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diff --git a/12291-0.txt b/12291-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d3c16d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/12291-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11958 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12291 *** + +THE TEACHER. + + * * * * * + +MORAL INFLUENCES + +EMPLOYED IN + +THE INSTRUCTION AND GOVERNMENT + +OF + +THE YOUNG. + +A NEW AND REVISED EDITION. + +BY JACOB ABBOTT. + +With Engravings. + +1873. + + +Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight +hundred and fifty-six, by + +HARPER & BROTHERS, + +in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of +New York. + + + +PREFACE. + + +This book is intended to detail, in a familiar and practical manner, a +system of arrangements for the organization and management of a school, +based on the employment, so far as is practicable, of _Moral +Influences_, as a means of effecting the objects in view. Its design is, +not to bring forward new theories or new plans, but to develop and +explain, and to carry out to their practical applications such +principles as, among all skillful and experienced teachers, are +generally admitted and acted upon. Of course it is not designed for the +skillful and experienced themselves, but it is intended to embody what +they already know, and to present it in a practical form for the use of +those who are beginning the work, and who wish to avail themselves of +the experience which others have acquired. + +Although moral influences are the chief foundations on which the power +of the teacher over the minds and hearts of his pupils is, according to +this treatise, to rest, still it must not be imagined that the system +here recommended is one of persuasion. It is a system of +authority--supreme and unlimited authority--a point essential in all +plans for the supervision of the young; but it is authority secured and +maintained as far as possible by moral measures. There will be no +dispute about the propriety of making the most of this class of means. +Whatever difference of opinion there may be on the question whether +physical force is necessary at all, every one will agree that, if ever +employed, it must be only as a last resort, and that no teacher ought to +make war upon the body, unless it is proved that he can not conquer +through the medium of the mind. + +In regard to the anecdotes and narratives which are very freely +introduced to illustrate principles in this work, the writer ought to +state that, though they are all substantially true--that is, all except +those which are expressly introduced as mere suppositions, he has not +hesitated to alter very freely, for obvious reasons, the unimportant +circumstances connected with them. He has endeavored thus to destroy the +personality of the narratives without injuring or altering their moral +effect. + +From the very nature of our employment, and of the circumstances under +which the preparation for it must be made, it is plain that, of the many +thousands who are in the United States annually entering the work, a +very large majority must depend for all their knowledge of the art, +except what they acquire from their own observation and experience, on +what they can obtain from books. It is desirable that the class of works +from which such knowledge can be obtained should be increased. Some +excellent and highly useful specimens have already appeared, and very +many more would be eagerly read by teachers, if properly prepared. It is +essential, however, that they should be written by experienced +teachers, who have for some years been actively engaged and specially +interested in the work; that they should be written in a very practical +and familiar style, and that they should exhibit principles which are +unquestionably true, and generally admitted by good teachers, and not +the new theories peculiar to the writer himself. In a word, utility and +practical effect should be the only aim. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +CHAPTER I. +INTEREST IN TEACHING. +Source of enjoyment in teaching.--The boy and the steam-engine.--His +contrivance.--His pleasure, and the source of it.--Firing at the +mark.--Plan of clearing the galleries in the British House of +Commons.--Pleasure of experimenting, and exercising intellectual and +moral power.--The indifferent and inactive teacher.--His subsequent +experiments; means of awakening interest.--Offenses of pupils. +--Different ways of regarding them. + +Teaching really attended with peculiar trials and difficulties.--1. +Moral responsibility for the conduct of pupils.--2. Multiplicity of the +objects of attention. + + +CHAPTER II. +GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS. +Objects to be aimed at in the general arrangements.--Systematizing the +teacher's work.--Necessity of having only one thing to attend to at a +time. + +1. Whispering and leaving seats.--An experiment.--Method of regulating +this.--Introduction of the new plan.--Difficulties.--Dialogue with +pupils.--Study-card.--Construction and use. +2. Mending pens.--Unnecessary trouble from this source.--Degree of +importance to be attached to good pens.--Plan for providing them. +3. Answering questions.--Evils.--Each pupil's fair proportion of +time.--Questions about lessons.--When the teacher should refuse to +answer them.--Rendering assistance.--When to be refused. +4. Hearing recitations.--Regular arrangement of +them.--Punctuality.--Plan and schedule.--General exercises.--Subjects to +be attended to at them. + +General arrangements of government.--Power to be delegated to +pupils.--Gardiner Lyceum.--Its government.--The trial.--Real republican +government impracticable in schools.--Delegated power.--Experiment with +the writing-books.--Quarrel about the nail.--Offices for +pupils.--Cautions.--Danger of insubordination.--New plans to be +introduced gradually. + + +CHAPTER III. +INSTRUCTION. +The three important branches.--The objects which are really most +important.--Advanced scholars.--Examination of school and scholars at +the outset.--Acting on numbers.--Extent to which it may be +carried.--Recitation and Instruction. + +1. Recitation.--Its object.--Importance of a thorough examination of the +class.--Various modes.--Perfect regularity and order necessary. +--Example.--Story of the pencils.--Time wasted by too minute an +attention to individuals.--Example.--Answers given simultaneously to +save time.--Excuses.--Dangers in simultaneous recitation.--Means of +avoiding them.--Advantages of this mode.--Examples.--Written answers. +2. Instruction.--Means of exciting +interest.--Variety.--Examples.--Showing the connection between the +studies of school and the business of life.--Example from the +controversy between general and state governments.--Mode of illustrating +it.--Proper way of meeting difficulties.--Leading pupils to surmount +them.--True way to encourage the young to meet difficulties.--The boy +and the wheel-barrow.--Difficult examples in arithmetic. + +Proper way of rendering assistance.--(1.) Simply analyzing intricate +subjects.--Dialogue on longitude.--(2.) Making previous truths perfectly +familiar.--Experiment with the multiplication table.--Latin Grammar +lesson.--Geometry. + +3. General cautions.--Doing work _for_ the scholar.--Dullness.--Interest +in _all_ the pupils.--Making all alike.--Faults of pupils.--The +teacher's own mental habits.--False pretensions. + + +CHAPTER IV. +MORAL DISCIPLINE. +First impressions.--Story.--Danger of devoting too much attention to +individual instances.--The profane boy.--Case described.--Confession of +the boys.--Success.--The untidy desk.--Measures in consequence. +--Interesting the scholars in the good order of the school.--Securing a +majority.--Example.--Reports about the desks.--The new College +building.--Modes of interesting the boys.--The irregular class.--Two +ways of remedying the evil.--Boys' love of system and regularity. +--Object of securing a majority, and particular means of doing +it.--Making school pleasant.--Discipline should generally be +private.--In all cases that are brought before the school, public +opinion in the teacher's favor should be secured.--Story of the +rescue.--Feelings of displeasure against what is wrong.--The teacher +under moral obligation, and governed, himself, by law.--Description of +the _Moral Exercise_.--Prejudice.--The scholars' written remarks, and +the teacher's comments.--The spider.--List of subjects.--Anonymous +writing.--Specimens.--Marks of a bad scholar.--Consequences of being +behindhand.--New scholars.--A satirical spirit.--Variety. + +Treatment of individual offenders.--Ascertaining who they are.--Studying +their characters.--Securing their personal attachment.--Asking +assistance.--The whistle.--Open, frank dealing.--Example.--Dialogue with +James.--Communications in writing. + + +CHAPTER V. +RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE. +The American mechanic at Paris.--A Congregational teacher among +Quakers.--Parents have the ultimate right to decide how their children +shall be educated. + +Agreement in religious opinion in this country.--Principle which is to +guide the teacher on this subject.--Limits and restrictions to religious +influence in school.--Religious truths which are generally admitted in +this country.--The existence of God.--Human responsibility.--Immortality +of the soul.--A revelation.--Nature of piety.--Salvation by +Christ.--Teacher to do nothing on this subject but what he may do by the +common consent of his employers.--Reasons for explaining distinctly +these limits. + +Particular measures proposed.--Opening exercises.--Prayer.--Singing. +--Direct instruction.--Mode of giving it.--Example; arrangement of the +Epistles in the New Testament.--Dialogue.--Another example; scene in the +woods.--Cautions.--Affected simplicity of language.--Evils of +it.--Minute details.--Example; motives to study.--Dialogue.--Mingling +religious influence with the direct discipline of the school.--Fallacious +indications of piety.--Sincerity of the teacher. + + +CHAPTER VI. +MOUNT VERNON SCHOOL. +Reason for inserting the description.--Advantage of visiting schools, +and of reading descriptions of them.--Addressed to a new scholar.--Her +personal duty.--Study-card.--Rule.--But one rule.--Cases when this rule +maybe waived.--1. At the direction of teachers.--2. On extraordinary +emergencies.--Reasons for the rule.--Anecdote.--Punishments.--Incidents +described.--Confession. + +2. Order of daily exercises.--Opening of the school.--Schedules.--Hours +of study and recess.--General exercises.--Business.--Examples.--Sections. + +3. Instruction and supervision of +pupils.--Classes.--Organization.--Sections.--Duties of superintendents. + +4. Officers.--Design in appointing them.--Their names and +duties.--Example of the operation of the system. + +5. The court.--Its plan and design.--A trial described. + +6. Religious instruction.--Principles inculcated.--Measures.--Religious +exercises in school.--Meeting on Saturday afternoon.--Concluding +remarks. + + +CHAPTER VII. +SCHEMING. +Time lost upon fruitless schemes.--Proper province of ingenuity and +enterprise.--Cautions.--Case supposed.--The spelling class; an +experiment with it; its success and its consequences.--System of +literary institutions in this country.--Directions to a young teacher on +the subject of forming new plans.--New institutions; new +schoolbooks.--Ingenuity and enterprise very useful, within proper +limits.--Ways of making known new plans.--Periodicals.--Family +newspapers.--Teachers' meetings. + +Rights of committees, trustees, or patrons, in the control of the +school.--Principle which ought to govern.--Case supposed.--Extent to +which the teacher is bound by the wishes of his employers. + + +CHAPTER VIII. +REPORTS OF CASES. +Plan of the chapter.--Hats and bonnets.--Injury to clothes.--Mistakes which +are not censurable.--Tardiness; plan for punishing it.--Helen's +lesson.--Firmness in measures united with mildness of manner.--Insincere +confession: scene in a class.--Court.--Trial of a case.--Teacher's +personal character.--The way to elevate the character of the +employment.--Six hours only to be devoted to school.--The chestnut +burr.--Scene in the wood.--Dialogue in school.--An experiment.--Series +of lessons in writing.--The correspondence.--Two kinds of +management.--Plan of weekly reports.--The shopping exercise. +--Example.--Artifices in recitations.--Keeping resolution notes of +teacher's lecture.--Topics.--Plan and illustration of the exercise. +--Introduction of music.--Tabu.--Mental analysis.--Scene in a class. + + +CHAPTER IX. +THE TEACHER'S FIRST DAY. +Embarrassments of young teachers in first entering upon their +duties.--Preliminary information to be acquired in respect to the +school.--Visits to the parents.--Making acquaintance with the +scholars.--Opening the school.--Mode of setting the scholars at work on +the first day.--No sudden changes to be made.--Misconduct.--Mode of +disposing of the cases of it.--Conclusion. + + + + +THE TEACHER. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +INTEREST IN TEACHING. + +A most singular contrariety of opinion prevails in the community in +regard to the _pleasantness_ of the business of teaching. Some teachers +go to their daily task merely upon compulsion; they regard it as +intolerable drudgery. Others love the work: they hover around the +school-room as long as they can, and never cease to think, and seldom to +talk, of their delightful labors. + +Unfortunately, there are too many of the former class, and the first +object which, in this work, I shall attempt to accomplish, is to show my +readers, especially those who have been accustomed to look upon the +business of teaching as a weary and heartless toil, how it happens that +it is, in any case, so pleasant. The human mind is always essentially +the same. That which is tedious and joyless to one, will be so to +another, if pursued in the same way, and under the same circumstances. +And teaching, if it is pleasant, animating, and exciting to one, may be +so to all. + +I am met, however, at the outset, in my effort to show why it is that +teaching is ever a pleasant work, by the want of a name for a certain +faculty or capacity of the human mind, through which most of the +enjoyment of teaching finds its avenue. Every mind is so constituted as +to take a positive pleasure in the exercise of ingenuity in adapting +means to an end, and in watching the operation of them--in accomplishing +by the intervention of instruments what we could not accomplish +without--in devising (when we see an object to be effected which is too +great for our _direct_ and _immediate_ power) and setting at work some +_instrumentality_ which may be sufficient to accomplish it. + +[Illustration: Steam Engine] + +It is said that when the steam-engine was first put into operation, +such was the imperfection of the machinery, that a boy was necessarily +stationed at it to open and shut alternately the cock by which the steam +was now admitted and now shut out from the cylinder. One such boy, after +patiently doing his work for many days, contrived to connect this +stop-cock with some of the moving parts of the engine by a wire, in such +a manner that the engine itself did the work which had been intrusted to +him; and after seeing that the whole business would go regularly +forward, he left the wire in charge, and went away to play. + +Such is the story. Now if it is true, how much pleasure the boy must +have experienced in devising and witnessing the successful operation of +his scheme. I do not mean the pleasure of relieving himself from a dull +and wearisome duty; I do not mean the pleasure of anticipated play; but +I mean the strong interest he must have taken in _contriving and +executing his plan_. When, wearied out with his dull, monotonous work, +he first noticed those movements of the machinery which he thought +adapted to his purpose, and the plan flashed into his mind, how must his +eye have brightened, and how quick must the weary listlessness of his +employment have vanished. While he was maturing his plan and carrying it +into execution--while adjusting his wires, fitting them to the exact +length and to the exact position--and especially when, at last, he began +to watch the first successful operation of his contrivance, he must have +enjoyed a pleasure which very few even of the joyous sports of childhood +could have supplied. + +It is not, however, exactly the pleasure of exercising _ingenuity in +contrivance_ that I refer to here; for the teacher has not, after all, a +great deal of absolute _contriving_ to do, or, rather, his _principal +business_ is not contriving. The greatest and most permanent source of +pleasure to the boy, in such a case as I have described, is his feeling +that he is accomplishing a great effect by a slight effort of his own; +the feeling of _power_; acting through the _intervention of +instrumentality_, so as to multiply his power. So great would be this +satisfaction, that he would almost wish to have some other similar work +assigned him, that he might have another opportunity to contrive some +plan for its easy accomplishment. + +Looking at an object to be accomplished, or an evil to be remedied, then +studying its nature and extent, and devising and executing some means +for effecting the purpose desired, is, in all cases, a source of +pleasure; especially when, by the process, we bring to view or into +operation new powers, or powers heretofore hidden, whether they are our +own powers, or those of objects upon which we act. Experimenting has a +sort of magical fascination for all. Some do not like the trouble of +making preparations, but all are eager to see the results. Contrive a +new machine, and every body will be interested to witness or to hear of +its operation. Develop any heretofore unknown properties of matter, or +secure some new useful effect from laws which men have not hitherto +employed for their purposes, and the interest of all around you will be +excited to observe your results; and, especially, you will yourself take +a deep and permanent pleasure in guiding and controlling the power you +have thus obtained. + +This is peculiarly the case with experiments upon mind, or experiments +for producing effects through the medium of voluntary acts of others, +making it necessary that the contriver should take into consideration +the laws of mind in forming his plans. To illustrate this by rather a +childish case: I once knew a boy who was employed by his father to +remove all the loose small stones, which, from the peculiar nature of +the ground, had accumulated in the road before the house. The boy was +set at work by his father to take them up, and throw them over into the +pasture across the way. He soon got tired of picking up the stones one +by one, and so he sat down upon the bank to try to devise some better +means of accomplishing his work. He at length conceived and adopted the +following plan: He set up in the pasture a narrow board for a target, +or, as boys would call it, a mark, and then, collecting all the boys of +the neighborhood, he proposed to them an amusement which boys are always +ready for--firing at a mark. The stones in the road furnished the +ammunition, and, of course, in a very short time the road was cleared; +the boys working for the accomplishment of their leader's task, when +they supposed they were only finding amusement for themselves. + +Here, now, is experimenting upon the mind--the production of useful +effect with rapidity and ease by the intervention of proper +instrumentality--the conversion, by means of a little knowledge of human +nature, of that which would have otherwise been dull and fatiguing labor +into a most animating sport, giving pleasure to twenty instead of +tedious labor to one. Now the contrivance and execution of such plans is +a source of positive pleasure. It is always pleasant to bring even the +properties and powers of matter into requisition to promote our designs; +but there is a far higher pleasure in controlling, and guiding, and +moulding to our purpose the movements of mind. + +It is this which gives interest to the plans and operation of human +governments. Governments can, in fact, do little by actual force. Nearly +all the power that is held, even by the most despotic executive, must be +based on an adroit management of the principles of human nature, so as +to lead men voluntarily to co-operate with the leader in his plans. Even +an army could not be got into battle, in many cases, without a most +ingenious arrangement, by means of which half a dozen men can drive, +literally drive, as many thousands into the very face of danger and +death. The difficulty of leading men to battle must have been, for a +long time, a very perplexing one to generals. It was at last removed by +the very simple expedient of creating a greater danger behind than there +is before. Without ingenuity of contrivance like this, turning one +principle of human nature against another, and making it for the +momentary interest of men to act in a given way, no government could +stand. + +I know of nothing which illustrates more perfectly the way by which a +knowledge of human nature is to be turned to account in managing human +minds than a plan which was adopted for clearing the galleries of the +British House of Commons many years ago, before the present Houses of +Parliament were built. There was then, as now, a gallery appropriated to +spectators, and it was customary to require these visitors to retire +when a vote was to be taken or private business was to be transacted. +When the officer in attendance was ordered to clear the gallery, it was +sometimes found to be a very troublesome and slow operation; for those +who first went out remained obstinately as close to the doors as +possible, so as to secure the opportunity to come in again first when +the doors should be re-opened. The consequence was, there was so great +an accumulation around the doors outside, that it was almost impossible +for the crowd to get out. The whole difficulty arose from the eager +desire of every one to remain as near as possible to the door, _through +which they were to come back again_. Notwithstanding the utmost efforts +of the officers, fifteen minutes were sometimes consumed in effecting +the object, when the order was given that the spectators should retire. + +The whole difficulty was removed by a very simple plan. One door only +was opened when the crowd was to retire, and they were then admitted, +when the gallery was opened again, through _the other_. The consequence +was, that as soon as the order was given to clear the galleries, every +one fled as fast as possible through the open door around to the one +which was closed, so as to be ready to enter first, when that, in its +turn, should be opened. This was usually in a few minutes, as the +purpose for which the spectators were ordered to retire was in most +cases simply to allow time for taking a vote. Here it will be seen +that, by the operation of a very simple plan, the very eagerness of the +crowd to get back as soon as possible, which had been the _sole cause of +the difficulty_, was turned to account most effectually to the removal +of it. Before, the first that went out were so eager to return, that +they crowded around the door of egress in such a manner as to prevent +others going out; but by this simple plan of ejecting them by one door +and admitting them by another, that very eagerness made them clear the +passage at once, and caused every one to hurry away into the lobby the +moment the command was given. + +The planner of this scheme must have taken great pleasure in witnessing +its successful operation; though the officer who should go steadily on, +endeavoring to remove the reluctant throng by dint of mere driving, +might well have found his task unpleasant. But the exercise of ingenuity +in studying the nature of the difficulty with which a man has to +contend, and bringing in some antagonist principle of human nature to +remove it, or, if not an antagonist principle, a similar principle, +operating, by a peculiar arrangement of circumstances, in an antagonist +manner, is always pleasant. From this source a large share of the +enjoyment which men find in the active pursuits of life has its origin. + +The teacher has the whole field which this subject opens fully before +him. He has human nature to deal with most directly. His whole work is +one of experimenting upon mind; and the mind which is before him to be +the subject of his operation is exactly in the state to be most easily +and pleasantly operated upon. The reason now why some teachers find +their work delightful, and some find it wearisomeness and tedium itself, +is that some do and some do not take this view of the nature of it. One +instructor is like the engine-boy, turning, without cessation or change, +his everlasting stop-cock, in the same ceaseless, mechanical, and +monotonous routine. Another is like the little workman in his brighter +moments, arranging his invention, and watching with delight the +successful and easy accomplishment of his wishes by means of it. One is +like the officer, driving by vociferations, and threats, and +demonstrations of violence, the spectators from the galleries. The other +like the shrewd contriver, who converts the very desire to return, which +was the sole cause of the difficulty, to a most successful and efficient +means of its removal. + +These principles show how teaching may, in some cases, be a delightful +employment, while in others its tasteless dullness is interrupted by +nothing but its perplexities and cares. The school-room is in reality a +little empire of mind. If the one who presides in it sees it in its true +light; studies the nature and tendency of the minds which he has to +control; adapts his plans and his measures to the laws of human nature, +and endeavors to accomplish his purposes for them, not by mere labor and +force, but by ingenuity and enterprise, he will take pleasure in +administering his little government. He will watch, with care and +interest, the operation of the moral and intellectual causes which he +sets in operation, and find, as he accomplishes his various objects with +increasing facility and power, that he will derive a greater and greater +pleasure from his work. + +Now when a teacher thus looks upon his school as a field in which he is +to exercise skill, and ingenuity, and enterprise; when he studies the +laws of human nature, and the character of those minds upon which he has +to act; when he explores deliberately the nature of the field which he +has to cultivate, and of the objects which he wishes to accomplish, and +applies means judiciously and skillfully adapted to the object, he must +necessarily take a strong interest in his work. But when, on the other +hand, he goes to his employment only to perform a certain regular round +of daily toil, undertaking nothing and anticipating nothing but this +dull and unchangeable routine, and when he looks upon his pupils merely +as passive objects of his labors, whom he is to treat with simple +indifference while they obey his commands, and to whom he is only to +apply reproaches and punishment when they do wrong, such a teacher never +can take pleasure in the school. Weariness and dullness must reign in +both master and scholars when things, as he imagines, are going right, +and mutual anger and crimination when they go wrong. + +[Illustration: School Master] + +Scholars never can be successfully instructed by the power of any dull +mechanical routine, nor can they be properly governed by the blind, +naked strength of the master; such means must fail of the accomplishment +of the purposes designed, and consequently the teacher who tries such a +course must have constantly upon his mind the discouraging, +disheartening burden of unsuccessful and almost useless labor. He is +continually uneasy, dissatisfied, and filled with anxious cares, and +sources of vexation and perplexity continually arise. He attempts to +remove evils by waging against them a useless and most vexatious warfare +of threatening and punishment; and he is trying continually _to drive_, +when he might know that neither the intellect nor the heart are capable +of being driven. + +I will simply state one case, to illustrate what I mean by the +difference between blind force and active ingenuity and enterprise in +the management of school. I once knew the teacher of a school who made +it his custom to have writing attended to in the afternoon. The school +was in the country, and it was the old times when quills, instead of +steel pens, were universally used. The boys were accustomed to take +their places at the appointed hour, and each one would set up his pen in +the front of his desk for the teacher to come and mend them. The teacher +would accordingly pass around the school-room, mending the pens, from +desk to desk, thus enabling the boys, in succession, to begin their +task. Of course, each boy, before the teacher came to his desk, was +necessarily idle, and, almost necessarily, in mischief. Day after day +the teacher went through this regular routine. He sauntered slowly and +listlessly through the aisles, and among the benches of the room, +wherever he saw the signal of a pen. He paid, of course, very little +attention to the writing, now and then reproving, with an impatient +tone, some extraordinary instance of carelessness, or leaving his work +to suppress some rising disorder. Ordinarily, however, he seemed to be +lost in vacancy of thought, dreaming, perhaps, of other scenes, or +inwardly repining at the eternal monotony and tedium of a teacher's +life. His boys took no interest in their work, and of course made no +progress. They were sometimes unnecessarily idle, and sometimes +mischievous, but never usefully or pleasantly employed, for the whole +hour was passed before the pens could all be brought down. Wasted time, +blotted books, and fretted tempers were all the results which the system +produced. + +The same teacher afterward acted on a very different principle. He +looked over the field, and said to himself, "What are the objects which +I wish to accomplish in this writing exercise, and how can I best +accomplish them? I wish to obtain the greatest possible amount of +industrious and careful practice in writing. The first thing evidently +is to save the wasted time." He accordingly made preparation for mending +the pens at a previous hour, so that all should be ready, at the +appointed time, to commence the work together. This could be done quite +as conveniently when the boys were engaged in studying, by requesting +them to put out their pens at an appointed and _previous_ time. He sat +at his table, and the pens of a whole bench were brought to him, and, +after being carefully mended, were returned, to be in readiness for the +writing hour. Thus the first difficulty, the loss of time, was obviated. + +"I must make them _industrious_ while they write," was his next thought. +After thinking of a variety of methods, he determined to try the +following: he required all to begin together at the top of the page, and +write the same line, in a hand of the same size. They were all required +to begin together, he himself beginning at the same time, and writing +about as fast as he thought they ought to write in order to secure the +highest improvement. When he had finished his line, he ascertained how +many had preceded him and how many were behind. He requested the first +to write slower, and the others faster; and by this means, after a few +trials, he secured uniform, regular, systematic, and industrious +employment throughout the school. Probably there were, at first, +difficulties in the operation of the plan, which he had to devise ways +and means to surmount; but what I mean to present particularly to the +reader is, that he was _interested in his experiments_. While sitting in +his desk, giving his command to _begin_ line after line, and noticing +the unbroken silence, and attention, and interest which prevailed (for +each boy was interested to see how nearly with the master he could +finish his work), while presiding over such a scene he must have been +interested. He must have been pleased with the exercise