to cut
+        out a path for going over, without dishonour, to the
+        Papists. Ruarus answers this letter Dec. 16, 1642, from
+        Dantzic. 'I have always (he says) looked on Grotius as a
+        very honest and at the same time a very learned man. I am
+        persuaded that love of peace engaged him in this work. I
+        don't deny but he has gone too far; the love of antiquity
+        perhaps seduced him: no Remonstrant, that I know of, has
+        as yet answered him; but he has been confuted by some
+        learned Calvinists, particularly Desmonets, minister of
+        Bois le duc, who has written against him with much
+        bitterness.'
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "Grotius's work was printed in 1640, with this title:
+        <i>Commentatio ad loca qu&aelig;dam Novi Testamenti,
+        qu&aelig; de Antichristo agunt aut agere
+        putantur:-Expedenda eruditis."</i><a name=
+        'FNanchor_037_37'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_037_37'><sup>[037]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='X_5'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c10.5'>X. 5.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      His Commentary on the Scriptures.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The theological works of Grotius are comprised in four
+      volumes folio: the three first contain his Commentary, and
+      Notes upon the Scriptures. On their merit, both Catholics
+      and Protestants considerably differ. All allow that an
+      abundance of sacred and profane learning is displayed in
+      them; and that Grotius, by his references to the writings
+      of the Rabbis, and his remarks upon the idiom of the sacred
+      writings, has happily elucidated a multitude of passages in
+      the text. He uniformly adopts the literal and obvious
+      signification of the language used by the holy penmen. In
+      explaining the predictions of the prophets, he maintains
+      that they referred to events anterior to the coming of
+      Christ, and were accomplished in these; so that the natural
+      and obvious sense of the words and phrases, in which they
+      were delivered, does not terminate in Christ; yet, that in
+      some of the predictions, those particularly, which the
+      writers of the New Testament apply to Christ, there is,
+      <i>besides</i> the literal and obvious signification, a
+      hidden and mysterious sense, which lies concealed under the
+      external mark of certain <i>persons</i>, certain
+      <i>events</i>, and certain <i>actions</i>, which are
+      representative of the person, the ministry, the sufferings,
+      and the merits of the Son of God.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. X. 1621-1634.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It has been objected, that this system leads to
+      Socinianism, and even beyond it. All Catholic, and several
+      episcopalian Protestant divines object to it; they
+      generally contend, that the sacred writings ought always to
+      be understood in that sense <i>only</i>, which has been
+      attributed to them, by the early fathers.-Against this
+      system, Dr. Whitby published his celebrated work
+      "Concerning the Interpretation of Scripture after the
+      manner of the Fathers."<a name='FNanchor_038_38'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_038_38'><sup>[038]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The system of Grotius was defended, to a certain extent, by
+      <i>Father Sim&ocirc;n</i>, the oratorian, the father of the
+      modern biblical school. Against both Sim&ocirc;n and
+      Grotius, Bossuet wielded his powerful lance,-in his
+      "Pastoral Instruction on the Works of Father Sim&ocirc;n,"
+      and his "Dissertations upon Grotius." In these works he
+      says that, during thirty years,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Grotius searched for truth in good faith, and at last
+        was so near it, that it is wonderful that he did not take
+        the last step, to which God called him. Shocked at
+        Calvin's harsh doctrines, he embraced Arminianism; then,
+        abandoned it. More a lawyer than a theologian, more a
+        polite scholar than a philosopher, he throws the doctrine
+        of the immortality of the soul into obscurity. He
+        endeavours to weaken and steal from the church, her most
+        powerful proofs of the divinity of the Son of God, and
+        strives to darken the prophecies, which announce the
+        arrival of the Messiah."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Bossuet proceeds to particularize some of the principal
+      errors of Grotius: Le Clerc replied to the prelate's
+      criticism, by his <i>Sentimens de quelques Theologiens de
+      la Hollande</i>.-Grotius had also an able advocate in
+      Father Sim&ocirc;n. His defence of Grotius against the
+      charge of <i>semi-Pelagianism</i>, in the <i>Bibliotheque
+      de Sainjore</i>,<a name='FNanchor_039_39'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_039_39'><sup>[039]</sup></a> appears to be
+      satisfactory. He cites the note of Grotius, on the Acts of
+      the Apostles, (the celebrated ch. xiii. ver. 38), in which
+      he says expressly that he does not exclude preventive
+      grace: this the semi-Pelagians denied altogether. But in
+      his defence of Grotius against the charge of
+      <i>Socinianism</i>, he is not equally successful. Bossuet
+      sent his <i>Pastoral Instruction</i>, and <i>Dissertations
+      upon Grotius</i>, to the bishop of Fr&eacute;jus, afterward
+      Cardinal de Fleury: he accompanied them by a letter, which
+      closes with these remarkable words:
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "The spirit of incredulity gains ground in the world
+        every day: you have often heard me make this remark. It
+        is now worse than ever, as the Gospel itself is used for
+        the corruption of religion. I thank God that at my age he
+        blesses me with sufficient strength to resist the
+        torrent."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. X. 1621-1634.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Dom. Calmet<a name='FNanchor_040_40'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_040_40'><sup>[040]</sup></a> calls Grotius,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "one of the most able and moderate Protestant writers:
+        one who spreads throughout his notes a pleasing profusion
+        of profane literature, which causes his works to be
+        sought for and read by those, who have taste for that
+        kind of literature. His high reputation, great erudition,
+        and rare modesty," says Dom. Calmet, "render it easy for
+        him to insinuate his particular sentiments respecting the
+        divinity of Christ, against which, his readers should be
+        guarded."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='X_6'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c10.6'>X. 6.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Some other Works of Grotius</i>.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      1. The first which we shall mention is his history of the
+      <i>Goths, Vandals, and Lombards</i>, written in the Latin
+      language, and accompanied by learned dissertations. He
+      composed it, as a testimony of his gratitude to the Swedes,
+      by doing honour to their gothic ancestors. The preface has
+      always been admired, for its erudition and sound criticism.
+      But the Belgic friends of Grotius accused him of elevating
+      the Swedes at their expense.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      X. 6. Other Works of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      2. A more important work consists of his <i>Annals, and
+      History of the United Provinces</i>. The Annals begin with
+      the year 1588, when Prince Maurice had the greatest
+      influence in the affairs of the United Provinces; and
+      concludes with the truce of twelve years, signed between
+      them and Spain. The impartiality, with which these works
+      are written, has been praised by every writer.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is to be lamented that Grotius professed to imitate,
+      both in his Annals and History, the style of Tacitus.
+      Expressed by his own pen, the style of Tacitus is
+      energetic, picturesque, and pleasing; but it is impossible
+      to deny its frequent abruptness and obscurity. Generally
+      speaking, an imitation of what is defective, contains a
+      larger share, than the original, of its distinctive defect.
+      It should however be added, that Grotius's own style is
+      short, sententious and broken; and possesses nothing of the
+      meliflous ease of the ultramontane Latinists; or of our
+      Milton or Buchanan. None of the works of Grotius, which we
+      have mentioned in this Article, were published till after
+      his decease.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      3. It remains to notice the <i>Letters of Grotius</i>,
+      published at Amsterdam in one volume folio, in 1687.-A
+      multitude of his unpublished letters is said to exist in
+      different public and private libraries.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. X. 1621-1634.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      His published letters are an invaluable treasure: they
+      abound with wise maxims of sound policy, and curious
+      discussions on points arising on Roman or Belgic
+      jurisprudence. Many points of sacred and profane learning,
+      and particularly of the civil and canon law, are treated in
+      them with equal learning and taste. For the perfect
+      understanding of them, the letters of the correspondents of
+      Grotius should be perused: they are principally to be
+      found, in the <i>Pr&aelig;stantium et Eruditorum Virorum
+      Epistol&aelig; Ecclesiastic&aelig; et Theologic&aelig;</i>,
+      published at Amsterdam in 1684. A critical account of the
+      Letters of Grotius, executed with great taste and judgment,
+      is inserted in the first volume of the <i>Bibliotheque
+      Universelle et Historique</i>.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_041_41'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_041_41'><sup>[041]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      X. 6. Other Works of Grotius.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is acknowledged that the letters of Grotius, are written
+      in the finest latinity, and contain much valuable
+      information; but the point, the sprightliness, the genius,
+      the vivid descriptions of men and things, which are so
+      profusely scattered over the letters of Erasmus, are seldom
+      discoverable in those of Grotius. A man of learning would
+      have been gratified beyond measure, by the profound
+      conversations of Grotius and Father Petau: but what a treat
+      must it have been, to have assisted with one, two, or three
+      good listeners, at the conversations between Erasmus and
+      Sir Thomas More!
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_XI'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c11'>CHAPTER XI.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      GROTIUS.-AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN TO THE
+      COURT OF FRANCE.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1634-1645.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The embassy of Grotius is connected with an important
+      period in the history of the War of Thirty years.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This celebrated war was principally caused by the religious
+      disputes of the sixteenth century. Very soon after Luther's
+      first attack on the See of Rome, the Reformation was
+      established in Saxony, Livonia, Prussia, and Hesse-cassell;
+      in many imperial towns; in Friezland and Holland; in
+      several of the Swiss Cantons; in Pomerania, Mecklenburgh,
+      Anhalt; Sweden, Denmark, Norway; England, and Scotland. Its
+      progress in Germany is particularly connected with the
+      subject of these pages.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Embassy of Grotius in the Court of France.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      At the diet of Augsburgh, in 1530, the Protestant princes
+      of Germany delivered to the emperor their Confession of
+      Faith; they afterwards, at Smalcald, entered into an
+      offensive and defensive league against the emperor. Being
+      sensible that they were unable to resist him, they engaged
+      the French monarch in their cause. At first, the emperor
+      was victorious; but a new league was formed. France then
+      took a more active part in favour of the confederates, and
+      the contest ended in the peace of Passau, in 1552, there
+      the two parties, for the first time, treated as equals, and
+      the free exercise of the Lutheran religion was allowed.
+      Things remained quiet during the reigns of Ferdinand the
+      First and Maximilian the Second; but, in consequence of the
+      disputes, which arose on the succession to the dutchies of
+      Cleves and Juliers, the religious differences broke out
+      with fresh animosity:-the Protestant princes formed a
+      confederacy called the <i>Evangelical Union</i>, and
+      placed, at its head, the Elector Palatine; the Catholics
+      formed a confederacy called the <i>Catholic League</i>, and
+      placed, at its head, the Duke of Bavaria. In the year 1618,
+      they burst into open war; every state in Europe, and even
+      the Ottoman princes, at one time or other, took a part in
+      it. France was the soul of the Protestant cause; she
+      assisted it with her armies, and her subsidies:-it may be
+      truly said, that, if there be a Protestant state from the
+      Vistula to the Rhine, or a Mahometan, state between the
+      Danube and the Mediterranean, its existence is owing to the
+      Bourbon monarchs. From the period of its duration, it has
+      been called the WAR OF THIRTY YEARS: it is divided, by its
+      <i>Palatine, Danish, Swedish,</i> and <i>French</i>
+      periods.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      1. Frederick, the fifth <i>Elector Palatine</i> of that
+      name, being elected King of Bohemia, by the states of that
+      kingdom, made war on the emperor Ferdinand the Second.
+      Being defeated in 1620, at the battle of Prague, and
+      abandoned by his allies, he was driven from Bohemia, and
+      deprived of his other states.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      2. Christian the Fourth of <i>Denmark</i>, then placed
+      himself at the head of the confederacy against the emperor;
+      but, having in 1626, lost the battle of Lutter, in which
+      Tilly commanded the Austrian forces; he signed, three years
+      after that event, a separate peace with the emperor.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the following year, Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden,
+      was placed at the head of the confederacy. Their cause
+      appeared desperate: Walstein, the Austrian general, had
+      been uniformly successful, and almost the whole of Germany
+      had submitted to the emperor: but the Austrians soon
+      experienced a severe reverse of fortune.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      3. Lewis XIII filled at that time, the throne of France;
+      his councils were guided by Cardinal Richelieu, one of the
+      ablest statesmen that has appeared upon the theatre of the
+      world. Vast, but provident in his designs; daring, but
+      considerate in his operations; capable of the largest views
+      and the most minute attentions; he formed three immense
+      projects, and succeeded in all.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "When your Majesty," he thus addresses the monarch in his
+      celebrated <i>Testament Politique</i>, "resolved at the
+      same time to admit me into your councils, and to give me a
+      great portion of your confidence, I can say with truth that
+      the Hugonots divided the state with you; that the great,
+      conducted themselves, as if they were not your subjects,
+      and the governors of the provinces, as if they were the
+      sovereigns of them; and that France was contemned by her
+      foreign allies."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      To reduce the Hugonots, to lower the nobility, to elevate
+      France to be the preponderating power in Europe, were the
+      three objects, which the Cardinal proposed to himself. In
+      each, he had difficulties to encounter, which extraordinary
+      talents only could surmount. By a strict administration of
+      justice, and severely punishing, without respect to rank or
+      connections, those, who engaged in treasonable practices,
+      he completely subdued the towering spirit of the nobility;
+      by victorious armies and a vigorous dispensation of the
+      laws, he reduced the Hugonots; and, by calling forth all
+      the energies of his country, and arraying half the
+      Continent against Austria and Spain, he gave to France an
+      almost irresistible ascendant in the concerns of Europe.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XI 1634-1645.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      To the last only of these three designs our present subject
+      leads us.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>Sweden</i> had long been engaged in a war against
+      Denmark, and highly dissatisfied with Austria. By the
+      persuasion of Richelieu, she made peace with the Danes, and
+      entered into an offensive and defensive alliance with
+      France. In consequence of it, Gustavus Adolphus was placed
+      at the head of the Protestant confederacy: a large army of
+      Swedes entered Germany; Gustavus was invested with the
+      command of the confederate forces, and his brilliant
+      campaigns turned the tide of success in their favour. At
+      Lutzen he obtained a complete victory, but lost his life.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      After the death of Gustavus, the States assembled, and the
+      Mareschal of the Diet proposed, that the celebrated
+      Christina, the only child of Gustavus, then an infant of
+      very tender years, should be crowned: the Mareschal carried
+      her in his arms into the midst of the assembly. On
+      observing her, all were struck with her likeness to her
+      father. "Yes!" they cried, "it is she herself! she has the
+      eyes, the nose and the forehead of Gustavus! We will have
+      her for our queen!" She was immediately seated on the
+      throne, and proclaimed queen. The regency of the kingdom,
+      during the minority of Christina, was conferred on the
+      Chancellor Oxenstiern: he had been the confidential
+      minister and friend of Gustavus, and shewed through life
+      that he deserved that confidence, by his wisdom, eminent
+      talents, and spotless integrity. Both the monarch and his
+      minister entertained a high opinion of the abilities and
+      virtue of Grotius: His treatise <i>De Jure Belli et
+      Pacis</i> was found, after the death of Gustavus, in the
+      royal tent.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      4. Not long after the disastrous victory of the Swedes at
+      Lutzen, the Austrian and confederate armies conflicted at
+      Nordlingen, in one of the most obstinate and bloody battles
+      recorded in history: the confederates were completely
+      defeated. The blame was thrown on the Swedes; they were
+      deserted by almost all their Protestant allies, and the
+      weight of the war devolved almost entirely upon the Swedes
+      and <i>the French</i>. Till this time, they had acted and
+      negociated on an equality: the loss of this battle made the
+      Swedes dependent upon France, and the haughty genius of
+      Richelieu made them severely feel it.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The first object of Oxenstiern was to renew the treaty with
+      France: a skilful negociator on the part of Sweden was
+      necessary. Oxenstiern fixed his eye upon Grotius: the
+      penetrating minister had several conversations with him.
+      The embassy to France was certainly the most important
+      commission, with which a minister from Sweden could be
+      charged: Oxenstiern's appointment of Grotius to it,
+      demonstrated the minister's high opinion of him. Some time
+      in July 1634, he declared Grotius councillor to the Queen
+      of Sweden, and her ambassador to the court of France.
+      Grotius made his public entry into Paris on Friday the 2d
+      of March 1635. Nothing of the customary ceremonial or
+      compliment was omitted in his regard, by the court of
+      France.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Unfortunately for the success of the embassy of Grotius,
+      two envoys from some of the Protestant states in Germany
+      had previously signed a treaty with France, which was
+      generally considered by the confederates to be injurious to
+      their interests.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The first interview of Grotius with the Cardinal took place
+      on the 28th March. During their conference, a dispatch
+      arrived from Oxenstiern to Grotius: it was immediately put
+      into his bands, by the Cardinal's desire. It announced a
+      resolution, taken by the Chancellor, to repair to Paris,
+      and that he was actually on his journey thither. Richelieu
+      was displeased: but he determined to give the chancellor
+      the most honourable and flattering reception. On the 21st
+      of April, Grotius met Oxenstiern at Soissons: they
+      proceeded together to Paris. Conferences between the
+      Cardinal and the Chancellor immediately took place. The
+      matter in discussion between the courts were soon arranged:
+      France undertook to declare war against the emperor, to
+      subsidize Sweden, and to send an army to co-operate with
+      her forces in Germany. It has always been considered highly
+      creditable to the firmness and talents of Oxenstiern, that,
+      in the reduced condition of the Swedes, he could obtain for
+      them such advantageous terms. Immediately after the treaty
+      was signed, the Chancellor quitted France. During his stay,
+      he shewed a marked attention to Grotius, and expressed
+      unqualified approbation of his conduct and views.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The arms of Sweden again triumphed. In Pomerania, General
+      Bannier obtained important advantages over the
+      imperialists; in Alsace, the arms of the Duke of
+      Saxe-Weimar were equally successful. In the following year,
+      the two victorious generals carried their arms into the
+      heart of the Austrian territories, and, were almost
+      uniformly successful.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      But it is foreign to these pages to dwell further on the
+      military achievements or political intrigues of the times
+      of which we are speaking. Humanity shudders at the perusal
+      of the events of this war. Through the whole of its long
+      period, Germany was a scene of devastation. In its northern
+      and central parts, the ravages of advancing and retreating
+      armies were repeatedly experienced in their utmost horrors:
+      many of its finest towns were destroyed; whole villages
+      depopulated; large territories laid waste. Frequently the
+      women, the children, and the aged, naked, pale, and
+      disfigured, were seen wandering over the fields, supporting
+      themselves by the leaves of trees, by wild roots, and even
+      grass. The war extended itself into Lorraine: an affecting
+      account of the calamities, which it produced in that
+      beautiful province, was published by Father Caussin, who
+      accompanied Lewis XIII into it, as his confessor.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Struck with the scene of woe, St. Vincent of Paul, an
+      humble missionary priest, who, at that time, resided at
+      Paris, requested an audience of Cardinal de Richelieu.
+      Being admitted, he represented to his eminence, with
+      respect, but with firmness, the misery of the people, the
+      sins, and all the other enormities, which are the usual
+      consequences of war: he then fell upon his knees, and in a
+      voice, equally animated by grief and charity, "Sir!" he
+      said to the Cardinal "have mercy upon us! Have compassion
+      upon the world! Give us peace!" The stern and vindictive
+      genius of the Cardinal sunk before the man of God. He
+      raised Vincent from the ground. He told him, with much
+      apparent benignity, that "the general pacification of
+      Europe was his great object, but that unfortunately it did
+      not depend on him alone; there being, both within and
+      without the kingdom, those who sought the contrary, and
+      prevented peace." Few ministers have shewn greater ability,
+      or produced greater public or private misery, than
+      Richelieu. It may, on the other hand, be doubted, whether,
+      at the day of general retribution, when every child of Adam
+      will have to account for his works, even one will appear
+      with more numerous deeds of useful and heroic charity than
+      St. Vincent of Paul.<a name='FNanchor_042_42'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_042_42'><sup>[042]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The affairs of the important embassy entrusted to Grotius,
+      prospered in his hands. In his conduct, there was an
+      uniform assemblage of prudence, activity, moderation, and
+      firmness. To the French monarch, he was always
+      acceptable-not always so to the cardinal minister. It was
+      the constant object of the latter, to delay the payments of
+      the subsidies promised to Sweden, or to make deductions
+      from them; and to lessen the number of soldiers, which
+      France was bound, by treaty to supply. Sometimes by
+      blandishments, sometimes by loftiness, the minister or his
+      agents endeavoured to induce Grotius to sanction these
+      irregularities: but Grotius was always true to the
+      interests of the country which he represented: it does not
+      appear, that the Cardinal gained a single point against
+      him. Towards the close of his embassy, Grotius succeeded in
+      renewing the treaty between Sweden and France, on terms
+      which were considered to do great honour to his diplomatic
+      talents.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In the discharge of his embassy, Grotius had to sustain
+      other unpleasantnesses. His pension was not regularly paid:
+      this often subjected him to great inconveniences. He had
+      disputes respecting rank and ceremonial, both with the
+      French ministry and the ambassadors of other states. It
+      must surprise an English reader to find, that Grotius
+      questioned the right of the English ambassador to
+      precedence over him: the French court often played one
+      ambassador, against the other.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the midst of these troubles, Grotius preserved the
+      serenity of his mind; and his attachment to sacred and
+      profane literature. He cultivated the acquaintance of the
+      learned and the good, of every communion; and possessed
+      their esteem and regard. His conduct as ambassador was
+      always approved by the Chancellor Oxenstiern, while he
+      lived, and after his decease, by his son and successor in
+      his office. The Queen of Sweden was equally favourable to
+      Grotius; but she unadvisedly took an adventurer into her
+      confidence, and sent him, in an ambiguous character, to
+      Paris. This disgusted Grotius: and age and infirmities now
+      thickened upon him. He applied to the Queen for his recall.
+      She granted it in the most flattering terms, and desired
+      him to repair immediately to Stockholm, to receive, from
+      her, distinguished marks of her favour. She wrote to the
+      Queen of France, a letter, in which she expressed herself
+      in a manner highly honourable to Grotius: she acknowledged
+      her obligations to him and protested that she never would
+      forget them. This was towards the month of March 1645.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      About three years after this event, the war of thirty years
+      was concluded by the peace of Westphalia. France and the
+      Protestant princes of Europe dictated the terms: the Swedes
+      were indemnified for their charges of the war, by
+      Pomerania, Steten, Rugen, Wismar and Verden: the house of
+      Brandenburgh obtained Magdeburgh, Halberstad, Minden and
+      Camin; Alsace was conquered, and retained by France;
+      Lusatia, was ceded to Saxony. The history of the treaty of
+      Westphalia has been ably written by <i>Father Bougeant</i>,
+      a French Jesuit: some critics have pronounced it the best
+      historical work in the French language. Till the late
+      revolution of France, it was the breviary of all French
+      aspirants to political distinction.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_XII'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c12'>CHAPTER XII.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS OF GROTIUS:-SOME OTHER OF HIS
+      WORKS.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1. <i>Subsequent History of Arminianism</i>. 2.
+      <i>Grotius's Religious Sentiments</i>. 3. <i>His Projects
+      of Religious Pacification</i>.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='XII_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c12.1'>XII. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Subsequent History of Arminianism.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      We left the Arminians under the iron arm of Prince
+      Maurice:-He died in 1625:-We have mentioned, that Prince
+      Frederick-Henry his brother, and successor in the
+      Stadtholderate, adopted more moderate councils in their
+      regard; that he recalled the Remonstrants, with some
+      exceptions, from banishment; that many settled at Amsterdam
+      and Rotterdam; and that the Arminians founded a college in
+      the former city:-<i>Episcopius</i> was its first professor
+      of theology:-it has never been without teachers, of
+      eminence for learning, as Courcelles, Pollemberg, Limborch,
+      Le Clerc, Cottemburgh, and Wetstein.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It should be added, that the authority of the Synod of Dort
+      insensibly declined:-its authority was never formally
+      acknowledged by the provinces of <i>Friesland</i>,
+      <i>Zealand</i>, <i>Utrecht</i>, <i>Gueldreland</i> and
+      <i>Gr&ouml;ningen</i>: In 1651, they were induced to
+      intimate that they would see with pleasure, the reformed
+      religion maintained upon the footing, upon which it had
+      been maintained and confirmed by the Synod of Dort; but
+      this intimation was never considered to have the force of a
+      legislative enactment.<a name='FNanchor_043_43'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_043_43'><sup>[043]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII.1. History of Arminianism.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The theological system of the Arminians, after their return
+      to Holland, underwent, if we credit Dr. Mosheim,<a name=
+      'FNanchor_044_44'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_044_44'><sup>[044]</sup></a> a remarkable
+      change. They appear, by his account, to have almost
+      coincided with those, who exclude the necessity of divine
+      grace in the work of conversion and sanctification; and
+      think that Christ demands from men, rather virtue than
+      faith; and has confined that belief, which is essential for
+      salvation, to very few articles. Thus the modern Arminians,
+      according to Dr. Mosheim, admit into their communion,-1st.
+      All, with an exception of Catholics, who receive the holy
+      scriptures; and more especially the New Testament; allowing
+      at the same time to every individual, his own
+      interpretation of the sacred books:-2dly. All whose lives
+      are regulated by the law of God:-3dly. And all, who neither
+      persecute nor bear ill will towards those who differ from
+      them in their religious sentiments. Their <i>Confession of
+      Faith</i> was drawn up by Episcopius in 1622: four divines
+      of the established church of Holland published a
+      <i>Refutation</i> of it: the authors of the
+      <i>Confession</i> replied to it in the following year, by
+      their <i>Apology</i>.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      James I. of England directed his theological
+      representatives in the Synod of Dort, to join the members
+      in the condemnation of the doctrines of Arminius:-but, when
+      the English divines returned from that assembly, and gave a
+      full account of its proceedings, the King and the greatest
+      part of the English clergy expressed their dissatisfaction
+      with them, and declared that the sentiments of Arminius on
+      the divine decrees, was preferable to those of Calvin and
+      Gomarus. By the exertions of Archbishop Laud, and
+      afterwards, in consequence of the general tendency of the
+      public mind to doctrines of mildness and comprehension, an
+      Arminian construction of the English articles on
+      predestination and free-will was adopted:-it has since
+      prevailed,-and the Arminian creed, by the number of its
+      secret or open adherents, has insensibly found admittance
+      into every Protestant church.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      History of Arminianism.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      If we believe the celebrated Jurieu<a name=
+      'FNanchor_045_45'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_045_45'><sup>[045]</sup></a>, Arminianism even
+      in its Socinian form, abounded, in less than a century,
+      after the death of Arminius, in the United Provinces, and
+      among the Hugonots of the adjacent part of France. By his
+      account, the dispersion of the French Hugonots, in
+      consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
+      revealed to the terrified reformers of the original school,
+      the alarming secret of the preponderance of Socinianism in
+      the reformed church. Its members, according to Jurieu,
+      being no longer under the controul of the civil power,
+      spread their Socinian principles every where, with the
+      utmost activity and success: even in England, Jurieu
+      professed to discover the effect of their exertions. He
+      mentions that in 1698, thirty-four French refugee ministers
+      residing in London addressed a letter to the synod, then
+      sitting at Amsterdam, in which they declared, that
+      Socinianism had spread so rapidly, that, if the
+      ecclesiastical assemblies supplied no means for checking
+      their growth, or used palliatives only, the mischief would
+      be incurable.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This charge, however, the Arminians have indignantly
+      rejected. A writer in the <i>Bibliotheque Germanique</i><a
+      name='FNanchor_046_46'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_046_46'><sup>[046]</sup></a> relates, that
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "the celebrated Anthony Collins called on M. Le Clerc of
+        Amsterdam: He was accompanied by some Frenchmen, of the
+        fraternity of those, who think freely. They expected to
+        find the religious opinions of Le Clerc in unison with
+        their own, but, they were surprised to find the strong
+        stand which he made in favour of revelation. He proved to
+        them, with great strength of argument, the truth of the
+        Christian religion. Jesus Christ, he told them, was born
+        among the Jews; still, it was not the Jewish religion
+        which he taught; neither was it the religion of the Pagan
+        neighbourhood; but, a religion infinitely superior to
+        both. One sees in it the most striking marks of divinity.
+        The Christians, who followed, were incapable of imagining
+        any thing so beautiful. Add to this, that the Christian
+        religion is so excellently calculated for the good of
+        society, that, if we did not derive so great a present
+        from heaven, the good and safety of men would absolutely
+        demand from them an equivalent."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Throughout the conversation, M. Le Clerc reproached the
+      Deists strongly, for the hatred, which they shewed to
+      Christianity. He proved, that, by banishing it from the
+      world,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "they would overturn whatever was most holy and
+        respectable among men; break asunder the surest bonds of
+        humanity; teach men to shake off the yoke of law; deprive
+        them of their strongest incitement to virtue, and bereave
+        them of their best comfort. What," (he asked them) "do
+        you substitute in its place? Can you flatter yourself,
+        that you will discover something better? You expect, no
+        doubt, that men will erect statues to you, for your
+        exertions to deprive them of their religion! Permit me to
+        tell you, that the part you act makes you odious and
+        despicable in the eyes of all honest men."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He finished the conversation by requesting Mr. Collins to
+      bring him no more such visitors.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 1. History of Arminians.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      From the close of the 17th century, till the present time,
+      Arminianism has been continually on the increase. It is a
+      just observation of Mr. Gibbon, that "the disciples of
+      Arminius must not be computed by their separate
+      congregations."
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Doctor Maclaine says, it is certain, that the most eminent
+      philosophers have been found among the Arminians. "If both
+      Arminians and Calvinists," says Mr. Evans, in the excellent
+      work we have cited,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "claim a <i>King</i> (<i>James</i> I.), it is certain
+        that the latter alone can boast of a <i>Newton</i>, a
+        <i>Locke</i>, a <i>Clarke</i>, or a <i>Boyle</i>.
+        Archbishop <i>Usher</i> is said to have lived a
+        <i>Calvinist</i>; and died an <i>Arminian</i>. The
+        members of the episcopal church in Scotland; the
+        Moravians, the general Baptists, the Wesleyan Methodists,
+        the Quakers or Friends, are Arminians; and it is supposed
+        that a great proportion of the Kirk of Scotland teach the
+        doctrines of Arminius, though they have a Calvinistic
+        confession of faith. What a pity it is that the opinions
+        either of Calvinists or Arminians,"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      -(we beg leave to add: or any other Catholic or Protestant
+      opinions whatsoever)-
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "cannot in the eyes of some persons be held without a
+        diminution of Christian charity!"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='XII_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c12.2'>XII. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>Grotius's Religious Sentiments</i>.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      To the milder form of Arminianism, Grotius always inclined.
+      During his embassy in France, he adopted it without
+      reserve. He was soon disgusted with the French Calvinists.
+      The ministers of Charenton accepted the decisions of the
+      Synod of Dort, and, in conformity with them, refused, when
+      Grotius repaired to Paris, after his escape from
+      Louvestein, to admit him into their communion. On his
+      arrival at Paris, in quality of ambassador, they offered to
+      receive him: Grotius expressed pleasure at the proposal;
+      and, intimated to them, that if he should go into any
+      country, in which the Lutherans, knowing his sentiments on
+      the sacrament of our Lord's Supper, should be willing to
+      receive him into their communion, he would make no
+      difficulty in joining them. Thus every thing appeared to be
+      settled; but the ministers then objected to receive Grotius
+      as ambassador from Sweden, because that kingdom was
+      Lutheran. Grotius, upon this, resolved to have the divine
+      service performed in his house. Lutherans publicly attended
+      it. "We have celebrated," he writes to his brother, "the
+      Feast of the Nativity in my house: the Duke of Wirtemberg,
+      the Count de Saxenburgh, and several Swedish and German
+      lords, attended at it." His first chaplain was imprudent,
+      his second gave him great satisfaction.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 2. Grotius' Religious Sentiments.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Burigni has collected, in the last chapter of his Life of
+      Grotius, a multitude of passages, which shew his gradual
+      leaning to the Roman Catholic faith. He produces several
+      passages from his works, which prove,-
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i> he paid high regard to decisions of the
+      councils, and the discipline of the primitive church; and
+      thought the sentiments of the antient church should be
+      deferred to, in the explanation of the Scriptures: <a name=
+      'FNanchor_047_47'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_047_47'><sup>[047]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, the early reformers were held by him in no
+      great esteem:<a name='FNanchor_048_48'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_048_48'><sup>[048]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, mentioning Casaubon's sentiments, Grotius said
+      that this learned man thought the Roman Catholics of France
+      better informed than those of other countries, and came
+      nearer to truth than the ministers of Charenton:-
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "It cannot," says Grotius, "be denied, that there are
+        several Roman Catholic pastors here, who teach true
+        religion, without any mixture of superstition; it were to
+        be wished that all did the same:"<a name=
+        'FNanchor_049_49'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_049_49'><sup>[049]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i> the Calvinists were schismatics, and had no
+      mission:<a name='FNanchor_050_50'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_050_50'><sup>[050]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i> the Jesuits were learned men and good subjects.
+      "I know many of them," he says, in one of his writings
+      against Rivetus, "who are very desirous to see abuses
+      abolished, and the church restored to its primitive
+      unity."-We shall hereafter see that Father Pet&acirc;u, an
+      illustrious member of the society, possessed the confidence
+      of Grotius:<a name='FNanchor_051_51'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_051_51'><sup>[051]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, Grotius looked upon the abolition of
+      episcopacy and of a visible head of the church, as
+      something very monstrous:<a name='FNanchor_052_52'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_052_52'><sup>[052]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, he acknowledged that some change was made in
+      the eucharistic bread; that, when Jesus Christ, being
+      sacramentally present, favours us with his substance,-as
+      the Council of Trent expresses its doctrine on the
+      Eucharist,-the appearances of bread and wine remain, and in
+      their place succeed the body and blood of Christ: <a name=
+      'FNanchor_053_53'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_053_53'><sup>[053]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 2. Grotius's Religious Sentiments.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, Grotius did not approve of the sentiments of
+      the Calvinists concerning the Eucharist, and reproached
+      them with their contradiction.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "You will hear them state in their confessions," says
+        Grotius, "that they really, substantially and essentially
+        partake of Christ's body and his blood; but, in their
+        disputes, they maintain that Christ is received only
+        spiritually, by faith. The antients go much further: they
+        admit a real incorporation of Jesus Christ with us, and
+        the reality of Christ's body, as Saint Hilarius speaks."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It must however be remarked that, although Grotius thought
+      that the term <i>Transubstantiation</i> adopted by the
+      council of Trent, was capable of a good interpretation, it
+      is not clear, what was his precise opinion respecting the
+      Eucharist. He proposed the following formulary:
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "We believe that, in the use of the supper, we truly,
+        really, and substantially,-that is to say,-in its proper
+        substance,-receive the true body and the true blood of
+        Jesus Christ, in a spiritual and ineffable manner: <a
+        name='FNanchor_054_54'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_054_54'><sup>[054]</sup></a>"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, Grotius justified the decision of the Council
+      of Trent, concerning the number of the sacraments:<a name=
+      'FNanchor_055_55'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_055_55'><sup>[055]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, after the year 1640, he took no offence at the
+      use of images in churches, or at prayers for the dead:<a
+      name='FNanchor_056_56'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_056_56'><sup>[056]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i>, he thought the bishops of Rome may be in
+      error, but cannot long remain in it, if they adhere to the
+      universal church;-this seems to presuppose the church's
+      infallibility:<a name='FNanchor_057_57'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_057_57'><sup>[057]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <i>That</i> in the opinion of Grotius; fasting was early
+      used in the church; the observance of Lent was a very early
+      practice: the sign of the cross had something respectable
+      in it; the fathers held virginity a more perfect state than
+      marriage; and the celibacy of the priests conformable to
+      the antient discipline of the church:<a name=
+      'FNanchor_058_58'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_058_58'><sup>[058]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      And
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "that those, who shall read the decrees of the Council of
+        Trent, with a mind disposed to peace, will find that
+        every thing is wisely explained in them: and agreeable to
+        what is taught by the Scriptures and the antient
+        fathers."<a name='FNanchor_059_59'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_059_59'><sup>[059]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is certain, that Grotius was intimate with Father
+      Pet&acirc;u, a Jesuit, inferior to none of his society, in
+      genius and learning; that the good father used all his
+      endeavours to convert Grotius to the Roman Catholic
+      religion; and was, at length, so much persuaded of his
+      friend's catholicity, that, when he heard of his death, he
+      said prayers for the repose of his soul.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_060_60'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_060_60'><sup>[060]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As the religion of Grotius was a problem to many,
+      Men&acirc;ge wrote the following Epigram upon it: the sense
+      of it is, that-
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "As many sects claimed the religion of Grotius, as the
+        towns, which contended for the birth of Homer."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='poem'>
+      <span><i>Smyrna, Rhodos, Colophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos,
+      Athen&aelig;,</i></span><br>
+      <span class='c10'><i>Siderei certant vatis de patri&acirc;
+      Homeri</i>:</span><br>
+      <span><i>Grotiad&aelig; certant de religione,
+      Socinus</i>,</span><br>
+      <span class='c10'><i>Arrius, Arminius, Calvinus, Roma,
+      Lutherus</i>.</span>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='XII_3'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c12_3'>XII. 3.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Grotius's Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      A wish for religious peace among Christians grew with the
+      growth and strengthened with the strength of Grotius. It
+      was known, before his imprisonment at Louvestein, that he
+      entertained these sentiments: he avows them in the
+      dedication to Lewis XIII. of his treatise <i>de Jure Belli
+      et Pacis</i>.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "I shall never cease," he says in a letter to his
+        brother,<a name='FNanchor_061_61'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_061_61'><sup>[061]</sup></a> "to use my utmost
+        endeavours for establishing peace among Christians; And,
+        if I should not succeed, it will be honourable to die in
+        such an enterprise." "I am not the only one, who has
+        conceived such projects," he writes in another letter to
+        his brother:<a name='FNanchor_062_62'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_062_62'><sup>[062]</sup></a> "Erasmus,
+        Cassander; Wicelius and Casaubon had the same design. La
+        Meletiere is employed at present in it. Cardinal de
+        Richelieu declares that he will protect the coalition;
+        and he is such a fortunate man, that he never undertakes
+        any thing, in which he does not succeed. If there were no
+        hopes of success at present, ought we not to sow the
+        seed, which may he useful to posterity?<a name=
+        'FNanchor_063_63'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_063_63'><sup>[063]</sup></a> Even if we should
+        only diminish the mutual hatred among Christians, and
+        render them more sociable, would not this be worth
+        purchasing at the price of some labour and reproaches?"<a
+        name='FNanchor_064_64'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_064_64'><sup>[064]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius expressed himself in similar terms to Baron
+      Oxenstiern: Surely it is the true language of the Gospel.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the first <a name='ap_1'></a><a href=
+      '#APPENDIX_I'>appendix</a> to this work,-we shall insert,
+      an account
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith, and Symbolic
+        Books, of the Roman Catholic, Greek, and principal
+        Protestant churches:"-
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the second <a name='ap_2'></a><a href=
+      '#APPENDIX_II'>appendix</a>,-we shall insert an account of
+      the principal attempts made, since the Reformation, for the
+      re-union of Christians.-The former is abridged from the
+      "Historical and Literary Account of the Confessions of
+      Faith," which was formerly published by the present
+      writer;-the second is an essay appended to that work:-both
+      have been before referred to in the present publication.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Grotius<a name='FNanchor_065_65'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_065_65'><sup>[065]</sup></a> thought that the
+      most compendious way to produce universal religious peace
+      among Christians, would be to frame, with the concurrence
+      of all the orthodox Eastern and Western churches, a
+      formulary which should express, briefly and explicitly, all
+      the articles of faith, the belief of which they agree in
+      thinking essential to salvation. In a letter addressed from
+      Paris in 1625,<a name='FNanchor_066_66'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_066_66'><sup>[066]</sup></a> he mentions that
+      Gustavus Adolphus had entertained projects of religious
+      pacification, and had taken measures to effect it; that he
+      had procured a meeting of divines of the Lutheran and
+      Reformed churches and that they had separated amicably:
+      Grotius says that the differences between them were as
+      slight as those between the Greek and Coptic churches.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      For some time, Grotius flattered himself that he should
+      succeed in his project of pacification. In one of his
+      letters to his brother, he mentions distinguished
+      Protestants, who approved and encouraged them
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "I perceive," he says, "that by conversing with men of
+        the most learning among the reformed, and explaining my
+        sentiments to them, they are of my opinion; and that
+        their number will increase, if my treatises are
+        dispersed. I can truly affirm, that I have said nothing
+        in them from party spirit, but followed truth as closely
+        as I could."<a name='FNanchor_067_67'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_067_67'><sup>[067]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      He imagined that some Catholics entered into his views.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "The ablest men among the Catholics," he thus writes to
+        his brother, "think that what I have published is written
+        with great freedom and moderation, and approve of it."<a
+        name='FNanchor_068_68'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_068_68'><sup>[068]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These pacific projects of Grotius cemented the union
+      between him and Father Pet&acirc;u.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "I had," says that most learned Jesuit, in his 12th
+        Letter, "a great desire to see and converse with Grotius.
+        We have been long together, and very intimate. He is, as
+        far as I can judge, a good man, and possesses great
+        candour. I do not think him far from becoming a Catholic,
+        after the example of Holstenius as you hoped. I shall
+        neglect nothing in my power to reconcile him to Christ,
+        and put him in the way of salvation."<a name=
+        'FNanchor_069_69'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_069_69'><sup>[069]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      His Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As Grotius lays so much stress on the pacific labours of
+      Erasmus, Wicelius, Cassander and Casaubon, we shall briefly
+      mention, in the present chapter, the labours of the three
+      first: Casaubon's we shall notice, in the second appendix
+      to this work.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    It appears that <i>Erasmus</i> had it in contemplation to
+    compose three dialogues, upon the important subject of
+    religious pacification: the speakers were to have been
+    Luther, under the name of Thrasimacus, and a Catholic divine,
+    under that of Eubolus. In the first dialogue, they were to
+    have discussed the proper methods of terminating the
+    religious controversies of the times; in the second, to have
+    investigated what were the points in controversy, the belief
+    of which was essential to a member of the church of Christ;
+    in the third, they were to have inquired what were the best
+    means to procure a good understanding between the contending
+    parties, and to effect their union. It is to be lamented that
+    Erasmus did not execute his design. His general sentiments
+    appear in his <i>Paraphrase upon the 83d Psalm</i>; they are
+    expressed with great wisdom and moderation.<a name=
+    'FNanchor_071_71'></a><a href=
+    '#Footnote_071_71'><sup>[071]</sup></a><br>
+    <br>
+
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <i>Wicelius</i>,-who is next mentioned by Grotius, had been
+      professed in a religious order: had quitted it, and
+      embraced Lutheranism: he afterwards forsook that communion,
+      and returned to the Catholic: upon this, he was appointed
+      to a curacy; and, in the discharge of his functions,
+      obtained general esteem: he was much regarded by the
+      Emperors Ferdinand and Maximilian. In 1537, he published at
+      Leipsic a Latin work, "On the method of procuring Religious
+      Concord,-<i>Methodus Concordi&aelig;
+      Ecclesiastic&aelig;</i>." He addressed it to the pope, to
+      all sovereigns, bishops, doctors, and generally to all
+      christians, exhorting them to peace, and to desist from
+      contention. He assumed in it, that the true religion had
+      been preserved in the Catholic church; but he allows that
+      modern doctors had involved it in numerous scholastic
+      subtleties, unknown to antiquity. He complains that on one
+      hand the reformers left nothing untouched; that, on the
+      other, the scholastics would retain every abuse, and every
+      superfluity: Wisdom, he thought, lay between them; the
+      reformers should have respected what antiquity consecrated;
+      the Catholics should have abandoned modern doctrines and
+      modern practices to the discretion of individuals.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The "Royal Road," or <i>Via Regia</i> of Wicelius, a still
+      more important work, was published by him at Helmstadt in
+      1537. Both works were approved, and the perusal of them
+      warmly recommended, by the emperors: they have been often
+      reprinted; they are inserted, with a life of their author,
+      in the second volume of <i>Brown's Fasciculus</i>.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "If all the divines of those times," says Father
+        Sim&ocirc;n the oratorian,<a name=
+        'FNanchor_073_73'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_073_73'><sup>[073]</sup></a> "had possessed
+        the same spirit as Wicelius, the affairs of religion
+        might have taken a different turn."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII.3. His Project of Religious Pacification
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      <i>Cassander</i>, another peacemaker, mentioned with praise
+      by Grotius, is the subject of a long and interesting
+      article in <i>Dupin's Ecclesiastical History</i>:<a name=
+      'FNanchor_074_74'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_074_74'><sup>[074]</sup></a>
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "He was," says Dupin, "solidly learned; and thoroughly
+        versed in ecclesiastical antiquity and the controversies
+        of his own times. The flaming zeal, which he had for the
+        re-union and peace of the church, made him yield much to
+        the Protestants, and led him to advance some propositions
+        that were too bold. But he always kept in the communion
+        of the Catholic church. He declared that he submitted to
+        its judgments, and openly condemned the authors of the
+        schism and their principal errors. He was a gentle,
+        humble and moderate man; patient under afflictions, and
+        entirely disinterested. In his disputes, he never
+        returned injury for injury; and neither in his manners
+        nor in his writings were presumption or arrogance ever
+        discoverable. He avoided glory, honor, or wealth; and
+        lived private and retired, having no other thought or
+        wish, but to promote the peace of the church; no
+        employment, but study; no business, but to compose books,
+        which might be profitable to the public; and no passion,
+        but knowing and teaching the truth."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      His character procured him universal respect. The emperor
+      and several Catholic princes in Germany fixed upon him as a
+      mediator in the religious disputes, by which the empire
+      was, at that time, agitated. In conformity with their views
+      he published his celebrated, "<i>Consultatio de Articulis
+      Religionis inter Catholicos et Protestantes
+      Controversis</i>."
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "In this work," says Mr. Chalmers, "he discusses the
+        several articles of the Augsburgh Confession, stating
+        their difference from the doctrines of the Catholic
+        church, and the concessions that might safely be made in
+        respect to them. This work was written with great
+        liberality, was much applauded by those, who were
+        desirous of a coalition: they were too soon convinced
+        that every attempt of this kind was nugatory. Cassander
+        presented it to the Emperors Ferdinand I. and Maximilian
+        II. They received it favourably; the former invited
+        Cassander to Vienna, but his infirmities prevented his
+        accepting the offer."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XII.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In 1542, Grotius published his "<i>Road to Religious
+      Peace,-Via ad Pacem Ecclesiasticam</i>:" he inserted in it
+      Cassander's "<i>Consultation</i>," and accompanied it with
+      notes.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All pacific persons reverenced Grotius, and still reverence
+      his memory, for his attempts to restore the religious peace
+      of Christendom: all the violent condemned him, and opposed
+      his projects. The contradictions, which he met with,
+      chagrined him; so that he sometimes lost that tranquillity
+      of mind, which he had possessed in his deepest adversity.
+      But, to use his own words, he looked to the blessed
+      Peacemaker for his reward, and trusted that posterity would
+      do justice to its intentions.-
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Perhaps, by writing to reconcile such as entertain very
+        opposite sentiments, I shall," says Grotius, "offend both
+        parties: but, if that should so happen, I shall comfort
+        myself with the example of him, who said, If I please
+        men, I am not the servant of Christ."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.
+    </div>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Grotius," says Burigni, "content with gratifying his
+        pacific desires, expected his reward from posterity. This
+        he clearly intimates in the following verses, written by
+        him on the subject:
+      </p>
+      <div class='poem'>
+        <span><i>"Accipe, sed placid&eacute;, qu&aelig;, si non
+        optimo,cert&eacute;</i></span><br>
+        <span><i>Espressit nobis non mala pacis
+        amor</i>.</span><br>
+        <span><i>Et tibi dic, nostro labor hic si displicet
+        avo</i>,</span><br>
+        <span><i>A gratia pretium posteritate feret</i>."</span>
+      </div>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        The projects of religious pacification did not cease with
+        Grotius: several divines of distinction adopted it; and
+        attempted, some with more prudence and ability than
+        others, to carry it into effect. The principal of these
+        are noticed in the second appendix to the present work.
+        None succeeded: One description of persons, who engaged
+        in this design, was denominated <i>Syncretists</i>, or
+        <i>Calixtines</i>, from <i>George Calixtus</i> their
+        leader: the other, from their calling men from
+        controversy to holiness of life, received the appellation
+        of <i>Pietists</i>: A third party,-perhaps we may style
+        them, the <i>Ultra-orthodox</i>,-more hostile to the
+        former than to the latter-arose in opposition to both,
+        and accused them of sacrificing the doctrines of faith to
+        a mistaken zeal for union and sanctity.<a name=
+        'FNanchor_075_75'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_075_75'><sup>[075]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        It is certain<a name='FNanchor_076_76'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_076_76'><sup>[076]</sup></a> that the friends
+        of union too often erred in this,-that they aimed rather
+        at an uniformity of <i>terms</i> than of
+        <i>sentiments</i>; and thus seemed satisfied, when they
+        engaged the contending parties to use the same <i>words
+        and phrases</i>, though their <i>real difference</i> in
+        opinion remained the same. This could not be justified:
+        it tended evidently to extinguish truth and honour, and
+        to introduce equivocation.
+      </p>
+      <hr class='c2'>
+      <hr class='c7'>
+      <a name='CHAPTER_XIII'></a>
+      <h2>
+        <a href='#c13'>CHAPTER XIII.</a>
+      </h2>
+      <p>
+        THE DEATH OF GROTIUS.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        1645
+      </p>
+      <br>
+
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        CHAP. XIII. 1645.
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        Every thing respecting the recall of Grotius being
+        settled, he embarked at Dieppe for Holland. He was
+        extremely well received at Amsterdam and Rotterdam: the
+        constituted authorities, of the former city fitted a
+        vessel, which was to take him to Hamburgh: there, after
+        along and harassing journey, he arrived on the 16th of
+        May. From Hamburgh he proceeded to L&uuml;bec: the
+        magistrates of that city gave him an honourable
+        reception. He proceeded to Wismar; where Count Wismar,
+        the admiral of the Swedish fleet, gave him a splendid
+        entertainment, and afterwards sent him in a man-of-war to
+        Colmar: thence, he went by land to Stockholm. When he
+        arrived there, Queen Christina was at Upsal; but, hearing
+        that Grotius was at Stockholm, she returned to that city
+        to meet him. On the day after her arrival, she favoured
+        him with a long audience: she expressed to him great
+        satisfaction at his conduct, and made him large promises.
+        These audiences were often repeated; and once she
+        permitted him to have the honour of dining with her. She
+        assured him, that if he would continue in her service, as
+        Councillor of State, and bring his family into Sweden, he
+        should have no reason to complain of her. But Grotius was
+        anxious to leave Sweden; and his passport being delayed,
+        he resolved to quit it without one, and actually
+        proceeded to a seaport about seven leagues distant from
+        Stockholm. The Queen, being informed of his departure,
+        sent a gentleman to inform him, that she wished to see
+        him once more. On this invitation he returned to
+        Stockholm, and was immediately admitted into the Queen's
+        presence; he then explained to her his reasons for
+        wishing to quit Sweden. The Queen appeared to be
+        satisfied with them: she made him a present in money of
+        twelve or thirteen thousand Swedish imperials, of the
+        value of about ten thousand French crowns; she added to
+        the present, some plate, the finishing of which had, she
+        told him, been the only cause of the delay of his
+        passport. She then put it into his hands, and a vessel
+        was appointed to carry him to L&uuml;bec. On the 12th
+        August he embarked for that city.
+      </p>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        The Death of Grotius.
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        What were his real motives for refusing Christina's
+        offers, or in what place he ultimately intended to fix
+        himself, is not known.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        The vessel in which he embarked had scarcely sailed from
+        L&uuml;bec, when it was overtaken by a violent storm, and
+        obliged, on the 17th August, to take shelter in a port
+        fourteen miles distant from Dantzic. Grotius went from it
+        in an open wagon to L&uuml;bec, and arrived very ill at
+        Rostock<a name='FNanchor_077_77'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_077_77'><sup>[077]</sup></a> on the 26th
+        August. No one, there, knew him: his great weakness
+        determined him to call in the aid of a physician: one
+        accordingly attended him: his name was Stochman. On
+        feeling Grotius's pulse, he said his indisposition
+        proceeded from weakness and fatigue, and that, with rest
+        and some restoratives, he might recover; but, on the
+        following day he changed his opinion. Perceiving that the
+        weakness of Grotius increased, and that it was
+        accompanied with a cold sweat and other symptoms
+        indicating an exhaustion of nature, the physician
+        announced that the end of his patient was near. Grotius
+        then asked for a clergyman. <i>John Quistorpius</i> was
+        brought to him. Quistorpius, in a letter to Calovius,
+        gives the following particulars of Grotius's last
+        moments:
+      </p>
+      <div class='blkquot'>
+        <p>
+          "You are desirous of hearing from me, how that Phoenix
+          of Literature, Hugo Grotius, behaved in his last
+          moments, and I am going to tell you. He embarked at
+          Stockholm for L&uuml;bec, and after having been tossed
+          for the three days, by a violent tempest, he was
+          shipwrecked, and got to shore on the coast of
+          Pomerania, from whence he came to our town of Rostock,
+          distant above sixty miles, in an open wagon through
+          wind and rain. He lodged with Balleman; and sent for M.
+          Stochman, the physician, who observing that he was
+          extremely weakened by years, by what he suffered at
+          sea, and by the inconveniences attending the journey,
+          judged that he could not live long. The second day
+          after Grotius's arrival in this town, that is, on the
+          18th of August, O.S. he sent for me, about nine at
+          night, I went, and found him almost at the point of
+          death: I said, 'There was nothing I desired more, than
+          to have seen him in health, that I might have the
+          pleasure of his conversation.' He answered, 'God had
+          ordered it otherwise.' I desired him: to prepare
+          himself for a happier life, to acknowledge that he was
+          a sinner, and to repent of his faults: and, happening
+          to mention the publican, who acknowledged that he was a
+          sinner, and asked God's mercy; he answered, '<i>I am
+          that publican</i>.' I went on, and told him that he
+          must have recourse to Jesus Christ, without whom there
+          is no salvation.'
+        </p>
+        <p>
+          "He replied, '<i>I place all my hope in Jesus
+          Christ</i>.'
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        The Death of Grotius.
+      </div>
+      <div class='blkquot'>
+        <p>
+          "I began to repeat aloud in German, the prayer which
+          begins <i>Herr Jesu:</i><a name=
+          'FNanchor_078_78'></a><a href=
+          '#Footnote_078_78'><sup>[078]</sup></a> he followed me
+          in a very low voice; with his hands clasped. When I had
+          done, I asked him, 'if he understood me.' He answered,
+          '<i>I understand you very well</i>.' I continued to
+          repeat to him those passages of the word of God, which
+          are commonly offered to the remembrance of dying
+          persons; and asking him, 'if he understood me,' he
+          answered, '<i>I heard your voice, but I did not
+          understand what you said.</i>'
+        </p>
+        <p>
+          "These were his last words; soon afterwards he expired;
+          just at midnight. His body was delivered to the
+          physicians, who took out his bowels. I easily obtained
+          leave to bury them in our principal church, which is
+          dedicated to the Virgin."
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        His corpse, was afterwards carried to Delft, and
+        deposited in the tomb of his ancestors. He wrote this
+        modest epitaph for himself,
+      </p>
+      <div class='poem'>
+        <span>"GROTIUS HIC HUGO EST, BATAVUM</span><br>
+        <span class='c10'>CAPTIVUS ET EXSUL,</span><br>
+        <span>LEGATUS REGNI, SUECIA MAGNA, TUI."</span><br>
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        Burigni informs us that Grotius had a very agreeable
+        person, a good complexion, an aquiline nose, sparkling
+        eyes, a serene and smiling countenance; that he was not
+        tall, but very strong, and well built. The engraving of
+        him prefixed to the <i>Hugonis Grotii Manes</i> answers
+        this description.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        It is needless to give an account of his descendants, or
+        their prosperous or adverse fortunes: they are noticed at
+        length by Burigni. In <i>Mr. Boswell's Life of
+        Johnson</i>, mention is made of one who was then in a
+        state of want. Dr. Johnson, in a letter to Dr. Vyse,
+      </p>
+      <div class='blkquot'>
+        <p>
+          "requests him to recommend, an old friend, to his grace
+          the Archbishop of Canterbury. His name," says the
+          Doctor, "is De Groot. He has all the common claims to
+          charity; he is poor and infirm in a great degree. He
+          has likewise another claim, to which no scholar can
+          refuse attention: he is, by several descents, the
+          nephew of Hugo Grotius; of him, of whom every man of
+          learning has perhaps learned something. Let it not be
+          said, that, in any lettered country, the nephew of
+          Grotius, ever asked a charity, and was refused."
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        The reader must be pleased, to be informed, that the
+        application,-it was for some situation, in the
+        charter-house,-was successful. Dr. Vyse informed Dr.
+        Johnson of it, by letter. In his answer,
+      </p>
+      <div class='blkquot'>
+        <p>
+          "Dr. Johnson," by Dr. Vyse's account, "rejoiced much,
+          and was lavish of the praise he bestowed upon his
+          favourite Hugo Grotius."<a name=
+          'FNanchor_079_79'></a><a href=
+          '#Footnote_079_79'><sup>[079]</sup></a>
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <div class='sidenote'>
+        The Death of Grotius.
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        Three points were united in Grotius, each of which would
+        strongly recommend him to Dr. Johnson: he was learned,
+        pious, and opposed to the doctrines of Calvin. It is
+        still more unnecessary to mention the various encomiums,
+        which the learned of all nations have made of Grotius, in
+        prose and verse. That he was one of the most universal
+        scholars, whom the world has produced, and that he
+        possessed sense, taste, and genius in a high degree, is
+        universally confessed. It is equally true, that both his
+        public and his private character, are entitled to a high
+        degree of praise.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        When Queen Christina, heard of his death, she wrote to
+        his widow, a letter of condolence, and requested, that
+        the manuscripts which he had left, might be sent to her:
+      </p>
+      <div class='blkquot'>
+        <p>
+          "My ambassador," the Queen says in this letter, "has
+          made you acquainted, with my high esteem, for his
+          learning, and the good services he did me; but he could
+          not express, how dear I hold his memory, and the
+          effects of his great labours. If gold, or silver, could
+          do any thing towards redeeming such a valuable life, I
+          would gladly employ all, I am mistress of, for that
+          purpose."
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <p>
+        She concludes by asking his widow, for all the
+        manuscripts "of that learned man, whose works had given
+        her such pleasure." The Queen assures her, that "they
+        could not fall into better hands," and that, "the author,
+        having been useful to her in his lifetime, it was not
+        just that she should be deprived, after his death, of the
+        fruits of his labours."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      It remains to mention, that, after the death of Grotius,
+      his wife communicated with the Church of England: this, it
+      is said, she did in conformity to the dying injunctions of
+      her husband: it is certain, that Grotius respected the
+      Church of England. His wife died at the Hague, in the
+      communion of the Remonstrants. Through life, she was
+      uniformly respected; and, whenever the services of Grotius,
+      to sacred and profane literature, are recorded, her
+      services to him, should be mentioned with praise.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='CHAPTER_XIV'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c14'>CHAPTER XIV.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF
+      THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THE DEATH OF WILLIAM II.
