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diff --git a/14037-0.txt b/14037-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4ed13d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/14037-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7218 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14037 *** + +THE LIFE OF HUGO GROTIUS + +With Brief Minutes of the Civil, Ecclesiastical, and Literary History +of the Netherlands + +by + +CHARLES BUTLER, ESQ. + +Of Lincoln's-Inn + +London: John Murray, Albemarle-Street. + +M.DCCC.XXVI. + + + + +TO +HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS +THE DUKE OF SUSSEX, +THIS BIOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT +OF +ONE OF THE MOST AMIABLE AND RESPECTABLE DEFENDERS OF THE NOBLE CAUSE OF +CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY, +OF WHICH +HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS HAS UNIFORMLY BEEN A CONSTANT AND POWERFUL ADVOCATE, +IS +(WITH HIS PERMISSION), +MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, +BY +THE AUTHOR, + +Great Ormond Street + +29 Sept. 1826 + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +In the following pages we shall attempt to present our Readers, with a +Life of HUGO GROTIUS; and MINUTES OF THE CIVIL, ECCLESIASTICAL, AND +LITERARY HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS. + +In writing these pages, we principally consulted his life, written in +the French language, by _M. de Burigni_, Member of the French Royal +Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres; an English translation of +it, was published in 1754, in one Volume, 8vo.; + +_Hugonis Grotii Manes, ab iniquis obtrectationibus vindicati_; 2 +vols. 8vo. 1727: the author of this work is said to be M. Lehman; + +The article _Grotius_, in _Bayle's and Chalmers's +Dictionaries_; + +And many of the letters in _Hugonis Grotii Epistolæ_, published at +Amsterdam in 1687, in one volume, folio; and many in the _Præstantium +et Eruditorum Virorum Epistolæ Ecclesiasticæ_, published at Amsterdam +in 1684, in one volume, 4to. + +For what we have said on GERMANY AND THE NETHERLANDS, we principally +consulted, + +_Schmidt's Histoire des Allemands_; + +_Pfeffell's Histoire Abregé de l'Allemagne_, 2 vols. 8vo.; + +_Mr. Durnford's excellent Translation, of Professor Pütter's +Historical Developement, of the Political History of the German +Empire_; 3 vols. 8vo.; + +And _Hugonis Grotii Annales, et Historiæ de Rebus Belgicis_, one +vol. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1658. + +In our account of the troubles on _Arminianism_, and the Synod of +Dort; we principally consulted, the French Abridgment, in 3 vols. 8vo. +of _Brand's History of the Netherlands_, and _Grotius's_ +excellent _Apology_: + +In every part of the work, we have consulted other publications;--three +only of these we shall mention; + +The three _Bibliothècques_ of Le Clerc; + +_The Life of Arminius_, and + +_Calvinism and Arminianism Compared_, by Mr. James Nichols. + +From these materials the following pages have been composed: they may be +found to contain,-- + + +INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER + + + + +A.D. 800-911. + + + +I. 1. _Boundaries, and Devolution of the Empire of + Germany, during the Carlovingian dynasty_ + 2. _State of Literature, in the time of Charlemagne_ + 3. _Decline of Literature, under the Descendants of + Charlemagne_ + +A.D. 911-1024. + +II. 1. _Boundaries, and Devolution of the empire of + Germany, during the Saxon dynasty_ + 2. _State of Literature, during the Saxon dynasty_ + +A.D. 1024-1138. + +III. 1. _Boundaries, and State of Germany, during the + Franconian dynasty_ + 2. _State of German Literature, during the Franconian + dynasty_ + +A.D. 1138-1519. + +IV. 1. _State of Germany, from the beginning of the + Suabian dynasty, until the accession of the + Emperor Charles V._ + 2. _State of German Literature, during this period_ + +A.D. 1138-1519. + +V. 1. _Antient, and modern Geography of the Netherlands_ + 2. _The formation, of the different provinces of the + Netherlands, into one State_ + 3. _Brief view, of the History of the Netherlands, until + the acknowledgment of the Seven United Provinces, + by the Spanish monarch_ + 4. _Their constitution, and principal officers_ + + +CHAPTER I. + +A.D. 1582-1597. + +BIRTH, AND EDUCATION OF GROTIUS + + +CHAPTER II. + +A.D. 1597-1610. + +GROTIUS, EMBRACES THE PROFESSION OF THE +LAW + + +CHAPTER III. + +THE EARLY PUBLICATIONS, OF GROTIUS + + +CHAPTER IV. + +HISTORICAL MINUTES, OF THE UNITED PROVINCES, +FROM THEIR DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, +TILL THE ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY + + +CHAPTER V. + +A.D. 1610-1617. + +THE FEUDS, IN THE UNITED PROVINCES, BETWEEN +THE DISCIPLES OF CALVIN, AND THE DISCIPLES +OF ARMINIUS, UNTIL THE SYNOD OF DORT + + +CHAPTER VI. +A.D. 1618. + +THE SYNOD OF DORT + + +CHAPTER VII. + +A.D. 1618-1621. + +TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT OF GROTIUS; HIS +ESCAPE FROM PRISON + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +A.D. 1622 + +JAMES I. VORSTIUS + + +CHAPTER IX. + +A.D. 1621-1634. + +GROTIUS, AFTER HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON, UNTIL +HIS APPOINTMENT OF AMBASSADOR, FROM +SWEDEN, TO THE COURT OF FRANCE + + +CHAPTER X. + +SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS, OF GROTIUS +1. _New edition of Stobæus_ +2. _His treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis_ +3. ---- _de Veritate Religionis Christianæ_ +4. ---- _de Jure summarum potestatum circa + sacra._--And _Commentatio ad loca quædam Novi + Testamenti, quæ de Antichristo agunt, aut agere + videntur_ +5. _His Commentaries on the Scriptures_ +6. _His other works_ + + +CHAPTER XI. + +A.D. 1634-1645. + +GROTIUS, AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM +OF SWEDEN, TO THE COURT OF FRANCE + + +CHAPTER XII. + +THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS OF GROTIUS; SOME +OTHER OF HIS WORKS, +1. _Subsequent History of Arminianism_ +2. _Grotius's religious sentiments_ +3. _Projects of religious Pacification_ + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +THE DEATH OF GROTIUS + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +A.D. 1680-1815. + +HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF +THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES, +FROM THE DEATH OF WILLIAM II. TILL +THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE KINGDOM OF THE +NETHERLANDS. + +1. _William III._ +2. _John William Count of Nassau Dietz, 1702-1711; + William IV._ 1711-1751 +3. _From the death of William IV. till the erection of + the Kingdom of the Netherlands_ + + +APPENDIX I. + +_Some Account of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith, + or Symbolic Books, of the Roman-Catholic, Greek, + and principal Protestant Churches_ + + +APPENDIX II. + +_On the Reunion of Christians_ + + +FOOTNOTES + + + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + +SUCCINCT NOTICE OF THE GEOGRAPHY, PRINCIPAL POLITICAL EVENTS, AND +LITERATURE, OF THE NETHERLANDS, BEFORE THE BIRTH OF GROTIUS. + +800-1581. + + + + + +We propose to present to our readers, in this chapter, a succinct +account, of the Geography, Devolution, and Literature of the +Netherlands,--considering them, until they became subject to the princes +of the House of Burgundy, as a portion of the German Empire, and +included in its history:--and from that time, as forming a separate +territory. + +[Sidenote: 800-1581.] + +Contemplating the Netherlands in the first of these views,--we shall +briefly mention the Boundaries and Government, of the German Empire, and +the state of learning in its territories, during the Carlovingian, +Saxon, Franconian and Suabian Dynasties, and the period, which +intervened, between the last Suabian emperor and the election of the +Emperor Charles the fifth. + +From this time, we shall confine ourselves to the History of the +Netherlands. We shall then, therefore, endeavour to give a short view of +the geography of these countries, and of the manner in which they were +acquired by the Princes of Burgundy; then, shortly mention the +successful revolt of the Seven United Provinces. + +In one of them, GROTIUS, the subject of these pages, was born; the part +which he took in the public events of his times, forms the most +important portion of his biography. + + + + + + + +I. 1. + +_Boundaries and Devolution of the Empire of Germany during the +Carlovingian Dynasty_. + +800-911. + + +The Ocean on the north, the Danube on the south, the Rhine on the west, +and the Sarmatian Provinces on the east, are the boundaries assigned by +Tacitus to Antient Germany. It formed the most extensive portion of the +territories of Charlemagne; descended, at his decease, to his son, Lewis +the Debonnaire; and, on the partition between his three sons, was +allotted to Lewis, his second son. + +All the territories of Charlemagne were united in Charles the Fat; he +was deposed by his subjects, and his empire divided. Germany was +assigned to his third son, Charles the Brave. On his decease, it was +possessed by Arnold, a natural son of Carloman, the elder brother of +Charles: from him it descended to Hedwiges, the wife of Otho, Duke of +Saxony, and she transmitted it to their son Henry the Fowler, the first +emperor of that house. + +[Sidenote: 800-911.] + +From the skirts of Germany and France two new kingdoms arose: the +kingdom of Lorraine, which comprised the countries between the Rhine, +the Meuse, and the Scheld; or the modern Lorraine, the province of +Alsace, the Palatinate, Treves, Cologne, Juliers, Liêge and the +Netherlands;--and the kingdom of Burgundy: This was divided into the +Cis-juranan, or the part of it on the east, and the Trans-juranan, or +the part of it on the west of Mount Jura. The former comprised Provençe, +Dauphiné, the Lyonese, Franche-comté, Bresse, Bugey, and a part of +Savoy; the latter comprised the countries between Mount Jura and the +Pennine Alps, or the part of Switzerland between the Reus, the Valais, +and the rest of Savoy. + +Such was the geographical state of Germany at the close of the +Carlovingian Dynasty. + + + + + + + +I. 2. + +_State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne_. + + +So far as Literature depends upon the favour of the monarch, no æra in +history promised more than the reign of Charlemagne. His education had +been neglected; but he had real taste for learning and the arts, was +sensible of their beneficial influence both upon the public and the +private welfare of a people; and possessed the amplest means of +encouraging and diffusing them; his wisdom would suggest to him the +properest means of doing it, and the energy of his mind would excite +him to constant exertions. + +[Sidenote: I. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.] + +Nothing that could be effected by a prince thus gifted and disposed, was +left untried by Charlemagne. He drew to him the celebrated Alcuin, Peter +of Pisa, Paul Warnefrid, and many other distinguished literary +characters: he heaped favours upon them; and a marked distinction was +always shewn them at his court. He formed them into a literary society, +which had frequent meetings. Their conversation was literary, he often +bore a part in it; and, what was at least equally gratifying, he always +listened with a polite and flattering attention while others spoke. To +establish perfect equality among them, the monarch, and, after his +example, the other members of this society, dropt their own and adopted +other names. Angelbert was called Homer, from his partiality to that +poet; Riculphus, archbishop of Mentz, chose the name of Damétas, from an +eclogue of Virgil: another member took that of Candidus; Eginhard, the +Emperor's biographer, was called Calliopus, from the Muse Calliope; +Alcuin received, from his country, the name of Albinus; the archbishop +Theodulfe was called Pindar; the abbot Adelard was called Augustine; +Charlemagne, as the man of God's own heart, was called David. + +[Sidenote: 800-911] + +The Emperor corresponded with men of learning, on subjects of +literature; they generally related to religion. In one of his letters, +he requires of Alcuin an explanation of the words Septuagesima, +Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima, which denote the Sundays which +immediately precede, and the word Quadragesima, which denotes the first +Sunday which occurs in Lent. The denominations of those Sundays give +rise to two difficulties; one, that they seem to imply that each week +consists of ten, not of seven days; the other, that the words sound as +if Septuagesima were the seventieth, when it is only the sixty-third day +before Easter Sunday; Sexagesima, as if it were the sixtieth, when it is +only the fifty-sixth; Quinquagesima, as if it were the fiftieth, when it +is the forty-ninth; Quadragesima, as if it were the fortieth, when it is +the forty-second. Alcuin's answer is more subtle than satisfactory. + +At the meals of Charlemagne some person always read to him. His example +was followed by many of his successors, particularly by Francis I. of +France, who, in an happier era for learning, imitated with happier +effects, the example of the Emperor. + +[Sidenote: I. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.] + +Alcuin was general director of all the literary schemes of Charlemagne. +He was an Englishman by birth; skilled both in the Greek and Latin +language, and in many branches of philosophy. Having taught, with great +reputation and success, in his own country, he travelled to Rome. In +780, Charlemagne attracted him to his court. + +There, Alcuin gave lectures, and published several treatises. In these, +he began with Orthography; then proceeded to Grammar; afterwards to +Rhetoric, and Dialectic. He composed his treatises in the form of +dialogues; and, as Charlemagne frequently attended them, Alcuin made him +one of his interlocutors. Few scholars of Alcuin were more attentive +than his imperial pupil; he had learned grammar from Peter of Pisa; he +was instructed in rhetoric, dialectic, and astronomy by Alcuin. He also +engaged in the study of divinity; and had the good sense to stop short +of those subtleties, in which Justinian, Heraclius, and other princes, +unfortunately both for themselves and their subjects, bewildered +themselves. Letters from Giséla and Richtrudis, the daughters of +Charlemagne, to Alcuin, shew that they partook of their father's +literary zeal: his favourite study was astronomy. + +[Sidenote: 800-911.] + +The number of persons in his court, who addicted themselves to pursuits +of literature, was so great, and their application so regular, that +their meetings acquired the appellation of "The School of Charlemagne." +Their library was at Aix-la-Chapelle, the favourite residence of the +monarch: but they accompanied him in many of his journies. Antiquarians +have tracked them at Paris, Thionville, Wormes, Ratisbon, Wurtzburgh, +Mentz, and Frankfort. + +Charlemagne established schools in every part of his dominions. In 787, +he addressed a circular letter to all the metropolitan prelates of his +dominions, to be communicated by them to their suffragan bishops, and to +the abbots within their provinces. He exhorted them to erect schools in +every cathedral and monastery. Schools were accordingly established +throughout his vast dominions: they were divided into two classes; +arithmetic, grammar, and music were taught in the lower, the liberal +arts and theology in the higher. + +[Sidenote: 1. 2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.] + +In France, the abbeys of Corbie, Fontenelles, Ferrieres, St. Denis, St +Germain of Paris, St. Germain of Auxerre, and St. Benedict on the +Loire;--in Germany, the abbeys of Proom, Fulda, and of St Gall;--in +Italy, the abbey of Mount Casino, were celebrated for the excellence of +their schools. One, for the express purpose of teaching the Greek +language, was founded by Charlemagne at Osnabruck. All were equally open +to the children of the nobility and the children of peasants; all +received the same treatment. It happened that, on a public examination +of the children, the peasant boys were found to have made greater +progress than the noble. The Emperor remarked it to the latter, and +declared with an oath, that "the bishopricks and abbeys should be given +to the diligent poor." "You rely," he said to the patrician youths, "on +the merit of your ancestors; these have already been rewarded. The state +owes them nothing; those only are entitled to favour, who qualify +themselves for serving and illustrating their country by their talents +and their merits." + +[Sidenote: 800-911.] + +The civil law then consisted of the Theodosian code, the Salic, +Ripuarian, Allemannic, Bavarian, Burgundian, and other _codes_; and of +the _formularies_ of Angesise and Marculfus. To these Charlemagne added +his own _capitularies_. The whole collection, in opposition to the canon +or ecclesiastical law, received the appellation of _Lex Mundana_, or +_worldly law_. The canon law consisted of the code of canons which +Charlemagne brought with him from Rome in 784; a code of the canons of +the church of France; the canons inserted in the collection of Angelram, +bishop of Metz; the apostolic canons, published by St. Martin, bishop of +Braga; the capitularies of Theodulfus, of Orleans; and the penitential +canons, published in the Spicilegium of d'Acheri.[001] To the study, +both of the canon and civil law, schools were appropriated by +Charlemagne: few, except persons intended for the ecclesiastical state, +frequented them. Rabanus Maurus,[002] abbot of Fulda, and afterwards +archbishop of Mentz, has left an interesting account of the studies of +this period; it shews that all were referred to theology, and only +considered to be useful so far as they could be made serviceable to +sacred learning. Such a plan of study could conduce but little to the +advancement of general literature or science. Still, it was productive +of good, and led to improvement. + +[Sidenote: I.2. State of Literature in the time of Charlemagne.] + +It is observable that both antient and modern civilizers of nations, +have called music to their aid; among these we may mention Charlemagne. +In his residence at Rome, he was delighted with the Gregorian chant. +After his return to Germany, he endeavoured to introduce it, both into +his French and German dominions. The former had a chant of their own; +they called it an improvement, but other nations considered it a +corruption of the Gregorian. Greatly against the wish of Charlemagne, +his Gallic subjects persisted in their attachment to their national +music; the merit of it was gravely debated before the Emperor; they +vehemently urged the superiority of their own strains. "Tell me," said +the Emperor, "which is purer, the fountain or the rivulet?" They +answered, "the former." "Return ye, then," (said the Emperor) "to St. +Gregory: he is the fountain, the rivulets are evidently corrupted." The +Emperor was obeyed, and the Gregorian chant was taught, both in France +and Germany, by Italian choristers. The Italian writers of the times +describe the difficulties which they experienced in forming the rough +and almost untuneable voices of their French and German pupils to the +softness of the Gregorian song. They appear to have succeeded better +with the Germans than the French. By these, their lessons were so soon +and so completely forgotten, after the decease of Charlemagne, that +Lewis the Debonnaire, his son, was obliged to request Pope Gregory IV. +to send him from Rome, a new supply of singers to instruct the people. + +But music continued to prosper in Germany; it abounded in songs. Some +were amatory, (_münnelier_); some were satirical, (_cantica in +malitiam_); some heroic, (_cantica in honorem,_); some diabolical, +(_cantica diabolica_.) These consisted of incantations, and of +narratives of the feats of evil spirits. + +[Sidenote: 800-911.] + +Vernacular poetry, and vernacular composition, of every kind, were +almost wholly left to the vulgar; all, who aimed at literary eminence, +wrote in the Latin language. Some discerning spirits became sensible +that the German language was susceptible of great improvement, and +excited their countrymen to its cultivation. Among these was Otfroid; he +translated the Gospel into German verse. He describes, in strong terms, +the difficulties which he had to encounter: "The barbarousness of the +German language is," he says, "so great, and its sounds are so +incoherent and strange, that it is very difficult to subject them to the +rules of grammar, to represent them by syllables, or to find in the +alphabet letters which correspond to them." It is however remarkable, +that, although he complains of the dissonance of the German language, he +never accuses it of poverty. + +While France and Germany continued subject to the same monarch, German +was the language of the court, and generally used in every class of +society. When the treaty of Verdun divided the territories of +Charlemagne, the _Romande_, or _Romançe_ language, a corruption of the +Latin, superseded the German in every part of France: it was insensibly +refined into the modern French, but the German continued to be the only +language spoken in Germany. + +Great progress was made in architecture: the churches and palaces +constructed by the direction of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, the +Basilisc at Germani, the church of St. Recquier at Ponthieu, and many +other monuments of great architectural skill and expense, belong to the +age of Charlemagne, and bear ample testimony to the well-directed +exertions of the monarch, and of some of his descendants, and to their +wise and splendid magnificence. + + + + + + + +I. 3. + +_Decline of Literature under the Descendants of Charlemagne._ + +[Sidenote: 800-911] + +[Sidenote: I. 3. Decline of Literature under the Descendants of +Charlemagne.] + + +That literature began to decline immediately after the decease of +Charlemagne, in every part of his extensive dominions, and that its +decline was principally owing to the wars among his descendants, which +devastated every portion of his empire, seems to be universally +acknowledged; yet there are strong grounds for contending that it was +not so great as generally represented. _Abbé le Beuf_,[003] in an +excellent dissertation on the state of the sciences in the Gauls during +the period which elapsed between the death of Charlemagne and the reign +of Robert, king of France, attempts to prove the contrary; and the +preliminary discourses of the authors of "l'Histoire Literaire de la +France," on the state of learning during the ninth and tenth centuries, +strongly confirm the abbé's representations. It is surprising how many +works were written during these dark, and, as they are too harshly +called, ignorant ages. It is more to be wondered, that while so much was +written, so little was written well. The classical works of antiquity +were not unknown in those times; the Latin Vulgate translation of the +Old and New Testament was daily read by the clergy, and heard by the +people. Now, although the language of the Vulgate be not classical, it +is not destitute of elegance, and it possesses throughout the exquisite +charms of clearness and simplicity. It is surprising that these +circumstances did not lead the writers to a better style. They had no +such effect; the general style of the time was hard, inflated and +obscure. It should, however, be observed, that Simonde de Sismondi, as +he is translated by Mr. Roscoe, justly observes, that "during the reign +of Charlemagne, and during the four centuries which immediately preceded +it, there appeared, both in France and Italy, some judicious historians, +whose style possesses considerable vivacity, and who gave animated +pictures of their times; some subtle philosophers, who astonished their +contemporaries, rather by the fineness of their speculations than by the +justness of their reasoning; some learned theologians, and some poets. +The names of Paul Warnefrid, of Alcuin, of Luitprand, and Eginhard, are +even yet universally respected. They all, however, wrote in Latin. They +had all of them, by the strength of their intellect, and the happy +circumstances in which they were placed, learned to appreciate the +beauty of the models which antiquity had left them. They breathed the +spirit of a former age, as they had adopted its language: we do not find +them representatives of their contemporaries: it is impossible to +recognize in their style the times in which they lived; it only betrays +the relative industry and felicity with which they imitated the language +and thoughts of a former age. They were the last monuments of civilized +antiquity, the last of a noble race, which, after a long period of +degeneracy, became extinct in them." + + + + + + + +II. 1. + +_Boundaries and Devolution of the German Empire during the Saxon +Dynasty._ + +911-1024. + + +We have mentioned that, on the death of Lewis, the son of Arnhold, the +empire descended to Henry I. in the right of his mother. From him, it +devolved through Otho, surnamed the Great, Otho II., and Otho III., to +Henry II. the last emperor of the Saxon line. + +In this period of the German history, the attention of the reader is +particularly directed to two circumstances,--the principal states, of +which Germany was composed, the cradles, as they may be called, of the +present electorates, and the erection of the principal cities and +monasteries in Germany. + +[Sidenote: II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.] + +A curious altercation between Nicephorus Phocas, the Greek emperor, and +Luitprand bishop of Cremona, ambassador from Otho I. to the Greek +sovereign, shews the state of Germany during this period. "Your nation," +said the empire to the ambassador, "does not know how to sit on +horseback; or how to fight on foot: your large shields, massive armour, +long swords, and heavy helmets, disable you for battle."--Luitprand +told the emperor that "he would, the first time they should meet in the +field, feel the contrary." Luitprand observed, that "Germany was so +little advanced in ecclesiastical worth; that no council had been held +within its precincts:" the ambassador remarked, that "all heresies had +originated in Greece." The emperor asserted, that "the Germans were +gluttons and drunkards:" Luitprand replied, that "the Greeks were +effeminate." All writers agree, that, in what each party to this +conversation asserted, there was too much truth. + +We have noticed the advance towards civilization which Henry I, made by +the construction of towns; he effected another, by the introduction of +tournaments and field sports, on a large, orderly and showy plan. +Speaking generally, society in Germany during the Saxon line of its +princes, was always improving. + + + + + + + +II. 2. + +_State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty_. + +[Sidenote: 911-1024.] + + +"In the school of Paderborn," says the biographer of Meinwert, as he is +cited by Schmidt, "there are famous musicians, dialecticians, orators, +grammarians, mathematicians, astronomers and geometricians. Horace, the +great Virgil, Sallust, and Statius, are highly esteemed. The monks amuse +themselves with poetry, books and music. Several are incessantly +employed in transcribing and painting." + +A German translation of the Psalms, by Notker, a monk of the abbey of +St. Gall, shews that some attention was paid to the language of the +country. The Greek was cultivated; the writers of the times mention +several persons skilled in it. Notker, in a letter to one of his +correspondents, informs him, that "his Greek brothers salute him." + +[Sidenote: II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.] + +Poetry was a favourite study: the celebrated _Gerbert_, afterwards Pope +Silvester II, and _Waldram_, bishop of Strasburgh, were the best poets +of their times. Hroswith,[004] a nun in the monastery of Gardersheim, +published comedies: "Many Catholics," she says, in her preface to them, +"are guilty of a fault, from which I myself am not altogether free; +they prefer profane works, on account of their style, to the holy +Scriptures. Others have the Scriptures always in their hands, and +despise profane authors; yet they often read Terence, and their +attention to the beauties of his style does not prevent the +objectionable passages in his writings from making an impression on +them." + +To this age, the origin of Romances is usually assigned: but these +belong to the French; no specimen of them has been discovered in +Germany. Music was much cultivated. Hroswith introduced it into her +comedies. + +It has been mentioned, that Sallust was read in the school at Paderborn. +It is supposed that Tacitus was known to Wittikind or Dittmar: both +relate visions, and several puerile circumstances; but they write with +precision, and shew, on many occasions, great good sense. + +The same cannot be said of the Legend-writers; the account which the +authors of "The Literary History of France" give of them is very just. +"The ancient legends," they say, "were lost, in consequence either of +the plunder or the burning of the churches; it was considered necessary +to replace them, as it was thought impossible to honour the memory, or +to preserve the veneration of the saints, without some knowledge of +their lives. It is to be remarked, that the saints, whose memories were +thus sought to be honoured, had been long dead, or had lived in foreign +countries, so that little was known of them except by oral tradition. +From this it may be easily guessed, that those who employed themselves +upon the legends, were deprived of necessary information, and upon that +account could not produce exact and true histories. Thus, to the general +defects of the age in which they lived, they added uncertainty, +confusion, and some falsehood. Their pages abound with visions. In the +place of the simple and natural, they substituted the wonderful and +extraordinary. It even happened too frequently that they took leave to +tell untruths. Heriger, the abbot of St Lupus, says, in direct terms, +that they piously lied." + +[Sidenote: 911-1024.] + +Dialectic was in great favour: it was called philosophy; no work was +more read than "the Book of Categories," erroneously ascribed to St. +Augustine; and a work, upon the same subject, imputed to Porphyry. + +[Sidenote: II. 2. State of Literature during the Saxon Dynasty.] + +The schools of the cathedrals and principal monasteries contributed +essentially to the increase and diffusion of literature. Among the +monasteries, those of Fulda, St. Gall, Corbie and Kershaw, were +particularly renowned. Bishops and abbots exerted themselves to procure +books, and to have copies of them made and circulated: they were often +splendidly illuminated. Henry I. caused a painting to be made, of a +battle which he had gained over the Hungarians. Bernard, bishop of +Hildersheim, in imitation of what he had seen in Italy, ornamented the +churches of his diocese with mosaic paintings; he also introduced, among +his countrymen, the art of fusing and working metals; he caused precious +and highly ornamented vases to be made in imitation of the antients. +Large and small bells were cast; chalices, patines, incensories, images, +and even altars of gold and silver, or ornamented with them, were +fabricated. Aventin relates, that at Mauverkirchen, in Bavaria, figures +in plaster, hardened by fire, had, in 948, been made of a duke of +Bavaria and his general. + +[Sidenote: 911-1024.] + +The establishment of schools, and the protection given to the arts and +sciences, invited the whole body of the nation to the acquisition of +useful and ornamental knowledge; but the invitation was not even +generally accepted. There was much superstition in every order of the +laity. An opinion prevailed among them, that the world was to end, and +the day of judgment arrive, in the year 1000. An universal panic spread +itself over Europe. Strange to relate, the people sought to avoid the +catastrophe, by hiding themselves in caverns and tombs. + +The existence of this ignorance cannot be denied: but, to the +ecclesiastics, who strove against it, who erected and fostered so many +schools to dispel it, and who exerted themselves in the manner we have +mentioned, to establish another and a better order of things, a great +share of praise and gratitude should never be denied. + +The mines of Hartz were discovered in the time of Otho I. and diffused +so much wealth over Saxony, and afterwards over all Germany, as gave the +reign of that emperor the appellation of "the age of gold." Before this +time, Nicephorus Phocas had called Saxony, from the dress, or rather the +coverings of its inhabitants, "the land of skins." But all the wealth of +the country still continued to be concentrated among the great +landowners. + + + + + + + +III. 1. + +_Boundaries and State of Germany during the Franconian Dynasty._ + +1024-1138. + + +Under Henry III. the second prince of this line, the German empire had +its greatest extent. It comprised Germany, Italy, Burgundy and Lorraine. +Poland, and other parts of the Sclavonian territories, were subject to +it. Denmark and Hungary acknowledged themselves its vassals. + +The emperors affected to consider all kingdoms as forming a royal +republic, of which the emperor was chief. For their right to this +splendid prerogative, they always found advocates in their own +dominions: they reckon, among these, the illustrious Leibniz. Out of +Germany, nothing of the claim, beyond precedence in rank, has ever been +allowed. This, no sovereign in Europe has contested with the emperors: +it is observable, that, as the French monarchs insisted on the +Carlovingian extraction of Hugh Capet, they affected to consider Henry +the Fowler the first prince of the Saxon dynasty, and all his successors +in the empire as usurpers. Lewis XIV. expresses himself in this manner +in some memoirs recently attributed to him. + + + + + + + +III. 2. + +_State of German Literature during the Franconian Dynasty._ + +[Sidenote: 1024-1138.] + + +Throughout this period, commerce was always upon the increase; and +literature, science and art, increased with it. The monuments of the +antient grandeur of the eternal city, began about this time to engage +the attention of the inhabitants of Germany, and to attract to Rome many +literary pilgrims. They returned home impressed with admiration of what +they had seen, and related the wonders to their countrymen. "The gods +themselves (they told their hearers) behold their images in Rome with +admiration, and wish to resemble them. Nature herself does not raise +forms as beautiful as those, which the artist creates. One is tempted to +say that they breathe; and to adore the skill of the artist rather than +the inhabitant of Olympus represented by his art." Thus the uncultivated +Germans began to perceive the beauty of these relics of antiquity, and +to feel the wish of imitation. This first appeared on the seals of the +emperors and bishops; several of distinguished beauty have reached our +times. The German artists soon began to engrave on precious stones, and +to work in marble and bronze. Four statues of emperors of the house of +Saxony, of the workmanship of these times, are still to be seen at +Spires; they are rudely fashioned, but are animated, and have distinct +and expressive countenances. + +[Sidenote: III. 2. State of German Literature during the Franconian +Dynasty.] + +When the emperors or nobility travelled, they were frequently +accompanied by artists. These sometimes made drawings of foreign +churches and edifices, and on their return home, raised others in +imitation of them. Thus the cathedral at Bremen was built on the model +of that of Benevento. The cathedral of Strasburgh, and many other +churches, were built about this time. + +Music was considerably improved; the system of Guido Aretinus was no +where understood better, or cultivated with greater ardour, than in +Germany. Some improvement was made in poetry, but it chiefly appeared in +the songs of the common people. A monk of Togernsee, in Bavaria, +composed a collection of poems under the title of Bucolics; they +resemble those of Virgil only in their title. Lambert, of +Aschaffenburgh, published a history of his own times, inferior to none +which have reached us from the middle ages. + +[Sidenote: 1024-1138] + +Dialectic, however, still continued the favourite study; and the art of +disputation was never carried so far: the interest which the public took +in these disputes was surprising. When it was announced that two +celebrated dialecticians were to hold a public dispute, persons flocked +from all parts to witness the conflict; they listened with avidity, and +with all the feelings of partisans. This appears ridiculous; but, in the +present times, is there no _fancy_ which deserves equal ridicule? + + + + + + + +IV. 1 + +_The State of Germany, from the beginning of the Suabian Dynasty, till +the Accession of the Emperor Charles V._ + +1138-1519. + + +The principal events in the reigns of the latter princes of the +Franconian, and of all the princes of the Suabian line, were produced or +influenced by the contests between the popes and emperors, respecting +investitures, or the right of nominating to vacant bishoprics;--by the +pretensions of the popes to hold their antient territories independent +of the emperors;--or by the new acquisitions of the popes in Italy. + + +1264-1272. + + +These contests reduced the empire to a state of anarchy, which produced +what is generally called, by the German writers, the Great Interregnum. +While it continued, six princes successively claimed to be emperors of +Germany. + + +1272-1438. + + +The interregnum was determined by the election of Rodolph, count of +Hapsburgh. From him, till the ultimate accession of the house of +Austria, in the person of Albert the Second, the empire was held by +several princes of different noble families. + + +1438-1519. + + +Albert was succeeded by Frederick III.; Frederick, by Maximilian I.; and +Maximilian, by Charles V. + +To the period between the extinction of the Suabian dynasty and the +accession of the emperor Albert, may be assigned the rise of the Italian +republics, particularly Venice, Genoa and Florence; the elevations of +the princes of Savoy and Milan, and the revolutions of Naples, and the +Two Sicilies. + +[Sidenote: IV. 1. The State of Germany, from the beginning of the +Suabian Dynasty till the Accession of the Emperor Charles V.] + +The boundaries of Germany, during this period, were the Eider and the +sea, on the north; the Scheld, the Meuse, the Saone and the Rhone, on +the west; the Alps and the Rhine, on the south; and the Lech and +Vistula, on the east. They contained,--1. The duchy of Burgundy; 2. The +duchy of Lorraine; 3. The principalities into which Allemmania and +Franconia were divided; 4. The Bavarian territories, which the Franks +had acquired in Rhoetia, Noricum, and Pannonia; 5. Saxony; 6. The +Sclavic territories between the Oder and the Vistula: these were +possessed by the margraves of Brandenburgh, and the dukes of Poland and +Bohemia, and the princes dependent upon them in Moravia, Silesia and +Lusatia;--7. by the provinces of Pomerania and Prussia, on the east of +Saxony; 8. and the Marchia Orientalis, Oostrich, or Austria, on the east +of Bavaria. + +At first, the emperor was chosen by the people at large; the right of +election was afterwards confined to the nobility and the principal +officers of state: insensibly, it was engrossed by the five great +officers,--the chancellor, the great marshal, the great chamberlain, the +great butler, and the great master of the palace. But their exclusive +pretensions were much questioned. At length, their right of election was +settled; first, by the Electoral Union, in 1337; and finally, in the +reign of the emperor Charles IV. by the celebrated constitution, called, +from the seal of gold appended to it, _the Golden Bull_. By this, the +right of election was vested in three spiritual and four temporal +electors: two temporal electors have since been added to their numbers. + + + + + + + +IV. 2. + +_State of German literature during this period_. + +[Sidenote: 1438-1519] + + +While the empire was possessed by the princes of the house of Saxony, a +copy of the Pandects of Justinian was discovered at Amalfi. "The +discovery of them," says Sir William Blackstone, in his Introductory +discourse to his Commentaries, "soon brought the civil law into vogue +all over the west of Europe, where before it was quite laid aside, and +in a manner wholly forgotten; though some traces of its authority +remained in Italy, and the eastern provinces of the empire.