of his almost +military command, and to witness how effectually order and industry, and +excited and pleased attention, had taken the place of listless idleness +and mutual dissatisfaction. + +After a few days, he appointed one of the older and more judicious +scholars to give the word for beginning and ending the lines, and he sat +surveying the scene, or walking from desk to desk, noticing faults, and +considering what plans he could form for securing more and more fully +the end he had in view. He found that the great object of interest and +attention among the boys was to come out right, and that less pains were +taken with the formation of the letters than there ought to be to secure +the most rapid improvement. + +But how shall he secure greater pains? By stern commands and threats? By +going from desk to desk, scolding one, rapping the knuckles of another, +and holding up to ridicule a third, making examples of such individuals +as may chance to attract his special attention? No; he has learned that +he is operating upon a little empire of mind, and that he is not to +endeavor to drive them as a man drives a herd, by mere peremptory +command or half angry blows. He must study the nature of the effect that +he is to produce, and of the materials upon which he is to work, and +adopt, after mature deliberation, a plan to accomplish his purpose +founded upon the principles which ought always to regulate the action +of mind upon mind, and adapted to produce the _intellectual effect_ +which he wishes to accomplish. + +In the case supposed, the teacher concluded to appeal to emulation. +While I describe the measure he adopted, let it be remembered that I am +now only approving of the resort to ingenuity and invention, and the +employment of moral and intellectual means for the accomplishment of his +purposes, and not of the measures themselves. I am not sure the plan I +am going to describe is a wise one; but I am sure that the teacher, +while trying it, must _have been interested in his intellectual +experiment._ His business, while pursued in such a way, could not have +been a mere dull and uninteresting routine. + +He purchased, for three cents apiece, two long lead pencils--an article +of great value in the opinion of the boys of country schools--and he +offered them, as prizes, to the boy who would write most carefully; not +to the one who should write _best_, but to the one whose book should +exhibit most appearance of _effort_ and _care_ for a week. After +announcing his plan, he watched with strong interest its operation. He +walked round the room while the writing was in progress, to observe the +effect of his measure. He did not reprove those who were writing +carelessly; he simply noticed who and how many they were. He did not +commend those who were evidently making effort; he noticed who and how +many they were, that he might understand how far, and upon what sort of +minds, his experiment was successful, and where it failed. He was taking +a lesson in human nature--human nature as it exhibits itself in +boys--and was preparing to operate more and more powerfully by future +plans. + +The lesson which he learned by the experiment was this, that one or two +prizes will not influence the majority of a large school. A few of the +boys seemed to think that the pencils were possibly within their reach, +and _they_ made vigorous efforts to secure them; but the rest wrote on +as before. Thinking it certain that they should be surpassed by the +others, they gave up the contest at once in despair. + +The obvious remedy was to _multiply_ his prizes, so as to bring one of +them within the reach of all. He reflected, too, that the real prize, in +such a case, is not the value of the pencil, but the _honor of the +victory_; and as the honor of the victory might as well be coupled with +an object of less, as well as with one of greater value, the next week +he divided his two pencils into quarters, and offered to his pupils +eight prizes instead of two. He offered one to every five scholars, as +they sat on their benches, and every boy then saw that a reward would +certainly come within five of him. His chance, accordingly, instead of +being one in twenty, became one in five. + +Now is it possible for a teacher, after having philosophized upon the +nature of the minds upon which he is operating, and surveyed the field, +and ingeniously formed a plan, which plan he hopes will, through his own +intrinsic power, produce certain effects--is it possible for him, when +he comes, for the first day, to witness its operations, to come without +feeling a strong interest in the result? It is not possible. After +having formed such a plan, and made such arrangements, he will look +forward almost with impatience to the next writing-hour. He wishes to +see whether he has estimated the mental capacities and tendencies of his +little community aright; and when the time comes, and he surveys the +scene, and observes the operation of his measure, and sees many more are +reached by it than were influenced before, he feels a strong +gratification, and it is a gratification which is founded upon the +noblest principles of our nature. He is tracing, on a most interesting +field, the operation of cause and effect. From being the mere drudge, +who drives, without intelligence or thought, a score or two of boys to +their daily tasks, he rises to the rank of an intellectual philosopher, +exploring the laws and successfully controlling the tendencies of mind. + +It will be observed, too, that all the time this teacher was performing +these experiments, and watching with intense interest the results, his +pupils were going on undisturbed in their pursuits. The exercises in +writing were not interrupted or deranged. This is a point of fundamental +importance; for, if what I should say on the subject of exercising +ingenuity and contrivance in teaching should be the means, in any case, +of leading a teacher to break in upon the regular duties of his school, +and destroy the steady uniformity with which the great objects of such +an institution should be pursued, my remarks had better never have been +written. There may be variety in methods and plan, but, through all this +variety, the school, and every individual pupil of it, must go steadily +forward in the acquisition of that knowledge which is of greatest +importance in the business of future life. In other words, the +variations and changes admitted by the teacher ought to be mainly +confined to the modes of accomplishing those permanent objects to which +all the exercises and arrangements of the school ought steadily to aim. +More on this subject, however, in another chapter. + +I will mention one other circumstance, which will help to explain the +difference in interest and pleasure with which teachers engage in their +work. I mean the different views they take _of the offenses of their +pupils_. One class of teachers seem never to make it a part of their +calculation that their pupils will do wrong, and when, any misconduct +occurs they are discontented and irritated, and look and act as if some +unexpected occurrence had broken in upon their plans. Others understand +and consider all this beforehand. They seem to think a little, before +they go into their school, what sort of beings boys and girls are, and +any ordinary case of youthful delinquency or dullness does not surprise +them. I do not mean that they treat such cases with indifference or +neglect, but that they _expect_ them, and _are prepared for them_. Such +a teacher knows that boys and girls are the _materials_ he has to work +upon, and he takes care to make himself acquainted with these materials, +_just as they are_. The other class, however, do not seem to know at all +what sort of beings they have to deal with, or, if they know, do not +_consider_. They expect from them what is not to be obtained, and then +are disappointed and vexed at the failure. It is as if a carpenter +should attempt to support an entablature by pillars of wood too small +and weak for the weight, and then go on, from week to week, suffering +anxiety and irritation as he sees them swelling and splitting under the +burden, and finding fault _with the wood_ instead of taking it to +himself; or as if a plowman were to attempt to work a hard and stony +piece of ground with a poor team and a small plow, and then, when +overcome by the difficulties of the task, should vent his vexation and +anger in laying the blame on the ground instead of on the inadequate and +insufficient instrumentality which he had provided for subduing it. + +[Illustration] + +It is, of course, one essential part of a man's duty, in engaging in any +undertaking, whether it will lead him to act upon matter or upon mind, +to become first well acquainted with the circumstances of the case, the +materials he is to act upon, and the means which he may reasonably +expect to have at his command. If he underrates his difficulties, or +overrates the power of his means of overcoming them, it is his +mistake--a mistake for which _he_ is fully responsible. Whatever may be +the nature of the effect which he aims at accomplishing, he ought fully +to understand it, and to appreciate justly the difficulties which lie in +the way. + +Teachers, however, very often overlook this. A man comes home from his +school at night perplexed and irritated by the petty misconduct which he +has witnessed, and been trying to check. He does not, however, look +forward and endeavor to prevent the occasions of such misconduct, +adapting his measures to the nature of the material upon which he has to +operate, but he stands, like the carpenter at his columns, making +himself miserable in looking at it after it occurs, and wondering what +to do. + +"Sir," we might say to him, "what is the matter?" + +"Why, I have such boys I can do nothing with them. Were it not for +_their misconduct_, I might have a very good school." + +"Were it not for their misconduct? Why, is there any peculiar depravity +in them which you could not have foreseen?" + +"No; I suppose they are pretty much like all other boys," he replies, +despairingly; "they are all hair-brained and unmanageable. The plans I +have formed for my school would be excellent if my boys would only +behave properly." + +"Excellent plans," might we not reply, "and yet not adapted to the +materials upon which they are to operate! No. It is your business to +know what sort of beings boys are, and to make your calculations +accordingly." + +Two teachers may therefore manage their schools in totally different +ways, so that one of them may necessarily find the business a dull, +mechanical routine, except as it is occasionally varied by perplexity +and irritation, and the other a prosperous and happy employment. The one +goes on mechanically the same, and depends for his power on violence, or +on threats and demonstrations of violence. The other brings all his +ingenuity and enterprise into the field to accomplish a steady purpose +by means ever varying, and depends for his power on his knowledge of +human nature, and on the adroit adaptation of plans to her fixed and +uniform tendencies. + +I am very sorry, however, to be obliged to say that probably the latter +class of teachers are decidedly in the minority. To practice the art in +such a way as to make it an agreeable employment is difficult, and it +requires much knowledge of human nature, much attention and skill. And, +after all, there are some circumstances necessarily attending the work +which constitute a heavy drawback on the pleasures which it might +otherwise afford. The almost universal impression that the business of +teaching is attended with peculiar trials and difficulties proves this. + +There must be some cause for an impression so general. It is not right +to call it a prejudice, for, although a single individual may conceive a +prejudice, whole communities very seldom do, unless in some case which +is presented at once to the whole, so that, looking at it through a +common medium, all judge wrong together. But the general opinion in +regard to teaching is composed of a vast number of _separate_ and +_independent_ judgments, and there must be some good ground for the +universal result. + +It is best, therefore, if there are any real and peculiar sources of +trial and difficulty in this pursuit, that they should be distinctly +known and acknowledged at the outset. Count the cost before going to +war. It is even better policy to overrate than to underrate it. Let us +see, then, what the real difficulties of teaching are. + +It is not, however, as is generally supposed, _the confinement._ A +teacher is confined, it is true, but not more than men of other +professions and employments; not more than a merchant, and probably not +as much. A physician is confined in a different way, but more closely +than a teacher: he can never leave home: he knows generally no +vacation, and nothing but accidental rest. + +The lawyer is confined as much. It is true there are not throughout the +year exact hours which he must keep, but, considering the imperious +demands of his business, his personal liberty is probably restrained as +much by it as that of the teacher. So with all the other professions. +Although the nature of the confinement may vary, it amounts to about the +same in all. On the other hand, the teacher enjoys, in reference to this +subject of confinement, an advantage which scarcely any other class of +men does or can enjoy. I mean vacations. A man in any other business may +_force_ himself away from it for a time, but the cares and anxieties of +his business will follow him wherever he goes. It seems to be reserved +for the teacher to enjoy alone the periodical luxury of a _real and +entire release from business and care_. On the whole, as to confinement, +it seems to me that the teacher has little ground of complaint. + +There are, however, some real and serious difficulties which always +have, and, it is to be feared, always will, cluster around this +employment; and which must, for a long time, at least, lead most men to +desire some other employment for the business of life. There may perhaps +be some who, by their peculiar skill, can overcome or avoid them, and +perhaps the science of teaching may, at some future day, be so far +improved that all may avoid them. As I describe them, however, now, most +of the teachers into whose hands this treatise may fall will probably +find that their own experience corresponds, in this respect, with mine. + +1. The first great difficulty which the teacher feels is a sort of +_moral responsibility for the conduct of others_. If his pupils do +wrong, he feels almost personal responsibility for it. As he walks out +some afternoon, wearied with his labors, and endeavoring to forget, for +a little time, all his cares, he comes upon a group of boys in rude and +noisy quarrels, or engaged in mischief of some sort, and his heart +sinks within him. It is hard enough for any one to witness their bad +conduct with a spirit unruffled and undisturbed, but for their teacher +it is perhaps impossible. He feels _responsible_; in fact, he is +responsible. If his scholars are disorderly, or negligent, or idle, or +quarrelsome, he feels _condemned himself_ almost as if he were himself +the actual transgressor. + +This difficulty is, in a great degree, peculiar to a teacher. A +physician is called upon to prescribe for a patient; he examines the +case, and writes his prescription. When this is done his duty is ended; +and whether the patient obeys the prescription and lives, or neglects it +and dies, the physician feels exonerated from all responsibility. He +may, and in some cases does, feel _anxious concern_, and may regret the +infatuation by which, in some unhappy case, a valuable life may be +hazarded or destroyed. But he feels no _moral responsibility_ for +another's guilt. + +It is so with all the other employments in life. They do, indeed, often +bring men into collision with other men. But, though sometimes vexed and +irritated by the conduct of a neighbor, a client, or a patient, they +feel not half the bitterness of the solicitude and anxiety which come to +the teacher