+      TILL THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1680-1815.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      In some of the preceding pages, the principal events in the
+      history of the Seven United Provinces, till the death of
+      William II, in 1680, have been briefly mentioned: in the
+      present chapter, we shall insert a summary account of the
+      revolutions of their government, till the present time.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='XIV_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c14.1'>XIV. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      William III.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1650-1702.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      William III. was born after the death of William II. his
+      father. Immediately after that event, his mother claimed
+      for him the stadtholderate, and all the other dignities,
+      pre-eminences, and rights, which his father and grandfather
+      had enjoyed; but, so great, at that time, was the public
+      jealousy of the ambitious views of the house of Orange,
+      that the States General would not even take her claims into
+      deliberation. A general assembly of the States was held in
+      1661. They confirmed the Treaty of Union, of 1579;
+      attributed to themselves, the appointment of all civil and
+      military offices; placed the army under the authority of
+      the provinces and municipalities, and invested the council
+      of state with the general direction of the military
+      concerns of the nation. A war with England, which was then
+      governed by Cromwell, soon followed; it was the
+      commencement of the naval glory of the United States. But
+      the government was distracted by the contests and
+      dissensions between the republican and the Orange factions.
+      The former were headed by John de Witt. He possessed
+      transcendent abilities, was a true lover of his country,
+      and, on every occasion, advised the wisest measures. Some
+      of the military operations of the States proving
+      unsuccessful, the Orange faction endeavoured to persuade
+      the people, that this reverse of fortune was owing to the
+      want of a Stadtholder; and exhorted them to confer this
+      dignity on the young prince, to be exercised, during his
+      minority, by one of the family. This proposition was
+      successfully resisted by De Witt. Peace between England and
+      the United Provinces being concluded, Cromwell endeavoured
+      to unite them to England by a federative alliance; but they
+      rejected the proposition. At the suggestion of De Witt, the
+      States of Holland passed an Act, by which they bound
+      themselves never to appoint the Prince of Orange, or any of
+      his descendants, to the office of Stadtholder, or Captain
+      General; and to prevent, to their utmost power, the other
+      States from making such an appointment. This measure
+      displeased the other States. In 1665, the office of
+      Commander in Chief becoming vacant, the opposite party
+      endeavoured to procure it for one of the Orange family;
+      this attempt also proved abortive. In 1661 a war broke out
+      between England,-which was then governed by Charles II.,
+      and the United States; these displayed in it, chiefly under
+      the command of De Ruyter, prodigies of valour and naval
+      skill; the year 1667 was famous in their annals, by their
+      fleet's sailing up the river Thames, and burning the
+      English fleet at Chatham. The peace of Breda immediately
+      followed.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XIV. 1. William III.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Still, the civil discord continued. The States of Holland
+      renewed the <i>Edict of Exclusion</i>, with the addition of
+      a clause, that, whenever a person should be invested, with
+      the office of Captain, or Admiral General, he should swear
+      never to aspire to the office of Stadtholder, and to refuse
+      it, if it should be offered to him.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XIV 1650-1702.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The year 1671 is remarkable for the league entered into by
+      Louis XIV. and Charles II. against the United States, and
+      by their vigourous resistance to it. The circumstances into
+      which it drove the United States, compelled them to appoint
+      the Prince of Orange Captain General and Admiral: he took
+      the oath prescribed by the Perpetual Edict, not to aspire
+      to the stadtholderate, and to reject it, if offered. He was
+      at this time in his twenty-second year: he owed his
+      elevation to the critical situation in which the United
+      States were then placed; but it was also owing to the great
+      prudence with which he had conducted himself when fortune
+      was opposed to him; and to the talents and application to
+      business which he then discovered.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At sea, the navy of the United States was generally
+      successful. At land, the arms of Lewis XIV. triumphed; he
+      conquered Gueldres, Overyssell, and the city and province
+      of Utretcht. This maddened the populace. They massacred
+      John De Witt, and Cornelius De Witt, his brother, after
+      having subjected them to the cruellest tortures and the
+      most brutal indignities. To the indelible reproach of
+      William III. he did not interfere to prevent or stop these
+      horrors. His measures for obtaining the stadtholderate
+      succeeded.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XIV. 1. William III.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      On the 4th of July 1672, it was re-established in the
+      person of William III.; and all the dignities and rights
+      enjoyed by his predecessors were conferred upon him. These,
+      in 1674, were made hereditary in his family. His subsequent
+      conduct is entitled, on many accounts, to the warmest
+      praise. The success of the United States at sea compelled
+      Charles II. to make peace with them, so that Lewis XIV. was
+      their only enemy. The war with him was terminated by the
+      peace of Nimeguen in 1678. Ten years after it, the
+      Stadtholder, on the abdication of James II. became King of
+      England. In 1690, England, Spain, Austria, and the United
+      Provinces, entered into the Grand Alliance against France.
+      The Duke of Savoy and several Princes of Germany afterwards
+      joined it. In general, the proceedings of the confederacy
+      were unsuccessful; the war was terminated in 1697 by the
+      peace of Ryswick. In 1700, the disputes on the succession
+      to the Spanish monarchy, in consequence of the death of
+      Charles II. of Spain, without issue, called the world again
+      to arms. William III. died in 1702.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='XIV_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c14.2'>XIV. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>John William Count of Nassau Dietz</i>, 1702-1711;
+      <i>William IV</i>. 1711-1751.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The government of William III. was generally displeasing to
+      the United States: they accused him of sacrificing them to
+      the interests of his English monarchy, and to the hatred
+      which he always bore to the French. He was also suspected,
+      and not without reason, of a design to acquire the
+      independent sovereignty of the provinces. At first, his
+      influence within them was so great, that he was said to be
+      King in the United States, and Stadtholder in England; but
+      it declined gradually; and an attempt by him to obtain the
+      succession to the stadtholderate for John Friso, Prince of
+      Nassau and Hereditary Stadtholder of Frizeland, absolutely
+      failed. He made, by his will, that prince his testamentary
+      heir.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Upon the decease of William III. a general wish to
+      discontinue the stadtholderate was expressed in most of the
+      provinces; those of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres,
+      and Overyssell, came to a formal resolution to this effect
+      They recognised the supreme power of the States General,
+      and conferred the direction of their political concerns on
+      Heinsius, the actual Grand Pensionary, a person of great
+      learning, uncommon talents for business, and acknowledged
+      integrity.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XIV. 2. John William Count of Nassau Diets, 1702-1711;
+      William IV. 1711-1749.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      As testamentary heir of William III., John-William assumed
+      the title of Prince of Orange: he died in 1711, without
+      having exercised the power of the stadtholderate, except in
+      the province of Frizeland.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The war of the succession terminated in 1713, by the peace
+      of Utretcht: it was succeeded in 1715 by the Barrier
+      Treaty, and in 1719 by the Quadruple Alliance, ever
+      memorable for the triumphant campaigns of Marlborough, by
+      which it was followed. The pensionary Heinsius died in
+      1720. In his life-time, several weak attempts had been
+      made, in different provinces, to restore in them the
+      stadtholderate. They succeeded only at Gueldres; and even
+      there, it was restored with great limitations.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Upon the decease of Prince William-John, his rights and
+      pretensions descended to Prince William, his son. In 1733,
+      he married Mary, the daughter of George II. of England.
+      This strengthened his cause; but the general spirit of the
+      United Provinces was so averse to the Stadtholderate, that
+      it was not till the invasion of Holland, by the French, in
+      1747, that the prince's party judged it advisable to bring
+      forward his claim. At first they met with resistance, but
+      finally prevailed, and Prince William of Orange became the
+      sole Stadtholder of every province: until his time each of
+      the provinces of Frizeland and Groningen had its particular
+      Stadtholder. The dignities of Captain General and Admiral
+      were also conferred on him; and, in addition to these, some
+      rights and privileges which no former Stadtholder had
+      enjoyed.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The reverses of the United Provinces continued, and the
+      aggrandisement of the Stadtholderate increased
+      proportionally. As yet William IV. had no male issue. In
+      1748, the Orange faction proposed that the Stadtholderate
+      should be declared hereditary; and that, in default of
+      males, females should be admitted into the succession.
+      After some opposition the measure was carried in all the
+      provinces, except Frizeland and Groningen. From this time
+      the United Provinces ceased to be a republic, and became a
+      monarchy, limited by the antient usages and institutions.
+      William IV. died in 1749.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='XIV_3'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#c14.3'>XIV. 3.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <i>From the Death of William IV. till the Erection of the
+      Kingdom of the Netherlands</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      1749-1815.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      At the death of William IV. William, his son, and
+      afterwards his successor in the Stadtholderate, was an
+      infant, in very tender years. His mother was named by the
+      states Governess of the United Provinces. She appointed the
+      Duke of Brunswick to the command of their armies; thus,
+      after all their exertions and sacrifices for liberty, the
+      United Provinces became subject to the government of an
+      English princess and a German prince; and an English party
+      became predominant in their politics; William V. married a
+      princess of Prussia, and thus the Orange party was
+      strengthened by Prussian influence.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XIV. 3. From the death of William IV. till the erection of
+      the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      These opposite, and conflicting interests, filled every
+      province, with dissension; and, on some occasions, armed
+      one body of citizens against another. The English party,
+      sided with the Orange faction; the French, with the
+      republicans. At first the latter prevailed; they led the
+      states into measures, which forced England to declare war
+      against them. In 1782, they acknowledged the independence
+      of the United States of America. Still, the dissensions
+      continued. After a long conflict, the republican party
+      acquired the ascendant; they suspended the Prince of Orange
+      from his functions, and filled all the principal places of
+      trust with their own adherents. But the Orange party soon
+      rallied; the Duke of Brunswick entered Holland at the head
+      of a victorious army, and, in 1787, re-established the
+      Stadtholderate.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      CHAP. XIV. 1749-1816.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      His victorious career, was soon terminated. In 1799, the
+      revolutionary army of France made themselves masters of the
+      whole territory of the United States; and established
+      <i>The Batavian Republic</i>. It was successively governed,
+      but always under the overpowering controul of France, by a
+      Convention, a Directory, and a Consul, with the appellation
+      of Grand Pensionary. In 1806, even these forms of her
+      antient government were abolished; Napoleon sending Louis,
+      one of his brothers, to reign over the United Provinces,
+      with the title and powers of royalty; but with an
+      intimation, that France was entitled to his first
+      attentions and a priority of duty. The demands of Napoleon
+      for attentions and duties were so exorbitant, that rather
+      than be instrumental in the infliction of the miseries
+      which a compliance with them must occasion, Louis resigned
+      his throne. Napoleon then incorporated the United Provinces
+      into his empire, "as an alluvion," for such he termed them,
+      "to the Rivers of France." Scenes of the most grinding
+      oppression followed: the Batavians were relieved from it by
+      the fall and abdication of Napoleon.
+    </p>
+    <div class='sidenote'>
+      XIV. 3. Establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Before this event, William V. died, leaving a son, called
+      from his pretensions to the stadtholderate, William VI. We
+      have seen that, on the death of the Emperor Charles V. all
+      the seventeen provinces, composing the Netherlands,
+      devolved to Philip II. his son; the successful defection of
+      the Seven United Provinces has been mentioned; the ten
+      remaining provinces were afterwards transferred to the
+      House of Austria, and were inherited by the Emperor Joseph
+      II. The French made an easy conquest of them in an early
+      stage of the Revolution.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      We now reach the ultimate fate of both the divisions of the
+      Netherlands. The congress of Vienna, by an act of the 9th
+      June 1815, created and conferred upon this prince, THE
+      KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS, consisting of the seventeen
+      provinces, and a portion of Luxemburgh. It is confessedly
+      the first among the kingdoms of the second order.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      It was our wish to present our readers with a sketch of the
+      literary history of the Netherlands, during the period
+      treated of in this chapter; but after most diligent and
+      extensive searches, both in the British and foreign
+      markets, we have not been able to discover materials for
+      it; persons of acknowledged learning, both in Germany and
+      the Netherlands, have assured us that no such history
+      exists.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='APPENDIX_I'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cAp.1'>APPENDIX I.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <a href='#ap_1'>REFERRED TO IN PAGE 188.</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      SOME ACCOUNT OF THE FORMULARIES, CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, OR
+      SYMBOLIC BOOKS, OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC, GREEK, AND PRINCIPAL
+      PROTESTANT CHURCHES.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The constitutions of the Roman Catholic, and Protestant
+      Churches, differ in nothing more, than in the following
+      important points: The Catholic Church, acknowledges the
+      authority of the Scriptures, and, in addition to them, a
+      body of traditionary law. She receives both under the
+      authority, and with the interpretation of the Church, and
+      believes that the authority of the Church in receiving and
+      interpreting them is infallible. The Protestant Churches
+      generally profess to acknowledge no law but the Scriptures,
+      no interpreter of the Scriptures, but the understanding and
+      conscience of the individual who peruses them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      That the Roman Catholic Church should propound a formulary
+      of her faith, enlarge this formulary from time to time, as
+      further interpretation is wanted, and enforce acquiscence
+      in it by spiritual censures, is consistent with <i>her</i>
+      principles. Whether such a pretension can be avowed,
+      without inconsistency, by any Protestant Church, has been a
+      subject of much discussion. In point of fact, however, no
+      Protestant Church is without her formulary, or abstains
+      from enforcing it by temporal provisions and spiritual
+      censures. To enforce their formularies by civil penalties,
+      is inconsistent with the principles, of every christian
+      church. All churches howsoever have so enforced, and have
+      blamed the others, for so enforcing them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Such formularies, from the circumstance of their collecting
+      into one instrument, several articles, of religious belief,
+      are generally known on the Continent, by the appellation of
+      SYMBOLIC BOOKS.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      I. The symbolic books, received by ALL TRINITARIAN
+      CHRISTIAN CHURCHES,-are,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. <i>The Symbol of the Apostles</i>; and
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. <i>The Nicene Symbol</i>.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      II. The symbolic books, received by the ROMAN CATHOLIC
+      Church,-are,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. The General Councils;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. Among these,-<i>the Council of Trent</i>,-as
+        immediately applying to the controversies between the
+        Catholic and Protestant Churches, is particularly
+        regarded;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3. <i>The Symbol of Pope Pius IV</i>.;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4. <i>The Catechism of the Council of Trent</i>.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      III. The symbolic books of the GREEK CHURCH,-are,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. <i>The Confession, of her true and sincere faith</i>,
+        which, on the taking of Constantinople, by Mahomet II, in
+        1453, Gennadius, its patriarch, presented to the
+        conqueror;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. <i>The Orthodox Confession, of the Catholic and
+        Apostolic Greek Church</i>, published in 1642, by
+        Mogilow, the Metropolitan of Kiow.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      IV. The symbolic books of the LUTHERAN CHURCHES, are
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. <i>The Confession of Augsburgh</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. <i>The Apology of the Confession of Augsburgh</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3. <i>The Articles of Smalcald</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4. <i>And</i>, (in the opinion of some Lutheran
+        Churches),-<i>The Form of Concord</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        5. <i>The Saxon, Wirtenburgian, Suabian, Pomeranian,
+        Mansfeldian, Antwerpensian, and Copenhagen
+        Confessions</i>, possess, in particular places, the
+        authority of Symbolic books:-the two first are
+        particularly respected.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      V. The symbolic books of the REFORMED CHURCHES. The
+      reformed Church, in the largest extent of that expression,
+      comprises all the religious communities, which have
+      separated from the Church of Rome. In this sense, it is
+      often used by English writers: but, having, soon after the
+      Reformation, been used by the French Protestants to
+      describe their church, which was Calvinistic, it became,
+      insensibly, the appellation of all Calvinistic churches on
+      the Continent. The principal symbolic books of these
+      churches,-are,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. <i>The Confession of the Helvetian Churches</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. <i>The Tetrapolitan Confession</i>,-signed by the four
+        cities of Strasburgh, Constance, Memmingen, and Lindau;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3. <i>The Catechism of Heidelbergh</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4. <i>The Gallic Confession of Faith</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        5. <i>The Belgic Confession of Faith</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        6. <i>The Canons of the Council of Dort</i>.
+      </p>
+      <br>
+
+      <p>
+        VI. The symbolic books of the WALDENSES,-are,
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        <i>Their original and reformed Creeds</i>.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      VII. The symbolic books of the <i>Bohemians</i>,-are,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. <i>The Confession of faith of the Calixtines and
+        Taborites</i>, signed at the Synod of Cuttenburgh in
+        1541;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. <i>The Confession of the faith of the
+        Bohemians</i>,-inserted in the "Harmony of Confessions,"
+        published at Cambridge in 1680.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3. <i>The Consent of faith at Sendomer</i>.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      VIII. The symbolic book of the ARMINIANS,-is
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        <i>The Declaration of the Remonstrants</i>, drawn up by
+        Episcopius, and signed in 1622.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      IX. The symbolic book of the SOCINIANS is <i>The Catechism
+      of Racow</i>;-the best edition of it was published in 1609,
+      reprinted at Frankfort, in 1739. An English translation of
+      it has been published by Mr. Rees.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      X. The UNITARIANS have no symbolic book. To Doctor
+      Lardner's <i>Letter on the Logos</i> they shew universal
+      respect.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      XI. The symbolic books of THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND,-are,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. <i>The Theological Oaths</i>,-containing a Declaration
+        of the belief of the Monarch's spiritual supremacy;-and
+        Declarations against Transubstantiation,-the invocation
+        of Saints,-and the sacrifice of the Mass;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. <i>The Thirty-nine Articles</i>.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      XII. The symbolic book of the ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH
+      PRESBYTERIANS,-is
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "<i>The Articles of Religion</i> approved and passed by
+        both Houses of Parliament after advice had with an
+        assembly of divines, called together for that purpose."
+        These were sent into Scotland, and immediately sanctioned
+        by the General Assembly, and Parliament of that kingdom;
+        and thus became a law of the Church and State.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      XIII. The symbolic books of the Anabaptists may be said to
+      be,-
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        THEIR SEVERAL CONFESSIONS OF FAITH:-Five were published
+        at Amsterdam, in 1675, in one volume 8vo.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      XIV. The symbolic books of the Quakers,-are,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1. <i>Barclay's Catechism and Confession of Faith</i>,
+        published in 1675;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2. His <i>Theses Theologic&aelig;</i>;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3. His <i>Apology</i>,-a logical demonstration of the
+        propositions in the Theses. It was translated into almost
+        every language and presented to all the ministers
+        assembled at Nimeguen;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4. But some persons assert that the real doctrines of the
+        Quakers are more easily discoverable from <i>The
+        Christian Quaker and his divine testimony, vindicated by
+        Scripture reason and authorities against the injurious
+        attempts that have been lately made by several
+        adversaries</i>.-This work appeared in 1674; the first
+        part of it was written by Penn, the second by Whithead,
+        one of his most distinguished disciples.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      XV. It may be added, that the symbolic book of the Jews,-is
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        <i>The Schelosch aikara ikkarim,-the Thirteen Articles of
+        Faith</i> framed by Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon in the 12th
+        century: it is frequently inserted in the Jewish prayer
+        books. Sebastian Munster published it with a Latin
+        translation and an abridgment of the History of Josephus,
+        in one vol. 8vo. at Worms in 1529.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Many Christian Catechisms have been translated into Hebrew
+      for the benefit of the Jews.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      An historical and literary account of all these Confessions
+      of Faith, and of several works and circumstances connected
+      with them, is attempted to be given, by the Author of these
+      pages, in his "<i>Historical and Literary Account of the
+      Formularies, Confessions of Faith, and Symbolic Books, of
+      the Roman Catholic, Greek, and principal Protestant
+      Churches.</i>"
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      THE SYLLOGE CONFESSIONUM printed at the Clarendon Press in
+      1804, contains the <i>Professio Fidei Tridentin&aelig;,
+      Confessio Helvetica, Augustana, Saxonica, Belgica."</i>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      "The Harmony of the Confessions of the Faith of the
+      Christian and Reformed Churches" published at Cambridge in
+      1586, 8<i>vo</i>. attempts to reconcile the Confession of
+      Augsburgh, the Confession of the Four Cities, the
+      Confession of B&acirc;sle, the first Confession of
+      Helvetia; the Confession of Saxony, the Confession of
+      Wirtemburgh, the French Confession, the English Confession,
+      the latter Confession of Helvetia, the Belgic Confession,
+      and that of Bohemia.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the general subject, <i>Walchius's Bibliotheca
+      Theologica Selecta</i>, may be usefully consulted.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='APPENDIX_II'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cAp.2'>APPENDIX II.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p>
+      <a href='#ap_2'>REFERRED TO IN PAGE 188.</a>
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      ON THE REUNION OF CHRISTIANS.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The attempts, made at different times for the re-union of
+      Christians, are the subject of a learned and interesting
+      work, published at Paris, with the title of "<i>Histoire
+      critique des proj&eacute;ts form&eacute;s depuis trois
+      cents ans pour la Reunion des communions Chretiennes, par
+      M. Tabaraud, ancien Pr&eacute;tre de L'Oratoire, Paris</i>,
+      1824." An excellent sketch of these attempts had been
+      previously given by <i>Doctor Mosheim, in his
+      Ecclesiastical History, Cent. XVI. Ch. III. sect. 3. part
+      2. c. 1. and Cent. XVII. Cha. I. sect. 2. p</i>. 1. To
+      these publications the reader is referred:-the present
+      Essay may be found to contain,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        I. A general view of the attempts made after the
+        Reformation, to unite the Lutheran and Calvinist
+        churches:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        II. Some account of the Attempts made at different times
+        by the sovereigns of France for the conversion of their
+        protestant subjects:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        III. The correspondence of Bossuet and Leibniz, under the
+        auspices of Lewis the Fourteenth, for the reunion of the
+        Lutheran Churches to the Church of Rome:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        IV. Some account of an attempt made in the reign of
+        George the First, to reunite the Church of England to the
+        Church of Rome:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        V. And some general remarks on the Reunion of Christians.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='I'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#ci'>I.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Attempts made to unite the Lutheran, and Calvinist
+      Churches.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The great division of Protestant Churches is, into the
+      Lutheran, and Calvinist communions. The Abb&eacute;
+      Tabaraud relates in the work, which we have just cited, not
+      fewer than fifteen different attempts to effect a reunion
+      of their churches. In reading his account and that given by
+      Mosheim of these attempts, the writer thinks that, on each
+      side, there was something to commend and something to
+      blame. It seems to him, that the Lutherans deserve credit
+      for the open and explicit manner, in which, on these
+      occasions, they propounded the tenets of their creed to the
+      Calvinists; that the conduct of the Calvinists was more
+      liberal and conciliating; but that, on the other hand, the
+      conduct of the Lutherans towards the Calvinists, was
+      generally repulsive, and sometimes deserving a much harsher
+      name; while the conduct of the Calvinists, was sometimes
+      chargeable, with ambiguity.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "It was deplorable," says Mosheim, (Cent. xvii. sect. 2.
+        part 2. art. 3.) "to see two churches, which had
+        discovered, an equal degree of pious zeal, and fortitude,
+        in throwing off the despotic yoke of Rome, divided among
+        themselves, and living in discords, that were highly
+        detrimental, to the interests of religion, and the
+        well-being of society. Hence, several eminent divines,
+        and leading men, both among the Lutherans, and
+        Calvinists, sought anxiously, after some method, of
+        uniting the two churches, though divided in their
+        opinions, in the bonds of Christian charity, and
+        ecclesiastical communion. A competent knowledge, of human
+        nature, and human passions, was sufficient, to persuade
+        these wise, and pacific mediators, that a perfect
+        uniformity in religious opinions, was not practicable,
+        and that it would be entirely extravagant, to imagine
+        that any of these communities, could ever be brought, to
+        embrace universally, and without limitation, the
+        doctrines of the other. They made it, therefore, their
+        principal business, to persuade those, whose spirits were
+        inflamed with the heat of controversy, that the points in
+        debate between the two churches, were not essential, to
+        true religion;-that the fundamental doctrines, of
+        Christianity, were received, and professed, in both
+        communions; and that the difference of opinion, between
+        the contending parties, turned, either upon points of an
+        abstruse, and incomprehensible nature, or upon matters of
+        indifference, which neither tended, to make mankind
+        wiser, or better, and in which the interests of genuine
+        piety, were in no wise concerned. Those, who viewed
+        things in this point of light, were obliged to
+        acknowledge, that the diversity of opinions, between the
+        two churches, was by no means, a sufficient reason, for
+        their separation; and that of consequence, they were
+        called, by the dictates of that gospel, which they both
+        professed, to live, not only in the mutual exercise, of
+        Christian charity, but also to enter, into the fraternal
+        bonds, of church communion. The greatest part, of the
+        reformed doctors, seemed disposed, to acknowledge, that
+        the errors of the Lutherans, were not, of a momentous
+        nature, nor of a pernicious tendency; and that the
+        fundamental doctrines of Christianity, had not undergone,
+        any remarkable alteration, in that communion; and thus,
+        on their side, an important step, was made, towards
+        peace, and union, between the two churches. But the
+        greatest part of the Lutheran doctors declared, that they
+        could not form, a like judgment, with respect, to the
+        doctrine, of the Reformed churches; they maintained
+        tenaciously, the importance of the points, which divided
+        the two communions, and affirmed, that a considerable
+        part of the controversy turned upon the fundamental
+        principles, of all religion, and virtue. It is not at all
+        surprising, that this steadiness and constancy of the
+        Lutherans, was branded by the opposite party, with the
+        epithets, of morose obstinacy, supercilious arrogance,
+        and such like odious denominations. The Lutherans, were
+        not behind hand with their adversaries, in acrimony, of
+        style; they recriminated with vehemence, and charged
+        their accusers with instances of misconduct, different in
+        kind, but equally condemnable. They reproached them with
+        having dealt disingenuously, by disguising, under
+        ambiguous expressions, the real doctrine of the Reformed
+        churches; they observed further, that their adversaries,
+        notwithstanding their consummate prudence and
+        circumspection, gave plain proofs, on many occasions,
+        that their propensity to a reconciliation, between the
+        two churches, arose from views of private interest,
+        rather than from a zeal for the public good."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is observable that Mosheim applies these observations to
+      a late stage of the reformation, when much of its first
+      violence had subsided.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The nearest approach<a name='FNanchor_080_80'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_080_80'><sup>[080]</sup></a> to a reunion,
+      between any Protestant churches, seems to be that, which
+      took place at Sendomer, in the year 1570.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='II'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cii'>II.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Attempts for a Reunion of the Calvinist Churches to the See
+      of Rome.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Having thus summarily noticed, the unsuccessful attempts,
+      to effect an union, between the Lutheran, and Calvinist
+      churches, we proceed to a similar summary mention of the
+      attempts, equally unsuccessful, to effect the reunion of
+      the Calvinists, to the church of Rome, which were made,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1st, during the reign of Henry the Fourth:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2dly, during the reign of Lewis the Thirteenth: and
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3dly, during the reign of Lewis the Fourteenth:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4thly, we shall afterwards notice, the Revocation of the
+        edict of Nantes, and the complete restoration of the
+        protestants of France, to their civil rights, in the
+        reign of Lewis the Eighteenth.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='II_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cii.1'>II. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      An attempt to reunite the Calvinists to the church of Rome
+      was made at the celebrated Conference held at Poissi in
+      1561. In the work which we have cited, the Abb&eacute;
+      Tabaraud gives a short and clear account of this
+      conference. It failed of success, and a long civil war of
+      religion ensued. It was closed by the conversion of
+      <i>Henry the Fourth</i> to the Roman Catholic religion. He
+      was no sooner quietly seated on the throne, than he
+      conceived the arduous, but certainly noble project of
+      pacifying the religious contests of the world. It appears
+      that he was induced to entertain hopes of the success of
+      this measure, by the assurances given him by the Calvinist
+      ministers, when his change of religion, was in agitation,
+      that salvation might be obtained in the church of Rome; and
+      from his expectation of finding a spirit of conciliation,
+      and concession, in the see of Rome.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "I have heard, from persons of distinction," says
+        Grotius<a name='FNanchor_081_81'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_081_81'><sup>[081]</sup></a>, "that Henry the
+        Fourth declared that he had great hopes of procuring for
+        the King of England, and the other protestant princes,
+        who were his allies, conditions, which they could not
+        honorably refuse, if they had any real wish of returning
+        to the unity of the church; and that he had once an
+        intention of employing bishops of his own kingdom on this
+        project; but that this project failed by his death."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It is said, that with these views he had sent for <i>Isaac
+      Casaubon</i>, a protestant divine of equal learning and
+      moderation, and appointed him his librarian; and that he
+      intended confidentially employing him in preparing means
+      for the success of the measure, and smoothing the obstacles
+      which might impede its progress. Grotius<a name=
+      'FNanchor_082_82'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_082_82'><sup>[082]</sup></a> mentions, as a
+      saying of Casaubon, that "the catholics of France had a
+      juster way of thinking than the ministers of Charenton:"
+      these were the most rigid of the French Hugonot ministers.
+      It is observable that the French government always
+      considered the Hugonots of a much more refractory
+      disposition than the Lutherans.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='II_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cii.2'>II. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The pacific views of Henry the Fourth, were terminated by
+      his decease. The capture of la Rochelle by the arms of
+      <i>Lewis the XIIIth</i>, was a fatal blow to the political
+      consequence of the Protestant party in France. Cardinal
+      Richelieu immediately set on foot a project, for the
+      general conversion, of the body: two persons, of very
+      different characters, were employed by him, in this
+      measure; Father Joseph, a capuchin friar, the confident, of
+      all the cardinal's political and private schemes, and
+      Father P. Dulaurens, an oratorian, who lived in retirement,
+      wholly absorbed in the exercises of religion. They began
+      the work of reunion by holding frequent conferences, on an
+      amicable footing, with several of the protestant ministers;
+      and it was resolved, that, with the permission of the pope,
+      and the authority of the king, an assembly, should be
+      convened, of ecclesiastics of each communion. Father
+      Dulaurens, recommended that the intended communications
+      with the ministers, should not take place, till they
+      reached, the capital; but, the cardinal, thought it more
+      advisable, that the ministers, should be separately
+      informed, of the project, before they left the provinces.
+      It was accordingly communicated to them, and favourably
+      received, by the ministers, of Languedoc, and Normandy, but
+      met with an unfavourable reception, from the ministers of
+      Sedan. It was resolved, that the assembly, should meet, and
+      begin their deliberations, with the differences in the
+      opinions, of the two churches, respecting the Sacraments.
+      Father Dulaurens recommended, that for some time, at least,
+      the Bible, even in the Calvinist version, of
+      Oliv&eacute;tan, should be the only book appealed to, on
+      either side, as authority: but the Cardinal insisted, on a
+      resort to tradition. Grotius mentions that in several
+      articles, (as communion under both kinds, and the
+      invocation of saints), the Cardinal was willing, that
+      concessions, should be made to the Protestants; and
+      suggested, that, as a medium, to reconcile them to the
+      Pope, a patriarchate should be established, in France, and
+      he himself, be the first patriarch<a name=
+      'FNanchor_083_83'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_083_83'><sup>[083]</sup></a>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Notwithstanding the general loftiness, and overbearing
+      nature, of his manners, it appears, particularly from M. de
+      Rullhi&ecirc;res<a name='FNanchor_084_84'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_084_84'><sup>[084]</sup></a> (6.) that the
+      Cardinal, acted on this occasion, with great moderation,
+      and recommended to his royal master, a similar line of
+      moderation, in all his conduct, towards his Protestant
+      subjects.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='II_3'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cii.3'>II. 3.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The Cardinal's project, was suspended, by his decease; and
+      resumed, under <i>Lewis the Fourteenth</i>. In 1662, a
+      plan, drawn up by M. le Blanc de Beaulieu, a professor of
+      Divinity, at Sedan, singularly esteemed, both by the Roman
+      Catholics, and Protestants, by which the essential
+      articles, in dispute, were reduced to a small number, was
+      adopted, by the Court, to serve as the basis of discussion.
+      It was resolved, that different synods of Protestant
+      ministers, should be convened; that these, should be
+      composed, of ministers of known moderation, and pacific
+      views, and the articles, drawn up by M. le Blanc de
+      Beaulieu, presented to them. Three years were employed, in
+      negotiations for effecting this project: several ministers
+      in the lower Languedoc, and the Isle of France, expressed
+      themselves, in terms favourable, to the measure, but the
+      synod of Charenton, took the alarm, and the project, was
+      abandoned.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, a measure equally
+      unwise, and unjust, too soon followed. It is more to be
+      attributed, to his ministers and advisers, than to Lewis
+      the Fourteenth himself. From the <i>Eclaircissemens
+      Historiques</i> of M. de Rullhi&ecirc;res, and the life of
+      Bossuet, by M. Bauss&eacute;t<a name=
+      'FNanchor_085_85'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_085_85'><sup>[085]</sup></a>, it seems evident,
+      that Lewis the Fourteenth, had been induced, to believe,
+      that the number of Protestants was much smaller; that the
+      conversions of them, would be much more rapid, general, and
+      sincere; and that the measures, for hastening their
+      conversion, would be much less violent than they really
+      were. It is also due, to the monarch, to add, that from the
+      authors, whom we have cited, it is evident, that when he
+      began to perceive the true state, of the transaction,
+      though from false principles of honour, and policy, he
+      would not revoke the edict, he wished it not to be put into
+      great activity, and checked the forwardness, of the
+      Intendants general in its execution.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It is whimsical, (if on so serious a subject such a word
+      may be used), that the dragon&acirc;de, or employment of
+      the dragoon troops, in forcing the conversion, of the
+      Hugonots, was owing to the wish of Louvois, the minister,
+      of Lewis the Fourteenth, to become himself, a missionary.
+      Observing how much the apparent success, of the
+      missionaries, recommended them, to Lewis the Fourteenth, he
+      began to consider them as dangerous rivals for the favour
+      of his royal master, and determined, therefore, to become
+      himself, a principal performer. With this view, he
+      instituted the dragoon missions, and thus brought a
+      material part, of the work of conversion, into the war
+      department.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='II_4'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cii.4'>II. 4.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The death of Lewis, and the known disposition of the
+      Regent, appeared to the Protestant party, in France, to
+      afford a proper opportunity of recovering their rights.
+      Duclos, in his <i>M&eacute;moires secr&eacute;ts sur les
+      regnes de Louis XIV. et de Louis XV</i>., says, that the
+      Regent himself wished to restore the Protestants, to their
+      civil rights, but was dissuaded by his council. Still, he
+      seldom permitted the edicts against them to be executed;
+      and speaking generally, the Protestants seem to have
+      suffered no active persecution in any part of the reign of
+      Lewis, the XVth. One intolerable grievance, however, they
+      unquestionably suffered in every part of it. Their
+      religious principles did not permit them to be married by a
+      Roman Catholic priest, in the manner prescribed by the law
+      of the state, and that law did not recognize the legal
+      validity of a marriage, celebrated in any other form. The
+      consequence was, that in the eye of the law, the marriage
+      of Protestants was a mere concubinage, and the offspring of
+      it illegitimate. To his immortal honour, <i>Lewis the
+      XVIth</i>, by his edict of the 17th of November, 1787,
+      accorded to all his Non-catholic subjects the full and
+      complete enjoyment of all the rights of his Roman-catholic
+      subjects. On a division in the Parliament, this edict was
+      registered by a majority of 96 votes against 16.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The persecution of the Hugonots in consequence of the
+      revocation of the Edict of Nantes, was condemned by the
+      greatest men in France. M. d'Aguesseau, the father of the
+      celebrated chancellor, resigned his office of Intendant of
+      Languedoc rather than remain a witness of it: his son
+      repeatedly mentions it with abhorrence.
+      F&eacute;n&eacute;lon, Flechier, and Bossuet,<a name=
+      'FNanchor_086_86'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_086_86'><sup>[086]</sup></a> confessedly the
+      ornaments of the Gallican church, lamented it. To the
+      utmost of their power, they prevented the execution of the
+      edict, and lessened its severities, when they could not
+      prevent them. Most sincerely lamenting and condemning the
+      outrages committed by the Roman Catholics against the
+      Protestants at Nismes, as violations of the law of God and
+      man, but doubting of the nature and extent, which some have
+      attributed to them, the writer of these pages begs leave to
+      refer to the sermon preached on them by the Reverend James
+      Archer, a Roman Catholic priest, and printed for Booker, in
+      Bond-street, by the desire of two Roman Catholic
+      congregations, as expressing the doctrine of the Roman
+      Catholic church, and of all real christians on heretics and
+      the persecution of heretics.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='III'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#ciii'>III.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p class="c8">
+      The Correspondence of Bossuet and Leibniz, under the
+      auspices of Lewis the XIVth, for the Reunion of the
+      Lutheran Protestants to the Roman Catholic Church.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      This correspondence forms one of the most interesting
+      events in the life of Bossuet; the letters, of which it
+      consists, and the other written documents, which relate to
+      it, are highly interesting. We shall attempt to present our
+      readers with a short account-
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1st. Of the circumstances which led to this
+        correspondence;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2ndly. Of the Project of Reunion, delivered by Molanus, a
+        Lutheran Divine, and Bossuet's sentiments on that
+        Project;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3dly. Of the intervention of Leibniz in the negotiation;
+        and
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4thly. Of the Project suggested by Bossuet, and the
+        principal reasons, by which he contended for its
+        reception.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='c_III_1'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#ciii.1'>III. 1.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      It appears that, towards the 17th century, the Emperor
+      Leopold, and several sovereign princes in Germany,
+      conceived a project of re-uniting the Roman Catholic and
+      Lutheran churches. The Duke of Brunswick, who had recently
+      embraced the Roman Catholic religion, and published his
+      <i>Fifty Reasons for his conversion</i>, (once a popular
+      work of controversy), and the Duke of Hanover, the father
+      of the first prince of the illustrious house, which now
+      fills the throne of England, were the original promoters of
+      the attempt. It was generally approved; and the mention of
+      it at the Diet of the Empire was favourably received. Some
+      communications upon it took place between the Emperor and
+      the ducal Princes: and with all their knowledge, several
+      conferences were held upon the subject, between certain
+      distinguished Roman Catholic and Protestant Divines. In
+      these, the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus, the Abbot of
+      Lokkum, took the lead. The first had been consecrated
+      Bishop of Tina in Bosnia, then under the dominion of the
+      Turks, with Ordinary Jurisdiction over some parts of the
+      Turkish territories. His conduct had recommended him to
+      Innocent the XIth, and that pope had directed him to visit
+      the Protestant states in Germany, and inform him of their
+      actual dispositions in respect to the Church of Rome. In
+      consequence of this mission, he became known to the
+      Emperor, who appointed him to the See of Neustadt, in the
+      neighbourhood of Vienna. Molanus, was Director of the
+      Protestant Churches and Consistories of Hanover. Both were
+      admirably calculated for the office intended them, on this
+      occasion. Each possessed the confidence of his own party,
+      and was esteemed by the other; each was profoundly versed
+      in the matters in dispute; each possessed good sense,
+      moderation, and conciliating manners; and each had the
+      success of the business at heart, with a fixed purpose,
+      that nothing, but a real difference on some essential
+      article of doctrine, should frustrate the project.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The effect of the first conferences was so promising, that
+      the Emperor and the two Princes resolved, that they should
+      be conducted in a manner more regular, and more likely to
+      bring the object of them to a conclusion. With this view,
+      the business was formally entrusted by both the princes to
+      Molanus alone, and the Emperor published a rescript, dated
+      the 20th March, 1691, by which he gave the Bishop of
+      Neustadt full authority to treat, on all matters of
+      religion, with the states, communities, and individuals of
+      the empire, reserving to the ecclesiastical and imperial
+      powers, their right to confirm the acts of the Bishop, as
+      they should judge adviseable. Under these auspicious
+      circumstances, the conference between the Bishop of
+      Neustadt and Molanus began.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      But, before the events which we have mentioned took place,
+      a correspondence on the subject of a general reunion
+      between Catholics and Protestants had been carried on for
+      some time, between Pelisson and Leibniz. The former held a
+      considerable rank among the French writers, who adorned the
+      reign of Lewis the Fourteenth; the latter was eminently
+      distinguished in the literary world. In the exact sciences,
+      he was inferior to Newton alone; in metaphysics, he had no
+      superior; in general learning, he had scarcely a rival. He
+      had recommended himself to the Brunswick family, by three
+      volumes, which he had recently published, on the
+      Antiquities of that illustrious House; and was then engaged
+      in the investigation of its Italian descent, and early
+      German shoots. The result of it, under the title of
+      <i>Origines Guelphic&aelig;</i>, was published, after his
+      decease, by Scheidius, and is considered to be a perfect
+      model of genealogical history. He was also thoroughly
+      conversant in the theological disputes of the times; and in
+      all the questions of dogma, or history, which enter into
+      them.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      His correspondence with Pelisson, came to the knowledge of
+      Louisa, Princess Palatine, and Abbess of Maubrusson. She
+      was a daughter of Frederick, the Elector, and Count
+      Palatine of the Rhine, and a sister, of the Duchess of
+      Hanover. In early life, she had been converted to the Roman
+      Catholic religion, and had the conversion of her sister,
+      very much at heart. With this view, she sent to her, the
+      correspondence between Leibniz and Pelisson, and received
+      from her an account of what was passing, between the Bishop
+      of Neustadt, and Molanus. Both the ladies were anxious, to
+      promote the measure, and that Bossuet should take in it,
+      the leading part, on the side of the Catholics. This was
+      mentioned to Lewis the Fourteenth, and had his approbation.
+      The Emperor and both the Princes, by all of whom Bossuet,
+      was personally esteemed, equally approved of it, and it was
+      finally settled that Bossuet and Leibniz, should be joined,
+      to the Bishops of Neustadt, and Molanus, and that the
+      correspondence with Bossuet, should pass through the hands
+      of Madame de Brinon, who acted, as secretary to the Abbess
+      of Maubrusson, and is celebrated, by the writers of the
+      times, for her wit and dexterity in business. Thus the
+      matter assumed, a still more regular form, and much was
+      expected from the acknowledged talents, learning, and
+      moderation of the actors in it, and their patrons.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='c_III_2'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#ciii.2'>III. 2.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      The conferences between the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus
+      continued for seven months, and ended in their agreeing on
+      12 articles, to serve for the basis of the discussion, on
+      the terms of the reunion.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The Bishop of Neustadt, communicated these articles to
+      Bossuet. He seems, to have approved of them generally, but
+      to have thought, that some alteration in them, was
+      adviseable. This being mentioned to Molanus, he published
+      his <i>Cogitationes Privat&aelig;</i>, a profound and
+      conciliating dissertation. Without entering into any
+      discussion, on the points in dispute, between the churches,
+      he suggested in it a kind of truce, during which, there
+      should be ecclesiastical communion between them: the
+      Lutherans, were to acknowledge the Pope, as the first of
+      Bishops, in order, and dignity: the Church of Rome, was to
+      receive the Lutherans, as her children, without exacting
+      from them, any retractation of their alledged errors, or
+      any renunciation, of the articles in their creed, condemned
+      by the Council of Trent. The anathemas of that council,
+      were to be suspended, and a general council was to be
+      convened, in which the Protestants were to have a
+      deliberative voice: the sentence of that council, was to be
+      definitive, and, in the mean time, the members of each
+      party, were to treat the members of the other, as brethren,
+      whose errors, however great they might appear, were to be
+      tolerated, from motives of peace, and in consideration, of
+      their engagements to abandon them, if the council should
+      pronounce against them. To show the probability of a final
+      accommodation, Molanus notices, in his Dissertation,
+      several points, in which one party imputed to the other
+      errors, not justly chargeable on them; several, on which
+      they disputed, merely for want of rightly understanding
+      each other; and several, in which the dispute was of words
+      only.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It appears that the Bishop of Neustadt, communicated this
+      dissertation, to Bossuet, and that Bossuet was delighted,
+      with the good sense, candour, and true spirit of
+      conciliation, which it displayed. In his letters he
+      frequently mentions the author, and always in terms, Of the
+      highest praise. His own language was equally moderate and
+      conciliating.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "The Council of Trent," he says in one of his letters,
+        "is our stay; but we shall not use it to prejudice the
+        cause. This would be, to take for granted, what is in
+        dispute between us. We shall deal more fairly with our
+        opponents. We shall make the council serve, for a
+        statement, and explanation, of our doctrines. Thus, we
+        shall come to an explanation, on those points, in which
+        either of us imputes to the other, what he does not
+        believe, and in which we dispute, only because we
+        misconceive each other. This may lead us far; for <i>the
+        Abbot of Lokkum, has actually conciliated the points so
+        essential, of Justification, and the Eucharist: nothing
+        is wanting in him, on that side, but that he should be
+        avowed. Why should we not hope to conclude, in the same
+        manner, disputes, less difficult, and of less importance?
+        Cela se peut pousser si avant, que M. l'Abb&eacute; de
+        Lokkum, a concili&eacute;, actuellement les points si
+        essentiels, de la justification, et du sacrifice de
+        l'Eucharistie, et il ne lui manque de ce cot&eacute; la,
+        que de se faire avouer. Pourquoi ne pas esp&eacute;rer de
+        finir, par les m&ecirc;mes moyens, des disputes, moins
+        difficiles, et moins importantes?"</i>
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      With these rational and conciliatory dispositions, Bossuet,
+      and Molanus, proceeded. But, after this stage of the
+      business, Molanus disappears, and Leibniz comes on the
+      scene.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='c_III_3'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#ciii.3'>III. 3.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      A Letter, written by Bossuet to M^me de Brinon, having been
+      communicated by her to Leibniz, opened the correspondence
+      between him and Bossuet. In that letter, Bossuet declared
+      explicitly, that the Church of Rome, was ready, to make
+      concessions, on points of discipline, and to explain
+      doctrines, but would make no concession in respect to
+      defined articles of faith; and, in particular, would make
+      no such concession, in respect to any which had been
+      defined by the Council of Trent. Leibniz's Letter to M^me
+      de Brinon, in answer to this communication, is very
+      important. He expresses himself in these terms;
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "The Bishop of Meaux says,
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "1st. That the Project delivered to the Bishop of
+        Neustadt, does not appear to him quite sufficient;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "2dly. That it is, nevertheless, very useful, as every
+        thing must have its beginning:
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "3dly. That Rome will never relax from any point of
+        doctrine, defined by the church, and cannot capitulate,
+        in respect to any such article;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "4thly. That the doctrine, defined in the Council of
+        Trent, is received in and out of France by all Roman
+        Catholics;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "5thly, That satisfaction may be given to Protestants, in
+        respect to certain points of discipline, or in the way of
+        explanation, and that this had been already done in an
+        useful manner, in some points, mentioned in the Project
+        of the Bishop of Neustadt.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "These are the material propositions, in the letter of the
+        Bishop of Meaux, and I believe all these propositions
+        true. Neither the Bishop of Neustadt, nor those who
+        negotiated with them, make any opposition to them. There
+        is nothing in them, which is not conformable to the
+        sentiments of those persons. The third of them in
+        particular, which might be thought, an obstacle, to these
+        Projects of Accommodation, could not be unknown to them;
+        one may even say, that they built on it."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      It seems difficult to deny, that, in this stage of the
+      business, much had been gained to the cause of reunion. The
+      parties were come to a complete understanding on the
+      important articles of Justification, and the Eucharist; and
+      it was admitted, both by Leibniz, and Molanus, that, in
+      their view of the concern, an accommodation might be
+      effected, between the Roman Catholic, and Lutheran
+      churches, though the former, retained all her defined
+      doctrines, and, in particular, all her doctrines, defined
+      by the Council of Trent. The question then was, what should
+      be done in respect to the remaining articles in difference
+      between the churches? It is to be wished, that it had been
+      left to Bossuet, and Molanus, to settle them, in the way of
+      amicable explanation, in which they had settled, the two
+      important articles, which we have mentioned. It is evident,
+      from the passages, which we have cited, from Bossuet, that
+      it was his wish, that the business should proceed on that
+      plan, and that he had hopes of its success. Unfortunately,
+      the business took, another direction: Leibniz proclaimed,
+      that after every possible explanation should be given, the
+      Lutheran church would, still retain, some articles,
+      contrary to the defined doctrines, of the Church of Rome,
+      and anathematized, by the Council of Trent. To remove the
+      final effect of this objection, Leibniz held out Molanus's
+      first project, that the Lutherans should express a general
+      acquiescence, in the authority of the church, and promise
+      obedience, to the decisions of a General Council, to be
+      called, for the purpose of pronouncing, on these points;
+      and that, in consequence of these advances, on their part,
+      the anathemas of the Council of Trent, should be suspended,
+      and the Lutherans received, provisionally, within the pale,
+      of the Catholic church. To bring over Bossuet to this plan,
+      he exerted great eloquence, and displayed, no common
+      learning.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='III_4'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#ciii.4'>III. 4.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      But the eloquence, and learning, of Leibniz, were without
+      effect. In language, equally temperate and firm, Bossuet,
+      adhered to his text, that in matters of discipline, or any
+      other matter, distinct from faith, the Church of Rome,
+      would show the utmost indulgence to the Lutherans; but
+      that, on articles of faith, and specifically, on those
+      propounded by the Council of Trent, there could be no
+      compromise. This, however, he confined to articles of faith
+      alone: and even on articles of faith, he wished to consult
+      the feelings of Protestants, as much as possible. He
+      offered them every fair explanation of the tenets of the
+      council; he required from them no retractation, of their
+      own tenets:
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Molanus," he says, "will not allow retractation to be
+        mentioned. It may be dispensed with; it will be
+        sufficient, that the parties acknowledge, the truth, by
+        way of declaration or explanation. To this, the
+        Symbolical Books, give a clear opening, as appears by the
+        passages, which have been produced from them, and will
+        appear, by other passages, which may be produced from
+        them."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      If Bossuet was thus considerate, in what regarded faith, it
+      will easily be supposed, how indulgent his sentiments were,
+      in respect to all, that merely regarded discipline. A
+      complete confession of faith, being once obtained from the
+      Lutherans, he was willing, to allow them, if they required
+      it, communion under both kinds; that their Bishops, should
+      retain their Sees; and that, where there was no Bishop, and
+      the whole body of the people, was Protestant, under the
+      care, of a superintendant, <i>that</i> superintendant,
+      should be consecrated their Bishop; that, where there was a
+      Catholic Bishop, and a considerable part of the diocese,
+      was Lutheran, the superintendant, should be consecrated
+      priest, and invested with rank, and office, that the
+      Lutheran ministers, should be consecrated priests; that
+      provision should be made for their support; that such of
+      their bishops, and ministers, as were married, might retain
+      their wives, and that the consciences of those, who held
+      possessions of the church, should be quieted, except in
+      respect, to hospitals, whose possessions he thought, could
+      not conscientiously be withheld, from the poor objects of
+      their foundations; and that every other arrangement should
+      be made, by the church and state, which would be agreeable,
+      to the feelings, and prejudices, of their new brethren.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Such were the advances made by Bossuet; and much discussion
+      on them, took place, between him, and Leibniz. It continued
+      ten years. They are very learned, and a scholar will read
+      them with delight; but, unfortunately, they rather
+      retarded, than promoted, their object. The real business
+      ended, when Molanus quitted the scene. We shall close this
+      article, with the following extract from the last letter
+      but one, written by Bossuet, on the subject. It is
+      addressed to Leibniz, and bears date the 12th August, 1701,
+      ten years, after his first letter, on it was written:
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Among the divines of the Confession of Augsburg, I
+        always placed M. Molanus, in the first rank, as a man,
+        whose learning, candour and moderation made him one of
+        the persons, the most capable I have known, of advancing
+        the NOBLE PROJECT OF REUNION. In a letter, which I wrote
+        to him some years ago, by the Count Balati, I assured
+        him, that, if he could obtain, the general consent of his
+        party, to what he calls, his Private Thoughts,
+        <i>Cogitationes Privat&aelig;</i>, I promised myself,
+        that, by joining to them, the remarks, which I sent to
+        him, on the Confession of Augsburg, and the other
+        Symbolic writings of the Protestants, the work of the
+        Reunion would be perfected, in all its most difficult and
+        most essential points; so that well disposed persons
+        might, in a short time, bring it to a conclusion."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      The passage is so important, that it is proper to present
+      it to the reader in Bossuet's own words.
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Parmi les Th&eacute;ologiens de la Confession
+        d'Ausbourg, j'ai toujours mis, au premier rang, M.
+        l'Abb&eacute; de Lokkum, comme un homme, dont le
+        s&ccedil;avoir, la candeur, et la mod&eacute;ration le
+        rendolent un des plus capables, que je connusse, pour
+        avancer CE BEAU DESSEIN. Cela est si v&eacute;ritable,
+        que j'ai cru devoir assurer ce docte Abb&eacute;, dans la
+        r&eacute;ponse que je luis fis, il y a dej&agrave;,
+        plusieurs ann&eacute;es, par M. le Comte Balati, que s'il
+        pouvoit faire passer ce qu'il appelle ses Pens&eacute;es
+        Particuli&egrave;res <i>Cogitationes Privat&aelig;</i>,
+        &agrave; un consentement suffisent, je me promettois
+        qu'en y joignant les remarques, que je lui envoyois, sur
+        la Confession d'Ausbourg, et les autres &eacute;crits
+        Symboliques des Protestans, l'ouvrage de la
+        R&eacute;union seroit achev&eacute; dans ses parties les
+        plus difficiles et les plus essentielles; en sorte qu'il
+        ne faudroit &agrave; des personnes bien dispos&eacute;es,
+        que tr&egrave;s peu de tems pour la conclure<a name=
+        'FNanchor_087_87'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_087_87'><sup>[087]</sup></a>."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      Dom. de Foris, the Benedictine Editor of the new edition of
+      the works of Bossuet and the Abb&eacute; Racine,
+      <i>Abr&eacute;g&eacute; de l'Histoire
+      Eccl&eacute;siastique</i><a name='FNanchor_088_88'></a><a
+      href='#Footnote_088_88'><sup>[088]</sup></a> are very
+      severe in their censures of the conduct of Leibniz in the
+      negotiations for the Reunion, and attribute its failure to
+      his presumption and duplicity. To the writer of these
+      pages, it appears clear, that Leibniz was sincere in his
+      wishes for the reunion; and that, if he occasioned its
+      failure, it was unintentionally. While the business was in
+      the hands of Bossuet, and Molanus, it was a treaty, not for
+      the reunion of the Roman Catholic church, and all
+      Protestant churches, but for the reunion of the Roman
+      Catholic church, and the Lutheran church; and to this,
+      Molanus's endeavours to reconcile differences, were
+      directed. Leibniz, whose principles in religion, were much
+      wider, than those of Molanus, seems to have wished, that
+      the negotiation should be placed, on a broader basis, and
+      extended to a reunion of the church of Rome, with every
+      denomination of Christians. This gave the negotiation a
+      different direction, and in a great measure, undid what had
+      been, so happily begun. We have seen, that, to the very
+      last, Bossuet, called out for Molanus, and entertained
+      great hopes, that, if the matter were left to Molanus, and
+      him, the noble Project of Reunion, would be crowned with
+      success. There is no part of Bossuet's literary or active
+      life, in which he appears to greater advantage, or in a
+      more amiable light, than on this occasion.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='IV'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#civ'>IV.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Attempt in the reign of Lewis the XV. to effect an union
+      between the Church of Rome and the Church of England.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      Of all Protestant churches, the national church of England
+      most nearly resembles the church of Rome. It has retained
+      much of the dogma, and much of the discipline of Roman
+      Catholics. Down to the sub-deacon it has retained the whole
+      of their hierarchy; and, like them, has its deans, rural
+      deans, chapters, prebends, archdeacons, rectors, and
+      vicars; a liturgy, taken in a great measure, from the Roman
+      Catholic liturgy; and composed like that, of Psalms,
+      Canticles, the three creeds, litanies, epistles, gospels,
+      prayers, and responses. Both churches have the sacraments
+      of baptism, and the eucharist, the absolution of the sick,
+      the burial service, the sign of the cross in baptism, the
+      reservation of confirmation, and order to bishops, the
+      difference of episcopal, and sacerdotal dress, feasts, and
+      fasts. Without adopting all the general councils of the
+      church of Rome, the church of England has adopted the first
+      four of them; and, without acknowledging the authority of
+      the other councils, or the authority of the early fathers,
+      the English divines of the established church, allow them
+      to be entitled, to a high degree of respect.<a name=
+      'FNanchor_089_89'></a><a href=
+      '#Footnote_089_89'><sup>[089]</sup></a> On the important
+      article of the eucharist, the language, of the Thirty-nine
+      Articles, sounds very like, the doctrine of the church of
+      Rome.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      At the time, of which we are speaking, the doctrines of the
+      high church, which are generally considered to incline to
+      those of the Roman Catholics, more than the doctrines of
+      the low church, were in their zenith; and in France, where
+      the ultramontane principles on the power of the Pope had
+      always been discountenanced, the disputes of Jansenism were
+      supposed to reduce it very low. On each side, therefore,
+      the time was thought favourable to the project of Reunion.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      It was also favourable to it, that, a few years before this
+      time, an event had taken place, which naturally tended to
+      put both sides into good humour.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      On the occasion of the marriage of the Princess Christina
+      of Wolfenbuttell, a Lutheran, with the archduke of Austria,
+      her court consulted the faculty of theology of the
+      University of Helmstadt, on the question,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "Whether a Protestant Princess, destined to marry a
+        catholic prince, could, without wounding her conscience,
+        embrace the Roman Catholic religion?" The faculty
+        replied, that, "it could not answer the proposed
+        question, in a solid manner, without having previously
+        decided, whether the catholics were, or were not engaged
+        in errors, that were fundamental, and opposed to
+        salvation; or, (which was the same thing), whether the
+        state of the catholic church was such, that persons might
+        practise in it, the true worship of God, and arrive at
+        salvation." This question the divines of Helmstadt,
+        discussed at length; and concluded in these terms: "After
+        having shown, that the foundation of religion, subsists
+        in the Roman Catholic religion, so that a person may be
+        orthodox in it, live well in it, die well in it, and
+        obtain salvation in it, the discussion of the proposed
+        question, is easy. We are, therefore, of opinion, that
+        the most Serene Princess of Wolfenbuttell, may, in favour
+        of her marriage, embrace the catholic religion."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      This opinion is dated the 28th of April 1707, and was
+      printed in the same year at Cologne. The Journalists of
+      Trevoux inserted both the original and a French translation
+      of it in their journal of May, 1708.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Under these circumstances, the correspondence in question
+      took place. It began, in 1718, through Doctor Beauvoir,
+      chaplain to Lord Stair, his Britannic majesty's ambassador
+      at Paris. Some conversation, on the reunion of the two
+      churches, having taken place, between Doctor Dupin, and
+      him, he acquainted the archbishop of Canterbury, with the
+      subject of them. This communication, produced some
+      compliments from the archbishop, to Dr. Dupin, and these,
+      led the latter, to address, to his grace, a letter, in
+      which he mentioned generally, that, on some points in
+      dispute, the supposed difference between the two communions
+      was reconcileable. The correspondence getting wind, Doctor
+      Piers, pronounced a discourse in the Sorbonne, in which he
+      earnestly exhorted his colleagues, to promote the reunion,
+      by revising those articles, of doctrine, and discipline,
+      which protestants branded with the name of papal tyranny;
+      and contended, that, by proscribing the ultramontane
+      doctrines, the first step to the reunion would be made. The
+      discourse, was communicated to Dr. Wake: in his answer, he
+      pressed Dr. Dupin, for a more explicit declaration, on the
+      leading points, in controversy.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      In compliance with this requisition, Doctor Dupin drew up
+      his <i>Commonitorium</i>, and communicated it, to several
+      persons of distinction, both in the state, and church of
+      France. He discussed in it, the Thirty-nine Articles, as
+      they regarded doctrine, morality, and discipline. He
+      insisted on the necessity of tradition, to interpret the
+      scriptures, and to establish the canonicity of the books,
+      of the Old and New Testament. He insisted on the
+      infallibility, of the church, in faith, and morals; he
+      contended, that the sacrifice of the mass, was not a simple
+      sacrament, but a continuation of the sacrifice of the
+      cross.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The word Transubstantiation, he seemed willing to give up,
+      if the Roman Catholic doctrine, intended to be expressed by
+      it, were retained. He proposed, that communion under both
+      kinds, or under bread alone, should be left, to the
+      discretion of the different churches, and consented, that
+      persons in holy orders should retain their state, with such
+      provisions, as would place the validity of their
+      ordination, beyond exception. The marriage of priests, in
+      the countries, in which such marriages were allowed, and
+      the recitation of the divine service in the vulgar tongue,
+      he allowed; and intimated that no difficulty would be found
+      in the ultimate settlement of the doctrine, respecting
+      purgatory, indulgences, the veneration of saints, relics,
+      or images. He seems to have thought, that the Pope can
+      exercise, no immediate jurisdiction, within the dioceses of
+      bishops, and that his primacy invested him, with no more
+      than a general conservation, of the deposit of the faith, a
+      right to enforce, the observance of the sacred canons, and
+      the general maintenance of discipline. He allowed, in
+      general terms, that there was little substantially wrong,
+      in the discipline of the Church of England; he deprecated
+      all discussion, on the original merit of reformation, and
+      he professed to see no use in the Pope's intervention, till
+      the basis of the negotiation, should be settled.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The answer of the archbishop, was not very explicit. It is
+      evident from it, that he thought, the quarrels on
+      Jansenism, had alienated the Jansenists and their
+      adherents, from the Pope, much more, than they had done, in
+      reality. He was willing to concede, to the Pope, a primacy
+      of rank and honour, but would by no means allow him, a
+      primacy of jurisdiction, or any primacy, by divine right.