--The study +of it was introduced into many universities abroad, particularly that of +Bologna, where exercises were performed, lectures read, and degrees +conferred in this faculty, as in other branches of science; and many +nations of the continent, just then beginning to recover from the +convulsions consequent to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and +settling by degrees into peaceable forms of government, adopted the +civil law (being the best written system then extant,) as the basis of +their several constitutions; blending or interweaving in it their own +feudal customs, in some places, with a more extensive, in others, a more +confined authority." + +[Sidenote: IV. 2. State of German Literature, from the Suabian Dynasty +to Charles V.] + +This was a great step toward the civilization of Germany, and of the +other countries in which the institutions of the civil law were thus +introduced. They certainly tended to animate the nations, by whom they +were received, to the study of the history and literature of the people +from the works of whose writers they had been compiled. They produced +this effect in several countries of Europe; but their influence in +Germany was very limited: the disposition to subtilize, which was at +that time universal throughout the German empire, led those who +cultivated literature rather to refine upon what was before them, than +to new inquiries. The language of the Pandects is of the silver age; it +might therefore be expected, that it would have improved the general +style of the times; but this improvement is seldom discernible. + +[Sidenote: 1438-1519] + +[Sidenote: IV. 2. State of German Literature, from the Suabian Dynasty +to Charles V.] + +Good or evil is seldom unmixed: civil contests and dissensions, +generally produce both public and private misery; sometimes, however, +they generate mental excitement. This is favourable to Literature and +Science. Its good effects appeared in the contests between the Popes and +the Emperors. Great were the public and the private calamities which +they caused, both in church and state; but they promoted inquiry and +intellectual exertions. These were often attended with happy results. +Irnerius, by birth a German, had studied Justinian's law at +Constantinople. Towards the year 1130, he was appointed professor of +civil law at Bologna: the contests between the popes and the emperors +produced a warfare of words among the disciples of Irnerius. It has been +mentioned that the German emperors pretended to succeed to the empire of +the Cæsars. The language and spirit of the Justinianean code, being +highly favourable to this claim, the emperors encouraged the civilians, +and in return for it, had their pens at command. The decree of Gratian +was favourable to the pretensions of the popes; and on this account was +encouraged by the canonists. Hence, generally speaking, the civilians +were partisans of the emperors, the canonists of the popes. From their +adherence to the law of Justinian, the former were called Legistæ; from +their adherence to the decree of Gratian, the latter were called +Decretistæ. The controversy was carried on with great ardour and +perseverance; the schools both of Italy and Germany resounded with the +disputes, and in both, numerous tracts in support of the opposite +claims, were circulated. The question necessarily carried the +disputants to many incidental topics: these equally increased the powers +and curiosity of the disputants, and stimulated them to better and more +interesting studies. + + + + + + + +V. 1. + +_Antient and Modern Geography of the Netherlands._ + + +We have thus brought down our historical deduction of the German Empire +to the accession of the Emperor Charles the Fifth. + +About 160 years before this event, that portion of the empire, to which +its situation has given the appellation of THE NETHERLANDS, began to +have a separate history, and both a separate and important influence on +the events of the times. To them we shall now direct our attention. + +These spacious territories are bounded on the north, by the German +Ocean; on the west, by the British Sea and part of Picardy; on the +south, by Champagne or Lorraine; on the east, by the archbishoprics of +Triers and Trêves, the dutchies of Juliers and Cléves, the bishopric of +Munster, and the county of Embden or East Friesland. + +[Sidenote: V. 1. Antient and Modern Geography of the Netherlands.] + +When the Romans invaded Gaul, it was divided among three principal +clans: the Rhine then formed its western boundary. The left banks of +this river were occupied by the Belgians: this tract of land now +comprises the catholic Netherlands, and the territory of the United +States; the right bank of the Rhine was then filled by the Frisians, +and now comprises the modern Gröningen, east and west Friesland, a part +of Holland, Gueldres, Utrecht, and Overyssell: the Batavians inhabited +the island which derives its name from them; it now comprises the upper +part of Holland, Utrecht, Gueldres, and Overyssell, the modern Cléves +between the Lech and the Waal. + +In antient geography, the Netherlands were separated into the +Cisrhenahan and Transrhenahan divisions: the Cisrhenahan lay on the +western side of the Rhine, and included the Belgic Gaul; it was bounded +by the Rhenus, the Rhodanus, the Sequana, the Matrona, and the Oceanus +Britannicus: the Transrhenahan lay on the eastern side of the Rhine; it +was a part of Lower Germany, and bounded on the north by the eastern +Frisia, Westphalia, the Ager-Colonensis, the Juliacensis-Ducatus, and +the Treveri. The classical reader will have no difficulty in assigning +to these denominations, their actual names in the language of modern +geography. + +The whole of these territories is called the Netherlands by the English; +and Flanders by the Italians, Spaniards, and French. + + + + + + + +V. 2. + +_The formation of the different Provinces of the Netherlands into one +State_. + + +In 1363, John the Good, the king of France, gave to Philip the Bold, his +third son, the dutchy of Burgundy: it then comprised the county of +Burgundy, Dauphiné, and a portion of Switzerland. The monarch at the +same time created his son duke of Burgundy. Thus Philip, became the +patriarch of the second line of that illustrious house. + +History does not produce an instance of a family, which has so greatly +aggrandized itself by marriage, as the house of Austria. The largest +part by far of the Netherlands was derived to it, 1st, from Margaret of +Franche Comtè; 2dly, from Margaret of Flanders; 3dly, from Jane of +Brabant; 4thly, from Mary of Burgundy; 5thly, from Jacqueline of +Holland; and 6thly, from Elizabeth of Luxemburgh. + +[Sidenote: Formation of the Provinces of the Netherlands into one +State.] + +The possessions of the three first of these splendid heiresses, +descended to Margaret of Flanders. She married Phillip the Bold, who, as +we have just mentioned, was the first of the modern Dukes of Burgundy. +By this marriage, he acquired, in right of his wife, the provinces of +Flanders, Artois, Mechlin, and Rhetel; and transmitted them and his own +dukedom of Burgundy to his son Charles the Intrepid. From Charles, they +descended to his son Philip the Good. He purchased Namur; and by a +transaction with Jacqueline of Holland, acquired that province, Zealand, +Hainault, and Friesland. By other means, he obtained Brabant, Antwerp, +Luxemburgh, Limburgh, Gueldres, and Zutphen. On the failure of issue +male of Philip the Good, all these fourteen provinces descended to Mary +his only daughter. She married the Emperor Maximilian. He had two sons +by her, the Emperor Charles V. and Ferdinand. The former acquired, by +purchase or force, Utrecht, Overyssell and Gröningen. + +These territories formed what are generally called the SEVENTEEN +PROVINCES OF THE NETHERLANDS. + +In the language of the middle ages, they consisted of the Dutchies of +Brabant, Limburgh, Luxemburgh, and Gueldres; the Earldoms of Flanders, +Artois, Hainault, Holland, Zealand, Namur, Zutphen, Antwerp, (sometimes +called the Marquisate of the Holy Empire) and the Lordships of +Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssell, and Gröningen. Cambrai, the +Cambresis, and the County of Burgundy, though a separate territory, were +considered to be appendages, but not part of them. + + + + + + + +V. 3. + +_Brief View of the History of the Netherlands, till the acknowledgement +of the Independence of the Seven United Provinces by the Spanish +Monarch._ + + +The laws, the customs, and the government of all these provinces were +nearly alike: each had its representative assembly of the three orders, +of the clergy, nobility, and burghers: each had its courts of justice; +and an appeal from the superior tribunal of each lay to the supreme +court at Mechlin. + +Public and fiscal concerns of moment fell under the cognizance of the +sovereign. The people enjoyed numerous and considerable privileges: the +most important of them was the _Droit de Joyeuse entrée_, the right of +not being taxed without the consent of the three estates. Commerce, +agriculture, and the arts, particularly music and painting, flourished +among them. The people were honest, frugal, regular and just in their +general habits; more steady than active; not easily roused; but, when +once roused, not easily appeased. + +[Sidenote: Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.] + +Charles V. made over his hereditary territories in Germany to his +brother Ferdinand; but retained the Netherlands, and annexed them to the +crown of Spain. + +With that crown, they descended to Philip the Second, the only son of +Charles. + +Unwise and unjust measures of that monarch drove the inhabitants into +rebellion. + +On the 5th of April 1566, a deputation of 400 gentlemen, with Lewis of +Nassau, a brother of the prince of Orange, at their head, presented a +petition to Margaret of Austria, the Governor of the Netherlands. From +the coarseness of their dress, they acquired the name of _gueux_ or +_beggars_, and retained it throughout the whole of the troubles which +followed. + +[Sidenote: Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.] + +Calvinism had, before this time, made great progress in these countries, +and gained over to it numbers of the discontented party. Philip +proceeded to the most violent measures, and sent the Duke of Alva, with +an army of 20,000 men, into the Netherlands. William, Prince of Orange, +placed himself at the head of the malcontents, and raised an army. At an +assembly of the States of Holland and Zealand in 1559, he was declared +Stadtholder, or Governor of Holland, Friesland, and Utrecht: Calvinism +was declared to be the religion of the States. In 1579, the three +provinces were joined by those of Gueldres, Zutphen, Overyssell, and +Gröningen. All signed, by their deputies, the TREATY OF UNION; it became +the basis of their constitution: still, however, they acknowledged +Philip for their sovereign. But in 1581, the deputies of the United +States assembled at Amsterdam, subscribed a solemn act, by which they +formally renounced allegiance to Philip and his successors, and asserted +their independence. They declared in their manifesto, that "the prince +is made for the people, not the people for the prince;" that "the +prince, who treats his subjects as slaves, is a tyrant, whom his +subjects have a right to dethrone, when they have no other means of +preserving their liberty;" that "this right particularly belongs to the +Netherlands; their sovereign, being bound by his coronation oath to +observe the laws, under pain of forfeiting his sovereignty." + +In 1584, the Prince of Orange was assassinated by Balthazar Gerard, a +Catholic fanatic: the war was continued till 1609, when it was suspended +by a truce of twelve years. At the expiration of it, the war burst forth +with fresh fury: it was finally terminated by the peace of Munster, or +Westphalia, in 1648, when the King of Spain acknowledged, in the fullest +manner, the INDEPENDENCE OF THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES, and of all their +possessions in Asia, Africa, and America. + + + + + + + +V.4. + +_Their Constitution and principal Officers._ + +[Sidenote: Constitution of the Netherlands.] + + +Thus the United Provinces became a confederacy of seven independent +principalities, called in the aggregate the States General. Several +years elapsed before their constitution was finally settled. Then, the +supreme sovereignty of the whole was considered to be vested in the +people of every province represented by the States. These consisted of +deputies appointed to them from the different provinces. Each province +might send to the assembly more than one deputy; but, whatever was the +number of deputies sent by them, they had one vote only in the +proceedings of the assembly. The government of each province was vested +in its states: these were composed of two orders, the deputies from the +towns, and those from the equestrian order. + +Each province contained several independent republics. + +The States General could not make war or peace, or enter into alliances, +or raise money, without the consent of all the seven provinces; nor did +the decrees of any one of the States bind the constituent parts of it, +without their consent. + +[Sidenote: Constitution of the Netherlands.] + +The Stadtholder was appointed by the States General, and held his office +at their will. The offices of captain-general and admiral were united in +him: thus he had the appointment of all military commands, both by sea +and land; and had considerable influence and power in the nomination to +civil offices. Three officers,--the _treasurer, the conservator of the +peace, and the grand pensionary,_ were appointed by the States General, +and were immediately subject to their controul; they were wholly +independent of the Stadtholder. The grand pensionary was always supposed +to be profoundly versed in civil, ecclesiastical, and consuetudinary +law; and in foreign diplomacy. All transactions between subjects or +foreigners with the States General, passed through his hands. He +attended the deliberations of the States; he was not entitled to vote, +but was expected to sum up the arguments on each side, and to deliver +his opinion upon them. Each province had its advocate, syndic or +pensionary; a public officer who superintended their public concerns; +and represented them, but only with a deliberative voice, in the +assembly of the States. + +[Sidenote: Brief View of the History of the Netherlands.] + +We now reach the æra, at which our intended biography commences. A +Literary History of the Netherlands, from the time of their becoming +subjects to the Dukes of Burgundy, till this æra, is much wanted. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THE BIRTH AND EDUCATION OF HUGO GROTIUS. + + +1582-1597. + + +The Life of Erasmus, which we have offered to the public, presents to +its readers, the interesting spectacle of a person, born under every, +disadvantage for the acquisition of literature, surmounting them all by +his genius and perseverance, and reaching, at an early age, the highest +summit of literary eminence: the Life of GROTIUS, which we now attempt, +exhibits the successful literary career of a person, born with every +advantage, undeviatingly availing himself of them, and attaining equal +eminence; with the addition of high reputation for great political +wisdom and public integrity. + +[Sidenote: His Birth and Education.] + +He was born at Delft, on the 10th April 1582. His parents were John de +Groote, and Alida Averschie. John was the second son of Hugo de Groote +by Elselinda Heemskirke. Hugo was the son of Cornelius Cornet by +Ermingarde, the daughter and sole heiress of Diederic de Groote. Upon +their marriage, Diederic stipulated that Cornet should adopt the +surname of Groote: it signifies _Great_, and is said to have been given +to Diederic for some signal service, which he had rendered to his +sovereign. All the males and females mentioned in the genealogy of +Grotius were of noble extraction. + +Learning appears to have been hereditary in the family: John, the father +of Hugo, the subject of our biography, was both a lawyer in great +practice, and a general scholar. + +The 10th of April, on which GROTIUS was born, was Easter Sunday in that +year: he always observed his birthday with religious solemnity. + +All the biographers of Grotius assert, and their assertion will be +easily believed, that he discovered, in his earliest years, great +aptitude for the acquisition of learning, great taste, judgment and +application, and a wonderful memory. He found, in his father, an +excellent tutor: by him, Grotius was instructed in the rudiments of the +Christian doctrine, and his infant mind impressed with sound principles +of morality and honour; in this, he was aided by the mother of Grotius. +The youth corresponded with their cares. He has celebrated, in elegant +verses, their pious attention to his early education. The mention of +these verses will bring to the recollection of every English reader, the +magnificent strains, in which, Milton addressed _his_ father. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. I. 1582-1597.] + +As soon as Grotius had passed his childhood, he was placed with +Utengobard, an Arminian clergyman: we shall see that this circumstance +had a decisive influence upon his future life. He retained a lasting +regard for Utengobard, and a grateful recollection of his obligations to +him. At the age of twelve years, Grotius was sent to the university of +Leyden, and committed to the care of Francis Junius. Here, he +distinguished himself so much by his diligence, his talents, and his +modesty, as to obtain the notice and regard of several of the most +famous scholars of the times. Even Joseph Scaliger, equally +distinguished by his learning and caustic arrogance, noticed him, and +condescended to direct his studies. He was scarcely eleven years of age +when Douza, one of the princes of the republic of letters in those +times, celebrated his praises in verse: He declared that "he could +scarcely believe that Erasmus promised so much as Grotius at his age:" +he announced that "Grotius would soon excel all his contemporaries, and +bear a comparison with the most leaned of the antients." + +Grotius also gained the esteem of Barneveldt, the grand pensionary, in +whose fate he was afterward involved. In 1587, the Dutch sent Count +Justin of Nassau and Barneveldt, at the head of an embassy, to Henry IV. +of France. Barneveldt permitted Grotius to accompany him. + +[Sidenote: His Birth and Education.] + +Grotius had been preceded by his reputation. He was known to M. de +Busenval, the monarch's ambassador in Holland. Busenval described him +favourably to the monarch. Henry gave Grotius a gracious reception, and +was so pleased with his conversation and demeanour, that he presented +him with his picture and a golden chain. Grotius gives an account of +this embassy, in the seventh book of his Annals: he abstains, with a +praiseworthy modesty, from any mention of himself: but, in one of his +poems, he dwells with complacency on his having seen the monarch, "who +owed his kingdom only to his valour"-- + + " ... _Le Heros, qui regna sur la Françe, + Et par droit de conquête et par droit de naissançe_." + VOLTAIRE, _Henriade_. + +Grotius was so much pleased with his reception, and the present which he +received from Henry, that he caused a print of himself, adorned with the +chain presented to him by Henry, to be engraved. He was introduced to +many of the most distinguished persons at Paris: there was one, whom he +particularly esteemed, but whom, from some unexplained circumstance, he +missed seeing. + +[Sidenote: Chap. 1. 1582-1597] + +This was _the President de Thou_, a name never to be mentioned without +veneration. He had been employed by his sovereign on many delicate and +important commissions, and had acquitted himself in all, with ability +and honour. He had filled the office of _Maitre des Requétes_, and been +advanced to that of _President a Mortiér_. He was employed, at this +time, upon his immortal History. In the account which it gives of the +events, that took place in France, it is entitled to almost unqualified +praise: in regard to what happened to other countries, he necessarily +depended on the information which he received from them, and cannot +therefore be equally relied upon. The prolixity, with which he is now +reproached, was not felt at the time in which he wrote; every event, +however small, was then thought to be important, and multitudes were +personally interested in it. But the charm of his work is, that every +page of it shews a true lover of his country, an impartial judgment, and +an honourable mind. The memoirs, which he has left us of his own life, +recently translated into English by Mr. Collinson, are interesting and +entertaining. He collected a very large library, both of printed books +and manuscripts, and had them splendidly bound. The whole was sold by +auction in the reign of Louis XIV, and scarcely produced half the sum +which the binding of its volumes had cost: The same has been said of the +Harleian collection, sold in our times. + +[Sidenote: His Birth and Education.] + +Having remained a twelvemonth at Paris, Grotius returned to Holland. +Immediately after his arrival, he addressed a letter to the president +de Thou, in which he expressed great mortification at not having seen +him, and requested his acceptance of a book accompanying his letter, +which he had dedicated to the Prince of Condé. The president de Thou was +highly pleased with this letter: a correspondence took place between +them. Grotius furnished the president with materials for that portion of +his history which related to the troubles in the Low Countries. + +In the last letter of the President de Thou, in this correspondence, he +earnestly dissuades Grotius from engaging in the religious disputes of +the times. In reply to it, Grotius respectfully intimates to the +president, that "he found himself obliged to enter into them by his love +of his country; his wish to serve his church, and the request of those +to whom he owed obedience:" promising, at the same time, "to abstain +from all disputes that were not necessary." After the death of the +President, Grotius celebrated his memory in a poem, which was considered +by the bard's admirers to be one of his best performances. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +GROTIUS EMBRACES THE PROFESSION OF THE LAW. HIS FIRST PROMOTIONS. + +1597-1610. + + +In the ruin of the Roman Empire, her laws were lost in the general +wreck. During the 200 years, which followed the reign of Constantine the +Great, Europe was a scene of every calamity, which the inroads of +barbarians could inflict, either on the countries through which they +passed, or those in which they settled. About the sixth century, Europe +obtained some degree of tranquillity, in consequence of the introduction +of feudalism; the most singular event in the annals of history. At +first, it produced a general anarchy; but the system of subordination +upon which it was grounded, contained in it the germ of regular +government, and even, of jurisprudence. Its effects were first visible +in the _various codes of law_ which the barbarous nations promulgated. +Such are the Salic, the Ripuarian, the Alemannic, the Burgundian, the +Visigothic, and the Lombard laws. + +[Sidenote: Feudal Jurisprudence.] + +A complicated or refined system of jurisprudence is not to be looked for +in them; but, if they are considered with due regard to the state of +society for which they were calculated, they will be found to contain +much that deserves praise. The _capitularies_, or short legislative +provisions, propounded by the sovereign, and adopted by the public +assemblies of the nation, were a further advance in legislation. By +degrees, so much regularity prevailed in the judicial proceedings and +legal transactions, that they were regulated by established +_formularies_; and, in addition to those provisions, every nation +contained a collection of unwritten usages or _customs_, which had the +force of law. The natural tendency of these institutions to introduce +order and peaceful habits into society was great; but it was so much +counteracted by the turbulent spirit of every class of men, that it was +not till the beginning of the thirteenth century that this effect of +them became discernible. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. II. 1597-1610] + +From this time, the governments of Europe sensibly improved. A better +spirit of legislation shewed itself; the administration of justice +became more regular; trade and husbandry were protected, several arts +were encouraged; and a general wish for a better order of things +prevailed in every part of Europe. While the public mind was in this +state of improvement, an event fortunately happened, which gave it a +very salutary direction. This was, (what we have already noticed), the +discovery of a complete copy of the _Pandects of Justinian_ at Amalfi, a +town in Italy, near Salerno. From Amalfi, it found its way to Pisa; and +in 1406, was carried to Florence, where it has since remained. + +[Sidenote: The Civil Law] + +Few events in history can be mentioned which have conduced more to the +welfare of Europe than this discovery. The codes, the capitularies, the +formularies, and the customs, by which, till that time, the feudal +nations had been governed, fell very short of affording them the legal +provisions, which society, in the improved state of civilization, to +which it was then advancing, evidently required. Unexpectedly, a system +of law presented itself, which seemed to contain every thing that the +most enlightened men of those times could have desired. The wisdom and +justice of the system of law expressed in the Pandects seem to have been +universally felt. The study of it was immediately pursued with ardour. +It was introduced into several universities; exercises were performed, +lectures read, and degrees conferred in that, as in other branches of +science; and most of the nations of the continent adopted it, if not as +the basis, at least as an important portion of their civil +jurisprudence. A regular _succession of civil_ lawyers followed. At +first, they rather incumbered the text with their subtleties, than +illustrated it by learning and discrimination. _Andrew Alciat_ was the +first who united the study of polite learning with the study of the +civil law: he was founder of a school called the _Cujacian_, from +_Cujas_, the glory of civilians. Of him, it may be truly said, that he +found the civil law in wood and left it in marble. + +This school has subsisted until our time: it has never been without +writers of the greatest taste, judgment and erudition; the names of +Cujacius, Augustinus, the Gothofredi, Heineccius, Voetius, Vinnius, +Gravina and Pothier, are as dear to the scholar as they are to the +lawyer; an Englishman however must reflect with pleasure, that the +Commentaries of his countryman, Sir William Blackstone, will not suffer +in a comparison with any foreign work of jurisprudence. So far as the +researches of the present writer extend, the only one that can be put +into competition with them, is the _Jus Canonicum of Van-Espen_. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. II. 1597-1610] + +The judicial process of the nations on the continent differed +considerably from that of England. Trial by jury, and separate courts of +equity, were unknown to them. Some causes were heard and decided by all +the magistrates of the courts; others were referred to one or more of +their number. The king's advocate, or the advocate of the state, as he +was termed in a republic, held a situation between the judges and the +suitors: his province was to sum the facts and arguments of the cause, +and to suggest his opinions upon them to the judges.--We trust our +readers will excuse this summary view of foreign jurisprudence. + +Grotius, by the advice of his father, addicted himself to the profession +of the law. He was only in his seventeenth year, when he pleaded his +first cause. He acquired by it, great reputation; and this was +constantly upon the increase, through the whole of his professional +career. He observed in his pleadings a rule, which he afterwards +recommended to his son: "That you may not," he told him, "be embarrassed +by the little order observed by the adversary counsel, attend to one +thing, which I have found eminently useful: Distribute all that can be +said on both sides, under certain heads; imprint these strongly in your +memory; and, whatever your adversary says, refer it not to his division, +but to your own." + +[Sidenote: Grotius embraces the profession of the Law.] + +The brilliant success of Grotius at the bar soon procured him very +considerable promotions. The place of Advocate-General of the Fisc of +the provinces of Holland and Zealand becoming vacant, it was unanimously +conferred on him. This situation was attended with great distinction and +authority; the person invested with it, being charged with the +preservation of the public peace, and the prosecution of public +offenders. In 1613, Grotius was advanced to the situation of Pensionary +of Rotterdam; and his high character authorized him to stipulate before +he accepted it, that he should hold it during his life, and not, at +will, its usual tenure. It immediately gave him a seat in the assembly +of the States of Holland; and, at a future time, a seat in the assembly +of the States General. + +Between the time of his appointment to the advocacy of the Fisc of +Holland and Zealand, and his being appointed Pensionary of Rotterdam, he +married Mary Reygersburgh, of an illustrious family in Zealand. It +proved a marriage of happiness. The most perfect harmony subsisted +between Grotius and his consort: we shall find that she was an ornament +to him in prosperity, his comfort and aid in adverse fortune. The +marriage was solemnized in July 1608, and celebrated by many a Belgic +bard. + +[Sidenote: CHAP II. 1597-1610.] + +A dispute arising about this time between England and the States +General, upon the exclusive right claimed by the former to fish in the +Northern seas, the States, with a view to an amicable adjustment of it, +sent Grotius to England. Several meetings took place between him and +commissioners appointed by James, the British sovereign. If we credit +the account, given by Grotius, of the point in dispute, and the +negociation to which it gave rise, justice was decidedly on the side of +the States General; and England only carried the point by the lion's +right,--the _droit du plus fort_. + +[Sidenote: Grotius embraces the profession of the Law.] + +Grotius had every reason to be pleased with his reception by the English +monarch and his court. Between Grotius and Casaubon, who, at this time, +resided in England, an intimacy had long subsisted. It was cemented by +mutual esteem, similarity of studies, and the earnest wish of each for +an amicable termination of religious differences: each respected the +antient doctrines and discipline of the church; each thought that many +of the points in controversy were disputes of words; that much might be +gained by mutual concessions; and that the articles, upon which there +was any substantial difference, were few. "I esteem Grotius +highly,"--Casaubon writes in a letter to the president de Thou, "on +account of his other great qualities; but particularly because he judges +of the modern subjects of religious controversy like a learned and good +man. In his veneration for antiquity, he agrees with the wisest men." +... "I heartily pray God," says Casaubon in a letter to Grotius, "to; +preserve you: as long as I shall live, I shall hold you in the highest +esteem: so much am I taken with your piety, your probity, and your +admirable learning."[005] + + + + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +THE EARLY PUBLICATIONS OF GROTIUS. + + +There is not, perhaps, an instance of a person's acquiring at an age +equally early, the reputation, which attended the first publication of +Grotius. It was an edition, with notes, of the work of "_Martianus +Mineus Felix Capella_, on the Marriage of Mercury and Philology, in two +books; and of the same writer's Seven Treatises on the Liberal Arts." +They had been often printed; but all the editions were faulty: a +manuscript of them having been put into the hands of Grotius by his +father, he communicated it to Scaliger, and by his advice undertook a +new edition of them. + +The time, in which Capella lived, and the place of his birth, are +uncertain; the better opinion seems to be, that he flourished towards +the third century, resided at Rome, and attained the consular dignity. +His works are written in prose, intermixed with poetry. His diction has +some resemblance to that of Tertullian, but is much more crabbed and +obscure: none, but the ablest Latin scholars, can understand him. The +Marriage of Mercury and Philology,--or of Speech with Learning, is not +uninteresting. His other treatises contain nothing remarkable: that upon +music, is hardly intelligible; it is printed separately in the +collection of _Meibomius_. With all his harshness and obscurity, Capella +seems to have been much studied in the middle ages,--some proof that +there was more learning in them, than is generally supposed,--he is so +often quoted by the writers of those times, that some persons have +supposed that his work was then a text book in the schools. + +[Sidenote: The early publications of Grotius.] + +[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.] + +When Grotius undertook his edition of Capella, he was only twelve years +of age: he published it in his fourteenth year, and dedicated it to the +Prince of Condé. The learning and critical discernment displayed by him +in this publication excited astonishment, and obtained for him the +applause of all the literary world. Grotius himself gives the following +account of his work: "We have collated Capella with the several authors, +who have investigated the same subjects. In the two first books, we have +consulted those whose writings contain the sentiments of the antient +philosophers, as Apuleius, Albericus and others, too tedious to name; on +grammar, we have compared, Capella with the antient grammarians; in what +he has said on rhetoric, with Cicero and Aquila; on logic, with +Porphyry, Aristotle, Cassiodorus and Apuleius; on geography, with +Strabo, Mela, Solinus, and Ptolemy, but chiefly Pliny; on arithmetic, +with Euclid; on astronomy, with Hyginus, and others, who have treated on +that subject; on music, with Cleonides, Vitruvius and Boethius." In +Grotius's Annotations all these writers are mentioned in a manner, which +shews that he was thoroughly conversant with their works. Grotius's +edition is become, from its extreme scarcity, a typographical curiosity: +all the other editions are scarce. The writer of these pages found, with +great difficulty, a copy of it in the London market.[006] That of +Bonhomme, published at Lyons in 1539, he procured by loan. The +celebrated Leibniz began to prepare an edition of Capella _in usum +Delphini_; but his collections being purloined from him, he desisted +from his project: it must be owned that the general learning of Leibniz +qualified him admirably for such a task.[009] + +[Sidenote: The early Publications of Grotius.] + +While yet in his fourteenth year, Grotius published a translation of a +work, published by Simon Steven in 1586, upon Navigation, and shewed by +it a profound knowledge of mathematics:[010] he dedicated it to the +republic of Venice. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.] + +In the following year, Grotius published _the Phenomena of Aratus_, a +poetical treatise of that author upon astronomy, with Cicero's +translation of it, so far as it has reached us. Grotius supplied the +vacancies. It is universally admitted that the parts supplied by him, +are not inferior to those of Cicero. The abbé d'Olivet, the editor of +Cicero's works, and an enthusiastic admirer of his style, declares that +"the Muse of Cicero[011] did not throw the Muse of Grotius into the +shade:" he therefore inserted the supplementary verses of Grotius in his +edition. Grotius dedicated his work to the States of Holland and West +Friseland; and promised them in his dedication something more +considerable. He was complimented upon it by several of the greatest men +of the age. + +The following simile, taken from Cicero's translation of Aratus, and +Voltaire's version of it, are greatly admired: + + Sic Jovis altisoni subito pennata satelles, + Arboris è trunco, serpentis saucia morsu; + Ipsa feris subigit transfigens unguibus anguem + Semianimum, et variâ graviter cervice micantem; + Quem se intorquentem laniens rostroque craentans, + Abjicit efflantem, et laceratum effundit in undas, + Seque obitu a solis nitidos convertit ad ortus. + + CICERO. + + + Tel on voit cet oiseau, qui porte le tonnere, + Blessé par un serpent élancé de la terre; + Il s'envole, il entraine au sejour azuré + L'ennemi tortueux dont il est entouré. + Le sang tombe des airs: il dechire, il devore + Le reptile acharné, qui le combat encore; + Il le perçe, il le tient sous ses ongles vainqeurs, + Par cent coups rédoublés il venge ses douleurs; + Le Monstre en expirant, se debat, se replie; + Il exhale en poison le reste de sa vie; + Et l'aigle tout sanglant, fier et victorieux, + Le rejette en fureur, et plane au haut des cieux. + + VOLTAIRE. + +[Sidenote: The early Publications of Grotius.] + +About the year 1608, Grotius published his celebrated work _Mare +Liberum_, to assert in it against the English, the general freedom of +the sea. The controversy arose upon the claim of Great Britain to enjoy +the dominion of the British seas, in the most extensive sense of those +words, both as to the right of navigating them, and the right of fishing +within them. Against this claim, Grotius attempted to shew that the sea +was, from its nature, insusceptible of exclusive right; and that, if it +were susceptible of it, England did not prove her title to it. Selden, +in opposition to Grotius, asserted the British claim, by his treatise +_Mare Clausam_,--a noble exertion of a vigorous mind, fraught with +profound and extensive erudition. It is pleasing to add, that he treats +Grotius with the respect due to his learning and character. Selden's +treatise was thought of so much importance to his cause, that a copy of +it was directed to be deposited in the British Admiralty. Grotius was +highly pleased with the respect, which was shewn to him by Selden. + +On Selden's _Mare Clausum_ he composed the following epigram:-- + + Ipsum compedibus qui vinxerat Ennegisæum, + Est Grecâ Xerxes multus in historia: + Lucullum Latii Xerxem dixere togatum; + Seldenus Xerxes ecce Britannus erit. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610] + +The States General were gratified by his work; but at that time it was +so much their interest to preserve the strictest amity with England, +that they discountenanced any further advocation of their claim.[012] + +The year after his publication of his "Treatise on the Freedom of the +Sea," Grotius printed his work on the "_Antiquity of the Batavian +Republic_." He gives in it an account of the antient _Batavians;_ he +professes to shew that they were the allies, not the subjects of the +Romans; that, after a period of anarchy, during which little is known of +their history, they became subjects of the Counts of Holland; that these +were not vassals of the empire, but independent princes; and, strictly +speaking, elected by the people, although, in the election of them, +great regard was always shewn to the hereditary line: that they were +bound to conform to the laws of the state; and always required, before +their election, to swear to the observance of the constitution; that the +taxes were always imposed by the States, and that Philip the Second had +occasioned the grand war, by repeated infractions of the public and +private right of the people of the United Provinces. + +[Sidenote: The early Publications of Grotius.] + +The States of Holland were highly pleased with this work; they voted +thanks to its author, and accompanied them with a present. It is +considered that his partiality to his country led him to advance some +positions favourable to its antient independence, which his proofs did +not justify. + +For the use of _Du Maurier_, the French ambassador to the States +General, Grotius published, about this time, his "Directions for a +Course of general Study," _De omni genere studiorum recte instituendo_. +It was favourably received, both by the diplomatist for whose use it was +composed, and the public at large; but, on account of the great +extension of literature, since the time of Grotius, it is now little +read. Mentioning the Roman history, he shews that a knowledge of it is +better acquired by reading its Greek than by reading its Latin +historians; because foreigners give more attention to the public manners +and customs of a country than natives. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.] + +All the works, which we have mentioned, were most favourably received in +every part of the United Provinces. It was now become evident that the +exertions for their independence were on the eve of being crowned with +complete success. All the European Powers had deserted Spain, so that +she was left to her own single and unaided strength, to maintain the +contest against the insurgent provinces. The glory, which they acquired +by their successful resistance to her, determined them to make choice of +an historian, who should transmit to future ages the signal exploits of +their memorable struggle. With this view, they appointed Grotius their +historiographer. + +[Sidenote: The Poems of Grotius.] + +It remains to mention the "_Poems of Grotius:_" throughout his life, he +sacrificed to the Muses. The _Prosopopoeia,_ in which he introduces the +City of Ostend addressing the world, when, in the third year of her +siege, the Marquis Spinola led the troops of Spain against her, was +greatly, admired. All the adjacent territory had been taken by the +Spaniards, so that nothing remained of it to the confederates, but the +precinct within the walls of the city; and even much of this had been +wrested from the besieged. All Europe had its eye fixed on the +operations of Spinola. It is therefore, with great propriety of +language, that Grotius makes Ostend thus address herself to the world, +in the following lines:-- + + "Area parva ducum, totus quam respicit orbis; + Celsior una malis, et quam damnare ruinae + Nunc quoque fata timent,--alieno in litore resto. + Tertius annus abit; toties mutavimus hostem: + Sævit hyems pelago, morbisque furentibus æstas; + Et minimum est quod fecit Iber,--crudelior armis + In nos orta lues,--nullum est sine funere funus. + Nec perimit mors una semel:--Fortuna quid haeres? + Quâ mercede tenes mixtos in sanguine manes? + Quis tumulos moriens hos occupet hoste perempto? + Queritur,--et sterili tantum de pulvere pugna est." + + + "A small area of chiefs, whom the whole world contemplates; + alone loftier than my woes; I, whom the + Fates even yet, fear to condemn to ruin;--remain on a + foreign shore. + + "The third year now passes away; thrice has my foe + been changed: + + "The winter rages on the sea; the summer, by its furious + heats. + + "The Spaniard has been my least enemy;--more cruel + than arms, a pestilence has risen among us; no funeral is + without another; the dying never perish by a single death. + + "Fortune! why do'st thou hesitate? By what reward + do'st thou detain the manes mingled in blood? + + "Who, dying, will, after the destruction of the enemy, + occupy these tombs?--This is enquired.-- + The contest is only for sterile dust." + +With the following poetical translation of these verses, the writer has +been favoured by Mr. Sotheby, the elegant translator of "Oberon." + + Scant battle-field of Chiefs, thro' earth renown'd, + Opprest, I loftier tow'r;--and, now, while Fate + Dreads to destroy, in foreign soil I stand. + Thrice chang'd the year, thrice have we chang'd the Foe. + Fierce Winter chafes the Deep, the Summer burns + With fell disease: less fell th' Iberian sword. + Dire Pestilence spreads;--on funerals funerals swell: + Nor does one death at once extirpate all. + Why, Fortune! linger? why our souls detain + With blood immingled? Who, the Foe extinct, + Who, dying, shall these sepulchres possess, + And in this sterile dust the conflict close? + + W.S. + March 28,1826. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.] + +These verses produced a great sensation in the literary world: they were +ascribed by many to Scaliger, as the best Latin poet of the age; the +only person considered to be capable of writing them. The celebrated +Peyresck hinted this to that learned man: Scaliger answered, that "he +was too old not to be the aversion of the virgins of Helicon," and +announced that the verses were written by Grotius. They were translated +into French by Du Vair, afterwards the keeper of the seals; by Rapin, +grand-provost of the Constabulary of France; by Stephen Pasquier, and by +Malherbes: Casaubon translated them into Greek.[013] + +[Sidenote: The Poems of Grotius.] + +Three Generals had successively been entrusted with the siege of Ostend; +nine commanders had successively been entrusted with its defence: the +siege had cost the besiegers and besieged 100,000 lives: all the +historians of the times agree, that few important consequences were +derived to either side by the success of the Spaniards. The Archduke and +Infanta, had the curiosity to view the city, after it was taken. They +found in it nothing but heaps of ruins: little that shewed the former +state of the town; its ditches were filled, its fortifications +overthrown, its buildings, and the works of attack and defence, were +levelled with the ground. Spinola led them to the spots in which the +most remarkable events had taken place; and, finally to that, in which +the forces of the besieged had made their last stand; had, for want of +space, found themselves unable to raise military works, and had, on that +account, found themselves forced to surrender. The Archduke and the +Infanta were moved to tears at the melancholy sight; and declared that +such a victory was not worth its cost. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. III. 1597-1610.] + +The success of the siege of Ostend covered Spinola with glory: his reply +to a person, who asked him,--who, in his opinion was the greatest +general of the age,--is generally known: "Prince Maurice," he said, "is +the second."[014] + +The principal poetical performances of Grotius in the collection we have +mentioned, are--_three tragedies_, "Adam in Banishment," "Christ +Suffering," and "Sophomphaneos," which signifies in the language of +Egypt, "the Saviour of the world:" it exhibits the story of Joseph. +Sandys translated it into English verse, and dedicated his translation +to Charles I. From the second of these tragedies, Lauder transcribed +many of the verses, upon which he founded the charge of plagiarism +against Milton. + +An eminent rank among modern Latin poets, has always been assigned to +Grotius: his diction is always classical, his sentiments just. But those +who are accustomed to the _wood notes_ of the Bard of Avon, will not +admire the scenic compositions, however elegant or mellifluous, of the +Batavian Bard. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THEIR DECLARATION OF +INDEPENDENCE, TILL THE ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY. + + +The present chapter will lead our readers to the public life of Grotius: +in a former page we succinctly mentioned the principal events in the +history of the United Provinces, from their first insurrection against +Philip II. till their declaration of independence. On that event, they +continued Prince William of Orange in the Stadtholderate: he was +entitled to it by his civil and military talents. Application, activity, +liberality, eloquence, intrepidity, enterprise and discretion, were +united in him in an extraordinary degree: he could accommodate himself +to all persons and occurrences, accelerate or retard events, as best +served the interests of his cause, or his own designs. In the rare +talent of governing popular assemblies, and procuring the co-operation +of persons of opposite views, he has had few equals. He wanted no +quality, which a chief of a party should possess, either to insure the +success of the public object, or to further his private aims. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. IV. 1597-1610.] + +These had, for some time, been suspected: it was generally observed, +that he affected the exercise of sovereign authority; that he +endeavoured to attach the military to his own person; that he always +sought to have the acts of the States issued in his own name; that, on +many occasions, he avoided consulting the States, or doing any thing +which could be considered an explicit recognition of their supremacy; +and that in several instances, in which the constitution required the +co-operation of the States, he acted independently of them. This gave +rise to a party, which was jealous of his power, and on many occasions +thwarted, what they thought the projects of his private ambition. From +their attachment to the constitution, they were termed the republican +party: Barneveldt, the Grand-Pensionary of the States General, was their +leader. + +[Sidenote: Assassination of William Prince of Orange.] + +Whatever were the projects of the prince, there appeared to be great +probability of their ultimate success. In 1684, he had gained so for, +that the States of Holland, Zealand and Frizeland, had come to a +resolution to confer upon him the sovereignty of their states, under the +title of Count. All the conditions were settled: on one hand, the rights +of the prince, on the other, the rights of the people, were defined and +recognised; a contravention of them by any of the people was declared +to be treason; the infringement of them by the prince, was declared to +be a forfeiture of his sovereignty. Thus the prince seemed to be on the +eve of receiving the fruit of all his exertions. But, as we have already +mentioned, he was assassinated by Balthazar Gerard, a fanatic Spaniard. +The last words of the prince were, "Lord! have mercy on my soul! have +pity on my poor country!" + +In 1585, Prince Maurice, the second son of William, was, chiefly by the +influence of Barneveldt, proclaimed Stadtholder by the States General. +They were not less jealous of his views, than they had been of his +father's; but the misconduct of the Earl of Leicester had made it +necessary for them to throw themselves into the prince's arms. The +weakness of Spain, and the troubles in France, now permitted the United +Provinces to enjoy some repose. They availed themselves of it, to settle +the constitution: the towns were repaired, the fortifications completed, +Universities were founded or revived at Utrecht, Leyden and Franker; and +the arts of peace began to be cultivated. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. IV. 1597-1610.] + +Maurice inherited all the civil talents of his father; he had greater +military skill, and at least equal ambition. The art of war seems to +consist, at the present time, in directing immense masses of men, by +skilful evolutions and positions, to the destruction of the force +opposed. In the wars of the Netherlands, it was principally shewn by +surprising strong-holds, besieging towns, regular assaults, advantageous +encampments, and wasting the army of the enemy by skilful marches. The +camp of Maurice became a school, in which the nobility and gentry of the +empire, France, and England, entered as volunteers, to learn the art of +war. His taking of the city of Breda, raised his reputation to the +highest: from this time, the war, which, on the part of the United +Provinces, had till then, been a defensive war, became offensive, and +their arms were attended with almost uninterrupted success: they equally +triumphed on Sea. + +In 1698, the war between Spain and France was terminated. Philip II. +soon afterwards died: he was succeeded by Philip III. a weak monarch. +Then, began the naval glory of the United Provinces; their attacks on +the West Indian and East Indian colonies of the Spaniards. In 1600, +prince Maurice gained a decisive victory at Nieuport near Ostend: it was +followed by other important successes. In 1607, Admiral Heemskirk +obtained a complete victory over the Spanish fleet, though protected by +the batteries of Cadiz, and seized their ships and treasures. + +[Sidenote: Armistice between Spain and the United Provinces.] + +The war between Spain and the United Provinces had now continued forty +years: the resources of Spain were so exhausted, that she herself was +forced to solicit an armistice. Prince Maurice objected to it, as the +continuance of the war was essential to the furtherance of his own +ambitious views. On this account, the truce was promoted by Barneveldt +and the republican party. They justly thought that the aggrandizement of +the house of Orange would be the extinction of the liberties of their +country, so that the result of the war would only be, that the United +Provinces would change their masters. After a long negotiation, an +armistice of twelve years was agreed upon in 1609, and England and +France guaranteed the execution of the treaty. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +THE FEUDS IN THE UNITED PROVINCES BETWEEN THE DISCIPLES OF CALVIN AND +THE DISCIPLES OF ARMINIUS, UNTIL THE SYNOD AT DORT. + +1610-1617. + + +It has generally happened, when a people have risen against their +sovereign, that their first successes have been followed by divisions +among themselves; and that these have endangered, and sometimes even +ruined, their cause. Such a division took place, in a remarkable manner, +in the conflict between the United Provinces and Spain. No sooner did +the arms of the former begin to prosper, and promise ultimate success, +than the ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY burst forth. At first, it was merely a +religious dispute; but it soon mixed itself in the national politics; +split the people into two very hostile parties, and produced contentions +between them, which more than once brought their cause to the brink of +destruction. Grotius was unfortunately involved in them. This part of +the history now claims our attention. + +[Sidenote: Calvinism.] + +The reformed church, in the largest import of the word, comprises all +the religious communities, which have separated themselves from the +church of Rome. In this sense, the words are often used by English +writers; but, having been adopted by the French Calvinists to describe +_their_ church, these words are most commonly used, on the continent, as +a general appellation of all the churches who profess the doctrines of +Calvin. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.] + +About the year 1541, the church of Geneva was placed by the magistrates +of that city, under the direction of Calvin. He immediately conceived +one of the boldest projects, that ever entered into the mind of an +obscure individual. He undertook to new model the religious creed of the +reformed church; to give it strength and consistency, and to render the +church of Geneva the mother and mistress of all Protestant churches. His +learning, eloquence, and talents for business, soon attracted general +notice; and, while the fervour of his zeal, the austerity of his +manners, and the devotional cast of his writings, attracted the +multitude, the elegance of his compositions, and his insinuating style, +equally captivated the gentleman and the scholar. By degrees, his fame +reached every part of Europe. Having prevailed upon the senate of Geneva +to found an academy, and place it under his superintendence, and having +filled it with men eminent throughout Europe for their learning and +talent, it became the favourite resort of all persons, who leaned to the +new principles, and sought religious or literary instruction. From +Germany, France, Italy, England and Scotland, numbers crowded to the new +academy, and returned from it to their native countries, saturated with +the doctrine of Geneva, and burning with zeal to propagate its creed. + +Calvin's peculiar doctrine on Predestination and Free-will soon +attracted attention, and gave rise to _more than a civil war_[015] of +controversy,[016] + +We feel that we are free: if we were not free, conscience could not +exist; for, if a man had not freedom of action, conscience could not +intimate to him either its approbation or its disapprobation of his +actions. + +But--_how_ are we free? _How_ is free-will reconcileable, either with +the influence of motive upon will? or with the order of the universe, +prescribed by the Deity? or, with his prescience? For that, which his +infinite mind prescribes or foresees, must be fixed. + +[Sidenote: Disputes on the Free-will of Man.] + +This question soon engaged the attention of the Greek Philosophers: some +advocated the free-will of man; others denied it, and ascribed his +actions to Fate or Destiny; a being or energy, which they were never +able to define or describe. Among the Jews, the Sadducees embraced the +former opinion; the Pharisees, the latter. Among the Mahometans, a like +division took place between the followers of Omar, and those of Ali. + +Unfortunately, the Christians engaged in these ungrateful speculations: +their disputes chiefly turned upon the effect, which motive, suggested +by grace, or the divine favour, has upon will. Does it necessitate? +then, there is no free-will,--no merit,--no demerit. Does it not +necessitate? then, in the choice of good, man acts by his own power, and +thus achieves a good of which God is not the author. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.] + +The dispute was brought to an issue by _Pelagius_ and his disciples. +They held, that man acts independently of divine grace, both in the +choice and execution of good. This independence was denied by _St. +Augustin_, he asserted, that man co-operates with grace, yet, that grace +begins, advances and brings to perfection every thing in man, which can +be justly called good. _St. Thomas of Aquin_ new-modelled the system of +St. Augustin, and used new terms in describing it: his subtile +distinctions, in the opinion of many, considerably improved it. + +_Calvin_ aggravated the doctrine of St. Augustin. He maintained,[017] +that the everlasting condition of mankind in the future world, was +determined from all eternity, by the _unchangeable order_ of the Deity; +and that this _absolute_ determination of his will was the only source +of _happiness or misery_ to individuals. Thus Calvin maintained, without +any qualification, that God, from all eternity has doomed one part of +mankind to everlasting happiness, the other to everlasting misery; and, +was led to make this distinction, without regard to the merit or demerit +of the object, and by no other reason or motive than his own pleasure. + +_Luther_,[018] in opposition to Calvin, maintained, that the _divine +decrees_ respecting the salvation or misery of men, are founded upon a +previous knowledge of their sentiments and characters; or, in other +words, that God, foreseeing from all eternity the faith and virtue of +some, and the incredulity or wickedness of others, has reserved eternal +happiness for the former, and eternal misery for the latter. + +[Sidenote: Disputes on the Free-will of Man.] + +These, and other doctrinal differences, separated the Protestants into +the adherents to the creed of Luther, and the adherents to the creed of +Calvin. The United Provinces were among the latter: the creed of Calvin +was, as we have mentioned, one of the fundamental laws of the Union. + +The Calvinistic doctrine, that God, from all eternity, consigns one +portion of mankind, without any fault on their side, to everlasting +torments, shocks our feelings, and is totally repugnant to the notions +entertained by us of the goodness and justice of the Deity: it is not +therefore surprising that it should be called in question. From the +first, several objected to it; but it was not till the successes of the +United Provinces appeared to afford them a near prospect of triumph, +that the opposers of Calvin's doctrine formed themselves into a party, +and occasioned a public sensation. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.] + +The celebrated JAMES ARMINIUS[019] was at their head. He was born in +1560, at Oudewater in Holland, of respectable parents. He lost his +father in his infancy, and was indebted, for the first rudiments of his +education, to a clergyman, who had imbibed some opinions of the reformed +religion. Under his tuition, Arminius studied, during some time, at +Utrecht. After the clergyman's decease, Rudolphus Snellius, a clergyman +of eminence, took Arminius under his protection, and, in 1575, placed +him at Marpurgh. There, he heard of the taking of Oudewater by the +Spaniards, and their massacre of its inhabitants. His mother, sister, +and two brothers were among the victims. On the first intelligence of +the calamity he repaired to Oudewater, in hopes that the account of it +might have been exaggerated. Finding it true, he retired to Leyden: +there, his severe application to study, and the regularity of his +morals, gained him universal esteem. In 1563, he was sent to Geneva, at +the expense of the magistrates of Amsterdam, to perfect his studies +under the care of Beza. Unfortunately, by adopting the philosophical +principles, of _Ramus_, and unguardedly professing them, he displeased +some leading men of the university, and was obliged to leave it: he then +went to Bâsle. There, his reputation having preceded him, he was +received with great kindness: the faculty of divinity offered him a +doctor's degree; but a general wish for his return being expressed at +Geneva, he declined the honour, and returned to that city. He then +visited Italy, and, during some months, studied under Zabarella, a +famous philosopher, who then lectured at Padua. In 1588, Arminius was +ordained minister at Amsterdam. + +[Sidenote: Arminius.] + +Some theologians of Delft having attacked the sentiments of Calvin and +Beza upon predestination, and given great offence by it, they defended +themselves by a book, entitled; "An Answer to certain Arguments of Beza +and Calvin, in the treatise concerning Predestination; or upon the ninth +Chapter of the Epistle to the Romans." They transmitted their defence to +Martin Lydius, a partisan of the divines whom it attacked; he sent it to +Arminius, with a request that he would answer it. Arminius undertook the +task, and attentively examined and weighed the arguments on each side; +the result was, that he embraced the opinions which he had been called +upon to confute, and even went further than the ministers of Delft. Upon +this account, the friends of the rejected principles raised a great +clamour against him; but were quieted by the intervention of the +magistrates. The opinions, which Arminius adopted, he endeavoured to +propagate. They are contained in the Remonstrance of his disciples, +which we shall afterwards transcribe. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.] + +As the language of Arminius seemed to express notions, more consonant +than those of Calvin, to the sentiments entertained by rational +Christians, of the goodness and justice of the Deity, it is not +surprising that they found many advocates among the learned and +moderate; but some ardent spirits were offended by them, and instilled +their dislike of them into the populace. This, Arminius was soon made to +feel. In 1603, he was appointed, on the death of Francis Junius, to a +professorship of theology in the university of Leyden: great efforts +were made, first to prevent, and afterwards to procure a recision of his +appointment. He was accused of having said in a sermon, that "God had +not yet sent his letter of divorce to the church of Rome;" but his +friends produced a work of Francis Junius, his predecessor in the +theological chair, in which that celebrated theologian had used the same +expression. Arminius was also accused by his adversaries, of elevating +the action of reason in the choice of good, at the expense of grace. To +this Arminius replied, by accusing his adversaries of sacrificing reason +entirely to grace. But the greater number of the enemies of Arminius +supported their charges against him, by making it a question of +authority: "the States," they said, "had decided the question, by +adopting Calvin's doctrine at the union; so that the gainsayers of it +were guilty of treason." The friends of Arminius replied, that he did +not deny Calvin's doctrine, but merely explained it. + +[Sidenote: Arminius.] + +Thus they disputed; + + "And found no end, in wandering mazes lost." + Milton. + +In fact, the subject,--as the writer has more than once observed,--is +above human reason: the day will come, "when the Almighty will be +judged, and will overcome;"--when the secret of his councils will be +unfolded, and their justice and goodness made manifest to all.[020] + +The friends of Arminius also observed, that he was by no means singular +in his doctrine; that it was favoured by professors in Gueldres, +Friesland, Utrecht, and other parts of Holland; and, that in all the +provinces, it was patronized by the higher ranks of the laity. Was it +fitting, they asked, that the peace of the church, and the tranquillity +of the state, should be disturbed by such a dispute? by a dispute which +affected no essential article of christianity; no civil, no moral, no +religious observation? + +[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.] + +The principal adversary of Arminius was _Gomarus_, also a professor of +theology at Leyden. When the election of Arminius was proposed, Gomarus +announced suspicions of his orthodoxy; he afterwards raised his tone, +and accused Arminius of Pelagianism, of secretly inclining to the church +of Rome, and holding principles which led to general scepticism and +infidelity. + +Arminius died on the 19th October 1609. + +Grotius made his eulogium in verse. He had hitherto applied little to +these matters; he acknowledges, in a letter written in 1609, his general +ignorance of them. Entering afterwards into the dispute, he became +convinced that the idea, which we ought to have of the goodness and +justice of God, and even the language of the scriptures and the early +fathers of the church, favoured the system of Arminius, and contradicted +that of Gomarus. + +The prejudices against the Arminians increasing, they drew up a +Remonstrance, dated the 14th January 1610, and addressed it to the +States of Holland. It begins by stating what they do not believe: it +afterwards propounds their own sentiments in the five articles +following:[021] + + [Sidenote: Remonstrance.] + + 1. "That God, by an eternal and immutable decree in Jesus Christ + his son, before the world was created, resolved to save in Jesus + Christ, on account of Jesus Christ, and through Jesus Christ, + those, from among mankind fallen in sin, who, by the grace of the + Holy Spirit believe in his same son Jesus; and through the same + grace continue in the faith and obedience to the end; and, on the + contrary, to leave under sin, and wrath, and to condemn the + obstinate and unbelieving, as having no part in Christ; according + to what is said _St. John_ iii. 36. + + 2. "That accordingly, Jesus Christ the Saviour of the world, died + for all and every man; and by his death on the cross has merited + for all, reconciliation with God, and remission of sin; in such + manner nevertheless, that no one can partake of them but believers, + according to the words of Jesus, _St. John_ iii. 16., 1 _John_ ii. + 2. + + 3. "That man hath not saving faith of himself, and by the strength + of his own free will; since, while in a state of sin and apostasy, + he cannot of himself think, desire, or do, that which is truly + good, which is what is chiefly meant by saving faith; but it is + necessary that God in Jesus Christ, and by the Holy Spirit, + regenerate and renew him in his understanding and affections, or in + his will and all his powers; that he may know the true good, + meditate on it, desire, and do it. _St. John_ xv. 5. + + [Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.] + + 4. "That to this grace of God is owing the beginning, the + progression, and accomplishment of all good; in such manner, that + even the regenerate, without this antecedent, or preventing, + exciting, concomitant, and cooperating grace, cannot think that, + which is good, desire or practise it; nor resist any temptation to + evil; so that all the good works or actions he can conceive, spring + from the grace of God; that as to what regards the manner of + operation of this grace, it is not irresistible, since it is said + of several, they resisted the Holy Spirit. See _Acts_ vii. and + other places. + + 5. "That those, who by a lively faith are engrafted into Christ, and + consequently made partakers of his quickening spirit, are furnished + with sufficient strength to be able to combat, and even overcome + Satan, sin, the world, and their own lusts; and all this, as is + carefully to be observed, by the assistance of the grace and the + Holy Spirit; and that Jesus Christ succours them by his spirit in + all temptations, reaches to them his hand, (provided they be + willing to engage, ask his assistance, and are not wanting to + themselves,) supports and strengthens them: so, that they cannot be + led away by any wile or violence of Satan, or snatched out of + Christ's hands, as he says himself, _St. John_ x. _My sheep shall + no man pluck out of my hands_. For the rest, if it be asked whether + these may not through negligence let go the confidence they had + from the beginning, (Heb. iii. 6.) cleave again to the present + world, depart from the holy doctrine, which was delivered, make + shipwreck of a good conscience? (2 Pet. i. 10., Jude iii., 1 Tim. + i. 19., Heb. xii. 15.) This must be previously examined with more + care, by the Scriptures, to be able to teach it with full assurance + to others." + +Such is the Confession of Faith of the Arminians: they gave it the name +of _Remonstrance_; and were styled from it REMONSTRANTS. It was drawn up +by _Utengobard_, minister at the Hague, with the help, it is supposed, +of Grotius: it was signed by forty-six ministers. + +[Sidenote: Contra-Remonstrance.] + +The Gomarists opposed to it a _Contra-Remonstrance_; which gave them the +name of the CONTRA-REMONSTRANTS. + +It was about this time, that Grotius was elected Pensionary of +Rotterdam, and ordered to England: it has been suggested, that he had +secret instructions from the Arminians, to induce king James to favour +their principles. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.] + +We are informed, by Mr. Nichols, (_Calvinism and Arminianism +compared_,)[022] that the Arminians sent to King James by Grotius, a +true state of their case; that Grotius found an adversary in _Archbishop +Abbott_, and friends in _Bishops Andrews_ and _Overal_; and that by +their advice the monarch addressed to the States General, a wise and +conciliatory letter. + +The irritation of the public mind increasing, the States of Holland, to +restore tranquillity, published an edict of Pacification, by which they +strongly enjoined forbearance, toleration, and silence. This was +favourable to the Arminians, but it increased the violence of the +_Contra-remonstrants_. Thus, it became a signal of war. The States of +Holland transmitted it to King James: his Majesty, the archbishop of +Canterbury, and the other English prelates, allowed its doctrine to be +orthodox. + +[Sidenote: Remonstrants--Contra-Remonstrants.] + +Still, the troubles in Holland augmented: riots took place and greater +riots were apprehended. In an evil hour, Barneveldt, the +Grand-Pensionary, proposed to the States of Holland, that the +magistrates of the cities of that province should he empowered to raise +troops for the suppression of the rioters. Amsterdam, Dort, and other +towns, that favoured the Gomarists, protested against this measure, +styling it a declaration of war against the Contra-remonstrants. Yet, +on the 4th August 1617, Barneveldt's proposition was agreed to, and +promulgated. + +We have mentioned the enmity of Prince Maurice to Barneveldt, on account +of his having promoted the armistice of 1609, and his favouring the +republican party. The Prince professed to consider the edict of +Pacification as derogatory of his authority, and forbade the soldiers to +obey the States, if they should be ordered to act against the rioters. +He publicly declared, that he favoured the Gomarists; he assisted, at +the divine service, in their churches only, and shewed them every other +mark of public favour. Exulting in this powerful support, the Gomarists +separated themselves, formally, from the Arminians. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.] + +To bring over Amsterdam to their sentiments, the States of Holland sent +a deputation to the burgomasters of that city, and placed Grotius at its +head. On the day after their arrival in Amsterdam, the burgomasters +assembled to receive the deputies. Grotius addressed them in an +argumentative and eloquent speech. He urged the necessity and advantage +of religious toleration, particularly upon theoretical points of +doctrine. He observed to the assembly, that Bullinger and Melancthon had +been tolerated by Deza and Calvin; that James, the King of Great +Britain, had advanced, in his writings, that each of the two opposite +opinions on Predestination might be maintained without danger of +reprobation; that Gomarus himself had declared that Arminius had not +erred in any fundamental article of Christian doctrine; that the +contested articles were of a very abstruse nature; that the affirmative +or negative of the doctrines expressed in them, had not been determined; +and that toleration would restore tranquillity and union, and favour the +assembling of a numerous and respectable synod, which might labour with +success in restoring peace to the church. + +Grotius delivered his speech in the Dutch language; it was afterwards +translated into Latin; all, who heard, admired it; but it produced no +effect on them. The deputies were uncivilly dismissed; and the oration +of Grotius, by an order of the States General, was suppressed.[023] + +[Sidenote: Feuds of the Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants.] + +He was much affected by the bad success of his mission: he was seized +with a fever, which nearly proved fatal to him. Many of his friends +sought to persuade him to retire from the contest: he told them that he +had taken his resolution after deep deliberation; that he was aware of +his danger, and that he submitted the event to providence. + +The next effort of the States of Holland to pacify the troubles, was to +prepare a _formula_ of peace, which the ministers of the two parties +should be obliged to sign. It contained nothing contrary to the doctrine +of Calvin; it referred the five articles to future examination, and +prescribed, in the mean time, silence upon the parts in dispute. Grotius +drew up the Formula; it was shewn to Prince Maurice, and rejected by +him. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.] + +Matters now converged to a crisis:--we have more than once mentioned the +opposite politics of Prince Maurice and Barneveldt, the +Grand-Pensionary; the former wishing to draw the whole sovereign power +to himself; the latter endeavouring to preserve and stabilitate the the +constitution of the Provinces, as it had been settled by the Act of +Union. We noticed that the Gomarists sided with the Prince; the +Arminians with the Grand-Pensionary. As the Prince was aware that the +States of Holland were favourable to the Arminians, that the States +General were opposed to them, and that the clergy of each denomination +partook of the civil and ecclesiastical opinions of their flocks, he +convened a national synod of the clergy; and, that be might the more +overawe his opponents and strengthen his own party, he appointed the +synod to meet in Holland. Against this synod the provinces of Holland, +Utretcht, and Overyssell protested. Barneveldt was so much affected by +the disturbances, and a view of the evils with which they appeared to +threaten his country, that he sought to resign his place of +Grand-Pensionary; but the States of the province of Holland, which +needed more than ever the counsels of such an experienced minister, sent +a deputation to him, beseeching him not to abandon them in times of so +much difficulty. He thought it his duty to yield to their entreaty, and +continued to exercise the functions of his office. + +[Sidenote: Imprisonment of Barneveldt, Grotius and Hoogerbetz.] + +To frustrate the designs of Prince Maurice, several cities favourable to +the Arminians levied bodies of militia, and gave them the name of +_Attendant Soldiers_. The States-General, at the instigation of Prince +Maurice, enjoined the cities to disband them. The cities generally +disobeyed these orders. In this they were justified by the established +constitution: the Prince, however, treated their conduct as rebellious; +and, in concert with the States General, marched in person, at the head +of his troops, against the refractory cities. Wherever he came, he +disarmed and disbanded the new levies; deposed the Arminian magistrates, +and expelled the ministers of their party. + +In the provinces of Gueldres and Overyssell, he met with no resistance; +and little at Arnheim: greater resistance was expected at Utretcht: the +States of Holland sent Grotius and Hoogerbetz, the Pensionary of Leyden, +to stimulate the inhabitants to resistance; but the fortune of the +Prince prevailed. In an extraordinary assembly, which consisted of eight +persons only, yet assuming to act as the States General, the Prince +procured an ordonnance to be passed, which directed Barneveldt, Grotius, +and Hoogerbetz to be taken into immediate custody. They were accordingly +arrested, and confined in the Castle at the Hague. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. V. 1610-1617.] + +Thus the Prince's party prevailed in every part of the United Provinces. +About this time, he succeeded, in consequence of the death of his elder +brother, to the dignity of Prince of Orange. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE SYNOD OF DORT. + +1618. + + +[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.] + +The States General determined that the Synod[024] should be composed of +twenty-six divines of the United Provinces, twenty-eight foreign +divines, five professors of divinity, and sixteen laymen;--seventy-five +members in the whole. The expence was calculated at 100,000 florins. The +English divines were, Dr. George Carlton, Bishop of Llandaff; Dr. Joseph +Hall, Dean of Worcester; John Davenant, professor of divinity, and +Master of Queen's college, Cambridge; Samuel Ward, Archdeacon of +Taunton, and head of Sidney college, Cambridge. To these were added, +Walter Balcanqual, a Scottish theologian, as representative of the +Scottish churches. The ever-memorable John Hales of Eaton, as that +learned and amiable person is justly termed by protestant writers, was +permitted to attend the debates of the Synod, but was not allowed to +speak, or take any part in its proceedings. + +[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.] + +We have mentioned that Arminius was converted to the opinions, which he +defended afterwards so strenuously, by the perusal of a work in support +of the opposite doctrine, which he had been desired to confute. In the +same manner, the proceedings of the Contra-Remonstrants, at the Synod of +Dort, made Mr. Hales a Remonstrant. We are informed by his friend Mr. +Faringdon, that, in his younger days, he was a Calvinist; but that some +explanations given by Episcopius of the text in John iii. 16, induced +him, as he himself said, to "bid John Calvin, Good Night." His letters +from Dort to Sir Dudley Carleton, the English ambassador at the Hague, +contain an interesting account of the proceedings of the assembly.[025] +[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.] + +Dr. Heylin says, in his "Quinquarticular History," that the theologians +sent by King James to Dort, were inclined to condemn the Remonstrants; +but he intimates that the monarch acted from reasons of state; and that +he was more hostile to their persons than their doctrines: Brand makes +the same remark upon Prince Maurice. It seems to be admitted, that, in +the conference at Hampton Court, King James declared against absolute +predestination.[026] + +The English divines arrived at the Hague on the 5th November 1618: they +were immediately presented to the States General, and most honourably +received. + +[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.] + +The King of France had permitted two Protestant theologians of his +kingdom to attend the Synod; but afterwards revoked the permission. The +French Protestant churches had deputed to it, the celebrated Peter de +Moulin and Andrew Rivet; but the King prohibited their attending it, +under severe penalties. + +After the election of the members was finally adjusted, the Synod +appeared to be composed of about seventy Contra-Remonstrants and +fourteen Arminians. + +It was opened on the 13th of November 1618. Two commissioners of the +States placed themselves on the right side of the chimney of the room; +the English divines were placed on the left; seats were kept vacant for +the French; the third place was assigned to the deputies from the +Palatinate; the fourth, to those from Hesse; the fifth, to the Swiss; +the sixth to the Genevans; the seventh to the theologians from Bremen; +and the eighth to those from Embden. The professors of theology were +placed immediately after the commissioners; then, the ministers and +elders of the country. By an arrangement, favoured by the States, +thirty-six ministers and twenty elders were added to the five +professors. Of this the Remonstrants complained, on the just ground, +that it evidently gave their adversaries an undue preponderance. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.] + +The commissioners nominated the celebrated Daniel Heinsius secretary. +The Remonstrants objected to him; they admitted his extensive +acquaintance with polite literature, and his elegant taste; but +asserted, that he possessed no theological learning, and was prejudiced +against them. Episcopius was always considered to be at the head of the +Remonstrants: he has seldom been excelled in learning, eloquence, or +power of argumentation. + +No further business than arranging the forms of sitting and voting, was +transacted at the _first session_ of the Synod. _At the second_, the +Synod constituted John Bogerman its president, and appointed two +assessors and two secretaries: all five were distinguished for their +known hostility to the Remonstrants. The appointment of Bogerman +particularly offended them, as he openly avowed it to be his opinion +that heretics should be punished by death; and had translated into the +Dutch language the celebrated treatise of Beza, _de hæreticis a civili +magistratu puniendis_, in which this doctrine is explicitly maintained +in its fullest extent. + +[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.] + +_In the third session_,--the deputies from Geneva produced their +commission: it was expressed in terms decidedly hostile to the +Remonstrants. + +_In the fourth session_,--the grand preliminary question,--in what +manner the Remonstrants were to be summoned,--came under consideration. +After much argument, it was settled, by a great majority of voices, that +"Episcopius and some other Remonstrants should within a fortnight, +appear before the Synod, as the sovereign ecclesiastical tribunal of the +United States." + +The Remonstrants and the advocates of their cause protested against this +proceeding: they called in question the authority of the Synod to sit as +judges upon them, or even to decide any point of doctrine definitively: +they averred it contrary to the evangelical liberty professed and taught +by the first Reformers. Every friend to the true principles of the +reformation must admit the force of this objection. + +The _5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th and 13th Sessions_ +of the intermediate fortnight, were consumed in debates upon a projected +new translation of the Scriptures; _the 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, +19th, 20th_ and _21st Sessions_ were employed in discussions, +upon a new catechism, and other ecclesiastical arrangements. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.] + +The _22d Session_ was held on the 6_th_ of December. The +Remonstrants appeared before the Synod, and requested further time for +preparing their defence on the articles with which they were charged. +Their request was denied: and Episcopius having said, that "They wished +to enter into a conference with the Synod," a resolution was passed, by +which the Synod declared, that "the Remonstrants had not been cited to +_confer_ with the Synod; but to propound their opinions, and submit +to its judgment." + +The Remonstrants then paid their visits to the foreign theologians: +these they found greatly prejudiced against them; they therefore +published two short writings, explaining and justifying their +sentiments. + +In _the 23d Session_, Episcopius made a long discourse. Mr. +John Hales praised it highly, in a letter addressed by him to the +English ambassador An oath was prescribed to the members, by which they +promised, that, in the examination of the five articles, "or any other +points of doctrine which should be discussed, they would confine +themselves to the Scriptures, and resort to no human authority." But, +what was the Synod itself more than human authority? The oath was not +tendered to the Remonstrants; it was declined by the Swiss. + +[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.] + +The _24th Session_ was consumed in debates: _on the 25th_, +Episcopius read a long document, and afterwards presented it to the +Synod. He protested in it against the authority of the Synod, and asked +the searching question, whether the Calvinists would "submit to a Synod +of Lutherans?" To this question, no answer was given: an angry +discussion followed. + + +It continued during _the 27th and 28th Sessions_. + +On _the 29th_, the opinions of foreign divines were produced in +favour of the authority of the Synod: those of the English divines, and +the divines of Bremen, were expressed with more moderation than the +others. The divines of Geneva stated, that, "if a person obstinately +refused to submit to the just decisions of the church, he might be +proceeded against in two ways; the _magistrate_ might coerce him, +and the _church_ might publicly excommunicate him as a violator of +the law of God." + +The dispute was more violent in _the 30th Session_. + +Finally, the Remonstrants agreed to propound their sentiments in +writing; but with an express salvo, of their right to liberty of +conscience, and to retain their objections to the authority of the +Synod. + +In _the 31st Session_, the Remonstrants presented to the +Synod a writing, containing their sentiments upon Predestination,--the +first and most important of the five articles. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. VI. 1618.] + +In _the 34th Session_, they presented their sentiments upon the +four other articles; and in _the 39th Session_, upon the Catechism +of Heidelberg. The Synod had enjoined them to confine themselves to +explanations of their own doctrine, and to abstain from controverting +the doctrines of the Calvinists. These debates carried the Synod to its +_46th Session_. + +In that session, the resolution of the States General upon the +proceedings of the Synod was produced. They declared by it, that "the +Remonstrants were obliged to submit to the decrees of the Synod,"--and +that "if they persisted in their disobedience to them, both the censures +of the church, and the penalties by which the States punished violators +of public authority, should be inflicted upon them." The States ordered +the Remonstrants to remain, in the meantime, in the town. + +The Remonstrants persisting in their refusal to acknowledge the +authority of the Synod, an assembly of it met on _the 57th +Session_, and formally expelled the Remonstrants from the Synod. +Episcopius exclaimed, "May God decide between the Synod and us!" "I +appeal," said Niellius, "from the injustice of the Synod, to the throne +of Jesus Christ." All remained firm in their protestation. + +[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.] + +Mr. Hales and Mr. Balcanqual, in their letters to the English +ambassador, blame the proceedings of the Synod.[027] The only question +between the Synod and the Remonstrants was, whether the latter would +submit to acknowledge the authority of the former. This, the +Remonstrants uniformly refused to do. In almost every Synod there was a +repetition of the same demand, and of the same answer. By every English +reader, the demand of the Synod will be thought exorbitant. + +[Sidenote: CHAP VI. 1618.] + +The Synod relaxed afterwards so far, as to permit the Remonstrants to +deliver their sentiments in writing: they did it at great length. But +they still persisted in objecting to the authority of the Synod, and to +be examined by it. The Synod therefore proceeded against them in their +absence; and ultimately, on the 24th of April 1610, pronounced them +guilty of pestilential errors, and corruptors of the true religion. The +five articles were formally condemned; Episcopius and the other +ministers were deposed. + +[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.] + +"There are conclusions," says Grotius,[028] in a letter written by him +in the same year, "in the canons of the Synod of Dort, of which, if good +Melancthon were again to make his appearance, he would express his +disapprobation, and with which Bullinger would be no less grieved; there +are others, which alienate all the Lutherans from the Calvinists; +although amity and concord are desirable between them and us at this +juncture. There are some points in them, which forbid the Greek churches +from uniting with us, though they are very favourable to us; but there +are others of the Dort canons, which admit of no controversy.--It is +possible that they may recall to mind my labours for unity. Even those +writings, which I published since my calamity, have not been diverted +from the same peaceful object." If ever any Protestant divines deserved +the reproach cast by Mr. Gibbon,[029] on the first reformers in general, +"of being ambitious to succeed the tyrants whom they had dethroned," +they were the members of the Synod of Dort. + +The Synod was closed on the 29th of May. + +The sentence passed by it on the Remonstrants was approved by the States +General on the 3d July 1619. On the same day, the Arminian ministers, +who had been detained at Dort, were, by a sentence of the States +General, banished or imprisoned, deprived of their employments, and the +effects of some were confiscated. Similar severities were exercised on +the Arminians in most of the territories subject to the States General. +To avoid the persecution, some fled to Antwerp, some to France, the +greater part to Holstein. There, under the wise protection of the +reigning duke, they settled, and afterwards built a town, which from him +they called Friedericstadt. + +They continued to assert the irregularity of the Synod: the Bishop of +Meaux shrewdly observed, that "they employed against the authority of +the Synod, the same arguments as the Protestants use against the +authority of the Council of Trent." + +[Sidenote: CHAP VI. 1618.] + +[Sidenote: The Synod of Dort.] + +For the publication of _Acts of the Council_, divines were chosen +out of various districts of the United Provinces: their edition of the +Acts was published at Dort in the year 1620, in folio, in the types of +the Elzevirs; and was soon afterwards republished with greater +correctness, in the same year, at Hanover, in quarto, with an addition +of a copious index.