through the criminality of his pupil. In ordinary cases he +not only feels responsible for efforts, but for their results; and when, +notwithstanding all his efforts, his pupils will do wrong, his spirit +sinks with an intensity of anxious despondency which none but a teacher +can understand. + +This feeling of something very like _moral accountability for the guilt +of other persons_ is a continual burden. The teacher in the presence of +the pupil never is free from it. It links him to them by a bond which +perhaps he ought not to sunder, and which he can not sunder if he would. +And sometimes, when those committed to his charge are idle, or +faithless, or unprincipled, it wears away his spirits and his health +together. I think there is nothing analogous to this moral connection +between teacher and pupil unless it be in the case of a parent and +child. And here, on account of the comparative smallness of the number +under the parent's care, the evil is so much diminished that it is +easily borne. + +2. The second great difficulty of the teacher's employments is _the +immense multiplicity of the objects of his attention and care_ during +the time he is employed in his business. His scholars are individuals, +and notwithstanding all that the most systematic can do in the way of +classification, they must be attended to in a great measure as +individuals. A merchant keeps his commodities together, and looks upon a +cargo composed of ten thousand articles, and worth a hundred thousand +dollars, as one; he speaks of it as one; and there is, in many cases, no +more perplexity in planning its destination than if it were a single box +of raisins. A lawyer may have a great many important cases, but he has +only one at a time; that is, he _attends_ to but one at a time. The one +may be intricate, involving many facts, and requiring to be examined in +many aspects and relations. But he looks at but few of these facts and +regards but few of these relations at a time. The points which demand +his attention come one after another in regular succession. His mind may +thus be kept calm. He avoids confusion and perplexity. But no skill or +classification will turn the poor teacher's hundred scholars into one, +or enable him, except to a very limited extent, and for a very limited +purpose, to regard them as one. He has a distinct and, in many respects, +a different work to do for every one of the crowd before him. +Difficulties must be explained in detail, questions must be answered one +by one, and each scholar's own conduct must be considered by itself. His +work is thus made up of a thousand minute particulars, which are all +crowding upon his attention at once, and which he can not group +together, or combine, or simplify. He must, by some means or other, +attend to them in all their distracting individuality. And, in a large +and complicated school, the endless multiplicity and variety of objects +of attention and care impose a task under which few intellects can long +stand. + +I have said that this endless multiplicity and variety can not be +reduced and simplified by classification. I mean, of course, that this +can be done only to a very limited extent compared with what may be +effected in the other pursuits of mankind. Were it not for the art of +classification and system, no school could have more than ten scholars, +as I intend hereafter to show. The great reliance of the teacher is upon +this art, to reduce to some tolerable order what would otherwise be the +inextricable confusion of his business. He _must be systematic_. He must +classify and arrange; but, after he has done all that he can, he must +still expect that his daily business will continue to consist of a vast +multitude of minute particulars, from one to another of which the mind +must turn with a rapidity which few of the other employments of life +ever demand. + +These are the essential sources of difficulty with which the teacher has +to contend; but, as I shall endeavor to show in succeeding chapters, +though they can not be entirely removed, they can be so far mitigated by +the appropriate means as to render the employment a happy one. I have +thought it best, however, as this work will doubtless be read by many +who, when they read it, are yet to begin their labors, to describe +frankly and fully to them the difficulties which beset the path they are +about to enter. "The wisdom of the prudent is to understand his way." It +is often wisdom to understand it beforehand. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS. + + +The distraction and perplexity of the teacher's life are, as was +explained in the last chapter, almost proverbial. There are other +pressing and exhausting pursuits, which wear away the spirit by the +ceaseless care which they impose, or perplex and bewilder the intellect +by the multiplicity and intricacy of their details; but the business of +teaching, by a pre-eminence not very enviable, stands, almost by common +consent, at the head of the catalogue. + +I have already alluded to this subject in the preceding chapter, and +probably the majority of actual teachers will admit the truth of the +view there presented. Some will, however, doubtless say that they do not +find the business of teaching so perplexing and exhausting an +employment. They take things calmly. They do one thing at a time, and +that without useless solicitude and anxiety. So that teaching, with +them, though it has, indeed, its solicitudes and cares, as every other +responsible employment must necessarily have, is, after all, a calm and +quiet pursuit, which they follow from month to month, and from year to +year, without any extraordinary agitations, or any unusual burdens of +anxiety and care. + +There are, indeed, such cases, but they are exceptions, and +unquestionably a considerable majority, especially of those who are +beginners in the work, find it such as I have described. I think it need +not be so, or, rather, I think the evil may be avoided to _a very great +degree_. In this chapter I shall endeavor to show how order may be +produced out of that almost inextricable mass of confusion into which so +many teachers, on commencing their labors, find themselves plunged. + +The objects, then, to be aimed at in the general arrangements of schools +are twofold: + + 1. That the teacher may be left uninterrupted, to attend to one thing + at a time. + + 2. That the individual scholars may have constant employment, and such + an amount and such kinds of study as shall be suited to the + circumstances and capacities of each. + +I shall examine each in their order. + + 1. The following are the principal things which, in a vast number of + schools, are all the time pressing upon the teacher; or, rather, they + are the things which must every where press upon the teacher, except so + far as, by the skill of his arrangements, he contrives to remove them. + + 1. Giving leave to whisper or to leave seats. + 2. Distributing and changing pens. + 3. Answering questions in regard to studies. + 4. Hearing recitations. + 5. Watching the behavior of the scholars. + 6. Administering reproof and punishment for offenses as they occur. + +A pretty large number of objects of attention and care, one would say, +to be pressing upon the mind of the teacher at one and the same +time--and _all the time_ too! Hundreds and hundreds of teachers in every +part of our country, there is no doubt, have all these crowding upon +them from morning to night, with no cessation, except perhaps some +accidental and momentary respite. During the winter months, while the +principal common schools in our country are in operation, it is sad to +reflect how many teachers come home every evening with bewildered and +aching heads, having been vainly trying all the day to do six things at +a time, while He who made the human mind has determined that it shall do +but one. How many become discouraged and disheartened by what they +consider the unavoidable trials of a teacher's life, and give up in +despair, just because their faculties will not sustain a six-fold task. +There are multitudes who, in early life, attempted teaching, and, after +having been worried, almost to distraction, by the simultaneous pressure +of these multifarious cares, gave up the employment in disgust, and now +unceasingly wonder how any body can like teaching. I know multitudes of +persons to whom the above description will exactly apply. + +I once heard a teacher who had been very successful, even in large +schools, say that he could hear two classes recite, mend pens, and watch +his school all at the same time, and that without any distraction of +mind or any unusual fatigue. Of course the recitations in such a case +must be from memory. There are very few minds, however, which can thus +perform triple or quadruple work, and probably none which can safely be +tasked so severely. For my part, I can do but one thing at a time; and I +have no question that the true policy for all is to learn not _to do +every thing at once_, but so to classify and arrange their work that +_they shall have but one thing at once to do_. Instead of vainly +attempting to attend simultaneously to a dozen things, they should so +plan their work that only _one_ will demand attention. + +Let us, then, examine the various particulars above mentioned in +succession, and see how each can be disposed of, so as not to be a +constant source of interruption and derangement. + +1. _Whispering_ and _leaving seats_. In regard to this subject there +are very different methods now in practice in different schools. In +some, especially in very small schools, the teacher allows the pupils to +act according to their own discretion. They whisper and leave their +seats whenever they think it necessary. This plan may possibly be +admissible in a very small school, that is, in one of ten or twelve +pupils. I am convinced, however, that it is a very bad plan even here. +No vigilant watch which it is possible for any teacher to exert will +prevent a vast amount of mere talk entirely foreign to the business of +the school. I tried this plan very thoroughly, with high ideas of the +dependence which might be placed upon conscience and a sense of duty, if +these principles are properly brought out to action in an effort to +sustain the system. I was told by distinguished teachers that it would +not be found to answer. But predictions of failure in such cases only +prompt to greater exertions, and I persevered. But I was forced at last +to give up the point, and adopt another plan. My pupils would make +resolutions enough; they understood their duty well enough. They were +allowed to leave their seats and whisper to their companions whenever, +_in their honest judgment, it was necessary for the prosecution of their +studies_. I knew that it sometimes would be necessary, and I was +desirous to adopt this plan to save myself the constant interruption of +hearing and replying to requests. But it would not do. Whenever, from +time to time, I called them to account, I found that a large majority, +according to their own confession, were in the habit of holding daily +and deliberate communication with each other on subjects entirely +foreign to the business of the school. A more experienced teacher would +have predicted this result; but I had very high ideas of the power of +cultivated conscience, and, in fact, still have. But then, like most +other persons who become possessed of a good idea, I could not be +satisfied without carrying it to an extreme. + +Still it is necessary, in ordinary schools, to give pupils sometimes +the opportunity to whisper and leave seats.[1] Cases occur where this is +unavoidable. It can not, therefore, be forbidden altogether. How, then, +you will ask, can the teacher regulate this practice, so as to prevent +the evils which will otherwise flow from it, without being continually +interrupted by the request for permission? + +[Footnote 1: There are some large and peculiarly-organized schools in +cities and large towns to which this remark may perhaps not apply.] + +By a very simple method. _Appropriate particular times at which all this +business is to be done_, and _forbid it altogether_ at every other time. +It is well, on other accounts, to give the pupils of a school a little +respite, at least every hour; and if this is done, an intermission of +study for two minutes each time will be sufficient. During this time +_general_ permission should be given for the pupils to speak to each +other, or to leave their seats, provided they do nothing at such a time +to disturb the studies of others. This plan I have myself very +thoroughly tested, and no arrangement which I ever made operated for so +long a time so uninterruptedly and so entirely to my satisfaction as +this. It of course will require some little time, and no little +firmness, to establish the new order of things where a school has been +accustomed to another course; but where this is once done, I know no one +plan so simple and so easily put into execution which will do so much +toward relieving the teacher of the distraction and perplexity of his +pursuits. + +In making the change, however, it is of fundamental importance that the +pupils should themselves be interested in it. Their co-operation, or, +rather, the co-operation of the majority, which it is very easy to +obtain, is absolutely essential to success. I say this is very easily +obtained. Let us suppose that some teacher, who has been accustomed to +require his pupils to ask and obtain permission every time they wish to +speak to a companion, is induced by these remarks to introduce this +plan. He says, accordingly, to his school, + +"You know that you are now accustomed to ask me whenever you wish to +obtain permission to whisper to a companion or to leave your seats; now +I have been thinking of a plan which will be better for both you and me. +By our present plan you are sometimes obliged to wait before I can +attend to your request. Sometimes I think it is unnecessary, and deny +you, when perhaps I was mistaken, and it was really necessary. At other +times, I think it very probable that when it is quite desirable for you +to leave your seat you do not ask, because you think you may not obtain +permission, and you do not wish to ask and be refused. Do you, or not, +experience these inconveniences from our present plans?" + +The pupils would undoubtedly answer in the affirmative. + +"I myself experience great inconvenience too. I am very frequently +interrupted when busily engaged, and it also occupies a great portion of +my time and attention to consider and answer your requests for +permission to speak to one another and to leave your seats. It requires +as much mental effort to consider and decide whether I ought to allow a +pupil to leave his seat, as it would to determine a much more important +question; therefore I do not like our present plan, and I have another +to propose." + +The pupils are now all attention to know what the new plan is. It will +always be of great advantage to the school for the teacher to propose +his new plans from time to time to his pupils in such a way as this. It +interests them in the improvement of the school, exercises their +judgment, establishes a common feeling between teacher and pupil, and in +many other ways assists very much in promoting the welfare of the +school. + +"My plan," continues the teacher, "is this: to allow you all, besides +the recess, a short time, two or three minutes perhaps, every hour" (or +every half hour, according to the character of the school, the age of +the pupils, or other circumstances, to be judged of by the teacher), +"during which you may all whisper or leave your seats _without_ asking +permission." + +Instead of deciding the question of the _frequency_ of this general +permission, the teacher may, if he pleases, leave it to the pupils to +decide. It is often useful to leave the decision of such a question to +them. On this subject, however, I shall speak in another place. It is +only necessary here to say that _this_ point may be safely left to them, +since the time is so small which is to be thus appropriated. Even if +they vote to have the general