+      On the other points, he seemed to have thought, that they
+      might come to an agreement, on what they should declare, to
+      be the fundamental doctrine of the churches, and adopt, on
+      every other point of doctrine, a general system, of
+      christian toleration.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The correspondence, which is very interesting, may be seen,
+      in the last volume of the English translation, of Doctor
+      Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History. To facilitate, the
+      accomplishment of the object of it, Doctor Courayer,
+      published his celebrated treatise, on <i>the Validity of
+      English Ordinations</i>.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Both Dr. Wake, and Dr. Dupin. were censured, by the members
+      of their respective communions, for the parts, which they
+      had taken, in this business. Several rigid members of the
+      English Church, and even some foreign protestants, blamed
+      Dr. Wake, for what they termed, his too great concessions.
+      In France, the worst of motives, were imputed to Dr. Dupin,
+      and his associates; they were accused, of making
+      unjustifiable sacrifices, in order to form an union,
+      between the Jansenists, and the members of the English
+      Church. Even the regent, took the alarm: he ordered Dr.
+      Dupin, to discontinue the correspondence, and to leave all
+      the papers, respecting it, with the minister. This was
+      done, but the most important of them, have been printed, in
+      the interesting and extensively circulated publication,
+      which has been mentioned.
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='V'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#cv'>V.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <p class="c8">
+      Miscellaneous Remarks on the Reunion of Christians.
+    </p>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      It does not appear, that subsequently to the
+      communications, between Archbishop Wake, and Dr. Dupin, any
+      attempts for a general, or partial reunion of christians,
+      were made in the last century: but, early in the present,
+      <i>Napoleon</i>, conceived the project, of effecting, such
+      a reunion. He is said, to have particularly had in view,
+      the catholicizing, as it was termed, the northern part, of
+      Germany. To forward his design, many works were published:
+      one of them, the <i>Essai sur l'Unit&eacute; des
+      Cultes</i>, of M. Bonald, is written, with great ingenuity.
+      That Essay, and several others by the same author, were
+      inserted in the <i>Ambigu</i> of Peltier, and deserve the
+      attention, of every reader. Though they contain some
+      things, to which a Roman Catholic writer, would object,
+      they are evidently written, by a Roman Catholic pen.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      The first point to be considered, by those, who meditate
+      the project of reunion, is, its practicability-those, who
+      are disposed, to contend for the affirmative, will observe,
+      the number of important articles, of Christian Faith, in
+      which, all Christians, are agreed, and the proportionally
+      small number of those, in which, any Christians disagree.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      All Christians believe,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        1st. That there is one God;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        2d. That he is a Being, of infinite perfection;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        3d. That he directs all things, by his providence;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        4th. That it is our duty to love him, with all our
+        hearts, and our neighbour, as ourselves;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        5th. That it is our duty, to repent, of the sins we
+        commit;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        6th. That God, pardons the truly penitent;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        7th. That there is a future state, of rewards, and
+        punishments, when all mankind shall be judged, according
+        to their works;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        8th. That God, sent his Son, into the world, to be its
+        saviour, the author of eternal salvation, to all, that
+        obey him;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        9th. That he is the true Messiah;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        10th. That he taught, worked miracles, suffered, died,
+        and rose again, as is related in the four gospels;
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        11th. That he will hereafter, make a second appearance on
+        the earth, raise all mankind from the dead, judge the
+        world in righteousness, bestow eternal life on the
+        virtuous, and punish the workers of iniquity.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <p>
+      In the belief of these articles, all Christians, the Roman
+      Catholic, all the Oriental churches, all the members of the
+      Church of England, all Lutherans, Calvinists, Socinians,
+      and Unitarians, are agreed. In addition to these, each
+      division, and subdivision of Christians, has its own
+      tenets. Now, let each settle among its own members, what
+      are the articles of belief, peculiar to them, which, in
+      their cool deliberate judgment, they consider as
+      <i>absolutely necessary</i> that a person should believe,
+      to be a member of the church of Christ; let these articles
+      be divested of all foreign matter, and expressed in
+      perspicuous, exact, and unequivocal terms; and, above all,
+      let each distinction of Christians, earnestly wish, to find
+      an agreement, between themselves and their fellow
+      Christians:-the result of a discussion conducted on this
+      plan, would most assuredly be, to convince all Christians,
+      that the essential articles of religious credence, in which
+      there is, a real difference among Christians, are not so
+      numerous, as the verbal disputes, and extraneous matter, in
+      which controversy is too often involved, make them
+      generally thought.
+    </p>
+    <p>
+      Still,-some articles will remain, the belief of which, one
+      denomination of Christians, will consider to be the
+      obligation of every Christian, and which other Christian
+      denominations, will condemn. On some of those, a
+      <i>speedy</i> reunion of Christians is not to be expected:
+      but, to use the language of Mr. <i>Vansittart</i>, in His
+      excellent letter to the reverend Dr. Marsh and John Coker,
+      Esq.,
+    </p>
+    <div class='blkquot'>
+      <p>
+        "There is an inferior degree of Reunion, more within our
+        prospect, and yet perhaps as perfect as human infirmity
+        allows us to hope for; wherein, though all differences of
+        opinion, should not be extinguished, yet they may be
+        refined, from all party prejudices, and interested views,
+        so softened by the spirit of charity, and mutual
+        concession, and so controuled by agreement, on the
+        leading principles, and zeal, for the general interests
+        of christianity, that no sect, or persuasion, should be
+        tempted to make religion, subservient to secular views,
+        or to employ political power, to the prejudice of
+        others.-The existence of Dissent, will, perhaps, be
+        inseparable from religious freedom, so long, as the mind
+        of man, is liable to error: but it is not unreasonable to
+        hope, that hostility, may cease, though perfect
+        agreement, cannot be established.<br>
+        IF WE CANNOT RECONCILE ALL OPINIONS, LET US RECONCILE ALL
+        HEARTS."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <br>
+
+    <p>
+      These pages, cannot be closed better, than by these golden
+      words!!!
+    </p>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <br>
+
+    <h4>
+      FINIS.
+    </h4>
+    <hr class='c2'>
+    <hr class='c7'>
+    <a name='FOOTNOTES'></a>
+    <h2>
+      <a href='#FOOTNOTES_1'>FOOTNOTES.</a>
+    </h2>
+    <a name='Footnote_001_1'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_001_1'>[001]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Tom. xi. p. 1. 200.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_002_2'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_002_2'>[002]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        De Institutiones Clericorum, L. iii. c. xviii. &amp;c.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_003_3'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_003_3'>[003]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        In his "Recueil des Ecrits pour servir d'eclaircissement
+        de l'histoire de France, 2 vol. Paris 1798."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_004_4'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_004_4'>[004]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        "Roswede, or Aroswethe, a nun in the monastery of
+        Gardersheim, lived in the reigns of Otho II. and III.
+        towards the end of the tenth century. She composed many
+        works in prose and verse. In 1501, some of her poems, on
+        the Martyrdom of St. Denys, the Blessed Virgin, St. Ann,
+        &amp;c. were printed at Nuremburgh. Her verses in praise
+        of Otto II. would be tolerable, if they were not
+        Leonines: there are in them some errors of prosody." Bib.
+        Univers. et Histor. Vol. ii. p. 46.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_005_5'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_005_5'>[005]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        For a fuller account of Feudal and Civil Jurisprudence,
+        the writer of these pages begs leave to refer to his
+        work, entitled, "HOR&AElig; JURIDIC&AElig;
+        SUBSECIV&AElig;, being a connected series of Notes
+        respecting the Geography, Chronology, and Literary
+        History of the principal Codes and original Documents of
+        the Grecian, Roman, Feudal, and Canon Law." 1 vol. 8vo.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_006_6'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_006_6'>[006]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        It is entitled, "<i>Martiani Minei Felicis Capell&aelig;
+        Carthaginiensis, Viri Procunsularis, Satyricon, in quo de
+        Nuptiis Philologi&aelig; et Mecurii libri duo, &amp; de
+        septem artibus liberalibus libri singulares. Omnes, et
+        emendati et Notis sive Februis Hug. Grotii illustrati. Ex
+        Officina Plantiniana, Apud Christophorum Raphelingium
+        Academi&aelig; Lugduno-Bat. Typographum</i> M. D. C."
+        [Transcriber's note: Apostrophic date 1600] The
+        Dedication to the Prince of Cond&eacute; follows: then,
+        Encomiastic Verses by Scaliger, and Tiliabrogus. The two
+        works are then inserted, with an address to the reader,
+        Errata, and Various Readings. Afterwards, <i>Hugeiani
+        Grotii Februa<a name='FNanchor_007_7'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_007_7'><sup>[007]</sup></a> in Satyricon
+        Martiani Capell&aelig;:</i> this contains his notes. They
+        are preceded by an Engraving of Grotius. Round it, is
+        written, "<i>Anno</i> M. D. C." [Transcriber's note:
+        Apostrophic date 1600] Hora Ruit.<a name=
+        'FNanchor_008_8'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_008_8'><sup>[008]</sup></a> &AElig;t.xv. Under
+        the engraving the following verses are printed,
+      </p>
+      <div class='poem'>
+        <span>"<i>Quem sibi quindenis</i> ASTR&AElig;A <i>sacravit
+        ab annis</i>,</span><br>
+        <span><i>Talis,</i> HUGEIANI GROTII <i>ora
+        fero</i>."</span>
+      </div>
+      <br>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_007_7'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_007_7'>[007]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        "Corrections"-or more literarily, "Purifications".
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_008_8'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_008_8'>[008]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        These words were used by Grotius for his motto.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_009_9'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_009_9'>[009]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Fabricii Bibliotheca Latina, Lib iii. c. 15. In 1794,
+        John Adam Goez published the "Treatise on the Marriage of
+        Philology and Mercury" separately, in a duodecimo volume:
+        he mentions, in the preface, an edition of it by
+        Walthard. It is on the authority of Goez that we have
+        assigned the age of Capella to the third century: others
+        place him in a much later period.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_010_10'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_010_10'>[010]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Montucla. Histoire des Mathematiques, Vol.ii. p.657.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_011_11'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_011_11'>[011]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Vol. 9. p. 147. ii. 1.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_012_12'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_012_12'>[012]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        A similar exclusive claim in respect to the Indian seas,
+        under the grant of Pope Alexander VI., was set up by the
+        Portuguese; similar claims to the Ligustic and Adriatic
+        seas, have been and still continue to be made by the
+        Genoese and Venetians. Those, who seek for information on
+        the subject, should consult the <i>Dissertation of
+        Bynkershook de Dominio Maris</i>, and note 61 to the
+        recent edition of Sir Edward Coke's Commentary upon
+        Littleton.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_013_13'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_013_13'>[013]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        "Mais, dites vous, dans ce tems m&ecirc;me, le jeune
+        Pison pouvolt avoir dix ans: Grotius faisoit bien des
+        vers a cet &acirc;ge. Je le s&ccedil;ais, mais les
+        Grotius sont ils bien commune! combien d'enfans trouveres
+        vous de dix ans, qui ayent nonseulement assez du feu pour
+        faire des vers, mais encore assez de jugement pour en
+        juger sainement." Gibbon's Posthumous Works, 8vo. vol. i.
+        p. 520.-"Salmasius," says Mr. Gibbon in another part of
+        the same entertaining publication, (vol. v. p. 209), "had
+        read as much as Grotius; but their different modes of
+        reading had made the one an enlighten'd philosopher; and
+        the other, to speak plainly, a pedant puffed up with an
+        useless erudition."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_014_14'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_014_14'>[014]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Bentivoglio, Histoire des Guerres de Flandres, l, xxviii.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_015_15'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_015_15'>[015]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        <i>Bella plusquam civilia.</i> Lucan.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_016_16'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_016_16'>[016]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Those who wish to obtain a clear, concise, and exact
+        notion of Calvinism and Arminianism, will usefully peruse
+        the account of them in Mr. Evans's "<i>Sketch of the
+        Denominations of the Christian World</i>." The thirteenth
+        Edition is now before us, and we believe that it has been
+        often since reprinted.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_017_17'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_017_17'>[017]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. Cent. xvi, ch. 2. &sect; 3. part 2.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_018_18'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_018_18'>[018]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Chalmer's Biographical Dictionary, Title "Arminius."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_019_19'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_019_19'>[019]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        A short and clear account of Arminianism is given by Le
+        Clere, in his Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne, Vol. II.
+        Art. 3. p. 123.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_020_20'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_020_20'>[020]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        The best discussion of this subject, which has fallen
+        into the hands of the writer, is Bourdulou&eacute;'s
+        Sermon <i>sur la Predestination</i>.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_021_21'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_021_21'>[021]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        English Translation of Burigni's Life of Grotius, pp. 43,
+        44, 45.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_022_22'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_022_22'>[022]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Vol. i.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_023_23'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_023_23'>[023]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        <i>Letters from and to Sir Dudley Carleton, during his
+        Embassy in Holland, from January 1615-16[**Modern
+        presentation.] to December 1620. London, 1757, p.
+        84</i>,-Sir Dudley Carleton's Letters abound with harsh
+        expressions respecting Grotius. The Editor of this
+        correspondence has inserted (p. 415) a letter from
+        Grotius to Dr. Lancelot Andrews, written from the Castle
+        at Louvestein. "This letter," says the Editor, "which was
+        never printed before, deserves a place here, not only for
+        its elegance and spirit, and its connection with the
+        subject of the work, but likewise in justice to the
+        memory of the great writer, as it contains his own
+        justification of his conduct, which may be compared with
+        the less favourable accounts of it in the preceding
+        letters of Sir Dudley Carleton. The original is extant
+        among the manuscripts in the library of the late Sir Hans
+        Sloane, bart. now part of the British Museum."-"Utinam,"
+        says Grotius in this letter, "D. Carleton mihi esset plus
+        &aelig;quior; cui mitigando propinqui mei operam dant.
+        Sed partium, studia mire homines obc&aelig;cant."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_024_24'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_024_24'>[024]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        The history of this Synod, and of the whole controversy
+        upon Arminianism, is contained in Brand's <i>History of
+        the Reformation</i>: the account of the synod in these
+        pages, is principally extracted from the French
+        abridgment of that work, in 3 volumes 8vo. The Calvinian
+        representation of the Arminian doctrines, and the
+        proceedings of the synod, may be seen in the late Mr.
+        Scott's <i>Articles of the Synod of Dort</i>, to which he
+        has prefixed the History of the Events which <i>made way
+        for that Synod</i>: it is severely censured by Mr. James
+        Nichols, in his <i>Calvinism and Arminianism
+        compared</i>. Introd. cxlii.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        The Abridgment of Brand's History, was translated into
+        the English language and published in 1724-25[**Modern
+        presentation.] by <i>M. de la Roche</i>. He concludes his
+        Preface to it by observing, that "No good man can read
+        the work without abhorring arbitrary power, and all
+        manner of persecution." The persecution of the Scottish
+        Non-conformists by the Episcopalians, and the persecution
+        of the Remonstrants by the Contra-Remonstrants, were
+        attended with this enormity, that, in most other
+        instances, when one denomination of christians has
+        persecuted another, it has been on the ground that the
+        errors of the sufferers were impious, and led the
+        maintainers of them to eternal perdition, and therefore
+        rendered these wholesome severities, as the persecutors
+        term them, a salutary infliction. But, when the
+        Protestant Episcopalian persecuted the Scottish
+        Non-conformist, or the Contra-Remonstrant persecuted the
+        Remonstrant, he persecuted a Christian who agreed with
+        him in all which he himself deemed to be substantial
+        articles of faith, and differed from him only about rites
+        and opinions, which he himself allowed to be
+        indifferent.-See Mr. Neale's just remark, Vol. II. ch.
+        vi.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_025_25'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_025_25'>[025]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        In 1765, Lord Hailes published a beautiful edition of
+        "The Works of the Ever-memorable Mr. John Hales of Eaton,
+        then first collected together," in three volumes, at
+        Glasgow. It is to be lamented that he did not accompany
+        it with a full biographical account of Mr. Hales.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        "His biographers," says Mr. Chalmers, "all allow that he
+        may be classed among those divines who were afterwards
+        called Latitudinarians." May he not be termed the founder
+        of that splendid school? Perceiving that the minds of men
+        required to be more liberally enlightened, and their
+        affections to be more powerfully engaged on the side of
+        religion than was formerly thought necessary, they set
+        themselves, to use the language of Bishop Burnet, "to
+        raise those who conversed with them to another sort of
+        thoughts, and to consider the Christian religion as a
+        doctrine sent from God, both to elevate and to sweeten
+        human nature. With this view, they laboured chiefly to
+        take men from being in parties from narrow notions, and
+        from fierceness about opinions. They also continued to
+        keep a good correspondence with those who differed from
+        them in opinion and allowed a great freedom both in
+        philosophy and divinity." (Burnet's History of his own
+        Times. Vol. I. p. 261-268, oct. edit.) Hales,
+        Chillingworth, Taylor, Cudworth, Wilkins, Tillotson,
+        Stillingfleet, and Patrick, were among their brightest
+        ornaments. They were in some respects hostile to the
+        Roman Catholics: <i>in hoc non laudo</i>.-See the
+        Writer's History of the English, Irish, and Scottish
+        Catholics. Vol. III. c. lxviii. sect. 1. 3d edition.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_026_26'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_026_26'>[026]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        "King James," says Mr. James Nichols, in his Calvinism
+        and Arminianism compared, p. 242, "sent a deputation of
+        respectable British divines, for the double and
+        undisguised purpose of condemning the Remonstrants, but
+        especially V&oacute;rstius, (whom his Majesty had long
+        before exposed to the world as an arch-heretic), and of
+        assisting the Prince of Orange in his design of usurping
+        the liberties of the United Provinces, and assuming the
+        supreme authority. The Elector Palatine sent his
+        Heidelberg divines for the same family purpose; and the
+        Duke of Bouillon employed all his influence with the
+        chief pastors among the French reformed."
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_027_27'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_027_27'>[027]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        The words of the former are remarkable: "The errors of
+        public actions, if they be not very gross, are with less
+        inconvenience tolerated than amended. For the danger of
+        alteration, of disgracing and disabling authority, makes
+        that the fortune of such proceeding admits of no redress;
+        but being howsoever well or ill done, they must ever
+        after be upheld. The most partial spectator of our
+        synodal acts cannot but confess, that, in the late
+        discussion of the Remonstrants, with so much choler and
+        heat, there was a great oversight committed, and
+        that,-whether we respect our common profession of
+        Christianity, 'qu&aelig; nil nisi justum suadet et lene,'
+        or the quality of this people, apt to mutiny by reason of
+        long liberty, and not having learned to be imperiously
+        commanded,-in which argument the clergy should not have
+        read their first lesson. The synod, therefore, to whom it
+        is not now <i>in integro</i> to go back and rectify what
+        is amiss, without disparagement, must now go forward and
+        leave events to God, and for the countenance of their
+        actions do the best they may." Letter to Sir Dudley
+        Carleton, 11 January 1619.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_028_28'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_028_28'>[028]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        <i>Nichol's Calvinism and Arminianism compared</i>, Vol.
+        II. p.592
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_029_29'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_029_29'>[029]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        <i>Decline and Fall</i>, Ch. LIV. towards the end.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_030_30'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_030_30'>[030]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        The writers who have given an account of the Synod of
+        Dort are mentioned by Fabricius, Bib. Gr&aelig;ca, Vol.
+        XI. p. 723. Some useful observations upon the proceedings
+        of the Synod may be found in "Mr. Nichols's <i>Calvinism
+        and Arminianism compared</i>." It is much to be wished
+        that the promised continuation of this work should
+        speedily make its appearance.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        But no work upon this famous Synod deserves more
+        attention than "<i>Johannis Halesii, Historia Concilii
+        Dordraceni, J. Laur. Moshemius Theol. Doct. et P.P.C. ex
+        Anglico Sermone latine vertit, variis observationibus et
+        Vit&acirc; Halesii ausit. Accessit ejusdem de auctoritate
+        Concilii Dordraceni Paci Sacr&aelig; noxii, Consultatio.
+        Hamburgi</i>, 8vo." M. Le Clere's criticism on this work
+        (<i>Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne</i> Vol. 23, art.
+        4.) contains much valuable information upon the Synod,
+        and a summary of the life and writings of Mr. Hales.-Des
+        Maizeaux published a curious account of them in 1719.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_031_31'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_031_31'>[031]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Pfaffii Hist. Literaria, vol. ii. p. 303.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_032_32'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_032_32'>[032]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Burigni's Life of Grotius, lib. ii. sect. 12.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_033_33'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_033_33'>[033]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Cent XVII, sect. 2, Part 2 (Note Y.)
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_034_34'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_034_34'>[034]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Mr. James Nicholls's Calvinism and Arminianism compared.
+        Vol. i. p. 597, 600, 634, 636.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_035_35'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_035_35'>[035]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        See Mr. Dugald Stewart's first Dissertation, sect. III.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_036_36'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_036_36'>[036]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        See Joannis Christopheri Locheri Dissertatio Epistolica
+        Historiam libelli Grotiani <i>De Veritate Religionis
+        Christian&aelig;</i> complectens, 1725, in quarto; and
+        the Journal de Scavans for the year 1724.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_037_37'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_037_37'>[037]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        See Nichols's Calvinism and Arminianism compared, vol. i.
+        p. 289.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_038_38'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_038_38'>[038]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        On the respect, which the Church of England considers to
+        be due to the writings of the early Fathers, see the
+        excellent Appendix to the Sermons of Dr. Jebb, the Right
+        Reverend Bishop of Limerick.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_039_39'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_039_39'>[039]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Vol. iii. L. 38. This letter merits a serious perusal.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_040_40'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_040_40'>[040]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Dict. Historique, Preliminaire, p. xxix.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_041_41'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_041_41'>[041]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Vol.1. p. 121
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_042_42'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_042_42'>[042]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Those, who will read his life, published by the writer of
+        these pages, with other Tracts, in 1819, will not, it is
+        believed, think this too strong an assertion. Is it not
+        to be earnestly hoped, that in the distress by which we
+        are now visited, and the greater distress with which we
+        are threatened, many St. Vincents will appear?
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_043_43'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_043_43'>[043]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. ch. ii. sect. ii. part. ii. and
+        Bynkershock's Quest. Juris publici, lib. ii. ch. 18.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_044_44'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_044_44'>[044]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Le Clerc, (Bib. Anc. et Mod. vol. xxiii. Art. iv.)
+        strenuously objects to this representation of Dr.
+        Mosheim. "The Arminians," he says, "have introduced no
+        dogma as necessary to salvation, which was unknown to the
+        framers of their Confession of Faith; neither have they
+        retrenched from it, any article essential to faith." He
+        however observes, "that there are many ways of explaining
+        dogmas." Now, the same dogma explained in two ways,
+        amounts to two dogmas.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_045_45'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_045_45'>[045]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        See the third part of "<i>the last of Bossuet's Six
+        Addresses to the Protestants</i>," and the passages which
+        he cites in it from Jurieu.
+      </p>
+      <p>
+        For the actual state of Religious Doctrine, both in the
+        Lutheran and Reformed Churches of Germany, the reader may
+        usefully consult, "<i>The State of the Protestant
+        Religion in Germany, in a series of Discourses preached
+        before the University of Cambridge, by the Rev. Hugh
+        James Rose, M.A. 8vo. 1825</i>;" and "<i>Entretiens
+        Philosophiques sur la Re-union des differens communions
+        chretiens, par feu M. le Baron Starck, Ministre
+        Protestant, et premier predicateur, de la Cour de Hesse
+        Darmstadt, &amp;c. 8vo. 1818</i>;" and "<i>Tabaraud's
+        Histoire des Re-unions des Chr&ecirc;tiens.</i>"
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_046_46'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_046_46'>[046]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Tom. XLVI. Art. 12. p. 208.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_047_47'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_047_47'>[047]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 283.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_048_48'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_048_48'>[048]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 284, 285.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_049_49'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_049_49'>[049]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 286.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_050_50'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_050_50'>[050]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 287.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_051_51'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_051_51'>[051]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 288.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_052_52'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_052_52'>[052]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 288.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_053_53'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_053_53'>[053]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 291.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_054_54'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_054_54'>[054]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 292.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_055_55'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_055_55'>[055]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 293.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_056_56'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_056_56'>[056]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 294.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_057_57'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_057_57'>[057]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 296.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_058_58'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_058_58'>[058]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 298.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_059_59'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_059_59'>[059]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 299.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_060_60'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_060_60'>[060]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Page 300. M. Le Clerc, (<i>Sentimens de quelques
+        Theologiens de Hollande, dix-septieme Lettre</i>) defends
+        Grotius with great ability against the charge of
+        Socinianism: he justly observes, that, his abstaining
+        from unpleasing propositions, his silence on offensive
+        doctrines, and his conciliating expressions, should not
+        too easily be accounted proofs, of belief of his precise
+        sentiments of any particular tenets. Grotius, says Le
+        Clerc, was like an arbitrator, who, to bring to amity the
+        parties in difference, recommends to each, that he should
+        give something of what he himself considers to be his
+        strict right.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_061_61'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_061_61'>[061]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Ep. 363. p. 364
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_062_62'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_062_62'>[062]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Ep. 491. p. 195.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_063_63'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_063_63'>[063]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Ep. 494. p. 896.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_064_64'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_064_64'>[064]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Ep. 1706. p. 736.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_065_65'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_065_65'>[065]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        <i>Comparison of Calvinism and Arminianism</i>. vol. ii.
+        p. 560.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_066_66'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_066_66'>[066]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Ib. Vol. ii. p. 609.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_067_67'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_067_67'>[067]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Ep. 1538. p. 573, 690, 926.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_068_68'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_068_68'>[068]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        Ep. 528. p. 400.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <a name='Footnote_069_69'></a><a href=
+    '#FNanchor_069_69'>[069]</a>
+    <div class='note'>
+      <p>
+        "Those," says Mr. James Nichols,<a name=
+        'FNanchor_070_70'></a><a href=
+        '#Footnote_070_70'><sup>[070]</sup></a>
+      </p>
+      <div class='blkquot'>
+        <p>
+          "who wish to behold the praises to which HUGO GROTIUS
+          or HUGH DE GROOT, is justly entitled, and which he has
+          received in ample measure from admiring friends and
+          reluctant foes, may consult SIR THOMAS POPE BLOUNT's
+          <i>Censura celebriorum Authorum</i>. His well earned
+          reputation is founded on too durable a basis to be
+          moved by such petty attacks as those to which I have
+          alluded in a previous part of this introduction (p.
+          xxi.), or those of Mr. Orme in page 641.
+        </p>
+        <p>
+          "That a man so accomplished, virtuous, fearless, and
+          unfortunate, should have had many enemies, among his
+          contemporaries, is not wonderful. But the number of
+          those who evinced their hatred to him, or to his
+          philanthropic labours, increased after his decease,
+          when they could display it with impunity. 'This very
+          pious, learned, and judicious man,' says Dr. Hammond,
+          'hath of late, among many, fallen under a very unhappy
+          fate, being most unjustly calumniated, sometimes as a
+          SOCINIAN, sometimes as a PAPIST, and, as if he had
+          learnt to reconcile contradictions, sometimes <i>as
+          both of them together.</i>'
+        </p>
+        <p>
+          "One cause of the Charge of SOCINIANISM being preferred
+          against him, has been already mentioned, (p. xxxiii.)
+          and it is more fully explained in pages 637, 642. The
+          reader will not require many additional reasons to
+          convince him of the untenable ground for such an
+          accusation, when he is told that VOETIUS, one of the
+          most violent of his enemies, laid down this grand
+          axiom-'To place the principal part of religion in an
+          <i>observance of Christ's commands is</i> RANK
+          SOCIANISM!' To such a <i>practical observance of
+          the</i> requisitions of the Gospel, by what name soever
+          it might be stigmatized, Grotius pleaded guilty. He
+          says (p. 637) 'I perceive this was accounted the
+          principal part of religion by the Christians of the
+          primitive ages; and their various assemblies, divines,
+          and martyrs taught, 'that the doctrines <i>necessary to
+          be known</i> are exceedingly few, but that God forms
+          his estimate of us from the purpose and intention of an
+          obedient spirit.' I am likewise of the same opinion,
+          and shall never repent of having maintained it.'
+        </p>
+        <p>
+          "But as the charge of POPERY is of the utmost
+          consequence, I have discussed this topic at great
+          length, (pp. 566, 746), and have proved (pp. 549, 561),
+          that Grotius was as little attached to the principles
+          or the practice of the Romish church as the most
+          zealous of his accusers. Whatever tends to vindicate
+          the conduct of Grotius in this matter, will operate
+          still more powerfully in favour of Archbishop Laud. The
+          design of Grotius is well described by Dr. Hammond, in
+          a <i>Digression</i> which he added to his <i>Answer</i>
+          to the <i>Animadversions on his Dissertations</i>; in
+          which he says,
+        </p>
+        <div class='blkquot'>
+          <p>
+            "'For the charge of Popery that is fallen upon him, it
+            is evident from whence that flows,-either from his
+            <i>profest opposition to many doctrines of some
+            Reformers, Zuinglius and Calvin, &amp;c</i>. or from
+            his <i>Annotations on Cassander, and the Debates with
+            Rivet consequent thereto, the Votum pro pace and
+            Discussio</i>.'
+          </p>
+          <p>
+            "For the former of these, it is sufficiently known
+            what contests there were, and at length how profest
+            the divisions betwixt the Remonstrants and
+            Contra-Remonstrants; and it is confessed that he
+            maintained (all his time) the Remonstrants party,
+            vindicating it from all charge, whether of
+            Pelagianism or Semi-Pelagianism, which was by the
+            opposers objected to it, and pressing the favourers
+            of the doctrine of Irrespective Decrees with the
+            odious consequences of making God the <i>author and
+            favourer of sin</i>, and frequently expressing his
+            sense of the evil influences that some of those
+            doctrines were experimented to have on men's lives.
+            And by these means it is not strange that he should
+            fall under great displeasure from those who, having
+            espoused the opinion of Irrespective Decrees, did not
+            only publish it as the THE TRUTH and TRUTH OF GOD,
+            but farther asserted the questioning of it to be
+            injurious to God's free grace and his Eternal
+            Election, and consequently retained no ordinary
+            patience for or charity to opposers. But, then, still
+            this is no medium to to infer that charge. The
+            doctrines which he thus maintained were neither
+            branches nor characters of Popery, but asserted by
+            some of the first and most learned and pious
+            Reformers. Witness the writings of Hemingius in his
+            <i>Opuscula</i>, most of which are on these subjects.
+            Whereas on the contrary side, Zuinglius and others,
+            who maintained the rigid way of Irrespective Decrees,
+            and infused them into some of this nation of ours,
+            are truly said, by an excellent writer of ours, Dr.
+            Jackson, to <i>have had it first from some ancient
+            Romish Schoolmen</i>, and so to have had as much or
+            more of that guilt adherent to them, as can be
+            charged on their opposers. So that from hence to
+            found the jealousy, to affirm him a papist because he
+            was not a contra-remonstrant, is but the old method
+            of speaking all that is ill of those who differ from
+            our opinions on any thing; as the Dutchman in his
+            rage calls his horse an ARMINIAN, because he doth not
+            not go as he would have him. And this is all that can
+            soberly be concluded from such suggestions, that they
+            are displeased and passionate that thus speak.
+          </p>
+          <p>
+            "As for the <i>Annotations on Cassander</i>, &amp;c.
+            and the consequent vindications of himself against
+            <i>Rivet</i>, those have with some colour been deemed
+            more favourable toward Popery; but yet I suppose will
+            be capable of benign interpretations, if they be read
+            with these few cautions or remembrances:
+          </p>
+          <p>
+            "<i>First</i>. That they were designed to shew a way
+            to peace whensoever men's minds on both sides should
+            be piously affected to it.
+          </p>
+          <p>
+            "<i>Secondly</i>. That he did not hope for this temper
+            in his age, the humour on both sides being so
+            turgent, and extremely contrary to it, and the
+            controversy debated on both sides by those 'who,'
+            saith he, '<i>desire to eternize, and not to compose
+            contentions</i>,' and therefore makes his appeal to
+            posterity, when this paroxysm shall be over.
+          </p>
+          <p>
+            "<i>Thirdly</i>. That for the chief usurpations of the
+            papacy; he leaves it to Christian princes to join
+            together to vindicate their own rights, and reduce
+            the Pope <i>ad Canones</i>, to that temper, which the
+            ancient canons allow and require of him; and if that
+            will not be done, to reform every one in their own
+            dominions.
+          </p>
+          <p>
+            "<i>Fourthly</i>. That what he saith in favour of some
+            Popish doctrines, above what some other learned
+            Protestants have said, is not so much by way of
+            <i>assertion</i> or <i>justification</i> of them, as
+            to shew what reasons they may justly be thought to
+            proceed upon, and so not to be go irrational or
+            impious as they are ordinarily accounted; and this
+            only in order to the peace of the christian world,
+            that we may have as much charity to others and not as
+            high animosities, live with all men as sweetly and
+            amicably, and peaceably, and not as bitterly as is
+            possible, accounting the wars and seditions, and
+            divisions and rebellions, that are raised and managed
+            upon the account of religion, far greater and more
+            scandalous unchristian evils, than are the errors of
+            some Romish doctrines, especially as they are
+            maintained by the more sober and moderate men among
+            them, Cassander, Picherel, &amp;c.
+          </p>
+          <p>
+            "<i>Fifthly</i>. What he saith in his
+            <i>Discussio</i>, of a conjunction of Protestants
+            with those that adhere to the Bishop of Rome, is no
+            farther to be extended, than his words extend it.
+            That there is not any other visible way to the end
+            there mentioned by him, of acquiring or preserving
+            universal unity. That this is to be done, not
+            crudely, by returning to them as they are, submitting
+            our necks to our former yokes, but by taking away at
+            once the division, and the causes of it, on which
+            side soever; adding only in the third place, that the
+            bare primacy of the Bishop of Rome, <i>secundum
+            Canones</i>, such as the ancient canons allow of,
+            (which hath nothing of <i>supreme universal
+            power</i>, or authority in it,) is none of those
+            causes, nor consequently necessary to be excluded in
+            the [Greek: diallaktikon (sic)], citing that as the
+            confession of that excellent person Philip
+            Melancthon. So that in effect, that whole speech of
+            his which is so solemnly vouched by Mr. Knott, and
+            looked on so jealously by many of us, is no more than
+            this, 'that such a Primacy of the Bishop of Rome, as
+            the ancient canons allowed him, were, for so glorious
+            an end as is the regaining the peace of christendom,
+            very reasonably to be afforded him, nay absolutely
+            necessary to be yielded him, whensoever any such
+            catholic union shall be attempted, which as it had
+            been the express opinion of Melancthon, one of the
+            first and wisest Reformers, so it is far from any
+            design of establishing the usurpations of the Papacy,
+            or any of their false doctrines attending them, but
+            only designed as an expedient for the restoring the
+            peace of the whole christian world, which every
+            disciple of Christ is so passionately required to
+            contend and pray for.'
+          </p>
+        </div>
+        <p>
+          "At the conclusion of the Doctor's <i>Continuation of
+          the Defence of</i> HUGO GROTIUS, he thus expresses
+          himself:
+        </p>
+        <div class='blkquot'>
+          <p>
+            "'As this is an act of mere justice and charity to the
+            dead,-and no less to those who, by their sin of
+            uncharitable thoughts towards him, are likely to
+            deprive themselves of the benefit of his labours,-so
+            is it but a proportionable return of debt and
+            gratitude to the signal value and kindness, which in
+            his lifetime, he constantly professed to pay to this
+            church and nation, expressing his opinion, "that of
+            all churches in the world, it was the most careful
+            observer and transcriber of primitive antiquity," and
+            more than intimating his desire to end his days in
+            the bosom and communion of our mother. Of this I want
+            not store of witnesses, which from time to time have
+            heard it from his own mouth whilst he was ambassador
+            in France, and even in his return to Sweden,
+            immediately before his death; and for a real evidence
+            of this truth, it is no news to many, that, at the
+            taking his journey from Paris, he appointed his wife,
+            whom he left behind, to resort to the English
+            Assembly at the Agent's house, which accordingly she
+            is known to have practised.'"
+          </p>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_070_70'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_070_70'>[070]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Calvinism and Arminianism compared, Introduction,
+          cxxxii.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_071_71'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_071_71'>[071]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          A dialogue on the Reformation was also in the
+          contemplation of Mr. Gibbon: "I have," he says in the
+          Memoirs of his life and writings,<a name=
+          'FNanchor_072_72'></a><a href=
+          '#Footnote_072_72'><sup>[072]</sup></a> "sometimes
+          thought of writing a dialogue of the dead, in which
+          Luther, Erasmus and Voltaire should mutually
+          acknowledge the danger of exposing an old superstition
+          to the contempt of the blind and fanatic multitude."
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_072_72'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_072_72'>[072]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Vol. i. p. 269, of the 8vo. edition of his works.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_073_73'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_073_73'>[073]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          A full account of the writings of <i>Wicelius</i>, and
+          of his projects of Pacification, is given by <i>Father
+          Simon</i> in the <i>Biblioteque Critique, par M. de
+          Sainjore</i>, Tom. ii. ch. 18. He concludes it, by
+          observing, that
+        </p>
+        <div class='blkquot'>
+          <p>
+            "the great love which Wicelius had for the peace of
+            the church, might induce him to use expressions,
+            somewhat harsh, but which really ought not to be
+            censured with too much rigour. It is evident that his
+            only view was to be useful to persons of his own
+            time, to whom he consecrated the latter part of his
+            life.-I do not recollect to have read that he was
+            censured at Rome, and the Spanish Inquisitors seem to
+            have observed the same moderation in his regard."
+          </p>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_074_74'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_074_74'>[074]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          XVI. Cent. Book V. p. 41, in the Englsh translation.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_075_75'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_075_75'>[075]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          See Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, Cent. XVII. ch.
+          ii. sect. ii. Part II.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_076_76'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_076_76'>[076]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Eccles. Hist. Cent. XVI. ch. ii. sect. iii. Part. II.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_077_77'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_077_77'>[077]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Observat. Hallen, 15 t. p. 341.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_078_78'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_078_78'>[078]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          It is a prayer addressed to Jesus Christ, and suited to
+          the condition of a dying person who builds his hope on
+          the Mediator. <i>M. Le Clerc</i> has inserted it at
+          length in the <i>Sentimens de quelques Theologiens de
+          Hollande</i>, 17 Lettre, p. 397.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_079_79'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_079_79'>[079]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson, 2d Vol. p. 502. 2d
+          Edition.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_080_80'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_080_80'>[080]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          The author's "Confessions of Faith," mention this
+          convention, its dissolution, and the subsequent union
+          of the Helvetian, and Bohemian protestant
+          congregations, in the Synods, held at Astrog, in the
+          years 1620, and 1627. The original settlement of these
+          churches, was in Bohemia, and Moravia. Persecution
+          scattered the members of them: a considerable number of
+          the fugitives, settled at Herrenhut, a village in
+          Lusatia. There, under the protection and guidance of
+          Count Zinzendorf, they formed themselves into a new
+          community, which was designed to comprehend their
+          actual and future congregations, under the title of
+          "<i>The Protestant Church of the Unitas Fratrum, or
+          United Brethren of the Confession of Augsburgh</i>."
+          That Confession is their only symbolic book; but they
+          profess great esteem for the eighteen first chapters of
+          the Synodical Document of the church of Berne in 1532,
+          as a declaration of true Christian Doctrine. They also
+          respect, the writings of Count Zinzendorf, but do not
+          consider themselves, bound by any opinion, sentiment,
+          or expression, which these contain. It is acknowledged,
+          that, towards the middle of the last century, they used
+          in their devotional exercises, particularly in their
+          hymns, many expressions justly censurable: but these
+          have been corrected. They consider Lutherans and
+          Calvinists, to be their brethren in faith, as according
+          with them in the essential articles of religion; and
+          therefore, when any of their members reside at a
+          distance from a congregation of the United Brethren,
+          they not only attend a Lutheran, or Calvinist church,
+          but receive the Sacrament, from its ministers, without
+          scruple. In this, they profess to act in conformity to
+          the Convention at Sendomer. The union, which prevails
+          both among the congregations, and the individuals which
+          compose them, their modest and humble carriage, their
+          moderation in lucrative pursuits, the simplicity of
+          their manners, their laborious industry, their frugal
+          habits, their ardent but mild piety, and their regular
+          discharge of all their spiritual observances, are
+          universally acknowledged and admired. Their charities
+          are boundless, their kindness to their poor brethren is
+          most edifying; there is not among them a beggar. The
+          care, which they bestow, on the education of their
+          children, in forming their minds, chastening their
+          hearts, and curbing their imaginations,-particularly in
+          those years,
+        </p>
+        <div class='poem'>
+          <span class='c13'>"When youth, elate and
+          gay,</span><br>
+          <span>Steps into life and follows,
+          unrestrained,</span><br>
+          <span>Where passion leads, or reason points the way."
+          <i>Lowth.</i></span><br>
+        </div>
+        <p>
+          are universally acknowledged, universally admired, and
+          deserve universal imitation.
+        </p>
+        <p>
+          But, it is principally, by the extent and success of
+          their missionary labours, that they now engage, the
+          attention of the public. These began, in 1732. In 1812,
+          they had thirty-three settlements, in heathen nations.
+          One hundred and thirty-seven missionaries, were
+          employed in them: they had baptized, twenty-seven
+          thousand, four hundred converts: and such had been
+          their care, in admitting them to that sacred rite, and
+          such their assiduity, in cultivating a spirit of
+          religion, among them, that scarcely an individual, had
+          been known, to relapse into paganism. All travellers,
+          who have visited their settlements, speak with wonder,
+          and praise, of the humility, the patient endurance of
+          privation, and hardship, the affectionate zeal, the
+          mild, and persevering exertions of the missionaries;
+          and the innocence, industry and piety of the
+          converts:-the European, the American, the African, and
+          the Asiatic traveller speaks of them, in the same
+          terms: and, that they speak without exaggeration, the
+          conduct both of the pastor, and the flock in the
+          different settlements of the United Brethren in
+          England, incontestibly proves. Whatever he may think of
+          their religious tenets, <i>Talis cum sitis, utinam
+          nostri essetis</i>, must be the exclamation of every
+          christian, who considers their lives. Those, who desire
+          further knowledge of this amiable, and worthy
+          denomination of Christians, will find it in <i>David
+          Cranz's ancient and modern History of the Brethren,
+          printed at Barby, 1771, and the two continuations of
+          it, Barby</i>, 1791, and 1804. The History has been
+          translated into English; and is become exceedingly
+          scarce; the Continuations have not been translated. Mr.
+          La Trobe, the Pastor of the United Brethren in London,
+          has published a <i>Concise Historical Account of the
+          Protestant Church of the United Brethren adhering to
+          the Confession of Augsburgh</i>.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_081_81'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_081_81'>[081]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Epist. 1706, p. 736.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_082_82'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_082_82'>[082]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Ib. Epist. 613.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_083_83'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_083_83'>[083]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Epist. part. I. Epist. 432. part II. Epist. 53. The
+          French public strongly suspected the Cardinal of this
+          design. It gave rise to the celebrated libel, entitled
+          "<i>Optatus Gallus,</i>" <i>Grotius</i>, (Lit. 982.)
+          notices a prophecy of Nostradamus, then in circulation:
+        </p>
+        <div class='poem'>
+          <br>
+          <span>"<i>Celui qui &eacute;tait bien avant dans le
+          regne,</i></span><br>
+          <span><i>Ayant chat rouge, proche,
+          hierarchie,</i></span><br>
+          <span><i>Apre et cruel, et se fera tant
+          craindre,</i></span><br>
+          <span><i>Succedera, a sacr&eacute;e
+          Monarchie.</i>"</span><br>
+        </div>
+        <p>
+          If the event in question had happened, Nostradamus
+          would have passed, with many for a prophet.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_084_84'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_084_84'>[084]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Eclaircissemens de l'&eacute;dit de Nantes, page 1. c.
+          6.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_085_85'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_085_85'>[085]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          V. 2. p. 38, 148.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_086_86'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_086_86'>[086]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          We are grieved to add, that he allowed the <i>right</i>
+          of a sovereign to persecute for religion.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_087_87'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_087_87'>[087]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          This article is extracted from Oeuvres Posthumes de
+          Bossuet, vol. i. Nouvelle &eacute;dition des Oeuvres de
+          Bossuet, vol. ii. Leibnizii Opera, studio Ludovici
+          Dutens, vol. i. and v. And the Pens&eacute;es de
+          Leibniz, vol. ii. 8vo.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_088_88'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_088_88'>[088]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          Tom. xiii.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <a name='Footnote_089_89'></a><a href=
+      '#FNanchor_089_89'>[089]</a>
+      <div class='note'>
+        <p>
+          See the Appendix to the Sermons of Dr. Jebb, the
+          present excellent Bishop of Limerick.-Cadel, 1824.
+        </p>
+      </div>
+      <hr class='c2'>
+      <br>
+
+      <div class="c3">
+        Luke Hansard &amp; Sons,<br>
+         near Lincoln's-Inn Fields, London.
+      </div>
+      <hr class='c2'>
+      <br>
+
+      <div class="c14">
+        By the same Author,
+      </div>
+      <h4>
+        THE LIFE OF ERASMUS:
+      </h4>
+      <h4>
+        WITH
+      </h4>
+      <h4>
+        HISTORICAL REMARKS ON THE STATE OF LITERATURE<br>
+         BETWEEN THE TENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES.
+      </h4>
+    </div>
+<hr class="full" noshade>
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF HUGO GROTIUS***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 14037-h.txt or 14037-h.zip *******</p>
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+</pre>
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/old/14037.txt b/old/14037.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7d265d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/14037.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7610 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Life of Hugo Grotius, by Charles Butler
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Life of Hugo Grotius
+
+Author: Charles Butler
+
+Release Date: November 13, 2004  [eBook #14037]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF HUGO GROTIUS***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Frank van Drogen, David Gundry, and the Project
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team from images generously made
+available by the Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr
+
+
+
+THE LIFE OF HUGO GROTIUS
+
+With Brief Minutes of the Civil, Ecclesiastical, and Literary History
+of the Netherlands
+
+by
+
+CHARLES BUTLER, ESQ.
+
+Of Lincoln's-Inn
+
+London: John Murray, Albemarle-Street.
+
+M.DCCC.XXVI.
+
+
+
+
+TO
+HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS
+THE DUKE OF SUSSEX,
+THIS BIOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT
+OF
+ONE OF THE MOST AMIABLE AND RESPECTABLE DEFENDERS OF THE NOBLE CAUSE OF
+CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY,
+OF WHICH
+HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS HAS UNIFORMLY BEEN A CONSTANT AND POWERFUL ADVOCATE,
+IS
+(WITH HIS PERMISSION),
+MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED,
+BY
+THE AUTHOR,
+
+Great Ormond Street
+
+29 Sept. 1826
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+In the following pages we shall attempt to present our Readers, with a
+Life of HUGO GROTIUS; and MINUTES OF THE CIVIL, ECCLESIASTICAL, AND
+LITERARY HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+In writing these pages, we principally consulted his life, written in
+the French language, by _M. de Burigni_, Member of the French Royal
+Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres; an English translation of
+it, was published in 1754, in one Volume, 8vo.;
+
+_Hugonis Grotii Manes, ab iniquis obtrectationibus vindicati_; 2
+vols. 8vo. 1727: the author of this work is said to be M. Lehman;
+
+The article _Grotius_, in _Bayle's and Chalmers's
+Dictionaries_;
+
+And many of the letters in _Hugonis Grotii Epistolae_, published at
+Amsterdam in 1687, in one volume, folio; and many in the _Praestantium
+et Eruditorum Virorum Epistolae Ecclesiasticae_, published at Amsterdam
+in 1684, in one volume, 4to.
+
+For what we have said on GERMANY AND THE NETHERLANDS, we principally
+consulted,
+
+_Schmidt's Histoire des Allemands_;
+
+_Pfeffell's Histoire Abrege de l'Allemagne_, 2 vols. 8vo.;
+
+_Mr. Durnford's excellent Translation, of Professor Puetter's
+Historical Developement, of the Political History of the German
+Empire_; 3 vols. 8vo.;
+
+And _Hugonis Grotii Annales, et Historiae de Rebus Belgicis_, one
+vol. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1658.
+
+In our account of the troubles on _Arminianism_, and the Synod of
+Dort; we principally consulted, the French Abridgment, in 3 vols. 8vo.
+of _Brand's History of the Netherlands_, and _Grotius's_
+excellent _Apology_:
+
+In every part of the work, we have consulted other publications;--three
+only of these we shall mention;
+
+The three _Bibliothecques_ of Le Clerc;
+
+_The Life of Arminius_, and
+
+_Calvinism and Arminianism Compared_, by Mr. James Nichols.
+
+From these materials the following pages have been composed: they may be
+found to contain,--
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER
+
+
+
+
+A.D. 800-911.
+
+
+
+I. 1. _Boundaries, and Devolution of the Empire of
+        Germany, during the Carlovingian dynasty_
+   2. _State of Literature, in the time of Charlemagne_
+   3. _Decline of Literature, under the Descendants of
+        Charlemagne_
+
+A.D. 911-1024.
+
+II. 1. _Boundaries, and Devolution of the empire of
+         Germany, during the Saxon dynasty_
+    2. _State of Literature, during the Saxon dynasty_
+
+A.D. 1024-1138.
+
+III. 1. _Boundaries, and State of Germany, during the
+          Franconian dynasty_
+     2. _State of German Literature, during the Franconian
+          dynasty_
+
+A.D. 1138-1519.
+
+IV. 1. _State of Germany, from the beginning of the
+         Suabian dynasty, until the accession of the
+         Emperor Charles V._
+    2. _State of German Literature, during this period_
+
+A.D. 1138-1519.
+
+V. 1. _Antient, and modern Geography of the Netherlands_
+   2. _The formation, of the different provinces of the
+        Netherlands, into one State_
+   3. _Brief view, of the History of the Netherlands, until
+        the acknowledgment of the Seven United Provinces,
+        by the Spanish monarch_
+   4. _Their constitution, and principal officers_
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+A.D. 1582-1597.
+
+BIRTH, AND EDUCATION OF GROTIUS
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+A.D. 1597-1610.
+
+GROTIUS, EMBRACES THE PROFESSION OF THE
+LAW
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE EARLY PUBLICATIONS, OF GROTIUS
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+HISTORICAL MINUTES, OF THE UNITED PROVINCES,
+FROM THEIR DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE,
+TILL THE ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+A.D. 1610-1617.
+
+THE FEUDS, IN THE UNITED PROVINCES, BETWEEN
+THE DISCIPLES OF CALVIN, AND THE DISCIPLES
+OF ARMINIUS, UNTIL THE SYNOD OF DORT
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+A.D. 1618.
+
+THE SYNOD OF DORT
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+A.D. 1618-1621.
+
+TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT OF GROTIUS; HIS
+ESCAPE FROM PRISON
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+A.D. 1622
+
+JAMES I.      VORSTIUS
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+A.D. 1621-1634.
+
+GROTIUS, AFTER HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON, UNTIL
+HIS APPOINTMENT OF AMBASSADOR, FROM
+SWEDEN, TO THE COURT OF FRANCE
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS, OF GROTIUS
+1. _New edition of Stobaeus_
+2. _His treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis_
+3. ---- _de Veritate Religionis Christianae_
+4. ---- _de Jure summarum potestatum circa
+           sacra._--And _Commentatio ad loca quaedam Novi
+           Testamenti, quae de Antichristo agunt, aut agere
+           videntur_
+5. _His Commentaries on the Scriptures_
+6. _His other works_
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+A.D. 1634-1645.
+
+GROTIUS, AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM
+OF SWEDEN, TO THE COURT OF FRANCE
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS OF GROTIUS; SOME
+OTHER OF HIS WORKS,
+1. _Subsequent History of Arminianism_
+2. _Grotius's religious sentiments_
+3. _Projects of religious Pacification_
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+THE DEATH OF GROTIUS
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+A.D. 1680-1815.
+
+HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF
+THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES,
+FROM THE DEATH OF WILLIAM II. TILL
+THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM OF THE
+NETHERLANDS.
+
+1. _William III._
+2. _John William Count of Nassau Dietz, 1702-1711;
+      William IV._ 1711-1751
+3. _From the death of William IV. till the erection of
+      the Kingdom of the Netherlands_
+
+
+APPENDIX I.
+
+_Some Account of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith,
+   or Symbolic Books, of the Roman-Catholic, Greek,
+   and principal Protestant Churches_
+
+
+APPENDIX II.
+
+_On the Reunion of Christians_
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+SUCCINCT NOTICE OF THE GEOGRAPHY, PRINCIPAL POLITICAL EVENTS, AND
+LITERATURE, OF THE NETHERLANDS, BEFORE THE BIRTH OF GROTIUS.
+
+800-1581.
+
+
+
+
+
+We propose to present to our readers, in this chapter, a succinct
+account, of the Geography, Devolution, and Literature of the
+Netherlands,--considering them, until they became subject to the princes
+of the House of Burgundy, as a portion of the German Empire, and
+included in its history:--and from that time, as forming a separate
+territory.
+
+[Sidenote: 800-1581.]
+
+Contemplating the Netherlands in the first of these views,--we shall
+briefly mention the Boundaries and Government, of the German Empire, and
+the state of learning in its territories, during the Carlovingian,
+Saxon, Franconian and Suabian Dynasties, and the period, which
+intervened, between the last Suabian emperor and the election of the
+Emperor Charles the fifth.
+
+From this time, we shall confine ourselves to the History of the
+Netherlands. We shall then, therefore, endeavour to give a short view of
+the geography of these countries, and of the manner in which they were
+acquired by the Princes of Burgundy; then, shortly mention the
+successful revolt of the Seven United Provinces.
+
+In one of them, GROTIUS, the subject of these pages, was born; the part
+which he took in the public events of his times, forms the most
+important portion of his biography.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+I. 1.
+
+_Boundaries and Devolution of the Empire of Germany during the
+Carlovingian Dynasty_.
+
+800-911.
+
+
+The Ocean on the north, the Danube on the south, the Rhine on the west,
+and the Sarmatian Provinces on the east, are the boundaries assigned by
+Tacitus to Antient Germany. It formed the most extensive portion of the
+territories of Charlemagne; descended, at his decease, to his son, Lewis
+the Debonnaire; and, on the partition between his three sons, was
+allotted to Lewis, his second son.
+
+All the territories of Charlemagne were united in Charles the Fat; he
+was deposed by his subjects, and his empire divided. Germany was
+assigned to his third son, Charles the Brave. On his decease, it was
+possessed by Arnold, a natural son of Carloman, the elder brother of
+Charles: from him it descended to Hedwiges, the wife of Otho, Duke of
+Saxony, and she transmitted it to their son Henry the Fowler, the first
+emperor of that house.
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911.]
+
+From the skirts of Germany and France two new kingdoms arose: the
+kingdom of Lorraine, which comprised the countries between the Rhine,
+the Meuse, and the Scheld; or the modern Lorraine, the province of
+Alsace, the Palatinate, Treves, Cologne, Juliers, Liege and the
+Netherlands;--and the kingdom of Burgundy: This was divided into the
+Cis-juranan, or the part of it on the east, and the Trans-juranan, or
+the part of it on the west of Mount Jura. The former comprised Provence,
+Dauphine, the Lyonese, Franche-comte, Bresse, Bugey, and a part of
+Savoy; the latter comprised the countries between Mount Jura and the
+Pennine Alps, or the part of Switzerland between the Reus, the Valais,
+and the rest of Savoy.
+
+Such was the geographical state of Germany at the close of the
+Carlovingian Dynasty.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+I. 2.
+
+_State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne_.
+
+
+So far as Literature depends upon the favour of the monarch, no aera in
+history promised more than the reign of Charlemagne. His education had
+been neglected; but he had real taste for learning and the arts, was
+sensible of their beneficial influence both upon the public and the
+private welfare of a people; and possessed the amplest means of
+encouraging and diffusing them; his wisdom would suggest to him the
+properest means of doing it, and the energy of his mind would excite
+him to constant exertions.
+
+[Sidenote: I. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.]
+
+Nothing that could be effected by a prince thus gifted and disposed, was
+left untried by Charlemagne. He drew to him the celebrated Alcuin, Peter
+of Pisa, Paul Warnefrid, and many other distinguished literary
+characters: he heaped favours upon them; and a marked distinction was
+always shewn them at his court. He formed them into a literary society,
+which had frequent meetings. Their conversation was literary, he often
+bore a part in it; and, what was at least equally gratifying, he always
+listened with a polite and flattering attention while others spoke. To
+establish perfect equality among them, the monarch, and, after his
+example, the other members of this society, dropt their own and adopted
+other names. Angelbert was called Homer, from his partiality to that
+poet; Riculphus, archbishop of Mentz, chose the name of Dametas, from an
+eclogue of Virgil: another member took that of Candidus; Eginhard, the
+Emperor's biographer, was called Calliopus, from the Muse Calliope;
+Alcuin received, from his country, the name of Albinus; the archbishop
+Theodulfe was called Pindar; the abbot Adelard was called Augustine;
+Charlemagne, as the man of God's own heart, was called David.