--An Epistle of their High Mightinesses the States +General, addressed to the Monarchs, Kings, Princes, Counts, Cities and +Magistrates of the Christian world, and vouching for the authority and +authenticity of the Acts,[030] is prefixed to this edition. The +Remonstrants published an edition of the Acts in 1620, in 4to.: it is +said,[031] that from a fear of their adversaries, it was printed on +ship-board. + +Here, the history of the Arminians, so far as it is connected with that +part of the Life of Grotius to which our subject has hitherto led us, +seems to close. We shall hereafter be called upon to resume it. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +TRIAL AND IMPRISONMENT OF GROTIUS. HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON. + +1618-1621. + + +While the Synod of Dort continued its sittings, Prince Maurice and his +party were actively employed in increasing the popular ferment against +Barneveldt, Grotius and Hoogerbetz; in collecting evidence of the +designs and practices of which they were accused, and in framing the +legal proceedings against them in such a manner as was most likely both +to procure their conviction, and to persuade the public of their guilt. + +We have mentioned that their confinement took place on the 20th of +August 1618, and that they were removed from the Hague, the original +place of their imprisonment, to the Castle of Louvestein. On the 19th +November, the States General, at the instigation of Prince Maurice, +nominated twenty-six commissioners for their trial. All the prisoners +objected both to the jurisdiction of the commissioners, and to that of +the States General; and asserted that the States of Holland were their +only competent judges. They observed, at the same time, that many of the +judges were notoriously prejudiced against the Arminians. + +[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.] + +The act of accusation contained many general charges, and many averments +of particular facts, supposed to substantiate them. It was alleged +against the prisoners, that they had disturbed the established religion +of the United Provinces; that, in direct contradiction of the articles +of union, they had asserted the right of each province to decide for +itself in matters of religion; that they had set up the authority and +interests of the States of Holland and West Friesland against those of +the States General; that they were the authors of the Insurrection at +Utrecht; had levied, in opposition to the orders of government, the +attendant soldiers; had raised jealousies between the Prince and several +of the Provincial States, and between these and the States General; and +that, by their habitual conduct, they had become public disturbers of +the tranquillity of the republic, and councillors and practisers of +schemes hostile to its welfare. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618-1621.] + +The Commissioners proceeded to the trial of Barneveldt. Uniformly +protesting against the competency of the tribunal, Barneveldt defended +himself with great firmness and ability. He controverted every article +of the accusation, and concluded his defence, by a long and pathetic +enumeration of the services, which he had rendered to the republic; and +of the numerous actions, by which he had shewn his attachment to Prince +William and Prince Maurice:--he proved that it had been principally +owing to him, that the Stadtholderate had been conferred on the latter. +He admitted that he had suspected the Prince of designs hostile to the +constitution of the United Provinces, and had opposed the Prince in +every measure, which appeared to have such a tendency; but he asserted +that he never had resorted to means which the laws or constitution of +the Provinces did not warrant. His arguments were unanswerable; but +Prince Maurice was determined on his ruin; and the Commissioners were +wholly subservient to the prince's views: they accordingly passed +unanimously a sentence of death upon Barneveldt. + +[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.] + +Many of the princes of Europe expressed their dissatisfaction at these +proceedings: none so much as the French monarch. To him, the great merit +of Barneveldt had been long known. He considered that the conduct of +Prince Maurice was likely to involve the United Provinces in troubles, +of which Spain might take advantages. From personal regard to +Barneveldt, and with a view of terminating the discord, the monarch sent +an ambassador extraordinary to the United States, and ordered him to +join Du Maurier, his ambassador in ordinary, in soliciting them in +favour of the accused, and in labouring to restore the public +tranquillity. The ambassadors executed their commission with the +greatest zeal. They made many remonstrances, and had several audiences +both with the States and the Prince. The States, instigated by the +Prince, expressed great indignation at the proceedings of the +ambassadors. + +All the accused were respectably allied, and had many friends: numerous +applications were made in their favour. They undeviatingly demeaned +themselves with the firmness and modest dignity of conscious innocence. +They persisted in denying the guilt attributed to them, and in +protesting against the competency of the tribunal. They made no +degrading submission. At a subsequent time, a son of Barneveldt having +been condemned to death, his mother applied to Prince Maurice, for his +pardon. The Prince observed to her, that she had made no such +application in behalf of her husband; "No," she replied, "I know my son +is guilty, I therefore solicit his pardon; I knew my husband was +innocent, I therefore solicited no pardon for him." + +[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618--1621.] + +On Monday morning, May 13, 1619, Barneveldt was informed that he was to +be executed upon that day. He received the notification of it with great +firmness; he inquired whether Grotius and Hoogerbetz were to suffer: +being answered in the negative, he expressed much satisfaction, +observing that "they were of an age to be still able to serve the +republic." + + "The scaffold for his execution," says Burigni, "was erected in the + Court of the Castle at the Hague, facing the Prince of Orange's + apartments. He made a short speech to the people, which is yet + preserved in the _Mercure Françoise_. 'Burghers!' he said, 'I have + been always your faithful countryman; believe not that I die for + treason: I die for maintaining the rights and liberties of my + country!' After this speech, the executioner struck off his head at + one blow. It is affirmed that the Prince of Orange, to feast + himself with the cruel pleasure of seeing his enemy perish, beheld + the execution with a glass; the people looked on it with other + eyes: many came to gather the sand wet with his blood, to keep it + carefully in phials; and the crowd of those, who had the same + curiosity, continued next day, notwithstanding all they could do + to hinder them. + + "Thus fell that great minister, who did the United Provinces as much + service in the cabinet, as the Prince of Orange did in the field. + It is highly probable that the melancholy end of this illustrious + and unfortunate man was owing to his steadiness in opposing the + design of making Prince Maurice Dictator."[032] + +[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.] + +The Prince pursued his triumph. Soon after the arrest of Grotius, the +States of Holland presented a petition to the Prince, representing the +arrest as a breach of their constitutional rights; the Prince referred +it to the States General. To these, therefore, they presented a similar +petition; praying at the same time, that Grotius might be tried by the +laws and usages of the Provinces of Holland: no regard was shewn to +their petitions. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618--1621.] + +Grotius had an invaluable friend:--he was no sooner arrested, than his +wife petitioned to share his confinement throughout the whole of his +imprisonment: it was denied. Grotius fell ill: she renewed the +application: it was absolutely rejected: but neither his wife, nor any +of the friends of Grotius ever recommended to him an unworthy +submission. He always denied the competency of the tribunal appointed to +try him: his wife and brother uniformly recommended him to persist in +his plea. + +Much disregard of form took place, and many arbitrary acts were +perpetrated, in the proceedings against Grotius. On the 18th of May +1619, the Commissioners pronounced sentence against him. After +enumerating all the charges, of which he was accused, and asserting that +all were proved against him, the judges condemned him to perpetual +imprisonment, and his estates to be confiscated. The same sentence was +passed on Hoogerbetz; but the house of the latter was assigned to him +for his imprisonment. + +On the 6th of June, Grotius was taken to Louvestein. It lies near +Gorcum, in South Holland, at the point of the island formed by the Vaal +and the Meuse. Twenty-four sous a day were allowed for his maintenance; +but his wife undertook to support him, during his confinement, from her +own estate. She was at length admitted into prison with him, on +condition that she should remain in it, while his imprisonment lasted. + +[Sidenote: Trial and Imprisonment of Grotius.] + +At first, his confinement was very rigid: by degrees it was relaxed: his +wife was allowed to leave the prison for a few hours, twice in every +week. He was permitted to borrow books, and to correspond, except on +politics, with his friends. + +He beguiled the tedious hours of confinement by study, relieving his +mind by varying its objects. Antient and modern literature equally +engaged his attention: Sundays he wholly dedicated to prayer and the +study of theology. + +Twenty months of imprisonment thus passed away. His wife now began to +devise projects for his liberty. She had observed that he was not so +strictly watched as at first; that the guards, who examined the chest +used for the conveyance of his books and linen, being accustomed to see +nothing in it but books and linen, began to examine them loosely: at +length, they permitted the chest to pass without any examination. Upon +this, she formed her project for her husband's release. + +She began to carry it into execution by cultivating an intimacy with the +wife of the commandant of Gorcum. To her, she lamented Grotius's +immoderate application to study; she informed her that it had made him +seriously ill; and that, in consequence of his illness, she had resolved +to take all his books from him, and restore them to their owners. She +circulated every where the account of his illness, and finally declared +that it had confined him to his bed. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. VII. 1618--1621.] + +In the mean time, the chest was accommodated to her purpose; and +particularly, some holes were bored in it, to let in air. Her maid and +the valet of Grotius were entrusted with the secret. The chest was +conveyed to Grotius's apartment. She then revealed her project to him, +and, after much entreaty, prevailed on him to get into the chest, and +leave her in the prison. + +The books, which Grotius borrowed, were usually sent to Gorcum; and the +chest, which contained them, passed in a boat, from the prison at +Louvestein, to that town. + +[Sidenote: His Escape from Prison.] + +Big with the fate of Grotius, the chest, as soon as he was enclosed in +it, was moved into the boat. One of the soldiers, observing that it was +uncommonly heavy, insisted on its being opened, and its contents +examined; but, by the address of the maid, his scruples were removed, +and the chest was lodged in the boat. The passage from Louvestein to +Gorcum took a considerable time. The length of the chest did not exceed +three feet and a half. At length, it reached Gorcum: it was intended +that it should be deposited at the house of David Bazelaer, an Arminian +friend of Grotius, who resided at Gorcum. But, when the boat reached the +shore, a difficulty arose, how the chest was to be conveyed from the +spot, upon which it was to be landed, to Bazelaer's house. This +difficulty was removed by the maid's presence of mind; she told the +bystanders, that the chest contained glass, and that it must be moved +with particular care. Two chairmen were soon found, and they carefully +moved it on a horse-chair to the appointed place. + +Bazelaer sent away his servants on different errands, opened the chest, +and received his friend with open arms. Grotius declared, that while he +was in the chest, he had felt much anxiety, but had suffered no other +inconvenience. Having dressed himself as a mason, with a rule and +trowel, he went, through the back door of Bazelaer's house, accompanied +by his maid, along the market-place, to a boat engaged for the purpose. +It conveyed them to Vervie in Brabant: there, he was safe. His maid then +left him, and, returning to his wife, communicated to her the agreeable +information of the success of the enterprise. + +[Sidenote: Chap. VII. 1618-1621.] + +As soon as Grotius's wife ascertained that he was in perfect safety, she +informed the guards of his escape: these communicated the intelligence +to the governor. He put her into close confinement; but in a few days, +an order of the States General set her at liberty, and permitted her to +carry with her every thing at Louvestein, which belonged to her. It is +impossible to think without pleasure of the meeting of Grotius and his +heroic wife. From Vervie he proceeded to Antwerp; a few days after his +arrival in that city, he addressed a letter to the States General: he +assured them, that, in procuring his liberty, he had used neither +violence nor corruption. He solemnly protested that his public conduct +had been blameless, and that the persecution he had suffered would never +lessen his attachment to his country. + +[Sidenote: His Escape from Prison.] + +It was on the 22d March 1621, that Grotius obtained his liberty. In the +same year, the truce, concluded for twelve years between Spain and the +United Provinces expired: it was expected, that the war would be resumed +with more fury than ever. But this did not happen; the war of thirty +years, which we shall afterwards have occasion to mention, had mixed the +contest between Spain and the United Provinces with the general military +plans and operations of the parties engaged in it, and had carried much +of the conflict from the Low Countries into Germany. Prince Maurice +still appeared at the head of the army of the United Provinces; but he +had lost, by his persecution of the Arminians, and his selfish +intrigues, the confidence of the people. Conspiracies against his life +were formed: fortune no longer favoured his arms. His attempts to compel +the Marquis Spinola to raise the siege of Bréda were unsuccessful. This +reverse of fortune preyed upon his mind. He thought himself haunted by a +spectre of Barneveldt: he was frequently heard, during his last illness, +to exclaim, "Remove this head from me!" "This anecdote," says the author +of the _Resumé de l'histoire de la Hollande_, "is related by all the +republican historians of the United Provinces; it is concealed by the +flatterers of the House of Orange.... To relate the remorse of princes +for their crimes, is one of the most useful duties of historians." + +Prince Maurice died in 1625. + +M. Le Clerc, in the 2d volume of the _Bibliotheque Choisée, art. 3_, +shews, by unquestionable facts and irresistible arguments, that both +Prince William and Prince Maurice sought to obtain the independent +sovereignty of the United Provinces. It was the aim of all their +successors: it has been effected in our times by means, which certainly +were foreseen by none. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +VORSTIUS,--JAMES I. + +1622. + + +We must now carry back our readers to events which preceded the Synod of +Dort. We have mentioned the decease of Arminius: soon after it, a +circumstance took place, which, to the exquisite delight of the monarch, +who, at that time filled the British throne, involved him in the +theological disputes of the Belgic theologians. + +Not long after the commencement of the Reformation, several bold +inquirers began to deny the trinity of persons in the Deity, the divine +authority of the Old and New Testament, and the existence of mystery in +the Christian dispensation. Both Catholics and Protestants united +against them. To avoid their hostilities, the maintainers of these +opinions fled to Poland, and, forming themselves into a distinct +congregation, published, in 1574, their First Catechism. They +established congregations at Cracow, Lubin, Pinczow, Luck and Smila: +but their most flourishing settlement was at Racow. + +[Sidenote: Vorstius--James I.] + +They spread their doctrines over each bank of the Danube, and at length +penetrated Italy. There, they were adopted by Loelius Socinus. After +many peregrinations in different parts of Europe, he finally settled at +Zurich. Faustus Socinus, his nephew, inherited his sentiments; and, on +this account, was obliged to quit Zurich. After many wanderings, he +fixed his residence at Racow. There, he was received with open arms by +the new communion, and completed their system of theology. From him, +they derived their appellation of SOCINIANS. Their doctrine is expressed +in the Racovian catechism, published, in the Polish language, in 1605. +Other editions of it have appeared. An English translation of the +edition of 1605, was published at Amsterdam in 1652: Dr. Toulmin, in his +Life of Socinus, ascribes it, seemingly by conjecture, to Mr. John +Biddle. In 1818, Mr. Rees published a new translation of it, prefixing +to it an interesting historical preface. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. VIII. 1622.] + +Among the disciples of Arminius, was the celebrated CONRADE VORSTIUS, +born at Cologne in 1569, of parents in reduced circumstances: he was +soon remarked for his diligence and irreproachable conduct; and was, in +1605, appointed to a professor's chair at Steinfurth. In 1610, he +quitted it, and was named to succeed Arminius, in the chair of Professor +of Theology, at Leyden. "He was beloved and honoured," says Mr. +Chalmers, "at Steinfurth; there, he enjoyed the utmost tranquillity, and +was in the highest reputation; he doubtless foresaw, that in the state +in which the controversies of Arminius and Gomarus were at that time, he +should meet with great opposition in Holland. But he was tempted by the +glory he should gain by supporting a party, which was weakened by +Arminius's death." + +[Sidenote: Vorstius--James I.] + +He had previously published his Treatise "_de Deo_." Some passages +in it were thought to favour the doctrine of Arminius; some, to lead to +Socinianism; and some, to have an ulterior tendency. That Arminius +himself discovers these views in his writings, has been frequently +asserted. Doctor Maclaine, the learned translator of Mosheim's +Ecclesiastical History,[033] observes it to be a common opinion, that +"the disciples of Arminius, and more especially Episcopius, had boldly +transgressed the bounds, that had been wisely prescribed by their +master, and had gone ever to the Pelagians, and even to the Socinians." +"Such," continues Dr. Maclaine, "is the opinion commonly entertained +upon this matter. But it appears on the contrary evident to me, that +Arminius himself had laid the plan of the theological system, that was, +in after times embraced by his followers; that he had instilled the +principles of it into the minds of his disciples; and that these latter +did really no more than bring this plan to a greater degree of +perfection, and propagate with more courage and perspicuity the +doctrines it contains." To prove this assertion, the Doctor cites a +passage from the Will of Arminius, in which he declares, that "his view +in all his theological and ministerial labours, was to unite in one +community, cemented by the bonds of fraternal charity, all sects and +denominations of Christians, the papists excepted." "These words, on +this account," continues Dr. Maclaine, "coincide perfectly with the +modern system of Arminianism, which extends the limits of the christian +church, and relaxes the bonds of fraternal communion in such a manner, +that Christians of all sects and all denominations, whatever their sects +and opinions may be, (Papists excepted) may be formed into one religious +body, and live together in brotherly love and concord." It is not +surprising that in the state of religious effervescence, in which the +minds of men were at the time of which we are now speaking, a suspicion +that Vorstius entertained the sentiments we have mentioned, or +sentiments nearly approaching to them, should have rendered him a +subject of jealousy. So greatly was this the case, that the +Contra-remonstrants appealed against his doctrines to several Protestant +states, and represented to them the doctrine of Vorstius in the most +odious light. Our James I. accepted the appeal: by a royal proclamation, +he caused Vorstius's Treatise _de Deo_ to be burnt in London, and each +of the English Universities. He drew up a list, of the several heresies, +which he had discovered in it, commanded his resident at the Hague to +notify them to the States; to express his horror of them, and his +detestation of those, who should tolerate them. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. VIII. 1622.] + +[Sidenote: Vorstius.--James I.] + +With some intimation of their independence, the States replied, that +"the case was of _their_ cognizance;" that "they would examine it;" +and that, "if it should appear that Vorstius maintained the doctrines +imputed to him, they would not suffer him to live among them." The +monarch's orthodoxy was not satisfied with this answer. He repeated his +suggestions, that the States should proceed against Vorstius; and +hinted, that if the doctrines should be proved against him, and if he +should persist in them, burning might be a proper punishment for him. +The monarch added that, if the States did not use their utmost +endeavours to extirpate the rising heresy, he should publicly protest +against their conduct; that, in quality of defender of the faith, he +would exhort all Protestant churches to join in one general resolution +to extinguish the abomination, and would, as sovereign of his own +dominions, prohibit his subjects to frequent so pestilential a place as +the University of Leyden. To his menaces he added the terrors of his +pen, and published a "Confutation of Vorstius." + +By the advice of the States, Vorstius replied to his royal adversary in +a most respectful manner; still, the royal adversary was not satisfied. +Finally, the States condemned the obnoxious doctrines of Vorstius, +divested him of all his offices; and sentenced him to perpetual +banishment. Vorstius remained concealed during two years; then found an +asylum in the dominions of the Duke of Holstein, who, as we have +mentioned, took the remains of the Arminians into his protection. + +Vorstius died in 1622. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +GROTIUS AFTER HIS ESCAPE FROM PRISON, TILL HIS APPOINTMENT OF AMBASSADOR +FROM SWEDEN TO THE COURT OF FRANCE. + +1621-1634. + + +Soon after the escape of Grotius from prison, he repaired to Paris: in +this, he followed the advice of Du Maurier, the French ambassador at the +Hague. His works had made him known in every part of Europe, in which +learning was cultivated: but persons properly qualified to appreciate +their merit, existed no where in such abundance as at Paris: he was +personally esteemed and regarded by the monarch; and the principal +officers of state were attached to him. Paris was also recommended to +him by its libraries, the easy access to them, and the habitual +intercourse of the men of letters, who, during, at least, a great part +of the year, made that city their place of residence. + +[Sidenote: From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of +Ambassador.] + +Grotius arrived at Paris on the 13th of April 1621. He was immediately +noticed by a multitude of persons of distinction and rank; but it was +not till March 1622, that he was presented to the king. His majesty +received him graciously, and settled upon him a pension of 3,000 livres. +The Prince of Condé, the Chancellor, and the Keeper of the Seals, had +exerted themselves to dispose the king in his favour. His majesty +professed kindness towards those, who had been persecuted by the States; +and issued an edict, dated the 22d April 1622, by which he took them +under his protection, in the same manner as if they were his own +subjects; he even extended this benefit to their children. The +celebrated President Jeannin was one of the most active and useful of +Grotius's friends; but he died soon after Grotius arrived at Paris. + +Grotius, during his stay in that city, attended frequently the courts of +justice. He observed the wretched style of oratory, which at that time, +prevailed in them. It was, in some measure, corrected by _Patru_ and _Le +Maitre_; but it did not reach its best state, till the end of the reign +of Lewis XIV. The rhetorical march and laboured amplifications allowed +at the French bar, are offensive to English ears. Has any nation +produced a more perfect style of forensic or judicial eloquence, than +that of _Sir William Grant_? The wisdom and justice of _Lord Stowell's_ +decisions, and the admirable arguments by which he explains or +illustrates them, are known and acknowledged by every Court. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. IX. 1621--1634] + +Grotius's love of his native country continued unabated; all his views, +all his hopes, were directed thither. With these feelings he wrote his +_Apology_. He composed it in the Dutch language, and translated it +afterwards into Latin: it was published in 1622. He dedicated it to the +people of Holland and West Friesland. It is divided into twenty +chapters; in the first, he argues the important point, that each of the +United Provinces is sovereign and independent of the States General, and +that the authority of these is confined to the defence of the provinces +against their enemies. In the second chapter, he applies the position to +ecclesiastical concerns; these, he says, are subject to the sovereign +power of each State. In the following chapters, he descends into the +particular charges against him; defending himself against all the crimes +and irregularities of which he was accused, and shewing the informality +of the judicial proceedings by which he and his companions in misfortune +were tried and condemned. + +[Sidenote: From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of +Ambassador.] + +His answer was universally read and approved: It greatly incensed the +States General: They proscribed it, and forbade all persons to have it +in their possession, under pain of death; but no answer to it was +published. The edict made Grotius and his friends entertain +apprehensions for his personal safety. On this account, he obtained +from the French monarch letters of naturalization, dated the 26th +February 1623: By these, his majesty took him under his special +protection. + +Grotius retained many friends in every part of the United Provinces: +Prince Frederick Henry, the brother of Maurice, was among them. He had +never entered into his brother's persecuting projects. + +"The Count d'Estrades has given us," says Burigni, "some anecdotes on +this subject, which we shall relate on his authority. He assures us, +that, being one day _tête a tête_ with Prince Henry Frederick in his +coach, he heard him say, that he had much to do to keep well with his +brother Maurice, who suspected him of secretly favouring Barneveldt and +the Arminians. He told me, (these were the Count's own words), it was +true that he kept a correspondence with them, to prevent their opposing +his election, in case his brother should die; but that, as it imported +him to be on good terms with his brother, and to efface the notion he +had of his connection with the Arminians, he made use of Vandenuse, one +of his particular friends, and Barneveldt's son-in-law, to let the cabal +know, that it was necessary for him to accommodate himself to his +brother, that he might be better able to serve them,--which Barneveldt +approved of." + +[Sidenote: CHAP. IX. 1621--1634.] + +In the meantime, the situation of Grotius at Paris, became very +uncomfortable. His resources, and those of his wife, were small; and his +pension was paid irregularly. Cardinal de Richelieu wished to attach +Grotius; but required from him an absolute and unqualified devotion to +him, which was utterly irreconcileable with the slightest degree of +honourable independence. Grotius therefore declined the offers of the +Cardinal. From this time, the Cardinal regarded him with an evil eye, +and often made him feel the effects of his displeasure. + +This rendered Grotius desirous of quitting France. Trusting to some +protestations of friendship, which he had received from Prince +Frederick; to his numerous friends, to his claims upon the gratitude of +the States of Holland, to his feelings of innocence, and to the effect +produced, as he flattered himself, by his _Apology_, he ventured into +Holland in 1631. But he met with no countenance: and in that year was +banished a second time. Upon this, he formally bade a final adieu to +Holland, and determined to seek his fortune elsewhere: He then fixed his +residence at Hamburgh. + +[Sidenote: From the Escape of Grotius till his appointment of +Ambassador.] + +He sought to preserve his friends in France; but announced to them his +intention to receive no more money from the French government. + +"I shall always," he said in a letter to the First President of the Cour +des Monnoies, "be grateful for the King's liberality; but it is enough +that I was chargeable to you, while I resided in France. I have never +done you any service, though I made you an offer of myself. But it would +not be proper that I should now live, like an hornet, on the goods of +other men. I shall not, however, forget the kindness of so great a king, +and the good offices of so many friends." + +[Sidenote: CHAP. IX. 1621-1634.] + +It may appear surprising that Prince Frederick of Orange should +pertinaciously exclude Grotius from his native country. But ambition +listens to nothing that conflicts with its own views. Prince Frederick +inherited from his father and brother the wish of becoming the sovereign +of the United Provinces. To this, he knew he should always find a +zealous and able opponent in Grotius: hence, notwithstanding his great +personal regard for Grotius, he always kept him a banished man. Grotius +wished to be employed by the Government of England, and Archbishop Laud +was sounded upon this subject; but the application was coldly +received[034]. Prince Frederick sustained, both in military and civil +concerns, the character of the former princes of his family. Under his +administration, the affairs of the republic prospered at sea and land. +Peter Haim captured the Spanish flotilla, estimated at twelve millions +of florins. The Prince took Bois-le duc, Maestricht, and Breda, and +reduced the Dutchy of Limburgh. Under his auspices, the celebrated Van +Tromp commenced his career of naval glory, by obtaining a complete +victory over the Spanish fleet, consisting of seventy men of war. Prince +Frederick died in 1658. + +From the close of his Stadtholderate, we may date the origin of the +jealousy entertained, by France and England, of the rising power of the +United Provinces. It is to be observed that Prince Frederick was +Stadtholder only of the Provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres +and Overyssell: Count Ernest Casimir of Nassau was Stadtholder of the +provinces of Gröningen, Frizeland, and the county of the Drenta. In +1631, their eldest sons were chosen, in the lifetime of their fathers, +their successors in their respective Stadtholderates. This was a great +step towards making the Stadtholderate hereditary in their +families,--one of the leading objects of their ambitious views. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS OF GROTIUS. + +1. _His Edition of Stobæus_. + +2. _His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis_. + +3. _His Treatise de Veritate Religionis Christianæ_. + +4. _His Treatise de Jure summarum potestatum circa + sacra_. + +5. _His Commentary on the Scriptures_. + +6. _Some other Works of Grotius_ + +[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634] + + +That literature is an ornament in prosperity, and a comfort in adverse +fortune, has been often said by the best and wisest men; but no one +experienced the truth of this assertion in a higher degree than Grotius, +during his imprisonment at Louvestein. In that wreck of his fortune and +overthrow of all his hopes, books came to his aid, soothed his sorrows, +and beguiled the wearisome hours of his gloomy solitude. His studies +often stole him from himself, and from the sense of his misfortunes. In +the exercise of his mental energies, he was sensible of their powers; +and it was impossible that he should contemplate, without pleasure, the +extent, the worth, or the splendour of his labours; the services, which +he rendered by them to learning and religion, and the admiration and +gratitude of the scholar, which he then enjoyed, and which would attend +his memory to the latest posterity. He himself acknowledged that, in the +ardour of his literary pursuits, he often forgot his calamities, and +that the hours passed unheeded, if not in joy, at least without pain. + + + + + + + +X 1. + +_His Edition of Stobæus_. + + +Being ourselves unacquainted with this work, we cannot do better than +present our readers with the account given of it by Burigni. + + "The year after the publication of his _Apology_, that is to say in + 1623, Nicholas Huon printed at Paris, _Grotius's improvements and + additions to Stobæus_. This author, as is well known, extracted + what he thought most important in the ancient Greek writers, and + ranged it under different heads, comprehending the principal points + of philosophy. His work is the more valuable, as it has preserved + several fragments of the Ancients, found no where else. Grotius, + when very young, purposed to extract from this author all the + maxims of the poets; to translate them into Latin verse, and to + print the original with the translation. He began this, when a boy; + he was employed in it at the time of his arrest; and continued it + as an amusement, whilst he had the use of books, in his prison at + the Hague. He tells us that, when he was deprived of pen and ink, + he was got to the forty-ninth title, which is an invective against + tyranny, that had a great relation to what passed at that time in + Holland. On his removal to Louvestein, he resumed this work, and + finished it at Paris. He made several happy corrections in the text + of Stobæus; some, from his own conjectures or those of his friends; + others, on the authority of manuscripts in the King's library, + which were politely lent him by the learned Nicholas Rigaut, + librarian to his majesty. + + [Sidenote: His edition of Stobæus.] + + [Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634] + + "Prefixed to this book, are _Prolegomena_, in which the author shews + that the works of the ancient Pagans are filled with maxims + agreeable to the truths taught in holy writ. He intended to + dedicate this book to the Chancellor Silleri: he had even writ the + dedication, but his friends, to whom he shewed it, thought he + expressed himself with too much warmth, against the censurers of + his _Apology_. They advised him therefore to suppress it; and he + yielded to their opinion. It may be observed in reading the royal + privilege, that the present title of the book is different from + what it was to have had. To these extracts from the Greek poets + translated into Latin verse, Grotius annexed two pieces, one of + Plutarch, the other of St. Basil, on the use of the poets; giving + the Greek text with a Latin translation." + +The work was received with universal approbation. + + + + + + + +X. 2. + +_His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis_. + + +Grotius may be considered as the founder of the modern school of _the +Law of Nature and of Nations_. He was struck with the ruthless manner, +in which wars were generally conducted; the slight pretences, upon which +they were generally begun; and the barbarity and injustice, with which +they were generally attended. He attributed these evils to the want of +settled principles respecting the rights and duties of nations and +individuals in a state of war. These, he observed, must depend on the +previous rights and duties of mankind, in a state of peace: this led him +to the preliminary inquiry into their rights and duties in a state of +nature. + +Thus, an ample field was opened to him. He brought to it, a vigorous +discerning mind, and stupendous erudition. From antient and modern +history, philosophy, oratory, and poetry, he collected facts and +sayings, which appeared to him to establish a general agreement of all +civilized nations upon certain principles. From these, he formed his +system; applying them, as he proceeded in his work, to a vast multitude +of circumstances. These are so numerous, that some persons have not +scrupled to say, that no case or international law, either in war or in +peace, can be stated, to which the work of Grotius does not contain an +applicable rule. + +[Sidenote: X. 2. _The Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis._] + +[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634] + +Three important objections have been made to this celebrated work,--one, +that the author defers in it, too little, to principle, too much, to +authority;--another, that the work is written in a very desultory +manner, with small attention to order, or classification;--a third, that +his authorities are often feeble, and sometimes whimsical. "Grotius," +says Condillac, "was able to think for himself; but he constantly +labours to support his conclusions by the authority of others. Upon many +occasions; even in support of the most obvious and indisputable +propositions, he introduces a long string of quotations from the Mosaic +law, from the Gospels, from the fathers of the church, from the +casuists, and not unfrequently, even in the very same paragraph, from +Ovid, and Aristophanes." This strange mixture is subject of many +witticisms of Voltaire. But let us hear what is urged in the defence of +Grotius, by a gentleman, of whose praise the ablest of writers may be +proud: + + "Few writers," says Sir James Mackintosh, in his Discourse on the + Study of the Law of Nature and Nations, "were more celebrated than + Grotius in his own days, and in the age which succeeded. It has, + however, been the fashion of the last half century to depreciate + his work, as a shapeless compilation, in which reason lies buried + under a mass of authorities and quotations. This fashion originated + among French wits and declaimers, and it has been, I know not for + what reason, adopted, though with far greater moderation and + decency, by some respectable writers among ourselves. As to those, + who first used this language, the most candid supposition that we + can make with respect to them is, that they never read the work; + for, if they had not been deterred from the perusal of it by such a + formidable display of Greek characters, they must soon have + discovered that Grotius never quotes, on any subject, till he has + first appealed to some principles; and often, in my humble opinion, + though, not always, to the soundest and most rational principles. + + [Sidenote: His treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis.] + + "But another sort of answer is due to some of those, who have + criticised Grotius; and that answer might be given in the words of + Grotius himself. He was not of such a stupid and servile cast of + mind as to quote the opinions of poets or orators, of historians + and philosophers, as those of judges, from whose decision there was + no appeal. He quotes them, as he tells us himself, as witnesses, + whose conspiring testimony, mightily strengthened and confirmed by + their discordance on almost every other subject, is a conclusive + proof of the unanimity of the whole human race on the great rules + of duty, and the fundamental principles of morals. Of such matters, + poets and orators are the most unexceptionable of all witnesses; + for they address themselves to the general feelings and sympathies + of mankind; they are neither warped by system, nor perverted by + sophistry; they can attain none of their objects; they can neither + please nor persuade, if they dwell on moral sentiments not in + unison with those of their readers. No system of moral philosophy + can surely disregard the general feelings of human nature, and the + according judgment of all ages and nations. But, where are these + feelings and that judgment recorded and preserved? In those very + writings which Grotius is gravely blamed for having quoted. The + usages and law of nations, the events of history, the opinions of + philosophers, the sentiments of orators and poets, as well as the + observation of common life, are, in truth, the materials out of + which the science of morality is formed; and those who neglect + them, are justly chargeable with a vain attempt to philosophise + without regard to fact and experience, the sole foundation of all + true philosophy. + + [Sidenote: Chap. X. 1621-1634] + + "If this were merely an objection of taste, I should be willing to + allow, that Grotius has indeed poured forth his learning with a + profusion, that sometimes rather encumbers than adorns his work, + and which is not always necessary to the illustration of his + subject. Yet, even in making, that concession, I should rather + yield to the tastes of others, than speak from my own feelings. I + own that such richness and splendour of literature have a powerful + charm for me. They fill my mind with an endless variety of + delightful recollections and associations. They relieve the + understanding in its progress through a vast science, by calling up + the memory of great men and of interesting events. By this means we + see the truths of morality clothed with all the eloquence (not that + could be produced by the powers of one man, but) that could be + bestowed on them by the collective genius of the world. Even virtue + and wisdom themselves acquire new majesty in my eyes, when I thus + see all the great masters of thinking and writing called together, + as it were, from all times and countries, to do them homage and to + appear in their train. + + [Sidenote: X. 2. His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis] + + "But this is no piece for discussions of taste, and I am very ready + to own, that mine may be corrupted. The work of Grotius is liable + to a more serious objection, though I do not recollect that it has + ever been made. His method is inconvenient and unscientific. He has + inverted the natural order. That natural order undoubtedly + dictates, that we should first search for the original principles + of the science, in human nature; then apply them to the regulation + of the conduct of individuals; and lastly employ them for the + decision of those difficult and complicated questions that arise + with respect to the intercourse of nations. But Grotius has chosen + the reverse of this method. He begins with the consideration of the + states of peace and war, and he examines original principles, only + occasionally and incidentally, as they grow out of the questions, + which he is called upon to decide. It is a necessary consequence of + this disorderly method, which exhibits the elements of the science + in the form of scattered digressions, that he seldom employs + sufficient discussion on those fundamental truths, and never in + the place where such a discussion would be most instructive to the + reader. This defect in the plan of Grotius was perceived, and + supplied by Puffendorf, who restored natural law to that + superiority which belonged to it, and with great propriety, treated + the law of nations as only one main branch of the parent stock." + +[Sidenote: CHAP X. 1621-1634] + +Whatever may be the merit of the work of which we are speaking, it must +be admitted, that few, on their first appearance, and during a long +subsequent period after publication, have received greater or warmer +applause. The stores of erudition displayed in it, recommended it to the +classical scholar, while the happy application of the author's reading +to the affairs of human life, drew to it the attention of common +readers. Among those, whose approbation of it, deserved to be recorded, +Gustavus Adolphus,--his prime minister the Chancellor Oxenstiern,--and +the Elector Palatine Charles Lewis, deserve particular mention.