permission to whisper every half hour, it +will make but eight minutes in the forenoon. There being six half hours +in the forenoon, and one of them ending at the close of school, and +another at the recess, only _four_ of these _rests_, as a military man +would call them, would be necessary; and four, of two minutes each, +would make eight minutes. If the teacher thinks that evil would result +from the interruption of the studies so often, he may offer the pupils +_three_ minutes rest every _hour_ instead of _two_ minutes every _half +hour_, and let them take their choice; or he may decide the case +altogether himself. + +Such a change, from _particular permission on individual requests_ to +_general permission_ at _stated times_, would unquestionably be popular +in every school, if the teacher managed the business properly. And by +presenting it as an object of common interest, an arrangement proposed +for the common convenience of teacher and pupils, the latter may be much +interested in carrying the plan into effect. We must not rely, however, +entirely upon their _interest in it_. All that we can expect from such +an effort to interest them, as I have described and recommended, is to +get a majority on our side, so that we may have only a small minority to +deal with by other measures. Still, _we must calculate on having this +minority, and form our plans accordingly_, or we shall be greatly +disappointed. I shall, however, in another place, speak of this +principle of interesting the pupils in our plans for the purpose of +securing a majority in our favor, and explain the methods by which the +minority is then to be governed. I only mean here to say that, by such +means, the teacher may easily interest a large proportion of the +scholars in carrying his plans into effect, and that he must expect to +be prepared with other measures for those who will not be governed by +these. + +You can not reasonably expect, however, that, immediately after having +explained your plan, it will at once go into full and complete +operation. Even those who are firmly determined to keep the rule will, +from inadvertence, for a day or two, make communication with each other. +They must be _trained_, not by threatening and punishment, but by your +good-humored assistance, to their new duties. When I first adopted this +plan in my school, something like the following proceedings took place. + +"Do you suppose that you will perfectly keep this rule from this time?" + +"No, sir," was the answer. + +"I suppose you will not. Some, I am afraid, may not really be determined +to keep it, and others will forget. Now I wish that every one of you +would keep an exact account to-day of all the instances in which you +speak to another person, or leave your seat, out of the regular times, +and be prepared to report them at the close of the school. Of course, +there will be no punishment; but it will very much assist you to watch +yourselves, if you expect to make a report at the end of the forenoon. +Do you like this plan?" + +"Yes, sir," was the answer; and all seemed to enter into it with spirit. + +In order to mark more definitely the times for communication, I wrote, +in large letters, on a piece of pasteboard, "STUDY HOURS," and making a +hole over the centre of it, I hung it upon a nail over my desk. At the +close of each half hour a little bell was to be struck, and this card +was to be taken down. When it was up, they were, on no occasion whatever +(except some such extraordinary occurrence as sickness, or my sending +one of them on a message to another, or something clearly out of the +common course) to speak to each other; but were to wait, whatever they +wanted, until the _Study Card_, as they called it, was taken down. + +"Suppose now," said I, "that a young lady has come into school, and has +accidentally left her book in the entry--the book from which she is to +study during the first half hour of the school. She sits near the door, +and she might, in a moment, slip out and obtain it. If she does not, she +must spend the half hour in idleness, and be unprepared in her lesson. +What is it her duty to do?" + +"To go," "Not to go," answered the scholars, simultaneously. + +"It would be her duty _not_ to go; but I suppose it will be very +difficult for me to convince you of it. + +"The reason is this," I continued; "if the one case I have supposed were +the _only_ one which would be likely to occur, it would undoubtedly be +better for her to go; but if it is understood that in such cases the +rule may be dispensed with, that understanding will tend very much to +cause such cases to occur. Scholars will differ in regard to the degree +of inconvenience which they must submit to rather than break the rule. +They will gradually do it on slighter and slighter occasions, until at +last the rule will be disregarded entirely. We must therefore draw a +_precise line_, and individuals must submit to a little inconvenience +sometimes to promote the general good." + +At the close of the day I requested all in the school to rise. While +they were standing, I called them to account in the following manner: + +"Now it is very probable that some have, from inadvertence or from +design, omitted to keep an account of the number of transgressions of +the rule which they have committed during the day; others, perhaps, do +not wish to make a report of themselves. Now as this is a common and +voluntary effort, I wish to have none render assistance who do not, of +their own accord, desire to do so. All those, therefore, who are not +able to make a report, from not having been correct in keeping it, and +all those who are unwilling to report themselves, may sit." + +A very small number hesitatingly took their seats. + +"I am afraid that all do not sit who really wish not to report +themselves. Now I am honest in saying I wish you to do just as you +please. If a great majority of the school really wish to assist me in +accomplishing the object, why, of course, I am glad; still, I shall not +call upon any for such assistance unless it is freely and voluntarily +rendered." + +One or two more took their seats while these things were saying. Among +such there would generally be some who would refuse to have any thing to +do with the measure simply from a desire to thwart and impede the plans +of the teacher. If so, it is best to take no notice of them. If the +teacher can contrive to obtain a great majority upon his side, so as to +let them see that any opposition which they can raise is of no +consequence and is not even noticed, they will soon be ashamed of it. + +The reports, then, of those who remained standing were called for; +first, those who had whispered only once were requested to sit, then +those who had whispered more than once and less than five times, and so +on, until at last all were down. In such a case the pupils might, if +thought expedient, again be requested to rise for the purpose of asking +some other questions with reference to ascertaining whether they had +spoken most in the former or latter part of the forenoon. The number who +had spoken inadvertently, and the number who had done it by design, +might be ascertained. These inquiries accustom the pupils to render +honest and faithful accounts themselves. They become, by such means, +familiarized to the practice, and by means of it the teacher can many +times receive most important assistance. + +In all this, however, the teacher should speak in a pleasant tone, and +maintain a pleasant and cheerful air. The acknowledgments should be +considered by the pupils not as confessions of guilt for which they are +to be rebuked or punished, but as voluntary and free reports of the +result of _an experiment_ in which all were interested. + +Some will have been dishonest in their reports: to diminish the number +of these, the teacher may say, after the report is concluded, + +"We will drop the subject here to-day. To-morrow we will make another +effort, when we shall be more successful. I have taken your reports as +you have offered them without any inquiry, because I had no doubt that a +great majority of this school would be honest at all hazards. They would +not, I am confident, make a false report even if, by a true one, they +were to bring upon themselves punishment; so that I think I may have +confidence that nearly all these reports have been faithful. Still it is +very probable that among so large a number some may have made a report +which, they are now aware, was not perfectly fair and honest. I do not +wish to know who they are; if there are any such cases, I only wish to +say to the rest how much pleasanter it is for you that you have been +honest and open. The business is now all ended; you have done your duty; +and, though you reported a little larger number than you would if you +had been disposed to conceal your faults, yet you go away from school +with a quiet conscience. On the other hand, how miserable must any boy +feel, if he has any nobleness of mind whatever, to go away from school +to-day thinking that he has not been honest; that he has been trying to +conceal his faults, and thus to obtain a credit which he did not justly +deserve. Always be honest, let the consequence be what it may." + +The reader will understand that the object of such measures is simply +_to secure as large a majority as possible_ to make _voluntary_ efforts +to observe the rule. I do not expect that by such measures _universal_ +obedience can be exacted. The teacher must follow up the plan after a +few days by other measures for those pupils who will not yield to such +inducements as these. Upon this subject, however, I shall speak more +particularly at a future time. + +In my own school it required two or three weeks to exclude whispering +and communication by signs. The period necessary to effect the +revolution will be longer or shorter, according to the circumstances of +the school and the dexterity of the teacher; and, after all, the teacher +must not hope _entirely_ to exclude it. Approximation to excellence is +all that we can expect; for unprincipled and deceiving characters will +perhaps always be found, and no system whatever can prevent their +existence. Proper treatment may indeed be the means of their +reformation, but before this process has arrived at a successful result, +others similar in character will have entered the school, so that the +teacher can never expect perfection in the operation of any of his +plans. + +I found so much relief from the change which this plan introduced, that +I soon took measures for rendering it permanent; and though I am not +much in favor of efforts to bring all teachers and all schools to the +same plans, this principle of _whispering at limited and prescribed +times alone_ seems to me well suited to universal adoption. + +The following simple apparatus has been used in several schools where +this principle has been adopted. A drawing and description of it is +inserted here, as by this means some teachers, who may like to try the +course here recommended, may be saved the time and trouble of contriving +something of the kind themselves. + +The figure _a a a a_ on the next page is a board about 18 inches by 12, +to which the other parts of the apparatus are to be attached, and which +is to be secured to the wall at the height of about 8 feet, and _b c d +c_ is a plate of tin or brass, 8 inches by 12, of the form represented +in the drawing. At _c c_, the lower extremities of the parts at the +sides, the metal is bent round, so as to clasp a wire which runs from +_c_ to _c_, the ends of which wire are bent at right angles, and run +into the board. The plate will consequently turn on this axis as on a +hinge. At the top of the plate, _d_, a small projection of the tin turns +inward, and to this one end of the cord, _m m_, is attached. This cord +passes back from _d_ to a small pulley at the upper part of the board, +and at the lower end of it a tassel, loaded so as to be an exact +counterpoise to the card, is attached. By raising the tassel, the plate +will of course fall over forward till it is stopped by the part _b_ +striking the board, when it will be in a horizontal position. On the +other hand, by pulling down the tassel, the plate will be raised and +drawn upward against the board, so as to present its convex surface, +with the words STUDY HOURS upon it, distinctly to the school. In the +drawing it is represented in an inclined position, being not quite drawn +up, that the parts might more easily be seen. At _d_ there is a small +projection of the tin upward, which touches the clapper of the bell +suspended above every time the plate passes up or down, and thus gives +notice of its motions. + +[Illustration] + +Of course the construction may be varied very much, and it may be more +or less expensive, according to the wishes of the teacher. In the first +apparatus of this kind which I used, the plate was simply a card of +pasteboard, from which the machine took its name. This was cut out with +a penknife, and, after being covered with marble-paper, a strip of white +paper was pasted along the middle with the inscription upon it. The wire +_c c_, and a similar one at the top of the plate, were passed through a +perforation in the pasteboard, and then passed into the board. Instead +of a pulley, the cord, which was a piece of twine, was passed through a +little staple made of wire and driven into the board. The whole was made +in one or two recesses in school, with such tools and materials as I +could then command. The bell was a common table bell, with a wire +passing through the handle. The whole was attached to such a piece of +pine board as I could get on the occasion. This coarse contrivance was, +for more than a year, the grand regulator of all the movements of the +school. + +I afterward caused one to be made in a better manner. The plate was of +tin, gilded, the border and the letters of the inscription being black. +A parlor bell-rope was carried over a brass pulley, and then passed +downward in a groove made in the mahogany board to which the card was +attached. + +A little reflection will, however, show the teacher that the form and +construction of the apparatus for marking the times of study and of rest +may be greatly varied. The chief point is simply to secure the +_principle_ of whispering at definite and limited times, and at those +alone. If such an arrangement is adopted, and carried faithfully into +effect, it will be found to relieve the teacher of more than half of the +confusion and perplexity which would otherwise be his hourly lot. I have +detailed thus particularly the method to be pursued in carrying this +principle into effect, because I am convinced of its importance, and the +incalculable assistance which such an arrangement will afford to the +teacher in all his plans. Of course, I would not be understood to recommend +its adoption in those cases where teachers, from their own experience, +have devised and adopted _other_ plans which accomplish as effectually +the same purpose. All that I mean is to insist upon the absolute +necessity of _some_ plan, to remove this very common source of +interruption and confusion, and I recommend this mode where a better is +not known. + +2. The second of the sources of interruption, as I have enumerated them, +is the distribution of pens and of stationery. This business ought, if +possible, to have a specific time assigned to it. Scholars are, in +general, far too particular in regard to their pens. The teacher ought +to explain to them that, in the transaction of the ordinary business of +life, they can not always have exactly such a pen as they would like. +They must learn to write with various kinds of pens, and when furnished +with one that the teacher himself would consider suitable to write a +letter to a friend with, he must be content. They should understand that +the _form_ of the letters is what is important in learning to write, not +the smoothness and clearness of the hair lines; and that though writing +looks better when executed with a perfect pen, a person may _learn_ to +write nearly as well with one which is not absolutely perfect. So +certain is this, though