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911]
+
+The Emperor corresponded with men of learning, on subjects of
+literature; they generally related to religion. In one of his letters,
+he requires of Alcuin an explanation of the words Septuagesima,
+Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima, which denote the Sundays which
+immediately precede, and the word Quadragesima, which denotes the first
+Sunday which occurs in Lent. The denominations of those Sundays give
+rise to two difficulties; one, that they seem to imply that each week
+consists of ten, not of seven days; the other, that the words sound as
+if Septuagesima were the seventieth, when it is only the sixty-third day
+before Easter Sunday; Sexagesima, as if it were the sixtieth, when it is
+only the fifty-sixth; Quinquagesima, as if it were the fiftieth, when it
+is the forty-ninth; Quadragesima, as if it were the fortieth, when it is
+the forty-second. Alcuin's answer is more subtle than satisfactory.
+
+At the meals of Charlemagne some person always read to him. His example
+was followed by many of his successors, particularly by Francis I. of
+France, who, in an happier era for learning, imitated with happier
+effects, the example of the Emperor.
+
+[Sidenote: I. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.]
+
+Alcuin was general director of all the literary schemes of Charlemagne.
+He was an Englishman by birth; skilled both in the Greek and Latin
+language, and in many branches of philosophy. Having taught, with great
+reputation and success, in his own country, he travelled to Rome. In
+780, Charlemagne attracted him to his court.
+
+There, Alcuin gave lectures, and published several treatises. In these,
+he began with Orthography; then proceeded to Grammar; afterwards to
+Rhetoric, and Dialectic. He composed his treatises in the form of
+dialogues; and, as Charlemagne frequently attended them, Alcuin made him
+one of his interlocutors. Few scholars of Alcuin were more attentive
+than his imperial pupil; he had learned grammar from Peter of Pisa; he
+was instructed in rhetoric, dialectic, and astronomy by Alcuin. He also
+engaged in the study of divinity; and had the good sense to stop short
+of those subtleties, in which Justinian, Heraclius, and other princes,
+unfortunately both for themselves and their subjects, bewildered
+themselves. Letters from Gisela and Richtrudis, the daughters of
+Charlemagne, to Alcuin, shew that they partook of their father's
+literary zeal: his favourite study was astronomy.
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911.]
+
+The number of persons in his court, who addicted themselves to pursuits
+of literature, was so great, and their application so regular, that
+their meetings acquired the appellation of "The School of Charlemagne."
+Their library was at Aix-la-Chapelle, the favourite residence of the
+monarch: but they accompanied him in many of his journies. Antiquarians
+have tracked them at Paris, Thionville, Wormes, Ratisbon, Wurtzburgh,
+Mentz, and Frankfort.
+
+Charlemagne established schools in every part of his dominions. In 787,
+he addressed a circular letter to all the metropolitan prelates of his
+dominions, to be communicated by them to their suffragan bishops, and to
+the abbots within their provinces. He exhorted them to erect schools in
+every cathedral and monastery. Schools were accordingly established
+throughout his vast dominions: they were divided into two classes;
+arithmetic, grammar, and music were taught in the lower, the liberal
+arts and theology in the higher.
+
+[Sidenote: 1. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.]
+
+In France, the abbeys of Corbie, Fontenelles, Ferrieres, St. Denis, St
+Germain of Paris, St. Germain of Auxerre, and St. Benedict on the
+Loire;--in Germany, the abbeys of Proom, Fulda, and of St Gall;--in
+Italy, the abbey of Mount Casino, were celebrated for the excellence of
+their schools. One, for the express purpose of teaching the Greek
+language, was founded by Charlemagne at Osnabruck. All were equally open
+to the children of the nobility and the children of peasants; all
+received the same treatment. It happened that, on a public examination
+of the children, the peasant boys were found to have made greater
+progress than the noble. The Emperor remarked it to the latter, and
+declared with an oath, that "the bishopricks and abbeys should be given
+to the diligent poor." "You rely," he said to the patrician youths, "on
+the merit of your ancestors; these have already been rewarded. The state
+owes them nothing; those only are entitled to favour, who qualify
+themselves for serving and illustrating their country by their talents
+and their merits."
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911.]
+
+The civil law then consisted of the Theodosian code, the Salic,
+Ripuarian, Allemannic, Bavarian, Burgundian, and other _codes_; and of
+the _formularies_ of Angesise and Marculfus. To these Charlemagne added
+his own _capitularies_. The whole collection, in opposition to the canon
+or ecclesiastical law, received the appellation of _Lex Mundana_, or
+_worldly law_. The canon law consisted of the code of canons which
+Charlemagne brought with him from Rome in 784; a code of the canons of
+the church of France; the canons inserted in the collection of Angelram,
+bishop of Metz; the apostolic canons, published by St. Martin, bishop of
+Braga; the capitularies of Theodulfus, of Orleans; and the penitential
+canons, published in the Spicilegium of d'Acheri.[001] To the study,
+both of the canon and civil law, schools were appropriated by
+Charlemagne: few, except persons intended for the ecclesiastical state,
+frequented them. Rabanus Maurus,[002] abbot of Fulda, and afterwards
+archbishop of Mentz, has left an interesting account of the studies of
+this period; it shews that all were referred to theology, and only
+considered to be useful so far as they could be made serviceable to
+sacred learning. Such a plan of study could conduce but little to the
+advancement of general literature or science. Still, it was productive
+of good, and led to improvement.
+
+[Sidenote: I.2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.]
+
+It is observable that both antient and modern civilizers of nations,
+have called music to their aid; among these we may mention Charlemagne.
+In his residence at Rome, he was delighted with the Gregorian chant.
+After his return to Germany, he endeavoured to introduce it, both into
+his French and German dominions. The former had a chant of their own;
+they called it an improvement, but other nations considered it a
+corruption of the Gregorian. Greatly against the wish of Charlemagne,
+his Gallic subjects persisted in their attachment to their national
+music; the merit of it was gravely debated before the Emperor; they
+vehemently urged the superiority of their own strains. "Tell me," said
+the Emperor, "which is purer, the fountain or the rivulet?" They
+answered, "the former." "Return ye, then," (said the Emperor) "to St.
+Gregory: he is the fountain, the rivulets are evidently corrupted." The
+Emperor was obeyed, and the Gregorian chant was taught, both in France
+and Germany, by Italian choristers. The Italian writers of the times
+describe the difficulties which they experienced in forming the rough
+and almost untuneable voices of their French and German pupils to the
+softness of the Gregorian song. They appear to have succeeded better
+with the Germans than the French. By these, their lessons were so soon
+and so completely forgotten, after the decease of Charlemagne, that
+Lewis the Debonnaire, his son, was obliged to request Pope Gregory IV.
+to send him from Rome, a new supply of singers to instruct the people.
+
+But music continued to prosper in Germany; it abounded in songs. Some
+were amatory, (_muennelier_); some were satirical, (_cantica in
+malitiam_); some heroic, (_cantica in honorem,_); some diabolical,
+(_cantica diabolica_.) These consisted of incantations, and of
+narratives of the feats of evil spirits.
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911.]
+
+Vernacular poetry, and vernacular composition, of every kind, were
+almost wholly left to the vulgar; all, who aimed at literary eminence,
+wrote in the Latin language. Some discerning spirits became sensible
+that the German language was susceptible of great improvement, and
+excited their countrymen to its cultivation. Among these was Otfroid; he
+translated the Gospel into German verse. He describes, in strong terms,
+the difficulties which he had to encounter: "The barbarousness of the
+German language is," he says, "so great, and its sounds are so
+incoherent and strange, that it is very difficult to subject them to the
+rules of grammar, to represent them by syllables, or to find in the
+alphabet letters which correspond to them." It is however remarkable,
+that, although he complains of the dissonance of the German language, he
+never accuses it of poverty.
+
+While France and Germany continued subject to the same monarch, German
+was the language of the court, and generally used in every class of
+society. When the treaty of Verdun divided the territories of
+Charlemagne, the _Romande_, or _Romance_ language, a corruption of the
+Latin, superseded the German in every part of France: it was insensibly
+refined into the modern French, but the German continued to be the only
+language spoken in Germany.
+
+Great progress was made in architecture: the churches and palaces
+constructed by the direction of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, the
+Basilisc at Germani, the church of St. Recquier at Ponthieu, and many
+other monuments of great architectural skill and expense, belong to the
+age of Charlemagne, and bear ample testimony to the well-directed
+exertions of the monarch, and of some of his descendants, and to their
+wise and splendid magnificence.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+I. 3.
+
+_Decline of Literature under the Descendants of Charlemagne._
+
+[Sidenote: 800-911]
+
+[Sidenote: I. 3. Decline of Literature under the Descendants of
+Charlemagne.]
+
+
+That literature began to decline immediately after the decease of
+Charlemagne, in every part of his extensive dominions, and that its
+decline was principally owing to the wars among his descendants, which
+devastated every portion of his empire, seems to be universally
+acknowledged; yet there are strong grounds for contending that it was
+not so great as generally represented. _Abbe le Beuf_,[003] in an
+excellent dissertation on the state of the sciences in the Gauls during
+the period which elapsed between the death of Charlemagne and the reign
+of Robert, king of France, attempts to prove the contrary; and the
+preliminary discourses of the authors of "l'Histoire Literaire de la
+France," on the state of learning during the ninth and tenth centuries,
+strongly confirm the abbe's representations. It is surprising how many
+works were written during these dark, and, as they are too harshly
+called, ignorant ages. It is more to be wondered, that while so much was
+written, so little was written well. The classical works of antiquity
+were not unknown in those times; the Latin Vulgate translation of the
+Old and New Testament was daily read by the clergy, and heard by the
+people. Now, although the language of the Vulgate be not classical, it
+is not destitute of elegance, and it possesses throughout the exquisite
+charms of clearness and simplicity. It is surprising that these
+circumstances did not lead the writers to a better style. They had no
+such effect; the general style of the time was hard, inflated and
+obscure. It should, however, be observed, that Simonde de Sismondi, as
+he is translated by Mr. Roscoe, justly observes, that "during the reign
+of Charlemagne, and during the four centuries which immediately preceded
+it, there appeared, both in France and Italy, some judicious historians,
+whose style possesses considerable vivacity, and who gave animated
+pictures of their times; some subtle philosophers, who astonished their
+contemporaries, rather by the fineness of their speculations than by the
+justness of their reasoning; some learned theologians, and some poets.
+The names of Paul Warnefrid, of Alcuin, of Luitprand, and Eginhard, are
+even yet universally respected. They all, however, wrote in Latin. They
+had all of them, by the strength of their intellect, and the happy
+circumstances in which they were placed, learned to appreciate the
+beauty of the models which antiquity had left them. They breathed the
+spirit of a former age, as they had adopted its language: we do not find
+them representatives of their contemporaries: it is impossible to
+recognize in their style the times in which they lived; it only betrays
+the relative industry and felicity with which they imitated the language
+and thoughts of a former age. They were the last monuments of civilized
+antiquity, the last of a noble race, which, after a long period of
+degeneracy, became extinct in them."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 1.
+
+_Boundaries and Devolution of the German Empire during the Saxon
+Dynasty._
+
+911-1024.
+
+
+We have mentioned that, on the death of Lewis, the son of Arnhold, the
+empire descended to Henry I. in the right of his mother. From him, it
+devolved through Otho, surnamed the Great, Otho II., and Otho III., to
+Henry II. the last emperor of the Saxon line.
+
+In this period of the German history, the attention of the reader is
+particularly directed to two circumstances,--the principal states, of
+which Germany was composed, the cradles, as they may be called, of the
+present electorates, and the erection of the principal cities and
+monasteries in Germany.
+
+[Sidenote: II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.]
+
+A curious altercation between Nicephorus Phocas, the Greek emperor, and
+Luitprand bishop of Cremona, ambassador from Otho I. to the Greek
+sovereign, shews the state of Germany during this period. "Your nation,"
+said the empire to the ambassador, "does not know how to sit on
+horseback; or how to fight on foot: your large shields, massive armour,
+long swords, and heavy helmets, disable you for battle."--Luitprand
+told the emperor that "he would, the first time they should meet in the
+field, feel the contrary." Luitprand observed, that "Germany was so
+little advanced in ecclesiastical worth; that no council had been held
+within its precincts:" the ambassador remarked, that "all heresies had
+originated in Greece." The emperor asserted, that "the Germans were
+gluttons and drunkards:" Luitprand replied, that "the Greeks were
+effeminate." All writers agree, that, in what each party to this
+conversation asserted, there was too much truth.
+
+We have noticed the advance towards civilization which Henry I, made by
+the construction of towns; he effected another, by the introduction of
+tournaments and field sports, on a large, orderly and showy plan.
+Speaking generally, society in Germany during the Saxon line of its
+princes, was always improving.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 2.
+
+_State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty_.
+
+[Sidenote: 911-1024.]
+
+
+"In the school of Paderborn," says the biographer of Meinwert, as he is
+cited by Schmidt, "there are famous musicians, dialecticians, orators,
+grammarians, mathematicians, astronomers and geometricians. Horace, the
+great Virgil, Sallust, and Statius, are highly esteemed. The monks amuse
+themselves with poetry, books and music. Several are incessantly
+employed in transcribing and painting."
+
+A German translation of the Psalms, by Notker, a monk of the abbey of
+St. Gall, shews that some attention was paid to the language of the
+country. The Greek was cultivated; the writers of the times mention
+several persons skilled in it. Notker, in a letter to one of his
+correspondents, informs him, that "his Greek brothers salute him."
+
+[Sidenote: II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.]
+
+Poetry was a favourite study: the celebrated _Gerbert_, afterwards Pope
+Silvester II, and _Waldram_, bishop of Strasburgh, were the best poets
+of their times. Hroswith,[004] a nun in the monastery of Gardersheim,
+published comedies: "Many Catholics," she says, in her preface to them,
+"are guilty of a fault, from which I myself am not altogether free;
+they prefer profane works, on account of their style, to the holy
+Scriptures. Others have the Scriptures always in their hands, and
+despise profane authors; yet they often read Terence, and their
+attention to the beauties of his style does not prevent the
+objectionable passages in his writings from making an impression on
+them."
+
+To this age, the origin of Romances is usually assigned: but these
+belong to the French; no specimen of them has been discovered in
+Germany. Music was much cultivated. Hroswith introduced it into her
+comedies.
+
+It has been mentioned, that Sallust was read in the school at Paderborn.
+It is supposed that Tacitus was known to Wittikind or Dittmar: both
+relate visions, and several puerile circumstances; but they write with
+precision, and shew, on many occasions, great good sense.
+
+The same cannot be said of the Legend-writers; the account which the
+authors of "The Literary History of France" give of them is very just.
+"The ancient legends," they say, "were lost, in consequence either of
+the plunder or the burning of the churches; it was considered necessary
+to replace them, as it was thought impossible to honour the memory, or
+to preserve the veneration of the saints, without some knowledge of
+their lives. It is to be remarked, that the saints, whose memories were
+thus sought to be honoured, had been long dead, or had lived in foreign
+countries, so that little was known of them except by oral tradition.
+From this it may be easily guessed, that those who employed themselves
+upon the legends, were deprived of necessary information, and upon that
+account could not produce exact and true histories. Thus, to the general
+defects of the age in which they lived, they added uncertainty,
+confusion, and some falsehood. Their pages abound with visions. In the
+place of the simple and natural, they substituted the wonderful and
+extraordinary. It even happened too frequently that they took leave to
+tell untruths. Heriger, the abbot of St Lupus, says, in direct terms,
+that they piously lied."
+
+[Sidenote: 911-1024.]
+
+Dialectic was in great favour: it was called philosophy; no work was
+more read than "the Book of Categories," erroneously ascribed to St.
+Augustine; and a work, upon the same subject, imputed to Porphyry.
+
+[Sidenote: II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.]
+
+The schools of the cathedrals and principal monasteries contributed
+essentially to the increase and diffusion of literature. Among the
+monasteries, those of Fulda, St. Gall, Corbie and Kershaw, were
+particularly renowned. Bishops and abbots exerted themselves to procure
+books, and to have copies of them made and circulated: they were often
+splendidly illuminated. Henry I. caused a painting to be made, of a
+battle which he had gained over the Hungarians. Bernard, bishop of
+Hildersheim, in imitation of what he had seen in Italy, ornamented the
+churches of his diocese with mosaic paintings; he also introduced, among
+his countrymen, the art of fusing and working metals; he caused precious
+and highly ornamented vases to be made in imitation of the antients.
+Large and small bells were cast; chalices, patines, incensories, images,
+and even altars of gold and silver, or ornamented with them, were
+fabricated. Aventin relates, that at Mauverkirchen, in Bavaria, figures
+in plaster, hardened by fire, had, in 948, been made of a duke of
+Bavaria and his general.
+
+[Sidenote: 911-1024.]
+
+The establishment of schools, and the protection given to the arts and
+sciences, invited the whole body of the nation to the acquisition of
+useful and ornamental knowledge; but the invitation was not even
+generally accepted. There was much superstition in every order of the
+laity. An opinion prevailed among them, that the world was to end, and
+the day of judgment arrive, in the year 1000. An universal panic spread
+itself over Europe. Strange to relate, the people sought to avoid the
+catastrophe, by hiding themselves in caverns and tombs.
+
+The existence of this ignorance cannot be denied: but, to the
+ecclesiastics, who strove against it, who erected and fostered so many
+schools to dispel it, and who exerted themselves in the manner we have
+mentioned, to establish another and a better order of things, a great
+share of praise and gratitude should never be denied.
+
+The mines of Hartz were discovered in the time of Otho I. and diffused
+so much wealth over Saxony, and afterwards over all Germany, as gave the
+reign of that emperor the appellation of "the age of gold." Before this
+time, Nicephorus Phocas had called Saxony, from the dress, or rather the
+coverings of its inhabitants, "the land of skins." But all the wealth of
+the country still continued to be concentrated among the great
+landowners.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 1.
+
+_Boundaries and State of Germany during the Franconian Dynasty._
+
+1024-1138.
+
+
+Under Henry III. the second prince of this line, the German empire had
+its greatest extent. It comprised Germany, Italy, Burgundy and Lorraine.
+Poland, and other parts of the Sclavonian territories, were subject to
+it. Denmark and Hungary acknowledged themselves its vassals.
+
+The emperors affected to consider all kingdoms as forming a royal
+republic, of which the emperor was chief. For their right to this
+splendid prerogative, they always found advocates in their own
+dominions: they reckon, among these, the illustrious Leibniz. Out of
+Germany, nothing of the claim, beyond precedence in rank, has ever been
+allowed. This, no sovereign in Europe has contested with the emperors:
+it is observable, that, as the French monarchs insisted on the
+Carlovingian extraction of Hugh Capet, they affected to consider Henry
+the Fowler the first prince of the Saxon dynasty, and all his successors
+in the empire as usurpers. Lewis XIV. expresses himself in this manner
+in some memoirs recently attributed to him.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 2.
+
+_State of German Literature during the Franconian Dynasty._
+
+[Sidenote: 1024-1138.]
+
+
+Throughout this period, commerce was always upon the increase; and
+literature, science and art, increased with it. The monuments of the
+antient grandeur of the eternal city, began about this time to engage
+the attention of the inhabitants of Germany, and to attract to Rome many
+literary pilgrims. They returned home impressed with admiration of what
+they had seen, and related the wonders to their countrymen. "The gods
+themselves (they told their hearers) behold their images in Rome with
+admiration, and wish to resemble them. Nature herself does not raise
+forms as beautiful as those, which the artist creates. One is tempted to
+say that they breathe; and to adore the skill of the artist rather than
+the inhabitant of Olympus represented by his art." Thus the uncultivated
+Germans began to perceive the beauty of these relics of antiquity, and
+to feel the wish of imitation. This first appeared on the seals of the
+emperors and bishops; several of distinguished beauty have reached our
+times. The German artists soon began to engrave on precious stones, and
+to work in marble and bronze. Four statues of emperors of the house of
+Saxony, of the workmanship of these times, are still to be seen at
+Spires; they are rudely fashioned, but are animated, and have distinct
+and expressive countenances.
+
+[Sidenote: III. 2. State of German Literature during the Franconian
+Dynasty.]
+
+When the emperors or nobility travelled, they were frequently
+accompanied by artists. These sometimes made drawings of foreign
+churches and edifices, and on their return home, raised others in
+imitation of them. Thus the cathedral at Bremen was built on the model
+of that of Benevento. The cathedral of Strasburgh, and many other
+churches, were built about this time.
+
+Music was considerably improved; the system of Guido Aretinus was no
+where understood better, or cultivated with greater ardour, than in
+Germany. Some improvement was made in poetry, but it chiefly appeared in
+the songs of the common people. A monk of Togernsee, in Bavaria,
+composed a collection of poems under the title of Bucolics; they
+resemble those of Virgil only in their title. Lambert, of
+Aschaffenburgh, published a history of his own times, inferior to none
+which have reached us from the middle ages.
+
+[Sidenote: 1024-1138]
+
+Dialectic, however, still continued the favourite study; and the art of
+disputation was never carried so far: the interest which the public took
+in these disputes was surprising. When it was announced that two
+celebrated dialecticians were to hold a public dispute, persons flocked
+from all parts to witness the conflict; they listened with avidity, and
+with all the feelings of partisans. This appears ridiculous; but, in the
+present times, is there no _fancy_ which deserves equal ridicule?
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+IV. 1
+
+_The State of Germany, from the beginning of the Suabian Dynasty, till
+the Accession of the Emperor Charles V._
+
+1138-1519.
+
+
+The principal events in the reigns of the latter princes of the
+Franconian, and of all the princes of the Suabian line, were produced or
+influenced by the contests between the popes and emperors, respecting
+investitures, or the right of nominating to vacant bishoprics;--by the
+pretensions of the popes to hold their antient territories independent
+of the emperors;--or by the new acquisitions of the popes in Italy.
+
+
+1264-1272.
+
+
+These contests reduced the empire to a state of anarchy, which produced
+what is generally called, by the German writers, the Great Interregnum.
+While it continued, six princes successively claimed to be emperors of
+Germany.
+
+
+1272-1438.
+
+
+The interregnum was determined by the election of Rodolph, count of
+Hapsburgh. From him, till the ultimate accession of the house of
+Austria, in the person of Albert the Second, the empire was held by
+several princes of different noble families.
+
+
+1438-1519.
+
+
+Albert was succeeded by Frederick III.; Frederick, by Maximilian I.; and
+Maximilian, by Charles V.
+
+To the period between the extinction of the Suabian dynasty and the
+accession of the emperor Albert, may be assigned the rise of the Italian
+republics, particularly Venice, Genoa and Florence; the elevations of
+the princes of Savoy and Milan, and the revolutions of Naples, and the
+Two Sicilies.
+
+[Sidenote: IV. 1. The State of Germany, from the beginning of the
+Suabian Dynasty till the Accession of the Emperor Charles V.]
+
+The boundaries of Germany, during this period, were the Eider and the
+sea, on the north; the Scheld, the Meuse, the Saone and the Rhone, on
+the west; the Alps and the Rhine, on the south; and the Lech and
+Vistula, on the east. They contained,--1. The duchy of Burgundy; 2. The
+duchy of Lorraine; 3. The principalities into which Allemmania and
+Franconia were divided; 4. The Bavarian territories, which the Franks
+had acquired in Rhoetia, Noricum, and Pannonia; 5. Saxony; 6. The
+Sclavic territories between the Oder and the Vistula: these were
+possessed by the margraves of Brandenburgh, and the dukes of Poland and
+Bohemia, and the princes dependent upon them in Moravia, Silesia and
+Lusatia;--7. by the provinces of Pomerania and Prussia, on the east of
+Saxony; 8. and the Marchia Orientalis, Oostrich, or Austria, on the east
+of Bavaria.
+
+At first, the emperor was chosen by the people at large; the right of
+election was afterwards confined to the nobility and the principal
+officers of state: insensibly, it was engrossed by the five great
+officers,--the chancellor, the great marshal, the great chamberlain, the
+great butler, and the great master of the palace. But their exclusive
+pretensions were much questioned. At length, their right of election was
+settled; first, by the Electoral Union, in 1337; and finally, in the
+reign of the emperor Charles IV. by the celebrated constitution, called,
+from the seal of gold appended to it, _the Golden Bull_. By this, the
+right of election was vested in three spiritual and four temporal
+electors: two temporal electors have since been added to their numbers.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+IV. 2.
+
+_State of German literature during this period_.
+
+[Sidenote: 1438-1519]
+
+
+While the empire was possessed by the princes of the house of Saxony, a
+copy of the Pandects of Justinian was discovered at Amalfi. "The
+discovery of them," says Sir William Blackstone, in his Introductory
+discourse to his Commentaries, "soon brought the civil law into vogue
+all over the west of Europe, where before it was quite laid aside, and
+in a manner wholly forgotten; though some traces of its authority
+remained in Italy, and the eastern provinces of the empire.--The study
+of it was introduced into many universities abroad, particularly that of
+Bologna, where exercises were performed, lectures read, and degrees
+conferred in this faculty, as in other branches of science; and many
+nations of the continent, just then beginning to recover from the
+convulsions consequent to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and
+settling by degrees into peaceable forms of government, adopted the
+civil law (being the best written system then extant,) as the basis of
+their several constitutions; blending or interweaving in it their own
+feudal customs, in some places, with a more extensive, in others, a more
+confined authority."
+
+[Sidenote: IV. 2. State of German Literature, from the Suabian Dynasty
+to Charles V.]
+
+This was a great step toward the civilization of Germany, and of the
+other countries in which the institutions of the civil law were thus
+introduced. They certainly tended to animate the nations, by whom they
+were received, to the study of the history and literature of the people
+from the works of whose writers they had been compiled. They produced
+this effect in several countries of Europe; but their influence in
+Germany was very limited: the disposition to subtilize, which was at
+that time universal throughout the German empire, led those who
+cultivated literature rather to refine upon what was before them, than
+to new inquiries. The language of the Pandects is of the silver age; it
+might therefore be expected, that it would have improved the general
+style of the times; but this improvement is seldom discernible.
+
+[Sidenote: 1438-1519]
+
+[Sidenote: IV. 2. State of German Literature, from the Suabian Dynasty
+to Charles V.]
+
+Good or evil is seldom unmixed: civil contests and dissensions,
+generally produce both public and private misery; sometimes, however,
+they generate mental excitement. This is favourable to Literature and
+Science. Its good effects appeared in the contests between the Popes and
+the Emperors. Great were the public and the private calamities which
+they caused, both in church and state; but they promoted inquiry and
+intellectual exertions. These were often attended with happy results.
+Irnerius, by birth a German, had studied Justinian's law at
+Constantinople. Towards the year 1130, he was appointed professor of
+civil law at Bologna: the contests between the popes and the emperors
+produced a warfare of words among the disciples of Irnerius. It has been
+mentioned that the German emperors pretended to succeed to the empire of
+the Caesars. The language and spirit of the Justinianean code, being
+highly favourable to this claim, the emperors encouraged the civilians,
+and in return for it, had their pens at command. The decree of Gratian
+was favourable to the pretensions of the popes; and on this account was
+encouraged by the canonists. Hence, generally speaking, the civilians
+were partisans of the emperors, the canonists of the popes. From their
+adherence to the law of Justinian, the former were called Legistae; from
+their adherence to the decree of Gratian, the latter were called
+Decretistae. The controversy was carried on with great ardour and
+perseverance; the schools both of Italy and Germany resounded with the
+disputes, and in both, numerous tracts in support of the opposite
+claims, were circulated. The question necessarily carried the
+disputants to many incidental topics: these equally increased the powers
+and curiosity of the disputants, and stimulated them to better and more
+interesting studies.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V. 1.
+
+_Antient and Modern Geography of the Netherlands._
+
+
+We have thus brought down our historical deduction of the German Empire
+to the accession of the Emperor Charles the Fifth.
+
+About 160 years before this event, that portion of the empire, to which
+its situation has given the appellation of THE NETHERLANDS, began to
+have a separate history, and both a separate and important influence on
+the events of the times. To them we shall now direct our attention.
+
+These spacious territories are bounded on the north, by the German
+Ocean; on the west, by the British Sea and part of Picardy; on the
+south, by Champagne or Lorraine; on the east, by the archbishoprics of
+Triers and Treves, the dutchies of Juliers and Cleves, the bishopric of
+Munster, and the county of Embden or East Friesland.
+
+[Sidenote: V. 1. Antient and Modern Geography of the Netherlands.]
+
+When the Romans invaded Gaul, it was divided among three principal
+clans: the Rhine then formed its western boundary. The left banks of
+this river were occupied by the Belgians: this tract of land now
+comprises the catholic Netherlands, and the territory of the United
+States; the right bank of the Rhine was then filled by the Frisians,
+and now comprises the modern Groeningen, east and west Friesland, a part
+of Holland, Gueldres, Utrecht, and Overyssell: the Batavians inhabited
+the island which derives its name from them; it now comprises the upper
+part of Holland, Utrecht, Gueldres, and Overyssell, the modern Cleves
+between the Lech and the Waal.
+
+In antient geography, the Netherlands were separated into the
+Cisrhenahan and Transrhenahan divisions: the Cisrhenahan lay on the
+western side of the Rhine, and included the Belgic Gaul; it was bounded
+by the Rhenus, the Rhodanus, the Sequana, the Matrona, and the Oceanus
+Britannicus: the Transrhenahan lay on the eastern side of the Rhine; it
+was a part of Lower Germany, and bounded on the north by the eastern
+Frisia, Westphalia, the Ager-Colonensis, the Juliacensis-Ducatus, and
+the Treveri. The classical reader will have no difficulty in assigning
+to these denominations, their actual names in the language of modern
+geography.
+
+The whole of these territories is called the Netherlands by the English;
+and Flanders by the Italians, Spaniards, and French.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V. 2.
+
+_The formation of the different Provinces of the Netherlands into one
+State_.
+
+
+In 1363, John the Good, the king of France, gave to Philip the Bold, his
+third son, the dutchy of Burgundy: it then comprised the county of
+Burgundy, Dauphine, and a portion of Switzerland. The monarch at the
+same time created his son duke of Burgundy. Thus Philip, became the
+patriarch of the second line of that illustrious house.
+
+History does not produce an instance of a family, which has so greatly
+aggrandized itself by marriage, as the house of Austria. The largest
+part by far of the Netherlands was derived to it, 1st, from Margaret of
+Franche Comte; 2dly, from Margaret of Flanders; 3dly, from Jane of
+Brabant; 4thly, from Mary of Burgundy; 5thly, from Jacqueline of
+Holland; and 6thly, from Elizabeth of Luxemburgh.
+
+[Sidenote: Formation of the Provinces of the Netherlands into one
+State.]
+
+The possessions of the three first of these splendid heiresses,
+descended to Margaret of Flanders. She married Phillip the Bold, who, as
+we have just mentioned, was the first of the modern Dukes of Burgundy.
+By this marriage, he acquired, in right of his wife, the provinces of
+Flanders, Artois, Mechlin, and Rhetel; and transmitted them and his own
+dukedom of Burgundy to his son Charles the Intrepid. From Charles, they
+descended to his son Philip the Good. He purchased Namur; and by a
+transaction with Jacqueline of Holland, acquired that province, Zealand,
+Hainault, and Friesland. By other means, he obtained Brabant, Antwerp,
+Luxemburgh, Limburgh, Gueldres, and Zutphen. On the failure of issue
+male of Philip the Good, all these fourteen provinces descended to Mary
+his only daughter. She married the Emperor Maximilian. He had two sons
+by her, the Emperor Charles V. and Ferdinand. The former acquired, by
+purchase or force, Utrecht, Overyssell and Groeningen.
+
+These territories formed what are generally called the SEVENTEEN
+PROVINCES OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+In the language of the middle ages, they consisted of the Dutchies of
+Brabant, Limburgh, Luxemburgh, and Gueldres; the Earldoms of Flanders,
+Artois, Hainault, Holland, Zealand, Namur, Zutphen, Antwerp, (sometimes
+called the Marquisate of the Holy Empire) and the Lordships of
+Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssell, and Groeningen. Cambrai, the
+Cambresis, and the County of Burgundy, though a separate territory, were
+considered to be appendages, but not part of them.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V. 3.
+
+_Brief View of the History of the Netherlands, till the acknowledgement
+of the Independence of the Seven United Provinces by the Spanish
+Monarch._
+
+
+The laws, the customs, and the government of all these provinces were
+nearly alike: each had its representative assembly of the three orders,
+of the clergy, nobility, and burghers: each had its courts of justice;
+and an appeal from the superior tribunal of each lay to the supreme
+court at Mechlin.
+
+Public and fiscal concerns of moment fell under the cognizance of the
+sovereign. The people enjoyed numerous and considerable privileges: the
+most important of them was the _Droit de Joyeuse entree_, the right of
+not being taxed without the consent of the three estates. Commerce,
+agriculture, and the arts, particularly music and painting, flourished
+among them. The people were honest, frugal, regular and just in their
+general habits; more steady than active; not easily roused; but, when
+once roused, not easily appeased.
+
+[Sidenote: Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.]
+
+Charles V. made over his hereditary territories in Germany to his
+brother Ferdinand; but retained the Netherlands, and annexed them to the
+crown of Spain.
+
+With that crown, they descended to Philip the Second, the only son of
+Charles.
+
+Unwise and unjust measures of that monarch drove the inhabitants into
+rebellion.
+
+On the 5th of April 1566, a deputation of 400 gentlemen, with Lewis of
+Nassau, a brother of the prince of Orange, at their head, presented a
+petition to Margaret of Austria, the Governor of the Netherlands. From
+the coarseness of their dress, they acquired the name of _gueux_ or
+_beggars_, and retained it throughout the whole of the troubles which
+followed.
+
+[Sidenote: Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.]
+
+Calvinism had, before this time, made great progress in these countries,
+and gained over to it numbers of the discontented party. Philip
+proceeded to the most violent measures, and sent the Duke of Alva, with
+an army of 20,000 men, into the Netherlands. William, Prince of Orange,
+placed himself at the head of the malcontents, and raised an army. At an
+assembly of the States of Holland and Zealand in 1559, he was declared
+Stadtholder, or Governor of Holland, Friesland, and Utrecht: Calvinism
+was declared to be the religion of the States. In 1579, the three
+provinces were joined by those of Gueldres, Zutphen, Overyssell, and
+Groeningen. All signed, by their deputies, the TREATY OF UNION; it became
+the basis of their constitution: still, however, they acknowledged
+Philip for their sovereign. But in 1581, the deputies of the United
+States assembled at Amsterdam, subscribed a solemn act, by which they
+formally renounced allegiance to Philip and his successors, and asserted
+their independence. They declared in their manifesto, that "the prince
+is made for the people, not the people for the prince;" that "the
+prince, who treats his subjects as slaves, is a tyrant, whom his
+subjects have a right to dethrone, when they have no other means of
+preserving their liberty;" that "this right particularly belongs to the
+Netherlands; their sovereign, being bound by his coronation oath to
+observe the laws, under pain of forfeiting his sovereignty."
+
+In 1584, the Prince of Orange was assassinated by Balthazar Gerard, a
+Catholic fanatic: the war was continued till 1609, when it was suspended
+by a truce of twelve years. At the expiration of it, the war burst forth
+with fresh fury: it was finally terminated by the peace of Munster, or
+Westphalia, in 1648, when the King of Spain acknowledged, in the fullest
+manner, the INDEPENDENCE OF THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES, and of all their
+possessions in Asia, Africa, and America.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V.4.
+
+_Their Constitution and principal Officers._
+
+[Sidenote: Constitution of the Netherlands.]
+
+
+Thus the United Provinces became a confederacy of seven independent
+principalities, called in the aggregate the States General. Several
+years elapsed before their constitution was finally settled. Then, the
+supreme sovereignty of the whole was considered to be vested in the
+people of every province represented by the States. These consisted of
+deputies appointed to them from the different provinces. Each province
+might send to the assembly more than one deputy; but, whatever was the
+number of deputies sent by them, they had one vote only in the
+proceedings of the assembly. The government of each province was vested
+in its states: these were composed of two orders, the deputies from the
+towns, and those from the equestrian order.
+
+Each province contained several independent republics.
+
+The States General could not make war or peace, or enter into alliances,
+or raise money, without the consent of all the seven provinces; nor did
+the decrees of any one of the States bind the constituent parts of it,
+without their consent.
+
+[Sidenote: Constitution of the Netherlands.]
+
+The Stadtholder was appointed by the States General, and held his office
+at their will. The offices of captain-general and admiral were united in
+him: thus he had the appointment of all military commands, both by sea
+and land; and had considerable influence and power in the nomination to
+civil offices. Three officers,--the _treasurer, the conservator of the
+peace, and the grand pensionary,_ were appointed by the States General,
+and were immediately subject to their controul; they were wholly
+independent of the Stadtholder. The grand pensionary was always supposed
+to be profoundly versed in civil, ecclesiastical, and consuetudinary
+law; and in foreign diplomacy. All transactions between subjects or
+foreigners with the States General, passed through his hands. He
+attended the deliberations of the States; he was not entitled to vote,
+but was expected to sum up the arguments on each side, and to deliver
+his opinion upon them. Each province had its advocate, syndic or
+pensionary; a public officer who superintended their public concerns;
+and represented them, but only with a deliberative voice, in the
+assembly of the States.
+
+[Sidenote: Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.]
+
+We now reach the aera, at which our intended biography commences. A
+Literary History of the Netherlands, from the time of their becoming
+subjects to the Dukes of Burgundy, till this aera, is much wanted.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE BIRTH AND EDUCATION OF HUGO GROTIUS.
+
+
+1582-1597.
+
+
+The Life of Erasmus, which we have offered to the public, presents to
+its readers, the interesting spectacle of a person, born under every,
+disadvantage for the acquisition of literature, surmounting them all by
+his genius and perseverance, and reaching, at an early age, the highest
+summit of literary eminence: the Life of GROTIUS, which we now attempt,
+exhibits the successful literary career of a person, born with every
+advantage, undeviatingly availing himself of them, and attaining equal
+eminence; with the addition of high reputation for great political
+wisdom and public integrity.
+
+[Sidenote: His Birth and Education.]
+
+He was born at Delft, on the 10th April 1582. His parents were John de
+Groote, and Alida Averschie. John was the second son of Hugo de Groote
+by Elselinda Heemskirke. Hugo was the son of Cornelius Cornet by
+Ermingarde, the daughter and sole heiress of Diederic de Groote. Upon
+their marriage, Diederic stipulated that Cornet should adopt the
+surname of Groote: it signifies _Great_, and is said to have been given
+to Diederic for some signal service, which he had rendered to his
+sovereign. All the males and females mentioned in the genealogy of
+Grotius were of noble extraction.
+
+Learning appears to have been hereditary in the family: John, the father
+of Hugo, the subject of our biography, was both a lawyer in great
+practice, and a general scholar.
+
+The 10th of April, on which GROTIUS was born, was Easter Sunday in that
+year: he always observed his birthday with religious solemnity.
+
+All the biographers of Grotius assert, and their assertion will be
+easily believed, that he discovered, in his earliest years, great
+aptitude for the acquisition of learning, great taste, judgment and
+application, and a wonderful memory. He found, in his father, an
+excellent tutor: by him, Grotius was instructed in the rudiments of the
+Christian doctrine, and his infant mind impressed with sound principles
+of morality and honour; in this, he was aided by the mother of Grotius.
+The youth corresponded with their cares. He has celebrated, in elegant
+verses, their pious attention to his early education. The mention of
+these verses will bring to the recollection of every English reader, the
+magnificent strains, in which, Milton addressed _his_ father.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. I. 1582-1597.]
+
+As soon as Grotius had passed his childhood, he was placed with
+Utengobard, an Arminian clergyman: we shall see that this circumstance
+had a decisive influence upon his future life. He retained a lasting
+regard for Utengobard, and a grateful recollection of his obligations to
+him. At the age of twelve years, Grotius was sent to the university of
+Leyden, and committed to the care of Francis Junius. Here, he
+distinguished himself so much by his diligence, his talents, and his
+modesty, as to obtain the notice and regard of several of the most
+famous scholars of the times. Even Joseph Scaliger, equally
+distinguished by his learning and caustic arrogance, noticed him, and
+condescended to direct his studies. He was scarcely eleven years of age
+when Douza, one of the princes of the republic of letters in those
+times, celebrated his praises in verse: He declared that "he could
+scarcely believe that Erasmus promised so much as Grotius at his age:"
+he announced that "Grotius would soon excel all his contemporaries, and
+bear a comparison with the most leaned of the antients."
+
+Grotius also gained the esteem of Barneveldt, the grand pensionary, in
+whose fate he was afterward involved. In 1587, the Dutch sent Count
+Justin of Nassau and Barneveldt, at the head of an embassy, to Henry IV.
+of France. Barneveldt permitted Grotius to accompany him.
+
+[Sidenote: His Birth and Education.]
+
+Grotius had been preceded by his reputation. He was known to M. de
+Busenval, the monarch's ambassador in Holland. Busenval described him
+favourably to the monarch. Henry gave Grotius a gracious reception, and
+was so pleased with his conversation and demeanour, that he presented
+him with his picture and a golden chain. Grotius gives an account of
+this embassy, in the seventh book of his Annals: he abstains, with a
+praiseworthy modesty, from any mention of himself: but, in one of his
+poems, he dwells with complacency on his having seen the monarch, "who
+owed his kingdom only to his valour"--
+
+        " ... _Le Heros, qui regna sur la France,
+        Et par droit de conquete et par droit de naissance_."
+                                VOLTAIRE, _Henriade_.
+
+Grotius was so much pleased with his reception, and the present which he
+received from Henry, that he caused a print of himself, adorned with the
+chain presented to him by Henry, to be engraved. He was introduced to
+many of the most distinguished persons at Paris: there was one, whom he
+particularly esteemed, but whom, from some unexplained circumstance, he
+missed seeing.
+
+[Sidenote: Chap. 1. 1582-1597]
+
+This was _the President de Thou_, a name never to be mentioned without
+veneration. He had been employed by his sovereign on many delicate and
+important commissions, and had acquitted himself in all, with ability
+and honour. He had filled the office of _Maitre des Requetes_, and been
+advanced to that of _President a Mortier_. He was employed, at this
+time, upon his immortal History. In the account which it gives of the
+events, that took place in France, it is entitled to almost unqualified
+praise: in regard to what happened to other countries, he necessarily
+depended on the information which he received from them, and cannot
+therefore be equally relied upon. The prolixity, with which he is now
+reproached, was not felt at the time in which he wrote; every event,
+however small, was then thought to be important, and multitudes were
+personally interested in it. But the charm of his work is, that every
+page of it shews a true lover of his country, an impartial judgment, and
+an honourable mind. The memoirs, which he has left us of his own life,
+recently translated into English by Mr. Collinson, are interesting and
+entertaining. He collected a very large library, both of printed books
+and manuscripts, and had them splendidly bound. The whole was sold by
+auction in the reign of Louis XIV, and scarcely produced half the sum
+which the binding of its volumes had cost: The same has been said of the
+Harleian collection, sold in our times.
+
+[Sidenote: His Birth and Education.]
+
+Having remained a twelvemonth at Paris, Grotius returned to Holland.
+Immediately after his arrival, he addressed a letter to the president
+de Thou, in which he expressed great mortification at not having seen
+him, and requested his acceptance of a book accompanying his letter,
+which he had dedicated to the Prince of Conde. The president de Thou was
+highly pleased with this letter: a correspondence took place between
+them. Grotius furnished the president with materials for that portion of
+his history which related to the troubles in the Low Countries.
+
+In the last letter of the President de Thou, in this correspondence, he
+earnestly dissuades Grotius from engaging in the religious disputes of
+the times. In reply to it, Grotius respectfully intimates to the
+president, that "he found himself obliged to enter into them by his love
+of his country; his wish to serve his church, and the request of those
+to whom he owed obedience:" promising, at the same time, "to abstain
+from all disputes that were not necessary." After the death of the
+President, Grotius celebrated his memory in a poem, which was considered
+by the bard's admirers to be one of his best performances.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GROTIUS EMBRACES THE PROFESSION OF THE LAW. HIS FIRST PROMOTIONS.
+
+1597-1610.
+
+
+In the ruin of the Roman Empire, her laws were lost in the general
+wreck. During the 200 years, which followed the reign of Constantine the
+Great, Europe was a scene of every calamity, which the inroads of
+barbarians could inflict, either on the countries through which they
+passed, or those in which they settled. About the sixth century, Europe
+obtained some degree of tranquillity, in consequence of the introduction
+of feudalism; the most singular event in the annals of history. At
+first, it produced a general anarchy; but the system of subordination
+upon which it was grounded, contained in it the germ of regular
+government, and even, of jurisprudence. Its effects were first visible
+in the _various codes of law_ which the barbarous nations promulgated.
+Such are the Salic, the Ripuarian, the Alemannic, the Burgundian, the
+Visigothic, and the Lombard laws.
+
+[Sidenote: Feudal Jurisprudence.]
+
+A complicated or refined system of jurisprudence is not to be looked for
+in them; but, if they are considered with due regard to the state of
+society for which they were calculated, they will be found to contain
+much that deserves praise. The _capitularies_, or short legislative
+provisions, propounded by the sovereign, and adopted by the public
+assemblies of the nation, were a further advance in legislation. By
+degrees, so much regularity prevailed in the judicial proceedings and
+legal transactions, that they were regulated by established
+_formularies_; and, in addition to those provisions, every nation
+contained a collection of unwritten usages or _customs_, which had the
+force of law. The natural tendency of these institutions to introduce
+order and peaceful habits into society was great; but it was so much
+counteracted by the turbulent spirit of every class of men, that it was
+not till the beginning of the thirteenth century that this effect of
+them became discernible.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. II. 1597-1610]
+
+From this time, the governments of Europe sensibly improved. A better
+spirit of legislation shewed itself; the administration of justice
+became more regular; trade and husbandry were protected, several arts
+were encouraged; and a general wish for a better order of things
+prevailed in every part of Europe. While the public mind was in this
+state of improvement, an event fortunately happened, which gave it a
+very salutary direction. This was, (what we have already noticed), the
+discovery of a complete copy of the _Pandects of Justinian_ at Amalfi, a
+town in Italy, near Salerno. From Amalfi, it found its way to Pisa; and
+in 1406, was carried to Florence, where it has since remained.
+
+[Sidenote: The Civil Law]
+
+Few events in history can be mentioned which have conduced more to the
+welfare of Europe than this discovery. The codes, the capitularies, the
+formularies, and the customs, by which, till that time, the feudal
+nations had been governed, fell very short of affording them the legal
+provisions, which society, in the improved state of civilization, to
+which it was then advancing, evidently required. Unexpectedly, a system
+of law presented itself, which seemed to contain every thing that the
+most enlightened men of those times could have desired. The wisdom and
+justice of the system of law expressed in the Pandects seem to have been
+universally felt. The study of it was immediately pursued with ardour.
+It was introduced into several universities; exercises were performed,
+lectures read, and degrees conferred in that, as in other branches of
+science; and most of the nations of the continent adopted it, if not as
+the basis, at least as an important portion of their civil
+jurisprudence. A regular _succession of civil_ lawyers followed. At
+first, they rather incumbered the text with their subtleties, than
+illustrated it by learning and discrimination. _Andrew Alciat_ was the
+first who united the study of polite learning with the study of the
+civil law: he was founder of a school called the _Cujacian_, from
+_Cujas_, the glory of civilians. Of him, it may be truly said, that he
+found the civil law in wood and left it in marble.
+
+This school has subsisted until our time: it has never been without
+writers of the greatest taste, judgment and erudition; the names of
+Cujacius, Augustinus, the Gothofredi, Heineccius, Voetius, Vinnius,
+Gravina and Pothier, are as dear to the scholar as they are to the
+lawyer; an Englishman however must reflect with pleasure, that the
+Commentaries of his countryman, Sir William Blackstone, will not suffer
+in a comparison with any foreign work of jurisprudence. So far as the
+researches of the present writer extend, the only one that can be put
+into competition with them, is the _Jus Canonicum of Van-Espen_.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. II. 1597-1610]
+
+The judicial process of the nations on the continent differed
+considerably from that of England. Trial by jury, and separate courts of
+equity, were unknown to them. Some causes were heard and decided by all
+the magistrates of the courts; others were referred to one or more of
+their number. The king's advocate, or the advocate of the state, as he
+was termed in a republic, held a situation between the judges and the
+suitors: his province was to sum the facts and arguments of the cause,
+and to suggest his opinions upon them to the judges.--We trust our
+readers will excuse this summary view of foreign jurisprudence.
+
+Grotius, by the advice of his father, addicted himself to the profession
+of the law. He was only in his seventeenth year, when he pleaded his
+first cause. He acquired by it, great reputation; and this was
+constantly upon the increase, through the whole of his professional
+career. He observed in his pleadings a rule, which he afterwards
+recommended to his son: "That you may not," he told him, "be embarrassed
+by the little order observed by the adversary counsel, attend to one
+thing, which I have found eminently useful: Distribute all that can be
+said on both sides, under certain heads; imprint these strongly in your
+memory; and, whatever your adversary says, refer it not to his division,
+but to your own."
+
+[Sidenote: Grotius embraces the profession of the Law.]
+
+The brilliant success of Grotius at the bar soon procured him very
+considerable promotions. The place of Advocate-General of the Fisc of
+the provinces of Holland and Zealand becoming vacant, it was unanimously
+conferred on him. This situation was attended with great distinction and
+authority; the person invested with it, being charged with the
+preservation of the public peace, and the prosecution of public
+offenders. In 1613, Grotius was advanced to the situation of Pensionary
+of Rotterdam; and his high character authorized him to stipulate before
+he accepted it, that he should hold it during his life, and not, at
+will, its usual tenure. It immediately gave him a seat in the assembly
+of the States of Holland; and, at a future time, a seat in the assembly
+of the States General.
+
+Between the time of his appointment to the advocacy of the Fisc of
+Holland and Zealand, and his being appointed Pensionary of Rotterdam, he
+married Mary Reygersburgh, of an illustrious family in Zealand. It
+proved a marriage of happiness. The most perfect harmony subsisted
+between Grotius and his consort: we shall find that she was an ornament
+to him in prosperity, his comfort and aid in adverse fortune. The
+marriage was solemnized in July 1608, and celebrated by many a Belgic
+bard.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP II. 1597-1610.]
+
+A dispute arising about this time between England and the States
+General, upon the exclusive right claimed by the former to fish in the
+Northern seas, the States, with a view to an amicable adjustment of it,
+sent Grotius to England. Several meetings took place between him and
+commissioners appointed by James, the British sovereign. If we credit
+the account, given by Grotius, of the point in dispute, and the
+negociation to which it gave rise, justice was decidedly on the side of
+the States General; and England only carried the point by the lion's
+right,--the _droit du plus fort_.
+
+[Sidenote: Grotius embraces the profession of the Law.]
+
+Grotius had every reason to be pleased with his reception by the English
+monarch and his court. Between Grotius and Casaubon, who, at this time,
+resided in England, an intimacy had long subsisted. It was cemented by
+mutual esteem, similarity of studies, and the earnest wish of each for
+an amicable termination of religious differences: each respected the
+antient doctrines and discipline of the church; each thought that many
+of the points in controversy were disputes of words; that much might be
+gained by mutual concessions; and that the articles, upon which there
+was any substantial difference, were few. "I esteem Grotius
+highly,"--Casaubon writes in a letter to the president de Thou, "on
+account of his other great qualities; but particularly because he judges
+of the modern subjects of religious controversy like a learned and good
+man. In his veneration for antiquity, he agrees with the wisest men."
+... "I heartily pray God," says Casaubon in a letter to Grotius, "to;
+preserve you: as long as I shall live, I shall hold you in the highest
+esteem: so much am I taken with your piety, your probity, and your
+admirable learning."[005]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE EARLY PUBLICATIONS OF GROTIUS.
+
+
+There is not, perhaps, an instance of a person's acquiring at an age
+equally early, the reputation, which attended the first publication of
+Grotius. It was an edition, with notes, of the work of "_Martianus
+Mineus Felix Capella_, on the Marriage of Mercury and Philology, in two
+books; and of the same writer's Seven Treatises on the Liberal Arts."
+They had been often printed; but all the editions were faulty: a
+manuscript of them having been put into the hands of Grotius by his
+father, he communicated it to Scaliger, and by his advice undertook a
+new edition of them.
+
+The time, in which Capella lived, and the place of his birth, are
+uncertain; the better opinion seems to be, that he flourished towards
+the third century, resided at Rome, and attained the consular dignity.
+His works are written in prose, intermixed with poetry. His diction has
+some resemblance to that of Tertullian, but is much more crabbed and
+obscure: none, but the ablest Latin scholars, can understand him. The
+Marriage of Mercury and Philology,--or of Speech with Learning, is not
+uninteresting. His other treatises contain nothing remarkable: that upon
+music, is hardly intelligible; it is printed separately in the
+collection of _Meibomius_. With all his harshness and obscurity, Capella
+seems to have been much studied in the middle ages,--some proof that
+there was more learning in them, than is generally supposed,--he is so
+often quoted by the writers of those times, that some persons have
+supposed that his work was then a text book in the schools.
+
+[Sidenote: The early publications of Grotius.]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
+
+When Grotius undertook his edition of Capella, he was only twelve years
+of age: he published it in his fourteenth year, and dedicated it to the
+Prince of Conde. The learning and critical discernment displayed by him
+in this publication excited astonishment, and obtained for him the
+applause of all the literary world. Grotius himself gives the following
+account of his work: "We have collated Capella with the several authors,
+who have investigated the same subjects. In the two first books, we have
+consulted those whose writings contain the sentiments of the antient
+philosophers, as Apuleius, Albericus and others, too tedious to name; on
+grammar, we have compared, Capella with the antient grammarians; in what
+he has said on rhetoric, with Cicero and Aquila; on logic, with
+Porphyry, Aristotle, Cassiodorus and Apuleius; on geography, with
+Strabo, Mela, Solinus, and Ptolemy, but chiefly Pliny; on arithmetic,
+with Euclid; on astronomy, with Hyginus, and others, who have treated on
+that subject; on music, with Cleonides, Vitruvius and Boethius." In
+Grotius's Annotations all these writers are mentioned in a manner, which
+shews that he was thoroughly conversant with their works. Grotius's
+edition is become, from its extreme scarcity, a typographical curiosity:
+all the other editions are scarce. The writer of these pages found, with
+great difficulty, a copy of it in the London market.[006] That of
+Bonhomme, published at Lyons in 1539, he procured by loan. The
+celebrated Leibniz began to prepare an edition of Capella _in usum
+Delphini_; but his collections being purloined from him, he desisted
+from his project: it must be owned that the general learning of Leibniz
+qualified him admirably for such a task.[009]
+
+[Sidenote: The early Publications of Grotius.]
+
+While yet in his fourteenth year, Grotius published a translation of a
+work, published by Simon Steven in 1586, upon Navigation, and shewed by
+it a profound knowledge of mathematics:[010] he dedicated it to the
+republic of Venice.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
+
+In the following year, Grotius published _the Phenomena of Aratus_, a
+poetical treatise of that author upon astronomy, with Cicero's
+translation of it, so far as it has reached us. Grotius supplied the
+vacancies. It is universally admitted that the parts supplied by him,
+are not inferior to those of Cicero. The abbe d'Olivet, the editor of
+Cicero's works, and an enthusiastic admirer of his style, declares that
+"the Muse of Cicero[011] did not throw the Muse of Grotius into the
+shade:" he therefore inserted the supplementary verses of Grotius in his
+edition. Grotius dedicated his work to the States of Holland and West
+Friseland; and promised them in his dedication something more
+considerable. He was complimented upon it by several of the greatest men
+of the age.
+
+The following simile, taken from Cicero's translation of Aratus, and
+Voltaire's version of it, are greatly admired:
+
+        Sic Jovis altisoni subito pennata satelles,
+        Arboris e trunco, serpentis saucia morsu;
+        Ipsa feris subigit transfigens unguibus anguem
+        Semianimum, et varia graviter cervice micantem;
+        Quem se intorquentem laniens rostroque craentans,
+        Abjicit efflantem, et laceratum effundit in undas,
+        Seque obitu a solis nitidos convertit ad ortus.
+
+                        CICERO.
+
+
+        Tel on voit cet oiseau, qui porte le tonnere,
+        Blesse par un serpent elance de la terre;
+        Il s'envole, il entraine au sejour azure
+        L'ennemi tortueux dont il est entoure.
+        Le sang tombe des airs: il dechire, il devore
+        Le reptile acharne, qui le combat encore;
+        Il le perce, il le tient sous ses ongles vainqeurs,
+        Par cent coups redoubles il venge ses douleurs;
+        Le Monstre en expirant, se debat, se replie;
+        Il exhale en poison le reste de sa vie;
+        Et l'aigle tout sanglant, fier et victorieux,
+        Le rejette en fureur, et plane au haut des cieux.
+
+                        VOLTAIRE.
+
+[Sidenote: The early Publications of Grotius.]
+
+About the year 1608, Grotius published his celebrated work _Mare
+Liberum_, to assert in it against the English, the general freedom of
+the sea. The controversy arose upon the claim of Great Britain to enjoy
+the dominion of the British seas, in the most extensive sense of those
+words, both as to the right of navigating them, and the right of fishing
+within them. Against this claim, Grotius attempted to shew that the sea
+was, from its nature, insusceptible of exclusive right; and that, if it
+were susceptible of it, England did not prove her title to it. Selden,
+in opposition to Grotius, asserted the British claim, by his treatise
+_Mare Clausam_,--a noble exertion of a vigorous mind, fraught with
+profound and extensive erudition. It is pleasing to add, that he treats
+Grotius with the respect due to his learning and character. Selden's
+treatise was thought of so much importance to his cause, that a copy of
+it was directed to be deposited in the British Admiralty. Grotius was
+highly pleased with the respect, which was shewn to him by Selden.
+
+On Selden's _Mare Clausum_ he composed the following epigram:--
+
+        Ipsum compedibus qui vinxerat Ennegisaeum,
+          Est Greca Xerxes multus in historia:
+        Lucullum Latii Xerxem dixere togatum;
+          Seldenus Xerxes ecce Britannus erit.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610]
+
+The States General were gratified by his work; but at that time it was
+so much their interest to preserve the strictest amity with England,
+that they discountenanced any further advocation of their claim.[012]
+
+The year after his publication of his "Treatise on the Freedom of the
+Sea," Grotius printed his work on the "_Antiquity of the Batavian
+Republic_." He gives in it an account of the antient _Batavians;_ he
+professes to shew that they were the allies, not the subjects of the
+Romans; that, after a period of anarchy, during which little is known of
+their history, they became subjects of the Counts of Holland; that these
+were not vassals of the empire, but independent princes; and, strictly
+speaking, elected by the people, although, in the election of them,
+great regard was always shewn to the hereditary line: that they were
+bound to conform to the laws of the state; and always required, before
+their election, to swear to the observance of the constitution; that the
+taxes were always imposed by the States, and that Philip the Second had
+occasioned the grand war, by repeated infractions of the public and
+private right of the people of the United Provinces.
+
+[Sidenote: The early Publications of Grotius.]
+
+The States of Holland were highly pleased with this work; they voted
+thanks to its author, and accompanied them with a present. It is
+considered that his partiality to his country led him to advance some
+positions favourable to its antient independence, which his proofs did
+not justify.
+
+For the use of _Du Maurier_, the French ambassador to the States
+General, Grotius published, about this time, his "Directions for a
+Course of general Study," _De omni genere studiorum recte instituendo_.