[035] As +the trophies of Miltiades are supposed to have kept Themistocles awake, +it has been said that the trophies of Grotius drove sleep from Selden, +till be produced his celebrated treatise, "_De Jure naturali et gentium +secundum leges Ebræorim_." This important work equals that of Grotius +in learning; but, from the partial and recondite nature of its subject, +never equalled it in popularity. + +[Sidenote: X. 9. His Treatise de Jure Belli et Pacis] + +The supposed want of general elementary principles in the work of +Grotius gave occasion to Puffendorf's treatise _de Jure Naturae et +Gentium_; afterwards abridged by him into the small octavo volume _De +Officio hominis et civis_: an edition of it in octavo was published by +Professor Garschen Carmichael, of Glasgow, in 1724. + +The best edition of Grotius's treatise _de Jure Belli et Pacis_ was +published at Amsterdam in 1730, by John Barbeyrac. + +Foreigners observe, that the study of the law of nature and nations is +less cultivated in England than upon the continent. Is it not, because +Englishmen are blessed with a free constitution; are admitted into a +general participation of all its blessings; are thus personally +interested in the national concerns; and have therefore a jurisprudence, +which comes nearer to their bosoms? Is it not also, because the law of +nature and nations, with all its merit, is so loose, that its principles +seldom admit of that practical application, which renders them really +useful; and which an English mind always requires? + + + + + + + +X.3. + +_De Veritate Religionis Christianæ._ + + +[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.] + +Grotius, while a prisoner in the Castle of Louvestein, had written, in +the Dutch language, "A treatise on the Truth of the Christian Religion." +He afterwards enlarged it, and translated it, so enlarged, into Latin. +It was universally read and admired. French, German, English, modern +Greek, Persic, and even Turkish versions of it have been made: it was +equally approved by Catholics and Protestants. + +[Sidenote: De Veritate Religionis Christianæ.] + +It was invidiously objected, that he did not attempt to prove, or even +mention, the Trinity, and some other gospel mysteries: he replied, +satisfactorily in our opinion, that a discussion of any particular tenet +of the Christian religion did not fall within the scope of his work. In +this respect, he was afterwards imitated by _Abadie_ and _Houteville_, +two of the most eminent apologists of Christianity. The latter expresses +himself of the work of Grotius in the following terms: + + "Grotius's work is the first, in which we find the characteristics + of just reasoning, accuracy, and strength: he is extremely concise; + but even this brevity will please us, when we find his work + comprehends so many things, without confounding them or lessening + their evidence or force. It is no wonder that the book should be + translated into so many languages." + +The best edition of it is that published by Le Clerc,[036] in 1709 at +Amsterdam, in 8vo. To this edition, Le Clerc has added a curious +_dissertation_ on _religious indifference_. He presumes that the +supposed indifference is persuaded of the authenticity of the New +Testament:--He then (says Le Clerc) must ascertain,-- + + 1. Which are the denominations of religionists which avow their + belief of it: + + 2. Which of these are most worthy of the name of Christians: + + 3. And which profess the Christian religion in most purity and with + least extraneous alloy: + + 4. He will find, that all Christians agree in the fundamental + articles of faith: + + 5. That all these articles are clearly expressed in the New + Testament: + + 6. That no tenet should be believed to be of faith, unless the New + Testament contains it. + + 7. That the providence of God is admirable in the preservation of + these tenets, amidst the confused multitude of religious opinions, + which have prevailed in the world: + + 8. That this confusion was foreseen by God: + + 9. That he permitted it as a consequence of his gift of free-will + to man: + + 10. That the inquirer should aggregate himself to that religious + communion, which receives the New Testament as its only rule of + faith, and does not persecute others: + + 11. That episcopacy without tyranny is the most antient form of + ecclesiastical government, and most to be desired; but that it is + not essential to a Christian church: + + 12. That these were the opinions of Grotius: + + 13. Finally, that it is greatly to be desired that a belief of no + dogma, not explicitly propounded in the New Testament, should be + required. + +Such is the religious system propounded by Le Clerc.--Does any religious +communion really profess it?--Many Protestant churches declare, that the +Bible, and the Bible only, contains their creed: but, do they not all +mean by this--the Bible, as it is explained by the Articles, the +Formulary, or the Confession received by their church? + + + + + + + +X. 4. + +_Grotius's Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum circa sacra_.--And, +_Commentatio ad loca quædam Novi Testamenti, quæ de Antichristo agunt, +aut agere putantur_. + + +Nothing in the life of Grotius places him in a more amiable or +respectable point of view, than his constant attempts to put Catholics +and Protestants into good humour with each other, and to put both into +good humour among themselves. + +[Sidenote: X. 4. His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum. &c.] + +We have mentioned the _pacific decree of the States of Holland_, which +ordered the contending communions to tolerate each other. Grotius is +supposed to have framed this wise decree. The Contra-remonstrants +attacked it: Grotius reprinted it, with a collection of proofs and +authorities. + +It gave rise to a controversy on the nice question, respecting the +authority of the temporal power to interfere in the ecclesiastical +concerns of the state. Grotius adopted, upon this point, the sentiments +of what is termed in England the Low Church: he seems to have pushed +them to their utmost bearings. With these sentiments, he published his +treatise _de Imperio summarum potestatum circa sacra_. It was disliked +by King James and his bishops: Grotius, in their opinion, gave too much +authority, in sacred things, to the secular power. + +On the work of Grotius, respecting _Anti-christ_, we prefer transcribing +Burigni's sentiments to delivering our own. + + "This deep study of the Holy Scriptures led Grotius to examine a + question, which made much noise at that time. Some Protestant + synods had ventured to decide that _the Pope was Antichrist_; and + this extravagance, gravely delivered by the ministers, was + regarded by the zealous schismatics, as a fundamental truth. + Grotius undertook to overturn such an absurd opinion, that stirred + up an irreconcileable enmity between the Roman Catholics and the + Protestants; and, of consequence, was a very great obstacle to + their re-union, which was the sole object of his desires. He + entered therefore upon the consideration of the passages of + Scripture relating to Antichrist, and employed his Sundays in it. + + [Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.] + + "It was this work, that raised him up most enemies. We see by the + letters he wrote to his brother, that his best friends were afraid + lest they should be suspected of having some hand in the + publication of the books, in which he treated of Antichrist. 'If + you are afraid of incurring ill will, (he writes thus to his + brother), you may easily find people that are far from a factious + spirit, who will take care of the impression. Nothing has incensed + princes against those, who separated from the church of Rome, more + than the injurious names, with which the Protestants load their + adversaries; and nothing is a greater hindrance to that re-union, + which we are all obliged to labour after, in consequence of + Christ's precept and the profession we make of our faith in the + creed. Perhaps the Turk, who threatens Italy, will force us to it. + In order to arrive at it, we must first remove whatever obstructs a + mutual quiet hearing. I hope I shall find assistance in this pious + design. I shall not cease to labour in it, and shall rejoice to die + employed in so good a work.' + + [Sidenote: His Treatise De Jure summarum potestatum, &c.] + + "Reigersberg, Blaeu, Vossius himself, however much devoted to + Grotius, beheld with concern the printing of this book, because + they did not doubt but it would increase the number of his enemies. + Grotius informs his brother, of the uneasiness which Vossius gave + him on this subject. 'Among those, who wish this work destroyed,' + says he, 'I am astonished and grieved to see Vossius. Whence could + he have this idea? I imagine somebody has told him, that it would + injure the fortune of his children, if he approved of such books; + and that, on the contrary, he would find favour by hurting me. We + must therefore have recourse to Corcellius or Corvinus.' He + elsewhere complains of the too great timidity of this old friend, + who at bottom approved of Grotius's sentiments, but durst not own + them publicly, because he was not so independent as Grotius. + + [Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.] + + "The treatise on Anti-christ made much noise among all the declared + enemies of the Romish church. Michael Gettichius wrote to Ruarus, + that he had only glanced over Grotius's book on Antichrist; but as + far as he could judge by the first reading, that learned man, who + was possessed of such an excellent genius, and such singular + erudition, had no other intention than to engage the learned in a + further inquiry concerning Antichrist; and to determine them to + attack with greater strength, the Romish Antichrist; or, if he + wrote seriously, he wanted to cut out a path for going over, + without dishonour, to the Papists. Ruarus answers this letter Dec. + 16, 1642, from Dantzic. 'I have always (he says) looked on Grotius + as a very honest and at the same time a very learned man. I am + persuaded that love of peace engaged him in this work. I don't deny + but he has gone too far; the love of antiquity perhaps seduced him: + no Remonstrant, that I know of, has as yet answered him; but he has + been confuted by some learned Calvinists, particularly Desmonets, + minister of Bois le duc, who has written against him with much + bitterness.' + + "Grotius's work was printed in 1640, with this title: _Commentatio + ad loca quædam Novi Testamenti, quæ de Antichristo agunt aut agere + putantur:--Expedenda eruditis."_[037] + + + + + + + +X.5. + +_His Commentary on the Scriptures._ + + +[Sidenote: X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures.] + +The theological works of Grotius are comprised in four volumes folio: +the three first contain his Commentary, and Notes upon the Scriptures. +On their merit, both Catholics and Protestants considerably differ. All +allow that an abundance of sacred and profane learning is displayed in +them; and that Grotius, by his references to the writings of the Rabbis, +and his remarks upon the idiom of the sacred writings, has happily +elucidated a multitude of passages in the text. He uniformly adopts the +literal and obvious signification of the language used by the holy +penmen. In explaining the predictions of the prophets, he maintains that +they referred to events anterior to the coming of Christ, and were +accomplished in these; so that the natural and obvious sense of the +words and phrases, in which they were delivered, does not terminate in +Christ; yet, that in some of the predictions, those particularly, which +the writers of the New Testament apply to Christ, there is, _besides_ +the literal and obvious signification, a hidden and mysterious sense, +which lies concealed under the external mark of certain _persons_, +certain _events_, and certain _actions_, which are representative of the +person, the ministry, the sufferings, and the merits of the Son of God. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.] + +It has been objected, that this system leads to Socinianism, and even +beyond it. All Catholic, and several episcopalian Protestant divines +object to it; they generally contend, that the sacred writings ought +always to be understood in that sense _only_, which has been attributed +to them, by the early fathers.--Against this system, Dr. Whitby +published his celebrated work "Concerning the Interpretation of +Scripture after the manner of the Fathers."[038] + +[Sidenote: X. 5. His Commentary on the Scriptures.] + +The system of Grotius was defended, to a certain extent, by _Father +Simôn_, the oratorian, the father of the modern biblical school. Against +both Simôn and Grotius, Bossuet wielded his powerful lance,--in his +"Pastoral Instruction on the Works of Father Simôn," and his +"Dissertations upon Grotius." In these works he says that, during thirty +years, + + "Grotius searched for truth in good faith, and at last was so near + it, that it is wonderful that he did not take the last step, to + which God called him. Shocked at Calvin's harsh doctrines, he + embraced Arminianism; then, abandoned it. More a lawyer than a + theologian, more a polite scholar than a philosopher, he throws the + doctrine of the immortality of the soul into obscurity. He + endeavours to weaken and steal from the church, her most powerful + proofs of the divinity of the Son of God, and strives to darken the + prophecies, which announce the arrival of the Messiah." + +Bossuet proceeds to particularize some of the principal errors of +Grotius: Le Clerc replied to the prelate's criticism, by his _Sentimens +de quelques Theologiens de la Hollande_.--Grotius had also an able +advocate in Father Simôn. His defence of Grotius against the charge of +_semi-Pelagianism_, in the _Bibliotheque de Sainjore_,[039] appears to +be satisfactory. He cites the note of Grotius, on the Acts of the +Apostles, (the celebrated ch. xiii. ver. 38), in which he says expressly +that he does not exclude preventive grace: this the semi-Pelagians +denied altogether. But in his defence of Grotius against the charge of +_Socinianism_, he is not equally successful. Bossuet sent his _Pastoral +Instruction_, and _Dissertations upon Grotius_, to the bishop of +Fréjus, afterward Cardinal de Fleury: he accompanied them by a letter, +which closes with these remarkable words: + + "The spirit of incredulity gains ground in the world every day: you + have often heard me make this remark. It is now worse than ever, as + the Gospel itself is used for the corruption of religion. I thank + God that at my age he blesses me with sufficient strength to resist + the torrent." + +[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621--1634.] + +Dom. Calmet[040] calls Grotius, + + "one of the most able and moderate Protestant writers: one who + spreads throughout his notes a pleasing profusion of profane + literature, which causes his works to be sought for and read by + those, who have taste for that kind of literature. His high + reputation, great erudition, and rare modesty," says Dom. Calmet, + "render it easy for him to insinuate his particular sentiments + respecting the divinity of Christ, against which, his readers + should be guarded." + + + + + + + +X.6. + +_Some other Works of Grotius_. + + +1. The first which we shall mention is his history of the _Goths, +Vandals, and Lombards_, written in the Latin language, and accompanied +by learned dissertations. He composed it, as a testimony of his +gratitude to the Swedes, by doing honour to their gothic ancestors. The +preface has always been admired, for its erudition and sound criticism. +But the Belgic friends of Grotius accused him of elevating the Swedes at +their expense. + + +[Sidenote: X. 6. Other Works of Grotius.] + +2. A more important work consists of his _Annals, and History of the +United Provinces_. The Annals begin with the year 1588, when Prince +Maurice had the greatest influence in the affairs of the United +Provinces; and concludes with the truce of twelve years, signed between +them and Spain. The impartiality, with which these works are written, +has been praised by every writer. + +It is to be lamented that Grotius professed to imitate, both in his +Annals and History, the style of Tacitus. Expressed by his own pen, the +style of Tacitus is energetic, picturesque, and pleasing; but it is +impossible to deny its frequent abruptness and obscurity. Generally +speaking, an imitation of what is defective, contains a larger share, +than the original, of its distinctive defect. It should however be +added, that Grotius's own style is short, sententious and broken; and +possesses nothing of the meliflous ease of the ultramontane Latinists; +or of our Milton or Buchanan. None of the works of Grotius, which we +have mentioned in this Article, were published till after his decease. + + +3. It remains to notice the _Letters of Grotius_, published at Amsterdam +in one volume folio, in 1687.--A multitude of his unpublished letters is +said to exist in different public and private libraries. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. X. 1621-1634.] + +His published letters are an invaluable treasure: they abound with wise +maxims of sound policy, and curious discussions on points arising on +Roman or Belgic jurisprudence. Many points of sacred and profane +learning, and particularly of the civil and canon law, are treated in +them with equal learning and taste. For the perfect understanding of +them, the letters of the correspondents of Grotius should be perused: +they are principally to be found, in the _Præstantium et Eruditorum +Virorum Epistolæ Ecclesiasticæ et Theologicæ_, published at Amsterdam in +1684. A critical account of the Letters of Grotius, executed with great +taste and judgment, is inserted in the first volume of the _Bibliotheque +Universelle et Historique_.[041] + +[Sidenote: X. 6. Other Works of Grotius.] + +It is acknowledged that the letters of Grotius, are written in the +finest latinity, and contain much valuable information; but the point, +the sprightliness, the genius, the vivid descriptions of men and +things, which are so profusely scattered over the letters of Erasmus, +are seldom discoverable in those of Grotius. A man of learning would +have been gratified beyond measure, by the profound conversations of +Grotius and Father Petau: but what a treat must it have been, to have +assisted with one, two, or three good listeners, at the conversations +between Erasmus and Sir Thomas More! + + + + + + + +CHAPTER. XI. + +GROTIUS.--AS AMBASSADOR FROM THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN TO THE COURT OF +FRANCE. + +1634--1645. + + +The embassy of Grotius is connected with an important period in the +history of the War of Thirty years. + +This celebrated war was principally caused by the religious disputes of +the sixteenth century. Very soon after Luther's first attack on the See +of Rome, the Reformation was established in Saxony, Livonia, Prussia, +and Hesse-cassell; in many imperial towns; in Friezland and Holland; in +several of the Swiss Cantons; in Pomerania, Mecklenburgh, Anhalt; +Sweden, Denmark, Norway; England, and Scotland. Its progress in Germany +is particularly connected with the subject of these pages. + +[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius in the Court of France.] + +At the diet of Augsburgh, in 1530, the Protestant princes of Germany +delivered to the emperor their Confession of Faith; they afterwards, at +Smalcald, entered into an offensive and defensive league against the +emperor. Being sensible that they were unable to resist him, they +engaged the French monarch in their cause. At first, the emperor was +victorious; but a new league was formed. France then took a more active +part in favour of the confederates, and the contest ended in the peace +of Passau, in 1552, there the two parties, for the first time, treated +as equals, and the free exercise of the Lutheran religion was allowed. +Things remained quiet during the reigns of Ferdinand the First and +Maximilian the Second; but, in consequence of the disputes, which arose +on the succession to the dutchies of Cleves and Juliers, the religious +differences broke out with fresh animosity:--the Protestant princes +formed a confederacy called the _Evangelical Union_, and placed, at its +head, the Elector Palatine; the Catholics formed a confederacy called +the _Catholic League_, and placed, at its head, the Duke of Bavaria. In +the year 1618, they burst into open war; every state in Europe, and even +the Ottoman princes, at one time or other, took a part in it. France was +the soul of the Protestant cause; she assisted it with her armies, and +her subsidies:--it may be truly said, that, if there be a Protestant +state from the Vistula to the Rhine, or a Mahometan, state between the +Danube and the Mediterranean, its existence is owing to the Bourbon +monarchs. From the period of its duration, it has been called the WAR +OF THIRTY YEARS: it is divided, by its _Palatine, Danish, Swedish,_ and +_French_ periods. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.] + +1. Frederick, the fifth _Elector Palatine_ of that name, being elected +King of Bohemia, by the states of that kingdom, made war on the emperor +Ferdinand the Second. Being defeated in 1620, at the battle of Prague, +and abandoned by his allies, he was driven from Bohemia, and deprived of +his other states. + +2. Christian the Fourth of _Denmark_, then placed himself at the head of +the confederacy against the emperor; but, having in 1626, lost the +battle of Lutter, in which Tilly commanded the Austrian forces; he +signed, three years after that event, a separate peace with the emperor. + +In the following year, Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, was placed at +the head of the confederacy. Their cause appeared desperate: Walstein, +the Austrian general, had been uniformly successful, and almost the +whole of Germany had submitted to the emperor: but the Austrians soon +experienced a severe reverse of fortune. + +[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.] + +3. Lewis XIII filled at that time, the throne of France; his councils +were guided by Cardinal Richelieu, one of the ablest statesmen that has +appeared upon the theatre of the world. Vast, but provident in his +designs; daring, but considerate in his operations; capable of the +largest views and the most minute attentions; he formed three immense +projects, and succeeded in all. + +"When your Majesty," he thus addresses the monarch in his celebrated +_Testament Politique_, "resolved at the same time to admit me into your +councils, and to give me a great portion of your confidence, I can say +with truth that the Hugonots divided the state with you; that the great, +conducted themselves, as if they were not your subjects, and the +governors of the provinces, as if they were the sovereigns of them; and +that France was contemned by her foreign allies." + +To reduce the Hugonots, to lower the nobility, to elevate France to be +the preponderating power in Europe, were the three objects, which the +Cardinal proposed to himself. In each, he had difficulties to encounter, +which extraordinary talents only could surmount. By a strict +administration of justice, and severely punishing, without respect to +rank or connections, those, who engaged in treasonable practices, he +completely subdued the towering spirit of the nobility; by victorious +armies and a vigorous dispensation of the laws, he reduced the Hugonots; +and, by calling forth all the energies of his country, and arraying +half the Continent against Austria and Spain, he gave to France an +almost irresistible ascendant in the concerns of Europe. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XI 1634-1645.] + +To the last only of these three designs our present subject leads us. + +_Sweden_ had long been engaged in a war against Denmark, and highly +dissatisfied with Austria. By the persuasion of Richelieu, she made +peace with the Danes, and entered into an offensive and defensive +alliance with France. In consequence of it, Gustavus Adolphus was placed +at the head of the Protestant confederacy: a large army of Swedes +entered Germany; Gustavus was invested with the command of the +confederate forces, and his brilliant campaigns turned the tide of +success in their favour. At Lutzen he obtained a complete victory, but +lost his life. + +[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.] + +After the death of Gustavus, the States assembled, and the Mareschal of +the Diet proposed, that the celebrated Christina, the only child of +Gustavus, then an infant of very tender years, should be crowned: the +Mareschal carried her in his arms into the midst of the assembly. On +observing her, all were struck with her likeness to her father. "Yes!" +they cried, "it is she herself! she has the eyes, the nose and the +forehead of Gustavus! We will have her for our queen!" She was +immediately seated on the throne, and proclaimed queen. The regency of +the kingdom, during the minority of Christina, was conferred on the +Chancellor Oxenstiern: he had been the confidential minister and friend +of Gustavus, and shewed through life that he deserved that confidence, +by his wisdom, eminent talents, and spotless integrity. Both the monarch +and his minister entertained a high opinion of the abilities and virtue +of Grotius: His treatise _De Jure Belli et Pacis_ was found, after the +death of Gustavus, in the royal tent. + +4. Not long after the disastrous victory of the Swedes at Lutzen, the +Austrian and confederate armies conflicted at Nordlingen, in one of the +most obstinate and bloody battles recorded in history: the confederates +were completely defeated. The blame was thrown on the Swedes; they were +deserted by almost all their Protestant allies, and the weight of the +war devolved almost entirely upon the Swedes and _the French_. Till this +time, they had acted and negociated on an equality: the loss of this +battle made the Swedes dependent upon France, and the haughty genius of +Richelieu made them severely feel it. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.] + +The first object of Oxenstiern was to renew the treaty with France: a +skilful negociator on the part of Sweden was necessary. Oxenstiern +fixed his eye upon Grotius: the penetrating minister had several +conversations with him. The embassy to France was certainly the most +important commission, with which a minister from Sweden could be +charged: Oxenstiern's appointment of Grotius to it, demonstrated the +minister's high opinion of him. Some time in July 1634, he declared +Grotius councillor to the Queen of Sweden, and her ambassador to the +court of France. Grotius made his public entry into Paris on Friday the +2d of March 1635. Nothing of the customary ceremonial or compliment was +omitted in his regard, by the court of France. + +Unfortunately for the success of the embassy of Grotius, two envoys from +some of the Protestant states in Germany had previously signed a treaty +with France, which was generally considered by the confederates to be +injurious to their interests. + +[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.] + +The first interview of Grotius with the Cardinal took place on the 28th +March. During their conference, a dispatch arrived from Oxenstiern to +Grotius: it was immediately put into his bands, by the Cardinal's +desire. It announced a resolution, taken by the Chancellor, to repair to +Paris, and that he was actually on his journey thither. Richelieu was +displeased: but he determined to give the chancellor the most +honourable and flattering reception. On the 21st of April, Grotius met +Oxenstiern at Soissons: they proceeded together to Paris. Conferences +between the Cardinal and the Chancellor immediately took place. The +matter in discussion between the courts were soon arranged: France +undertook to declare war against the emperor, to subsidize Sweden, and +to send an army to co-operate with her forces in Germany. It has always +been considered highly creditable to the firmness and talents of +Oxenstiern, that, in the reduced condition of the Swedes, he could +obtain for them such advantageous terms. Immediately after the treaty +was signed, the Chancellor quitted France. During his stay, he shewed a +marked attention to Grotius, and expressed unqualified approbation of +his conduct and views. + +The arms of Sweden again triumphed. In Pomerania, General Bannier +obtained important advantages over the imperialists; in Alsace, the arms +of the Duke of Saxe-Weimar were equally successful. In the following +year, the two victorious generals carried their arms into the heart of +the Austrian territories, and, were almost uniformly successful. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.] + +But it is foreign to these pages to dwell further on the military +achievements or political intrigues of the times of which we are +speaking. Humanity shudders at the perusal of the events of this war. +Through the whole of its long period, Germany was a scene of +devastation. In its northern and central parts, the ravages of advancing +and retreating armies were repeatedly experienced in their utmost +horrors: many of its finest towns were destroyed; whole villages +depopulated; large territories laid waste. Frequently the women, the +children, and the aged, naked, pale, and disfigured, were seen wandering +over the fields, supporting themselves by the leaves of trees, by wild +roots, and even grass. The war extended itself into Lorraine: an +affecting account of the calamities, which it produced in that beautiful +province, was published by Father Caussin, who accompanied Lewis XIII +into it, as his confessor. + +[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.] + +Struck with the scene of woe, St. Vincent of Paul, an humble missionary +priest, who, at that time, resided at Paris, requested an audience of +Cardinal de Richelieu. Being admitted, he represented to his eminence, +with respect, but with firmness, the misery of the people, the sins, and +all the other enormities, which are the usual consequences of war: he +then fell upon his knees, and in a voice, equally animated by grief and +charity, "Sir!" he said to the Cardinal "have mercy upon us! Have +compassion upon the world! Give us peace!" The stern and vindictive +genius of the Cardinal sunk before the man of God. He raised Vincent +from the ground. He told him, with much apparent benignity, that "the +general pacification of Europe was his great object, but that +unfortunately it did not depend on him alone; there being, both within +and without the kingdom, those who sought the contrary, and prevented +peace." Few ministers have shewn greater ability, or produced greater +public or private misery, than Richelieu. It may, on the other hand, be +doubted, whether, at the day of general retribution, when every child of +Adam will have to account for his works, even one will appear with more +numerous deeds of useful and heroic charity than St. Vincent of +Paul.[042] + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.] + +The affairs of the important embassy entrusted to Grotius, prospered in +his hands. In his conduct, there was an uniform assemblage of prudence, +activity, moderation, and firmness. To the French monarch, he was always +acceptable--not always so to the cardinal minister. It was the constant +object of the latter, to delay the payments of the subsidies promised +to Sweden, or to make deductions from them; and to lessen the number of +soldiers, which France was bound, by treaty to supply. Sometimes by +blandishments, sometimes by loftiness, the minister or his agents +endeavoured to induce Grotius to sanction these irregularities: but +Grotius was always true to the interests of the country which he +represented: it does not appear, that the Cardinal gained a single point +against him. Towards the close of his embassy, Grotius succeeded in +renewing the treaty between Sweden and France, on terms which were +considered to do great honour to his diplomatic talents. + +In the discharge of his embassy, Grotius had to sustain other +unpleasantnesses. His pension was not regularly paid: this often +subjected him to great inconveniences. He had disputes respecting rank +and ceremonial, both with the French ministry and the ambassadors of +other states. It must surprise an English reader to find, that Grotius +questioned the right of the English ambassador to precedence over him: +the French court often played one ambassador, against the other. + +[Sidenote: Embassy of Grotius to the Court of France.] + +In the midst of these troubles, Grotius preserved the serenity of his +mind; and his attachment to sacred and profane literature. He cultivated +the acquaintance of the learned and the good, of every communion; and +possessed their esteem and regard. His conduct as ambassador was always +approved by the Chancellor Oxenstiern, while he lived, and after his +decease, by his son and successor in his office. The Queen of Sweden was +equally favourable to Grotius; but she unadvisedly took an adventurer +into her confidence, and sent him, in an ambiguous character, to Paris. +This disgusted Grotius: and age and infirmities now thickened upon him. +He applied to the Queen for his recall. She granted it in the most +flattering terms, and desired him to repair immediately to Stockholm, to +receive, from her, distinguished marks of her favour. She wrote to the +Queen of France, a letter, in which she expressed herself in a manner +highly honourable to Grotius: she acknowledged her obligations to him +and protested that she never would forget them. This was towards the +month of March 1645. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XI. 1634-1645.] + +About three years after this event, the war of thirty years was +concluded by the peace of Westphalia. France and the Protestant princes +of Europe dictated the terms: the Swedes were indemnified for their +charges of the war, by Pomerania, Steten, Rugen, Wismar and Verden: the +house of Brandenburgh obtained Magdeburgh, Halberstad, Minden and Camin; +Alsace was conquered, and retained by France; Lusatia, was ceded to +Saxony. The history of the treaty of Westphalia has been ably written by +_Father Bougeant_, a French Jesuit: some critics have pronounced it the +best historical work in the French language. Till the late revolution of +France, it was the breviary of all French aspirants to political +distinction. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS OF GROTIUS:--SOME OTHER OF HIS WORKS. + +1. _Subsequent History of Arminianism_. 2. _Grotius's Religious +Sentiments_. 3. _His Projects of Religious Pacification_. + + + + + + + +XII. 1. + +_Subsequent History of Arminianism._ + + +We left the Arminians under the iron arm of Prince Maurice:--He died in +1625:--We have mentioned, that Prince Frederick-Henry his brother, and +successor in the Stadtholderate, adopted more moderate councils in their +regard; that he recalled the Remonstrants, with some exceptions, from +banishment; that many settled at Amsterdam and Rotterdam; and that the +Arminians founded a college in the former city:--_Episcopius_ was its +first professor of theology:--it has never been without teachers, of +eminence for learning, as Courcelles, Pollemberg, Limborch, Le Clerc, +Cottemburgh, and Wetstein. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] + +It should be added, that the authority of the Synod of Dort insensibly +declined:--its authority was never formally acknowledged by the provinces +of _Friesland_, _Zealand_, _Utrecht_, _Gueldreland_ and +_Gröningen_: In 1651, they were induced to intimate that they would see +with pleasure, the reformed religion maintained upon the footing, upon +which it had been maintained and confirmed by the Synod of Dort; but +this intimation was never considered to have the force of a legislative +enactment.[043] + +[Sidenote: XII.1. History of Arminianism.] + +The theological system of the Arminians, after their return to Holland, +underwent, if we credit Dr. Mosheim,[044] a remarkable change. They +appear, by his account, to have almost coincided with those, who exclude +the necessity of divine grace in the work of conversion and +sanctification; and think that Christ demands from men, rather virtue +than faith; and has confined that belief, which is essential for +salvation, to very few articles. Thus the modern Arminians, according +to Dr. Mosheim, admit into their communion,--1st. All, with an exception +of Catholics, who receive the holy scriptures; and more especially the +New Testament; allowing at the same time to every individual, his own +interpretation of the sacred books:--2dly. All whose lives are regulated +by the law of God:--3dly. And all, who neither persecute nor bear ill +will towards those who differ from them in their religious sentiments. +Their _Confession of Faith_ was drawn up by Episcopius in 1622: four +divines of the established church of Holland published a _Refutation_ of +it: the authors of the _Confession_ replied to it in the following year, +by their _Apology_. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] + +James I. of England directed his theological representatives in the +Synod of Dort, to join the members in the condemnation of the doctrines +of Arminius:--but, when the English divines returned from that assembly, +and gave a full account of its proceedings, the King and the greatest +part of the English clergy expressed their dissatisfaction with them, +and declared that the sentiments of Arminius on the divine decrees, was +preferable to those of Calvin and Gomarus. By the exertions of +Archbishop Laud, and afterwards, in consequence of the general tendency +of the public mind to doctrines of mildness and comprehension, an +Arminian construction of the English articles on predestination and +free-will was adopted:--it has since prevailed,--and the Arminian creed, +by the number of its secret or open adherents, has insensibly found +admittance into every Protestant church. + +[Sidenote: History of Arminianism.] + +If we believe the celebrated Jurieu[045], Arminianism even in its +Socinian form, abounded, in less than a century, after the death of +Arminius, in the United Provinces, and among the Hugonots of the +adjacent part of France. By his account, the dispersion of the French +Hugonots, in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, +revealed to the terrified reformers of the original school, the alarming +secret of the preponderance of Socinianism in the reformed church. Its +members, according to Jurieu, being no longer under the controul of the +civil power, spread their Socinian principles every where, with the +utmost activity and success: even in England, Jurieu professed to +discover the effect of their exertions. He mentions that in 1698, +thirty-four French refugee ministers residing in London addressed a +letter to the synod, then sitting at Amsterdam, in which they declared, +that Socinianism had spread so rapidly, that, if the ecclesiastical +assemblies supplied no means for checking their growth, or used +palliatives only, the mischief would be incurable. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] + +This charge, however, the Arminians have indignantly rejected. A writer +in the _Bibliotheque Germanique_[046] relates, that + + "the celebrated Anthony Collins called on M. Le Clerc of Amsterdam: + He was accompanied by some Frenchmen, of the fraternity of those, + who think freely. They expected to find the religious opinions of + Le Clerc in unison with their own, but, they were surprised to find + the strong stand which he made in favour of revelation. He proved + to them, with great strength of argument, the truth of the + Christian religion. Jesus Christ, he told them, was born among the + Jews; still, it was not the Jewish religion which he taught; + neither was it the religion of the Pagan neighbourhood; but, a + religion infinitely superior to both. One sees in it the most + striking marks of divinity. The Christians, who followed, were + incapable of imagining any thing so beautiful. Add to this, that + the Christian religion is so excellently calculated for the good of + society, that, if we did not derive so great a present from heaven, + the good and safety of men would absolutely demand from them an + equivalent." + +Throughout the conversation, M. Le Clerc reproached the Deists strongly, +for the hatred, which they shewed to Christianity. He proved, that, by +banishing it from the world, + + "they would overturn whatever was most holy and respectable among + men; break asunder the surest bonds of humanity; teach men to shake + off the yoke of law; deprive them of their strongest incitement to + virtue, and bereave them of their best comfort. What," (he asked + them) "do you substitute in its place? Can you flatter yourself, + that you will discover something better? You expect, no doubt, that + men will erect statues to you, for your exertions to deprive them + of their religion! Permit me to tell you, that the part you act + makes you odious and despicable in the eyes of all honest men." + +He finished the conversation by requesting Mr. Collins to bring him no +more such visitors. + +[Sidenote: XII. 1. History of Arminians.] + +From the close of the 17th century, till the present time, Arminianism +has been continually on the increase. It is a just observation of Mr. +Gibbon, that "the disciples of Arminius must not be computed by their +separate congregations." + +Doctor Maclaine says, it is certain, that the most eminent philosophers +have been found among the Arminians. "If both Arminians and Calvinists," +says Mr. Evans, in the excellent work we have cited, + + "claim a _King_ (_James_ I.), it is certain that the latter alone + can boast of a _Newton_, a _Locke_, a _Clarke_, or a _Boyle_. + Archbishop _Usher_ is said to have lived a _Calvinist_; and died an + _Arminian_. The members of the episcopal church in Scotland; the + Moravians, the general Baptists, the Wesleyan Methodists, the + Quakers or Friends, are Arminians; and it is supposed that a great + proportion of the Kirk of Scotland teach the doctrines of Arminius, + though they have a Calvinistic confession of faith. What a pity it + is that the opinions either of Calvinists or Arminians," + +--(we beg leave to add: or any other Catholic or Protestant opinions +whatsoever)-- + + "cannot in the eyes of some persons be held without a diminution of + Christian charity!" + + + + + + + +XII. 2. + +_Grotius's Religious Sentiments_. + + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] + +To the milder form of Arminianism, Grotius always inclined. During his +embassy in France, he adopted it without reserve. He was soon disgusted +with the French Calvinists. The ministers of Charenton accepted the +decisions of the Synod of Dort, and, in conformity with them, refused, +when Grotius repaired to Paris, after his escape from Louvestein, to +admit him into their communion. On his arrival at Paris, in quality of +ambassador, they offered to receive him: Grotius expressed pleasure at +the proposal; and, intimated to them, that if he should go into any +country, in which the Lutherans, knowing his sentiments on the sacrament +of our Lord's Supper, should be willing to receive him into their +communion, he would make no difficulty in joining them. Thus every thing +appeared to be settled; but the ministers then objected to receive +Grotius as ambassador from Sweden, because that kingdom was Lutheran. +Grotius, upon this, resolved to have the divine service performed in his +house. Lutherans publicly attended it. "We have celebrated," he writes +to his brother, "the Feast of the Nativity in my house: the Duke of +Wirtemberg, the Count de Saxenburgh, and several Swedish and German +lords, attended at it." His first chaplain was imprudent, his second +gave him great satisfaction. + +[Sidenote: XII. 2. Grotius' Religious Sentiments.] + +Burigni has collected, in the last chapter of his Life of Grotius, a +multitude of passages, which shew his gradual leaning to the Roman +Catholic faith. He produces several passages from his works, which +prove,-- + +_That_ he paid high regard to decisions of the councils, and the +discipline of the primitive church; and thought the sentiments of the +antient church should be deferred to, in the explanation of the +Scriptures: [047] + +_That_, the early reformers were held by him in no great esteem:[048] + +_That_, mentioning Casaubon's sentiments, Grotius said that this learned +man thought the Roman Catholics of France better informed than those of +other countries, and came nearer to truth than the ministers of +Charenton:-- + + "It cannot," says Grotius, "be denied, that there are several Roman + Catholic pastors here, who teach true religion, without any mixture + of superstition; it were to be wished that all did the same:"[049] + +_That_ the Calvinists were schismatics, and had no mission:[050] + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] + +_That_ the Jesuits were learned men and good subjects. "I know many of +them," he says, in one of his writings against Rivetus, "who are very +desirous to see abuses abolished, and the church restored to its +primitive unity."