often overlooked, that a person would perhaps +learn faster with chalk, upon a black board, than with the best +goose-quill ever sharpened. + +I do not make these remarks to show that it is of no consequence whether +scholars have good or bad pens, but only that this subject deserves very +much less of the time and attention of the teacher than it usually +receives. When the scholars are allowed, as they very often are, to come +when they please to change their pens, breaking in upon any +business--interrupting any classes--perplexing and embarrassing the +teacher, however he may be employed, there is a very serious obstruction +to the progress of the scholars, which is by no means repaid by the +improvement in this branch. + +To guard against these evils, a regular and well-considered system +should be adopted for the distribution of pens and stationary, and when +adopted it should be strictly and steadily adhered to. + +3. Answering questions about studies. A teacher who does not adopt some +system in regard to this subject will be always at the mercy of his +scholars. One boy will want to know how to parse a word, another where +the lesson is, another to have a sum explained, and a fourth will wish +to show his work to see if it is right. The teacher does not like to +discourage such inquiries. Each one, as it comes up, seems necessary; +each one, too, is answered in a moment; but the endless number and the +continual repetition of them consume his time and exhaust his patience. + +There is another view of the subject which ought to be taken. Perhaps it +would not be far from the truth to estimate the average number of +scholars in the schools in our country at fifty. At any rate, this will +be near enough for our present purpose. There are three hours in each +session, according to the usual arrangement, making one hundred and +eighty minutes, which, divided among fifty, give about three minutes and +a half to each individual. If the reader has, in his own school, a +greater or a less number, he can easily correct the above calculation, +so as to adapt it to his own case, and ascertain the portion which may +justly be appropriated to each pupil. It will probably vary from two to +four minutes. Now a period of four minutes slips away very fast while a +man is looking over perplexing figures on a slate, and if he exceeds +that time at all in individual attention to any one scholar, he is doing +injustice to his other pupils. I do not mean that a man is to confine +himself rigidly to the principle suggested by this calculation of +cautiously appropriating no more time to any one of his pupils than such +a calculation would assign to each, but simply that this is a point +which should be kept in view, and should have a very strong influence in +deciding how far it is right to devote attention exclusively to +individuals. It seems to me that it shows very clearly that one ought +to teach his pupils, as much as possible, _in masses_, and as little as +possible by private attention to individual cases. + +The following directions will help the teacher to carry these principles +into effect. When you assign a lesson, glance over it yourself, and +consider what difficulties are likely to arise. You know the progress +which your pupils have made, and can easily anticipate their +difficulties. Tell them all together, in the class, what their +difficulties will be, and how they may surmount them. Give them +directions how they are to act in the emergencies which will be likely +to occur. This simple step will remove a vast number of the questions +which would otherwise become occasions for interrupting you. With regard +to other difficulties, which can not be foreseen and guarded against, +direct the pupils to bring them to the class at the next recitation. +Half a dozen of the class might, and very probably would, meet with the +same difficulty. If they bring this difficulty to you one by one, you +have to explain it over and over again, whereas, when it is brought to +the class, one explanation answers for all. + +As to all questions about the lesson--where it is, what it is, and how +long it is--never answer them. Require each pupil to remember for +himself, and if he was absent when the lesson was assigned, let him ask +his class-mate in a rest. + +You _may_ refuse to give particular individuals the private assistance +they ask for in such a way as to discourage and irritate them, but this +is by no means necessary. It can be done in such a manner that the pupil +will see the propriety of it, and acquiesce pleasantly in it. + +A child comes to you, for example, and says, + +"Will you tell me, sir, where the next lesson is?" + +"Were you not in the class at the time?" + +"Yes, sir; but I have forgotten." + +"Well, I have forgotten too. I have a great many classes to hear, and, +of course, great many lessons to assign, and I never remember them. It +is not necessary for me to remember." + +"May I speak to one of the class to ask about it?" + +"You can not speak, you know, till the Study Card is down; you may +then." + +"But I want to get my lesson now." + +"I don't know what you will do, then. I am sorry you don't remember. + +"Besides," continues the teacher, looking pleasantly, however, while he +says it, "if I knew, I think I ought not to tell you." + +"Why, sir?" + +"Because, you know, I have said I wish the scholars to remember where +the lessons are, and not come to me. You know it would be very unwise +for me, after assigning a lesson once for all in the class, to spend my +time here at my desk in assigning it over again to each individual one +by one. Now if I should tell _you_ where the lesson is now, I should +have to tell others, and thus should adopt a practice which I have +condemned." + +Take another case. You assign to a class of little girls a subject of +composition, requesting them to copy their writing upon a sheet of +paper, leaving a margin an inch wide at the top, and one of half an inch +at the sides and bottom. The class take their seats, and, after a short +time, one of them comes to you, saying she does not know how long an +inch is. + +"Don't you know any thing about it?" + +"No, sir, not much." + +"Should you think _that_ is more or less than an inch?" (pointing to a +space on a piece of paper much too large). + +"More." + +"Then you know something about it. Now I did not tell you to make the +margins _exactly_ an inch and half an inch, but only as near as you +could judge?" + +"Would _that_ be about right?" asks the girl, showing a distance. + +"I must not tell you, because, you know, I never in such cases help +individuals; if that is as near as you can get it, you may make it so." + +It may be well, after assigning a lesson to a class, to say that all +those who do not distinctly understand what they have to do may remain +after the class have taken their seats, and ask: the task may then be +distinctly assigned again, and the difficulties, so far as they can be +foreseen, explained. + +By such means these sources of interruption and difficulty may, like the +others, be almost entirely removed. Perhaps not altogether, for many +cases may occur where the teacher may choose to give a particular class +permission to come to him for help. Such permission, however, ought +never to be given unless it is absolutely necessary, and should never be +allowed to be taken unless it is distinctly given. + +4. Hearing recitations. I am aware that many attempt to do something +else at the same time that they are hearing a recitation, and there may +perhaps be some individuals who can succeed in this. If the exercise to +which the teacher is attending consists merely in listening to the +reciting word for word some passage committed to memory, it can be done. +I hope, however, to show in a future chapter that there are other and +far higher objects which every teacher ought to have in view in his +recitations, and he who understands these objects, and aims at +accomplishing them--who endeavors to _instruct_ his class, to enlarge +and elevate their ideas, to awaken a deep and paramount interest in the +subject which they are examining, will find that his time must be his +own, and his attention uninterrupted while he is presiding at a class. +All the other exercises and arrangements of the school are, in fact, +preparatory and subsidiary to this. Here, that is, in the classes, the +real business of teaching is to be done. Here the teacher comes in +contact with his scholars mind with mind, and here, consequently, he +must be uninterrupted and undisturbed. I shall speak more particularly +on this subject hereafter under the head of instruction; all I wish to +secure in this place is that the teacher should make such arrangements +that he can devote his exclusive attention to his classes while he is +actually engaged with them. + +Each recitation, too, should have its specified time, which should be +adhered to with rigid accuracy. If any thing like the plan I have +suggested for allowing rests of a minute or two every half hour should +be adopted, it will mark off the forenoon into parts which ought to be +precisely and carefully observed. I was formerly accustomed to think +that I could not limit the time for my recitations without great +inconvenience, and occasionally allowed one exercise to encroach upon +the succeeding, and this upon the next, and thus sometimes the last was +excluded altogether. But such a lax and irregular method of procedure is +ruinous to the discipline of a school. On perceiving it at last, I put +the bell into the hands of a pupil, commissioning her to ring regularly, +having myself fixed the times, saying that I would show my pupils that I +could be confined myself to system as well as they. At first I +experienced a little inconvenience; but this soon disappeared, and at +last the hours and half hours of our artificial division entirely +superseded, in the school-room, the divisions of the clock face. I +found, too, that it exerted an extremely favorable influence upon the +scholars in respect to their willingness to submit readily to the +necessary restrictions imposed upon them in school, to show them that +the teacher was subject to law as well as they. + +But, in order that I may be specific and definite, I will draw up a plan +for the regular division of time, for a common school, not to be +_adopted_, but to be _imitated_; that is, I do not recommend exactly +this plan, but that some plan, precise and specific, should be +determined upon, and exhibited to the school by a diagram like the +following: + +FORENOON. +IX. X. XI. XII. ++---------+---------+---+---+------------+ +|READING. |WRITING. |R. |G. |ARITHMETIC. | ++----+----+----+----+---+---+-----+------+ +| | | | | | | | | +| | | | | | | | | +| | | | | | | | | +| | | | | | | | | ++----+----+----+----+---+---+-----+------+ + + +AFTERNOON. + +II. III. IV. V. ++-----------+---------+---+---+----------+ +|GEOGRAPHY. |WRITING. |R. |G. |GRAMMAR. | ++-----+-----+----+----+---+---+----+-----+ +| | | | | | | | | +| | | | | | | | | +| | | | | | | | | +| | | | | | | | | ++-----+-----+----+----+---+---+----+-----+ +A drawing on a large sheet, made by some of the older scholars (for a +teacher should never do any thing of this kind which his scholars can do +for him), should be made and pasted up to view, the names of the classes +being inserted in the columns under their respective heads. At the +double lines at ten and three, there might be a rest of two minutes, an +officer appointed for the purpose ringing a bell at each of the periods +marked on the plan, and making the signal for the _rest_, whatever +signal might be determined upon. It is a good plan to have the bell +_touched_ five minutes before each half hour expires, and then exactly +at its close. The first bell would notify the teacher or teachers, if +there are more than one in the school, that the time for their +respective recitations is drawing to a close. At the second bell the new +classes should take their places without waiting to be called for. The +scholars will thus see that the arrangements of the school are based +upon system, to which the teacher himself conforms, and not subjected to +his own varying will. They will thus not only go on more regularly, but +they will themselves yield more easily and pleasantly to the necessary +arrangements. + +The fact is, children love system and regularity. Each one is sometimes +a little uneasy under the restraint which it imposes upon him +individually, but they all love to see its operation upon others, and +they are generally very willing to submit to its laws, if the rest of +the community are required to submit too. They show this in their love +of military parade; what allures them is chiefly the _order_ of it; and +even a little child creeping upon the floor will be pleased when he gets +his playthings in a row. A teacher may turn this principle to most +useful account in forming his plans for his school, in observing that +the teacher is governed by them too as well as they. + +It will be seen by reference to the foregoing plan that I have marked +the time for the recesses by the letter R. at the top. Immediately after +them, both in the forenoon and in the afternoon, twenty minutes are +left, marked G., the initial standing for general exercise. They are +intended to denote periods during which all the scholars are in their +seats, with their work laid aside, ready to attend to whatever the +teacher may desire to bring before the whole school. There are so many +occasions on which it is necessary to address the whole school, that it +is very desirable to appropriate a particular time for it. In most of +the best schools I believe this plan is adopted. I will mention some of +the subjects which would come up at such a time. + +1. There are some studies which can be advantageously attended to by the +whole school together, such as Punctuation, and, to some extent, +Spelling. + +2. Cases of discipline which it is necessary to bring before the whole +school ought to come up at a regularly-appointed time. By attending to +them here, there will be a greater importance attached to them. Whatever +the teacher does will seem to be more deliberate, and, in fact, _will +be_ more deliberate. + +3. General remarks, bringing up classes of faults which prevail; also +general directions, which may at any time be needed; and, in fact, any +business relating to the general arrangements of the school. + +4. Familiar lectures from the teacher on various subjects. These +lectures, though necessarily brief and quite familiar in their form, may +still be very exact and thorough in respect to the knowledge conveyed. +When they are upon scientific subjects they may sometimes be illustrated +by experiments, more or less imposing, according to the ingenuity of the +teacher, the capacity of the older scholars to assist him in the +preparations, or the means and facilities at his command.[2] + +[Illustration] + +[Footnote 2: In some of the larger institutions of the country the +teacher will have convenient apparatus at his disposal, and a room +specially adapted to the purpose of experiments. The engraving +represents a room at the Spingler Institute at New York. But let not the +teacher suppose that these special facilities are essential to enable +him to give instruction to his pupils in such a way. I have known a much +larger balloon than the one represented in the engraving to be +constructed by the teacher and pupils of a common country school from +directions in Rees's Cyclopedia, and sent up in the open air. The +aeronaut that accompanied it was a hen--poor thing!] The design of such +lectures should be to extend the _general knowledge_ of the pupils in +regard to those subjects on which they will need information in their +progress through life. In regard to each of these particulars I shall +speak more particularly hereafter, in the chapters to which they +respectively belong. My only object here is to show, in the general +arrangements of the school, how a place is to be found for them. My +practice has been to have two periods of short duration, each day, +appropriated to these objects: the first to the _business of the +school_, and the second to such studies or lectures as could be most +profitably attended to at such a time. + +We come now to one of the most important subjects which present +themselves to the teacher's attention in settling the principles upon +which he shall govern his school. I mean the degree of influence which +the boys themselves shall have in the management of its affairs. Shall +the government of school be a _monarchy_ or a _republic?