+It was favourably received, both by the diplomatist for whose use it was
+composed, and the public at large; but, on account of the great
+extension of literature, since the time of Grotius, it is now little
+read. Mentioning the Roman history, he shews that a knowledge of it is
+better acquired by reading its Greek than by reading its Latin
+historians; because foreigners give more attention to the public manners
+and customs of a country than natives.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
+
+All the works, which we have mentioned, were most favourably received in
+every part of the United Provinces. It was now become evident that the
+exertions for their independence were on the eve of being crowned with
+complete success. All the European Powers had deserted Spain, so that
+she was left to her own single and unaided strength, to maintain the
+contest against the insurgent provinces. The glory, which they acquired
+by their successful resistance to her, determined them to make choice of
+an historian, who should transmit to future ages the signal exploits of
+their memorable struggle. With this view, they appointed Grotius their
+historiographer.
+
+[Sidenote: The Poems of Grotius.]
+
+It remains to mention the "_Poems of Grotius:_" throughout his life, he
+sacrificed to the Muses. The _Prosopopoeia,_ in which he introduces the
+City of Ostend addressing the world, when, in the third year of her
+siege, the Marquis Spinola led the troops of Spain against her, was
+greatly, admired. All the adjacent territory had been taken by the
+Spaniards, so that nothing remained of it to the confederates, but the
+precinct within the walls of the city; and even much of this had been
+wrested from the besieged. All Europe had its eye fixed on the
+operations of Spinola. It is therefore, with great propriety of
+language, that Grotius makes Ostend thus address herself to the world,
+in the following lines:--
+
+        "Area parva ducum, totus quam respicit orbis;
+        Celsior una malis, et quam damnare ruinae
+        Nunc quoque fata timent,--alieno in litore resto.
+        Tertius annus abit; toties mutavimus hostem:
+        Saevit hyems pelago, morbisque furentibus aestas;
+        Et minimum est quod fecit Iber,--crudelior armis
+        In nos orta lues,--nullum est sine funere funus.
+        Nec perimit mors una semel:--Fortuna quid haeres?
+        Qua mercede tenes mixtos in sanguine manes?
+        Quis tumulos moriens hos occupet hoste perempto?
+        Queritur,--et sterili tantum de pulvere pugna est."
+
+
+    "A small area of chiefs, whom the whole world contemplates;
+    alone loftier than my woes; I, whom the
+    Fates even yet, fear to condemn to ruin;--remain on a
+    foreign shore.
+
+    "The third year now passes away; thrice has my foe
+    been changed:
+
+    "The winter rages on the sea; the summer, by its furious
+    heats.
+
+    "The Spaniard has been my least enemy;--more cruel
+    than arms, a pestilence has risen among us; no funeral is
+    without another; the dying never perish by a single death.
+
+    "Fortune! why do'st thou hesitate? By what reward
+    do'st thou detain the manes mingled in blood?
+
+    "Who, dying, will, after the destruction of the enemy,
+    occupy these tombs?--This is enquired.--
+    The contest is only for sterile dust."
+
+With the following poetical translation of these verses, the writer has
+been favoured by Mr. Sotheby, the elegant translator of "Oberon."
+
+        Scant battle-field of Chiefs, thro' earth renown'd,
+        Opprest, I loftier tow'r;--and, now, while Fate
+        Dreads to destroy, in foreign soil I stand.
+        Thrice chang'd the year, thrice have we chang'd the Foe.
+        Fierce Winter chafes the Deep, the Summer burns
+        With fell disease: less fell th' Iberian sword.
+        Dire Pestilence spreads;--on funerals funerals swell:
+        Nor does one death at once extirpate all.
+        Why, Fortune! linger? why our souls detain
+        With blood immingled? Who, the Foe extinct,
+        Who, dying, shall these sepulchres possess,
+        And in this sterile dust the conflict close?
+
+                        W.S.
+            March 28,1826.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
+
+These verses produced a great sensation in the literary world: they were
+ascribed by many to Scaliger, as the best Latin poet of the age; the
+only person considered to be capable of writing them. The celebrated
+Peyresck hinted this to that learned man: Scaliger answered, that "he
+was too old not to be the aversion of the virgins of Helicon," and
+announced that the verses were written by Grotius. They were translated
+into French by Du Vair, afterwards the keeper of the seals; by Rapin,
+grand-provost of the Constabulary of France; by Stephen Pasquier, and by
+Malherbes: Casaubon translated them into Greek.[013]
+
+[Sidenote: The Poems of Grotius.]
+
+Three Generals had successively been entrusted with the siege of Ostend;
+nine commanders had successively been entrusted with its defence: the
+siege had cost the besiegers and besieged 100,000 lives: all the
+historians of the times agree, that few important consequences were
+derived to either side by the success of the Spaniards. The Archduke and
+Infanta, had the curiosity to view the city, after it was taken. They
+found in it nothing but heaps of ruins: little that shewed the former
+state of the town; its ditches were filled, its fortifications
+overthrown, its buildings, and the works of attack and defence, were
+levelled with the ground. Spinola led them to the spots in which the
+most remarkable events had taken place; and, finally to that, in which
+the forces of the besieged had made their last stand; had, for want of
+space, found themselves unable to raise military works, and had, on that
+account, found themselves forced to surrender. The Archduke and the
+Infanta were moved to tears at the melancholy sight; and declared that
+such a victory was not worth its cost.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.]
+
+The success of the siege of Ostend covered Spinola with glory: his reply
+to a person, who asked him,--who, in his opinion was the greatest
+general of the age,--is generally known: "Prince Maurice," he said, "is
+the second."[014]
+
+The principal poetical performances of Grotius in the collection we have
+mentioned, are--_three tragedies_, "Adam in Banishment," "Christ
+Suffering," and "Sophomphaneos," which signifies in the language of
+Egypt, "the Saviour of the world:" it exhibits the story of Joseph.
+Sandys translated it into English verse, and dedicated his translation
+to Charles I. From the second of these tragedies, Lauder transcribed
+many of the verses, upon which he founded the charge of plagiarism
+against Milton.
+
+An eminent rank among modern Latin poets, has always been assigned to
+Grotius: his diction is always classical, his sentiments just. But those
+who are accustomed to the _wood notes_ of the Bard of Avon, will not
+admire the scenic compositions, however elegant or mellifluous, of the
+Batavian Bard.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THEIR DECLARATION OF
+INDEPENDENCE, TILL THE ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY.
+
+
+The present chapter will lead our readers to the public life of Grotius:
+in a former page we succinctly mentioned the principal events in the
+history of the United Provinces, from their first insurrection against
+Philip II. till their declaration of independence. On that event, they
+continued Prince William of Orange in the Stadtholderate: he was
+entitled to it by his civil and military talents. Application, activity,
+liberality, eloquence, intrepidity, enterprise and discretion, were
+united in him in an extraordinary degree: he could accommodate himself
+to all persons and occurrences, accelerate or retard events, as best
+served the interests of his cause, or his own designs. In the rare
+talent of governing popular assemblies, and procuring the co-operation
+of persons of opposite views, he has had few equals. He wanted no
+quality, which a chief of a party should possess, either to insure the
+success of the public object, or to further his private aims.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. IV. 1597-1610.]
+
+These had, for some time, been suspected: it was generally observed,
+that he affected the exercise of sovereign authority; that he
+endeavoured to attach the military to his own person; that he always
+sought to have the acts of the States issued in his own name; that, on
+many occasions, he avoided consulting the States, or doing any thing
+which could be considered an explicit recognition of their supremacy;
+and that in several instances, in which the constitution required the
+co-operation of the States, he acted independently of them. This gave
+rise to a party, which was jealous of his power, and on many occasions
+thwarted, what they thought the projects of his private ambition. From
+their attachment to the constitution, they were termed the republican
+party: Barneveldt, the Grand-Pensionary of the States General, was their
+leader.
+
+[Sidenote: Assassination of William Prince of Orange.]
+
+Whatever were the projects of the prince, there appeared to be great
+probability of their ultimate success. In 1684, he had gained so for,
+that the States of Holland, Zealand and Frizeland, had come to a
+resolution to confer upon him the sovereignty of their states, under the
+title of Count. All the conditions were settled: on one hand, the rights
+of the prince, on the other, the rights of the people, were defined and
+recognised; a contravention of them by any of the people was declared
+to be treason; the infringement of them by the prince, was declared to
+be a forfeiture of his sovereignty. Thus the prince seemed to be on the
+eve of receiving the fruit of all his exertions. But, as we have already
+mentioned, he was assassinated by Balthazar Gerard, a fanatic Spaniard.
+The last words of the prince were, "Lord! have mercy on my soul! have
+pity on my poor country!"
+
+In 1585, Prince Maurice, the second son of William, was, chiefly by the
+influence of Barneveldt, proclaimed Stadtholder by the States General.
+They were not less jealous of his views, than they had been of his
+father's; but the misconduct of the Earl of Leicester had made it
+necessary for them to throw themselves into the prince's arms. The
+weakness of Spain, and the troubles in France, now permitted the United
+Provinces to enjoy some repose. They availed themselves of it, to settle
+the constitution: the towns were repaired, the fortifications completed,
+Universities were founded or revived at Utrecht, Leyden and Franker; and
+the arts of peace began to be cultivated.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. IV. 1597-1610.]
+
+Maurice inherited all the civil talents of his father; he had greater
+military skill, and at least equal ambition. The art of war seems to
+consist, at the present time, in directing immense masses of men, by
+skilful evolutions and positions, to the destruction of the force
+opposed. In the wars of the Netherlands, it was principally shewn by
+surprising strong-holds, besieging towns, regular assaults, advantageous
+encampments, and wasting the army of the enemy by skilful marches. The
+camp of Maurice became a school, in which the nobility and gentry of the
+empire, France, and England, entered as volunteers, to learn the art of
+war. His taking of the city of Breda, raised his reputation to the
+highest: from this time, the war, which, on the part of the United
+Provinces, had till then, been a defensive war, became offensive, and
+their arms were attended with almost uninterrupted success: they equally
+triumphed on Sea.
+
+In 1698, the war between Spain and France was terminated. Philip II.
+soon afterwards died: he was succeeded by Philip III. a weak monarch.
+Then, began the naval glory of the United Provinces; their attacks on
+the West Indian and East Indian colonies of the Spaniards. In 1600,
+prince Maurice gained a decisive victory at Nieuport near Ostend: it was
+followed by other important successes. In 1607, Admiral Heemskirk
+obtained a complete victory over the Spanish fleet, though protected by
+the batteries of Cadiz, and seized their ships and treasures.
+
+[Sidenote: Armistice between Spain and the United Provinces.]
+
+The war between Spain and the United Provinces had now continued forty
+years: the resources of Spain were so exhausted, that she herself was
+forced to solicit an armistice. Prince Maurice objected to it, as the
+continuance of the war was essential to the furtherance of his own
+ambitious views. On this account, the truce was promoted by Barneveldt
+and the republican party. They justly thought that the aggrandizement of
+the house of Orange would be the extinction of the liberties of their
+country, so that the result of the war would only be, that the United
+Provinces would change their masters. After a long negotiation, an
+armistice of twelve years was agreed upon in 1609, and England and
+France guaranteed the execution of the treaty.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE FEUDS IN THE UNITED PROVINCES BETWEEN THE DISCIPLES OF CALVIN AND
+THE DISCIPLES OF ARMINIUS, UNTIL THE SYNOD AT DORT.
+
+1610-1617.
+
+
+It has generally happened, when a people have risen against their
+sovereign, that their first successes have been followed by divisions
+among themselves; and that these have endangered, and sometimes even
+ruined, their cause. Such a division took place, in a remarkable manner,
+in the conflict between the United Provinces and Spain. No sooner did
+the arms of the former begin to prosper, and promise ultimate success,
+than the ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY burst forth. At first, it was merely a
+religious dispute; but it soon mixed itself in the national politics;
+split the people into two very hostile parties, and produced contentions
+between them, which more than once brought their cause to the brink of
+destruction. Grotius was unfortunately involved in them. This part of
+the history now claims our attention.
+
+[Sidenote: Calvinism.]
+
+The reformed church, in the largest import of the word, comprises all
+the religious communities, which have separated themselves from the
+church of Rome. In this sense, the words are often used by English
+writers; but, having been adopted by the French Calvinists to describe
+_their_ church, these words are most commonly used, on the continent, as
+a general appellation of all the churches who profess the doctrines of
+Calvin.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+About the year 1541, the church of Geneva was placed by the magistrates
+of that city, under the direction of Calvin. He immediately conceived
+one of the boldest projects, that ever entered into the mind of an
+obscure individual. He undertook to new model the religious creed of the
+reformed church; to give it strength and consistency, and to render the
+church of Geneva the mother and mistress of all Protestant churches. His
+learning, eloquence, and talents for business, soon attracted general
+notice; and, while the fervour of his zeal, the austerity of his
+manners, and the devotional cast of his writings, attracted the
+multitude, the elegance of his compositions, and his insinuating style,
+equally captivated the gentleman and the scholar. By degrees, his fame
+reached every part of Europe. Having prevailed upon the senate of Geneva
+to found an academy, and place it under his superintendence, and having
+filled it with men eminent throughout Europe for their learning and
+talent, it became the favourite resort of all persons, who leaned to the
+new principles, and sought religious or literary instruction. From
+Germany, France, Italy, England and Scotland, numbers crowded to the new
+academy, and returned from it to their native countries, saturated with
+the doctrine of Geneva, and burning with zeal to propagate its creed.
+
+Calvin's peculiar doctrine on Predestination and Free-will soon
+attracted attention, and gave rise to _more than a civil war_[015] of
+controversy,[016]
+
+We feel that we are free: if we were not free, conscience could not
+exist; for, if a man had not freedom of action, conscience could not
+intimate to him either its approbation or its disapprobation of his
+actions.
+
+But--_how_ are we free? _How_ is free-will reconcileable, either with
+the influence of motive upon will? or with the order of the universe,
+prescribed by the Deity? or, with his prescience? For that, which his
+infinite mind prescribes or foresees, must be fixed.
+
+[Sidenote: Disputes on the Free-will of Man.]
+
+This question soon engaged the attention of the Greek Philosophers: some
+advocated the free-will of man; others denied it, and ascribed his
+actions to Fate or Destiny; a being or energy, which they were never
+able to define or describe. Among the Jews, the Sadducees embraced the
+former opinion; the Pharisees, the latter. Among the Mahometans, a like
+division took place between the followers of Omar, and those of Ali.
+
+Unfortunately, the Christians engaged in these ungrateful speculations:
+their disputes chiefly turned upon the effect, which motive, suggested
+by grace, or the divine favour, has upon will. Does it necessitate?
+then, there is no free-will,--no merit,--no demerit. Does it not
+necessitate? then, in the choice of good, man acts by his own power, and
+thus achieves a good of which God is not the author.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+The dispute was brought to an issue by _Pelagius_ and his disciples.
+They held, that man acts independently of divine grace, both in the
+choice and execution of good. This independence was denied by _St.
+Augustin_, he asserted, that man co-operates with grace, yet, that grace
+begins, advances and brings to perfection every thing in man, which can
+be justly called good. _St. Thomas of Aquin_ new-modelled the system of
+St. Augustin, and used new terms in describing it: his subtile
+distinctions, in the opinion of many, considerably improved it.
+
+_Calvin_ aggravated the doctrine of St. Augustin. He maintained,[017]
+that the everlasting condition of mankind in the future world, was
+determined from all eternity, by the _unchangeable order_ of the Deity;
+and that this _absolute_ determination of his will was the only source
+of _happiness or misery_ to individuals. Thus Calvin maintained, without
+any qualification, that God, from all eternity has doomed one part of
+mankind to everlasting happiness, the other to everlasting misery; and,
+was led to make this distinction, without regard to the merit or demerit
+of the object, and by no other reason or motive than his own pleasure.
+
+_Luther_,[018] in opposition to Calvin, maintained, that the _divine
+decrees_ respecting the salvation or misery of men, are founded upon a
+previous knowledge of their sentiments and characters; or, in other
+words, that God, foreseeing from all eternity the faith and virtue of
+some, and the incredulity or wickedness of others, has reserved eternal
+happiness for the former, and eternal misery for the latter.
+
+[Sidenote: Disputes on the Free-will of Man.]
+
+These, and other doctrinal differences, separated the Protestants into
+the adherents to the creed of Luther, and the adherents to the creed of
+Calvin. The United Provinces were among the latter: the creed of Calvin
+was, as we have mentioned, one of the fundamental laws of the Union.
+
+The Calvinistic doctrine, that God, from all eternity, consigns one
+portion of mankind, without any fault on their side, to everlasting
+torments, shocks our feelings, and is totally repugnant to the notions
+entertained by us of the goodness and justice of the Deity: it is not
+therefore surprising that it should be called in question. From the
+first, several objected to it; but it was not till the successes of the
+United Provinces appeared to afford them a near prospect of triumph,
+that the opposers of Calvin's doctrine formed themselves into a party,
+and occasioned a public sensation.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+The celebrated JAMES ARMINIUS[019] was at their head. He was born in
+1560, at Oudewater in Holland, of respectable parents. He lost his
+father in his infancy, and was indebted, for the first rudiments of his
+education, to a clergyman, who had imbibed some opinions of the reformed
+religion. Under his tuition, Arminius studied, during some time, at
+Utrecht. After the clergyman's decease, Rudolphus Snellius, a clergyman
+of eminence, took Arminius under his protection, and, in 1575, placed
+him at Marpurgh. There, he heard of the taking of Oudewater by the
+Spaniards, and their massacre of its inhabitants. His mother, sister,
+and two brothers were among the victims. On the first intelligence of
+the calamity he repaired to Oudewater, in hopes that the account of it
+might have been exaggerated. Finding it true, he retired to Leyden:
+there, his severe application to study, and the regularity of his
+morals, gained him universal esteem. In 1563, he was sent to Geneva, at
+the expense of the magistrates of Amsterdam, to perfect his studies
+under the care of Beza. Unfortunately, by adopting the philosophical
+principles, of _Ramus_, and unguardedly professing them, he displeased
+some leading men of the university, and was obliged to leave it: he then
+went to Basle. There, his reputation having preceded him, he was
+received with great kindness: the faculty of divinity offered him a
+doctor's degree; but a general wish for his return being expressed at
+Geneva, he declined the honour, and returned to that city. He then
+visited Italy, and, during some months, studied under Zabarella, a
+famous philosopher, who then lectured at Padua. In 1588, Arminius was
+ordained minister at Amsterdam.
+
+[Sidenote: Arminius.]
+
+Some theologians of Delft having attacked the sentiments of Calvin and
+Beza upon predestination, and given great offence by it, they defended
+themselves by a book, entitled; "An Answer to certain Arguments of Beza
+and Calvin, in the treatise concerning Predestination; or upon the ninth
+Chapter of the Epistle to the Romans." They transmitted their defence to
+Martin Lydius, a partisan of the divines whom it attacked; he sent it to
+Arminius, with a request that he would answer it. Arminius undertook the
+task, and attentively examined and weighed the arguments on each side;
+the result was, that he embraced the opinions which he had been called
+upon to confute, and even went further than the ministers of Delft. Upon
+this account, the friends of the rejected principles raised a great
+clamour against him; but were quieted by the intervention of the
+magistrates. The opinions, which Arminius adopted, he endeavoured to
+propagate. They are contained in the Remonstrance of his disciples,
+which we shall afterwards transcribe.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+As the language of Arminius seemed to express notions, more consonant
+than those of Calvin, to the sentiments entertained by rational
+Christians, of the goodness and justice of the Deity, it is not
+surprising that they found many advocates among the learned and
+moderate; but some ardent spirits were offended by them, and instilled
+their dislike of them into the populace. This, Arminius was soon made to
+feel. In 1603, he was appointed, on the death of Francis Junius, to a
+professorship of theology in the university of Leyden: great efforts
+were made, first to prevent, and afterwards to procure a recision of his
+appointment. He was accused of having said in a sermon, that "God had
+not yet sent his letter of divorce to the church of Rome;" but his
+friends produced a work of Francis Junius, his predecessor in the
+theological chair, in which that celebrated theologian had used the same
+expression. Arminius was also accused by his adversaries, of elevating
+the action of reason in the choice of good, at the expense of grace. To
+this Arminius replied, by accusing his adversaries of sacrificing reason
+entirely to grace. But the greater number of the enemies of Arminius
+supported their charges against him, by making it a question of
+authority: "the States," they said, "had decided the question, by
+adopting Calvin's doctrine at the union; so that the gainsayers of it
+were guilty of treason." The friends of Arminius replied, that he did
+not deny Calvin's doctrine, but merely explained it.
+
+[Sidenote: Arminius.]
+
+Thus they disputed;
+
+        "And found no end, in wandering mazes lost."
+                        Milton.
+
+In fact, the subject,--as the writer has more than once observed,--is
+above human reason: the day will come, "when the Almighty will be
+judged, and will overcome;"--when the secret of his councils will be
+unfolded, and their justice and goodness made manifest to all.[020]
+
+The friends of Arminius also observed, that he was by no means singular
+in his doctrine; that it was favoured by professors in Gueldres,
+Friesland, Utrecht, and other parts of Holland; and, that in all the
+provinces, it was patronized by the higher ranks of the laity. Was it
+fitting, they asked, that the peace of the church, and the tranquillity
+of the state, should be disturbed by such a dispute? by a dispute which
+affected no essential article of christianity; no civil, no moral, no
+religious observation?
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+The principal adversary of Arminius was _Gomarus_, also a professor of
+theology at Leyden. When the election of Arminius was proposed, Gomarus
+announced suspicions of his orthodoxy; he afterwards raised his tone,
+and accused Arminius of Pelagianism, of secretly inclining to the church
+of Rome, and holding principles which led to general scepticism and
+infidelity.
+
+Arminius died on the 19th October 1609.
+
+Grotius made his eulogium in verse. He had hitherto applied little to
+these matters; he acknowledges, in a letter written in 1609, his general
+ignorance of them. Entering afterwards into the dispute, he became
+convinced that the idea, which we ought to have of the goodness and
+justice of God, and even the language of the scriptures and the early
+fathers of the church, favoured the system of Arminius, and contradicted
+that of Gomarus.
+
+The prejudices against the Arminians increasing, they drew up a
+Remonstrance, dated the 14th January 1610, and addressed it to the
+States of Holland. It begins by stating what they do not believe: it
+afterwards propounds their own sentiments in the five articles
+following:[021]
+
+     [Sidenote: Remonstrance.]
+
+    1. "That God, by an eternal and immutable decree in Jesus Christ
+    his son, before the world was created, resolved to save in Jesus
+    Christ, on account of Jesus Christ, and through Jesus Christ,
+    those, from among mankind fallen in sin, who, by the grace of the
+    Holy Spirit believe in his same son Jesus; and through the same
+    grace continue in the faith and obedience to the end; and, on the
+    contrary, to leave under sin, and wrath, and to condemn the
+    obstinate and unbelieving, as having no part in Christ; according
+    to what is said _St. John_ iii. 36.
+
+    2. "That accordingly, Jesus Christ the Saviour of the world, died
+    for all and every man; and by his death on the cross has merited
+    for all, reconciliation with God, and remission of sin; in such
+    manner nevertheless, that no one can partake of them but believers,
+    according to the words of Jesus, _St. John_ iii. 16., 1 _John_ ii.
+    2.
+
+    3. "That man hath not saving faith of himself, and by the strength
+    of his own free will; since, while in a state of sin and apostasy,
+    he cannot of himself think, desire, or do, that which is truly
+    good, which is what is chiefly meant by saving faith; but it is
+    necessary that God in Jesus Christ, and by the Holy Spirit,
+    regenerate and renew him in his understanding and affections, or in
+    his will and all his powers; that he may know the true good,
+    meditate on it, desire, and do it. _St. John_ xv. 5.
+
+    [Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+    4. "That to this grace of God is owing the beginning, the
+    progression, and accomplishment of all good; in such manner, that
+    even the regenerate, without this antecedent, or preventing,
+    exciting, concomitant, and cooperating grace, cannot think that,
+    which is good, desire or practise it; nor resist any temptation to
+    evil; so that all the good works or actions he can conceive, spring
+    from the grace of God; that as to what regards the manner of
+    operation of this grace, it is not irresistible, since it is said
+    of several, they resisted the Holy Spirit. See _Acts_ vii. and
+    other places.
+
+    5. "That those, who by a lively faith are engrafted into Christ, and
+    consequently made partakers of his quickening spirit, are furnished
+    with sufficient strength to be able to combat, and even overcome
+    Satan, sin, the world, and their own lusts; and all this, as is
+    carefully to be observed, by the assistance of the grace and the
+    Holy Spirit; and that Jesus Christ succours them by his spirit in
+    all temptations, reaches to them his hand, (provided they be
+    willing to engage, ask his assistance, and are not wanting to
+    themselves,) supports and strengthens them: so, that they cannot be
+    led away by any wile or violence of Satan, or snatched out of
+    Christ's hands, as he says himself, _St. John_ x. _My sheep shall
+    no man pluck out of my hands_. For the rest, if it be asked whether
+    these may not through negligence let go the confidence they had
+    from the beginning, (Heb. iii. 6.) cleave again to the present
+    world, depart from the holy doctrine, which was delivered, make
+    shipwreck of a good conscience? (2 Pet. i. 10., Jude iii., 1 Tim.
+    i. 19., Heb. xii. 15.) This must be previously examined with more
+    care, by the Scriptures, to be able to teach it with full assurance
+    to others."
+
+Such is the Confession of Faith of the Arminians: they gave it the name
+of _Remonstrance_; and were styled from it REMONSTRANTS. It was drawn up
+by _Utengobard_, minister at the Hague, with the help, it is supposed,
+of Grotius: it was signed by forty-six ministers.
+
+[Sidenote: Contra-Remonstrance.]
+
+The Gomarists opposed to it a _Contra-Remonstrance_; which gave them the
+name of the CONTRA-REMONSTRANTS.
+
+It was about this time, that Grotius was elected Pensionary of
+Rotterdam, and ordered to England: it has been suggested, that he had
+secret instructions from the Arminians, to induce king James to favour
+their principles.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+We are informed, by Mr. Nichols, (_Calvinism and Arminianism
+compared_,)[022] that the Arminians sent to King James by Grotius, a
+true state of their case; that Grotius found an adversary in _Archbishop
+Abbott_, and friends in _Bishops Andrews_ and _Overal_; and that by
+their advice the monarch addressed to the States General, a wise and
+conciliatory letter.
+
+The irritation of the public mind increasing, the States of Holland, to
+restore tranquillity, published an edict of Pacification, by which they
+strongly enjoined forbearance, toleration, and silence. This was
+favourable to the Arminians, but it increased the violence of the
+_Contra-remonstrants_. Thus, it became a signal of war. The States of
+Holland transmitted it to King James: his Majesty, the archbishop of
+Canterbury, and the other English prelates, allowed its doctrine to be
+orthodox.
+
+[Sidenote: Remonstrants--Contra-Remonstrants.]
+
+Still, the troubles in Holland augmented: riots took place and greater
+riots were apprehended. In an evil hour, Barneveldt, the
+Grand-Pensionary, proposed to the States of Holland, that the
+magistrates of the cities of that province should he empowered to raise
+troops for the suppression of the rioters. Amsterdam, Dort, and other
+towns, that favoured the Gomarists, protested against this measure,
+styling it a declaration of war against the Contra-remonstrants. Yet,
+on the 4th August 1617, Barneveldt's proposition was agreed to, and
+promulgated.
+
+We have mentioned the enmity of Prince Maurice to Barneveldt, on account
+of his having promoted the armistice of 1609, and his favouring the
+republican party. The Prince professed to consider the edict of
+Pacification as derogatory of his authority, and forbade the soldiers to
+obey the States, if they should be ordered to act against the rioters.
+He publicly declared, that he favoured the Gomarists; he assisted, at
+the divine service, in their churches only, and shewed them every other
+mark of public favour. Exulting in this powerful support, the Gomarists
+separated themselves, formally, from the Arminians.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+To bring over Amsterdam to their sentiments, the States of Holland sent
+a deputation to the burgomasters of that city, and placed Grotius at its
+head. On the day after their arrival in Amsterdam, the burgomasters
+assembled to receive the deputies. Grotius addressed them in an
+argumentative and eloquent speech. He urged the necessity and advantage
+of religious toleration, particularly upon theoretical points of
+doctrine. He observed to the assembly, that Bullinger and Melancthon had
+been tolerated by Deza and Calvin; that James, the King of Great
+Britain, had advanced, in his writings, that each of the two opposite
+opinions on Predestination might be maintained without danger of
+reprobation; that Gomarus himself had declared that Arminius had not
+erred in any fundamental article of Christian doctrine; that the
+contested articles were of a very abstruse nature; that the affirmative
+or negative of the doctrines expressed in them, had not been determined;
+and that toleration would restore tranquillity and union, and favour the
+assembling of a numerous and respectable synod, which might labour with
+success in restoring peace to the church.
+
+Grotius delivered his speech in the Dutch language; it was afterwards
+translated into Latin; all, who heard, admired it; but it produced no
+effect on them. The deputies were uncivilly dismissed; and the oration
+of Grotius, by an order of the States General, was suppressed.[023]
+
+[Sidenote: Feuds of the Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants.]
+
+He was much affected by the bad success of his mission: he was seized
+with a fever, which nearly proved fatal to him. Many of his friends
+sought to persuade him to retire from the contest: he told them that he
+had taken his resolution after deep deliberation; that he was aware of
+his danger, and that he submitted the event to providence.
+
+The next effort of the States of Holland to pacify the troubles, was to
+prepare a _formula_ of peace, which the ministers of the two parties
+should be obliged to sign. It contained nothing contrary to the doctrine
+of Calvin; it referred the five articles to future examination, and
+prescribed, in the mean time, silence upon the parts in dispute. Grotius
+drew up the Formula; it was shewn to Prince Maurice, and rejected by
+him.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+Matters now converged to a crisis:--we have more than once mentioned the
+opposite politics of Prince Maurice and Barneveldt, the
+Grand-Pensionary; the former wishing to draw the whole sovereign power
+to himself; the latter endeavouring to preserve and stabilitate the the
+constitution of the Provinces, as it had been settled by the Act of
+Union. We noticed that the Gomarists sided with the Prince; the
+Arminians with the Grand-Pensionary. As the Prince was aware that the
+States of Holland were favourable to the Arminians, that the States
+General were opposed to them, and that the clergy of each denomination
+partook of the civil and ecclesiastical opinions of their flocks, he
+convened a national synod of the clergy; and, that be might the more
+overawe his opponents and strengthen his own party, he appointed the
+synod to meet in Holland. Against this synod the provinces of Holland,
+Utretcht, and Overyssell protested. Barneveldt was so much affected by
+the disturbances, and a view of the evils with which they appeared to
+threaten his country, that he sought to resign his place of
+Grand-Pensionary; but the States of the province of Holland, which
+needed more than ever the counsels of such an experienced minister, sent
+a deputation to him, beseeching him not to abandon them in times of so
+much difficulty. He thought it his duty to yield to their entreaty, and
+continued to exercise the functions of his office.
+
+[Sidenote: Imprisonment of Barneveldt, Grotius and Hoogerbetz.]
+
+To frustrate the designs of Prince Maurice, several cities favourable to
+the Arminians levied bodies of militia, and gave them the name of
+_Attendant Soldiers_. The States-General, at the instigation of Prince
+Maurice, enjoined the cities to disband them. The cities generally
+disobeyed these orders. In this they were justified by the established
+constitution: the Prince, however, treated their conduct as rebellious;
+and, in concert with the States General, marched in person, at the head
+of his troops, against the refractory cities. Wherever he came, he
+disarmed and disbanded the new levies; deposed the Arminian magistrates,
+and expelled the ministers of their party.
+
+In the provinces of Gueldres and Overyssell, he met with no resistance;
+and little at Arnheim: greater resistance was expected at Utretcht: the
+States of Holland sent Grotius and Hoogerbetz, the Pensionary of Leyden,
+to stimulate the inhabitants to resistance; but the fortune of the
+Prince prevailed. In an extraordinary assembly, which consisted of eight
+persons only, yet assuming to act as the States General, the Prince
+procured an ordonnance to be passed, which directed Barneveldt, Grotius,
+and Hoogerbetz to be taken into immediate custody. They were accordingly
+arrested, and confined in the Castle at the Hague.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.]
+
+Thus the Prince's party prevailed in every part of the United Provinces.
+About this time, he succeeded, in consequence of the death of his elder
+brother, to the dignity of Prince of Orange.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE SYNOD OF DORT.
+
+1618.
+
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.]
+
+The States General determined that the Synod[024] should be composed of
+twenty-six divines of the United Provinces, twenty-eight foreign
+divines, five professors of divinity, and sixteen laymen;--seventy-five
+members in the whole. The expence was calculated at 100,000 florins. The
+English divines were, Dr. George Carlton, Bishop of Llandaff; Dr. Joseph
+Hall, Dean of Worcester; John Davenant, professor of divinity, and
+Master of Queen's college, Cambridge; Samuel Ward, Archdeacon of
+Taunton, and head of Sidney college, Cambridge. To these were added,
+Walter Balcanqual, a Scottish theologian, as representative of the
+Scottish churches. The ever-memorable John Hales of Eaton, as that
+learned and amiable person is justly termed by protestant writers, was
+permitted to attend the debates of the Synod, but was not allowed to
+speak, or take any part in its proceedings.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+We have mentioned that Arminius was converted to the opinions, which he
+defended afterwards so strenuously, by the perusal of a work in support
+of the opposite doctrine, which he had been desired to confute. In the
+same manner, the proceedings of the Contra-Remonstrants, at the Synod of
+Dort, made Mr. Hales a Remonstrant. We are informed by his friend Mr.
+Faringdon, that, in his younger days, he was a Calvinist; but that some
+explanations given by Episcopius of the text in John iii. 16, induced
+him, as he himself said, to "bid John Calvin, Good Night." His letters
+from Dort to Sir Dudley Carleton, the English ambassador at the Hague,
+contain an interesting account of the proceedings of the assembly.[025]
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.]
+
+Dr. Heylin says, in his "Quinquarticular History," that the theologians
+sent by King James to Dort, were inclined to condemn the Remonstrants;
+but he intimates that the monarch acted from reasons of state; and that
+he was more hostile to their persons than their doctrines: Brand makes
+the same remark upon Prince Maurice. It seems to be admitted, that, in
+the conference at Hampton Court, King James declared against absolute
+predestination.[026]
+
+The English divines arrived at the Hague on the 5th November 1618: they
+were immediately presented to the States General, and most honourably
+received.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+The King of France had permitted two Protestant theologians of his
+kingdom to attend the Synod; but afterwards revoked the permission. The
+French Protestant churches had deputed to it, the celebrated Peter de
+Moulin and Andrew Rivet; but the King prohibited their attending it,
+under severe penalties.
+
+After the election of the members was finally adjusted, the Synod
+appeared to be composed of about seventy Contra-Remonstrants and
+fourteen Arminians.
+
+It was opened on the 13th of November 1618. Two commissioners of the
+States placed themselves on the right side of the chimney of the room;
+the English divines were placed on the left; seats were kept vacant for
+the French; the third place was assigned to the deputies from the
+Palatinate; the fourth, to those from Hesse; the fifth, to the Swiss;
+the sixth to the Genevans; the seventh to the theologians from Bremen;
+and the eighth to those from Embden. The professors of theology were
+placed immediately after the commissioners; then, the ministers and
+elders of the country. By an arrangement, favoured by the States,
+thirty-six ministers and twenty elders were added to the five
+professors. Of this the Remonstrants complained, on the just ground,
+that it evidently gave their adversaries an undue preponderance.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.]
+
+The commissioners nominated the celebrated Daniel Heinsius secretary.
+The Remonstrants objected to him; they admitted his extensive
+acquaintance with polite literature, and his elegant taste; but
+asserted, that he possessed no theological learning, and was prejudiced
+against them. Episcopius was always considered to be at the head of the
+Remonstrants: he has seldom been excelled in learning, eloquence, or
+power of argumentation.
+
+No further business than arranging the forms of sitting and voting, was
+transacted at the _first session_ of the Synod. _At the second_, the
+Synod constituted John Bogerman its president, and appointed two
+assessors and two secretaries: all five were distinguished for their
+known hostility to the Remonstrants. The appointment of Bogerman
+particularly offended them, as he openly avowed it to be his opinion
+that heretics should be punished by death; and had translated into the
+Dutch language the celebrated treatise of Beza, _de haereticis a civili
+magistratu puniendis_, in which this doctrine is explicitly maintained
+in its fullest extent.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+_In the third session_,--the deputies from Geneva produced their
+commission: it was expressed in terms decidedly hostile to the
+Remonstrants.
+
+_In the fourth session_,--the grand preliminary question,--in what
+manner the Remonstrants were to be summoned,--came under consideration.
+After much argument, it was settled, by a great majority of voices, that
+"Episcopius and some other Remonstrants should within a fortnight,
+appear before the Synod, as the sovereign ecclesiastical tribunal of the
+United States."
+
+The Remonstrants and the advocates of their cause protested against this
+proceeding: they called in question the authority of the Synod to sit as
+judges upon them, or even to decide any point of doctrine definitively:
+they averred it contrary to the evangelical liberty professed and taught
+by the first Reformers. Every friend to the true principles of the
+reformation must admit the force of this objection.
+
+The _5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th Sessions_
+of the intermediate fortnight, were consumed in debates upon a projected
+new translation of the Scriptures; _the 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th,
+19th, 20th_ and _21st Sessions_ were employed in discussions,
+upon a new catechism, and other ecclesiastical arrangements.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.]
+
+The _22d Session_ was held on the 6_th_ of December. The
+Remonstrants appeared before the Synod, and requested further time for
+preparing their defence on the articles with which they were charged.
+Their request was denied: and Episcopius having said, that "They wished
+to enter into a conference with the Synod," a resolution was passed, by
+which the Synod declared, that "the Remonstrants had not been cited to
+_confer_ with the Synod; but to propound their opinions, and submit
+to its judgment."
+
+The Remonstrants then paid their visits to the foreign theologians:
+these they found greatly prejudiced against them; they therefore
+published two short writings, explaining and justifying their
+sentiments.
+
+In _the 23d Session_, Episcopius made a long discourse. Mr.
+John Hales praised it highly, in a letter addressed by him to the
+English ambassador An oath was prescribed to the members, by which they
+promised, that, in the examination of the five articles, "or any other
+points of doctrine which should be discussed, they would confine
+themselves to the Scriptures, and resort to no human authority." But,
+what was the Synod itself more than human authority? The oath was not
+tendered to the Remonstrants; it was declined by the Swiss.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+The _24th Session_ was consumed in debates: _on the 25th_,
+Episcopius read a long document, and afterwards presented it to the
+Synod. He protested in it against the authority of the Synod, and asked
+the searching question, whether the Calvinists would "submit to a Synod
+of Lutherans?" To this question, no answer was given: an angry
+discussion followed.
+
+
+It continued during _the 27th and 28th Sessions_.
+
+On _the 29th_, the opinions of foreign divines were produced in
+favour of the authority of the Synod: those of the English divines, and
+the divines of Bremen, were expressed with more moderation than the
+others. The divines of Geneva stated, that, "if a person obstinately
+refused to submit to the just decisions of the church, he might be
+proceeded against in two ways; the _magistrate_ might coerce him,
+and the _church_ might publicly excommunicate him as a violator of
+the law of God."
+
+The dispute was more violent in _the 30th Session_.
+
+Finally, the Remonstrants agreed to propound their sentiments in
+writing; but with an express salvo, of their right to liberty of
+conscience, and to retain their objections to the authority of the
+Synod.
+
+In _the 31st Session_, the Remonstrants presented to the
+Synod a writing, containing their sentiments upon Predestination,--the
+first and most important of the five articles.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.]
+
+In _the 34th Session_, they presented their sentiments upon the
+four other articles; and in _the 39th Session_, upon the Catechism
+of Heidelberg. The Synod had enjoined them to confine themselves to
+explanations of their own doctrine, and to abstain from controverting
+the doctrines of the Calvinists. These debates carried the Synod to its
+_46th Session_.
+
+In that session, the resolution of the States General upon the
+proceedings of the Synod was produced. They declared by it, that "the
+Remonstrants were obliged to submit to the decrees of the Synod,"--and
+that "if they persisted in their disobedience to them, both the censures
+of the church, and the penalties by which the States punished violators
+of public authority, should be inflicted upon them." The States ordered
+the Remonstrants to remain, in the meantime, in the town.
+
+The Remonstrants persisting in their refusal to acknowledge the
+authority of the Synod, an assembly of it met on _the 57th
+Session_, and formally expelled the Remonstrants from the Synod.
+Episcopius exclaimed, "May God decide between the Synod and us!" "I
+appeal," said Niellius, "from the injustice of the Synod, to the throne
+of Jesus Christ." All remained firm in their protestation.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+Mr. Hales and Mr. Balcanqual, in their letters to the English
+ambassador, blame the proceedings of the Synod.[027] The only question
+between the Synod and the Remonstrants was, whether the latter would
+submit to acknowledge the authority of the former. This, the
+Remonstrants uniformly refused to do. In almost every Synod there was a
+repetition of the same demand, and of the same answer. By every English
+reader, the demand of the Synod will be thought exorbitant.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP VI. 1618.]
+
+The Synod relaxed afterwards so far, as to permit the Remonstrants to
+deliver their sentiments in writing: they did it at great length. But
+they still persisted in objecting to the authority of the Synod, and to
+be examined by it. The Synod therefore proceeded against them in their
+absence; and ultimately, on the 24th of April 1610, pronounced them
+guilty of pestilential errors, and corruptors of the true religion. The
+five articles were formally condemned; Episcopius and the other
+ministers were deposed.
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+"There are conclusions," says Grotius,[028] in a letter written by him
+in the same year, "in the canons of the Synod of Dort, of which, if good
+Melancthon were again to make his appearance, he would express his
+disapprobation, and with which Bullinger would be no less grieved; there
+are others, which alienate all the Lutherans from the Calvinists;
+although amity and concord are desirable between them and us at this
+juncture. There are some points in them, which forbid the Greek churches
+from uniting with us, though they are very favourable to us; but there
+are others of the Dort canons, which admit of no controversy.--It is
+possible that they may recall to mind my labours for unity. Even those
+writings, which I published since my calamity, have not been diverted
+from the same peaceful object." If ever any Protestant divines deserved
+the reproach cast by Mr. Gibbon,[029] on the first reformers in general,
+"of being ambitious to succeed the tyrants whom they had dethroned,"
+they were the members of the Synod of Dort.
+
+The Synod was closed on the 29th of May.
+
+The sentence passed by it on the Remonstrants was approved by the States
+General on the 3d July 1619. On the same day, the Arminian ministers,
+who had been detained at Dort, were, by a sentence of the States
+General, banished or imprisoned, deprived of their employments, and the
+effects of some were confiscated. Similar severities were exercised on
+the Arminians in most of the territories subject to the States General.
+To avoid the persecution, some fled to Antwerp, some to France, the
+greater part to Holstein. There, under the wise protection of the
+reigning duke, they settled, and afterwards built a town, which from him
+they called Friedericstadt.
+
+They continued to assert the irregularity of the Synod: the Bishop of
+Meaux shrewdly observed, that "they employed against the authority of
+the Synod, the same arguments as the Protestants use against the
+authority of the Council of Trent."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP VI. 1618.]
+
+[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.]
+
+For the publication of _Acts of the Council_, divines were chosen
+out of various districts of the United Provinces: their edition of the
+Acts was published at Dort in the year 1620, in folio, in the types of
+the Elzevirs; and was soon afterwards republished with greater
+correctness, in the same year, at Hanover, in quarto, with an addition
+of a copious index.--An Epistle of their High Mightinesses the States
+General, addressed to the Monarchs, Kings, Princes, Counts, Cities and
+Magistrates of the Christian world, and vouching for the authority and
+authenticity of the Acts,[030] is prefixed to this edition. The
+Remonstrants published an edition of the Acts in 1620, in 4to.: it is
+said,[031] that from a fear of their adversaries, it was printed on
+ship-board.
+
+Here, the history of the Arminians, so far as it is connected with that
+part of the Life of Grotius to which our subject has hitherto led us,
+seems to close. We shall hereafter be called upon to resume it.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT OF GROTIUS. HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON.
+
+1618-1621.
+
+
+While the Synod of Dort continued its sittings, Prince Maurice and his
+party were actively employed in increasing the popular ferment against
+Barneveldt, Grotius and Hoogerbetz; in collecting evidence of the
+designs and practices of which they were accused, and in framing the
+legal proceedings against them in such a manner as was most likely both
+to procure their conviction, and to persuade the public of their guilt.
+
+We have mentioned that their confinement took place on the 20th of
+August 1618, and that they were removed from the Hague, the original
+place of their imprisonment, to the Castle of Louvestein. On the 19th
+November, the States General, at the instigation of Prince Maurice,
+nominated twenty-six commissioners for their trial. All the prisoners
+objected both to the jurisdiction of the commissioners, and to that of
+the States General; and asserted that the States of Holland were their
+only competent judges. They observed, at the same time, that many of the
+judges were notoriously prejudiced against the Arminians.
+
+[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.]
+
+The act of accusation contained many general charges, and many averments
+of particular facts, supposed to substantiate them. It was alleged
+against the prisoners, that they had disturbed the established religion
+of the United Provinces; that, in direct contradiction of the articles
+of union, they had asserted the right of each province to decide for
+itself in matters of religion; that they had set up the authority and
+interests of the States of Holland and West Friesland against those of
+the States General; that they were the authors of the Insurrection at
+Utrecht; had levied, in opposition to the orders of government, the
+attendant soldiers; had raised jealousies between the Prince and several
+of the Provincial States, and between these and the States General; and
+that, by their habitual conduct, they had become public disturbers of
+the tranquillity of the republic, and councillors and practisers of
+schemes hostile to its welfare.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618-1621.]
+
+The Commissioners proceeded to the trial of Barneveldt. Uniformly
+protesting against the competency of the tribunal, Barneveldt defended
+himself with great firmness and ability. He controverted every article
+of the accusation, and concluded his defence, by a long and pathetic
+enumeration of the services, which he had rendered to the republic; and
+of the numerous actions, by which he had shewn his attachment to Prince
+William and Prince Maurice:--he proved that it had been principally
+owing to him, that the Stadtholderate had been conferred on the latter.
+He admitted that he had suspected the Prince of designs hostile to the
+constitution of the United Provinces, and had opposed the Prince in
+every measure, which appeared to have such a tendency; but he asserted
+that he never had resorted to means which the laws or constitution of
+the Provinces did not warrant. His arguments were unanswerable; but
+Prince Maurice was determined on his ruin; and the Commissioners were
+wholly subservient to the prince's views: they accordingly passed
+unanimously a sentence of death upon Barneveldt.
+
+[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.]
+
+Many of the princes of Europe expressed their dissatisfaction at these
+proceedings: none so much as the French monarch. To him, the great merit
+of Barneveldt had been long known. He considered that the conduct of
+Prince Maurice was likely to involve the United Provinces in troubles,
+of which Spain might take advantages. From personal regard to
+Barneveldt, and with a view of terminating the discord, the monarch sent
+an ambassador extraordinary to the United States, and ordered him to
+join Du Maurier, his ambassador in ordinary, in soliciting them in
+favour of the accused, and in labouring to restore the public
+tranquillity. The ambassadors executed their commission with the
+greatest zeal. They made many remonstrances, and had several audiences
+both with the States and the Prince. The States, instigated by the
+Prince, expressed great indignation at the proceedings of the
+ambassadors.
+
+All the accused were respectably allied, and had many friends: numerous
+applications were made in their favour. They undeviatingly demeaned
+themselves with the firmness and modest dignity of conscious innocence.
+They persisted in denying the guilt attributed to them, and in
+protesting against the competency of the tribunal. They made no
+degrading submission. At a subsequent time, a son of Barneveldt having
+been condemned to death, his mother applied to Prince Maurice, for his
+pardon. The Prince observed to her, that she had made no such
+application in behalf of her husband; "No," she replied, "I know my son
+is guilty, I therefore solicit his pardon; I knew my husband was
+innocent, I therefore solicited no pardon for him."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618--1621.]
+
+On Monday morning, May 13, 1619, Barneveldt was informed that he was to
+be executed upon that day. He received the notification of it with great
+firmness; he inquired whether Grotius and Hoogerbetz were to suffer:
+being answered in the negative, he expressed much satisfaction,
+observing that "they were of an age to be still able to serve the
+republic."
+
+    "The scaffold for his execution," says Burigni, "was erected in the
+    Court of the Castle at the Hague, facing the Prince of Orange's
+    apartments. He made a short speech to the people, which is yet
+    preserved in the _Mercure Francoise_. 'Burghers!' he said, 'I have
+    been always your faithful countryman; believe not that I die for
+    treason: I die for maintaining the rights and liberties of my
+    country!' After this speech, the executioner struck off his head at
+    one blow. It is affirmed that the Prince of Orange, to feast
+    himself with the cruel pleasure of seeing his enemy perish, beheld
+    the execution with a glass; the people looked on it with other
+    eyes: many came to gather the sand wet with his blood, to keep it
+    carefully in phials; and the crowd of those, who had the same
+    curiosity, continued next day, notwithstanding all they could do
+    to hinder them.
+
+    "Thus fell that great minister, who did the United Provinces as much
+    service in the cabinet, as the Prince of Orange did in the field.
+    It is highly probable that the melancholy end of this illustrious
+    and unfortunate man was owing to his steadiness in opposing the
+    design of making Prince Maurice Dictator."[032]
+
+[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.]
+
+The Prince pursued his triumph. Soon after the arrest of Grotius, the
+States of Holland presented a petition to the Prince, representing the
+arrest as a breach of their constitutional rights; the Prince referred
+it to the States General. To these, therefore, they presented a similar
+petition; praying at the same time, that Grotius might be tried by the
+laws and usages of the Provinces of Holland: no regard was shewn to
+their petitions.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618--1621.]
+
+Grotius had an invaluable friend:--he was no sooner arrested, than his
+wife petitioned to share his confinement throughout the whole of his
+imprisonment: it was denied. Grotius fell ill: she renewed the
+application: it was absolutely rejected: but neither his wife, nor any
+of the friends of Grotius ever recommended to him an unworthy
+submission. He always denied the competency of the tribunal appointed to
+try him: his wife and brother uniformly recommended him to persist in
+his plea.
+
+Much disregard of form took place, and many arbitrary acts were
+perpetrated, in the proceedings against Grotius. On the 18th of May
+1619, the Commissioners pronounced sentence against him. After
+enumerating all the charges, of which he was accused, and asserting that
+all were proved against him, the judges condemned him to perpetual
+imprisonment, and his estates to be confiscated. The same sentence was
+passed on Hoogerbetz; but the house of the latter was assigned to him
+for his imprisonment.
+
+On the 6th of June, Grotius was taken to Louvestein. It lies near
+Gorcum, in South Holland, at the point of the island formed by the Vaal
+and the Meuse. Twenty-four sous a day were allowed for his maintenance;
+but his wife undertook to support him, during his confinement, from her
+own estate. She was at length admitted into prison with him, on
+condition that she should remain in it, while his imprisonment lasted.
+
+[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.]
+
+At first, his confinement was very rigid: by degrees it was relaxed: his
+wife was allowed to leave the prison for a few hours, twice in every
+week. He was permitted to borrow books, and to correspond, except on
+politics, with his friends.
+
+He beguiled the tedious hours of confinement by study, relieving his
+mind by varying its objects. Antient and modern literature equally
+engaged his attention: Sundays he wholly dedicated to prayer and the
+study of theology.
+
+Twenty months of imprisonment thus passed away. His wife now began to
+devise projects for his liberty. She had observed that he was not so
+strictly watched as at first; that the guards, who examined the chest
+used for the conveyance of his books and linen, being accustomed to see
+nothing in it but books and linen, began to examine them loosely: at
+length, they permitted the chest to pass without any examination. Upon
+this, she formed her project for her husband's release.
+
+She began to carry it into execution by cultivating an intimacy with the
+wife of the commandant of Gorcum. To her, she lamented Grotius's
+immoderate application to study; she informed her that it had made him
+seriously ill; and that, in consequence of his illness, she had resolved
+to take all his books from him, and restore them to their owners. She
+circulated every where the account of his illness, and finally declared
+that it had confined him to his bed.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618--1621.]
+
+In the mean time, the chest was accommodated to her purpose; and
+particularly, some holes were bored in it, to let in air. Her maid and
+the valet of Grotius were entrusted with the secret. The chest was
+conveyed to Grotius's apartment. She then revealed her project to him,
+and, after much entreaty, prevailed on him to get into the chest, and
+leave her in the prison.
+
+The books, which Grotius borrowed, were usually sent to Gorcum; and the
+chest, which contained them, passed in a boat, from the prison at
+Louvestein, to that town.
+
+[Sidenote: His Escape from Prison.]
+
+Big with the fate of Grotius, the chest, as soon as he was enclosed in
+it, was moved into the boat. One of the soldiers, observing that it was
+uncommonly heavy, insisted on its being opened, and its contents
+examined; but, by the address of the maid, his scruples were removed,
+and the chest was lodged in the boat. The passage from Louvestein to
+Gorcum took a considerable time. The length of the chest did not exceed
+three feet and a half. At length, it reached Gorcum: it was intended
+that it should be deposited at the house of David Bazelaer, an Arminian
+friend of Grotius, who resided at Gorcum. But, when the boat reached the
+shore, a difficulty arose, how the chest was to be conveyed from the
+spot, upon which it was to be landed, to Bazelaer's house. This
+difficulty was removed by the maid's presence of mind; she told the
+bystanders, that the chest contained glass, and that it must be moved
+with particular care. Two chairmen were soon found, and they carefully
+moved it on a horse-chair to the appointed place.
+
+Bazelaer sent away his servants on different errands, opened the chest,
+and received his friend with open arms. Grotius declared, that while he
+was in the chest, he had felt much anxiety, but had suffered no other
+inconvenience. Having dressed himself as a mason, with a rule and
+trowel, he went, through the back door of Bazelaer's house, accompanied
+by his maid, along the market-place, to a boat engaged for the purpose.
+It conveyed them to Vervie in Brabant: there, he was safe. His maid then
+left him, and, returning to his wife, communicated to her the agreeable
+information of the success of the enterprise.
+
+[Sidenote: Chap. VII. 1618-1621.]
+
+As soon as Grotius's wife ascertained that he was in perfect safety, she
+informed the guards of his escape: these communicated the intelligence
+to the governor. He put her into close confinement; but in a few days,
+an order of the States General set her at liberty, and permitted her to
+carry with her every thing at Louvestein, which belonged to her. It is
+impossible to think without pleasure of the meeting of Grotius and his
+heroic wife. From Vervie he proceeded to Antwerp; a few days after his
+arrival in that city, he addressed a letter to the States General: he
+assured them, that, in procuring his liberty, he had used neither
+violence nor corruption. He solemnly protested that his public conduct
+had been blameless, and that the persecution he had suffered would never
+lessen his attachment to his country.
+
+[Sidenote: His Escape from Prison.]
+
+It was on the 22d March 1621, that Grotius obtained his liberty. In the
+same year, the truce, concluded for twelve years between Spain and the
+United Provinces expired: it was expected, that the war would be resumed
+with more fury than ever. But this did not happen; the war of thirty
+years, which we shall afterwards have occasion to mention, had mixed the
+contest between Spain and the United Provinces with the general military
+plans and operations of the parties engaged in it, and had carried much
+of the conflict from the Low Countries into Germany. Prince Maurice
+still appeared at the head of the army of the United Provinces; but he
+had lost, by his persecution of the Arminians, and his selfish
+intrigues, the confidence of the people. Conspiracies against his life
+were formed: fortune no longer favoured his arms. His attempts to compel
+the Marquis Spinola to raise the siege of Breda were unsuccessful. This
+reverse of fortune preyed upon his mind. He thought himself haunted by a
+spectre of Barneveldt: he was frequently heard, during his last illness,
+to exclaim, "Remove this head from me!" "This anecdote," says the author
+of the _Resume de l'histoire de la Hollande_, "is related by all the
+republican historians of the United Provinces; it is concealed by the
+flatterers of the House of Orange.... To relate the remorse of princes
+for their crimes, is one of the most useful duties of historians."
+
+Prince Maurice died in 1625.
+
+M. Le Clerc, in the 2d volume of the _Bibliotheque Choisee, art. 3_,
+shews, by unquestionable facts and irresistible arguments, that both
+Prince William and Prince Maurice sought to obtain the independent
+sovereignty of the United Provinces. It was the aim of all their
+successors: it has been effected in our times by means, which certainly
+were foreseen by none.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+VORSTIUS,--JAMES I.
+
+1622.
+
+
+We must now carry back our readers to events which preceded the Synod of
+Dort. We have mentioned the decease of Arminius: soon after it, a
+circumstance took place, which, to the exquisite delight of the monarch,
+who, at that time filled the British throne, involved him in the
+theological disputes of the Belgic theologians.
+
+Not long after the commencement of the Reformation, several bold
+inquirers began to deny the trinity of persons in the Deity, the divine
+authority of the Old and New Testament, and the existence of mystery in
+the Christian dispensation. Both Catholics and Protestants united
+against them. To avoid their hostilities, the maintainers of these
+opinions fled to Poland, and, forming themselves into a distinct
+congregation, published, in 1574, their First Catechism. They
+established congregations at Cracow, Lubin, Pinczow, Luck and Smila:
+but their most flourishing settlement was at Racow.
+
+[Sidenote: Vorstius--James I.]
+
+They spread their doctrines over each bank of the Danube, and at length
+penetrated Italy. There, they were adopted by Loelius Socinus. After
+many peregrinations in different parts of Europe, he finally settled at
+Zurich. Faustus Socinus, his nephew, inherited his sentiments; and, on
+this account, was obliged to quit Zurich. After many wanderings, he
+fixed his residence at Racow. There, he was received with open arms by
+the new communion, and completed their system of theology. From him,
+they derived their appellation of SOCINIANS. Their doctrine is expressed
+in the Racovian catechism, published, in the Polish language, in 1605.
+Other editions of it have appeared. An English translation of the
+edition of 1605, was published at Amsterdam in 1652: Dr. Toulmin, in his
+Life of Socinus, ascribes it, seemingly by conjecture, to Mr. John
+Biddle. In 1818, Mr. Rees published a new translation of it, prefixing
+to it an interesting historical preface.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VIII. 1622.]
+
+Among the disciples of Arminius, was the celebrated CONRADE VORSTIUS,
+born at Cologne in 1569, of parents in reduced circumstances: he was
+soon remarked for his diligence and irreproachable conduct; and was, in
+1605, appointed to a professor's chair at Steinfurth. In 1610, he
+quitted it, and was named to succeed Arminius, in the chair of Professor
+of Theology, at Leyden. "He was beloved and honoured," says Mr.
+Chalmers, "at Steinfurth; there, he enjoyed the utmost tranquillity, and
+was in the highest reputation; he doubtless foresaw, that in the state
+in which the controversies of Arminius and Gomarus were at that time, he
+should meet with great opposition in Holland. But he was tempted by the
+glory he should gain by supporting a party, which was weakened by
+Arminius's death."
+
+[Sidenote: Vorstius--James I.]
+
+He had previously published his Treatise "_de Deo_." Some passages
+in it were thought to favour the doctrine of Arminius; some, to lead to
+Socinianism; and some, to have an ulterior tendency. That Arminius
+himself discovers these views in his writings, has been frequently
+asserted. Doctor Maclaine, the learned translator of Mosheim's
+Ecclesiastical History,[033] observes it to be a common opinion, that
+"the disciples of Arminius, and more especially Episcopius, had boldly
+transgressed the bounds, that had been wisely prescribed by their
+master, and had gone ever to the Pelagians, and even to the Socinians."