--We shall hereafter see that Father Petâu, an +illustrious member of the society, possessed the confidence of +Grotius:[051] + +_That_, Grotius looked upon the abolition of episcopacy and of a visible +head of the church, as something very monstrous:[052] + +_That_, he acknowledged that some change was made in the eucharistic +bread; that, when Jesus Christ, being sacramentally present, favours us +with his substance,--as the Council of Trent expresses its doctrine on +the Eucharist,--the appearances of bread and wine remain, and in their +place succeed the body and blood of Christ: [053] + +[Sidenote: XII. 2. Grotius's Religious Sentiments.] + +_That_, Grotius did not approve of the sentiments of the Calvinists +concerning the Eucharist, and reproached them with their contradiction. + + "You will hear them state in their confessions," says Grotius, + "that they really, substantially and essentially partake of + Christ's body and his blood; but, in their disputes, they maintain + that Christ is received only spiritually, by faith. The antients + go much further: they admit a real incorporation of Jesus Christ + with us, and the reality of Christ's body, as Saint Hilarius + speaks." + +It must however be remarked that, although Grotius thought that the term +_Transubstantiation_ adopted by the council of Trent, was capable of a +good interpretation, it is not clear, what was his precise opinion +respecting the Eucharist. He proposed the following formulary: + + "We believe that, in the use of the supper, we truly, really, and + substantially,--that is to say,--in its proper substance,--receive + the true body and the true blood of Jesus Christ, in a spiritual + and ineffable manner: [054]" + +_That_, Grotius justified the decision of the Council of Trent, +concerning the number of the sacraments:[055] + +_That_, after the year 1640, he took no offence at the use of images in +churches, or at prayers for the dead:[056] + +_That_, he thought the bishops of Rome may be in error, but cannot long +remain in it, if they adhere to the universal church;--this seems to +presuppose the church's infallibility:[057] + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] + +_That_ in the opinion of Grotius; fasting was early used in the church; +the observance of Lent was a very early practice: the sign of the cross +had something respectable in it; the fathers held virginity a more +perfect state than marriage; and the celibacy of the priests conformable +to the antient discipline of the church:[058] + +And + + "that those, who shall read the decrees of the Council of Trent, + with a mind disposed to peace, will find that every thing is wisely + explained in them: and agreeable to what is taught by the + Scriptures and the antient fathers."[059] + +It is certain, that Grotius was intimate with Father Petâu, a Jesuit, +inferior to none of his society, in genius and learning; that the good +father used all his endeavours to convert Grotius to the Roman Catholic +religion; and was, at length, so much persuaded of his friend's +catholicity, that, when he heard of his death, he said prayers for the +repose of his soul.[060] + +[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.] + +As the religion of Grotius was a problem to many, Menâge wrote the +following Epigram upon it: the sense of it is, that-- + + "As many sects claimed the religion of Grotius, as the towns, which + contended for the birth of Homer." + + _Smyrna, Rhodos, Colophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos, Athenæ, + Siderei certant vatis de patriâ Homeri: + Grotiadæ certant de religione, Socinus, + Arrius, Arminius, Calvinus, Roma, Lutherus_. + + + + + + + +XII. 3. + +_Grotius's Project of Religious Pacification._ + + +A wish for religious peace among Christians grew with the growth and +strengthened with the strength of Grotius. It was known, before his +imprisonment at Louvestein, that he entertained these sentiments: he +avows them in the dedication to Lewis XIII. of his treatise _de Jure +Belli et Pacis_. + + "I shall never cease," he says in a letter to his brother,[061] "to + use my utmost endeavours for establishing peace among Christians; + And, if I should not succeed, it will be honourable to die in such + an enterprise." "I am not the only one, who has conceived such + projects," he writes in another letter to his brother:[062] + "Erasmus, Cassander; Wicelius and Casaubon had the same design. La + Meletiere is employed at present in it. Cardinal de Richelieu + declares that he will protect the coalition; and he is such a + fortunate man, that he never undertakes any thing, in which he + does not succeed. If there were no hopes of success at present, + ought we not to sow the seed, which may he useful to + posterity?[063] Even if we should only diminish the mutual hatred + among Christians, and render them more sociable, would not this be + worth purchasing at the price of some labour and reproaches?"[064] + +Grotius expressed himself in similar terms to Baron Oxenstiern: Surely +it is the true language of the Gospel. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] + +In the first appendix to this work,--we shall insert, an account + + "of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith, and Symbolic Books, of + the Roman Catholic, Greek, and principal Protestant churches:"-- + +In the second appendix,--we shall insert an account of the principal +attempts made, since the Reformation, for the re-union of +Christians.--The former is abridged from the "Historical and Literary +Account of the Confessions of Faith," which was formerly published by +the present writer;--the second is an essay appended to that work:--both +have been before referred to in the present publication. + +[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.] + +Grotius[065] thought that the most compendious way to produce universal +religious peace among Christians, would be to frame, with the +concurrence of all the orthodox Eastern and Western churches, a +formulary which should express, briefly and explicitly, all the articles +of faith, the belief of which they agree in thinking essential to +salvation. In a letter addressed from Paris in 1625,[066] he mentions +that Gustavus Adolphus had entertained projects of religious +pacification, and had taken measures to effect it; that he had procured +a meeting of divines of the Lutheran and Reformed churches and that they +had separated amicably: Grotius says that the differences between them +were as slight as those between the Greek and Coptic churches. + +For some time, Grotius flattered himself that he should succeed in his +project of pacification. In one of his letters to his brother, he +mentions distinguished Protestants, who approved and encouraged them + + "I perceive," he says, "that by conversing with men of the most + learning among the reformed, and explaining my sentiments to them, + they are of my opinion; and that their number will increase, if my + treatises are dispersed. I can truly affirm, that I have said + nothing in them from party spirit, but followed truth as closely as + I could."[067] + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] + +He imagined that some Catholics entered into his views. + + "The ablest men among the Catholics," he thus writes to his + brother, "think that what I have published is written with great + freedom and moderation, and approve of it."[068] + +These pacific projects of Grotius cemented the union between him and +Father Petâu. + + "I had," says that most learned Jesuit, in his 12th Letter, "a + great desire to see and converse with Grotius. We have been long + together, and very intimate. He is, as far as I can judge, a good + man, and possesses great candour. I do not think him far from + becoming a Catholic, after the example of Holstenius as you hoped. + I shall neglect nothing in my power to reconcile him to Christ, and + put him in the way of salvation."[069] + +[Sidenote: His Project of Religious Pacification.] + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] + +[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.] + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] + +As Grotius lays so much stress on the pacific labours of Erasmus, +Wicelius, Cassander and Casaubon, we shall briefly mention, in the +present chapter, the labours of the three first: Casaubon's we shall +notice, in the second appendix to this work. + +[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.] + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] It appears that _Erasmus_ had it in +contemplation to compose three dialogues, upon the important subject of +religious pacification: the speakers were to have been Luther, under the +name of Thrasimacus, and a Catholic divine, under that of Eubolus. In +the first dialogue, they were to have discussed the proper methods of +terminating the religious controversies of the times; in the second, to +have investigated what were the points in controversy, the belief of +which was essential to a member of the church of Christ; in the third, +they were to have inquired what were the best means to procure a good +understanding between the contending parties, and to effect their union. +It is to be lamented that Erasmus did not execute his design. His +general sentiments appear in his _Paraphrase upon the 83d Psalm_; they +are expressed with great wisdom and moderation.[071] + +[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.] + +_Wicelius_,--who is next mentioned by Grotius, had been professed in a +religious order: had quitted it, and embraced Lutheranism: he afterwards +forsook that communion, and returned to the Catholic: upon this, he was +appointed to a curacy; and, in the discharge of his functions, obtained +general esteem: he was much regarded by the Emperors Ferdinand and +Maximilian. In 1537, he published at Leipsic a Latin work, "On the +method of procuring Religious Concord,--_Methodus Concordiæ +Ecclesiasticæ_." He addressed it to the pope, to all sovereigns, +bishops, doctors, and generally to all christians, exhorting them to +peace, and to desist from contention. He assumed in it, that the true +religion had been preserved in the Catholic church; but he allows that +modern doctors had involved it in numerous scholastic subtleties, +unknown to antiquity. He complains that on one hand the reformers left +nothing untouched; that, on the other, the scholastics would retain +every abuse, and every superfluity: Wisdom, he thought, lay between +them; the reformers should have respected what antiquity consecrated; +the Catholics should have abandoned modern doctrines and modern +practices to the discretion of individuals. + +The "Royal Road," or _Via Regia_ of Wicelius, a still more important +work, was published by him at Helmstadt in 1537. Both works were +approved, and the perusal of them warmly recommended, by the emperors: +they have been often reprinted; they are inserted, with a life of their +author, in the second volume of _Brown's Fasciculus_. + + "If all the divines of those times," says Father Simôn the + oratorian,[073] "had possessed the same spirit as Wicelius, the + affairs of religion might have taken a different turn." + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] + +[Sidenote: XII.3. His Project of Religious Pacification] + +_Cassander_, another peacemaker, mentioned with praise by Grotius, is +the subject of a long and interesting article in _Dupin's Ecclesiastical +History_:[074] + + "He was," says Dupin, "solidly learned; and thoroughly versed in + ecclesiastical antiquity and the controversies of his own times. + The flaming zeal, which he had for the re-union and peace of the + church, made him yield much to the Protestants, and led him to + advance some propositions that were too bold. But he always kept in + the communion of the Catholic church. He declared that he submitted + to its judgments, and openly condemned the authors of the schism + and their principal errors. He was a gentle, humble and moderate + man; patient under afflictions, and entirely disinterested. In his + disputes, he never returned injury for injury; and neither in his + manners nor in his writings were presumption or arrogance ever + discoverable. He avoided glory, honor, or wealth; and lived private + and retired, having no other thought or wish, but to promote the + peace of the church; no employment, but study; no business, but to + compose books, which might be profitable to the public; and no + passion, but knowing and teaching the truth." + +His character procured him universal respect. The emperor and several +Catholic princes in Germany fixed upon him as a mediator in the +religious disputes, by which the empire was, at that time, agitated. In +conformity with their views he published his celebrated, "_Consultatio +de Articulis Religionis inter Catholicos et Protestantes Controversis_." + + "In this work," says Mr. Chalmers, "he discusses the several + articles of the Augsburgh Confession, stating their difference from + the doctrines of the Catholic church, and the concessions that + might safely be made in respect to them. This work was written with + great liberality, was much applauded by those, who were desirous of + a coalition: they were too soon convinced that every attempt of + this kind was nugatory. Cassander presented it to the Emperors + Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. They received it favourably; the + former invited Cassander to Vienna, but his infirmities prevented + his accepting the offer." + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XII.] + +In 1542, Grotius published his "_Road to Religious Peace,--Via ad Pacem +Ecclesiasticam_:" he inserted in it Cassander's "_Consultation_," and +accompanied it with notes. + +All pacific persons reverenced Grotius, and still reverence his memory, +for his attempts to restore the religious peace of Christendom: all the +violent condemned him, and opposed his projects. The contradictions, +which he met with, chagrined him; so that he sometimes lost that +tranquillity of mind, which he had possessed in his deepest adversity. +But, to use his own words, he looked to the blessed Peacemaker for his +reward, and trusted that posterity would do justice to its intentions.-- + + "Perhaps, by writing to reconcile such as entertain very opposite + sentiments, I shall," says Grotius, "offend both parties: but, if + that should so happen, I shall comfort myself with the example of + him, who said, If I please men, I am not the servant of Christ." + +[Sidenote: XII. 3. His Project of Religious Pacification.] + + "Grotius," says Burigni, "content with gratifying his pacific + desires, expected his reward from posterity. This he clearly + intimates in the following verses, written by him on the subject: + + "_Accipe, sed placidé, quæ, si non optimo, certé + Espressit nobis non mala pacis amor. + Et tibi dic, nostro labor hic si displicet avo, + A gratia pretium posteritate feret_." + +The projects of religious pacification did not cease with Grotius: +several divines of distinction adopted it; and attempted, some with more +prudence and ability than others, to carry it into effect. The principal +of these are noticed in the second appendix to the present work. None +succeeded: One description of persons, who engaged in this design, was +denominated _Syncretists_, or _Calixtines_, from _George Calixtus_ their +leader: the other, from their calling men from controversy to holiness +of life, received the appellation of _Pietists_: A third party,--perhaps +we may style them, the _Ultra-orthodox_,--more hostile to the former +than to the latter--arose in opposition to both, and accused them of +sacrificing the doctrines of faith to a mistaken zeal for union and +sanctity.[075] + +It is certain[076] that the friends of union too often erred in +this,--that they aimed rather at an uniformity of _terms_ than of +_sentiments_; and thus seemed satisfied, when they engaged the +contending parties to use the same _words and phrases_, though their +_real difference_ in opinion remained the same. This could not be +justified: it tended evidently to extinguish truth and honour, and to +introduce equivocation. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +THE DEATH OF GROTIUS. + +1645 + + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XIII. 1645.] + +Every thing respecting the recall of Grotius being settled, he embarked +at Dieppe for Holland. He was extremely well received at Amsterdam and +Rotterdam: the constituted authorities, of the former city fitted a +vessel, which was to take him to Hamburgh: there, after along and +harassing journey, he arrived on the 16th of May. From Hamburgh he +proceeded to Lübec: the magistrates of that city gave him an honourable +reception. He proceeded to Wismar; where Count Wismar, the admiral of +the Swedish fleet, gave him a splendid entertainment, and afterwards +sent him in a man-of-war to Colmar: thence, he went by land to +Stockholm. When he arrived there, Queen Christina was at Upsal; but, +hearing that Grotius was at Stockholm, she returned to that city to meet +him. On the day after her arrival, she favoured him with a long +audience: she expressed to him great satisfaction at his conduct, and +made him large promises. These audiences were often repeated; and once +she permitted him to have the honour of dining with her. She assured +him, that if he would continue in her service, as Councillor of State, +and bring his family into Sweden, he should have no reason to complain +of her. But Grotius was anxious to leave Sweden; and his passport being +delayed, he resolved to quit it without one, and actually proceeded to a +seaport about seven leagues distant from Stockholm. The Queen, being +informed of his departure, sent a gentleman to inform him, that she +wished to see him once more. On this invitation he returned to +Stockholm, and was immediately admitted into the Queen's presence; he +then explained to her his reasons for wishing to quit Sweden. The Queen +appeared to be satisfied with them: she made him a present in money of +twelve or thirteen thousand Swedish imperials, of the value of about ten +thousand French crowns; she added to the present, some plate, the +finishing of which had, she told him, been the only cause of the delay +of his passport. She then put it into his hands, and a vessel was +appointed to carry him to Lübec. On the 12th August he embarked for that +city. + +[Sidenote: The Death of Grotius.] + +What were his real motives for refusing Christina's offers, or in what +place he ultimately intended to fix himself, is not known. + +The vessel in which he embarked had scarcely sailed from Lübec, when it +was overtaken by a violent storm, and obliged, on the 17th August, to +take shelter in a port fourteen miles distant from Dantzic. Grotius went +from it in an open wagon to Lübec, and arrived very ill at Rostock[077] +on the 26th August. No one, there, knew him: his great weakness +determined him to call in the aid of a physician: one accordingly +attended him: his name was Stochman. On feeling Grotius's pulse, he said +his indisposition proceeded from weakness and fatigue, and that, with +rest and some restoratives, he might recover; but, on the following day +he changed his opinion. Perceiving that the weakness of Grotius +increased, and that it was accompanied with a cold sweat and other +symptoms indicating an exhaustion of nature, the physician announced +that the end of his patient was near. Grotius then asked for a +clergyman. _John Quistorpius_ was brought to him. Quistorpius, in a +letter to Calovius, gives the following particulars of Grotius's last +moments: + + "You are desirous of hearing from me, how that Phoenix of + Literature, Hugo Grotius, behaved in his last moments, and I am + going to tell you. He embarked at Stockholm for Lübec, and after + having been tossed for the three days, by a violent tempest, he was + shipwrecked, and got to shore on the coast of Pomerania, from + whence he came to our town of Rostock, distant above sixty miles, + in an open wagon through wind and rain. He lodged with Balleman; + and sent for M. Stochman, the physician, who observing that he was + extremely weakened by years, by what he suffered at sea, and by the + inconveniences attending the journey, judged that he could not live + long. The second day after Grotius's arrival in this town, that is, + on the 18th of August, O.S. he sent for me, about nine at night, I + went, and found him almost at the point of death: I said, 'There + was nothing I desired more, than to have seen him in health, that I + might have the pleasure of his conversation.' He answered, 'God had + ordered it otherwise.' I desired him: to prepare himself for a + happier life, to acknowledge that he was a sinner, and to repent of + his faults: and, happening to mention the publican, who + acknowledged that he was a sinner, and asked God's mercy; he + answered, '_I am that publican_.' I went on, and told him that he + must have recourse to Jesus Christ, without whom there is no + salvation.' + + "He replied, '_I place all my hope in Jesus Christ_.' + +[Sidenote: The Death of Grotius.] + + "I began to repeat aloud in German, the prayer which begins _Herr + Jesu:_[078] he followed me in a very low voice; with his hands + clasped. When I had done, I asked him, 'if he understood me.' He + answered, '_I understand you very well_.' I continued to repeat to + him those passages of the word of God, which are commonly offered + to the remembrance of dying persons; and asking him, 'if he + understood me,' he answered, '_I heard your voice, but I did not + understand what you said._' + + "These were his last words; soon afterwards he expired; just at + midnight. His body was delivered to the physicians, who took out + his bowels. I easily obtained leave to bury them in our principal + church, which is dedicated to the Virgin." + +His corpse, was afterwards carried to Delft, and deposited in the tomb +of his ancestors. He wrote this modest epitaph for himself, + + "GROTIUS HIC HUGO EST, BATAVUM + CAPTIVUS ET EXSUL, + LEGATUS REGNI, SUECIA MAGNA, TUI." + +Burigni informs us that Grotius had a very agreeable person, a good +complexion, an aquiline nose, sparkling eyes, a serene and smiling +countenance; that he was not tall, but very strong, and well built. The +engraving of him prefixed to the _Hugonis Grotii Manes_ answers this +description. + +It is needless to give an account of his descendants, or their +prosperous or adverse fortunes: they are noticed at length by Burigni. +In _Mr. Boswell's Life of Johnson_, mention is made of one who was then +in a state of want. Dr. Johnson, in a letter to Dr. Vyse, + + "requests him to recommend, an old friend, to his grace the + Archbishop of Canterbury. His name," says the Doctor, "is De Groot. + He has all the common claims to charity; he is poor and infirm in a + great degree. He has likewise another claim, to which no scholar + can refuse attention: he is, by several descents, the nephew of + Hugo Grotius; of him, of whom every man of learning has perhaps + learned something. Let it not be said, that, in any lettered + country, the nephew of Grotius, ever asked a charity, and was + refused." + +The reader must be pleased, to be informed, that the application,--it +was for some situation, in the charter-house,--was successful. Dr. Vyse +informed Dr. Johnson of it, by letter. In his answer, + + "Dr. Johnson," by Dr. Vyse's account, "rejoiced much, and was + lavish of the praise he bestowed upon his favourite Hugo + Grotius."[079] + +[Sidenote: The Death of Grotius.] + +Three points were united in Grotius, each of which would strongly +recommend him to Dr. Johnson: he was learned, pious, and opposed to the +doctrines of Calvin. It is still more unnecessary to mention the various +encomiums, which the learned of all nations have made of Grotius, in +prose and verse. That he was one of the most universal scholars, whom +the world has produced, and that he possessed sense, taste, and genius +in a high degree, is universally confessed. It is equally true, that +both his public and his private character, are entitled to a high degree +of praise. + +When Queen Christina, heard of his death, she wrote to his widow, a +letter of condolence, and requested, that the manuscripts which he had +left, might be sent to her: + + "My ambassador," the Queen says in this letter, "has made you + acquainted, with my high esteem, for his learning, and the good + services he did me; but he could not express, how dear I hold his + memory, and the effects of his great labours. If gold, or silver, + could do any thing towards redeeming such a valuable life, I would + gladly employ all, I am mistress of, for that purpose." + +She concludes by asking his widow, for all the manuscripts "of that +learned man, whose works had given her such pleasure." The Queen assures +her, that "they could not fall into better hands," and that, "the +author, having been useful to her in his lifetime, it was not just that +she should be deprived, after his death, of the fruits of his labours." + +It remains to mention, that, after the death of Grotius, his wife +communicated with the Church of England: this, it is said, she did in +conformity to the dying injunctions of her husband: it is certain, that +Grotius respected the Church of England. His wife died at the Hague, in +the communion of the Remonstrants. Through life, she was uniformly +respected; and, whenever the services of Grotius, to sacred and profane +literature, are recorded, her services to him, should be mentioned with +praise. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +HISTORICAL MINUTES OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SEVEN +UNITED PROVINCES, FROM THE DEATH OF WILLIAM II. TILL THE ESTABLISHMENT +OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS. + +1680-1815. + + +In some of the preceding pages, the principal events in the history of +the Seven United Provinces, till the death of William II, in 1680, have +been briefly mentioned: in the present chapter, we shall insert a +summary account of the revolutions of their government, till the present +time. + + + + + + + +XIV. 1. + +_William III._ + +1650-1702. + + +William III. was born after the death of William II. his father. +Immediately after that event, his mother claimed for him the +stadtholderate, and all the other dignities, pre-eminences, and rights, +which his father and grandfather had enjoyed; but, so great, at that +time, was the public jealousy of the ambitious views of the house of +Orange, that the States General would not even take her claims into +deliberation. A general assembly of the States was held in 1661. They +confirmed the Treaty of Union, of 1579; attributed to themselves, the +appointment of all civil and military offices; placed the army under the +authority of the provinces and municipalities, and invested the council +of state with the general direction of the military concerns of the +nation. A war with England, which was then governed by Cromwell, soon +followed; it was the commencement of the naval glory of the United +States. But the government was distracted by the contests and +dissensions between the republican and the Orange factions. The former +were headed by John de Witt. He possessed transcendent abilities, was a +true lover of his country, and, on every occasion, advised the wisest +measures. Some of the military operations of the States proving +unsuccessful, the Orange faction endeavoured to persuade the people, +that this reverse of fortune was owing to the want of a Stadtholder; and +exhorted them to confer this dignity on the young prince, to be +exercised, during his minority, by one of the family. This proposition +was successfully resisted by De Witt. Peace between England and the +United Provinces being concluded, Cromwell endeavoured to unite them to +England by a federative alliance; but they rejected the proposition. At +the suggestion of De Witt, the States of Holland passed an Act, by which +they bound themselves never to appoint the Prince of Orange, or any of +his descendants, to the office of Stadtholder, or Captain General; and +to prevent, to their utmost power, the other States from making such an +appointment. This measure displeased the other States. In 1665, the +office of Commander in Chief becoming vacant, the opposite party +endeavoured to procure it for one of the Orange family; this attempt +also proved abortive. In 1661 a war broke out between England,--which +was then governed by Charles II., and the United States; these displayed +in it, chiefly under the command of De Ruyter, prodigies of valour and +naval skill; the year 1667 was famous in their annals, by their fleet's +sailing up the river Thames, and burning the English fleet at Chatham. +The peace of Breda immediately followed. + +[Sidenote: XIV. 1. William III.] + +Still, the civil discord continued. The States of Holland renewed the +_Edict of Exclusion_, with the addition of a clause, that, whenever a +person should be invested, with the office of Captain, or Admiral +General, he should swear never to aspire to the office of Stadtholder, +and to refuse it, if it should be offered to him. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XIV 1650--1702.] + +The year 1671 is remarkable for the league entered into by Louis XIV. +and Charles II. against the United States, and by their vigourous +resistance to it. The circumstances into which it drove the United +States, compelled them to appoint the Prince of Orange Captain General +and Admiral: he took the oath prescribed by the Perpetual Edict, not to +aspire to the stadtholderate, and to reject it, if offered. He was at +this time in his twenty-second year: he owed his elevation to the +critical situation in which the United States were then placed; but it +was also owing to the great prudence with which he had conducted himself +when fortune was opposed to him; and to the talents and application to +business which he then discovered. + +At sea, the navy of the United States was generally successful. At land, +the arms of Lewis XIV. triumphed; he conquered Gueldres, Overyssell, and +the city and province of Utretcht. This maddened the populace. They +massacred John De Witt, and Cornelius De Witt, his brother, after having +subjected them to the cruellest tortures and the most brutal +indignities. To the indelible reproach of William III. he did not +interfere to prevent or stop these horrors. His measures for obtaining +the stadtholderate succeeded. + +[Sidenote: XIV. 1. William III.] + +On the 4th of July 1672, it was re-established in the person of William +III.; and all the dignities and rights enjoyed by his predecessors were +conferred upon him. These, in 1674, were made hereditary in his family. +His subsequent conduct is entitled, on many accounts, to the warmest +praise. The success of the United States at sea compelled Charles II. to +make peace with them, so that Lewis XIV. was their only enemy. The war +with him was terminated by the peace of Nimeguen in 1678. Ten years +after it, the Stadtholder, on the abdication of James II. became King of +England. In 1690, England, Spain, Austria, and the United Provinces, +entered into the Grand Alliance against France. The Duke of Savoy and +several Princes of Germany afterwards joined it. In general, the +proceedings of the confederacy were unsuccessful; the war was terminated +in 1697 by the peace of Ryswick. In 1700, the disputes on the succession +to the Spanish monarchy, in consequence of the death of Charles II. of +Spain, without issue, called the world again to arms. William III. died +in 1702. + + + + + + + +XIV. 2. + +_John William Count of Nassau Dietz_, 1702-1711; _William IV_. +1711-1751. + + +The government of William III. was generally displeasing to the United +States: they accused him of sacrificing them to the interests of his +English monarchy, and to the hatred which he always bore to the French. +He was also suspected, and not without reason, of a design to acquire +the independent sovereignty of the provinces. At first, his influence +within them was so great, that he was said to be King in the United +States, and Stadtholder in England; but it declined gradually; and an +attempt by him to obtain the succession to the stadtholderate for John +Friso, Prince of Nassau and Hereditary Stadtholder of Frizeland, +absolutely failed. He made, by his will, that prince his testamentary +heir. + +Upon the decease of William III. a general wish to discontinue the +stadtholderate was expressed in most of the provinces; those of Holland, +Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres, and Overyssell, came to a formal resolution +to this effect They recognised the supreme power of the States General, +and conferred the direction of their political concerns on Heinsius, the +actual Grand Pensionary, a person of great learning, uncommon talents +for business, and acknowledged integrity. + +[Sidenote: XIV. 2. John William Count of Nassau Diets, 1702-1711; +William IV. 1711-1749.] + +As testamentary heir of William III., John-William assumed the title of +Prince of Orange: he died in 1711, without having exercised the power of +the stadtholderate, except in the province of Frizeland. + +The war of the succession terminated in 1713, by the peace of Utretcht: +it was succeeded in 1715 by the Barrier Treaty, and in 1719 by the +Quadruple Alliance, ever memorable for the triumphant campaigns of +Marlborough, by which it was followed. The pensionary Heinsius died in +1720. In his life-time, several weak attempts had been made, in +different provinces, to restore in them the stadtholderate. They +succeeded only at Gueldres; and even there, it was restored with great +limitations. + +Upon the decease of Prince William-John, his rights and pretensions +descended to Prince William, his son. In 1733, he married Mary, the +daughter of George II. of England. This strengthened his cause; but the +general spirit of the United Provinces was so averse to the +Stadtholderate, that it was not till the invasion of Holland, by the +French, in 1747, that the prince's party judged it advisable to bring +forward his claim. At first they met with resistance, but finally +prevailed, and Prince William of Orange became the sole Stadtholder of +every province: until his time each of the provinces of Frizeland and +Groningen had its particular Stadtholder. The dignities of Captain +General and Admiral were also conferred on him; and, in addition to +these, some rights and privileges which no former Stadtholder had +enjoyed. + +The reverses of the United Provinces continued, and the aggrandisement +of the Stadtholderate increased proportionally. As yet William IV. had +no male issue. In 1748, the Orange faction proposed that the +Stadtholderate should be declared hereditary; and that, in default of +males, females should be admitted into the succession. After some +opposition the measure was carried in all the provinces, except +Frizeland and Groningen. From this time the United Provinces ceased to +be a republic, and became a monarchy, limited by the antient usages and +institutions. William IV. died in 1749. + + + + + + + +XIV. 3. + +_From the Death of William IV. till the Erection of the Kingdom of the +Netherlands_. + +1749-1815. + + +At the death of William IV. William, his son, and afterwards his +successor in the Stadtholderate, was an infant, in very tender years. +His mother was named by the states Governess of the United Provinces. +She appointed the Duke of Brunswick to the command of their armies; +thus, after all their exertions and sacrifices for liberty, the United +Provinces became subject to the government of an English princess and a +German prince; and an English party became predominant in their +politics; William V. married a princess of Prussia, and thus the Orange +party was strengthened by Prussian influence. + +[Sidenote: XIV. 3. From the death of William IV. till the erection of +the Kingdom of the Netherlands.] + +These opposite, and conflicting interests, filled every province, with +dissension; and, on some occasions, armed one body of citizens against +another. The English party, sided with the Orange faction; the French, +with the republicans. At first the latter prevailed; they led the states +into measures, which forced England to declare war against them. In +1782, they acknowledged the independence of the United States of +America. Still, the dissensions continued. After a long conflict, the +republican party acquired the ascendant; they suspended the Prince of +Orange from his functions, and filled all the principal places of trust +with their own adherents. But the Orange party soon rallied; the Duke of +Brunswick entered Holland at the head of a victorious army, and, in +1787, re-established the Stadtholderate. + +[Sidenote: CHAP. XIV. 1749-1816.] + +His victorious career, was soon terminated. In 1799, the revolutionary +army of France made themselves masters of the whole territory of the +United States; and established _The Batavian Republic_. It was +successively governed, but always under the overpowering controul of +France, by a Convention, a Directory, and a Consul, with the appellation +of Grand Pensionary. In 1806, even these forms of her antient government +were abolished; Napoleon sending Louis, one of his brothers, to reign +over the United Provinces, with the title and powers of royalty; but +with an intimation, that France was entitled to his first attentions and +a priority of duty. The demands of Napoleon for attentions and duties +were so exorbitant, that rather than be instrumental in the infliction +of the miseries which a compliance with them must occasion, Louis +resigned his throne. Napoleon then incorporated the United Provinces +into his empire, "as an alluvion," for such he termed them, "to the +Rivers of France." Scenes of the most grinding oppression followed: the +Batavians were relieved from it by the fall and abdication of Napoleon. + +[Sidenote: XIV. 3. Establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.] + +Before this event, William V. died, leaving a son, called from his +pretensions to the stadtholderate, William VI. We have seen that, on the +death of the Emperor Charles V. all the seventeen provinces, composing +the Netherlands, devolved to Philip II. his son; the successful +defection of the Seven United Provinces has been mentioned; the ten +remaining provinces were afterwards transferred to the House of Austria, +and were inherited by the Emperor Joseph II. The French made an easy +conquest of them in an early stage of the Revolution. + +We now reach the ultimate fate of both the divisions of the Netherlands. +The congress of Vienna, by an act of the 9th June 1815, created and +conferred upon this prince, THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS, consisting +of the seventeen provinces, and a portion of Luxemburgh. It is +confessedly the first among the kingdoms of the second order. + + + * * * * * + + +It was our wish to present our readers with a sketch of the literary +history of the Netherlands, during the period treated of in this +chapter; but after most diligent and extensive searches, both in the +British and foreign markets, we have not been able to discover materials +for it; persons of acknowledged learning, both in Germany and the +Netherlands, have assured us that no such history exists. + + + * * * * * + + + + +APPENDIX + +I. + +REFERRED TO IN PAGE 188. + +SOME ACCOUNT OF THE FORMULARIES, CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, OR SYMBOLIC +BOOKS, OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC, GREEK, AND PRINCIPAL PROTESTANT CHURCHES. + + +The constitutions of the Roman Catholic, and Protestant Churches, differ +in nothing more, than in the following important points: The Catholic +Church, acknowledges the authority of the Scriptures, and, in addition +to them, a body of traditionary law. She receives both under the +authority, and with the interpretation of the Church, and believes that +the authority of the Church in receiving and interpreting them is +infallible. The Protestant Churches generally profess to acknowledge no +law but the Scriptures, no interpreter of the Scriptures, but the +understanding and conscience of the individual who peruses them. + +That the Roman Catholic Church should propound a formulary of her faith, +enlarge this formulary from time to time, as further interpretation is +wanted, and enforce acquiscence in it by spiritual censures, is +consistent with _her_ principles. Whether such a pretension can be +avowed, without inconsistency, by any Protestant Church, has been a +subject of much discussion. In point of fact, however, no Protestant +Church is without her formulary, or abstains from enforcing it by +temporal provisions and spiritual censures. To enforce their formularies +by civil penalties, is inconsistent with the principles, of every +christian church. All churches howsoever have so enforced, and have +blamed the others, for so enforcing them. + +Such formularies, from the circumstance of their collecting into one +instrument, several articles, of religious belief, are generally known +on the Continent, by the appellation of SYMBOLIC BOOKS. + + +I. The symbolic books, received by ALL TRINITARIAN CHRISTIAN +CHURCHES,--are, + + 1. _The Symbol of the Apostles_; and + + 2. _The Nicene Symbol_. + + +II. The symbolic books, received by the ROMAN CATHOLIC Church,--are, + + 1. The General Councils; + + 2. Among these,--_the Council of Trent_,--as immediately applying + to the controversies between the Catholic and Protestant Churches, + is particularly regarded; + + 3. _The Symbol of Pope Pius IV_.; + + 4. _The Catechism of the Council of Trent_. + + +III. The symbolic books of the GREEK CHURCH,--are, + + 1. _The Confession, of her true and sincere faith_, which, on the + taking of Constantinople, by Mahomet II, in 1453, Gennadius, its + patriarch, presented to the conqueror; + + 2. _The Orthodox Confession, of the Catholic and Apostolic Greek + Church_, published in 1642, by Mogilow, the Metropolitan of Kiow. + + +IV. The symbolic books of the LUTHERAN CHURCHES, are + + 1. _The Confession of Augsburgh_; + + 2. _The Apology of the Confession of Augsburgh_; + + 3. _The Articles of Smalcald_; + + 4. _And_, (in the opinion of some Lutheran Churches),--_The Form of + Concord_; + + 5. _The Saxon, Wirtenburgian, Suabian, Pomeranian, Mansfeldian, + Antwerpensian, and Copenhagen Confessions_, possess, in particular + places, the authority of Symbolic books:--the two first are + particularly respected. + + +V. The symbolic books of the REFORMED CHURCHES. The reformed Church, in +the largest extent of that expression, comprises all the religious +communities, which have separated from the Church of Rome. In this +sense, it is often used by English writers: but, having, soon after the +Reformation, been used by the French Protestants to describe their +church, which was Calvinistic, it became, insensibly, the appellation of +all Calvinistic churches on the Continent. The principal symbolic books +of these churches,--are, + + 1. _The Confession of the Helvetian Churches_; + + 2. _The Tetrapolitan Confession_,--signed by the four cities of + Strasburgh, Constance, Memmingen, and Lindau; + + 3. _The Catechism of Heidelbergh_; + + 4. _The Gallic Confession of Faith_; + + 5. _The Belgic Confession of Faith_; + + 6. _The Canons of the Council of Dort_. + + + VI. The symbolic books of the WALDENSES,--are, + + _Their original and reformed Creeds_. + + +VII. The symbolic books of the _Bohemians_,--are, + + 1. _The Confession of faith of the Calixtines and Taborites_, + signed at the Synod of Cuttenburgh in 1541; + + 2. _The Confession of the faith of the Bohemians_,--inserted in the + "Harmony of Confessions," published at Cambridge in 1680. + + 3. _The Consent of faith at Sendomer_. + + +VIII. The symbolic book of the ARMINIANS,--is + + _The Declaration of the Remonstrants_, drawn up by Episcopius, and + signed in 1622. + + +IX. The symbolic book of the SOCINIANS is _The Catechism of Racow_;--the +best edition of it was published in 1609, reprinted at Frankfort, in +1739. An English translation of it has been published by Mr. Rees. + + +X. The UNITARIANS have no symbolic book. To Doctor Lardner's _Letter on +the Logos_ they shew universal respect. + + +XI. The symbolic books of THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND,--are, + + 1. _The Theological Oaths_,--containing a Declaration of the belief + of the Monarch's spiritual supremacy;--and Declarations against + Transubstantiation,--the invocation of Saints,--and the sacrifice + of the Mass; + + 2. _The Thirty-nine Articles_. + + +XII. The symbolic book of the ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH PRESBYTERIANS,--is + + "_The Articles of Religion_ approved and passed by both Houses of + Parliament after advice had with an assembly of divines, called + together for that purpose." These were sent into Scotland, and + immediately sanctioned by the General Assembly, and Parliament of + that kingdom; and thus became a law of the Church and State. + + +XIII. The symbolic books of the Anabaptists may be said to be,-- + + THEIR SEVERAL CONFESSIONS OF FAITH:--Five were published at + Amsterdam, in 1675, in one volume 8vo. + + +XIV. The symbolic books of the Quakers,--are, + + 1. _Barclay's Catechism and Confession of Faith_, published in + 1675; + + 2. His _Theses Theologicæ_; + + 3. His _Apology_,--a logical demonstration of the propositions in + the Theses. It was translated into almost every language and + presented to all the ministers assembled at Nimeguen; + + 4. But some persons assert that the real doctrines of the Quakers + are more easily discoverable from _The Christian Quaker and his + divine testimony, vindicated by Scripture reason and authorities + against the injurious attempts that have been lately made by + several adversaries_.