_ To this +question, after much inquiry and many experiments, I answer, a monarchy; +an absolute, unlimited monarchy; the teacher possessing exclusive power +as far as the pupils are concerned, though strictly responsible to the +committee or to the trustees under whom he holds his office. + +While, however, it is thus distinctly understood that the power of the +teacher is supreme, that all the power rests in him, and that he alone +is responsible for its exercise, there ought to be a very free and +continual _delegation_ of power to the pupils. As much business as is +possible should be committed to them. They should be interested as much +as possible in the affairs of the school, and led to take an active part +in carrying them forward; though they should, all the time, distinctly +understand that it is only _delegated_ power which they exercise, and +that the teacher can, at any time, revoke what he has granted, and alter +or annul at pleasure any of their decisions. By this plan we have the +responsibility resting where it ought to rest, and yet the boys are +trained to business, and led to take an active interest in the welfare +of the school. Trust is reposed in them, which may be greater or less, +as they are able to bear. All the good effects of reposing trust and +confidence, and committing the management of important business to the +pupils will be secured, without the dangers which would result from the +entire surrender of the management of the institution into their hands. + +There have been, in several cases, experiments made with reference to +ascertaining how far a government strictly republican would be +admissible in a school. A very fair experiment of this kind was made +some years since at the Gardiner Lyceum, in Maine. At the time of its +establishment, nothing was said of the mode of government which it was +intended to adopt. For some time the attention of the instructors was +occupied in arranging the course of study, and attending to the other +concerns of the institution; and, in the infant state of the Lyceum, few +cases of discipline occurred, and no regular system of government was +necessary. + +Before long, however, complaints were made that the students at the +Lyceum were guilty of breaking windows in an old building used as a +town-house. The principal called the students together, mentioned the +reports, and said that he did not know, and did not wish to know who +were the guilty individuals. It was necessary, however, that the thing +should be examined into, and that restitution should be made, and, +relying on their faithfulness and ability, he should leave them to +manage the business alone. For this purpose, he nominated one of the +students as judge, some others as jurymen, and appointed the other +officers necessary in the same manner. He told them that, in order to +give them time to make a thorough investigation, they were excused from +farther exercises during the day. + +The principal then left them, and they entered on the trial. The result +was that they discovered the guilty individuals, ascertained the amount +of mischief done by each, and sent to the selectmen a message, by which +they agreed to pay a sum equal to three times the value of the injury +sustained. + +The students were soon after informed that this mode of bringing +offenders to justice would hereafter be always pursued, and arrangements +were made for organizing a _regular republican government_ among the +young men. By this government all laws which related to the internal +police of the institution were to be made, all officers were appointed, +and all criminal cases were to be tried. The students finding the part +of a judge too difficult for them to sustain, one of the professors was +appointed to hold that office, and, for similar reasons, another of the +professors was made president of the legislative assembly. The principal +was the executive, with power to _pardon_, but not to _sentence_, or +even _accuse_. + +Some time after this a student was indicted for profane swearing; he was +tried, convicted, and punished. After this he evinced a strong hostility +to the government. He made great exertions to bring it into contempt, +and when the next trial came on, he endeavored to persuade the witnesses +that giving evidence was dishonorable, and he so far succeeded that the +defendant was acquitted for want of evidence, when it was generally +understood that there was proof of his guilt, which would have been +satisfactory if it could have been brought forward. For some time after +this the prospect was rather unfavorable, though many of the students +themselves opposed with great earnestness these efforts, and were much +alarmed lest they should lose their free government through the +perverseness of one of their number. The attorney general, at this +juncture, conceived the idea of indicting the individual alluded to for +an attempt to overturn the government. He obtained the approbation of +the principal, and the grand jury found a bill. The court, as the case +was so important, invited some of the trustees, who were in town, to +attend the trial. The parent of the defendant was also informed of the +circumstances and requested to be present, and he accordingly attended. +The prisoner was tried, found guilty, and sentenced, if I mistake not, +to expulsion. At his earnest request, however, to be permitted to remain +in the Lyceum and redeem his character, he was pardoned and restored, +and from that time he became perfectly exemplary in his conduct and +character. After this occurrence the system went on in successful +operation for some time. + +The legislative power was vested in the hands of a general committee, +consisting of eight or ten, chosen by the students from their own +number. They met about once a week to transact such business as +appointing officers, making and repealing regulations, and inquiring +into the state of the Lyceum. The instructors had a negative upon all +their proceedings, but no direct and positive power. They could pardon, +but they could assign no punishments, nor make laws inflicting any. + +Now such a plan as this may succeed for a short time, and under very +favorable circumstances; and the circumstance which it is chiefly +important should be favorable is, that the man who is called to preside +over such an association should possess such talents of _generalship_ +that he can really manage the institution _himself_, while the power is +_nominally_ and _apparently_ in the hands of the boys. Should this not +be the case, or should the teacher, from any cause, lose his personal +influence in the school, so that the institution should really be +surrendered into the hands of the pupils, things must be on a very +unstable footing. And, accordingly, where such a plan has been adopted, +it has, I believe, in every instance, been ultimately abandoned. + +_Real self-government_ is an experiment sufficiently hazardous among +men, though Providence, in making a daily supply of food necessary for +every human being, has imposed a most powerful check upon the tendency +to anarchy and confusion. Let the populace of Paris or of London +materially interrupt the order and break in upon the arrangements of the +community, and in eight-and-forty hours nearly the whole of the mighty +mass will be in the hands of the devourer, hunger, and they will be soon +brought to submission. On the other hand, a month's anarchy and +confusion in a college or an academy would be delight to half the +students, or else times have greatly changed since I was within college +walls. + +Although it is thus evident that the important concerns of a literary +institution can not be safely committed into the hands of the students, +very great benefits will result from calling upon them to act upon and +to decide questions relative to the school within such limits and under +such restrictions as are safe and proper. Such a practice will assist +the teacher very much if he manages it with any degree of dexterity; for +it will interest his pupils in the success of the school, and secure, to +a very considerable extent, their co-operation in the government of it. +It will teach them self-control and self-government, and will accustom +them to submit to the majority--that lesson which, of all others, it is +important for a republican to learn. + +In endeavoring to interest the pupils of a school in the work of +co-operating with the teacher in its administration, no little dexterity +will be necessary at the outset. In all probability, the formal +announcement of this principle, and the endeavor to introduce it by a +sudden revolution, would totally fail. Boys, like men, must be gradually +prepared for; power, and they must exercise it only so far as they are +prepared. This, however, can very easily be done. The teacher should say +nothing of his general design, but, when some suitable opportunity +presents, he should endeavor to lead his pupils to co-operate with him +in some particular instance. + +For example, let us suppose that he has been accustomed to distribute +the writing-books with his own hand when the writing-hour arrives, and +that he concludes to delegate this simple business first to his +scholars. He accordingly states to them, just before the writing +exercise of the day on which he proposes the experiment, as follows: + +"I have thought that time will be saved if you will help me distribute +the books, and I will accordingly appoint four distributors, one for +each division of the seats, who may come to me and receive the books, +and distribute them each to his own division. Are you willing to adopt +this plan?" + +The boys answer "Yes, sir," and the teacher then looks carefully around +the room, and selects four pleasant and popular boys--boys who he knows +would gladly assist him, and who would, at the same time, be agreeable +to their school-mates. This latter point is necessary in order to secure +the popularity and success of the plan. + +Unless the boys are very different from any I have ever met with, they +will be pleased with the duty thus assigned them. They will learn system +and regularity by being taught to perform this simple duty in a proper +manner. After a week, the teacher may consider their term of service as +having expired, and thanking them in public for the assistance they have +rendered him, he may ask the scholars if they are willing to continue +the plan, and if the vote is in favor of it, as it unquestionably would +be, each boy probably hoping that he should be appointed to the office, +the teacher may nominate four others, including, perhaps, upon the list, +some boy popular among his companions, but whom he has suspected to be +not very friendly to himself or the school. I think the most scrupulous +statesman would not object to securing influence by conferring office in +such a case. If difficulties arise from the operation of such a measure, +the plan can easily be modified to avoid or correct them. If it is +successful, it may be continued, and the principle may be extended, so +as in the end to affect very considerably all the arrangements and the +whole management of the school. + +Or, let us imagine the following scene to have been the commencement of +the introduction of the principle of limited self-government into a +school. + +The preceptor of an academy was sitting at his desk, at the close of +school, while the pupils were putting up their books and leaving the +room. A boy came in with angry looks, and, with his hat in his hands +bruised and dusty, advanced to the master's desk, and complained that +one of his companions had thrown down his hat upon the floor, and had +almost spoiled it. + +The teacher looked calmly at the mischief, and then asked how it +happened. + +"I don't know, sir. I hung it on my nail, and he pulled it down." + +"I wish you would ask him to come here," said the teacher. "Ask him +pleasantly." + +The accused soon came in, and the two boys stood together before the +master. + +"There seems to be some difficulty between you boys about a nail to hang +your hats upon. I suppose each of you think it is your own nail." + +"Yes, sir," said both the boys. + +"It will be more convenient for me to talk with you about this to-morrow +than to-night, if you are willing to wait. Besides, we can examine it +more calmly then. But if we put it off till then, you must not talk +about it in the mean time, blaming one another, and keeping up the +irritation that you feel. Are you both willing to leave it just where it +is till to-morrow, and try to forget all about it till then? I expect I +shall find you both a little to blame." + +The boys rather reluctantly consented. The next day the master heard the +case, and settled it so far as it related to the two boys. It was easily +settled in the morning, for they had had time to get calm, and were, +after sleeping away their anger, rather ashamed of the whole affair, and +very desirous to have it forgotten. + +That day, when the hour for the transaction of general business came, +the teacher stated to the school that it was necessary to take some +measures to provide each boy with a nail for his hat. In order to show +that it was necessary, he related the circumstances of the quarrel which +had occurred the day before. He did this, not with such an air and +manner as to convey the impression that his object was to find fault +with the boys, or to expose their misconduct, but to show the necessity +of doing something to remedy the evil which had been the cause of so +unpleasant an occurrence. Still, though he said nothing in the way of +reproof or reprehension, and did not name the boys, but merely gave a +cool and impartial narrative of the facts, the effect, very evidently, +was to bring such quarrels into discredit. A calm review of misconduct, +after the excitement has gone by, will do more to bring it into disgrace +than the most violent invectives and reproaches directed against the +individuals guilty of it at the time. + +"Now, boys," continued the master, "will you assist me in making +arrangements to prevent the recurrence of all temptations of this kind +hereafter? It is plain that every boy ought to have a nail appropriated +expressly to his use. The first thing to be done is to ascertain whether +there are enough for all. I should like, therefore, to have two +committees appointed: one to count and report the number of nails in the +entry, and also how much room there is for more; the other to ascertain +the number of scholars in school. They can count all who are here, and, +by observing the vacant desks, they can ascertain the number absent. +When this investigation is made, I will tell you what to do next." + +The boys seemed pleased with the plan, and the committees were +appointed, two members on each. The master took care to give the +quarrelers some share in the work, apparently forgetting, from this +time, the unpleasant occurrence which had brought up the subject. + +When the boys came to inform him of the result of their inquiries, he +asked them to make a little memorandum of it in writing, as he might +forget the numbers, he said, before the time came for reading them. The +boys brought him, presently, a rough scrap of paper, with the figures +marked upon it. He told them he should forget which was the number of +nails, and which the number of scholars, unless they wrote it down. + +"It is the custom among men," said he, "to make out their report, in +such a case, fully, so that it would explain itself; and I should like +to have you, if you are willing, make out yours a little more +distinctly." + +Accordingly, after a little additional explanation, the boys made +another attempt, and presently returned with something like the +following: + +"The committee for counting the nails report as follows: + Number of nails. . . . 