+"Such," continues Dr. Maclaine, "is the opinion commonly entertained
+upon this matter. But it appears on the contrary evident to me, that
+Arminius himself had laid the plan of the theological system, that was,
+in after times embraced by his followers; that he had instilled the
+principles of it into the minds of his disciples; and that these latter
+did really no more than bring this plan to a greater degree of
+perfection, and propagate with more courage and perspicuity the
+doctrines it contains." To prove this assertion, the Doctor cites a
+passage from the Will of Arminius, in which he declares, that "his view
+in all his theological and ministerial labours, was to unite in one
+community, cemented by the bonds of fraternal charity, all sects and
+denominations of Christians, the papists excepted." "These words, on
+this account," continues Dr. Maclaine, "coincide perfectly with the
+modern system of Arminianism, which extends the limits of the christian
+church, and relaxes the bonds of fraternal communion in such a manner,
+that Christians of all sects and all denominations, whatever their sects
+and opinions may be, (Papists excepted) may be formed into one religious
+body, and live together in brotherly love and concord." It is not
+surprising that in the state of religious effervescence, in which the
+minds of men were at the time of which we are now speaking, a suspicion
+that Vorstius entertained the sentiments we have mentioned, or
+sentiments nearly approaching to them, should have rendered him a
+subject of jealousy. So greatly was this the case, that the
+Contra-remonstrants appealed against his doctrines to several Protestant
+states, and represented to them the doctrine of Vorstius in the most
+odious light. Our James I. accepted the appeal: by a royal proclamation,
+he caused Vorstius's Treatise _de Deo_ to be burnt in London, and each
+of the English Universities. He drew up a list, of the several heresies,
+which he had discovered in it, commanded his resident at the Hague to
+notify them to the States; to express his horror of them, and his
+detestation of those, who should tolerate them.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. VIII. 1622.]
+
+[Sidenote: Vorstius.--James I.]
+
+With some intimation of their independence, the States replied, that
+"the case was of _their_ cognizance;" that "they would examine it;"
+and that, "if it should appear that Vorstius maintained the doctrines
+imputed to him, they would not suffer him to live among them." The
+monarch's orthodoxy was not satisfied with this answer. He repeated his
+suggestions, that the States should proceed against Vorstius; and
+hinted, that if the doctrines should be proved against him, and if he
+should persist in them, burning might be a proper punishment for him.
+The monarch added that, if the States did not use their utmost
+endeavours to extirpate the rising heresy, he should publicly protest
+against their conduct; that, in quality of defender of the faith, he
+would exhort all Protestant churches to join in one general resolution
+to extinguish the abomination, and would, as sovereign of his own
+dominions, prohibit his subjects to frequent so pestilential a place as
+the University of Leyden. To his menaces he added the terrors of his
+pen, and published a "Confutation of Vorstius."
+
+By the advice of the States, Vorstius replied to his royal adversary in
+a most respectful manner; still, the royal adversary was not satisfied.
+Finally, the States condemned the obnoxious doctrines of Vorstius,
+divested him of all his offices; and sentenced him to perpetual
+banishment. Vorstius remained concealed during two years; then found an
+asylum in the dominions of the Duke of Holstein, who, as we have
+mentioned, took the remains of the Arminians into his protection.
+
+Vorstius died in 1622.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+GROTIUS AFTER HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON, TILL HIS APPOINTMENT OF AMBASSADOR
+FROM SWEDEN TO THE COURT OF FRANCE.
+
+1621-1634.
+
+
+Soon after the escape of Grotius from prison, he repaired to Paris: in
+this, he followed the advice of Du Maurier, the French ambassador at the
+Hague. His works had made him known in every part of Europe, in which
+learning was cultivated: but persons properly qualified to appreciate
+their merit, existed no where in such abundance as at Paris: he was
+personally esteemed and regarded by the monarch; and the principal
+officers of state were attached to him. Paris was also recommended to
+him by its libraries, the easy access to them, and the habitual
+intercourse of the men of letters, who, during, at least, a great part
+of the year, made that city their place of residence.
+
+[Sidenote: From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of
+Ambassador.]
+
+Grotius arrived at Paris on the 13th of April 1621. He was immediately
+noticed by a multitude of persons of distinction and rank; but it was
+not till March 1622, that he was presented to the king. His majesty
+received him graciously, and settled upon him a pension of 3,000 livres.
+The Prince of Conde, the Chancellor, and the Keeper of the Seals, had
+exerted themselves to dispose the king in his favour. His majesty
+professed kindness towards those, who had been persecuted by the States;
+and issued an edict, dated the 22d April 1622, by which he took them
+under his protection, in the same manner as if they were his own
+subjects; he even extended this benefit to their children. The
+celebrated President Jeannin was one of the most active and useful of
+Grotius's friends; but he died soon after Grotius arrived at Paris.
+
+Grotius, during his stay in that city, attended frequently the courts of
+justice. He observed the wretched style of oratory, which at that time,
+prevailed in them. It was, in some measure, corrected by _Patru_ and _Le
+Maitre_; but it did not reach its best state, till the end of the reign
+of Lewis XIV. The rhetorical march and laboured amplifications allowed
+at the French bar, are offensive to English ears. Has any nation
+produced a more perfect style of forensic or judicial eloquence, than
+that of _Sir William Grant_? The wisdom and justice of _Lord Stowell's_
+decisions, and the admirable arguments by which he explains or
+illustrates them, are known and acknowledged by every Court.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. IX. 1621--1634]
+
+Grotius's love of his native country continued unabated; all his views,
+all his hopes, were directed thither. With these feelings he wrote his
+_Apology_. He composed it in the Dutch language, and translated it
+afterwards into Latin: it was published in 1622. He dedicated it to the
+people of Holland and West Friesland. It is divided into twenty
+chapters; in the first, he argues the important point, that each of the
+United Provinces is sovereign and independent of the States General, and
+that the authority of these is confined to the defence of the provinces
+against their enemies. In the second chapter, he applies the position to
+ecclesiastical concerns; these, he says, are subject to the sovereign
+power of each State. In the following chapters, he descends into the
+particular charges against him; defending himself against all the crimes
+and irregularities of which he was accused, and shewing the informality
+of the judicial proceedings by which he and his companions in misfortune
+were tried and condemned.
+
+[Sidenote: From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of
+Ambassador.]
+
+His answer was universally read and approved: It greatly incensed the
+States General: They proscribed it, and forbade all persons to have it
+in their possession, under pain of death; but no answer to it was
+published. The edict made Grotius and his friends entertain
+apprehensions for his personal safety. On this account, he obtained
+from the French monarch letters of naturalization, dated the 26th
+February 1623: By these, his majesty took him under his special
+protection.
+
+Grotius retained many friends in every part of the United Provinces:
+Prince Frederick Henry, the brother of Maurice, was among them. He had
+never entered into his brother's persecuting projects.
+
+"The Count d'Estrades has given us," says Burigni, "some anecdotes on
+this subject, which we shall relate on his authority. He assures us,
+that, being one day _tete a tete_ with Prince Henry Frederick in his
+coach, he heard him say, that he had much to do to keep well with his
+brother Maurice, who suspected him of secretly favouring Barneveldt and
+the Arminians. He told me, (these were the Count's own words), it was
+true that he kept a correspondence with them, to prevent their opposing
+his election, in case his brother should die; but that, as it imported
+him to be on good terms with his brother, and to efface the notion he
+had of his connection with the Arminians, he made use of Vandenuse, one
+of his particular friends, and Barneveldt's son-in-law, to let the cabal
+know, that it was necessary for him to accommodate himself to his
+brother, that he might be better able to serve them,--which Barneveldt
+approved of."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. IX. 1621--1634.]
+
+In the meantime, the situation of Grotius at Paris, became very
+uncomfortable. His resources, and those of his wife, were small; and his
+pension was paid irregularly. Cardinal de Richelieu wished to attach
+Grotius; but required from him an absolute and unqualified devotion to
+him, which was utterly irreconcileable with the slightest degree of
+honourable independence. Grotius therefore declined the offers of the
+Cardinal. From this time, the Cardinal regarded him with an evil eye,
+and often made him feel the effects of his displeasure.
+
+This rendered Grotius desirous of quitting France. Trusting to some
+protestations of friendship, which he had received from Prince
+Frederick; to his numerous friends, to his claims upon the gratitude of
+the States of Holland, to his feelings of innocence, and to the effect
+produced, as he flattered himself, by his _Apology_, he ventured into
+Holland in 1631. But he met with no countenance: and in that year was
+banished a second time. Upon this, he formally bade a final adieu to
+Holland, and determined to seek his fortune elsewhere: He then fixed his
+residence at Hamburgh.
+
+[Sidenote: From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of
+Ambassador.]
+
+He sought to preserve his friends in France; but announced to them his
+intention to receive no more money from the French government.
+
+"I shall always," he said in a letter to the First President of the Cour
+des Monnoies, "be grateful for the King's liberality; but it is enough
+that I was chargeable to you, while I resided in France. I have never
+done you any service, though I made you an offer of myself. But it would
+not be proper that I should now live, like an hornet, on the goods of
+other men. I shall not, however, forget the kindness of so great a king,
+and the good offices of so many friends."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. IX. 1621-1634.]
+
+It may appear surprising that Prince Frederick of Orange should
+pertinaciously exclude Grotius from his native country. But ambition
+listens to nothing that conflicts with its own views. Prince Frederick
+inherited from his father and brother the wish of becoming the sovereign
+of the United Provinces. To this, he knew he should always find a
+zealous and able opponent in Grotius: hence, notwithstanding his great
+personal regard for Grotius, he always kept him a banished man. Grotius
+wished to be employed by the Government of England, and Archbishop Laud
+was sounded upon this subject; but the application was coldly
+received[034]. Prince Frederick sustained, both in military and civil
+concerns, the character of the former princes of his family. Under his
+administration, the affairs of the republic prospered at sea and land.
+Peter Haim captured the Spanish flotilla, estimated at twelve millions
+of florins. The Prince took Bois-le duc, Maestricht, and Breda, and
+reduced the Dutchy of Limburgh. Under his auspices, the celebrated Van
+Tromp commenced his career of naval glory, by obtaining a complete
+victory over the Spanish fleet, consisting of seventy men of war. Prince
+Frederick died in 1658.
+
+From the close of his Stadtholderate, we may date the origin of the
+jealousy entertained, by France and England, of the rising power of the
+United Provinces. It is to be observed that Prince Frederick was
+Stadtholder only of the Provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres
+and Overyssell: Count Ernest Casimir of Nassau was Stadtholder of the
+provinces of Groeningen, Frizeland, and the county of the Drenta. In
+1631, their eldest sons were chosen, in the lifetime of their fathers,
+their successors in their respective Stadtholderates. This was a great
+step towards making the Stadtholderate hereditary in their
+families,--one of the leading objects of their ambitious views.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS OF GROTIUS.
+
+1. _His Edition of Stobaeus_.
+
+2. _His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis_.
+
+3. _His Treatise de Veritate Religionis Christianae_.
+
+4. _His Treatise de Jure summarum potestatum circa
+      sacra_.
+
+5. _His Commentary on the Scriptures_.
+
+6. _Some other Works of Grotius_
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634]
+
+
+That literature is an ornament in prosperity, and a comfort in adverse
+fortune, has been often said by the best and wisest men; but no one
+experienced the truth of this assertion in a higher degree than Grotius,
+during his imprisonment at Louvestein. In that wreck of his fortune and
+overthrow of all his hopes, books came to his aid, soothed his sorrows,
+and beguiled the wearisome hours of his gloomy solitude. His studies
+often stole him from himself, and from the sense of his misfortunes. In
+the exercise of his mental energies, he was sensible of their powers;
+and it was impossible that he should contemplate, without pleasure, the
+extent, the worth, or the splendour of his labours; the services, which
+he rendered by them to learning and religion, and the admiration and
+gratitude of the scholar, which he then enjoyed, and which would attend
+his memory to the latest posterity. He himself acknowledged that, in the
+ardour of his literary pursuits, he often forgot his calamities, and
+that the hours passed unheeded, if not in joy, at least without pain.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X 1.
+
+_His Edition of Stobaeus_.
+
+
+Being ourselves unacquainted with this work, we cannot do better than
+present our readers with the account given of it by Burigni.
+
+    "The year after the publication of his _Apology_, that is to say in
+    1623, Nicholas Huon printed at Paris, _Grotius's improvements and
+    additions to Stobaeus_. This author, as is well known, extracted
+    what he thought most important in the ancient Greek writers, and
+    ranged it under different heads, comprehending the principal points
+    of philosophy. His work is the more valuable, as it has preserved
+    several fragments of the Ancients, found no where else. Grotius,
+    when very young, purposed to extract from this author all the
+    maxims of the poets; to translate them into Latin verse, and to
+    print the original with the translation. He began this, when a boy;
+    he was employed in it at the time of his arrest; and continued it
+    as an amusement, whilst he had the use of books, in his prison at
+    the Hague. He tells us that, when he was deprived of pen and ink,
+    he was got to the forty-ninth title, which is an invective against
+    tyranny, that had a great relation to what passed at that time in
+    Holland. On his removal to Louvestein, he resumed this work, and
+    finished it at Paris. He made several happy corrections in the text
+    of Stobaeus; some, from his own conjectures or those of his friends;
+    others, on the authority of manuscripts in the King's library,
+    which were politely lent him by the learned Nicholas Rigaut,
+    librarian to his majesty.
+
+    [Sidenote: His edition of Stobaeus.]
+
+    [Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634]
+
+    "Prefixed to this book, are _Prolegomena_, in which the author shews
+    that the works of the ancient Pagans are filled with maxims
+    agreeable to the truths taught in holy writ. He intended to
+    dedicate this book to the Chancellor Silleri: he had even writ the
+    dedication, but his friends, to whom he shewed it, thought he
+    expressed himself with too much warmth, against the censurers of
+    his _Apology_. They advised him therefore to suppress it; and he
+    yielded to their opinion. It may be observed in reading the royal
+    privilege, that the present title of the book is different from
+    what it was to have had. To these extracts from the Greek poets
+    translated into Latin verse, Grotius annexed two pieces, one of
+    Plutarch, the other of St. Basil, on the use of the poets; giving
+    the Greek text with a Latin translation."
+
+The work was received with universal approbation.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X. 2.
+
+_His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis_.
+
+
+Grotius may be considered as the founder of the modern school of _the
+Law of Nature and of Nations_. He was struck with the ruthless manner,
+in which wars were generally conducted; the slight pretences, upon which
+they were generally begun; and the barbarity and injustice, with which
+they were generally attended. He attributed these evils to the want of
+settled principles respecting the rights and duties of nations and
+individuals in a state of war. These, he observed, must depend on the
+previous rights and duties of mankind, in a state of peace: this led him
+to the preliminary inquiry into their rights and duties in a state of
+nature.
+
+Thus, an ample field was opened to him. He brought to it, a vigorous
+discerning mind, and stupendous erudition. From antient and modern
+history, philosophy, oratory, and poetry, he collected facts and
+sayings, which appeared to him to establish a general agreement of all
+civilized nations upon certain principles. From these, he formed his
+system; applying them, as he proceeded in his work, to a vast multitude
+of circumstances. These are so numerous, that some persons have not
+scrupled to say, that no case or international law, either in war or in
+peace, can be stated, to which the work of Grotius does not contain an
+applicable rule.
+
+[Sidenote: X. 2. _The Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis._]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634]
+
+Three important objections have been made to this celebrated work,--one,
+that the author defers in it, too little, to principle, too much, to
+authority;--another, that the work is written in a very desultory
+manner, with small attention to order, or classification;--a third, that
+his authorities are often feeble, and sometimes whimsical. "Grotius,"
+says Condillac, "was able to think for himself; but he constantly
+labours to support his conclusions by the authority of others. Upon many
+occasions; even in support of the most obvious and indisputable
+propositions, he introduces a long string of quotations from the Mosaic
+law, from the Gospels, from the fathers of the church, from the
+casuists, and not unfrequently, even in the very same paragraph, from
+Ovid, and Aristophanes." This strange mixture is subject of many
+witticisms of Voltaire. But let us hear what is urged in the defence of
+Grotius, by a gentleman, of whose praise the ablest of writers may be
+proud:
+
+    "Few writers," says Sir James Mackintosh, in his Discourse on the
+    Study of the Law of Nature and Nations, "were more celebrated than
+    Grotius in his own days, and in the age which succeeded. It has,
+    however, been the fashion of the last half century to depreciate
+    his work, as a shapeless compilation, in which reason lies buried
+    under a mass of authorities and quotations. This fashion originated
+    among French wits and declaimers, and it has been, I know not for
+    what reason, adopted, though with far greater moderation and
+    decency, by some respectable writers among ourselves. As to those,
+    who first used this language, the most candid supposition that we
+    can make with respect to them is, that they never read the work;
+    for, if they had not been deterred from the perusal of it by such a
+    formidable display of Greek characters, they must soon have
+    discovered that Grotius never quotes, on any subject, till he has
+    first appealed to some principles; and often, in my humble opinion,
+    though, not always, to the soundest and most rational principles.
+
+    [Sidenote: His treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis.]
+
+    "But another sort of answer is due to some of those, who have
+    criticised Grotius; and that answer might be given in the words of
+    Grotius himself. He was not of such a stupid and servile cast of
+    mind as to quote the opinions of poets or orators, of historians
+    and philosophers, as those of judges, from whose decision there was
+    no appeal. He quotes them, as he tells us himself, as witnesses,
+    whose conspiring testimony, mightily strengthened and confirmed by
+    their discordance on almost every other subject, is a conclusive
+    proof of the unanimity of the whole human race on the great rules
+    of duty, and the fundamental principles of morals. Of such matters,
+    poets and orators are the most unexceptionable of all witnesses;
+    for they address themselves to the general feelings and sympathies
+    of mankind; they are neither warped by system, nor perverted by
+    sophistry; they can attain none of their objects; they can neither
+    please nor persuade, if they dwell on moral sentiments not in
+    unison with those of their readers. No system of moral philosophy
+    can surely disregard the general feelings of human nature, and the
+    according judgment of all ages and nations. But, where are these
+    feelings and that judgment recorded and preserved? In those very
+    writings which Grotius is gravely blamed for having quoted. The
+    usages and law of nations, the events of history, the opinions of
+    philosophers, the sentiments of orators and poets, as well as the
+    observation of common life, are, in truth, the materials out of
+    which the science of morality is formed; and those who neglect
+    them, are justly chargeable with a vain attempt to philosophise
+    without regard to fact and experience, the sole foundation of all
+    true philosophy.
+
+    [Sidenote: Chap. X. 1621-1634]
+
+    "If this were merely an objection of taste, I should be willing to
+    allow, that Grotius has indeed poured forth his learning with a
+    profusion, that sometimes rather encumbers than adorns his work,
+    and which is not always necessary to the illustration of his
+    subject. Yet, even in making, that concession, I should rather
+    yield to the tastes of others, than speak from my own feelings. I
+    own that such richness and splendour of literature have a powerful
+    charm for me. They fill my mind with an endless variety of
+    delightful recollections and associations. They relieve the
+    understanding in its progress through a vast science, by calling up
+    the memory of great men and of interesting events. By this means we
+    see the truths of morality clothed with all the eloquence (not that
+    could be produced by the powers of one man, but) that could be
+    bestowed on them by the collective genius of the world. Even virtue
+    and wisdom themselves acquire new majesty in my eyes, when I thus
+    see all the great masters of thinking and writing called together,
+    as it were, from all times and countries, to do them homage and to
+    appear in their train.
+
+    [Sidenote: X. 2. His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis]
+
+    "But this is no piece for discussions of taste, and I am very ready
+    to own, that mine may be corrupted. The work of Grotius is liable
+    to a more serious objection, though I do not recollect that it has
+    ever been made. His method is inconvenient and unscientific. He has
+    inverted the natural order. That natural order undoubtedly
+    dictates, that we should first search for the original principles
+    of the science, in human nature; then apply them to the regulation
+    of the conduct of individuals; and lastly employ them for the
+    decision of those difficult and complicated questions that arise
+    with respect to the intercourse of nations. But Grotius has chosen
+    the reverse of this method. He begins with the consideration of the
+    states of peace and war, and he examines original principles, only
+    occasionally and incidentally, as they grow out of the questions,
+    which he is called upon to decide. It is a necessary consequence of
+    this disorderly method, which exhibits the elements of the science
+    in the form of scattered digressions, that he seldom employs
+    sufficient discussion on those fundamental truths, and never in
+    the place where such a discussion would be most instructive to the
+    reader. This defect in the plan of Grotius was perceived, and
+    supplied by Puffendorf, who restored natural law to that
+    superiority which belonged to it, and with great propriety, treated
+    the law of nations as only one main branch of the parent stock."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP X. 1621-1634]
+
+Whatever may be the merit of the work of which we are speaking, it must
+be admitted, that few, on their first appearance, and during a long
+subsequent period after publication, have received greater or warmer
+applause. The stores of erudition displayed in it, recommended it to the
+classical scholar, while the happy application of the author's reading
+to the affairs of human life, drew to it the attention of common
+readers. Among those, whose approbation of it, deserved to be recorded,
+Gustavus Adolphus,--his prime minister the Chancellor Oxenstiern,--and
+the Elector Palatine Charles Lewis, deserve particular mention.[035] As
+the trophies of Miltiades are supposed to have kept Themistocles awake,
+it has been said that the trophies of Grotius drove sleep from Selden,
+till be produced his celebrated treatise, "_De Jure naturali et gentium
+secundum leges Ebraeorim_." This important work equals that of Grotius
+in learning; but, from the partial and recondite nature of its subject,
+never equalled it in popularity.
+
+[Sidenote: X. 9. His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis]
+
+The supposed want of general elementary principles in the work of
+Grotius gave occasion to Puffendorf's treatise _de Jure Naturae et
+Gentium_; afterwards abridged by him into the small octavo volume _De
+Officio hominis et civis_: an edition of it in octavo was published by
+Professor Garschen Carmichael, of Glasgow, in 1724.
+
+The best edition of Grotius's treatise _de Jure Belli et Pacis_ was
+published at Amsterdam in 1730, by John Barbeyrac.
+
+Foreigners observe, that the study of the law of nature and nations is
+less cultivated in England than upon the continent. Is it not, because
+Englishmen are blessed with a free constitution; are admitted into a
+general participation of all its blessings; are thus personally
+interested in the national concerns; and have therefore a jurisprudence,
+which comes nearer to their bosoms? Is it not also, because the law of
+nature and nations, with all its merit, is so loose, that its principles
+seldom admit of that practical application, which renders them really
+useful; and which an English mind always requires?
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X.3.
+
+_De Veritate Religionis Christianae._
+
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
+
+Grotius, while a prisoner in the Castle of Louvestein, had written, in
+the Dutch language, "A treatise on the Truth of the Christian Religion."
+He afterwards enlarged it, and translated it, so enlarged, into Latin.
+It was universally read and admired. French, German, English, modern
+Greek, Persic, and even Turkish versions of it have been made: it was
+equally approved by Catholics and Protestants.
+
+[Sidenote: De Veritate Religionis Christianae.]
+
+It was invidiously objected, that he did not attempt to prove, or even
+mention, the Trinity, and some other gospel mysteries: he replied,
+satisfactorily in our opinion, that a discussion of any particular tenet
+of the Christian religion did not fall within the scope of his work. In
+this respect, he was afterwards imitated by _Abadie_ and _Houteville_,
+two of the most eminent apologists of Christianity. The latter expresses
+himself of the work of Grotius in the following terms:
+
+    "Grotius's work is the first, in which we find the characteristics
+    of just reasoning, accuracy, and strength: he is extremely concise;
+    but even this brevity will please us, when we find his work
+    comprehends so many things, without confounding them or lessening
+    their evidence or force. It is no wonder that the book should be
+    translated into so many languages."
+
+The best edition of it is that published by Le Clerc,[036] in 1709 at
+Amsterdam, in 8vo. To this edition, Le Clerc has added a curious
+_dissertation_ on _religious indifference_. He presumes that the
+supposed indifference is persuaded of the authenticity of the New
+Testament:--He then (says Le Clerc) must ascertain,--
+
+    1. Which are the denominations of religionists which avow their
+    belief of it:
+
+    2. Which of these are most worthy of the name of Christians:
+
+    3. And which profess the Christian religion in most purity and with
+    least extraneous alloy:
+
+    4. He will find, that all Christians agree in the fundamental
+    articles of faith:
+
+    5. That all these articles are clearly expressed in the New
+    Testament:
+
+    6. That no tenet should be believed to be of faith, unless the New
+    Testament contains it.
+
+    7. That the providence of God is admirable in the preservation of
+    these tenets, amidst the confused multitude of religious opinions,
+    which have prevailed in the world:
+
+    8. That this confusion was foreseen by God:
+
+    9. That he permitted it as a consequence of his gift of free-will
+    to man:
+
+    10. That the inquirer should aggregate himself to that religious
+    communion, which receives the New Testament as its only rule of
+    faith, and does not persecute others:
+
+    11. That episcopacy without tyranny is the most antient form of
+    ecclesiastical government, and most to be desired; but that it is
+    not essential to a Christian church:
+
+    12. That these were the opinions of Grotius:
+
+    13. Finally, that it is greatly to be desired that a belief of no
+    dogma, not explicitly propounded in the New Testament, should be
+    required.
+
+Such is the religious system propounded by Le Clerc.--Does any religious
+communion really profess it?--Many Protestant churches declare, that the
+Bible, and the Bible only, contains their creed: but, do they not all
+mean by this--the Bible, as it is explained by the Articles, the
+Formulary, or the Confession received by their church?
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X. 4.
+
+_Grotius's Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum circa sacra_.--And,
+_Commentatio ad loca quaedam Novi Testamenti, quae de Antichristo agunt,
+aut agere putantur_.
+
+
+Nothing in the life of Grotius places him in a more amiable or
+respectable point of view, than his constant attempts to put Catholics
+and Protestants into good humour with each other, and to put both into
+good humour among themselves.
+
+[Sidenote: X. 4. His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum. &c.]
+
+We have mentioned the _pacific decree of the States of Holland_, which
+ordered the contending communions to tolerate each other. Grotius is
+supposed to have framed this wise decree. The Contra-remonstrants
+attacked it: Grotius reprinted it, with a collection of proofs and
+authorities.
+
+It gave rise to a controversy on the nice question, respecting the
+authority of the temporal power to interfere in the ecclesiastical
+concerns of the state. Grotius adopted, upon this point, the sentiments
+of what is termed in England the Low Church: he seems to have pushed
+them to their utmost bearings. With these sentiments, he published his
+treatise _de Imperio summarum potestatum circa sacra_. It was disliked
+by King James and his bishops: Grotius, in their opinion, gave too much
+authority, in sacred things, to the secular power.
+
+On the work of Grotius, respecting _Anti-christ_, we prefer transcribing
+Burigni's sentiments to delivering our own.
+
+    "This deep study of the Holy Scriptures led Grotius to examine a
+    question, which made much noise at that time. Some Protestant
+    synods had ventured to decide that _the Pope was Antichrist_; and
+    this extravagance, gravely delivered by the ministers, was
+    regarded by the zealous schismatics, as a fundamental truth.
+    Grotius undertook to overturn such an absurd opinion, that stirred
+    up an irreconcileable enmity between the Roman Catholics and the
+    Protestants; and, of consequence, was a very great obstacle to
+    their re-union, which was the sole object of his desires. He
+    entered therefore upon the consideration of the passages of
+    Scripture relating to Antichrist, and employed his Sundays in it.
+
+    [Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
+
+    "It was this work, that raised him up most enemies. We see by the
+    letters he wrote to his brother, that his best friends were afraid
+    lest they should be suspected of having some hand in the
+    publication of the books, in which he treated of Antichrist. 'If
+    you are afraid of incurring ill will, (he writes thus to his
+    brother), you may easily find people that are far from a factious
+    spirit, who will take care of the impression. Nothing has incensed
+    princes against those, who separated from the church of Rome, more
+    than the injurious names, with which the Protestants load their
+    adversaries; and nothing is a greater hindrance to that re-union,
+    which we are all obliged to labour after, in consequence of
+    Christ's precept and the profession we make of our faith in the
+    creed. Perhaps the Turk, who threatens Italy, will force us to it.
+    In order to arrive at it, we must first remove whatever obstructs a
+    mutual quiet hearing. I hope I shall find assistance in this pious
+    design. I shall not cease to labour in it, and shall rejoice to die
+    employed in so good a work.'
+
+    [Sidenote: His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum, &c.]
+
+    "Reigersberg, Blaeu, Vossius himself, however much devoted to
+    Grotius, beheld with concern the printing of this book, because
+    they did not doubt but it would increase the number of his enemies.
+    Grotius informs his brother, of the uneasiness which Vossius gave
+    him on this subject. 'Among those, who wish this work destroyed,'
+    says he, 'I am astonished and grieved to see Vossius. Whence could
+    he have this idea? I imagine somebody has told him, that it would
+    injure the fortune of his children, if he approved of such books;
+    and that, on the contrary, he would find favour by hurting me. We
+    must therefore have recourse to Corcellius or Corvinus.' He
+    elsewhere complains of the too great timidity of this old friend,
+    who at bottom approved of Grotius's sentiments, but durst not own
+    them publicly, because he was not so independent as Grotius.
+
+    [Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
+
+    "The treatise on Anti-christ made much noise among all the declared
+    enemies of the Romish church. Michael Gettichius wrote to Ruarus,
+    that he had only glanced over Grotius's book on Antichrist; but as
+    far as he could judge by the first reading, that learned man, who
+    was possessed of such an excellent genius, and such singular
+    erudition, had no other intention than to engage the learned in a
+    further inquiry concerning Antichrist; and to determine them to
+    attack with greater strength, the Romish Antichrist; or, if he
+    wrote seriously, he wanted to cut out a path for going over,
+    without dishonour, to the Papists. Ruarus answers this letter Dec.
+    16, 1642, from Dantzic. 'I have always (he says) looked on Grotius
+    as a very honest and at the same time a very learned man. I am
+    persuaded that love of peace engaged him in this work. I don't deny
+    but he has gone too far; the love of antiquity perhaps seduced him:
+    no Remonstrant, that I know of, has as yet answered him; but he has
+    been confuted by some learned Calvinists, particularly Desmonets,
+    minister of Bois le duc, who has written against him with much
+    bitterness.'
+
+    "Grotius's work was printed in 1640, with this title: _Commentatio
+    ad loca quaedam Novi Testamenti, quae de Antichristo agunt aut agere
+    putantur:--Expedenda eruditis."_[037]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X.5.
+
+_His Commentary on the Scriptures._
+
+
+[Sidenote: X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures.]
+
+The theological works of Grotius are comprised in four volumes folio:
+the three first contain his Commentary, and Notes upon the Scriptures.
+On their merit, both Catholics and Protestants considerably differ. All
+allow that an abundance of sacred and profane learning is displayed in
+them; and that Grotius, by his references to the writings of the Rabbis,
+and his remarks upon the idiom of the sacred writings, has happily
+elucidated a multitude of passages in the text. He uniformly adopts the
+literal and obvious signification of the language used by the holy
+penmen. In explaining the predictions of the prophets, he maintains that
+they referred to events anterior to the coming of Christ, and were
+accomplished in these; so that the natural and obvious sense of the
+words and phrases, in which they were delivered, does not terminate in
+Christ; yet, that in some of the predictions, those particularly, which
+the writers of the New Testament apply to Christ, there is, _besides_
+the literal and obvious signification, a hidden and mysterious sense,
+which lies concealed under the external mark of certain _persons_,
+certain _events_, and certain _actions_, which are representative of the
+person, the ministry, the sufferings, and the merits of the Son of God.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
+
+It has been objected, that this system leads to Socinianism, and even
+beyond it. All Catholic, and several episcopalian Protestant divines
+object to it; they generally contend, that the sacred writings ought
+always to be understood in that sense _only_, which has been attributed
+to them, by the early fathers.--Against this system, Dr. Whitby
+published his celebrated work "Concerning the Interpretation of
+Scripture after the manner of the Fathers."[038]
+
+[Sidenote: X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures.]
+
+The system of Grotius was defended, to a certain extent, by _Father
+Simon_, the oratorian, the father of the modern biblical school. Against
+both Simon and Grotius, Bossuet wielded his powerful lance,--in his
+"Pastoral Instruction on the Works of Father Simon," and his
+"Dissertations upon Grotius." In these works he says that, during thirty
+years,
+
+    "Grotius searched for truth in good faith, and at last was so near
+    it, that it is wonderful that he did not take the last step, to
+    which God called him. Shocked at Calvin's harsh doctrines, he
+    embraced Arminianism; then, abandoned it. More a lawyer than a
+    theologian, more a polite scholar than a philosopher, he throws the
+    doctrine of the immortality of the soul into obscurity. He
+    endeavours to weaken and steal from the church, her most powerful
+    proofs of the divinity of the Son of God, and strives to darken the
+    prophecies, which announce the arrival of the Messiah."
+
+Bossuet proceeds to particularize some of the principal errors of
+Grotius: Le Clerc replied to the prelate's criticism, by his _Sentimens
+de quelques Theologiens de la Hollande_.--Grotius had also an able
+advocate in Father Simon. His defence of Grotius against the charge of
+_semi-Pelagianism_, in the _Bibliotheque de Sainjore_,[039] appears to
+be satisfactory. He cites the note of Grotius, on the Acts of the
+Apostles, (the celebrated ch. xiii. ver. 38), in which he says expressly
+that he does not exclude preventive grace: this the semi-Pelagians
+denied altogether. But in his defence of Grotius against the charge of
+_Socinianism_, he is not equally successful. Bossuet sent his _Pastoral
+Instruction_, and _Dissertations upon Grotius_, to the bishop of
+Frejus, afterward Cardinal de Fleury: he accompanied them by a letter,
+which closes with these remarkable words:
+
+    "The spirit of incredulity gains ground in the world every day: you
+    have often heard me make this remark. It is now worse than ever, as
+    the Gospel itself is used for the corruption of religion. I thank
+    God that at my age he blesses me with sufficient strength to resist
+    the torrent."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621--1634.]
+
+Dom. Calmet[040] calls Grotius,
+
+    "one of the most able and moderate Protestant writers: one who
+    spreads throughout his notes a pleasing profusion of profane
+    literature, which causes his works to be sought for and read by
+    those, who have taste for that kind of literature. His high
+    reputation, great erudition, and rare modesty," says Dom. Calmet,
+    "render it easy for him to insinuate his particular sentiments
+    respecting the divinity of Christ, against which, his readers
+    should be guarded."
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+X.6.
+
+_Some other Works of Grotius_.
+
+
+1. The first which we shall mention is his history of the _Goths,
+Vandals, and Lombards_, written in the Latin language, and accompanied
+by learned dissertations. He composed it, as a testimony of his
+gratitude to the Swedes, by doing honour to their gothic ancestors. The
+preface has always been admired, for its erudition and sound criticism.
+But the Belgic friends of Grotius accused him of elevating the Swedes at
+their expense.
+
+
+[Sidenote: X. 6. Other Works of Grotius.]
+
+2. A more important work consists of his _Annals, and History of the
+United Provinces_. The Annals begin with the year 1588, when Prince
+Maurice had the greatest influence in the affairs of the United
+Provinces; and concludes with the truce of twelve years, signed between
+them and Spain. The impartiality, with which these works are written,
+has been praised by every writer.
+
+It is to be lamented that Grotius professed to imitate, both in his
+Annals and History, the style of Tacitus. Expressed by his own pen, the
+style of Tacitus is energetic, picturesque, and pleasing; but it is
+impossible to deny its frequent abruptness and obscurity. Generally
+speaking, an imitation of what is defective, contains a larger share,
+than the original, of its distinctive defect. It should however be
+added, that Grotius's own style is short, sententious and broken; and
+possesses nothing of the meliflous ease of the ultramontane Latinists;
+or of our Milton or Buchanan. None of the works of Grotius, which we
+have mentioned in this Article, were published till after his decease.
+
+
+3. It remains to notice the _Letters of Grotius_, published at Amsterdam
+in one volume folio, in 1687.--A multitude of his unpublished letters is
+said to exist in different public and private libraries.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.]
+
+His published letters are an invaluable treasure: they abound with wise
+maxims of sound policy, and curious discussions on points arising on
+Roman or Belgic jurisprudence. Many points of sacred and profane
+learning, and particularly of the civil and canon law, are treated in
+them with equal learning and taste. For the perfect understanding of
+them, the letters of the correspondents of Grotius should be perused:
+they are principally to be found, in the _Praestantium et Eruditorum
+Virorum Epistolae Ecclesiasticae et Theologicae_, published at Amsterdam in
+1684. A critical account of the Letters of Grotius, executed with great
+taste and judgment, is inserted in the first volume of the _Bibliotheque
+Universelle et Historique_.[041]
+
+[Sidenote: X. 6. Other Works of Grotius.]
+
+It is acknowledged that the letters of Grotius, are written in the
+finest latinity, and contain much valuable information; but the point,
+the sprightliness, the genius, the vivid descriptions of men and
+things, which are so profusely scattered over the letters of Erasmus,
+are seldom discoverable in those of Grotius. A man of learning would
+have been gratified beyond measure, by the profound conversations of
+Grotius and Father Petau: but what a treat must it have been, to have
+assisted with one, two, or three good listeners, at the conversations
+between Erasmus and Sir Thomas More!
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER. XI.
+
+GROTIUS.--AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN TO THE COURT OF
+FRANCE.
+
+1634--1645.
+
+
+The embassy of Grotius is connected with an important period in the
+history of the War of Thirty years.
+
+This celebrated war was principally caused by the religious disputes of
+the sixteenth century. Very soon after Luther's first attack on the See
+of Rome, the Reformation was established in Saxony, Livonia, Prussia,
+and Hesse-cassell; in many imperial towns; in Friezland and Holland; in
+several of the Swiss Cantons; in Pomerania, Mecklenburgh, Anhalt;
+Sweden, Denmark, Norway; England, and Scotland. Its progress in Germany
+is particularly connected with the subject of these pages.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius in the Court of France.]
+
+At the diet of Augsburgh, in 1530, the Protestant princes of Germany
+delivered to the emperor their Confession of Faith; they afterwards, at
+Smalcald, entered into an offensive and defensive league against the
+emperor. Being sensible that they were unable to resist him, they
+engaged the French monarch in their cause. At first, the emperor was
+victorious; but a new league was formed. France then took a more active
+part in favour of the confederates, and the contest ended in the peace
+of Passau, in 1552, there the two parties, for the first time, treated
+as equals, and the free exercise of the Lutheran religion was allowed.
+Things remained quiet during the reigns of Ferdinand the First and
+Maximilian the Second; but, in consequence of the disputes, which arose
+on the succession to the dutchies of Cleves and Juliers, the religious
+differences broke out with fresh animosity:--the Protestant princes
+formed a confederacy called the _Evangelical Union_, and placed, at its
+head, the Elector Palatine; the Catholics formed a confederacy called
+the _Catholic League_, and placed, at its head, the Duke of Bavaria. In
+the year 1618, they burst into open war; every state in Europe, and even
+the Ottoman princes, at one time or other, took a part in it. France was
+the soul of the Protestant cause; she assisted it with her armies, and
+her subsidies:--it may be truly said, that, if there be a Protestant
+state from the Vistula to the Rhine, or a Mahometan, state between the
+Danube and the Mediterranean, its existence is owing to the Bourbon
+monarchs. From the period of its duration, it has been called the WAR
+OF THIRTY YEARS: it is divided, by its _Palatine, Danish, Swedish,_ and
+_French_ periods.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
+
+1. Frederick, the fifth _Elector Palatine_ of that name, being elected
+King of Bohemia, by the states of that kingdom, made war on the emperor
+Ferdinand the Second. Being defeated in 1620, at the battle of Prague,
+and abandoned by his allies, he was driven from Bohemia, and deprived of
+his other states.
+
+2. Christian the Fourth of _Denmark_, then placed himself at the head of
+the confederacy against the emperor; but, having in 1626, lost the
+battle of Lutter, in which Tilly commanded the Austrian forces; he
+signed, three years after that event, a separate peace with the emperor.
+
+In the following year, Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, was placed at
+the head of the confederacy. Their cause appeared desperate: Walstein,
+the Austrian general, had been uniformly successful, and almost the
+whole of Germany had submitted to the emperor: but the Austrians soon
+experienced a severe reverse of fortune.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
+
+3. Lewis XIII filled at that time, the throne of France; his councils
+were guided by Cardinal Richelieu, one of the ablest statesmen that has
+appeared upon the theatre of the world. Vast, but provident in his
+designs; daring, but considerate in his operations; capable of the
+largest views and the most minute attentions; he formed three immense
+projects, and succeeded in all.
+
+"When your Majesty," he thus addresses the monarch in his celebrated
+_Testament Politique_, "resolved at the same time to admit me into your
+councils, and to give me a great portion of your confidence, I can say
+with truth that the Hugonots divided the state with you; that the great,
+conducted themselves, as if they were not your subjects, and the
+governors of the provinces, as if they were the sovereigns of them; and
+that France was contemned by her foreign allies."
+
+To reduce the Hugonots, to lower the nobility, to elevate France to be
+the preponderating power in Europe, were the three objects, which the
+Cardinal proposed to himself. In each, he had difficulties to encounter,
+which extraordinary talents only could surmount. By a strict
+administration of justice, and severely punishing, without respect to
+rank or connections, those, who engaged in treasonable practices, he
+completely subdued the towering spirit of the nobility; by victorious
+armies and a vigorous dispensation of the laws, he reduced the Hugonots;
+and, by calling forth all the energies of his country, and arraying
+half the Continent against Austria and Spain, he gave to France an
+almost irresistible ascendant in the concerns of Europe.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI 1634-1645.]
+
+To the last only of these three designs our present subject leads us.
+
+_Sweden_ had long been engaged in a war against Denmark, and highly
+dissatisfied with Austria. By the persuasion of Richelieu, she made
+peace with the Danes, and entered into an offensive and defensive
+alliance with France. In consequence of it, Gustavus Adolphus was placed
+at the head of the Protestant confederacy: a large army of Swedes
+entered Germany; Gustavus was invested with the command of the
+confederate forces, and his brilliant campaigns turned the tide of
+success in their favour. At Lutzen he obtained a complete victory, but
+lost his life.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
+
+After the death of Gustavus, the States assembled, and the Mareschal of
+the Diet proposed, that the celebrated Christina, the only child of
+Gustavus, then an infant of very tender years, should be crowned: the
+Mareschal carried her in his arms into the midst of the assembly. On
+observing her, all were struck with her likeness to her father. "Yes!"
+they cried, "it is she herself! she has the eyes, the nose and the
+forehead of Gustavus! We will have her for our queen!" She was
+immediately seated on the throne, and proclaimed queen. The regency of
+the kingdom, during the minority of Christina, was conferred on the
+Chancellor Oxenstiern: he had been the confidential minister and friend
+of Gustavus, and shewed through life that he deserved that confidence,
+by his wisdom, eminent talents, and spotless integrity. Both the monarch
+and his minister entertained a high opinion of the abilities and virtue
+of Grotius: His treatise _De Jure Belli et Pacis_ was found, after the
+death of Gustavus, in the royal tent.
+
+4. Not long after the disastrous victory of the Swedes at Lutzen, the
+Austrian and confederate armies conflicted at Nordlingen, in one of the
+most obstinate and bloody battles recorded in history: the confederates
+were completely defeated. The blame was thrown on the Swedes; they were
+deserted by almost all their Protestant allies, and the weight of the
+war devolved almost entirely upon the Swedes and _the French_. Till this
+time, they had acted and negociated on an equality: the loss of this
+battle made the Swedes dependent upon France, and the haughty genius of
+Richelieu made them severely feel it.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
+
+The first object of Oxenstiern was to renew the treaty with France: a
+skilful negociator on the part of Sweden was necessary. Oxenstiern
+fixed his eye upon Grotius: the penetrating minister had several
+conversations with him. The embassy to France was certainly the most
+important commission, with which a minister from Sweden could be
+charged: Oxenstiern's appointment of Grotius to it, demonstrated the
+minister's high opinion of him. Some time in July 1634, he declared
+Grotius councillor to the Queen of Sweden, and her ambassador to the
+court of France. Grotius made his public entry into Paris on Friday the
+2d of March 1635. Nothing of the customary ceremonial or compliment was
+omitted in his regard, by the court of France.
+
+Unfortunately for the success of the embassy of Grotius, two envoys from
+some of the Protestant states in Germany had previously signed a treaty
+with France, which was generally considered by the confederates to be
+injurious to their interests.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
+
+The first interview of Grotius with the Cardinal took place on the 28th
+March. During their conference, a dispatch arrived from Oxenstiern to
+Grotius: it was immediately put into his bands, by the Cardinal's
+desire. It announced a resolution, taken by the Chancellor, to repair to
+Paris, and that he was actually on his journey thither. Richelieu was
+displeased: but he determined to give the chancellor the most
+honourable and flattering reception. On the 21st of April, Grotius met
+Oxenstiern at Soissons: they proceeded together to Paris. Conferences
+between the Cardinal and the Chancellor immediately took place. The
+matter in discussion between the courts were soon arranged: France
+undertook to declare war against the emperor, to subsidize Sweden, and
+to send an army to co-operate with her forces in Germany. It has always
+been considered highly creditable to the firmness and talents of
+Oxenstiern, that, in the reduced condition of the Swedes, he could
+obtain for them such advantageous terms. Immediately after the treaty
+was signed, the Chancellor quitted France. During his stay, he shewed a
+marked attention to Grotius, and expressed unqualified approbation of
+his conduct and views.
+
+The arms of Sweden again triumphed. In Pomerania, General Bannier
+obtained important advantages over the imperialists; in Alsace, the arms
+of the Duke of Saxe-Weimar were equally successful. In the following
+year, the two victorious generals carried their arms into the heart of
+the Austrian territories, and, were almost uniformly successful.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
+
+But it is foreign to these pages to dwell further on the military
+achievements or political intrigues of the times of which we are
+speaking. Humanity shudders at the perusal of the events of this war.
+Through the whole of its long period, Germany was a scene of
+devastation. In its northern and central parts, the ravages of advancing
+and retreating armies were repeatedly experienced in their utmost
+horrors: many of its finest towns were destroyed; whole villages
+depopulated; large territories laid waste. Frequently the women, the
+children, and the aged, naked, pale, and disfigured, were seen wandering
+over the fields, supporting themselves by the leaves of trees, by wild
+roots, and even grass. The war extended itself into Lorraine: an
+affecting account of the calamities, which it produced in that beautiful
+province, was published by Father Caussin, who accompanied Lewis XIII
+into it, as his confessor.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
+
+Struck with the scene of woe, St. Vincent of Paul, an humble missionary
+priest, who, at that time, resided at Paris, requested an audience of
+Cardinal de Richelieu. Being admitted, he represented to his eminence,
+with respect, but with firmness, the misery of the people, the sins, and
+all the other enormities, which are the usual consequences of war: he
+then fell upon his knees, and in a voice, equally animated by grief and
+charity, "Sir!" he said to the Cardinal "have mercy upon us! Have
+compassion upon the world! Give us peace!" The stern and vindictive
+genius of the Cardinal sunk before the man of God. He raised Vincent
+from the ground. He told him, with much apparent benignity, that "the
+general pacification of Europe was his great object, but that
+unfortunately it did not depend on him alone; there being, both within
+and without the kingdom, those who sought the contrary, and prevented
+peace." Few ministers have shewn greater ability, or produced greater
+public or private misery, than Richelieu. It may, on the other hand, be
+doubted, whether, at the day of general retribution, when every child of
+Adam will have to account for his works, even one will appear with more
+numerous deeds of useful and heroic charity than St. Vincent of
+Paul.[042]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
+
+The affairs of the important embassy entrusted to Grotius, prospered in
+his hands. In his conduct, there was an uniform assemblage of prudence,
+activity, moderation, and firmness. To the French monarch, he was always
+acceptable--not always so to the cardinal minister. It was the constant
+object of the latter, to delay the payments of the subsidies promised
+to Sweden, or to make deductions from them; and to lessen the number of
+soldiers, which France was bound, by treaty to supply. Sometimes by
+blandishments, sometimes by loftiness, the minister or his agents
+endeavoured to induce Grotius to sanction these irregularities: but
+Grotius was always true to the interests of the country which he
+represented: it does not appear, that the Cardinal gained a single point
+against him. Towards the close of his embassy, Grotius succeeded in
+renewing the treaty between Sweden and France, on terms which were
+considered to do great honour to his diplomatic talents.
+
+In the discharge of his embassy, Grotius had to sustain other
+unpleasantnesses. His pension was not regularly paid: this often
+subjected him to great inconveniences. He had disputes respecting rank
+and ceremonial, both with the French ministry and the ambassadors of
+other states. It must surprise an English reader to find, that Grotius
+questioned the right of the English ambassador to precedence over him:
+the French court often played one ambassador, against the other.
+
+[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.]
+
+In the midst of these troubles, Grotius preserved the serenity of his
+mind; and his attachment to sacred and profane literature. He cultivated
+the acquaintance of the learned and the good, of every communion; and
+possessed their esteem and regard. His conduct as ambassador was always
+approved by the Chancellor Oxenstiern, while he lived, and after his
+decease, by his son and successor in his office. The Queen of Sweden was
+equally favourable to Grotius; but she unadvisedly took an adventurer
+into her confidence, and sent him, in an ambiguous character, to Paris.
+This disgusted Grotius: and age and infirmities now thickened upon him.
+He applied to the Queen for his recall. She granted it in the most
+flattering terms, and desired him to repair immediately to Stockholm, to
+receive, from her, distinguished marks of her favour. She wrote to the
+Queen of France, a letter, in which she expressed herself in a manner
+highly honourable to Grotius: she acknowledged her obligations to him
+and protested that she never would forget them. This was towards the
+month of March 1645.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.]
+
+About three years after this event, the war of thirty years was
+concluded by the peace of Westphalia. France and the Protestant princes
+of Europe dictated the terms: the Swedes were indemnified for their
+charges of the war, by Pomerania, Steten, Rugen, Wismar and Verden: the
+house of Brandenburgh obtained Magdeburgh, Halberstad, Minden and Camin;
+Alsace was conquered, and retained by France; Lusatia, was ceded to
+Saxony. The history of the treaty of Westphalia has been ably written by
+_Father Bougeant_, a French Jesuit: some critics have pronounced it the
+best historical work in the French language. Till the late revolution of
+France, it was the breviary of all French aspirants to political
+distinction.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS OF GROTIUS:--SOME OTHER OF HIS WORKS.
+
+1. _Subsequent History of Arminianism_. 2. _Grotius's Religious
+Sentiments_. 3. _His Projects of Religious Pacification_.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XII. 1.
+
+_Subsequent History of Arminianism._
+
+
+We left the Arminians under the iron arm of Prince Maurice:--He died in
+1625:--We have mentioned, that Prince Frederick-Henry his brother, and
+successor in the Stadtholderate, adopted more moderate councils in their
+regard; that he recalled the Remonstrants, with some exceptions, from
+banishment; that many settled at Amsterdam and Rotterdam; and that the
+Arminians founded a college in the former city:--_Episcopius_ was its
+first professor of theology:--it has never been without teachers, of
+eminence for learning, as Courcelles, Pollemberg, Limborch, Le Clerc,
+Cottemburgh, and Wetstein.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+It should be added, that the authority of the Synod of Dort insensibly
+declined:--its authority was never formally acknowledged by the provinces
+of _Friesland_, _Zealand_, _Utrecht_, _Gueldreland_ and
+_Groeningen_: In 1651, they were induced to intimate that they would see
+with pleasure, the reformed religion maintained upon the footing, upon
+which it had been maintained and confirmed by the Synod of Dort; but
+this intimation was never considered to have the force of a legislative
+enactment.[043]
+
+[Sidenote: XII.1. History of Arminianism.]
+
+The theological system of the Arminians, after their return to Holland,
+underwent, if we credit Dr. Mosheim,[044] a remarkable change. They
+appear, by his account, to have almost coincided with those, who exclude
+the necessity of divine grace in the work of conversion and
+sanctification; and think that Christ demands from men, rather virtue
+than faith; and has confined that belief, which is essential for
+salvation, to very few articles. Thus the modern Arminians, according
+to Dr. Mosheim, admit into their communion,--1st. All, with an exception
+of Catholics, who receive the holy scriptures; and more especially the
+New Testament; allowing at the same time to every individual, his own
+interpretation of the sacred books:--2dly. All whose lives are regulated
+by the law of God:--3dly. And all, who neither persecute nor bear ill
+will towards those who differ from them in their religious sentiments.
+Their _Confession of Faith_ was drawn up by Episcopius in 1622: four
+divines of the established church of Holland published a _Refutation_ of
+it: the authors of the _Confession_ replied to it in the following year,
+by their _Apology_.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+James I. of England directed his theological representatives in the
+Synod of Dort, to join the members in the condemnation of the doctrines
+of Arminius:--but, when the English divines returned from that assembly,
+and gave a full account of its proceedings, the King and the greatest
+part of the English clergy expressed their dissatisfaction with them,
+and declared that the sentiments of Arminius on the divine decrees, was
+preferable to those of Calvin and Gomarus. By the exertions of
+Archbishop Laud, and afterwards, in consequence of the general tendency
+of the public mind to doctrines of mildness and comprehension, an
+Arminian construction of the English articles on predestination and
+free-will was adopted:--it has since prevailed,--and the Arminian creed,
+by the number of its secret or open adherents, has insensibly found
+admittance into every Protestant church.
+
+[Sidenote: History of Arminianism.]
+
+If we believe the celebrated Jurieu[045], Arminianism even in its
+Socinian form, abounded, in less than a century, after the death of
+Arminius, in the United Provinces, and among the Hugonots of the
+adjacent part of France. By his account, the dispersion of the French
+Hugonots, in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
+revealed to the terrified reformers of the original school, the alarming
+secret of the preponderance of Socinianism in the reformed church. Its
+members, according to Jurieu, being no longer under the controul of the
+civil power, spread their Socinian principles every where, with the
+utmost activity and success: even in England, Jurieu professed to
+discover the effect of their exertions. He mentions that in 1698,
+thirty-four French refugee ministers residing in London addressed a
+letter to the synod, then sitting at Amsterdam, in which they declared,
+that Socinianism had spread so rapidly, that, if the ecclesiastical
+assemblies supplied no means for checking their growth, or used
+palliatives only, the mischief would be incurable.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+This charge, however, the Arminians have indignantly rejected. A writer
+in the _Bibliotheque Germanique_[046] relates, that
+
+    "the celebrated Anthony Collins called on M. Le Clerc of Amsterdam:
+    He was accompanied by some Frenchmen, of the fraternity of those,
+    who think freely. They expected to find the religious opinions of
+    Le Clerc in unison with their own, but, they were surprised to find
+    the strong stand which he made in favour of revelation. He proved
+    to them, with great strength of argument, the truth of the
+    Christian religion. Jesus Christ, he told them, was born among the
+    Jews; still, it was not the Jewish religion which he taught;
+    neither was it the religion of the Pagan neighbourhood; but, a
+    religion infinitely superior to both. One sees in it the most
+    striking marks of divinity. The Christians, who followed, were
+    incapable of imagining any thing so beautiful. Add to this, that
+    the Christian religion is so excellently calculated for the good of
+    society, that, if we did not derive so great a present from heaven,
+    the good and safety of men would absolutely demand from them an
+    equivalent."
+
+Throughout the conversation, M. Le Clerc reproached the Deists strongly,
+for the hatred, which they shewed to Christianity. He proved, that, by
+banishing it from the world,
+
+    "they would overturn whatever was most holy and respectable among
+    men; break asunder the surest bonds of humanity; teach men to shake
+    off the yoke of law; deprive them of their strongest incitement to
+    virtue, and bereave them of their best comfort. What," (he asked
+    them) "do you substitute in its place? Can you flatter yourself,
+    that you will discover something better? You expect, no doubt, that
+    men will erect statues to you, for your exertions to deprive them
+    of their religion! Permit me to tell you, that the part you act
+    makes you odious and despicable in the eyes of all honest men."
+
+He finished the conversation by requesting Mr. Collins to bring him no
+more such visitors.
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 1. History of Arminians.]
+
+From the close of the 17th century, till the present time, Arminianism
+has been continually on the increase. It is a just observation of Mr.
+Gibbon, that "the disciples of Arminius must not be computed by their
+separate congregations."
+
+Doctor Maclaine says, it is certain, that the most eminent philosophers
+have been found among the Arminians. "If both Arminians and Calvinists,"
+says Mr. Evans, in the excellent work we have cited,
+
+    "claim a _King_ (_James_ I.), it is certain that the latter alone
+    can boast of a _Newton_, a _Locke_, a _Clarke_, or a _Boyle_.
+    Archbishop _Usher_ is said to have lived a _Calvinist_; and died an
+    _Arminian_. The members of the episcopal church in Scotland; the
+    Moravians, the general Baptists, the Wesleyan Methodists, the
+    Quakers or Friends, are Arminians; and it is supposed that a great
+    proportion of the Kirk of Scotland teach the doctrines of Arminius,
+    though they have a Calvinistic confession of faith. What a pity it
+    is that the opinions either of Calvinists or Arminians,"
+
+--(we beg leave to add: or any other Catholic or Protestant opinions
+whatsoever)--
+
+    "cannot in the eyes of some persons be held without a diminution of
+    Christian charity!"
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XII. 2.
+
+_Grotius's Religious Sentiments_.
+
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+To the milder form of Arminianism, Grotius always inclined. During his
+embassy in France, he adopted it without reserve. He was soon disgusted
+with the French Calvinists. The ministers of Charenton accepted the
+decisions of the Synod of Dort, and, in conformity with them, refused,
+when Grotius repaired to Paris, after his escape from Louvestein, to
+admit him into their communion. On his arrival at Paris, in quality of
+ambassador, they offered to receive him: Grotius expressed pleasure at
+the proposal; and, intimated to them, that if he should go into any
+country, in which the Lutherans, knowing his sentiments on the sacrament
+of our Lord's Supper, should be willing to receive him into their
+communion, he would make no difficulty in joining them. Thus every thing
+appeared to be settled; but the ministers then objected to receive
+Grotius as ambassador from Sweden, because that kingdom was Lutheran.
+Grotius, upon this, resolved to have the divine service performed in his
+house. Lutherans publicly attended it. "We have celebrated," he writes
+to his brother, "the Feast of the Nativity in my house: the Duke of
+Wirtemberg, the Count de Saxenburgh, and several Swedish and German
+lords, attended at it." His first chaplain was imprudent, his second
+gave him great satisfaction.
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 2. Grotius' Religious Sentiments.]