--This work appeared in 1674; the first part + of it was written by Penn, the second by Whithead, one of his most + distinguished disciples. + + +XV. It may be added, that the symbolic book of the Jews,--is + + _The Schelosch aikara ikkarim,--the Thirteen Articles of Faith_ + framed by Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon in the 12th century: it is + frequently inserted in the Jewish prayer books. Sebastian Munster + published it with a Latin translation and an abridgment of the + History of Josephus, in one vol. 8vo. at Worms in 1529. + +Many Christian Catechisms have been translated into Hebrew for the +benefit of the Jews. + + + * * * * * + + +An historical and literary account of all these Confessions of Faith, +and of several works and circumstances connected with them, is attempted +to be given, by the Author of these pages, in his "_Historical and +Literary Account of the Formularies, Confessions of Faith, and Symbolic +Books, of the Roman Catholic, Greek, and principal Protestant +Churches._" + +THE SYLLOGE CONFESSIONUM printed at the Clarendon Press in 1804, +contains the _Professio Fidei Tridentinæ, Confessio Helvetica, +Augustana, Saxonica, Belgica_." + +"The Harmony of the Confessions of the Faith of the Christian and +Reformed Churches" published at Cambridge in 1586, 8_vo_. attempts to +reconcile the Confession of Augsburgh, the Confession of the Four +Cities, the Confession of Bâsle, the first Confession of Helvetia; the +Confession of Saxony, the Confession of Wirtemburgh, the French +Confession, the English Confession, the latter Confession of Helvetia, +the Belgic Confession, and that of Bohemia. + +On the general subject, _Walchius's Bibliotheca Theologica Selecta_, may +be usefully consulted. + + + + + + + +APPENDIX II. + +REFERRED TO IN PAGE 188. + +ON THE REUNION OF CHRISTIANS. + + +The attempts, made at different times for the re-union of Christians, +are the subject of a learned and interesting work, published at Paris, +with the title of "_Histoire critique des projéts formés depuis trois +cents ans pour la Reunion des communions Chretiennes, par M. Tabaraud, +ancien Prétre de L'Oratoire, Paris_, 1824." An excellent sketch of these +attempts had been previously given by _Doctor Mosheim, in his +Ecclesiastical History, Cent. XVI. Ch. III. sect. 3. part 2. c. 1. and +Cent. XVII. Cha. I. sect. 2. p_. 1. To these publications the reader is +referred:--the present Essay may be found to contain, + + I. A general view of the attempts made after the Reformation, to + unite the Lutheran and Calvinist churches: + + II. Some account of the Attempts made at different times by the + sovereigns of France for the conversion of their protestant subjects: + + III. The correspondence of Bossuet and Leibniz, under the auspices of + Lewis the Fourteenth, for the reunion of the Lutheran Churches to the + Church of Rome: + + IV. Some account of an attempt made in the reign of George the First, + to reunite the Church of England to the Church of Rome: + + V. And some general remarks on the Reunion of Christians. + + + + + + + +I. + +_Attempts made to unite the Lutheran, and Calvinist Churches._ + + +The great division of Protestant Churches is, into the Lutheran, and +Calvinist communions. The Abbé Tabaraud relates in the work, which we +have just cited, not fewer than fifteen different attempts to effect a +reunion of their churches. In reading his account and that given by +Mosheim of these attempts, the writer thinks that, on each side, there +was something to commend and something to blame. It seems to him, that +the Lutherans deserve credit for the open and explicit manner, in which, +on these occasions, they propounded the tenets of their creed to the +Calvinists; that the conduct of the Calvinists was more liberal and +conciliating; but that, on the other hand, the conduct of the Lutherans +towards the Calvinists, was generally repulsive, and sometimes deserving +a much harsher name; while the conduct of the Calvinists, was sometimes +chargeable, with ambiguity. + + "It was deplorable," says Mosheim, (Cent. xvii. sect. 2. part 2. + art. 3.) "to see two churches, which had discovered, an equal + degree of pious zeal, and fortitude, in throwing off the despotic + yoke of Rome, divided among themselves, and living in discords, + that were highly detrimental, to the interests of religion, and the + well-being of society. Hence, several eminent divines, and leading + men, both among the Lutherans, and Calvinists, sought anxiously, + after some method, of uniting the two churches, though divided in + their opinions, in the bonds of Christian charity, and + ecclesiastical communion. A competent knowledge, of human nature, + and human passions, was sufficient, to persuade these wise, and + pacific mediators, that a perfect uniformity in religious opinions, + was not practicable, and that it would be entirely extravagant, to + imagine that any of these communities, could ever be brought, to + embrace universally, and without limitation, the doctrines of the + other. They made it, therefore, their principal business, to + persuade those, whose spirits were inflamed with the heat of + controversy, that the points in debate between the two churches, + were not essential, to true religion;--that the fundamental + doctrines, of Christianity, were received, and professed, in both + communions; and that the difference of opinion, between the + contending parties, turned, either upon points of an abstruse, and + incomprehensible nature, or upon matters of indifference, which + neither tended, to make mankind wiser, or better, and in which the + interests of genuine piety, were in no wise concerned. Those, who + viewed things in this point of light, were obliged to acknowledge, + that the diversity of opinions, between the two churches, was by no + means, a sufficient reason, for their separation; and that of + consequence, they were called, by the dictates of that gospel, + which they both professed, to live, not only in the mutual + exercise, of Christian charity, but also to enter, into the + fraternal bonds, of church communion. The greatest part, of the + reformed doctors, seemed disposed, to acknowledge, that the errors + of the Lutherans, were not, of a momentous nature, nor of a + pernicious tendency; and that the fundamental doctrines of + Christianity, had not undergone, any remarkable alteration, in that + communion; and thus, on their side, an important step, was made, + towards peace, and union, between the two churches. But the + greatest part of the Lutheran doctors declared, that they could not + form, a like judgment, with respect, to the doctrine, of the + Reformed churches; they maintained tenaciously, the importance of + the points, which divided the two communions, and affirmed, that a + considerable part of the controversy turned upon the fundamental + principles, of all religion, and virtue. It is not at all + surprising, that this steadiness and constancy of the Lutherans, + was branded by the opposite party, with the epithets, of morose + obstinacy, supercilious arrogance, and such like odious + denominations. The Lutherans, were not behind hand with their + adversaries, in acrimony, of style; they recriminated with + vehemence, and charged their accusers with instances of misconduct, + different in kind, but equally condemnable. They reproached them + with having dealt disingenuously, by disguising, under ambiguous + expressions, the real doctrine of the Reformed churches; they + observed further, that their adversaries, notwithstanding their + consummate prudence and circumspection, gave plain proofs, on many + occasions, that their propensity to a reconciliation, between the + two churches, arose from views of private interest, rather than + from a zeal for the public good." + +It is observable that Mosheim applies these observations to a late +stage of the reformation, when much of its first violence had subsided. + +The nearest approach[080] to a reunion, between any Protestant +churches, seems to be that, which took place at Sendomer, in the year +1570. + + + + + + + +II. + +_Attempts for a Reunion of the Calvinist Churches to the See of Rome._ + + +Having thus summarily noticed, the unsuccessful attempts, to effect an +union, between the Lutheran, and Calvinist churches, we proceed to a +similar summary mention of the attempts, equally unsuccessful, to effect +the reunion of the Calvinists, to the church of Rome, which were made, + +1st, during the reign of Henry the Fourth: + +2dly, during the reign of Lewis the Thirteenth: and + +3dly, during the reign of Lewis the Fourteenth: + +4thly, we shall afterwards notice, the Revocation of the edict of +Nantes, and the complete restoration of the protestants of France, to +their civil rights, in the reign of Lewis the Eighteenth. + + + + + + + +II. 1. + + +An attempt to reunite the Calvinists to the church of Rome was made at +the celebrated Conference held at Poissi in 1561. In the work which we +have cited, the Abbé Tabaraud gives a short and clear account of this +conference. It failed of success, and a long civil war of religion +ensued. It was closed by the conversion of _Henry the Fourth_ to the +Roman Catholic religion. He was no sooner quietly seated on the throne, +than he conceived the arduous, but certainly noble project of pacifying +the religious contests of the world. It appears that he was induced to +entertain hopes of the success of this measure, by the assurances given +him by the Calvinist ministers, when his change of religion, was in +agitation, that salvation might be obtained in the church of Rome; and +from his expectation of finding a spirit of conciliation, and +concession, in the see of Rome. + + "I have heard, from persons of distinction," says Grotius[081], + "that Henry the Fourth declared that he had great hopes of + procuring for the King of England, and the other protestant + princes, who were his allies, conditions, which they could not + honorably refuse, if they had any real wish of returning to the + unity of the church; and that he had once an intention of employing + bishops of his own kingdom on this project; but that this project + failed by his death." + +It is said, that with these views he had sent for _Isaac Casaubon_, a +protestant divine of equal learning and moderation, and appointed him +his librarian; and that he intended confidentially employing him in +preparing means for the success of the measure, and smoothing the +obstacles which might impede its progress. Grotius[082] mentions, as a +saying of Casaubon, that "the catholics of France had a juster way of +thinking than the ministers of Charenton:" these were the most rigid of +the French Hugonot ministers. It is observable that the French +government always considered the Hugonots of a much more refractory +disposition than the Lutherans. + + + + + + + +II. 2. + + +The pacific views of Henry the Fourth, were terminated by his decease. +The capture of la Rochelle by the arms of _Lewis the XIIIth_, was a +fatal blow to the political consequence of the Protestant party in +France. Cardinal Richelieu immediately set on foot a project, for the +general conversion, of the body: two persons, of very different +characters, were employed by him, in this measure; Father Joseph, a +capuchin friar, the confident, of all the cardinal's political and +private schemes, and Father P. Dulaurens, an oratorian, who lived in +retirement, wholly absorbed in the exercises of religion. They began +the work of reunion by holding frequent conferences, on an amicable +footing, with several of the protestant ministers; and it was resolved, +that, with the permission of the pope, and the authority of the king, an +assembly, should be convened, of ecclesiastics of each communion. Father +Dulaurens, recommended that the intended communications with the +ministers, should not take place, till they reached, the capital; but, +the cardinal, thought it more advisable, that the ministers, should be +separately informed, of the project, before they left the provinces. It +was accordingly communicated to them, and favourably received, by the +ministers, of Languedoc, and Normandy, but met with an unfavourable +reception, from the ministers of Sedan. It was resolved, that the +assembly, should meet, and begin their deliberations, with the +differences in the opinions, of the two churches, respecting the +Sacraments. Father Dulaurens recommended, that for some time, at least, +the Bible, even in the Calvinist version, of Olivétan, should be the +only book appealed to, on either side, as authority: but the Cardinal +insisted, on a resort to tradition. Grotius mentions that in several +articles, (as communion under both kinds, and the invocation of saints), +the Cardinal was willing, that concessions, should be made to the +Protestants; and suggested, that, as a medium, to reconcile them to the +Pope, a patriarchate should be established, in France, and he himself, +be the first patriarch[083]. + +Notwithstanding the general loftiness, and overbearing nature, of his +manners, it appears, particularly from M. de Rullhiêres[084] (6.) that +the Cardinal, acted on this occasion, with great moderation, and +recommended to his royal master, a similar line of moderation, in all +his conduct, towards his Protestant subjects. + + + + + + + +II. 3. + + +The Cardinal's project, was suspended, by his decease; and resumed, +under _Lewis the Fourteenth_. In 1662, a plan, drawn up by M. le Blanc +de Beaulieu, a professor of Divinity, at Sedan, singularly esteemed, +both by the Roman Catholics, and Protestants, by which the essential +articles, in dispute, were reduced to a small number, was adopted, by +the Court, to serve as the basis of discussion. It was resolved, that +different synods of Protestant ministers, should be convened; that +these, should be composed, of ministers of known moderation, and pacific +views, and the articles, drawn up by M. le Blanc de Beaulieu, presented +to them. Three years were employed, in negotiations for effecting this +project: several ministers in the lower Languedoc, and the Isle of +France, expressed themselves, in terms favourable, to the measure, but +the synod of Charenton, took the alarm, and the project, was abandoned. + +The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, a measure equally unwise, and +unjust, too soon followed. It is more to be attributed, to his ministers +and advisers, than to Lewis the Fourteenth himself. From the +_Eclaircissemens Historiques_ of M. de Rullhiêres, and the life of +Bossuet, by M. Baussét[085], it seems evident, that Lewis the +Fourteenth, had been induced, to believe, that the number of Protestants +was much smaller; that the conversions of them, would be much more +rapid, general, and sincere; and that the measures, for hastening their +conversion, would be much less violent than they really were. It is also +due, to the monarch, to add, that from the authors, whom we have cited, +it is evident, that when he began to perceive the true state, of the +transaction, though from false principles of honour, and policy, he +would not revoke the edict, he wished it not to be put into great +activity, and checked the forwardness, of the Intendants general in its +execution. + +It is whimsical, (if on so serious a subject such a word may be used), +that the dragonâde, or employment of the dragoon troops, in forcing the +conversion, of the Hugonots, was owing to the wish of Louvois, the +minister, of Lewis the Fourteenth, to become himself, a missionary. +Observing how much the apparent success, of the missionaries, +recommended them, to Lewis the Fourteenth, he began to consider them as +dangerous rivals for the favour of his royal master, and determined, +therefore, to become himself, a principal performer. With this view, he +instituted the dragoon missions, and thus brought a material part, of +the work of conversion, into the war department. + + + + + + + +II. 4. + + +The death of Lewis, and the known disposition of the Regent, appeared to +the Protestant party, in France, to afford a proper opportunity of +recovering their rights. Duclos, in his _Mémoires secréts sur les regnes +de Louis XIV. et de Louis XV_., says, that the Regent himself wished to +restore the Protestants, to their civil rights, but was dissuaded by his +council. Still, he seldom permitted the edicts against them to be +executed; and speaking generally, the Protestants seem to have suffered +no active persecution in any part of the reign of Lewis, the XVth. One +intolerable grievance, however, they unquestionably suffered in every +part of it. Their religious principles did not permit them to be married +by a Roman Catholic priest, in the manner prescribed by the law of the +state, and that law did not recognize the legal validity of a marriage, +celebrated in any other form. The consequence was, that in the eye of +the law, the marriage of Protestants was a mere concubinage, and the +offspring of it illegitimate. To his immortal honour, _Lewis the XVIth_, +by his edict of the 17th of November, 1787, accorded to all his +Non-catholic subjects the full and complete enjoyment of all the rights +of his Roman-catholic subjects. On a division in the Parliament, this +edict was registered by a majority of 96 votes against 16. + +The persecution of the Hugonots in consequence of the revocation of the +Edict of Nantes, was condemned by the greatest men in France. M. +d'Aguesseau, the father of the celebrated chancellor, resigned his +office of Intendant of Languedoc rather than remain a witness of it: his +son repeatedly mentions it with abhorrence. Fénélon, Flechier, and +Bossuet,[086] confessedly the ornaments of the Gallican church, lamented +it. To the utmost of their power, they prevented the execution of the +edict, and lessened its severities, when they could not prevent them. +Most sincerely lamenting and condemning the outrages committed by the +Roman Catholics against the Protestants at Nismes, as violations of the +law of God and man, but doubting of the nature and extent, which some +have attributed to them, the writer of these pages begs leave to refer +to the sermon preached on them by the Reverend James Archer, a Roman +Catholic priest, and printed for Booker, in Bond-street, by the desire +of two Roman Catholic congregations, as expressing the doctrine of the +Roman Catholic church, and of all real christians on heretics and the +persecution of heretics. + + + + + + + +III. + + +_The Correspondence of Bossuet and Leibniz, under the auspices of Lewis +the XIVth, for the Reunion of the Lutheran Protestants to the Roman +Catholic Church._ + +This correspondence forms one of the most interesting events in the life +of Bossuet; the letters, of which it consists, and the other written +documents, which relate to it, are highly interesting. We shall attempt +to present our readers with a short account-- + + 1st. Of the circumstances which led to this correspondence; + + 2ndly. Of the Project of Reunion, delivered by Molanus, a Lutheran + Divine, and Bossuet's sentiments on that Project; + + 3dly. Of the intervention of Leibniz in the negotiation; and + + 4thly. Of the Project suggested by Bossuet, and the principal + reasons, by which he contended for its reception. + + + + + + + +III. 1. + + +It appears that, towards the 17th century, the Emperor Leopold, and +several sovereign princes in Germany, conceived a project of re-uniting +the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches. The Duke of Brunswick, who had +recently embraced the Roman Catholic religion, and published his _Fifty +Reasons for his conversion_, (once a popular work of controversy), and +the Duke of Hanover, the father of the first prince of the illustrious +house, which now fills the throne of England, were the original +promoters of the attempt. It was generally approved; and the mention of +it at the Diet of the Empire was favourably received. Some +communications upon it took place between the Emperor and the ducal +Princes: and with all their knowledge, several conferences were held +upon the subject, between certain distinguished Roman Catholic and +Protestant Divines. In these, the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus, the +Abbot of Lokkum, took the lead. The first had been consecrated Bishop of +Tina in Bosnia, then under the dominion of the Turks, with Ordinary +Jurisdiction over some parts of the Turkish territories. His conduct had +recommended him to Innocent the XIth, and that pope had directed him to +visit the Protestant states in Germany, and inform him of their actual +dispositions in respect to the Church of Rome. In consequence of this +mission, he became known to the Emperor, who appointed him to the See of +Neustadt, in the neighbourhood of Vienna. Molanus, was Director of the +Protestant Churches and Consistories of Hanover. Both were admirably +calculated for the office intended them, on this occasion. Each +possessed the confidence of his own party, and was esteemed by the +other; each was profoundly versed in the matters in dispute; each +possessed good sense, moderation, and conciliating manners; and each had +the success of the business at heart, with a fixed purpose, that +nothing, but a real difference on some essential article of doctrine, +should frustrate the project. + +The effect of the first conferences was so promising, that the Emperor +and the two Princes resolved, that they should be conducted in a manner +more regular, and more likely to bring the object of them to a +conclusion. With this view, the business was formally entrusted by both +the princes to Molanus alone, and the Emperor published a rescript, +dated the 20th March, 1691, by which he gave the Bishop of Neustadt full +authority to treat, on all matters of religion, with the states, +communities, and individuals of the empire, reserving to the +ecclesiastical and imperial powers, their right to confirm the acts of +the Bishop, as they should judge adviseable. Under these auspicious +circumstances, the conference between the Bishop of Neustadt and Molanus +began. + +But, before the events which we have mentioned took place, a +correspondence on the subject of a general reunion between Catholics and +Protestants had been carried on for some time, between Pelisson and +Leibniz. The former held a considerable rank among the French writers, +who adorned the reign of Lewis the Fourteenth; the latter was eminently +distinguished in the literary world. In the exact sciences, he was +inferior to Newton alone; in metaphysics, he had no superior; in general +learning, he had scarcely a rival. He had recommended himself to the +Brunswick family, by three volumes, which he had recently published, on +the Antiquities of that illustrious House; and was then engaged in the +investigation of its Italian descent, and early German shoots. The +result of it, under the title of _Origines Guelphicæ_, was published, +after his decease, by Scheidius, and is considered to be a perfect model +of genealogical history. He was also thoroughly conversant in the +theological disputes of the times; and in all the questions of dogma, +or history, which enter into them. + +His correspondence with Pelisson, came to the knowledge of Louisa, +Princess Palatine, and Abbess of Maubrusson. She was a daughter of +Frederick, the Elector, and Count Palatine of the Rhine, and a sister, +of the Duchess of Hanover. In early life, she had been converted to the +Roman Catholic religion, and had the conversion of her sister, very much +at heart. With this view, she sent to her, the correspondence between +Leibniz and Pelisson, and received from her an account of what was +passing, between the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus. Both the ladies +were anxious, to promote the measure, and that Bossuet should take in +it, the leading part, on the side of the Catholics. This was mentioned +to Lewis the Fourteenth, and had his approbation. The Emperor and both +the Princes, by all of whom Bossuet, was personally esteemed, equally +approved of it, and it was finally settled that Bossuet and Leibniz, +should be joined, to the Bishops of Neustadt, and Molanus, and that the +correspondence with Bossuet, should pass through the hands of Madame de +Brinon, who acted, as secretary to the Abbess of Maubrusson, and is +celebrated, by the writers of the times, for her wit and dexterity in +business. Thus the matter assumed, a still more regular form, and much +was expected from the acknowledged talents, learning, and moderation of +the actors in it, and their patrons. + + + + + + + +III. 2. + + +The conferences between the Bishop of Neustadt, and Molanus continued +for seven months, and ended in their agreeing on 12 articles, to serve +for the basis of the discussion, on the terms of the reunion. + +The Bishop of Neustadt, communicated these articles to Bossuet. He +seems, to have approved of them generally, but to have thought, that +some alteration in them, was adviseable. This being mentioned to +Molanus, he published his _Cogitationes Privatæ_, a profound and +conciliating dissertation. Without entering into any discussion, on the +points in dispute, between the churches, he suggested in it a kind of +truce, during which, there should be ecclesiastical communion between +them: the Lutherans, were to acknowledge the Pope, as the first of +Bishops, in order, and dignity: the Church of Rome, was to receive the +Lutherans, as her children, without exacting from them, any retractation +of their alledged errors, or any renunciation, of the articles in their +creed, condemned by the Council of Trent. The anathemas of that council, +were to be suspended, and a general council was to be convened, in which +the Protestants were to have a deliberative voice: the sentence of that +council, was to be definitive, and, in the mean time, the members of +each party, were to treat the members of the other, as brethren, whose +errors, however great they might appear, were to be tolerated, from +motives of peace, and in consideration, of their engagements to abandon +them, if the council should pronounce against them. To show the +probability of a final accommodation, Molanus notices, in his +Dissertation, several points, in which one party imputed to the other +errors, not justly chargeable on them; several, on which they disputed, +merely for want of rightly understanding each other; and several, in +which the dispute was of words only. + +It appears that the Bishop of Neustadt, communicated this dissertation, +to Bossuet, and that Bossuet was delighted, with the good sense, +candour, and true spirit of conciliation, which it displayed. In his +letters he frequently mentions the author, and always in terms, Of the +highest praise. His own language was equally moderate and conciliating. + + "The Council of Trent," he says in one of his letters, + "is our stay; but we shall not use it to prejudice the cause. This + would be, to take for granted, what is in dispute between us. We + shall deal more fairly with our opponents. We shall make the + council serve, for a statement, and explanation, of our doctrines. + Thus, we shall come to an explanation, on those points, in which + either of us imputes to the other, what he does not believe, and in + which we dispute, only because we misconceive each other. This may + lead us far; for _the Abbot of Lokkum, has actually conciliated the + points so essential, of Justification, and the Eucharist: nothing + is wanting in him, on that side, but that he should be avowed. Why + should we not hope to conclude, in the same manner, disputes, less + difficult, and of less importance? Cela se peut pousser si avant, + que M. l'Abbé de Lokkum, a concilié, actuellement les points si + essentiels, de la justification, et du sacrifice de l'Eucharistie, + et il ne lui manque de ce coté la, que de se faire avouer. Pourquoi + ne pas espérer de finir, par les mêmes moyens, des disputes, moins + difficiles, et moins importantes?"_ + +With these rational and conciliatory dispositions, Bossuet, and Molanus, +proceeded. But, after this stage of the business, Molanus disappears, +and Leibniz comes on the scene. + + + + + + + +III. 3. + + +A Letter, written by Bossuet to M^me de Brinon, having been communicated +by her to Leibniz, opened the correspondence between him and Bossuet. In +that letter, Bossuet declared explicitly, that the Church of Rome, was +ready, to make concessions, on points of discipline, and to explain +doctrines, but would make no concession in respect to defined articles +of faith; and, in particular, would make no such concession, in respect +to any which had been defined by the Council of Trent. Leibniz's Letter +to M^me de Brinon, in answer to this communication, is very important. +He expresses himself in these terms; + + "The Bishop of Meaux says, + + "1st. That the Project delivered to the Bishop of Neustadt, does not + appear to him quite sufficient; + + "2dly. That it is, nevertheless, very useful, as every thing must + have its beginning: + + "3dly. That Rome will never relax from any point of doctrine, + defined by the church, and cannot capitulate, in respect to any + such article; + + "4thly. That the doctrine, defined in the Council of Trent, is + received in and out of France by all Roman Catholics; + + "5thly, That satisfaction may be given to Protestants, in respect to + certain points of discipline, or in the way of explanation, and + that this had been already done in an useful manner, in some + points, mentioned in the Project of the Bishop of Neustadt. + + "These are the material propositions, in the letter of the Bishop of + Meaux, and I believe all these propositions true. Neither the + Bishop of Neustadt, nor those who negotiated with them, make any + opposition to them. There is nothing in them, which is not + conformable to the sentiments of those persons. The third of them + in particular, which might be thought, an obstacle, to these + Projects of Accommodation, could not be unknown to them; one may + even say, that they built on it." + +It seems difficult to deny, that, in this stage of the business, much +had been gained to the cause of reunion. The parties were come to a +complete understanding on the important articles of Justification, and +the Eucharist; and it was admitted, both by Leibniz, and Molanus, that, +in their view of the concern, an accommodation might be effected, +between the Roman Catholic, and Lutheran churches, though the former, +retained all her defined doctrines, and, in particular, all her +doctrines, defined by the Council of Trent. The question then was, what +should be done in respect to the remaining articles in difference +between the churches? It is to be wished, that it had been left to +Bossuet, and Molanus, to settle them, in the way of amicable +explanation, in which they had settled, the two important articles, +which we have mentioned. It is evident, from the passages, which we have +cited, from Bossuet, that it was his wish, that the business should +proceed on that plan, and that he had hopes of its success. +Unfortunately, the business took, another direction: Leibniz proclaimed, +that after every possible explanation should be given, the Lutheran +church would, still retain, some articles, contrary to the defined +doctrines, of the Church of Rome, and anathematized, by the Council of +Trent. To remove the final effect of this objection, Leibniz held out +Molanus's first project, that the Lutherans should express a general +acquiescence, in the authority of the church, and promise obedience, to +the decisions of a General Council, to be called, for the purpose of +pronouncing, on these points; and that, in consequence of these +advances, on their part, the anathemas of the Council of Trent, should +be suspended, and the Lutherans received, provisionally, within the +pale, of the Catholic church. To bring over Bossuet to this plan, he +exerted great eloquence, and displayed, no common learning. + + + + + + + +III. 4. + + +But the eloquence, and learning, of Leibniz, were without effect. In +language, equally temperate and firm, Bossuet, adhered to his text, +that in matters of discipline, or any other matter, distinct from faith, +the Church of Rome, would show the utmost indulgence to the Lutherans; +but that, on articles of faith, and specifically, on those propounded by +the Council of Trent, there could be no compromise. This, however, he +confined to articles of faith alone: and even on articles of faith, he +wished to consult the feelings of Protestants, as much as possible. He +offered them every fair explanation of the tenets of the council; he +required from them no retractation, of their own tenets: + + "Molanus," he says, "will not allow retractation to be mentioned. + It may be dispensed with; it will be sufficient, that the parties + acknowledge, the truth, by way of declaration or explanation. To + this, the Symbolical Books, give a clear opening, as appears by the + passages, which have been produced from them, and will appear, by + other passages, which may be produced from them." + +If Bossuet was thus considerate, in what regarded faith, it will easily +be supposed, how indulgent his sentiments were, in respect to all, that +merely regarded discipline. A complete confession of faith, being once +obtained from the Lutherans, he was willing, to allow them, if they +required it, communion under both kinds; that their Bishops, should +retain their Sees; and that, where there was no Bishop, and the whole +body of the people, was Protestant, under the care, of a superintendant, +_that_ superintendant, should be consecrated their Bishop; that, where +there was a Catholic Bishop, and a considerable part of the diocese, was +Lutheran, the superintendant, should be consecrated priest, and invested +with rank, and office, that the Lutheran ministers, should be +consecrated priests; that provision should be made for their support; +that such of their bishops, and ministers, as were married, might +retain their wives, and that the consciences of those, who held +possessions of the church, should be quieted, except in respect, to +hospitals, whose possessions he thought, could not conscientiously be +withheld, from the poor objects of their foundations; and that every +other arrangement should be made, by the church and state, which would +be agreeable, to the feelings, and prejudices, of their new brethren. + +Such were the advances made by Bossuet; and much discussion on them, +took place, between him, and Leibniz. It continued ten years. They are +very learned, and a scholar will read them with delight; but, +unfortunately, they rather retarded, than promoted, their object. The +real business ended, when Molanus quitted the scene. We shall close this +article, with the following extract from the last letter but one, +written by Bossuet, on the subject. It is addressed to Leibniz, and +bears date the 12th August, 1701, ten years, after his first letter, on +it was written: + + "Among the divines of the Confession of Augsburg, I always placed + M. Molanus, in the first rank, as a man, whose learning, candour + and moderation made him one of the persons, the most capable I have + known, of advancing the NOBLE PROJECT OF REUNION. In a letter, + which I wrote to him some years ago, by the Count Balati, I assured + him, that, if he could obtain, the general consent of his party, to + what he calls, his Private Thoughts, _Cogitationes Privatæ_, I + promised myself, that, by joining to them, the remarks, which I + sent to him, on the Confession of Augsburg, and the other Symbolic + writings of the Protestants, the work of the Reunion would be + perfected, in all its most difficult and most essential points; so + that well disposed persons might, in a short time, bring it to a + conclusion." + +The passage is so important, that it is proper to present it to the +reader in Bossuet's own words. + + "Parmi les Théologiens de la Confession d'Ausbourg, j'ai toujours + mis, au premier rang, M. l'Abbé de Lokkum, comme un homme, dont le + sçavoir, la candeur, et la modération le rendolent un des plus + capables, que je connusse, pour avancer CE BEAU DESSEIN. Cela est + si véritable, que j'ai cru devoir assurer ce docte Abbé, dans la + réponse que je luis fis, il y a dejà, plusieurs années, par M. le + Comte Balati, que s'il pouvoit faire passer ce qu'il appelle ses + Pensées Particulières _Cogitationes Privatæ_, à un consentement + suffisent, je me promettois qu'en y joignant les remarques, que je + lui envoyois, sur la Confession d'Ausbourg, et les autres écrits + Symboliques des Protestans, l'ouvrage de la Réunion seroit achevé + dans ses parties les plus difficiles et les plus essentielles; en + sorte qu'il ne faudroit à des personnes bien disposées, que très + peu de tems pour la conclure[087]." + +Dom. de Foris, the Benedictine Editor of the new edition of the works of +Bossuet and the Abbé Racine, _Abrégé de l'Histoire Ecclésiastique_[088] +are very severe in their censures of the conduct of Leibniz in the +negotiations for the Reunion, and attribute its failure to his +presumption and duplicity. To the writer of these pages, it appears +clear, that Leibniz was sincere in his wishes for the reunion; and that, +if he occasioned its failure, it was unintentionally. While the +business was in the hands of Bossuet, and Molanus, it was a treaty, not +for the reunion of the Roman Catholic church, and all Protestant +churches, but for the reunion of the Roman Catholic church, and the +Lutheran church; and to this, Molanus's endeavours to reconcile +differences, were directed. Leibniz, whose principles in religion, were +much wider, than those of Molanus, seems to have wished, that the +negotiation should be placed, on a broader basis, and extended to a +reunion of the church of Rome, with every denomination of Christians. +This gave the negotiation a different direction, and in a great measure, +undid what had been, so happily begun. We have seen, that, to the very +last, Bossuet, called out for Molanus, and entertained great hopes, +that, if the matter were left to Molanus, and him, the noble Project of +Reunion, would be crowned with success. There is no part of Bossuet's +literary or active life, in which he appears to greater advantage, or in +a more amiable light, than on this occasion. + + + + + + + +IV. + +_Attempt in the reign of Lewis the XV. to effect an union between the +Church of Rome and the Church of England._ + + +Of all Protestant churches, the national church of England most nearly +resembles the church of Rome. It has retained much of the dogma, and +much of the discipline of Roman Catholics. Down to the sub-deacon it has +retained the whole of their hierarchy; and, like them, has its deans, +rural deans, chapters, prebends, archdeacons, rectors, and vicars; a +liturgy, taken in a great measure, from the Roman Catholic liturgy; and +composed like that, of Psalms, Canticles, the three creeds, litanies, +epistles, gospels, prayers, and responses. Both churches have the +sacraments of baptism, and the eucharist, the absolution of the sick, +the burial service, the sign of the cross in baptism, the reservation of +confirmation, and order to bishops, the difference of episcopal, and +sacerdotal dress, feasts, and fasts. Without adopting all the general +councils of the church of Rome, the church of England has adopted the +first four of them; and, without acknowledging the authority of the +other councils, or the authority of the early fathers, the English +divines of the established church, allow them to be entitled, to a high +degree of respect.