+
+Burigni has collected, in the last chapter of his Life of Grotius, a
+multitude of passages, which shew his gradual leaning to the Roman
+Catholic faith. He produces several passages from his works, which
+prove,--
+
+_That_ he paid high regard to decisions of the councils, and the
+discipline of the primitive church; and thought the sentiments of the
+antient church should be deferred to, in the explanation of the
+Scriptures: [047]
+
+_That_, the early reformers were held by him in no great esteem:[048]
+
+_That_, mentioning Casaubon's sentiments, Grotius said that this learned
+man thought the Roman Catholics of France better informed than those of
+other countries, and came nearer to truth than the ministers of
+Charenton:--
+
+    "It cannot," says Grotius, "be denied, that there are several Roman
+    Catholic pastors here, who teach true religion, without any mixture
+    of superstition; it were to be wished that all did the same:"[049]
+
+_That_ the Calvinists were schismatics, and had no mission:[050]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+_That_ the Jesuits were learned men and good subjects. "I know many of
+them," he says, in one of his writings against Rivetus, "who are very
+desirous to see abuses abolished, and the church restored to its
+primitive unity."--We shall hereafter see that Father Petau, an
+illustrious member of the society, possessed the confidence of
+Grotius:[051]
+
+_That_, Grotius looked upon the abolition of episcopacy and of a visible
+head of the church, as something very monstrous:[052]
+
+_That_, he acknowledged that some change was made in the eucharistic
+bread; that, when Jesus Christ, being sacramentally present, favours us
+with his substance,--as the Council of Trent expresses its doctrine on
+the Eucharist,--the appearances of bread and wine remain, and in their
+place succeed the body and blood of Christ: [053]
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 2. Grotius's Religious Sentiments.]
+
+_That_, Grotius did not approve of the sentiments of the Calvinists
+concerning the Eucharist, and reproached them with their contradiction.
+
+    "You will hear them state in their confessions," says Grotius,
+    "that they really, substantially and essentially partake of
+    Christ's body and his blood; but, in their disputes, they maintain
+    that Christ is received only spiritually, by faith. The antients
+    go much further: they admit a real incorporation of Jesus Christ
+    with us, and the reality of Christ's body, as Saint Hilarius
+    speaks."
+
+It must however be remarked that, although Grotius thought that the term
+_Transubstantiation_ adopted by the council of Trent, was capable of a
+good interpretation, it is not clear, what was his precise opinion
+respecting the Eucharist. He proposed the following formulary:
+
+    "We believe that, in the use of the supper, we truly, really, and
+    substantially,--that is to say,--in its proper substance,--receive
+    the true body and the true blood of Jesus Christ, in a spiritual
+    and ineffable manner: [054]"
+
+_That_, Grotius justified the decision of the Council of Trent,
+concerning the number of the sacraments:[055]
+
+_That_, after the year 1640, he took no offence at the use of images in
+churches, or at prayers for the dead:[056]
+
+_That_, he thought the bishops of Rome may be in error, but cannot long
+remain in it, if they adhere to the universal church;--this seems to
+presuppose the church's infallibility:[057]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+_That_ in the opinion of Grotius; fasting was early used in the church;
+the observance of Lent was a very early practice: the sign of the cross
+had something respectable in it; the fathers held virginity a more
+perfect state than marriage; and the celibacy of the priests conformable
+to the antient discipline of the church:[058]
+
+And
+
+    "that those, who shall read the decrees of the Council of Trent,
+    with a mind disposed to peace, will find that every thing is wisely
+    explained in them: and agreeable to what is taught by the
+    Scriptures and the antient fathers."[059]
+
+It is certain, that Grotius was intimate with Father Petau, a Jesuit,
+inferior to none of his society, in genius and learning; that the good
+father used all his endeavours to convert Grotius to the Roman Catholic
+religion; and was, at length, so much persuaded of his friend's
+catholicity, that, when he heard of his death, he said prayers for the
+repose of his soul.[060]
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+As the religion of Grotius was a problem to many, Menage wrote the
+following Epigram upon it: the sense of it is, that--
+
+    "As many sects claimed the religion of Grotius, as the towns, which
+    contended for the birth of Homer."
+
+        _Smyrna, Rhodos, Colophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos, Athenae,
+          Siderei certant vatis de patria Homeri:
+        Grotiadae certant de religione, Socinus,
+          Arrius, Arminius, Calvinus, Roma, Lutherus_.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XII. 3.
+
+_Grotius's Project of Religious Pacification._
+
+
+A wish for religious peace among Christians grew with the growth and
+strengthened with the strength of Grotius. It was known, before his
+imprisonment at Louvestein, that he entertained these sentiments: he
+avows them in the dedication to Lewis XIII. of his treatise _de Jure
+Belli et Pacis_.
+
+    "I shall never cease," he says in a letter to his brother,[061] "to
+    use my utmost endeavours for establishing peace among Christians;
+    And, if I should not succeed, it will be honourable to die in such
+    an enterprise." "I am not the only one, who has conceived such
+    projects," he writes in another letter to his brother:[062]
+    "Erasmus, Cassander; Wicelius and Casaubon had the same design. La
+    Meletiere is employed at present in it. Cardinal de Richelieu
+    declares that he will protect the coalition; and he is such a
+    fortunate man, that he never undertakes any thing, in which he
+    does not succeed. If there were no hopes of success at present,
+    ought we not to sow the seed, which may he useful to
+    posterity?[063] Even if we should only diminish the mutual hatred
+    among Christians, and render them more sociable, would not this be
+    worth purchasing at the price of some labour and reproaches?"[064]
+
+Grotius expressed himself in similar terms to Baron Oxenstiern: Surely
+it is the true language of the Gospel.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+In the first appendix to this work,--we shall insert, an account
+
+    "of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith, and Symbolic Books, of
+    the Roman Catholic, Greek, and principal Protestant churches:"--
+
+In the second appendix,--we shall insert an account of the principal
+attempts made, since the Reformation, for the re-union of
+Christians.--The former is abridged from the "Historical and Literary
+Account of the Confessions of Faith," which was formerly published by
+the present writer;--the second is an essay appended to that work:--both
+have been before referred to in the present publication.
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+Grotius[065] thought that the most compendious way to produce universal
+religious peace among Christians, would be to frame, with the
+concurrence of all the orthodox Eastern and Western churches, a
+formulary which should express, briefly and explicitly, all the articles
+of faith, the belief of which they agree in thinking essential to
+salvation. In a letter addressed from Paris in 1625,[066] he mentions
+that Gustavus Adolphus had entertained projects of religious
+pacification, and had taken measures to effect it; that he had procured
+a meeting of divines of the Lutheran and Reformed churches and that they
+had separated amicably: Grotius says that the differences between them
+were as slight as those between the Greek and Coptic churches.
+
+For some time, Grotius flattered himself that he should succeed in his
+project of pacification. In one of his letters to his brother, he
+mentions distinguished Protestants, who approved and encouraged them
+
+    "I perceive," he says, "that by conversing with men of the most
+    learning among the reformed, and explaining my sentiments to them,
+    they are of my opinion; and that their number will increase, if my
+    treatises are dispersed. I can truly affirm, that I have said
+    nothing in them from party spirit, but followed truth as closely as
+    I could."[067]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+He imagined that some Catholics entered into his views.
+
+    "The ablest men among the Catholics," he thus writes to his
+    brother, "think that what I have published is written with great
+    freedom and moderation, and approve of it."[068]
+
+These pacific projects of Grotius cemented the union between him and
+Father Petau.
+
+    "I had," says that most learned Jesuit, in his 12th Letter, "a
+    great desire to see and converse with Grotius. We have been long
+    together, and very intimate. He is, as far as I can judge, a good
+    man, and possesses great candour. I do not think him far from
+    becoming a Catholic, after the example of Holstenius as you hoped.
+    I shall neglect nothing in my power to reconcile him to Christ, and
+    put him in the way of salvation."[069]
+
+[Sidenote: His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+As Grotius lays so much stress on the pacific labours of Erasmus,
+Wicelius, Cassander and Casaubon, we shall briefly mention, in the
+present chapter, the labours of the three first: Casaubon's we shall
+notice, in the second appendix to this work.
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] It appears that _Erasmus_ had it in
+contemplation to compose three dialogues, upon the important subject of
+religious pacification: the speakers were to have been Luther, under the
+name of Thrasimacus, and a Catholic divine, under that of Eubolus. In
+the first dialogue, they were to have discussed the proper methods of
+terminating the religious controversies of the times; in the second, to
+have investigated what were the points in controversy, the belief of
+which was essential to a member of the church of Christ; in the third,
+they were to have inquired what were the best means to procure a good
+understanding between the contending parties, and to effect their union.
+It is to be lamented that Erasmus did not execute his design. His
+general sentiments appear in his _Paraphrase upon the 83d Psalm_; they
+are expressed with great wisdom and moderation.[071]
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+_Wicelius_,--who is next mentioned by Grotius, had been professed in a
+religious order: had quitted it, and embraced Lutheranism: he afterwards
+forsook that communion, and returned to the Catholic: upon this, he was
+appointed to a curacy; and, in the discharge of his functions, obtained
+general esteem: he was much regarded by the Emperors Ferdinand and
+Maximilian. In 1537, he published at Leipsic a Latin work, "On the
+method of procuring Religious Concord,--_Methodus Concordiae
+Ecclesiasticae_." He addressed it to the pope, to all sovereigns,
+bishops, doctors, and generally to all christians, exhorting them to
+peace, and to desist from contention. He assumed in it, that the true
+religion had been preserved in the Catholic church; but he allows that
+modern doctors had involved it in numerous scholastic subtleties,
+unknown to antiquity. He complains that on one hand the reformers left
+nothing untouched; that, on the other, the scholastics would retain
+every abuse, and every superfluity: Wisdom, he thought, lay between
+them; the reformers should have respected what antiquity consecrated;
+the Catholics should have abandoned modern doctrines and modern
+practices to the discretion of individuals.
+
+The "Royal Road," or _Via Regia_ of Wicelius, a still more important
+work, was published by him at Helmstadt in 1537. Both works were
+approved, and the perusal of them warmly recommended, by the emperors:
+they have been often reprinted; they are inserted, with a life of their
+author, in the second volume of _Brown's Fasciculus_.
+
+    "If all the divines of those times," says Father Simon the
+    oratorian,[073] "had possessed the same spirit as Wicelius, the
+    affairs of religion might have taken a different turn."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+[Sidenote: XII.3. His Project of Religious Pacification]
+
+_Cassander_, another peacemaker, mentioned with praise by Grotius, is
+the subject of a long and interesting article in _Dupin's Ecclesiastical
+History_:[074]
+
+    "He was," says Dupin, "solidly learned; and thoroughly versed in
+    ecclesiastical antiquity and the controversies of his own times.
+    The flaming zeal, which he had for the re-union and peace of the
+    church, made him yield much to the Protestants, and led him to
+    advance some propositions that were too bold. But he always kept in
+    the communion of the Catholic church. He declared that he submitted
+    to its judgments, and openly condemned the authors of the schism
+    and their principal errors. He was a gentle, humble and moderate
+    man; patient under afflictions, and entirely disinterested. In his
+    disputes, he never returned injury for injury; and neither in his
+    manners nor in his writings were presumption or arrogance ever
+    discoverable. He avoided glory, honor, or wealth; and lived private
+    and retired, having no other thought or wish, but to promote the
+    peace of the church; no employment, but study; no business, but to
+    compose books, which might be profitable to the public; and no
+    passion, but knowing and teaching the truth."
+
+His character procured him universal respect. The emperor and several
+Catholic princes in Germany fixed upon him as a mediator in the
+religious disputes, by which the empire was, at that time, agitated. In
+conformity with their views he published his celebrated, "_Consultatio
+de Articulis Religionis inter Catholicos et Protestantes Controversis_."
+
+    "In this work," says Mr. Chalmers, "he discusses the several
+    articles of the Augsburgh Confession, stating their difference from
+    the doctrines of the Catholic church, and the concessions that
+    might safely be made in respect to them. This work was written with
+    great liberality, was much applauded by those, who were desirous of
+    a coalition: they were too soon convinced that every attempt of
+    this kind was nugatory. Cassander presented it to the Emperors
+    Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. They received it favourably; the
+    former invited Cassander to Vienna, but his infirmities prevented
+    his accepting the offer."
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.]
+
+In 1542, Grotius published his "_Road to Religious Peace,--Via ad Pacem
+Ecclesiasticam_:" he inserted in it Cassander's "_Consultation_," and
+accompanied it with notes.
+
+All pacific persons reverenced Grotius, and still reverence his memory,
+for his attempts to restore the religious peace of Christendom: all the
+violent condemned him, and opposed his projects. The contradictions,
+which he met with, chagrined him; so that he sometimes lost that
+tranquillity of mind, which he had possessed in his deepest adversity.
+But, to use his own words, he looked to the blessed Peacemaker for his
+reward, and trusted that posterity would do justice to its intentions.--
+
+    "Perhaps, by writing to reconcile such as entertain very opposite
+    sentiments, I shall," says Grotius, "offend both parties: but, if
+    that should so happen, I shall comfort myself with the example of
+    him, who said, If I please men, I am not the servant of Christ."
+
+[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.]
+
+    "Grotius," says Burigni, "content with gratifying his pacific
+    desires, expected his reward from posterity. This he clearly
+    intimates in the following verses, written by him on the subject:
+
+        "_Accipe, sed placide, quae, si non optimo, certe
+          Espressit nobis non mala pacis amor.
+        Et tibi dic, nostro labor hic si displicet avo,
+          A gratia pretium posteritate feret_."
+
+The projects of religious pacification did not cease with Grotius:
+several divines of distinction adopted it; and attempted, some with more
+prudence and ability than others, to carry it into effect. The principal
+of these are noticed in the second appendix to the present work. None
+succeeded: One description of persons, who engaged in this design, was
+denominated _Syncretists_, or _Calixtines_, from _George Calixtus_ their
+leader: the other, from their calling men from controversy to holiness
+of life, received the appellation of _Pietists_: A third party,--perhaps
+we may style them, the _Ultra-orthodox_,--more hostile to the former
+than to the latter--arose in opposition to both, and accused them of
+sacrificing the doctrines of faith to a mistaken zeal for union and
+sanctity.[075]
+
+It is certain[076] that the friends of union too often erred in
+this,--that they aimed rather at an uniformity of _terms_ than of
+_sentiments_; and thus seemed satisfied, when they engaged the
+contending parties to use the same _words and phrases_, though their
+_real difference_ in opinion remained the same. This could not be
+justified: it tended evidently to extinguish truth and honour, and to
+introduce equivocation.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+THE DEATH OF GROTIUS.
+
+1645
+
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XIII. 1645.]
+
+Every thing respecting the recall of Grotius being settled, he embarked
+at Dieppe for Holland. He was extremely well received at Amsterdam and
+Rotterdam: the constituted authorities, of the former city fitted a
+vessel, which was to take him to Hamburgh: there, after along and
+harassing journey, he arrived on the 16th of May. From Hamburgh he
+proceeded to Luebec: the magistrates of that city gave him an honourable
+reception. He proceeded to Wismar; where Count Wismar, the admiral of
+the Swedish fleet, gave him a splendid entertainment, and afterwards
+sent him in a man-of-war to Colmar: thence, he went by land to
+Stockholm. When he arrived there, Queen Christina was at Upsal; but,
+hearing that Grotius was at Stockholm, she returned to that city to meet
+him. On the day after her arrival, she favoured him with a long
+audience: she expressed to him great satisfaction at his conduct, and
+made him large promises. These audiences were often repeated; and once
+she permitted him to have the honour of dining with her. She assured
+him, that if he would continue in her service, as Councillor of State,
+and bring his family into Sweden, he should have no reason to complain
+of her. But Grotius was anxious to leave Sweden; and his passport being
+delayed, he resolved to quit it without one, and actually proceeded to a
+seaport about seven leagues distant from Stockholm. The Queen, being
+informed of his departure, sent a gentleman to inform him, that she
+wished to see him once more. On this invitation he returned to
+Stockholm, and was immediately admitted into the Queen's presence; he
+then explained to her his reasons for wishing to quit Sweden. The Queen
+appeared to be satisfied with them: she made him a present in money of
+twelve or thirteen thousand Swedish imperials, of the value of about ten
+thousand French crowns; she added to the present, some plate, the
+finishing of which had, she told him, been the only cause of the delay
+of his passport. She then put it into his hands, and a vessel was
+appointed to carry him to Luebec. On the 12th August he embarked for that
+city.
+
+[Sidenote: The Death of Grotius.]
+
+What were his real motives for refusing Christina's offers, or in what
+place he ultimately intended to fix himself, is not known.
+
+The vessel in which he embarked had scarcely sailed from Luebec, when it
+was overtaken by a violent storm, and obliged, on the 17th August, to
+take shelter in a port fourteen miles distant from Dantzic. Grotius went
+from it in an open wagon to Luebec, and arrived very ill at Rostock[077]
+on the 26th August. No one, there, knew him: his great weakness
+determined him to call in the aid of a physician: one accordingly
+attended him: his name was Stochman. On feeling Grotius's pulse, he said
+his indisposition proceeded from weakness and fatigue, and that, with
+rest and some restoratives, he might recover; but, on the following day
+he changed his opinion. Perceiving that the weakness of Grotius
+increased, and that it was accompanied with a cold sweat and other
+symptoms indicating an exhaustion of nature, the physician announced
+that the end of his patient was near. Grotius then asked for a
+clergyman. _John Quistorpius_ was brought to him. Quistorpius, in a
+letter to Calovius, gives the following particulars of Grotius's last
+moments:
+
+    "You are desirous of hearing from me, how that Phoenix of
+    Literature, Hugo Grotius, behaved in his last moments, and I am
+    going to tell you. He embarked at Stockholm for Luebec, and after
+    having been tossed for the three days, by a violent tempest, he was
+    shipwrecked, and got to shore on the coast of Pomerania, from
+    whence he came to our town of Rostock, distant above sixty miles,
+    in an open wagon through wind and rain. He lodged with Balleman;
+    and sent for M. Stochman, the physician, who observing that he was
+    extremely weakened by years, by what he suffered at sea, and by the
+    inconveniences attending the journey, judged that he could not live
+    long. The second day after Grotius's arrival in this town, that is,
+    on the 18th of August, O.S. he sent for me, about nine at night, I
+    went, and found him almost at the point of death: I said, 'There
+    was nothing I desired more, than to have seen him in health, that I
+    might have the pleasure of his conversation.' He answered, 'God had
+    ordered it otherwise.' I desired him: to prepare himself for a
+    happier life, to acknowledge that he was a sinner, and to repent of
+    his faults: and, happening to mention the publican, who
+    acknowledged that he was a sinner, and asked God's mercy; he
+    answered, '_I am that publican_.' I went on, and told him that he
+    must have recourse to Jesus Christ, without whom there is no
+    salvation.'
+
+    "He replied, '_I place all my hope in Jesus Christ_.'
+
+[Sidenote: The Death of Grotius.]
+
+    "I began to repeat aloud in German, the prayer which begins _Herr
+    Jesu:_[078] he followed me in a very low voice; with his hands
+    clasped. When I had done, I asked him, 'if he understood me.' He
+    answered, '_I understand you very well_.' I continued to repeat to
+    him those passages of the word of God, which are commonly offered
+    to the remembrance of dying persons; and asking him, 'if he
+    understood me,' he answered, '_I heard your voice, but I did not
+    understand what you said._'
+
+    "These were his last words; soon afterwards he expired; just at
+    midnight. His body was delivered to the physicians, who took out
+    his bowels. I easily obtained leave to bury them in our principal
+    church, which is dedicated to the Virgin."
+
+His corpse, was afterwards carried to Delft, and deposited in the tomb
+of his ancestors. He wrote this modest epitaph for himself,
+
+        "GROTIUS HIC HUGO EST, BATAVUM
+          CAPTIVUS ET EXSUL,
+        LEGATUS REGNI, SUECIA MAGNA, TUI."
+
+Burigni informs us that Grotius had a very agreeable person, a good
+complexion, an aquiline nose, sparkling eyes, a serene and smiling
+countenance; that he was not tall, but very strong, and well built. The
+engraving of him prefixed to the _Hugonis Grotii Manes_ answers this
+description.
+
+It is needless to give an account of his descendants, or their
+prosperous or adverse fortunes: they are noticed at length by Burigni.
+In _Mr. Boswell's Life of Johnson_, mention is made of one who was then
+in a state of want. Dr. Johnson, in a letter to Dr. Vyse,
+
+    "requests him to recommend, an old friend, to his grace the
+    Archbishop of Canterbury. His name," says the Doctor, "is De Groot.
+    He has all the common claims to charity; he is poor and infirm in a
+    great degree. He has likewise another claim, to which no scholar
+    can refuse attention: he is, by several descents, the nephew of
+    Hugo Grotius; of him, of whom every man of learning has perhaps
+    learned something. Let it not be said, that, in any lettered
+    country, the nephew of Grotius, ever asked a charity, and was
+    refused."
+
+The reader must be pleased, to be informed, that the application,--it
+was for some situation, in the charter-house,--was successful. Dr. Vyse
+informed Dr. Johnson of it, by letter. In his answer,
+
+    "Dr. Johnson," by Dr. Vyse's account, "rejoiced much, and was
+    lavish of the praise he bestowed upon his favourite Hugo
+    Grotius."[079]
+
+[Sidenote: The Death of Grotius.]
+
+Three points were united in Grotius, each of which would strongly
+recommend him to Dr. Johnson: he was learned, pious, and opposed to the
+doctrines of Calvin. It is still more unnecessary to mention the various
+encomiums, which the learned of all nations have made of Grotius, in
+prose and verse. That he was one of the most universal scholars, whom
+the world has produced, and that he possessed sense, taste, and genius
+in a high degree, is universally confessed. It is equally true, that
+both his public and his private character, are entitled to a high degree
+of praise.
+
+When Queen Christina, heard of his death, she wrote to his widow, a
+letter of condolence, and requested, that the manuscripts which he had
+left, might be sent to her:
+
+    "My ambassador," the Queen says in this letter, "has made you
+    acquainted, with my high esteem, for his learning, and the good
+    services he did me; but he could not express, how dear I hold his
+    memory, and the effects of his great labours. If gold, or silver,
+    could do any thing towards redeeming such a valuable life, I would
+    gladly employ all, I am mistress of, for that purpose."
+
+She concludes by asking his widow, for all the manuscripts "of that
+learned man, whose works had given her such pleasure." The Queen assures
+her, that "they could not fall into better hands," and that, "the
+author, having been useful to her in his lifetime, it was not just that
+she should be deprived, after his death, of the fruits of his labours."
+
+It remains to mention, that, after the death of Grotius, his wife
+communicated with the Church of England: this, it is said, she did in
+conformity to the dying injunctions of her husband: it is certain, that
+Grotius respected the Church of England. His wife died at the Hague, in
+the communion of the Remonstrants. Through life, she was uniformly
+respected; and, whenever the services of Grotius, to sacred and profane
+literature, are recorded, her services to him, should be mentioned with
+praise.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SEVEN
+UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THE DEATH OF WILLIAM II. TILL THE ESTABLISHMENT
+OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+1680-1815.
+
+
+In some of the preceding pages, the principal events in the history of
+the Seven United Provinces, till the death of William II, in 1680, have
+been briefly mentioned: in the present chapter, we shall insert a
+summary account of the revolutions of their government, till the present
+time.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XIV. 1.
+
+_William III._
+
+1650-1702.
+
+
+William III. was born after the death of William II. his father.
+Immediately after that event, his mother claimed for him the
+stadtholderate, and all the other dignities, pre-eminences, and rights,
+which his father and grandfather had enjoyed; but, so great, at that
+time, was the public jealousy of the ambitious views of the house of
+Orange, that the States General would not even take her claims into
+deliberation. A general assembly of the States was held in 1661. They
+confirmed the Treaty of Union, of 1579; attributed to themselves, the
+appointment of all civil and military offices; placed the army under the
+authority of the provinces and municipalities, and invested the council
+of state with the general direction of the military concerns of the
+nation. A war with England, which was then governed by Cromwell, soon
+followed; it was the commencement of the naval glory of the United
+States. But the government was distracted by the contests and
+dissensions between the republican and the Orange factions. The former
+were headed by John de Witt. He possessed transcendent abilities, was a
+true lover of his country, and, on every occasion, advised the wisest
+measures. Some of the military operations of the States proving
+unsuccessful, the Orange faction endeavoured to persuade the people,
+that this reverse of fortune was owing to the want of a Stadtholder; and
+exhorted them to confer this dignity on the young prince, to be
+exercised, during his minority, by one of the family. This proposition
+was successfully resisted by De Witt. Peace between England and the
+United Provinces being concluded, Cromwell endeavoured to unite them to
+England by a federative alliance; but they rejected the proposition. At
+the suggestion of De Witt, the States of Holland passed an Act, by which
+they bound themselves never to appoint the Prince of Orange, or any of
+his descendants, to the office of Stadtholder, or Captain General; and
+to prevent, to their utmost power, the other States from making such an
+appointment. This measure displeased the other States. In 1665, the
+office of Commander in Chief becoming vacant, the opposite party
+endeavoured to procure it for one of the Orange family; this attempt
+also proved abortive. In 1661 a war broke out between England,--which
+was then governed by Charles II., and the United States; these displayed
+in it, chiefly under the command of De Ruyter, prodigies of valour and
+naval skill; the year 1667 was famous in their annals, by their fleet's
+sailing up the river Thames, and burning the English fleet at Chatham.
+The peace of Breda immediately followed.
+
+[Sidenote: XIV. 1. William III.]
+
+Still, the civil discord continued. The States of Holland renewed the
+_Edict of Exclusion_, with the addition of a clause, that, whenever a
+person should be invested, with the office of Captain, or Admiral
+General, he should swear never to aspire to the office of Stadtholder,
+and to refuse it, if it should be offered to him.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XIV 1650--1702.]
+
+The year 1671 is remarkable for the league entered into by Louis XIV.
+and Charles II. against the United States, and by their vigourous
+resistance to it. The circumstances into which it drove the United
+States, compelled them to appoint the Prince of Orange Captain General
+and Admiral: he took the oath prescribed by the Perpetual Edict, not to
+aspire to the stadtholderate, and to reject it, if offered. He was at
+this time in his twenty-second year: he owed his elevation to the
+critical situation in which the United States were then placed; but it
+was also owing to the great prudence with which he had conducted himself
+when fortune was opposed to him; and to the talents and application to
+business which he then discovered.
+
+At sea, the navy of the United States was generally successful. At land,
+the arms of Lewis XIV. triumphed; he conquered Gueldres, Overyssell, and
+the city and province of Utretcht. This maddened the populace. They
+massacred John De Witt, and Cornelius De Witt, his brother, after having
+subjected them to the cruellest tortures and the most brutal
+indignities. To the indelible reproach of William III. he did not
+interfere to prevent or stop these horrors. His measures for obtaining
+the stadtholderate succeeded.
+
+[Sidenote: XIV. 1. William III.]
+
+On the 4th of July 1672, it was re-established in the person of William
+III.; and all the dignities and rights enjoyed by his predecessors were
+conferred upon him. These, in 1674, were made hereditary in his family.
+His subsequent conduct is entitled, on many accounts, to the warmest
+praise. The success of the United States at sea compelled Charles II. to
+make peace with them, so that Lewis XIV. was their only enemy. The war
+with him was terminated by the peace of Nimeguen in 1678. Ten years
+after it, the Stadtholder, on the abdication of James II. became King of
+England. In 1690, England, Spain, Austria, and the United Provinces,
+entered into the Grand Alliance against France. The Duke of Savoy and
+several Princes of Germany afterwards joined it. In general, the
+proceedings of the confederacy were unsuccessful; the war was terminated
+in 1697 by the peace of Ryswick. In 1700, the disputes on the succession
+to the Spanish monarchy, in consequence of the death of Charles II. of
+Spain, without issue, called the world again to arms. William III. died
+in 1702.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XIV. 2.
+
+_John William Count of Nassau Dietz_, 1702-1711; _William IV_.
+1711-1751.
+
+
+The government of William III. was generally displeasing to the United
+States: they accused him of sacrificing them to the interests of his
+English monarchy, and to the hatred which he always bore to the French.
+He was also suspected, and not without reason, of a design to acquire
+the independent sovereignty of the provinces. At first, his influence
+within them was so great, that he was said to be King in the United
+States, and Stadtholder in England; but it declined gradually; and an
+attempt by him to obtain the succession to the stadtholderate for John
+Friso, Prince of Nassau and Hereditary Stadtholder of Frizeland,
+absolutely failed. He made, by his will, that prince his testamentary
+heir.
+
+Upon the decease of William III. a general wish to discontinue the
+stadtholderate was expressed in most of the provinces; those of Holland,
+Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres, and Overyssell, came to a formal resolution
+to this effect They recognised the supreme power of the States General,
+and conferred the direction of their political concerns on Heinsius, the
+actual Grand Pensionary, a person of great learning, uncommon talents
+for business, and acknowledged integrity.
+
+[Sidenote: XIV. 2. John William Count of Nassau Diets, 1702-1711;
+William IV. 1711-1749.]
+
+As testamentary heir of William III., John-William assumed the title of
+Prince of Orange: he died in 1711, without having exercised the power of
+the stadtholderate, except in the province of Frizeland.
+
+The war of the succession terminated in 1713, by the peace of Utretcht:
+it was succeeded in 1715 by the Barrier Treaty, and in 1719 by the
+Quadruple Alliance, ever memorable for the triumphant campaigns of
+Marlborough, by which it was followed. The pensionary Heinsius died in
+1720. In his life-time, several weak attempts had been made, in
+different provinces, to restore in them the stadtholderate. They
+succeeded only at Gueldres; and even there, it was restored with great
+limitations.
+
+Upon the decease of Prince William-John, his rights and pretensions
+descended to Prince William, his son. In 1733, he married Mary, the
+daughter of George II. of England. This strengthened his cause; but the
+general spirit of the United Provinces was so averse to the
+Stadtholderate, that it was not till the invasion of Holland, by the
+French, in 1747, that the prince's party judged it advisable to bring
+forward his claim. At first they met with resistance, but finally
+prevailed, and Prince William of Orange became the sole Stadtholder of
+every province: until his time each of the provinces of Frizeland and
+Groningen had its particular Stadtholder. The dignities of Captain
+General and Admiral were also conferred on him; and, in addition to
+these, some rights and privileges which no former Stadtholder had
+enjoyed.
+
+The reverses of the United Provinces continued, and the aggrandisement
+of the Stadtholderate increased proportionally. As yet William IV. had
+no male issue. In 1748, the Orange faction proposed that the
+Stadtholderate should be declared hereditary; and that, in default of
+males, females should be admitted into the succession. After some
+opposition the measure was carried in all the provinces, except
+Frizeland and Groningen. From this time the United Provinces ceased to
+be a republic, and became a monarchy, limited by the antient usages and
+institutions. William IV. died in 1749.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+XIV. 3.
+
+_From the Death of William IV. till the Erection of the Kingdom of the
+Netherlands_.
+
+1749-1815.
+
+
+At the death of William IV. William, his son, and afterwards his
+successor in the Stadtholderate, was an infant, in very tender years.
+His mother was named by the states Governess of the United Provinces.
+She appointed the Duke of Brunswick to the command of their armies;
+thus, after all their exertions and sacrifices for liberty, the United
+Provinces became subject to the government of an English princess and a
+German prince; and an English party became predominant in their
+politics; William V. married a princess of Prussia, and thus the Orange
+party was strengthened by Prussian influence.
+
+[Sidenote: XIV. 3. From the death of William IV. till the erection of
+the Kingdom of the Netherlands.]
+
+These opposite, and conflicting interests, filled every province, with
+dissension; and, on some occasions, armed one body of citizens against
+another. The English party, sided with the Orange faction; the French,
+with the republicans. At first the latter prevailed; they led the states
+into measures, which forced England to declare war against them. In
+1782, they acknowledged the independence of the United States of
+America. Still, the dissensions continued. After a long conflict, the
+republican party acquired the ascendant; they suspended the Prince of
+Orange from his functions, and filled all the principal places of trust
+with their own adherents. But the Orange party soon rallied; the Duke of
+Brunswick entered Holland at the head of a victorious army, and, in
+1787, re-established the Stadtholderate.
+
+[Sidenote: CHAP. XIV. 1749-1816.]
+
+His victorious career, was soon terminated. In 1799, the revolutionary
+army of France made themselves masters of the whole territory of the
+United States; and established _The Batavian Republic_. It was
+successively governed, but always under the overpowering controul of
+France, by a Convention, a Directory, and a Consul, with the appellation
+of Grand Pensionary. In 1806, even these forms of her antient government
+were abolished; Napoleon sending Louis, one of his brothers, to reign
+over the United Provinces, with the title and powers of royalty; but
+with an intimation, that France was entitled to his first attentions and
+a priority of duty. The demands of Napoleon for attentions and duties
+were so exorbitant, that rather than be instrumental in the infliction
+of the miseries which a compliance with them must occasion, Louis
+resigned his throne. Napoleon then incorporated the United Provinces
+into his empire, "as an alluvion," for such he termed them, "to the
+Rivers of France." Scenes of the most grinding oppression followed: the
+Batavians were relieved from it by the fall and abdication of Napoleon.
+
+[Sidenote: XIV. 3. Establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.]
+
+Before this event, William V. died, leaving a son, called from his
+pretensions to the stadtholderate, William VI. We have seen that, on the
+death of the Emperor Charles V. all the seventeen provinces, composing
+the Netherlands, devolved to Philip II. his son; the successful
+defection of the Seven United Provinces has been mentioned; the ten
+remaining provinces were afterwards transferred to the House of Austria,
+and were inherited by the Emperor Joseph II. The French made an easy
+conquest of them in an early stage of the Revolution.
+
+We now reach the ultimate fate of both the divisions of the Netherlands.
+The congress of Vienna, by an act of the 9th June 1815, created and
+conferred upon this prince, THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS, consisting
+of the seventeen provinces, and a portion of Luxemburgh. It is
+confessedly the first among the kingdoms of the second order.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+It was our wish to present our readers with a sketch of the literary
+history of the Netherlands, during the period treated of in this
+chapter; but after most diligent and extensive searches, both in the
+British and foreign markets, we have not been able to discover materials
+for it; persons of acknowledged learning, both in Germany and the
+Netherlands, have assured us that no such history exists.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+I.
+
+REFERRED TO IN PAGE 188.
+
+SOME ACCOUNT OF THE FORMULARIES, CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, OR SYMBOLIC
+BOOKS, OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC, GREEK, AND PRINCIPAL PROTESTANT CHURCHES.
+
+
+The constitutions of the Roman Catholic, and Protestant Churches, differ
+in nothing more, than in the following important points: The Catholic
+Church, acknowledges the authority of the Scriptures, and, in addition
+to them, a body of traditionary law. She receives both under the
+authority, and with the interpretation of the Church, and believes that
+the authority of the Church in receiving and interpreting them is
+infallible. The Protestant Churches generally profess to acknowledge no
+law but the Scriptures, no interpreter of the Scriptures, but the
+understanding and conscience of the individual who peruses them.
+
+That the Roman Catholic Church should propound a formulary of her faith,
+enlarge this formulary from time to time, as further interpretation is
+wanted, and enforce acquiscence in it by spiritual censures, is
+consistent with _her_ principles. Whether such a pretension can be
+avowed, without inconsistency, by any Protestant Church, has been a
+subject of much discussion. In point of fact, however, no Protestant
+Church is without her formulary, or abstains from enforcing it by
+temporal provisions and spiritual censures. To enforce their formularies
+by civil penalties, is inconsistent with the principles, of every
+christian church. All churches howsoever have so enforced, and have
+blamed the others, for so enforcing them.
+
+Such formularies, from the circumstance of their collecting into one
+instrument, several articles, of religious belief, are generally known
+on the Continent, by the appellation of SYMBOLIC BOOKS.
+
+
+I. The symbolic books, received by ALL TRINITARIAN CHRISTIAN
+CHURCHES,--are,
+
+    1. _The Symbol of the Apostles_; and
+
+    2. _The Nicene Symbol_.
+
+
+II. The symbolic books, received by the ROMAN CATHOLIC Church,--are,
+
+    1. The General Councils;
+
+    2. Among these,--_the Council of Trent_,--as immediately applying
+    to the controversies between the Catholic and Protestant Churches,
+    is particularly regarded;
+
+    3. _The Symbol of Pope Pius IV_.;
+
+    4. _The Catechism of the Council of Trent_.
+
+
+III. The symbolic books of the GREEK CHURCH,--are,
+
+    1. _The Confession, of her true and sincere faith_, which, on the
+    taking of Constantinople, by Mahomet II, in 1453, Gennadius, its
+    patriarch, presented to the conqueror;
+
+    2. _The Orthodox Confession, of the Catholic and Apostolic Greek
+    Church_, published in 1642, by Mogilow, the Metropolitan of Kiow.
+
+
+IV. The symbolic books of the LUTHERAN CHURCHES, are
+
+    1. _The Confession of Augsburgh_;
+
+    2. _The Apology of the Confession of Augsburgh_;
+
+    3. _The Articles of Smalcald_;
+
+    4. _And_, (in the opinion of some Lutheran Churches),--_The Form of
+    Concord_;
+
+    5. _The Saxon, Wirtenburgian, Suabian, Pomeranian, Mansfeldian,
+    Antwerpensian, and Copenhagen Confessions_, possess, in particular
+    places, the authority of Symbolic books:--the two first are
+    particularly respected.
+
+
+V. The symbolic books of the REFORMED CHURCHES. The reformed Church, in
+the largest extent of that expression, comprises all the religious
+communities, which have separated from the Church of Rome. In this
+sense, it is often used by English writers: but, having, soon after the
+Reformation, been used by the French Protestants to describe their
+church, which was Calvinistic, it became, insensibly, the appellation of
+all Calvinistic churches on the Continent. The principal symbolic books
+of these churches,--are,
+
+    1. _The Confession of the Helvetian Churches_;
+
+    2. _The Tetrapolitan Confession_,--signed by the four cities of
+    Strasburgh, Constance, Memmingen, and Lindau;
+
+    3. _The Catechism of Heidelbergh_;
+
+    4. _The Gallic Confession of Faith_;
+
+    5. _The Belgic Confession of Faith_;
+
+    6. _The Canons of the Council of Dort_.
+
+
+    VI. The symbolic books of the WALDENSES,--are,
+
+    _Their original and reformed Creeds_.
+
+
+VII. The symbolic books of the _Bohemians_,--are,
+
+    1. _The Confession of faith of the Calixtines and Taborites_,
+    signed at the Synod of Cuttenburgh in 1541;
+
+    2. _The Confession of the faith of the Bohemians_,--inserted in the
+    "Harmony of Confessions," published at Cambridge in 1680.
+
+    3. _The Consent of faith at Sendomer_.
+
+
+VIII. The symbolic book of the ARMINIANS,--is
+
+    _The Declaration of the Remonstrants_, drawn up by Episcopius, and
+    signed in 1622.
+
+
+IX. The symbolic book of the SOCINIANS is _The Catechism of Racow_;--the
+best edition of it was published in 1609, reprinted at Frankfort, in
+1739. An English translation of it has been published by Mr. Rees.
+
+
+X. The UNITARIANS have no symbolic book. To Doctor Lardner's _Letter on
+the Logos_ they shew universal respect.
+
+
+XI. The symbolic books of THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND,--are,
+
+    1. _The Theological Oaths_,--containing a Declaration of the belief
+    of the Monarch's spiritual supremacy;--and Declarations against
+    Transubstantiation,--the invocation of Saints,--and the sacrifice
+    of the Mass;
+
+    2. _The Thirty-nine Articles_.
+
+
+XII. The symbolic book of the ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH PRESBYTERIANS,--is
+
+    "_The Articles of Religion_ approved and passed by both Houses of
+    Parliament after advice had with an assembly of divines, called
+    together for that purpose." These were sent into Scotland, and
+    immediately sanctioned by the General Assembly, and Parliament of
+    that kingdom; and thus became a law of the Church and State.
+
+
+XIII. The symbolic books of the Anabaptists may be said to be,--
+
+    THEIR SEVERAL CONFESSIONS OF FAITH:--Five were published at
+    Amsterdam, in 1675, in one volume 8vo.
+
+
+XIV. The symbolic books of the Quakers,--are,
+
+    1. _Barclay's Catechism and Confession of Faith_, published in
+    1675;
+
+    2. His _Theses Theologicae_;
+
+    3. His _Apology_,--a logical demonstration of the propositions in
+    the Theses. It was translated into almost every language and
+    presented to all the ministers assembled at Nimeguen;
+
+    4. But some persons assert that the real doctrines of the Quakers
+    are more easily discoverable from _The Christian Quaker and his
+    divine testimony, vindicated by Scripture reason and authorities
+    against the injurious attempts that have been lately made by
+    several adversaries_.--This work appeared in 1674; the first part
+    of it was written by Penn, the second by Whithead, one of his most
+    distinguished disciples.
+
+
+XV. It may be added, that the symbolic book of the Jews,--is
+
+    _The Schelosch aikara ikkarim,--the Thirteen Articles of Faith_
+    framed by Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon in the 12th century: it is
+    frequently inserted in the Jewish prayer books. Sebastian Munster
+    published it with a Latin translation and an abridgment of the
+    History of Josephus, in one vol. 8vo. at Worms in 1529.
+
+Many Christian Catechisms have been translated into Hebrew for the
+benefit of the Jews.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+An historical and literary account of all these Confessions of Faith,
+and of several works and circumstances connected with them, is attempted
+to be given, by the Author of these pages, in his "_Historical and
+Literary Account of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith, and Symbolic
+Books, of the Roman Catholic, Greek, and principal Protestant
+Churches._"
+
+THE SYLLOGE CONFESSIONUM printed at the Clarendon Press in 1804,
+contains the _Professio Fidei Tridentinae, Confessio Helvetica,
+Augustana, Saxonica, Belgica_."
+
+"The Harmony of the Confessions of the Faith of the Christian and
+Reformed Churches" published at Cambridge in 1586, 8_vo_. attempts to
+reconcile the Confession of Augsburgh, the Confession of the Four
+Cities, the Confession of Basle, the first Confession of Helvetia; the
+Confession of Saxony, the Confession of Wirtemburgh, the French
+Confession, the English Confession, the latter Confession of Helvetia,
+the Belgic Confession, and that of Bohemia.
+
+On the general subject, _Walchius's Bibliotheca Theologica Selecta_, may
+be usefully consulted.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX II.
+
+REFERRED TO IN PAGE 188.
+
+ON THE REUNION OF CHRISTIANS.
+
+
+The attempts, made at different times for the re-union of Christians,
+are the subject of a learned and interesting work, published at Paris,
+with the title of "_Histoire critique des projets formes depuis trois
+cents ans pour la Reunion des communions Chretiennes, par M. Tabaraud,
+ancien Pretre de L'Oratoire, Paris_, 1824." An excellent sketch of these
+attempts had been previously given by _Doctor Mosheim, in his
+Ecclesiastical History, Cent. XVI. Ch. III. sect. 3. part 2. c. 1. and
+Cent. XVII. Cha. I. sect. 2. p_. 1. To these publications the reader is
+referred:--the present Essay may be found to contain,
+
+    I. A general view of the attempts made after the Reformation, to
+    unite the Lutheran and Calvinist churches:
+
+    II. Some account of the Attempts made at different times by the
+    sovereigns of France for the conversion of their protestant subjects:
+
+    III. The correspondence of Bossuet and Leibniz, under the auspices of
+    Lewis the Fourteenth, for the reunion of the Lutheran Churches to the
+    Church of Rome:
+
+    IV. Some account of an attempt made in the reign of George the First,
+    to reunite the Church of England to the Church of Rome:
+
+    V. And some general remarks on the Reunion of Christians.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+_Attempts made to unite the Lutheran, and Calvinist Churches._
+
+
+The great division of Protestant Churches is, into the Lutheran, and
+Calvinist communions. The Abbe Tabaraud relates in the work, which we
+have just cited, not fewer than fifteen different attempts to effect a
+reunion of their churches. In reading his account and that given by
+Mosheim of these attempts, the writer thinks that, on each side, there
+was something to commend and something to blame. It seems to him, that
+the Lutherans deserve credit for the open and explicit manner, in which,
+on these occasions, they propounded the tenets of their creed to the
+Calvinists; that the conduct of the Calvinists was more liberal and
+conciliating; but that, on the other hand, the conduct of the Lutherans
+towards the Calvinists, was generally repulsive, and sometimes deserving
+a much harsher name; while the conduct of the Calvinists, was sometimes
+chargeable, with ambiguity.
+
+    "It was deplorable," says Mosheim, (Cent. xvii. sect. 2. part 2.
+    art. 3.) "to see two churches, which had discovered, an equal
+    degree of pious zeal, and fortitude, in throwing off the despotic
+    yoke of Rome, divided among themselves, and living in discords,
+    that were highly detrimental, to the interests of religion, and the
+    well-being of society. Hence, several eminent divines, and leading
+    men, both among the Lutherans, and Calvinists, sought anxiously,
+    after some method, of uniting the two churches, though divided in
+    their opinions, in the bonds of Christian charity, and
+    ecclesiastical communion. A competent knowledge, of human nature,
+    and human passions, was sufficient, to persuade these wise, and
+    pacific mediators, that a perfect uniformity in religious opinions,
+    was not practicable, and that it would be entirely extravagant, to
+    imagine that any of these communities, could ever be brought, to
+    embrace universally, and without limitation, the doctrines of the
+    other. They made it, therefore, their principal business, to
+    persuade those, whose spirits were inflamed with the heat of
+    controversy, that the points in debate between the two churches,
+    were not essential, to true religion;--that the fundamental
+    doctrines, of Christianity, were received, and professed, in both
+    communions; and that the difference of opinion, between the
+    contending parties, turned, either upon points of an abstruse, and
+    incomprehensible nature, or upon matters of indifference, which
+    neither tended, to make mankind wiser, or better, and in which the
+    interests of genuine piety, were in no wise concerned. Those, who
+    viewed things in this point of light, were obliged to acknowledge,
+    that the diversity of opinions, between the two churches, was by no
+    means, a sufficient reason, for their separation; and that of
+    consequence, they were called, by the dictates of that gospel,
+    which they both professed, to live, not only in the mutual
+    exercise, of Christian charity, but also to enter, into the
+    fraternal bonds, of church communion. The greatest part, of the
+    reformed doctors, seemed disposed, to acknowledge, that the errors
+    of the Lutherans, were not, of a momentous nature, nor of a
+    pernicious tendency; and that the fundamental doctrines of
+    Christianity, had not undergone, any remarkable alteration, in that
+    communion; and thus, on their side, an important step, was made,
+    towards peace, and union, between the two churches. But the
+    greatest part of the Lutheran doctors declared, that they could not
+    form, a like judgment, with respect, to the doctrine, of the
+    Reformed churches; they maintained tenaciously, the importance of
+    the points, which divided the two communions, and affirmed, that a
+    considerable part of the controversy turned upon the fundamental
+    principles, of all religion, and virtue. It is not at all
+    surprising, that this steadiness and constancy of the Lutherans,
+    was branded by the opposite party, with the epithets, of morose
+    obstinacy, supercilious arrogance, and such like odious
+    denominations. The Lutherans, were not behind hand with their
+    adversaries, in acrimony, of style; they recriminated with
+    vehemence, and charged their accusers with instances of misconduct,
+    different in kind, but equally condemnable. They reproached them
+    with having dealt disingenuously, by disguising, under ambiguous
+    expressions, the real doctrine of the Reformed churches; they
+    observed further, that their adversaries, notwithstanding their
+    consummate prudence and circumspection, gave plain proofs, on many
+    occasions, that their propensity to a reconciliation, between the
+    two churches, arose from views of private interest, rather than
+    from a zeal for the public good."
+
+It is observable that Mosheim applies these observations to a late
+stage of the reformation, when much of its first violence had subsided.
+
+The nearest approach[080] to a reunion, between any Protestant
+churches, seems to be that, which took place at Sendomer, in the year
+1570.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+_Attempts for a Reunion of the Calvinist Churches to the See of Rome._
+
+
+Having thus summarily noticed, the unsuccessful attempts, to effect an
+union, between the Lutheran, and Calvinist churches, we proceed to a
+similar summary mention of the attempts, equally unsuccessful, to effect
+the reunion of the Calvinists, to the church of Rome, which were made,
+
+1st, during the reign of Henry the Fourth:
+
+2dly, during the reign of Lewis the Thirteenth: and
+
+3dly, during the reign of Lewis the Fourteenth:
+
+4thly, we shall afterwards notice, the Revocation of the edict of
+Nantes, and the complete restoration of the protestants of France, to
+their civil rights, in the reign of Lewis the Eighteenth.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 1.
+
+
+An attempt to reunite the Calvinists to the church of Rome was made at
+the celebrated Conference held at Poissi in 1561. In the work which we
+have cited, the Abbe Tabaraud gives a short and clear account of this
+conference. It failed of success, and a long civil war of religion
+ensued. It was closed by the conversion of _Henry the Fourth_ to the
+Roman Catholic religion. He was no sooner quietly seated on the throne,
+than he conceived the arduous, but certainly noble project of pacifying
+the religious contests of the world. It appears that he was induced to
+entertain hopes of the success of this measure, by the assurances given
+him by the Calvinist ministers, when his change of religion, was in
+agitation, that salvation might be obtained in the church of Rome; and
+from his expectation of finding a spirit of conciliation, and
+concession, in the see of Rome.
+
+    "I have heard, from persons of distinction," says Grotius[081],
+    "that Henry the Fourth declared that he had great hopes of
+    procuring for the King of England, and the other protestant
+    princes, who were his allies, conditions, which they could not
+    honorably refuse, if they had any real wish of returning to the
+    unity of the church; and that he had once an intention of employing
+    bishops of his own kingdom on this project; but that this project
+    failed by his death."
+
+It is said, that with these views he had sent for _Isaac Casaubon_, a
+protestant divine of equal learning and moderation, and appointed him
+his librarian; and that he intended confidentially employing him in
+preparing means for the success of the measure, and smoothing the
+obstacles which might impede its progress. Grotius[082] mentions, as a
+saying of Casaubon, that "the catholics of France had a juster way of
+thinking than the ministers of Charenton:" these were the most rigid of
+the French Hugonot ministers. It is observable that the French
+government always considered the Hugonots of a much more refractory
+disposition than the Lutherans.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 2.
+
+
+The pacific views of Henry the Fourth, were terminated by his decease.
+The capture of la Rochelle by the arms of _Lewis the XIIIth_, was a
+fatal blow to the political consequence of the Protestant party in
+France. Cardinal Richelieu immediately set on foot a project, for the
+general conversion, of the body: two persons, of very different
+characters, were employed by him, in this measure; Father Joseph, a
+capuchin friar, the confident, of all the cardinal's political and
+private schemes, and Father P. Dulaurens, an oratorian, who lived in
+retirement, wholly absorbed in the exercises of religion. They began
+the work of reunion by holding frequent conferences, on an amicable
+footing, with several of the protestant ministers; and it was resolved,
+that, with the permission of the pope, and the authority of the king, an
+assembly, should be convened, of ecclesiastics of each communion. Father
+Dulaurens, recommended that the intended communications with the
+ministers, should not take place, till they reached, the capital; but,
+the cardinal, thought it more advisable, that the ministers, should be
+separately informed, of the project, before they left the provinces. It
+was accordingly communicated to them, and favourably received, by the
+ministers, of Languedoc, and Normandy, but met with an unfavourable
+reception, from the ministers of Sedan. It was resolved, that the
+assembly, should meet, and begin their deliberations, with the
+differences in the opinions, of the two churches, respecting the
+Sacraments. Father Dulaurens recommended, that for some time, at least,
+the Bible, even in the Calvinist version, of Olivetan, should be the
+only book appealed to, on either side, as authority: but the Cardinal
+insisted, on a resort to tradition. Grotius mentions that in several
+articles, (as communion under both kinds, and the invocation of saints),
+the Cardinal was willing, that concessions, should be made to the
+Protestants; and suggested, that, as a medium, to reconcile them to the
+Pope, a patriarchate should be established, in France, and he himself,
+be the first patriarch[083].
+
+Notwithstanding the general loftiness, and overbearing nature, of his
+manners, it appears, particularly from M. de Rullhieres[084] (6.) that
+the Cardinal, acted on this occasion, with great moderation, and
+recommended to his royal master, a similar line of moderation, in all
+his conduct, towards his Protestant subjects.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 3.
+
+
+The Cardinal's project, was suspended, by his decease; and resumed,
+under _Lewis the Fourteenth_. In 1662, a plan, drawn up by M. le Blanc
+de Beaulieu, a professor of Divinity, at Sedan, singularly esteemed,
+both by the Roman Catholics, and Protestants, by which the essential
+articles, in dispute, were reduced to a small number, was adopted, by
+the Court, to serve as the basis of discussion. It was resolved, that
+different synods of Protestant ministers, should be convened; that
+these, should be composed, of ministers of known moderation, and pacific
+views, and the articles, drawn up by M. le Blanc de Beaulieu, presented
+to them. Three years were employed, in negotiations for effecting this
+project: several ministers in the lower Languedoc, and the Isle of
+France, expressed themselves, in terms favourable, to the measure, but
+the synod of Charenton, took the alarm, and the project, was abandoned.
+
+The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, a measure equally unwise, and
+unjust, too soon followed. It is more to be attributed, to his ministers
+and advisers, than to Lewis the Fourteenth himself. From the
+_Eclaircissemens Historiques_ of M. de Rullhieres, and the life of
+Bossuet, by M. Bausset[085], it seems evident, that Lewis the
+Fourteenth, had been induced, to believe, that the number of Protestants
+was much smaller; that the conversions of them, would be much more
+rapid, general, and sincere; and that the measures, for hastening their
+conversion, would be much less violent than they really were. It is also
+due, to the monarch, to add, that from the authors, whom we have cited,
+it is evident, that when he began to perceive the true state, of the
+transaction, though from false principles of honour, and policy, he
+would not revoke the edict, he wished it not to be put into great
+activity, and checked the forwardness, of the Intendants general in its
+execution.
+
+It is whimsical, (if on so serious a subject such a word may be used),
+that the dragonade, or employment of the dragoon troops, in forcing the
+conversion, of the Hugonots, was owing to the wish of Louvois, the
+minister, of Lewis the Fourteenth, to become himself, a missionary.
+Observing how much the apparent success, of the missionaries,
+recommended them, to Lewis the Fourteenth, he began to consider them as
+dangerous rivals for the favour of his royal master, and determined,
+therefore, to become himself, a principal performer. With this view, he
+instituted the dragoon missions, and thus brought a material part, of
+the work of conversion, into the war department.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+II. 4.
+
+
+The death of Lewis, and the known disposition of the Regent, appeared to
+the Protestant party, in France, to afford a proper opportunity of
+recovering their rights. Duclos, in his _Memoires secrets sur les regnes
+de Louis XIV. et de Louis XV_., says, that the Regent himself wished to
+restore the Protestants, to their civil rights, but was dissuaded by his
+council. Still, he seldom permitted the edicts against them to be
+executed; and speaking generally, the Protestants seem to have suffered
+no active persecution in any part of the reign of Lewis, the XVth. One
+intolerable grievance, however, they unquestionably suffered in every
+part of it. Their religious principles did not permit them to be married
+by a Roman Catholic priest, in the manner prescribed by the law of the
+state, and that law did not recognize the legal validity of a marriage,
+celebrated in any other form. The consequence was, that in the eye of
+the law, the marriage of Protestants was a mere concubinage, and the
+offspring of it illegitimate. To his immortal honour, _Lewis the XVIth_,
+by his edict of the 17th of November, 1787, accorded to all his
+Non-catholic subjects the full and complete enjoyment of all the rights
+of his Roman-catholic subjects. On a division in the Parliament, this
+edict was registered by a majority of 96 votes against 16.
+
+The persecution of the Hugonots in consequence of the revocation of the
+Edict of Nantes, was condemned by the greatest men in France. M.
+d'Aguesseau, the father of the celebrated chancellor, resigned his
+office of Intendant of Languedoc rather than remain a witness of it: his
+son repeatedly mentions it with abhorrence. Fenelon, Flechier, and
+Bossuet,[086] confessedly the ornaments of the Gallican church, lamented
+it. To the utmost of their power, they prevented the execution of the
+edict, and lessened its severities, when they could not prevent them.
+Most sincerely lamenting and condemning the outrages committed by the
+Roman Catholics against the Protestants at Nismes, as violations of the
+law of God and man, but doubting of the nature and extent, which some
+have attributed to them, the writer of these pages begs leave to refer
+to the sermon preached on them by the Reverend James Archer, a Roman
+Catholic priest, and printed for Booker, in Bond-street, by the desire
+of two Roman Catholic congregations, as expressing the doctrine of the
+Roman Catholic church, and of all real christians on heretics and the
+persecution of heretics.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+
+_The Correspondence of Bossuet and Leibniz, under the auspices of Lewis
+the XIVth, for the Reunion of the Lutheran Protestants to the Roman
+Catholic Church._
+
+This correspondence forms one of the most interesting events in the life
+of Bossuet; the letters, of which it consists, and the other written
+documents, which relate to it, are highly interesting. We shall attempt
+to present our readers with a short account--
+
+    1st. Of the circumstances which led to this correspondence;
+
+    2ndly. Of the Project of Reunion, delivered by Molanus, a Lutheran
+    Divine, and Bossuet's sentiments on that Project;
+
+    3dly. Of the intervention of Leibniz in the negotiation; and
+
+    4thly. Of the Project suggested by Bossuet, and the principal
+    reasons, by which he contended for its reception.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 1.
+
+
+It appears that, towards the 17th century, the Emperor Leopold, and
+several sovereign princes in Germany, conceived a project of re-uniting
+the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches. The Duke of Brunswick, who had
+recently embraced the Roman Catholic religion, and published his _Fifty
+Reasons for his conversion_, (once a popular work of controversy), and
+the Duke of Hanover, the father of the first prince of the illustrious
+house, which now fills the throne of England, were the original
+promoters of the attempt. It was generally approved; and the mention of
+it at the Diet of the Empire was favourably received. Some
+communications upon it took place between the Emperor and the ducal
+Princes: and with all their knowledge, several conferences were held
+upon the subject, between certain distinguished Roman Catholic and
+Protestant Divines. In these, the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus, the
+Abbot of Lokkum, took the lead. The first had been consecrated Bishop of
+Tina in Bosnia, then under the dominion of the Turks, with Ordinary
+Jurisdiction over some parts of the Turkish territories. His conduct had
+recommended him to Innocent the XIth, and that pope had directed him to
+visit the Protestant states in Germany, and inform him of their actual
+dispositions in respect to the Church of Rome. In consequence of this
+mission, he became known to the Emperor, who appointed him to the See of
+Neustadt, in the neighbourhood of Vienna. Molanus, was Director of the
+Protestant Churches and Consistories of Hanover. Both were admirably
+calculated for the office intended them, on this occasion. Each
+possessed the confidence of his own party, and was esteemed by the
+other; each was profoundly versed in the matters in dispute; each
+possessed good sense, moderation, and conciliating manners; and each had
+the success of the business at heart, with a fixed purpose, that
+nothing, but a real difference on some essential article of doctrine,
+should frustrate the project.
+
+The effect of the first conferences was so promising, that the Emperor
+and the two Princes resolved, that they should be conducted in a manner
+more regular, and more likely to bring the object of them to a
+conclusion. With this view, the business was formally entrusted by both
+the princes to Molanus alone, and the Emperor published a rescript,
+dated the 20th March, 1691, by which he gave the Bishop of Neustadt full
+authority to treat, on all matters of religion, with the states,
+communities, and individuals of the empire, reserving to the
+ecclesiastical and imperial powers, their right to confirm the acts of
+the Bishop, as they should judge adviseable. Under these auspicious
+circumstances, the conference between the Bishop of Neustadt and Molanus
+began.
+
+But, before the events which we have mentioned took place, a
+correspondence on the subject of a general reunion between Catholics and
+Protestants had been carried on for some time, between Pelisson and
+Leibniz. The former held a considerable rank among the French writers,
+who adorned the reign of Lewis the Fourteenth; the latter was eminently
+distinguished in the literary world. In the exact sciences, he was
+inferior to Newton alone; in metaphysics, he had no superior; in general
+learning, he had scarcely a rival. He had recommended himself to the
+Brunswick family, by three volumes, which he had recently published, on
+the Antiquities of that illustrious House; and was then engaged in the
+investigation of its Italian descent, and early German shoots. The
+result of it, under the title of _Origines Guelphicae_, was published,
+after his decease, by Scheidius, and is considered to be a perfect model
+of genealogical history. He was also thoroughly conversant in the
+theological disputes of the times; and in all the questions of dogma,
+or history, which enter into them.
+
+His correspondence with Pelisson, came to the knowledge of Louisa,
+Princess Palatine, and Abbess of Maubrusson. She was a daughter of
+Frederick, the Elector, and Count Palatine of the Rhine, and a sister,
+of the Duchess of Hanover. In early life, she had been converted to the
+Roman Catholic religion, and had the conversion of her sister, very much
+at heart. With this view, she sent to her, the correspondence between
+Leibniz and Pelisson, and received from her an account of what was
+passing, between the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus. Both the ladies
+were anxious, to promote the measure, and that Bossuet should take in
+it, the leading part, on the side of the Catholics. This was mentioned
+to Lewis the Fourteenth, and had his approbation. The Emperor and both
+the Princes, by all of whom Bossuet, was personally esteemed, equally
+approved of it, and it was finally settled that Bossuet and Leibniz,
+should be joined, to the Bishops of Neustadt, and Molanus, and that the
+correspondence with Bossuet, should pass through the hands of Madame de
+Brinon, who acted, as secretary to the Abbess of Maubrusson, and is
+celebrated, by the writers of the times, for her wit and dexterity in
+business. Thus the matter assumed, a still more regular form, and much
+was expected from the acknowledged talents, learning, and moderation of
+the actors in it, and their patrons.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 2.
+
+
+The conferences between the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus continued
+for seven months, and ended in their agreeing on 12 articles, to serve
+for the basis of the discussion, on the terms of the reunion.
+
+The Bishop of Neustadt, communicated these articles to Bossuet. He
+seems, to have approved of them generally, but to have thought, that
+some alteration in them, was adviseable. This being mentioned to
+Molanus, he published his _Cogitationes Privatae_, a profound and
+conciliating dissertation. Without entering into any discussion, on the
+points in dispute, between the churches, he suggested in it a kind of
+truce, during which, there should be ecclesiastical communion between
+them: the Lutherans, were to acknowledge the Pope, as the first of
+Bishops, in order, and dignity: the Church of Rome, was to receive the
+Lutherans, as her children, without exacting from them, any retractation
+of their alledged errors, or any renunciation, of the articles in their
+creed, condemned by the Council of Trent. The anathemas of that council,
+were to be suspended, and a general council was to be convened, in which
+the Protestants were to have a deliberative voice: the sentence of that
+council, was to be definitive, and, in the mean time, the members of
+each party, were to treat the members of the other, as brethren, whose
+errors, however great they might appear, were to be tolerated, from
+motives of peace, and in consideration, of their engagements to abandon
+them, if the council should pronounce against them. To show the
+probability of a final accommodation, Molanus notices, in his
+Dissertation, several points, in which one party imputed to the other
+errors, not justly chargeable on them; several, on which they disputed,
+merely for want of rightly understanding each other; and several, in
+which the dispute was of words only.
+
+It appears that the Bishop of Neustadt, communicated this dissertation,
+to Bossuet, and that Bossuet was delighted, with the good sense,
+candour, and true spirit of conciliation, which it displayed. In his
+letters he frequently mentions the author, and always in terms, Of the
+highest praise. His own language was equally moderate and conciliating.
+
+    "The Council of Trent," he says in one of his letters,
+    "is our stay; but we shall not use it to prejudice the cause. This
+    would be, to take for granted, what is in dispute between us. We
+    shall deal more fairly with our opponents. We shall make the
+    council serve, for a statement, and explanation, of our doctrines.
+    Thus, we shall come to an explanation, on those points, in which
+    either of us imputes to the other, what he does not believe, and in
+    which we dispute, only because we misconceive each other. This may
+    lead us far; for _the Abbot of Lokkum, has actually conciliated the
+    points so essential, of Justification, and the Eucharist: nothing
+    is wanting in him, on that side, but that he should be avowed. Why
+    should we not hope to conclude, in the same manner, disputes, less
+    difficult, and of less importance? Cela se peut pousser si avant,
+    que M. l'Abbe de Lokkum, a concilie, actuellement les points si
+    essentiels, de la justification, et du sacrifice de l'Eucharistie,
+    et il ne lui manque de ce cote la, que de se faire avouer. Pourquoi
+    ne pas esperer de finir, par les memes moyens, des disputes, moins
+    difficiles, et moins importantes?"_
+
+With these rational and conciliatory dispositions, Bossuet, and Molanus,
+proceeded. But, after this stage of the business, Molanus disappears,
+and Leibniz comes on the scene.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 3.
+
+
+A Letter, written by Bossuet to M^me de Brinon, having been communicated
+by her to Leibniz, opened the correspondence between him and Bossuet. In
+that letter, Bossuet declared explicitly, that the Church of Rome, was
+ready, to make concessions, on points of discipline, and to explain
+doctrines, but would make no concession in respect to defined articles
+of faith; and, in particular, would make no such concession, in respect
+to any which had been defined by the Council of Trent. Leibniz's Letter
+to M^me de Brinon, in answer to this communication, is very important.
+He expresses himself in these terms;
+
+    "The Bishop of Meaux says,
+
+    "1st. That the Project delivered to the Bishop of Neustadt, does not
+    appear to him quite sufficient;
+
+    "2dly. That it is, nevertheless, very useful, as every thing must
+    have its beginning:
+
+    "3dly. That Rome will never relax from any point of doctrine,
+    defined by the church, and cannot capitulate, in respect to any
+    such article;
+
+    "4thly. That the doctrine, defined in the Council of Trent, is
+    received in and out of France by all Roman Catholics;
+
+    "5thly, That satisfaction may be given to Protestants, in respect to
+    certain points of discipline, or in the way of explanation, and
+    that this had been already done in an useful manner, in some
+    points, mentioned in the Project of the Bishop of Neustadt.
+
+    "These are the material propositions, in the letter of the Bishop of
+    Meaux, and I believe all these propositions true. Neither the
+    Bishop of Neustadt, nor those who negotiated with them, make any
+    opposition to them. There is nothing in them, which is not
+    conformable to the sentiments of those persons. The third of them
+    in particular, which might be thought, an obstacle, to these
+    Projects of Accommodation, could not be unknown to them; one may
+    even say, that they built on it."
+
+It seems difficult to deny, that, in this stage of the business, much
+had been gained to the cause of reunion. The parties were come to a
+complete understanding on the important articles of Justification, and
+the Eucharist; and it was admitted, both by Leibniz, and Molanus, that,
+in their view of the concern, an accommodation might be effected,
+between the Roman Catholic, and Lutheran churches, though the former,
+retained all her defined doctrines, and, in particular, all her
+doctrines, defined by the Council of Trent. The question then was, what
+should be done in respect to the remaining articles in difference
+between the churches? It is to be wished, that it had been left to
+Bossuet, and Molanus, to settle them, in the way of amicable
+explanation, in which they had settled, the two important articles,
+which we have mentioned. It is evident, from the passages, which we have
+cited, from Bossuet, that it was his wish, that the business should
+proceed on that plan, and that he had hopes of its success.
+Unfortunately, the business took, another direction: Leibniz proclaimed,
+that after every possible explanation should be given, the Lutheran
+church would, still retain, some articles, contrary to the defined
+doctrines, of the Church of Rome, and anathematized, by the Council of
+Trent. To remove the final effect of this objection, Leibniz held out
+Molanus's first project, that the Lutherans should express a general
+acquiescence, in the authority of the church, and promise obedience, to
+the decisions of a General Council, to be called, for the purpose of
+pronouncing, on these points; and that, in consequence of these
+advances, on their part, the anathemas of the Council of Trent, should
+be suspended, and the Lutherans received, provisionally, within the
+pale, of the Catholic church. To bring over Bossuet to this plan, he
+exerted great eloquence, and displayed, no common learning.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+III. 4.
+
+
+But the eloquence, and learning, of Leibniz, were without effect. In
+language, equally temperate and firm, Bossuet, adhered to his text,
+that in matters of discipline, or any other matter, distinct from faith,
+the Church of Rome, would show the utmost indulgence to the Lutherans;
+but that, on articles of faith, and specifically, on those propounded by
+the Council of Trent, there could be no compromise. This, however, he
+confined to articles of faith alone: and even on articles of faith, he
+wished to consult the feelings of Protestants, as much as possible. He
+offered them every fair explanation of the tenets of the council; he
+required from them no retractation, of their own tenets:
+
+    "Molanus," he says, "will not allow retractation to be mentioned.
+    It may be dispensed with; it will be sufficient, that the parties
+    acknowledge, the truth, by way of declaration or explanation. To
+    this, the Symbolical Books, give a clear opening, as appears by the
+    passages, which have been produced from them, and will appear, by
+    other passages, which may be produced from them."
+
+If Bossuet was thus considerate, in what regarded faith, it will easily
+be supposed, how indulgent his sentiments were, in respect to all, that
+merely regarded discipline. A complete confession of faith, being once
+obtained from the Lutherans, he was willing, to allow them, if they
+required it, communion under both kinds; that their Bishops, should
+retain their Sees; and that, where there was no Bishop, and the whole
+body of the people, was Protestant, under the care, of a superintendant,
+_that_ superintendant, should be consecrated their Bishop; that, where
+there was a Catholic Bishop, and a considerable part of the diocese, was
+Lutheran, the superintendant, should be consecrated priest, and invested
+with rank, and office, that the Lutheran ministers, should be
+consecrated priests; that provision should be made for their support;
+that such of their bishops, and ministers, as were married, might
+retain their wives, and that the consciences of those, who held
+possessions of the church, should be quieted, except in respect, to
+hospitals, whose possessions he thought, could not conscientiously be
+withheld, from the poor objects of their foundations; and that every
+other arrangement should be made, by the church and state, which would
+be agreeable, to the feelings, and prejudices, of their new brethren.
+
+Such were the advances made by Bossuet; and much discussion on them,
+took place, between him, and Leibniz. It continued ten years. They are
+very learned, and a scholar will read them with delight; but,
+unfortunately, they rather retarded, than promoted, their object. The
+real business ended, when Molanus quitted the scene. We shall close this
+article, with the following extract from the last letter but one,
+written by Bossuet, on the subject. It is addressed to Leibniz, and
+bears date the 12th August, 1701, ten years, after his first letter, on
+it was written:
+
+    "Among the divines of the Confession of Augsburg, I always placed
+    M. Molanus, in the first rank, as a man, whose learning, candour
+    and moderation made him one of the persons, the most capable I have
+    known, of advancing the NOBLE PROJECT OF REUNION. In a letter,
+    which I wrote to him some years ago, by the Count Balati, I assured
+    him, that, if he could obtain, the general consent of his party, to
+    what he calls, his Private Thoughts, _Cogitationes Privatae_, I
+    promised myself, that, by joining to them, the remarks, which I
+    sent to him, on the Confession of Augsburg, and the other Symbolic
+    writings of the Protestants, the work of the Reunion would be
+    perfected, in all its most difficult and most essential points; so
+    that well disposed persons might, in a short time, bring it to a
+    conclusion."
+
+The passage is so important, that it is proper to present it to the
+reader in Bossuet's own words.
+
+    "Parmi les Theologiens de la Confession d'Ausbourg, j'ai toujours
+    mis, au premier rang, M. l'Abbe de Lokkum, comme un homme, dont le
+    scavoir, la candeur, et la moderation le rendolent un des plus
+    capables, que je connusse, pour avancer CE BEAU DESSEIN. Cela est
+    si veritable, que j'ai cru devoir assurer ce docte Abbe, dans la
+    reponse que je luis fis, il y a deja, plusieurs annees, par M. le
+    Comte Balati, que s'il pouvoit faire passer ce qu'il appelle ses
+    Pensees Particulieres _Cogitationes Privatae_, a un consentement
+    suffisent, je me promettois qu'en y joignant les remarques, que je
+    lui envoyois, sur la Confession d'Ausbourg, et les autres ecrits
+    Symboliques des Protestans, l'ouvrage de la Reunion seroit acheve
+    dans ses parties les plus difficiles et les plus essentielles; en
+    sorte qu'il ne faudroit a des personnes bien disposees, que tres
+    peu de tems pour la conclure[087]."
+
+Dom. de Foris, the Benedictine Editor of the new edition of the works of
+Bossuet and the Abbe Racine, _Abrege de l'Histoire Ecclesiastique_[088]
+are very severe in their censures of the conduct of Leibniz in the
+negotiations for the Reunion, and attribute its failure to his
+presumption and duplicity. To the writer of these pages, it appears
+clear, that Leibniz was sincere in his wishes for the reunion; and that,
+if he occasioned its failure, it was unintentionally. While the
+business was in the hands of Bossuet, and Molanus, it was a treaty, not
+for the reunion of the Roman Catholic church, and all Protestant
+churches, but for the reunion of the Roman Catholic church, and the
+Lutheran church; and to this, Molanus's endeavours to reconcile
+differences, were directed. Leibniz, whose principles in religion, were
+much wider, than those of Molanus, seems to have wished, that the
+negotiation should be placed, on a broader basis, and extended to a
+reunion of the church of Rome, with every denomination of Christians.
+This gave the negotiation a different direction, and in a great measure,
+undid what had been, so happily begun. We have seen, that, to the very
+last, Bossuet, called out for Molanus, and entertained great hopes,
+that, if the matter were left to Molanus, and him, the noble Project of
+Reunion, would be crowned with success. There is no part of Bossuet's
+literary or active life, in which he appears to greater advantage, or in
+a more amiable light, than on this occasion.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+_Attempt in the reign of Lewis the XV. to effect an union between the
+Church of Rome and the Church of England._
+
+
+Of all Protestant churches, the national church of England most nearly
+resembles the church of Rome. It has retained much of the dogma, and
+much of the discipline of Roman Catholics. Down to the sub-deacon it has
+retained the whole of their hierarchy; and, like them, has its deans,
+rural deans, chapters, prebends, archdeacons, rectors, and vicars; a
+liturgy, taken in a great measure, from the Roman Catholic liturgy; and
+composed like that, of Psalms, Canticles, the three creeds, litanies,
+epistles, gospels, prayers, and responses. Both churches have the
+sacraments of baptism, and the eucharist, the absolution of the sick,
+the burial service, the sign of the cross in baptism, the reservation of
+confirmation, and order to bishops, the difference of episcopal, and
+sacerdotal dress, feasts, and fasts. Without adopting all the general
+councils of the church of Rome, the church of England has adopted the
+first four of them; and, without acknowledging the authority of the
+other councils, or the authority of the early fathers, the English
+divines of the established church, allow them to be entitled, to a high
+degree of respect.[089] On the important article of the eucharist, the
+language, of the Thirty-nine Articles, sounds very like, the doctrine of
+the church of Rome.
+
+At the time, of which we are speaking, the doctrines of the high church,
+which are generally considered to incline to those of the Roman
+Catholics, more than the doctrines of the low church, were in their
+zenith; and in France, where the ultramontane principles on the power of
+the Pope had always been discountenanced, the disputes of Jansenism were
+supposed to reduce it very low. On each side, therefore, the time was
+thought favourable to the project of Reunion.
+
+It was also favourable to it, that, a few years before this time, an
+event had taken place, which naturally tended to put both sides into
+good humour.
+
+On the occasion of the marriage of the Princess Christina of
+Wolfenbuttell, a Lutheran, with the archduke of Austria, her court
+consulted the faculty of theology of the University of Helmstadt, on
+the question,
+
+    "Whether a Protestant Princess, destined to marry a catholic
+    prince, could, without wounding her conscience, embrace the Roman
+    Catholic religion?" The faculty replied, that, "it could not answer
+    the proposed question, in a solid manner, without having previously
+    decided, whether the catholics were, or were not engaged in errors,
+    that were fundamental, and opposed to salvation; or, (which was the
+    same thing), whether the state of the catholic church was such,
+    that persons might practise in it, the true worship of God, and
+    arrive at salvation." This question the divines of Helmstadt,
+    discussed at length; and concluded in these terms: "After having
+    shown, that the foundation of religion, subsists in the Roman
+    Catholic religion, so that a person may be orthodox in it, live
+    well in it, die well in it, and obtain salvation in it, the
+    discussion of the proposed question, is easy. We are, therefore, of
+    opinion, that the most Serene Princess of Wolfenbuttell, may, in
+    favour of her marriage, embrace the catholic religion."
+
+This opinion is dated the 28th of April 1707, and was printed in the
+same year at Cologne. The Journalists of Trevoux inserted both the
+original and a French translation of it in their journal of May, 1708.
+
+Under these circumstances, the correspondence in question took place. It
+began, in 1718, through Doctor Beauvoir, chaplain to Lord Stair, his
+Britannic majesty's ambassador at Paris. Some conversation, on the
+reunion of the two churches, having taken place, between Doctor Dupin,
+and him, he acquainted the archbishop of Canterbury, with the subject of
+them. This communication, produced some compliments from the archbishop,
+to Dr. Dupin, and these, led the latter, to address, to his grace, a
+letter, in which he mentioned generally, that, on some points in
+dispute, the supposed difference between the two communions was
+reconcileable. The correspondence getting wind, Doctor Piers, pronounced
+a discourse in the Sorbonne, in which he earnestly exhorted his
+colleagues, to promote the reunion, by revising those articles, of
+doctrine, and discipline, which protestants branded with the name of
+papal tyranny; and contended, that, by proscribing the ultramontane
+doctrines, the first step to the reunion would be made. The discourse,
+was communicated to Dr. Wake: in his answer, he pressed Dr. Dupin, for a
+more explicit declaration, on the leading points, in controversy.
+
+In compliance with this requisition, Doctor Dupin drew up his
+_Commonitorium_, and communicated it, to several persons of distinction,
+both in the state, and church of France. He discussed in it, the
+Thirty-nine Articles, as they regarded doctrine, morality, and
+discipline. He insisted on the necessity of tradition, to interpret the
+scriptures, and to establish the canonicity of the books, of the Old and
+New Testament. He insisted on the infallibility, of the church, in
+faith, and morals; he contended, that the sacrifice of the mass, was not
+a simple sacrament, but a continuation of the sacrifice of the cross.
+
+The word Transubstantiation, he seemed willing to give up, if the Roman
+Catholic doctrine, intended to be expressed by it, were retained. He
+proposed, that communion under both kinds, or under bread alone, should
+be left, to the discretion of the different churches, and consented,
+that persons in holy orders should retain their state, with such
+provisions, as would place the validity of their ordination, beyond
+exception. The marriage of priests, in the countries, in which such
+marriages were allowed, and the recitation of the divine service in the
+vulgar tongue, he allowed; and intimated that no difficulty would be
+found in the ultimate settlement of the doctrine, respecting purgatory,
+indulgences, the veneration of saints, relics, or images. He seems to
+have thought, that the Pope can exercise, no immediate jurisdiction,
+within the dioceses of bishops, and that his primacy invested him, with
+no more than a general conservation, of the deposit of the faith, a
+right to enforce, the observance of the sacred canons, and the general
+maintenance of discipline. He allowed, in general terms, that there was
+little substantially wrong, in the discipline of the Church of England;
+he deprecated all discussion, on the original merit of reformation, and
+he professed to see no use in the Pope's intervention, till the basis of
+the negotiation, should be settled.
+
+The answer of the archbishop, was not very explicit. It is evident from
+it, that he thought, the quarrels on Jansenism, had alienated the
+Jansenists and their adherents, from the Pope, much more, than they had
+done, in reality. He was willing to concede, to the Pope, a primacy of
+rank and honour, but would by no means allow him, a primacy of
+jurisdiction, or any primacy, by divine right. On the other points, he
+seemed to have thought, that they might come to an agreement, on what
+they should declare, to be the fundamental doctrine of the churches, and
+adopt, on every other point of doctrine, a general system, of christian
+toleration.
+
+The correspondence, which is very interesting, may be seen, in the last
+volume of the English translation, of Doctor Mosheim's Ecclesiastical
+History. To facilitate, the accomplishment of the object of it, Doctor
+Courayer, published his celebrated treatise, on _the Validity of English
+Ordinations_.
+
+Both Dr. Wake, and Dr. Dupin. were censured, by the members of their
+respective communions, for the parts, which they had taken, in this
+business. Several rigid members of the English Church, and even some
+foreign protestants, blamed Dr. Wake, for what they termed, his too
+great concessions. In France, the worst of motives, were imputed to Dr.
+Dupin, and his associates; they were accused, of making unjustifiable
+sacrifices, in order to form an union, between the Jansenists, and the
+members of the English Church. Even the regent, took the alarm: he
+ordered Dr. Dupin, to discontinue the correspondence, and to leave all
+the papers, respecting it, with the minister. This was done, but the
+most important of them, have been printed, in the interesting and
+extensively circulated publication, which has been mentioned.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+_Miscellaneous Remarks on the Reunion of Christians._
+
+
+It does not appear, that subsequently to the communications, between
+Archbishop Wake, and Dr. Dupin, any attempts for a general, or partial
+reunion of christians, were made in the last century: but, early in the
+present, _Napoleon_, conceived the project, of effecting, such a
+reunion. He is said, to have particularly had in view, the
+catholicizing, as it was termed, the northern part, of Germany. To
+forward his design, many works were published: one of them, the _Essai
+sur l'Unite des Cultes_, of M. Bonald, is written, with great ingenuity.
+That Essay, and several others by the same author, were inserted in the
+_Ambigu_ of Peltier, and deserve the attention, of every reader. Though
+they contain some things, to which a Roman Catholic writer, would
+object, they are evidently written, by a Roman Catholic pen.
+
+The first point to be considered, by those, who meditate the project of
+reunion, is, its practicability--those, who are disposed, to contend for
+the affirmative, will observe, the number of important articles, of
+Christian Faith, in which, all Christians, are agreed, and the
+proportionally small number of those, in which, any Christians disagree.
+
+All Christians believe,
+
+    1st. That there is one God;
+
+    2d. That he is a Being, of infinite perfection;
+
+    3d. That he directs all things, by his providence;
+
+    4th. That it is our duty to love him, with all our hearts, and our
+    neighbour, as ourselves;
+
+    5th. That it is our duty, to repent, of the sins we commit;
+
+    6th. That God, pardons the truly penitent;
+
+    7th. That there is a future state, of rewards, and punishments,
+    when all mankind shall be judged, according to their works;
+
+    8th. That God, sent his Son, into the world, to be its saviour, the
+    author of eternal salvation, to all, that obey him;
+
+    9th. That he is the true Messiah;
+
+    10th. That he taught, worked miracles, suffered, died, and rose
+    again, as is related in the four gospels;
+
+    11th. That he will hereafter, make a second appearance on the
+    earth, raise all mankind from the dead, judge the world in
+    righteousness, bestow eternal life on the virtuous, and punish the
+    workers of iniquity.
+
+In the belief of these articles, all Christians, the Roman Catholic, all
+the Oriental churches, all the members of the Church of England, all
+Lutherans, Calvinists, Socinians, and Unitarians, are agreed. In
+addition to these, each division, and subdivision of Christians, has its
+own tenets. Now, let each settle among its own members, what are the
+articles of belief, peculiar to them, which, in their cool deliberate
+judgment, they consider as _absolutely necessary_ that a person should
+believe, to be a member of the church of Christ; let these articles be
+divested of all foreign matter, and expressed in perspicuous, exact, and
+unequivocal terms; and, above all, let each distinction of Christians,
+earnestly wish, to find an agreement, between themselves and their
+fellow Christians:--the result of a discussion conducted on this plan,
+would most assuredly be, to convince all Christians, that the essential
+articles of religious credence, in which there is, a real difference
+among Christians, are not so numerous, as the verbal disputes, and
+extraneous matter, in which controversy is too often involved, make them
+generally thought.
+
+Still,--some articles will remain, the belief of which, one denomination
+of Christians, will consider to be the obligation of every Christian,
+and which other Christian denominations, will condemn. On some of those,
+a _speedy_ reunion of Christians is not to be expected: but, to use the
+language of Mr. _Vansittart_, in His excellent letter to the reverend
+Dr. Marsh and John Coker, Esq.,
+
+    "There is an inferior degree of Reunion, more within our prospect,
+    and yet perhaps as perfect as human infirmity allows us to hope
+    for; wherein, though all differences of opinion, should not be
+    extinguished, yet they may be refined, from all party prejudices,
+    and interested views, so softened by the spirit of charity, and
+    mutual concession, and so controuled by agreement, on the leading
+    principles, and zeal, for the general interests of christianity,
+    that no sect, or persuasion, should be tempted to make religion,
+    subservient to secular views, or to employ political power, to the
+    prejudice of others.--The existence of Dissent, will, perhaps, be
+    inseparable from religious freedom, so long, as the mind of man, is
+    liable to error: but it is not unreasonable to hope, that
+    hostility, may cease, though perfect agreement, cannot be established.
+    IF WE CANNOT RECONCILE ALL OPINIONS, LET US RECONCILE ALL HEARTS."
+
+These pages, cannot be closed better, than by these golden words!!!
+
+
+
+
+
+FINIS.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES.
+
+
+[Footnote 001: Tom. xi. p. 1. 200.]
+
+[Footnote 002: De Institutiones Clericorum, L. iii. c. xviii. &c.]
+
+[Footnote 003: In his "Recueil des Ecrits pour servir d'eclaircissement
+de l'histoire de France, 2 vol. Paris 1798."]
+
+[Footnote 004: "Roswede, or Aroswethe, a nun in the monastery of
+Gardersheim, lived in the reigns of Otho II. and III. towards the end of
+the tenth century. She composed many works in prose and verse. In 1501,
+some of her poems, on the Martyrdom of St. Denys, the Blessed Virgin,
+St. Ann, &c. were printed at Nuremburgh. Her verses in praise of Otto
+II. would be tolerable, if they were not Leonines: there are in them
+some errors of prosody." Bib. Univers. et Histor. Vol. ii. p. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 005: For a fuller account of Feudal and Civil Jurisprudence,
+the writer of these pages begs leave to refer to his work, entitled,
+"HORAE JURIDICAE SUBSECIVAE, being a connected series of Notes respecting
+the Geography, Chronology, and Literary History of the principal Codes
+and original Documents of the Grecian, Roman, Feudal, and Canon Law." 1
+vol. 8vo.]
+
+[Footnote 006: It is entitled, "_Martiani Minei Felicis Capellae
+Carthaginiensis, Viri Procunsularis, Satyricon, in quo de Nuptiis
+Philologiae et Mecurii libri duo, & de septem artibus liberalibus libri
+singulares. Omnes, et emendati et Notis sive Februis Hug. Grotii
+illustrati. Ex Officina Plantiniana, Apud Christophorum Raphelingium
+Academiae Lugduno-Bat. Typographum_ M. D. C." [Transcriber's note:
+Apostrophic date 1600] The Dedication to the Prince of Conde follows:
+then, Encomiastic Verses by Scaliger, and Tiliabrogus. The two works are
+then inserted, with an address to the reader, Errata, and Various
+Readings. Afterwards, _Hugeiani Grotii Februa[007] in Satyricon Martiani
+Capellae:_ this contains his notes. They are preceded by an Engraving of
+Grotius. Round it, is written, "_Anno_ M. D. C." [Transcriber's note:
+Apostrophic date 1600] Hora Ruit.[008] AEt.xv. Under the engraving the
+following verses are printed,
+
+        "_Quem sibi quindenis_ ASTRAEA _sacravit ab annis,
+        Talis,_ HUGEIANI GROTII _ora fero_."]
+
+[Footnote 007: "Corrections"--or more literarily, "Purifications".]
+
+[Footnote 008: These words were used by Grotius for his motto.]
+
+[Footnote 009: Fabricii Bibliotheca Latina, Lib iii. c. 15. In 1794,
+John Adam Goez published the "Treatise on the Marriage of Philology and
+Mercury" separately, in a duodecimo volume: he mentions, in the preface,
+an edition of it by Walthard. It is on the authority of Goez that we
+have assigned the age of Capella to the third century: others place him
+in a much later period.]
+
+[Footnote 010: Montucla. Histoire des Mathematiques, Vol.ii. p.657.]
+
+[Footnote 011: Vol. 9. p. 147. ii. 1.]
+
+[Footnote 012: A similar exclusive claim in respect to the Indian seas,
+under the grant of Pope Alexander VI., was set up by the Portuguese;
+similar claims to the Ligustic and Adriatic seas, have been and still
+continue to be made by the Genoese and Venetians. Those, who seek for
+information on the subject, should consult the _Dissertation of
+Bynkershook de Dominio Maris_, and note 61 to the recent edition of Sir
+Edward Coke's Commentary upon Littleton.]
+
+[Footnote 013: "Mais, dites vous, dans ce tems meme, le jeune Pison
+pouvolt avoir dix ans: Grotius faisoit bien des vers a cet age. Je le
+scais, mais les Grotius sont ils bien commune! combien d'enfans
+trouveres vous de dix ans, qui ayent nonseulement assez du feu pour
+faire des vers, mais encore assez de jugement pour en juger sainement."
+Gibbon's Posthumous Works, 8vo. vol. i. p. 520.--"Salmasius," says Mr.
+Gibbon in another part of the same entertaining publication, (vol. v. p.
+209), "had read as much as Grotius; but their different modes of reading
+had made the one an enlighten'd philosopher; and the other, to speak
+plainly, a pedant puffed up with an useless erudition."]
+
+[Footnote 014: Bentivoglio, Histoire des Guerres de Flandres, l,
+xxviii.]
+
+[Footnote 015: _Bella plusquam civilia._ Lucan.]
+
+[Footnote 016: Those who wish to obtain a clear, concise, and exact
+notion of Calvinism and Arminianism, will usefully peruse the account of
+them in Mr. Evans's "_Sketch of the Denominations of the Christian
+World_." The thirteenth Edition is now before us, and we believe that it
+has been often since reprinted.]
+
+[Footnote 017: Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. Cent. xvi, ch. 2. Sec. 3. part 2.]
+
+[Footnote 018: Chalmer's Biographical Dictionary, Title "Arminius."]
+
+[Footnote 019: A short and clear account of Arminianism is given by Le
+Clere, in his Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne, Vol. II. Art. 3. p.
+123.]
+
+[Footnote 020: The best discussion of this subject, which has fallen
+into the hands of the writer, is Bourduloue's Sermon _sur la
+Predestination_.]
+
+[Footnote 021: English Translation of Burigni's Life of Grotius, pp. 43,
+44, 45.]
+
+[Footnote 022: Vol. i.]
+
+[Footnote 023: _Letters from and to Sir Dudley Carleton, during his
+Embassy in Holland, from January 1615-16[**Modern presentation.] to
+December 1620. London, 1757, p. 84_,--Sir Dudley Carleton's Letters
+abound with harsh expressions respecting Grotius. The Editor of this
+correspondence has inserted (p. 415) a letter from Grotius to Dr.
+Lancelot Andrews, written from the Castle at Louvestein. "This letter,"
+says the Editor, "which was never printed before, deserves a place here,
+not only for its elegance and spirit, and its connection with the
+subject of the work, but likewise in justice to the memory of the great
+writer, as it contains his own justification of his conduct, which may
+be compared with the less favourable accounts of it in the preceding
+letters of Sir Dudley Carleton. The original is extant among the
+manuscripts in the library of the late Sir Hans Sloane, bart. now part
+of the British Museum."--"Utinam," says Grotius in this letter, "D.
+Carleton mihi esset plus aequior; cui mitigando propinqui mei operam
+dant. Sed partium, studia mire homines obcaecant."]
+
+[Footnote 024: The history of this Synod, and of the whole controversy
+upon Arminianism, is contained in Brand's _History of the Reformation_:
+the account of the synod in these pages, is principally extracted from
+the French abridgment of that work, in 3 volumes 8vo. The Calvinian
+representation of the Arminian doctrines, and the proceedings of the
+synod, may be seen in the late Mr. Scott's _Articles of the Synod of
+Dort_, to which he has prefixed the History of the Events which _made
+way for that Synod_: it is severely censured by Mr. James Nichols, in
+his _Calvinism and Arminianism compared_. Introd. cxlii.
+
+The Abridgment of Brand's History, was translated into the English
+language and published in 1724-25[**Modern presentation.] by _M. de la
+Roche_. He concludes his Preface to it by observing, that "No good man
+can read the work without abhorring arbitrary power, and all manner of
+persecution." The persecution of the Scottish Non-conformists by the
+Episcopalians, and the persecution of the Remonstrants by the
+Contra-Remonstrants, were attended with this enormity, that, in most
+other instances, when one denomination of christians has persecuted
+another, it has been on the ground that the errors of the sufferers were
+impious, and led the maintainers of them to eternal perdition, and
+therefore rendered these wholesome severities, as the persecutors term
+them, a salutary infliction. But, when the Protestant Episcopalian
+persecuted the Scottish Non-conformist, or the Contra-Remonstrant
+persecuted the Remonstrant, he persecuted a Christian who agreed with
+him in all which he himself deemed to be substantial articles of faith,
+and differed from him only about rites and opinions, which he himself
+allowed to be indifferent.--See Mr. Neale's just remark, Vol. II. ch.
+vi.]
+
+[Footnote 025: In 1765, Lord Hailes published a beautiful edition of
+"The Works of the Ever-memorable Mr. John Hales of Eaton, then first
+collected together," in three volumes, at Glasgow. It is to be lamented
+that he did not accompany it with a full biographical account of Mr.
+Hales.
+
+"His biographers," says Mr. Chalmers, "all allow that he may be classed
+among those divines who were afterwards called Latitudinarians." May he
+not be termed the founder of that splendid school? Perceiving that the
+minds of men required to be more liberally enlightened, and their
+affections to be more powerfully engaged on the side of religion than
+was formerly thought necessary, they set themselves, to use the language
+of Bishop Burnet, "to raise those who conversed with them to another
+sort of thoughts, and to consider the Christian religion as a doctrine
+sent from God, both to elevate and to sweeten human nature. With this
+view, they laboured chiefly to take men from being in parties from
+narrow notions, and from fierceness about opinions. They also continued
+to keep a good correspondence with those who differed from them in
+opinion and allowed a great freedom both in philosophy and divinity."
+(Burnet's History of his own Times. Vol. I. p. 261-268, oct. edit.)
+Hales, Chillingworth, Taylor, Cudworth, Wilkins, Tillotson,
+Stillingfleet, and Patrick, were among their brightest ornaments. They
+were in some respects hostile to the Roman Catholics: _in hoc non
+laudo_.--See the Writer's History of the English, Irish, and Scottish
+Catholics. Vol. III. c. lxviii. sect. 1. 3d edition.]
+
+[Footnote 026: "King James," says Mr. James Nichols, in his Calvinism
+and Arminianism compared, p. 242, "sent a deputation of respectable
+British divines, for the double and undisguised purpose of condemning
+the Remonstrants, but especially Vorstius, (whom his Majesty had long
+before exposed to the world as an arch-heretic), and of assisting the
+Prince of Orange in his design of usurping the liberties of the United
+Provinces, and assuming the supreme authority. The Elector Palatine sent
+his Heidelberg divines for the same family purpose; and the Duke of
+Bouillon employed all his influence with the chief pastors among the
+French reformed."]
+
+[Footnote 027: The words of the former are remarkable: "The errors of
+public actions, if they be not very gross, are with less inconvenience
+tolerated than amended. For the danger of alteration, of disgracing and
+disabling authority, makes that the fortune of such proceeding admits of
+no redress; but being howsoever well or ill done, they must ever after
+be upheld. The most partial spectator of our synodal acts cannot but
+confess, that, in the late discussion of the Remonstrants, with so much
+choler and heat, there was a great oversight committed, and
+that,--whether we respect our common profession of Christianity, 'quae
+nil nisi justum suadet et lene,' or the quality of this people, apt to
+mutiny by reason of long liberty, and not having learned to be
+imperiously commanded,--in which argument the clergy should not have
+read their first lesson. The synod, therefore, to whom it is not now _in
+integro_ to go back and rectify what is amiss, without disparagement,
+must now go forward and leave events to God, and for the countenance of
+their actions do the best they may." Letter to Sir Dudley Carleton, 11
+January 1619.]
+
+[Footnote 028: _Nichol's Calvinism and Arminianism compared_, Vol. II.
+p.592]
+
+[Footnote 029: _Decline and Fall_, Ch. LIV. towards the end.]
+
+[Footnote 030: The writers who have given an account of the Synod of
+Dort are mentioned by Fabricius, Bib. Graeca, Vol. XI. p. 723. Some
+useful observations upon the proceedings of the Synod may be found in
+"Mr. Nichols's _Calvinism and Arminianism compared_." It is much to be
+wished that the promised continuation of this work should speedily make
+its appearance.
+
+But no work upon this famous Synod deserves more attention than
+"_Johannis Halesii, Historia Concilii Dordraceni, J. Laur. Moshemius
+Theol. Doct. et P.P.C. ex Anglico Sermone latine vertit, variis
+observationibus et Vita Halesii ausit. Accessit ejusdem de auctoritate
+Concilii Dordraceni Paci Sacrae noxii, Consultatio. Hamburgi_, 8vo." M.
+Le Clere's criticism on this work (_Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne_
+Vol. 23, art. 4.) contains much valuable information upon the Synod, and
+a summary of the life and writings of Mr. Hales.--Des Maizeaux published
+a curious account of them in 1719.]
+
+[Footnote 031: Pfaffii Hist. Literaria, vol. ii. p. 303.]
+
+[Footnote 032: Burigni's Life of Grotius, lib. ii. sect. 12.]
+
+[Footnote 033: Cent XVII, sect. 2, Part 2 (Note Y.)]
+
+[Footnote 034: Mr. James Nicholls's Calvinism and Arminianism compared.
+Vol. i. p. 597, 600, 634, 636.]
+
+[Footnote 035: See Mr. Dugald Stewart's first Dissertation, sect. III.]
+
+[Footnote 036: See Joannis Christopheri Locheri Dissertatio Epistolica
+Historiam libelli Grotiani _De Veritate Religionis Christianae_
+complectens, 1725, in quarto; and the Journal de Scavans for the year
+1724.]
+
+[Footnote 037: See Nichols's Calvinism and Arminianism compared, vol. i.
+p. 289.]
+
+[Footnote 038: On the respect, which the Church of England considers to
+be due to the writings of the early Fathers, see the excellent Appendix
+to the Sermons of Dr. Jebb, the Right Reverend Bishop of Limerick.]
+
+[Footnote 039: Vol. iii. L. 38. This letter merits a serious perusal.]
+
+[Footnote 040: Dict. Historique, Preliminaire, p. xxix.]
+
+[Footnote 041: Vol.1. p. 121]
+
+[Footnote 042: Those, who will read his life, published by the writer of
+these pages, with other Tracts, in 1819, will not, it is believed, think
+this too strong an assertion. Is it not to be earnestly hoped, that in
+the distress by which we are now visited, and the greater distress with
+which we are threatened, many St. Vincents will appear?]
+
+[Footnote 043: Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. ch. ii. sect. ii. part. ii. and
+Bynkershock's Quest. Juris publici, lib. ii. ch. 18.]
+
+[Footnote 044: Le Clerc, (Bib. Anc. et Mod. vol. xxiii. Art. iv.)
+strenuously objects to this representation of Dr. Mosheim. "The
+Arminians," he says, "have introduced no dogma as necessary to
+salvation, which was unknown to the framers of their Confession of
+Faith; neither have they retrenched from it, any article essential to
+faith." He however observes, "that there are many ways of explaining
+dogmas." Now, the same dogma explained in two ways, amounts to two
+dogmas.]
+
+[Footnote 045: See the third part of "_the last of Bossuet's Six
+Addresses to the Protestants_," and the passages which he cites in it
+from Jurieu.
+
+For the actual state of Religious Doctrine, both in the Lutheran and
+Reformed Churches of Germany, the reader may usefully consult, "_The
+State of the Protestant Religion in Germany, in a series of Discourses
+preached before the University of Cambridge, by the Rev. Hugh James
+Rose, M.A. 8vo. 1825_;" and "_Entretiens Philosophiques sur la Re-union
+des differens communions chretiens, par feu M. le Baron Starck, Ministre
+Protestant, et premier predicateur, de la Cour de Hesse Darmstadt, &c.
+8vo. 1818_;" and "_Tabaraud's Histoire des Re-unions des Chretiens._"]
+
+[Footnote 046: Tom. XLVI. Art. 12. p. 208.]
+
+[Footnote 047: Page 283.]
+
+[Footnote 048: Page 284, 285.]
+
+[Footnote 049: Page 286.]
+
+[Footnote 050: Page 287.]
+
+[Footnote 051: Page 288.]
+
+[Footnote 052: Page 288.]
+
+[Footnote 053: Page 291.]
+
+[Footnote 054: Page 292.]
+
+[Footnote 055: Page 293.]
+
+[Footnote 056: Page 294.]
+
+[Footnote 057: Page 296.]
+
+[Footnote 058: Page 298.]
+
+[Footnote 059: Page 299.]
+
+[Footnote 060: Page 300. M. Le Clerc, (_Sentimens de quelques
+Theologiens de Hollande, dix-septieme Lettre_) defends Grotius with
+great ability against the charge of Socinianism: he justly observes,
+that, his abstaining from unpleasing propositions, his silence on
+offensive doctrines, and his conciliating expressions, should not too
+easily be accounted proofs, of belief of his precise sentiments of any
+particular tenets. Grotius, says Le Clerc, was like an arbitrator, who,
+to bring to amity the parties in difference, recommends to each, that he
+should give something of what he himself considers to be his strict
+right.]
+
+[Footnote 061: Ep. 363. p. 364]
+
+[Footnote 062: Ep. 491. p. 195.]
+
+[Footnote 063: Ep. 494. p. 896.]
+
+[Footnote 064: Ep. 1706. p. 736.]
+
+[Footnote 065: _Comparison of Calvinism and Arminianism_. vol. ii. p.
+560.]
+
+[Footnote 066: Ib. Vol. ii. p. 609.]
+
+[Footnote 067: Ep. 1538. p. 573, 690, 926.]
+
+[Footnote 068: Ep. 528. p. 400.]
+
+[Footnote 069: "Those," says Mr. James Nichols,[070]
+
+    "who wish to behold the praises to which HUGO GROTIUS or HUGH DE
+    GROOT, is justly entitled, and which he has received in ample
+    measure from admiring friends and reluctant foes, may consult SIR
+    THOMAS POPE BLOUNT's _Censura celebriorum Authorum_. His well
+    earned reputation is founded on too durable a basis to be moved by
+    such petty attacks as those to which I have alluded in a previous
+    part of this introduction (p. xxi.), or those of Mr. Orme in page
+    641.
+
+    "That a man so accomplished, virtuous, fearless, and unfortunate,
+    should have had many enemies, among his contemporaries, is not
+    wonderful. But the number of those who evinced their hatred to him,
+    or to his philanthropic labours, increased after his decease, when
+    they could display it with impunity. 'This very pious, learned, and
+    judicious man,' says Dr. Hammond, 'hath of late, among many, fallen
+    under a very unhappy fate, being most unjustly calumniated,
+    sometimes as a SOCINIAN, sometimes as a PAPIST, and, as if he had
+    learnt to reconcile contradictions, sometimes _as both of them
+    together._'
+
+    "One cause of the Charge of SOCINIANISM being preferred against him,
+    has been already mentioned, (p. xxxiii.) and it is more fully
+    explained in pages 637, 642. The reader will not require many
+    additional reasons to convince him of the untenable ground for such
+    an accusation, when he is told that VOETIUS, one of the most
+    violent of his enemies, laid down this grand axiom--'To place the
+    principal part of religion in an _observance of Christ's commands
+    is_ RANK SOCIANISM!' To such a _practical observance of the_
+    requisitions of the Gospel, by what name soever it might be
+    stigmatized, Grotius pleaded guilty. He says (p. 637) 'I perceive
+    this was accounted the principal part of religion by the Christians
+    of the primitive ages; and their various assemblies, divines, and
+    martyrs taught, 'that the doctrines _necessary to be known_ are
+    exceedingly few, but that God forms his estimate of us from the
+    purpose and intention of an obedient spirit.' I am likewise of the
+    same opinion, and shall never repent of having maintained it.'
+
+    "But as the charge of POPERY is of the utmost consequence, I have
+    discussed this topic at great length, (pp. 566, 746), and have
+    proved (pp. 549, 561), that Grotius was as little attached to the
+    principles or the practice of the Romish church as the most zealous
+    of his accusers. Whatever tends to vindicate the conduct of Grotius
+    in this matter, will operate still more powerfully in favour of
+    Archbishop Laud. The design of Grotius is well described by Dr.
+    Hammond, in a _Digression_ which he added to his _Answer_ to the
+    _Animadversions on his Dissertations_; in which he says,
+
+    "'For the charge of Popery that is fallen upon him, it is evident
+    from whence that flows,--either from his _profest opposition to
+    many doctrines of some Reformers, Zuinglius and Calvin, &c_. or
+    from his _Annotations on Cassander, and the Debates with Rivet
+    consequent thereto, the Votum pro pace and Discussio_.'
+
+    "For the former of these, it is sufficiently known what contests
+    there were, and at length how profest the divisions betwixt the
+    Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants; and it is confessed that he
+    maintained (all his time) the Remonstrants party, vindicating it
+    from all charge, whether of Pelagianism or Semi-Pelagianism, which
+    was by the opposers objected to it, and pressing the favourers of
+    the doctrine of Irrespective Decrees with the odious consequences
+    of making God the _author and favourer of sin_, and frequently
+    expressing his sense of the evil influences that some of those
+    doctrines were experimented to have on men's lives. And by these
+    means it is not strange that he should fall under great displeasure
+    from those who, having espoused the opinion of Irrespective
+    Decrees, did not only publish it as the THE TRUTH and TRUTH OF GOD,
+    but farther asserted the questioning of it to be injurious to God's
+    free grace and his Eternal Election, and consequently retained no
+    ordinary patience for or charity to opposers. But, then, still this
+    is no medium to to infer that charge. The doctrines which he thus
+    maintained were neither branches nor characters of Popery, but
+    asserted by some of the first and most learned and pious Reformers.
+    Witness the writings of Hemingius in his _Opuscula_, most of which
+    are on these subjects. Whereas on the contrary side, Zuinglius and
+    others, who maintained the rigid way of Irrespective Decrees, and
+    infused them into some of this nation of ours, are truly said, by
+    an excellent writer of ours, Dr. Jackson, to _have had it first
+    from some ancient Romish Schoolmen_, and so to have had as much or
+    more of that guilt adherent to them, as can be charged on their
+    opposers. So that from hence to found the jealousy, to affirm him a
+    papist because he was not a contra-remonstrant, is but the old
+    method of speaking all that is ill of those who differ from our
+    opinions on any thing; as the Dutchman in his rage calls his horse
+    an ARMINIAN, because he doth not not go as he would have him. And
+    this is all that can soberly be concluded from such suggestions,
+    that they are displeased and passionate that thus speak.
+
+    "As for the _Annotations on Cassander_, &c. and the consequent
+    vindications of himself against _Rivet_, those have with some
+    colour been deemed more favourable toward Popery; but yet I suppose
+    will be capable of benign interpretations, if they be read with
+    these few cautions or remembrances:
+
+    "_First_. That they were designed to shew a way to peace whensoever
+    men's minds on both sides should be piously affected to it.
+
+    "_Secondly_. That he did not hope for this temper in his age, the
+    humour on both sides being so turgent, and extremely contrary to
+    it, and the controversy debated on both sides by those 'who,' saith
+    he, '_desire to eternize, and not to compose contentions_,' and
+    therefore makes his appeal to posterity, when this paroxysm shall
+    be over.
+
+    "_Thirdly_. That for the chief usurpations of the papacy; he leaves
+    it to Christian princes to join together to vindicate their own
+    rights, and reduce the Pope _ad Canones_, to that temper, which the
+    ancient canons allow and require of him; and if that will not be
+    done, to reform every one in their own dominions.
+
+    "_Fourthly_. That what he saith in favour of some Popish doctrines,
+    above what some other learned Protestants have said, is not so much
+    by way of _assertion_ or _justification_ of them, as to shew what
+    reasons they may justly be thought to proceed upon, and so not to
+    be go irrational or impious as they are ordinarily accounted; and
+    this only in order to the peace of the christian world, that we may
+    have as much charity to others and not as high animosities, live
+    with all men as sweetly and amicably, and peaceably, and not as
+    bitterly as is possible, accounting the wars and seditions, and
+    divisions and rebellions, that are raised and managed upon the
+    account of religion, far greater and more scandalous unchristian
+    evils, than are the errors of some Romish doctrines, especially as
+    they are maintained by the more sober and moderate men among them,
+    Cassander, Picherel, &c.
+
+    "_Fifthly_. What he saith in his _Discussio_, of a conjunction of
+    Protestants with those that adhere to the Bishop of Rome, is no
+    farther to be extended, than his words extend it. That there is not
+    any other visible way to the end there mentioned by him, of
+    acquiring or preserving universal unity. That this is to be done,
+    not crudely, by returning to them as they are, submitting our necks
+    to our former yokes, but by taking away at once the division, and
+    the causes of it, on which side soever; adding only in the third
+    place, that the bare primacy of the Bishop of Rome, _secundum
+    Canones_, such as the ancient canons allow of, (which hath nothing
+    of _supreme universal power_, or authority in it,) is none of those
+    causes, nor consequently necessary to be excluded in the [Greek:
+    diallaktikon], citing that as the confession of that excellent
+    person Philip Melancthon. So that in effect, that whole speech of
+    his which is so solemnly vouched by Mr. Knott, and looked on so
+    jealously by many of us, is no more than this, 'that such a Primacy
+    of the Bishop of Rome, as the ancient canons allowed him, were, for
+    so glorious an end as is the regaining the peace of christendom,
+    very reasonably to be afforded him, nay absolutely necessary to be
+    yielded him, whensoever any such catholic union shall be attempted,
+    which as it had been the express opinion of Melancthon, one of the
+    first and wisest Reformers, so it is far from any design of
+    establishing the usurpations of the Papacy, or any of their false
+    doctrines attending them, but only designed as an expedient for the
+    restoring the peace of the whole christian world, which every
+    disciple of Christ is so passionately required to contend and pray
+    for.'
+
+"At the conclusion of the Doctor's _Continuation of the Defence of_ HUGO
+GROTIUS, he thus expresses himself:
+
+    "'As this is an act of mere justice and charity to the dead,--and no
+    less to those who, by their sin of uncharitable thoughts towards
+    him, are likely to deprive themselves of the benefit of his
+    labours,--so is it but a proportionable return of debt and
+    gratitude to the signal value and kindness, which in his lifetime,
+    he constantly professed to pay to this church and nation,
+    expressing his opinion, "that of all churches in the world, it was
+    the most careful observer and transcriber of primitive antiquity,"
+    and more than intimating his desire to end his days in the bosom
+    and communion of our mother. Of this I want not store of witnesses,
+    which from time to time have heard it from his own mouth whilst he
+    was ambassador in France, and even in his return to Sweden,
+    immediately before his death; and for a real evidence of this
+    truth, it is no news to many, that, at the taking his journey from
+    Paris, he appointed his wife, whom he left behind, to resort to the
+    English Assembly at the Agent's house, which accordingly she is
+    known to have practised.'"]
+
+[Footnote 070: Calvinism and Arminianism compared, Introduction,
+cxxxii.]
+
+[Footnote 071: A dialogue on the Reformation was also in the
+contemplation of Mr. Gibbon: "I have," he says in the Memoirs of his
+life and writings,[072] "sometimes thought of writing a dialogue of the
+dead, in which Luther, Erasmus and Voltaire should mutually acknowledge
+the danger of exposing an old superstition to the contempt of the blind
+and fanatic multitude."]
+
+[Footnote 072: Vol. i. p. 269, of the 8vo. edition of his works.]
+
+[Footnote 073: A full account of the writings of _Wicelius_, and of his
+projects of Pacification, is given by _Father Simon_ in the _Biblioteque
+Critique, par M. de Sainjore_, Tom. ii. ch. 18. He concludes it, by
+observing, that
+
+    "the great love which Wicelius had for the peace of the church,
+    might induce him to use expressions, somewhat harsh, but which
+    really ought not to be censured with too much rigour. It is evident
+    that his only view was to be useful to persons of his own time, to
+    whom he consecrated the latter part of his life.--I do not
+    recollect to have read that he was censured at Rome, and the
+    Spanish Inquisitors seem to have observed the same moderation in
+    his regard."]
+
+[Footnote 074: XVI. Cent. Book V. p. 41, in the Englsh translation.]
+
+[Footnote 075: See Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, Cent. XVII. ch. ii.
+sect. ii. Part II.]
+
+[Footnote 076: Eccles. Hist. Cent. XVI. ch. ii. sect. iii. Part. II.]
+
+[Footnote 077: Observat. Hallen, 15 t. p. 341.]
+
+[Footnote 078: It is a prayer addressed to Jesus Christ, and suited to
+the condition of a dying person who builds his hope on the Mediator. _M.
+Le Clerc_ has inserted it at length in the _Sentimens de quelques
+Theologiens de Hollande_, 17 Lettre, p. 397.]
+
+[Footnote 079: Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson, 2d Vol. p. 502. 2d
+Edition.]
+
+[Footnote 080: The author's "Confessions of Faith," mention this
+convention, its dissolution, and the subsequent union of the Helvetian,
+and Bohemian protestant congregations, in the Synods, held at Astrog, in
+the years 1620, and 1627. The original settlement of these churches, was
+in Bohemia, and Moravia. Persecution scattered the members of them: a
+considerable number of the fugitives, settled at Herrenhut, a village in
+Lusatia. There, under the protection and guidance of Count Zinzendorf,
+they formed themselves into a new community, which was designed to
+comprehend their actual and future congregations, under the title of
+"_The Protestant Church of the Unitas Fratrum, or United Brethren of the
+Confession of Augsburgh_." That Confession is their only symbolic book;
+but they profess great esteem for the eighteen first chapters of the
+Synodical Document of the church of Berne in 1532, as a declaration of
+true Christian Doctrine. They also respect, the writings of Count
+Zinzendorf, but do not consider themselves, bound by any opinion,
+sentiment, or expression, which these contain. It is acknowledged, that,
+towards the middle of the last century, they used in their devotional
+exercises, particularly in their hymns, many expressions justly
+censurable: but these have been corrected. They consider Lutherans and
+Calvinists, to be their brethren in faith, as according with them in the
+essential articles of religion; and therefore, when any of their members
+reside at a distance from a congregation of the United Brethren, they
+not only attend a Lutheran, or Calvinist church, but receive the
+Sacrament, from its ministers, without scruple. In this, they profess to
+act in conformity to the Convention at Sendomer. The union, which
+prevails both among the congregations, and the individuals which compose
+them, their modest and humble carriage, their moderation in lucrative
+pursuits, the simplicity of their manners, their laborious industry,
+their frugal habits, their ardent but mild piety, and their regular
+discharge of all their spiritual observances, are universally
+acknowledged and admired. Their charities are boundless, their kindness
+to their poor brethren is most edifying; there is not among them a
+beggar. The care, which they bestow, on the education of their children,
+in forming their minds, chastening their hearts, and curbing their
+imaginations,--particularly in those years,
+
+                       "When youth, elate and gay,
+    Steps into life and follows, unrestrained,
+    Where passion leads, or reason points the way."     _Lowth._
+
+are universally acknowledged, universally admired, and deserve universal
+imitation.
+
+But, it is principally, by the extent and success of their missionary
+labours, that they now engage, the attention of the public. These began,
+in 1732. In 1812, they had thirty-three settlements, in heathen nations.
+One hundred and thirty-seven missionaries, were employed in them: they
+had baptized, twenty-seven thousand, four hundred converts: and such had
+been their care, in admitting them to that sacred rite, and such their
+assiduity, in cultivating a spirit of religion, among them, that
+scarcely an individual, had been known, to relapse into paganism. All
+travellers, who have visited their settlements, speak with wonder, and
+praise, of the humility, the patient endurance of privation, and
+hardship, the affectionate zeal, the mild, and persevering exertions of
+the missionaries; and the innocence, industry and piety of the
+converts:--the European, the American, the African, and the Asiatic
+traveller speaks of them, in the same terms: and, that they speak
+without exaggeration, the conduct both of the pastor, and the flock in
+the different settlements of the United Brethren in England,
+incontestibly proves. Whatever he may think of their religious tenets,
+_Talis cum sitis, utinam nostri essetis_, must be the exclamation of
+every christian, who considers their lives. Those, who desire further
+knowledge of this amiable, and worthy denomination of Christians, will
+find it in _David Cranz's ancient and modern History of the Brethren,
+printed at Barby, 1771, and the two continuations of it, Barby_, 1791,
+and 1804. The History has been translated into English; and is become
+exceedingly scarce; the Continuations have not been translated. Mr. La
+Trobe, the Pastor of the United Brethren in London, has published a
+_Concise Historical Account of the Protestant Church of the United
+Brethren adhering to the Confession of Augsburgh_.]
+
+[Footnote 081: Epist. 1706, p. 736.]
+
+[Footnote 082: Ib. Epist. 613.]
+
+[Footnote 083: Epist. part. I. Epist. 432. part II. Epist. 53. The
+French public strongly suspected the Cardinal of this design. It gave
+rise to the celebrated libel, entitled "_Optatus Gallus,_" _Grotius_,
+(Lit. 982.) notices a prophecy of Nostradamus, then in circulation:
+
+        "_Celui qui etait bien avant dans le regne,
+        Ayant chat rouge, proche, hierarchie,
+        Apre et cruel, et se fera tant craindre,
+        Succedera, a sacree Monarchie._"
+
+If the event in question had happened, Nostradamus would have passed,
+with many for a prophet.]
+
+[Footnote 084: Eclaircissemens de l'edit de Nantes, page 1. c. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 085: V. 2. p. 38, 148.]
+
+[Footnote 086: We are grieved to add, that he allowed the _right_ of a
+sovereign to persecute for religion.]
+
+[Footnote 087: This article is extracted from Oeuvres Posthumes de
+Bossuet, vol. i. Nouvelle edition des Oeuvres de Bossuet, vol. ii.
+Leibnizii Opera, studio Ludovici Dutens, vol. i. and v. And the Pensees
+de Leibniz, vol. ii. 8vo.]
+
+[Footnote 088: Tom. xiii.]
+
+[Footnote 089: See the Appendix to the Sermons of Dr. Jebb, the present
+excellent Bishop of Limerick.--Cadel, 1824.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+                              Luke Hansard & Sons,
+                       near Lincoln's-Inn Fields, London.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+                              By the same Author,
+
+                              THE LIFE OF ERASMUS:
+
+                                      WITH
+
+    HISTORICAL REMARKS ON THE STATE OF LITERATURE BETWEEN THE TENTH AND
+                             SIXTEENTH CENTURIES.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF HUGO GROTIUS***
+
+
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