[089] On the important article of the eucharist, the +language, of the Thirty-nine Articles, sounds very like, the doctrine of +the church of Rome. + +At the time, of which we are speaking, the doctrines of the high church, +which are generally considered to incline to those of the Roman +Catholics, more than the doctrines of the low church, were in their +zenith; and in France, where the ultramontane principles on the power of +the Pope had always been discountenanced, the disputes of Jansenism were +supposed to reduce it very low. On each side, therefore, the time was +thought favourable to the project of Reunion. + +It was also favourable to it, that, a few years before this time, an +event had taken place, which naturally tended to put both sides into +good humour. + +On the occasion of the marriage of the Princess Christina of +Wolfenbuttell, a Lutheran, with the archduke of Austria, her court +consulted the faculty of theology of the University of Helmstadt, on +the question, + + "Whether a Protestant Princess, destined to marry a catholic + prince, could, without wounding her conscience, embrace the Roman + Catholic religion?" The faculty replied, that, "it could not answer + the proposed question, in a solid manner, without having previously + decided, whether the catholics were, or were not engaged in errors, + that were fundamental, and opposed to salvation; or, (which was the + same thing), whether the state of the catholic church was such, + that persons might practise in it, the true worship of God, and + arrive at salvation." This question the divines of Helmstadt, + discussed at length; and concluded in these terms: "After having + shown, that the foundation of religion, subsists in the Roman + Catholic religion, so that a person may be orthodox in it, live + well in it, die well in it, and obtain salvation in it, the + discussion of the proposed question, is easy. We are, therefore, of + opinion, that the most Serene Princess of Wolfenbuttell, may, in + favour of her marriage, embrace the catholic religion." + +This opinion is dated the 28th of April 1707, and was printed in the +same year at Cologne. The Journalists of Trevoux inserted both the +original and a French translation of it in their journal of May, 1708. + +Under these circumstances, the correspondence in question took place. It +began, in 1718, through Doctor Beauvoir, chaplain to Lord Stair, his +Britannic majesty's ambassador at Paris. Some conversation, on the +reunion of the two churches, having taken place, between Doctor Dupin, +and him, he acquainted the archbishop of Canterbury, with the subject of +them. This communication, produced some compliments from the archbishop, +to Dr. Dupin, and these, led the latter, to address, to his grace, a +letter, in which he mentioned generally, that, on some points in +dispute, the supposed difference between the two communions was +reconcileable. The correspondence getting wind, Doctor Piers, pronounced +a discourse in the Sorbonne, in which he earnestly exhorted his +colleagues, to promote the reunion, by revising those articles, of +doctrine, and discipline, which protestants branded with the name of +papal tyranny; and contended, that, by proscribing the ultramontane +doctrines, the first step to the reunion would be made. The discourse, +was communicated to Dr. Wake: in his answer, he pressed Dr. Dupin, for a +more explicit declaration, on the leading points, in controversy. + +In compliance with this requisition, Doctor Dupin drew up his +_Commonitorium_, and communicated it, to several persons of distinction, +both in the state, and church of France. He discussed in it, the +Thirty-nine Articles, as they regarded doctrine, morality, and +discipline. He insisted on the necessity of tradition, to interpret the +scriptures, and to establish the canonicity of the books, of the Old and +New Testament. He insisted on the infallibility, of the church, in +faith, and morals; he contended, that the sacrifice of the mass, was not +a simple sacrament, but a continuation of the sacrifice of the cross. + +The word Transubstantiation, he seemed willing to give up, if the Roman +Catholic doctrine, intended to be expressed by it, were retained. He +proposed, that communion under both kinds, or under bread alone, should +be left, to the discretion of the different churches, and consented, +that persons in holy orders should retain their state, with such +provisions, as would place the validity of their ordination, beyond +exception. The marriage of priests, in the countries, in which such +marriages were allowed, and the recitation of the divine service in the +vulgar tongue, he allowed; and intimated that no difficulty would be +found in the ultimate settlement of the doctrine, respecting purgatory, +indulgences, the veneration of saints, relics, or images. He seems to +have thought, that the Pope can exercise, no immediate jurisdiction, +within the dioceses of bishops, and that his primacy invested him, with +no more than a general conservation, of the deposit of the faith, a +right to enforce, the observance of the sacred canons, and the general +maintenance of discipline. He allowed, in general terms, that there was +little substantially wrong, in the discipline of the Church of England; +he deprecated all discussion, on the original merit of reformation, and +he professed to see no use in the Pope's intervention, till the basis of +the negotiation, should be settled. + +The answer of the archbishop, was not very explicit. It is evident from +it, that he thought, the quarrels on Jansenism, had alienated the +Jansenists and their adherents, from the Pope, much more, than they had +done, in reality. He was willing to concede, to the Pope, a primacy of +rank and honour, but would by no means allow him, a primacy of +jurisdiction, or any primacy, by divine right. On the other points, he +seemed to have thought, that they might come to an agreement, on what +they should declare, to be the fundamental doctrine of the churches, and +adopt, on every other point of doctrine, a general system, of christian +toleration. + +The correspondence, which is very interesting, may be seen, in the last +volume of the English translation, of Doctor Mosheim's Ecclesiastical +History. To facilitate, the accomplishment of the object of it, Doctor +Courayer, published his celebrated treatise, on _the Validity of English +Ordinations_. + +Both Dr. Wake, and Dr. Dupin. were censured, by the members of their +respective communions, for the parts, which they had taken, in this +business. Several rigid members of the English Church, and even some +foreign protestants, blamed Dr. Wake, for what they termed, his too +great concessions. In France, the worst of motives, were imputed to Dr. +Dupin, and his associates; they were accused, of making unjustifiable +sacrifices, in order to form an union, between the Jansenists, and the +members of the English Church. Even the regent, took the alarm: he +ordered Dr. Dupin, to discontinue the correspondence, and to leave all +the papers, respecting it, with the minister. This was done, but the +most important of them, have been printed, in the interesting and +extensively circulated publication, which has been mentioned. + + + + + + + +V. + +_Miscellaneous Remarks on the Reunion of Christians._ + + +It does not appear, that subsequently to the communications, between +Archbishop Wake, and Dr. Dupin, any attempts for a general, or partial +reunion of christians, were made in the last century: but, early in the +present, _Napoleon_, conceived the project, of effecting, such a +reunion. He is said, to have particularly had in view, the +catholicizing, as it was termed, the northern part, of Germany. To +forward his design, many works were published: one of them, the _Essai +sur l'Unité des Cultes_, of M. Bonald, is written, with great ingenuity. +That Essay, and several others by the same author, were inserted in the +_Ambigu_ of Peltier, and deserve the attention, of every reader. Though +they contain some things, to which a Roman Catholic writer, would +object, they are evidently written, by a Roman Catholic pen. + +The first point to be considered, by those, who meditate the project of +reunion, is, its practicability--those, who are disposed, to contend for +the affirmative, will observe, the number of important articles, of +Christian Faith, in which, all Christians, are agreed, and the +proportionally small number of those, in which, any Christians disagree. + +All Christians believe, + + 1st. That there is one God; + + 2d. That he is a Being, of infinite perfection; + + 3d. That he directs all things, by his providence; + + 4th. That it is our duty to love him, with all our hearts, and our + neighbour, as ourselves; + + 5th. That it is our duty, to repent, of the sins we commit; + + 6th. That God, pardons the truly penitent; + + 7th. That there is a future state, of rewards, and punishments, + when all mankind shall be judged, according to their works; + + 8th. That God, sent his Son, into the world, to be its saviour, the + author of eternal salvation, to all, that obey him; + + 9th. That he is the true Messiah; + + 10th. That he taught, worked miracles, suffered, died, and rose + again, as is related in the four gospels; + + 11th. That he will hereafter, make a second appearance on the + earth, raise all mankind from the dead, judge the world in + righteousness, bestow eternal life on the virtuous, and punish the + workers of iniquity. + +In the belief of these articles, all Christians, the Roman Catholic, all +the Oriental churches, all the members of the Church of England, all +Lutherans, Calvinists, Socinians, and Unitarians, are agreed. In +addition to these, each division, and subdivision of Christians, has its +own tenets. Now, let each settle among its own members, what are the +articles of belief, peculiar to them, which, in their cool deliberate +judgment, they consider as _absolutely necessary_ that a person should +believe, to be a member of the church of Christ; let these articles be +divested of all foreign matter, and expressed in perspicuous, exact, and +unequivocal terms; and, above all, let each distinction of Christians, +earnestly wish, to find an agreement, between themselves and their +fellow Christians:--the result of a discussion conducted on this plan, +would most assuredly be, to convince all Christians, that the essential +articles of religious credence, in which there is, a real difference +among Christians, are not so numerous, as the verbal disputes, and +extraneous matter, in which controversy is too often involved, make them +generally thought. + +Still,--some articles will remain, the belief of which, one denomination +of Christians, will consider to be the obligation of every Christian, +and which other Christian denominations, will condemn. On some of those, +a _speedy_ reunion of Christians is not to be expected: but, to use the +language of Mr. _Vansittart_, in His excellent letter to the reverend +Dr. Marsh and John Coker, Esq., + + "There is an inferior degree of Reunion, more within our prospect, + and yet perhaps as perfect as human infirmity allows us to hope + for; wherein, though all differences of opinion, should not be + extinguished, yet they may be refined, from all party prejudices, + and interested views, so softened by the spirit of charity, and + mutual concession, and so controuled by agreement, on the leading + principles, and zeal, for the general interests of christianity, + that no sect, or persuasion, should be tempted to make religion, + subservient to secular views, or to employ political power, to the + prejudice of others.--The existence of Dissent, will, perhaps, be + inseparable from religious freedom, so long, as the mind of man, is + liable to error: but it is not unreasonable to hope, that + hostility, may cease, though perfect agreement, cannot be established. + IF WE CANNOT RECONCILE ALL OPINIONS, LET US RECONCILE ALL HEARTS." + +These pages, cannot be closed better, than by these golden words!!! + + + + + +FINIS. + + + * * * * * + + + + +FOOTNOTES. + + +[Footnote 001: Tom. xi. p. 1. 200.] + +[Footnote 002: De Institutiones Clericorum, L. iii. c. xviii. &c.] + +[Footnote 003: In his "Recueil des Ecrits pour servir d'eclaircissement +de l'histoire de France, 2 vol. Paris 1798."] + +[Footnote 004: "Roswede, or Aroswethe, a nun in the monastery of +Gardersheim, lived in the reigns of Otho II. and III. towards the end of +the tenth century. She composed many works in prose and verse. In 1501, +some of her poems, on the Martyrdom of St. Denys, the Blessed Virgin, +St. Ann, &c. were printed at Nuremburgh. Her verses in praise of Otto +II. would be tolerable, if they were not Leonines: there are in them +some errors of prosody." Bib. Univers. et Histor. Vol. ii. p. 46.] + +[Footnote 005: For a fuller account of Feudal and Civil Jurisprudence, +the writer of these pages begs leave to refer to his work, entitled, +"HORÆ JURIDICÆ SUBSECIVÆ, being a connected series of Notes respecting +the Geography, Chronology, and Literary History of the principal Codes +and original Documents of the Grecian, Roman, Feudal, and Canon Law." 1 +vol. 8vo.] + +[Footnote 006: It is entitled, "_Martiani Minei Felicis Capellæ +Carthaginiensis, Viri Procunsularis, Satyricon, in quo de Nuptiis +Philologiæ et Mecurii libri duo, & de septem artibus liberalibus libri +singulares. Omnes, et emendati et Notis sive Februis Hug. Grotii +illustrati. Ex Officina Plantiniana, Apud Christophorum Raphelingium +Academiæ Lugduno-Bat. Typographum_ M. D. C." [Transcriber's note: +Apostrophic date 1600] The Dedication to the Prince of Condé follows: +then, Encomiastic Verses by Scaliger, and Tiliabrogus. The two works are +then inserted, with an address to the reader, Errata, and Various +Readings. Afterwards, _Hugeiani Grotii Februa[007] in Satyricon Martiani +Capellæ:_ this contains his notes. They are preceded by an Engraving of +Grotius. Round it, is written, "_Anno_ M. D. C." [Transcriber's note: +Apostrophic date 1600] Hora Ruit.[008] Æt.xv. Under the engraving the +following verses are printed, + + "_Quem sibi quindenis_ ASTRÆA _sacravit ab annis, + Talis,_ HUGEIANI GROTII _ora fero_."] + +[Footnote 007: "Corrections"--or more literarily, "Purifications".] + +[Footnote 008: These words were used by Grotius for his motto.] + +[Footnote 009: Fabricii Bibliotheca Latina, Lib iii. c. 15. In 1794, +John Adam Goez published the "Treatise on the Marriage of Philology and +Mercury" separately, in a duodecimo volume: he mentions, in the preface, +an edition of it by Walthard. It is on the authority of Goez that we +have assigned the age of Capella to the third century: others place him +in a much later period.] + +[Footnote 010: Montucla. Histoire des Mathematiques, Vol.ii. p.657.] + +[Footnote 011: Vol. 9. p. 147. ii. 1.] + +[Footnote 012: A similar exclusive claim in respect to the Indian seas, +under the grant of Pope Alexander VI., was set up by the Portuguese; +similar claims to the Ligustic and Adriatic seas, have been and still +continue to be made by the Genoese and Venetians. Those, who seek for +information on the subject, should consult the _Dissertation of +Bynkershook de Dominio Maris_, and note 61 to the recent edition of Sir +Edward Coke's Commentary upon Littleton.] + +[Footnote 013: "Mais, dites vous, dans ce tems même, le jeune Pison +pouvolt avoir dix ans: Grotius faisoit bien des vers a cet âge. Je le +sçais, mais les Grotius sont ils bien commune! combien d'enfans +trouveres vous de dix ans, qui ayent nonseulement assez du feu pour +faire des vers, mais encore assez de jugement pour en juger sainement." +Gibbon's Posthumous Works, 8vo. vol. i. p. 520.--"Salmasius," says Mr. +Gibbon in another part of the same entertaining publication, (vol. v. p. +209), "had read as much as Grotius; but their different modes of reading +had made the one an enlighten'd philosopher; and the other, to speak +plainly, a pedant puffed up with an useless erudition."] + +[Footnote 014: Bentivoglio, Histoire des Guerres de Flandres, l, +xxviii.] + +[Footnote 015: _Bella plusquam civilia._ Lucan.] + +[Footnote 016: Those who wish to obtain a clear, concise, and exact +notion of Calvinism and Arminianism, will usefully peruse the account of +them in Mr. Evans's "_Sketch of the Denominations of the Christian +World_." The thirteenth Edition is now before us, and we believe that it +has been often since reprinted.] + +[Footnote 017: Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. Cent. xvi, ch. 2. § 3. part 2.] + +[Footnote 018: Chalmer's Biographical Dictionary, Title "Arminius."] + +[Footnote 019: A short and clear account of Arminianism is given by Le +Clere, in his Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne, Vol. II. Art. 3. p. +123.] + +[Footnote 020: The best discussion of this subject, which has fallen +into the hands of the writer, is Bourduloué's Sermon _sur la +Predestination_.] + +[Footnote 021: English Translation of Burigni's Life of Grotius, pp. 43, +44, 45.] + +[Footnote 022: Vol. i.] + +[Footnote 023: _Letters from and to Sir Dudley Carleton, during his +Embassy in Holland, from January 1615-16[**Modern presentation.] to +December 1620. London, 1757, p. 84_,--Sir Dudley Carleton's Letters +abound with harsh expressions respecting Grotius. The Editor of this +correspondence has inserted (p. 415) a letter from Grotius to Dr. +Lancelot Andrews, written from the Castle at Louvestein. "This letter," +says the Editor, "which was never printed before, deserves a place here, +not only for its elegance and spirit, and its connection with the +subject of the work, but likewise in justice to the memory of the great +writer, as it contains his own justification of his conduct, which may +be compared with the less favourable accounts of it in the preceding +letters of Sir Dudley Carleton. The original is extant among the +manuscripts in the library of the late Sir Hans Sloane, bart. now part +of the British Museum."--"Utinam," says Grotius in this letter, "D. +Carleton mihi esset plus æquior; cui mitigando propinqui mei operam +dant. Sed partium, studia mire homines obcæcant."] + +[Footnote 024: The history of this Synod, and of the whole controversy +upon Arminianism, is contained in Brand's _History of the Reformation_: +the account of the synod in these pages, is principally extracted from +the French abridgment of that work, in 3 volumes 8vo. The Calvinian +representation of the Arminian doctrines, and the proceedings of the +synod, may be seen in the late Mr. Scott's _Articles of the Synod of +Dort_, to which he has prefixed the History of the Events which _made +way for that Synod_: it is severely censured by Mr. James Nichols, in +his _Calvinism and Arminianism compared_. Introd. cxlii. + +The Abridgment of Brand's History, was translated into the English +language and published in 1724-25[**Modern presentation.] by _M. de la +Roche_. He concludes his Preface to it by observing, that "No good man +can read the work without abhorring arbitrary power, and all manner of +persecution." The persecution of the Scottish Non-conformists by the +Episcopalians, and the persecution of the Remonstrants by the +Contra-Remonstrants, were attended with this enormity, that, in most +other instances, when one denomination of christians has persecuted +another, it has been on the ground that the errors of the sufferers were +impious, and led the maintainers of them to eternal perdition, and +therefore rendered these wholesome severities, as the persecutors term +them, a salutary infliction. But, when the Protestant Episcopalian +persecuted the Scottish Non-conformist, or the Contra-Remonstrant +persecuted the Remonstrant, he persecuted a Christian who agreed with +him in all which he himself deemed to be substantial articles of faith, +and differed from him only about rites and opinions, which he himself +allowed to be indifferent.--See Mr. Neale's just remark, Vol. II. ch. +vi.] + +[Footnote 025: In 1765, Lord Hailes published a beautiful edition of +"The Works of the Ever-memorable Mr. John Hales of Eaton, then first +collected together," in three volumes, at Glasgow. It is to be lamented +that he did not accompany it with a full biographical account of Mr. +Hales. + +"His biographers," says Mr. Chalmers, "all allow that he may be classed +among those divines who were afterwards called Latitudinarians." May he +not be termed the founder of that splendid school? Perceiving that the +minds of men required to be more liberally enlightened, and their +affections to be more powerfully engaged on the side of religion than +was formerly thought necessary, they set themselves, to use the language +of Bishop Burnet, "to raise those who conversed with them to another +sort of thoughts, and to consider the Christian religion as a doctrine +sent from God, both to elevate and to sweeten human nature. With this +view, they laboured chiefly to take men from being in parties from +narrow notions, and from fierceness about opinions. They also continued +to keep a good correspondence with those who differed from them in +opinion and allowed a great freedom both in philosophy and divinity." +(Burnet's History of his own Times. Vol. I. p. 261-268, oct. edit.) +Hales, Chillingworth, Taylor, Cudworth, Wilkins, Tillotson, +Stillingfleet, and Patrick, were among their brightest ornaments. They +were in some respects hostile to the Roman Catholics: _in hoc non +laudo_.--See the Writer's History of the English, Irish, and Scottish +Catholics. Vol. III. c. lxviii. sect. 1. 3d edition.] + +[Footnote 026: "King James," says Mr. James Nichols, in his Calvinism +and Arminianism compared, p. 242, "sent a deputation of respectable +British divines, for the double and undisguised purpose of condemning +the Remonstrants, but especially Vórstius, (whom his Majesty had long +before exposed to the world as an arch-heretic), and of assisting the +Prince of Orange in his design of usurping the liberties of the United +Provinces, and assuming the supreme authority. The Elector Palatine sent +his Heidelberg divines for the same family purpose; and the Duke of +Bouillon employed all his influence with the chief pastors among the +French reformed."] + +[Footnote 027: The words of the former are remarkable: "The errors of +public actions, if they be not very gross, are with less inconvenience +tolerated than amended. For the danger of alteration, of disgracing and +disabling authority, makes that the fortune of such proceeding admits of +no redress; but being howsoever well or ill done, they must ever after +be upheld. The most partial spectator of our synodal acts cannot but +confess, that, in the late discussion of the Remonstrants, with so much +choler and heat, there was a great oversight committed, and +that,--whether we respect our common profession of Christianity, 'quæ +nil nisi justum suadet et lene,' or the quality of this people, apt to +mutiny by reason of long liberty, and not having learned to be +imperiously commanded,--in which argument the clergy should not have +read their first lesson. The synod, therefore, to whom it is not now _in +integro_ to go back and rectify what is amiss, without disparagement, +must now go forward and leave events to God, and for the countenance of +their actions do the best they may." Letter to Sir Dudley Carleton, 11 +January 1619.] + +[Footnote 028: _Nichol's Calvinism and Arminianism compared_, Vol. II. +p.592] + +[Footnote 029: _Decline and Fall_, Ch. LIV. towards the end.] + +[Footnote 030: The writers who have given an account of the Synod of +Dort are mentioned by Fabricius, Bib. Græca, Vol. XI. p. 723. Some +useful observations upon the proceedings of the Synod may be found in +"Mr. Nichols's _Calvinism and Arminianism compared_." It is much to be +wished that the promised continuation of this work should speedily make +its appearance. + +But no work upon this famous Synod deserves more attention than +"_Johannis Halesii, Historia Concilii Dordraceni, J. Laur. Moshemius +Theol. Doct. et P.P.C. ex Anglico Sermone latine vertit, variis +observationibus et Vitâ Halesii ausit. Accessit ejusdem de auctoritate +Concilii Dordraceni Paci Sacræ noxii, Consultatio. Hamburgi_, 8vo." M. +Le Clere's criticism on this work (_Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne_ +Vol. 23, art. 4.) contains much valuable information upon the Synod, and +a summary of the life and writings of Mr. Hales.--Des Maizeaux published +a curious account of them in 1719.] + +[Footnote 031: Pfaffii Hist. Literaria, vol. ii. p. 303.] + +[Footnote 032: Burigni's Life of Grotius, lib. ii. sect. 12.] + +[Footnote 033: Cent XVII, sect. 2, Part 2 (Note Y.)] + +[Footnote 034: Mr. James Nicholls's Calvinism and Arminianism compared. +Vol. i. p. 597, 600, 634, 636.] + +[Footnote 035: See Mr. Dugald Stewart's first Dissertation, sect. III.] + +[Footnote 036: See Joannis Christopheri Locheri Dissertatio Epistolica +Historiam libelli Grotiani _De Veritate Religionis Christianæ_ +complectens, 1725, in quarto; and the Journal de Scavans for the year +1724.] + +[Footnote 037: See Nichols's Calvinism and Arminianism compared, vol. i. +p. 289.] + +[Footnote 038: On the respect, which the Church of England considers to +be due to the writings of the early Fathers, see the excellent Appendix +to the Sermons of Dr. Jebb, the Right Reverend Bishop of Limerick.] + +[Footnote 039: Vol. iii. L. 38. This letter merits a serious perusal.] + +[Footnote 040: Dict. Historique, Preliminaire, p. xxix.] + +[Footnote 041: Vol.1. p. 121] + +[Footnote 042: Those, who will read his life, published by the writer of +these pages, with other Tracts, in 1819, will not, it is believed, think +this too strong an assertion. Is it not to be earnestly hoped, that in +the distress by which we are now visited, and the greater distress with +which we are threatened, many St. Vincents will appear?] + +[Footnote 043: Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. ch. ii. sect. ii. part. ii. and +Bynkershock's Quest. Juris publici, lib. ii. ch. 18.] + +[Footnote 044: Le Clerc, (Bib. Anc. et Mod. vol. xxiii. Art. iv.) +strenuously objects to this representation of Dr. Mosheim. "The +Arminians," he says, "have introduced no dogma as necessary to +salvation, which was unknown to the framers of their Confession of +Faith; neither have they retrenched from it, any article essential to +faith." He however observes, "that there are many ways of explaining +dogmas." Now, the same dogma explained in two ways, amounts to two +dogmas.] + +[Footnote 045: See the third part of "_the last of Bossuet's Six +Addresses to the Protestants_," and the passages which he cites in it +from Jurieu. + +For the actual state of Religious Doctrine, both in the Lutheran and +Reformed Churches of Germany, the reader may usefully consult, "_The +State of the Protestant Religion in Germany, in a series of Discourses +preached before the University of Cambridge, by the Rev. Hugh James +Rose, M.A. 8vo. 1825_;" and "_Entretiens Philosophiques sur la Re-union +des differens communions chretiens, par feu M. le Baron Starck, Ministre +Protestant, et premier predicateur, de la Cour de Hesse Darmstadt, &c. +8vo. 1818_;" and "_Tabaraud's Histoire des Re-unions des Chrêtiens._"] + +[Footnote 046: Tom. XLVI. Art. 12. p. 208.] + +[Footnote 047: Page 283.] + +[Footnote 048: Page 284, 285.] + +[Footnote 049: Page 286.] + +[Footnote 050: Page 287.] + +[Footnote 051: Page 288.] + +[Footnote 052: Page 288.] + +[Footnote 053: Page 291.] + +[Footnote 054: Page 292.] + +[Footnote 055: Page 293.] + +[Footnote 056: Page 294.] + +[Footnote 057: Page 296.] + +[Footnote 058: Page 298.] + +[Footnote 059: Page 299.] + +[Footnote 060: Page 300. M. Le Clerc, (_Sentimens de quelques +Theologiens de Hollande, dix-septieme Lettre_) defends Grotius with +great ability against the charge of Socinianism: he justly observes, +that, his abstaining from unpleasing propositions, his silence on +offensive doctrines, and his conciliating expressions, should not too +easily be accounted proofs, of belief of his precise sentiments of any +particular tenets. Grotius, says Le Clerc, was like an arbitrator, who, +to bring to amity the parties in difference, recommends to each, that he +should give something of what he himself considers to be his strict +right.] + +[Footnote 061: Ep. 363. p. 364] + +[Footnote 062: Ep. 491. p. 195.] + +[Footnote 063: Ep. 494. p. 896.] + +[Footnote 064: Ep. 1706. p. 736.] + +[Footnote 065: _Comparison of Calvinism and Arminianism_. vol. ii. p. +560.] + +[Footnote 066: Ib. Vol. ii. p. 609.] + +[Footnote 067: Ep. 1538. p. 573, 690, 926.] + +[Footnote 068: Ep. 528. p. 400.] + +[Footnote 069: "Those," says Mr. James Nichols,[070] + + "who wish to behold the praises to which HUGO GROTIUS or HUGH DE + GROOT, is justly entitled, and which he has received in ample + measure from admiring friends and reluctant foes, may consult SIR + THOMAS POPE BLOUNT's _Censura celebriorum Authorum_. His well + earned reputation is founded on too durable a basis to be moved by + such petty attacks as those to which I have alluded in a previous + part of this introduction (p. xxi.), or those of Mr. Orme in page + 641. + + "That a man so accomplished, virtuous, fearless, and unfortunate, + should have had many enemies, among his contemporaries, is not + wonderful. But the number of those who evinced their hatred to him, + or to his philanthropic labours, increased after his decease, when + they could display it with impunity. 'This very pious, learned, and + judicious man,' says Dr. Hammond, 'hath of late, among many, fallen + under a very unhappy fate, being most unjustly calumniated, + sometimes as a SOCINIAN, sometimes as a PAPIST, and, as if he had + learnt to reconcile contradictions, sometimes _as both of them + together._' + + "One cause of the Charge of SOCINIANISM being preferred against him, + has been already mentioned, (p. xxxiii.) and it is more fully + explained in pages 637, 642. The reader will not require many + additional reasons to convince him of the untenable ground for such + an accusation, when he is told that VOETIUS, one of the most + violent of his enemies, laid down this grand axiom--'To place the + principal part of religion in an _observance of Christ's commands + is_ RANK SOCIANISM!' To such a _practical observance of the_ + requisitions of the Gospel, by what name soever it might be + stigmatized, Grotius pleaded guilty. He says (p. 637) 'I perceive + this was accounted the principal part of religion by the Christians + of the primitive ages; and their various assemblies, divines, and + martyrs taught, 'that the doctrines _necessary to be known_ are + exceedingly few, but that God forms his estimate of us from the + purpose and intention of an obedient spirit.' I am likewise of the + same opinion, and shall never repent of having maintained it.' + + "But as the charge of POPERY is of the utmost consequence, I have + discussed this topic at great length, (pp. 566, 746), and have + proved (pp. 549, 561), that Grotius was as little attached to the + principles or the practice of the Romish church as the most zealous + of his accusers. Whatever tends to vindicate the conduct of Grotius + in this matter, will operate still more powerfully in favour of + Archbishop Laud. The design of Grotius is well described by Dr. + Hammond, in a _Digression_ which he added to his _Answer_ to the + _Animadversions on his Dissertations_; in which he says, + + "'For the charge of Popery that is fallen upon him, it is evident + from whence that flows,--either from his _profest opposition to + many doctrines of some Reformers, Zuinglius and Calvin, &c_. or + from his _Annotations on Cassander, and the Debates with Rivet + consequent thereto, the Votum pro pace and Discussio_.' + + "For the former of these, it is sufficiently known what contests + there were, and at length how profest the divisions betwixt the + Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants; and it is confessed that he + maintained (all his time) the Remonstrants party, vindicating it + from all charge, whether of Pelagianism or Semi-Pelagianism, which + was by the opposers objected to it, and pressing the favourers of + the doctrine of Irrespective Decrees with the odious consequences + of making God the _author and favourer of sin_, and frequently + expressing his sense of the evil influences that some of those + doctrines were experimented to have on men's lives. And by these + means it is not strange that he should fall under great displeasure + from those who, having espoused the opinion of Irrespective + Decrees, did not only publish it as the THE TRUTH and TRUTH OF GOD, + but farther asserted the questioning of it to be injurious to God's + free grace and his Eternal Election, and consequently retained no + ordinary patience for or charity to opposers. But, then, still this + is no medium to to infer that charge. The doctrines which he thus + maintained were neither branches nor characters of Popery, but + asserted by some of the first and most learned and pious Reformers. + Witness the writings of Hemingius in his _Opuscula_, most of which + are on these subjects. Whereas on the contrary side, Zuinglius and + others, who maintained the rigid way of Irrespective Decrees, and + infused them into some of this nation of ours, are truly said, by + an excellent writer of ours, Dr. Jackson, to _have had it first + from some ancient Romish Schoolmen_, and so to have had as much or + more of that guilt adherent to them, as can be charged on their + opposers. So that from hence to found the jealousy, to affirm him a + papist because he was not a contra-remonstrant, is but the old + method of speaking all that is ill of those who differ from our + opinions on any thing; as the Dutchman in his rage calls his horse + an ARMINIAN, because he doth not not go as he would have him. And + this is all that can soberly be concluded from such suggestions, + that they are displeased and passionate that thus speak. + + "As for the _Annotations on Cassander_, &c. and the consequent + vindications of himself against _Rivet_, those have with some + colour been deemed more favourable toward Popery; but yet I suppose + will be capable of benign interpretations, if they be read with + these few cautions or remembrances: + + "_First_. That they were designed to shew a way to peace whensoever + men's minds on both sides should be piously affected to it. + + "_Secondly_. That he did not hope for this temper in his age, the + humour on both sides being so turgent, and extremely contrary to + it, and the controversy debated on both sides by those 'who,' saith + he, '_desire to eternize, and not to compose contentions_,' and + therefore makes his appeal to posterity, when this paroxysm shall + be over. + + "_Thirdly_. That for the chief usurpations of the papacy; he leaves + it to Christian princes to join together to vindicate their own + rights, and reduce the Pope _ad Canones_, to that temper, which the + ancient canons allow and require of him; and if that will not be + done, to reform every one in their own dominions. + + "_Fourthly_. That what he saith in favour of some Popish doctrines, + above what some other learned Protestants have said, is not so much + by way of _assertion_ or _justification_ of them, as to shew what + reasons they may justly be thought to proceed upon, and so not to + be go irrational or impious as they are ordinarily accounted; and + this only in order to the peace of the christian world, that we may + have as much charity to others and not as high animosities, live + with all men as sweetly and amicably, and peaceably, and not as + bitterly as is possible, accounting the wars and seditions, and + divisions and rebellions, that are raised and managed upon the + account of religion, far greater and more scandalous unchristian + evils, than are the errors of some Romish doctrines, especially as + they are maintained by the more sober and moderate men among them, + Cassander, Picherel, &c. + + "_Fifthly_. What he saith in his _Discussio_, of a conjunction of + Protestants with those that adhere to the Bishop of Rome, is no + farther to be extended, than his words extend it. That there is not + any other visible way to the end there mentioned by him, of + acquiring or preserving universal unity. That this is to be done, + not crudely, by returning to them as they are, submitting our necks + to our former yokes, but by taking away at once the division, and + the causes of it, on which side soever; adding only in the third + place, that the bare primacy of the Bishop of Rome, _secundum + Canones_, such as the ancient canons allow of, (which hath nothing + of _supreme universal power_, or authority in it,) is none of those + causes, nor consequently necessary to be excluded in the [Greek: + diallaktikon], citing that as the confession of that excellent + person Philip Melancthon. So that in effect, that whole speech of + his which is so solemnly vouched by Mr. Knott, and looked on so + jealously by many of us, is no more than this, 'that such a Primacy + of the Bishop of Rome, as the ancient canons allowed him, were, for + so glorious an end as is the regaining the peace of christendom, + very reasonably to be afforded him, nay absolutely necessary to be + yielded him, whensoever any such catholic union shall be attempted, + which as it had been the express opinion of Melancthon, one of the + first and wisest Reformers, so it is far from any design of + establishing the usurpations of the Papacy, or any of their false + doctrines attending them, but only designed as an expedient for the + restoring the peace of the whole christian world, which every + disciple of Christ is so passionately required to contend and pray + for.' + +"At the conclusion of the Doctor's _Continuation of the Defence of_ HUGO +GROTIUS, he thus expresses himself: + + "'As this is an act of mere justice and charity to the dead,--and no + less to those who, by their sin of uncharitable thoughts towards + him, are likely to deprive themselves of the benefit of his + labours,--so is it but a proportionable return of debt and + gratitude to the signal value and kindness, which in his lifetime, + he constantly professed to pay to this church and nation, + expressing his opinion, "that of all churches in the world, it was + the most careful observer and transcriber of primitive antiquity," + and more than intimating his desire to end his days in the bosom + and communion of our mother. Of this I want not store of witnesses, + which from time to time have heard it from his own mouth whilst he + was ambassador in France, and even in his return to Sweden, + immediately before his death; and for a real evidence of this + truth, it is no news to many, that, at the taking his journey from + Paris, he appointed his wife, whom he left behind, to resort to the + English Assembly at the Agent's house, which accordingly she is + known to have practised.'"] + +[Footnote 070: Calvinism and Arminianism compared, Introduction, +cxxxii.] + +[Footnote 071: A dialogue on the Reformation was also in the +contemplation of Mr. Gibbon: "I have," he says in the Memoirs of his +life and writings,[072] "sometimes thought of writing a dialogue of the +dead, in which Luther, Erasmus and Voltaire should mutually acknowledge +the danger of exposing an old superstition to the contempt of the blind +and fanatic multitude."] + +[Footnote 072: Vol. i. p. 269, of the 8vo. edition of his works.] + +[Footnote 073: A full account of the writings of _Wicelius_, and of his +projects of Pacification, is given by _Father Simon_ in the _Biblioteque +Critique, par M. de Sainjore_, Tom. ii. ch. 18. He concludes it, by +observing, that + + "the great love which Wicelius had for the peace of the church, + might induce him to use expressions, somewhat harsh, but which + really ought not to be censured with too much rigour. It is evident + that his only view was to be useful to persons of his own time, to + whom he consecrated the latter part of his life.--I do not + recollect to have read that he was censured at Rome, and the + Spanish Inquisitors seem to have observed the same moderation in + his regard."] + +[Footnote 074: XVI. Cent. Book V. p. 41, in the Englsh translation.] + +[Footnote 075: See Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, Cent. XVII. ch. ii. +sect. ii. Part II.] + +[Footnote 076: Eccles. Hist. Cent. XVI. ch. ii. sect. iii. Part. II.] + +[Footnote 077: Observat. Hallen, 15 t. p. 341.] + +[Footnote 078: It is a prayer addressed to Jesus Christ, and suited to +the condition of a dying person who builds his hope on the Mediator. _M. +Le Clerc_ has inserted it at length in the _Sentimens de quelques +Theologiens de Hollande_, 17 Lettre, p. 397.] + +[Footnote 079: Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson, 2d Vol. p. 502. 2d +Edition.] + +[Footnote 080: The author's "Confessions of Faith," mention this +convention, its dissolution, and the subsequent union of the Helvetian, +and Bohemian protestant congregations, in the Synods, held at Astrog, in +the years 1620, and 1627. The original settlement of these churches, was +in Bohemia, and Moravia. Persecution scattered the members of them: a +considerable number of the fugitives, settled at Herrenhut, a village in +Lusatia. There, under the protection and guidance of Count Zinzendorf, +they formed themselves into a new community, which was designed to +comprehend their actual and future congregations, under the title of +"_The Protestant Church of the Unitas Fratrum, or United Brethren of the +Confession of Augsburgh_." That Confession is their only symbolic book; +but they profess great esteem for the eighteen first chapters of the +Synodical Document of the church of Berne in 1532, as a declaration of +true Christian Doctrine. They also respect, the writings of Count +Zinzendorf, but do not consider themselves, bound by any opinion, +sentiment, or expression, which these contain. It is acknowledged, that, +towards the middle of the last century, they used in their devotional +exercises, particularly in their hymns, many expressions justly +censurable: but these have been corrected. They consider Lutherans and +Calvinists, to be their brethren in faith, as according with them in the +essential articles of religion; and therefore, when any of their members +reside at a distance from a congregation of the United Brethren, they +not only attend a Lutheran, or Calvinist church, but receive the +Sacrament, from its ministers, without scruple. In this, they profess to +act in conformity to the Convention at Sendomer. The union, which +prevails both among the congregations, and the individuals which compose +them, their modest and humble carriage, their moderation in lucrative +pursuits, the simplicity of their manners, their laborious industry, +their frugal habits, their ardent but mild piety, and their regular +discharge of all their spiritual observances, are universally +acknowledged and admired. Their charities are boundless, their kindness +to their poor brethren is most edifying; there is not among them a +beggar. The care, which they bestow, on the education of their children, +in forming their minds, chastening their hearts, and curbing their +imaginations,--particularly in those years, + + "When youth, elate and gay, + Steps into life and follows, unrestrained, + Where passion leads, or reason points the way." _Lowth._ + +are universally acknowledged, universally admired, and deserve universal +imitation. + +But, it is principally, by the extent and success of their missionary +labours, that they now engage, the attention of the public. These began, +in 1732. In 1812, they had thirty-three settlements, in heathen nations. +One hundred and thirty-seven missionaries, were employed in them: they +had baptized, twenty-seven thousand, four hundred converts: and such had +been their care, in admitting them to that sacred rite, and such their +assiduity, in cultivating a spirit of religion, among them, that +scarcely an individual, had been known, to relapse into paganism. All +travellers, who have visited their settlements, speak with wonder, and +praise, of the humility, the patient endurance of privation, and +hardship, the affectionate zeal, the mild, and persevering exertions of +the missionaries; and the innocence, industry and piety of the +converts:--the European, the American, the African, and the Asiatic +traveller speaks of them, in the same terms: and, that they speak +without exaggeration, the conduct both of the pastor, and the flock in +the different settlements of the United Brethren in England, +incontestibly proves. Whatever he may think of their religious tenets, +_Talis cum sitis, utinam nostri essetis_, must be the exclamation of +every christian, who considers their lives. Those, who desire further +knowledge of this amiable, and worthy denomination of Christians, will +find it in _David Cranz's ancient and modern History of the Brethren, +printed at Barby, 1771, and the two continuations of it, Barby_, 1791, +and 1804. The History has been translated into English; and is become +exceedingly scarce; the Continuations have not been translated. Mr. La +Trobe, the Pastor of the United Brethren in London, has published a +_Concise Historical Account of the Protestant Church of the United +Brethren adhering to the Confession of Augsburgh_.] + +[Footnote 081: Epist. 1706, p. 736.] + +[Footnote 082: Ib. Epist. 613.] + +[Footnote 083: Epist. part. I. Epist. 432. part II. Epist. 53. The +French public strongly suspected the Cardinal of this design. It gave +rise to the celebrated libel, entitled "_Optatus Gallus,_" _Grotius_, +(Lit. 982.) notices a prophecy of Nostradamus, then in circulation: + + "_Celui qui était bien avant dans le regne, + Ayant chat rouge, proche, hierarchie, + Apre et cruel, et se fera tant craindre, + Succedera, a sacrée Monarchie._" + +If the event in question had happened, Nostradamus would have passed, +with many for a prophet.] + +[Footnote 084: Eclaircissemens de l'édit de Nantes, page 1. c. 6.] + +[Footnote 085: V. 2. p. 38, 148.] + +[Footnote 086: We are grieved to add, that he allowed the _right_ of a +sovereign to persecute for religion.] + +[Footnote 087: This article is extracted from Oeuvres Posthumes de +Bossuet, vol. i. Nouvelle édition des Oeuvres de Bossuet, vol. ii. +Leibnizii Opera, studio Ludovici Dutens, vol. i. and v. And the Pensées +de Leibniz, vol. ii. 8vo.] + +[Footnote 088: Tom. xiii.] + +[Footnote 089: See the Appendix to the Sermons of Dr. Jebb, the present +excellent Bishop of Limerick.--Cadel, 1824.] + + + * * * * * + + + Luke Hansard & Sons, + near Lincoln's-Inn Fields, London. + + + * * * * * + + + By the same Author, + + THE LIFE OF ERASMUS: + + WITH + + HISTORICAL REMARKS ON THE STATE OF LITERATURE BETWEEN THE TENTH AND + SIXTEENTH CENTURIES. + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 14037 *** |