35 + Room for more . . . . 15." + +The other report was very similar, though somewhat rudely written and +expressed, and both were perfectly satisfactory to the preceptor, as he +plainly showed by the manner in which he received them. + +I need not finish the description of this case by narrating particularly +the reading of the reports, the appointment of a committee to assign the +nails, and to paste up the names of the scholars, one to each. The work, +in such a case, might be done in recesses, and out of school hours; and +though, at first, the teacher will find that it is as much trouble to +accomplish business in this way as it would be to attend to it directly +himself, yet, after a very little experience, he will find that his +pupils will acquire dexterity and readiness, and will be able to render +him very material assistance in the accomplishment of his plans. + +This, however--the assistance rendered to the teacher--is not the main +object of the adoption of such measures as this. The main design is to +interest the pupils in the management and the welfare of the school--to +identify them, as it were, with it. And such measures as the above will +accomplish this object; and every teacher who will try the experiment, +and carry it into effect with any tolerable degree of skill, will find +that it will, in a short time, change the whole aspect of the school in +regard to the feelings subsisting between himself and his pupils. + +Each teacher who tries such an experiment will find himself insensibly +repeating it, and after a time he may have quite a number of officers +and committees who are intrusted with various departments of business. +He will have a secretary, chosen by ballot by the scholars, to keep a +record of all the important transactions in the school for each day. At +first he will dictate to the secretary, thus directing him precisely +what to say, or even writing it for him, and then merely requiring him +to copy it into the book provided for the purpose. Afterward he will +give the pupil less and less assistance, till he can keep the record +properly himself. The record of each day will be read on the succeeding +day at the hour for business. The teacher will perhaps have a committee +to take care of the fire, and another to see that the room is constantly +in good order. He will have distributors for each division of seats, to +distribute books, and compositions, and pens, and to collect votes. And +thus, in a short time, his school will become _regularly organized as a +society or legislative assembly_. The boys will learn submission to the +majority in such unimportant things as may be committed to them; they +will learn system and regularity, and every thing else, indeed, that +belongs to the science of political self-government. + +There are dangers, however. What useful practice has not its dangers? +One of these is, that the teacher will allow these arrangements to take +up too much time. He must guard against this. I have found from +experience that fifteen minutes each day, with a school of 135, is +enough. This ought never to be exceeded. + +Another danger is, that the boys will be so engaged in the duties of +their _offices_ as to neglect their _studies_. This would be, and ought +to be, fatal to the whole plan. This danger may be avoided in the +following manner. State publicly that you will not appoint any to office +who are not good scholars, always punctual, and always prepared; and +when any boy who holds an office is going behindhand in his studies, say +to him kindly, "You have not time to get your lessons, and I am afraid +it is owing to the fact that you spend so much time in helping me. Now +if you wish to resign your office, so as to have more time for your +lessons, you can. In fact, I think you ought to do it. You may try it +for a day or two, and I will notice how you recite, and then we can +decide." + +Such a communication will generally be found to have a powerful effect. +If it does not remedy the evil, the resignation must be insisted on. A +few decided cases of this kind will effectually remove the evil I am +considering. + +Another difficulty which is likely to attend the plan of allowing the +pupils of a school to take some part in this way in the administration +of it is that it may tend to make them insubordinate, so that they will, +in many instances, submit with less good humor to such decisions as you +may consider necessary. I do not mean that this will be the case with +all, but that there will be a few who will be ungenerous enough, if you +allow them to decide sometimes what shall be done, to endeavor to make +trouble, or at least to show symptoms of impatience and vexation because +you do not allow them always to decide. + +Sometimes this feeling may show itself by the discontented looks, or +gestures, or even words with which some unwelcome regulation or order on +the part of the teacher will be received. Such a spirit should be +immediately and decidedly checked whenever it appears. It will not be +difficult to check, and even entirely to remove it. On one occasion +when, after learning the wish of the scholars on some subject which had +been brought before them, I decided contrary to it, there arose a murmur +of discontent all over the room. This was the more distinct, because I +have always accustomed my pupils to answer questions asked, and to +express their wishes and feelings on any subject I may present to them +with great freedom. + +I asked all those who had expressed their dissatisfaction to rise. + +About one third of the scholars arose. + +"Perhaps you understood that when I put the question to vote I meant to +abide by your decision, and that, consequently, I ought not to have +reversed it, as I did afterward?" + +"Yes, sir," "Yes, sir," they replied. + +Do you suppose it would be safe to leave the decision of important +questions to the scholars in this school?" + +"Yes, sir;" "No, sir." The majority were, however, in the affirmative. + +Thus far, only those who were standing had answered. I told them that, +as they were divided in opinion, they might sit, and I would put the +question to the whole school. + +"You know," I continued, addressing the whole, "what sort of persons the +girls who compose this school are. You know about how many are governed +habitually by steady principle, and how many by impulse and feeling. You +know, too, what proportion have judgment and foresight necessary to +consider and decide independently such questions as continually arise in +the management of a school. Now suppose I should resign the school into +your own hands as to its management, and only come in to give +instruction to the classes, leaving all general control of its +arrangements with you, would it go on safely or not?" + +As might have been foreseen, there was, when the question was fairly +proposed, scarcely a solitary vote in favor of government by scholars. +They seemed to see clearly the absurdity of such a scheme. + +"Besides," I continued, "the trustees of this school have committed it +to my charge; they hold me responsible; the public hold _me_ +responsible, not you. Now if I should surrender it into your hands, and +you, from any cause, should manage the trust unfaithfully or +unskillfully, I should necessarily be held accountable. I could never +shift the responsibility upon you. Now it plainly is not just or right +that one party should hold the power, and another be held accountable +for its exercise. It is clear, therefore, in every view of the subject, +that I should retain the management of this school in my own hands. Are +you not satisfied that it is?" + +The scholars universally answered "Yes, sir." They seemed satisfied, and +doubtless were. + +It was then stated to them that the object in asking them to vote was, +in some cases, to obtain an expression of their opinion or their wishes +in order to help _me_ decide, and only in those cases where it was +expressly stated did I mean to give the final decision to them. + +Still, however, if cases are often referred to them, the feeling will +gradually creep in that the school is managed on republican principles, +as they call it, and they will, unless this point is specially guarded, +gradually lose that spirit of entire and cordial subordination so +necessary for the success of any school. It should often be distinctly +explained to them that a republican government is one where the power +essentially resides in the community, and is exercised by a ruler only +so far as the community delegates it to him, whereas in the school the +government is based on the principle that the power, primarily and +essentially, resides in the teacher, the scholars exercising only such +as _he_ may delegate to _them_. + +With these limitations and restrictions, and with this express +understanding in regard to what is, in all cases, the ultimate +authority, I think there will be no danger in throwing a very large +share of the business which will, from time to time, come up in the +school, upon the scholars themselves for decision. In my own experience +this plan has been adopted with the happiest results. In the Mount +Vernon School a small red morocco wrapper lies constantly on a little +shelf, accessible to all. By its side is a little pile of papers, about +one inch by six, on which any one may write her motion, or her +_proposition_, as the scholars call it, whatever it may be, and when +written it is inclosed in the wrapper, to be brought to me at the +appointed time for attending to the general business of the school. +Through this wrapper all questions are asked, all complaints entered, +all proposals made. Is there discontent in the school? It shows itself +by "_propositions_" in the wrapper. Is any body aggrieved or injured? I +learn it through the wrapper. In fact, it is a little safety-valve, +which lets off what, if confined, might threaten explosion---an index--a +thermometer, which reveals to me, from day to day, more of the state of +public opinion in the little community than any thing beside. + +These propositions are generally read aloud. Some cases are referred to +the scholars for decision; some I decide myself; others are laid aside +without notice of any kind; others still, merely suggest remarks on the +subjects to which they allude. + +The principles, then, which this chapter has been intended to establish, +are simply these: in making your general arrangements, look carefully +over your ground, consider all the objects which you have to accomplish, +and the proper degree of time and attention which each deserves. Then +act upon system. Let the mass of particulars which would otherwise +crowd upon you in promiscuous confusion be arranged and classified. Let +each be assigned to its proper time and place, so that your time may be +your own, under your own command, and not, as is too often the case, at +the mercy of the thousand accidental circumstances which may occur. + +In a word, be, in the government of your school, yourself supreme, and +let your supremacy be that of _authority_; but delegate power, as freely +as possible, to those under your care. Show them that you are desirous +of reposing trust in them just so far as they show themselves capable of +exercising it. Thus interest them in your plans, and make them feel that +they participate in the honor or the disgrace of success or failure. + +I have gone much into detail in this chapter, proposing definite +measures by which the principles I have recommended may be carried into +effect. I wish, however, that it may be distinctly understood that all I +contend for is the _principles_ themselves, no matter what the +particular measures are by which they are secured. Every good school +must be systematic, but all need not be on precisely the same system. As +this work is intended almost exclusively for beginners, much detail has +been admitted, and many of the specific measures here proposed may +perhaps be safely adopted where no others are established. There may +also, perhaps, be cases where teachers, whose schools are already in +successful operation, may ingraft upon their own plans some things which +are here proposed. If they should attempt it, it must be done cautiously +and gradually. There is no other way by which they can be safely +introduced, or even introduced at all. This is a point of so much +importance, that I must devote a paragraph to it before closing the +chapter. + +Let a teacher propose to his pupils, formally, from his desk, the plan +of writing propositions, for example, as explained above, and procure +his wrapper, and put it in its place, and what would be the result? +Why, not a single paper, probably, could he get, from one end of the +week to the other. But let him, on the other hand, when a boy comes to +him to ask some question, the answer to which many in the school would +equally wish to hear, say to the inquirer, + +"Will you be so good as to write that question, and put it on my desk, +and then, at the regular time, I will answer it to all the school." + +When he reads it, let him state that it was written at his request, and +give the other boys permission to leave their proposals or questions on +his desk in the same way. In a few days he will have another, and thus +the plan may be gently and gradually introduced. + +So with officers. They should be appointed among the scholars only _as +fast as they are actually needed_, and the plan should thus be +cautiously carried only so far as it proves good on trial. Be always +cautious about innovations and changes. Make no rash experiments on a +large scale, but always test your principle in the small way, and then, +if it proves good, gradually extend its operation as circumstances seem +to require. + +By thus cautiously and slowly introducing plans, founded on the +systematic principles here brought to view, a very considerable degree +of quiet, and order, and regularity may be introduced into the largest +and most miscellaneous schools. And this order and quiet are absolutely +necessary to enable the teacher to find that interest and enjoyment in +his work which were exhibited in the last chapter; the pleasure of +_directing and controlling mind_, and doing it, not by useless and +anxious complaints, or stern threats and painful punishments, but by +regarding the scene of labor in its true light, as a community of +intellectual and moral beings, and governing it by moral and +intellectual power. It is, in fact, the pleasure of exercising _power_. +I do not mean arbitrary, personal authority, but the power to produce, +by successful but quiet contrivance, extensive and happy results; the +pleasure of calmly considering every difficulty, and, without irritation +or anger, devising the proper moral means to remedy the moral evil; and +then the interest and pleasure of witnessing its effects. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +INSTRUCTION. + +[Illustration] + +We come now to consider the subject of Instruction. + +There are three kinds of human knowledge which stand strikingly distinct +from all the rest. They lie at the foundation. They constitute the roots +of the tree. In other words, they are the _means_ by which all other +knowledge is attained. I need not say that I mean Reading, Writing, and +Calculation. + +Teachers do not perhaps always consider how entirely and essentially +distinct these three branches of learning are from all the rest. They +are arts; the acquisition of them is not to be considered as knowledge, +so much as the means by which knowledge may be obtained. A child who is +studying Geography, or History, or Natural Science, is learning +_facts_--gaining information; on the other hand, the one who is learning +to write, or to read, or to calculate, may be adding little or nothing +to his stock of knowledge. He is acquiring _skill_, which, at some +future time, he may make the means of increasing his knowledge to any +extent. + +This distinction ought to be kept constantly in view, and the teacher +should feel that these three fundamental branches stand by themselves, +and stand first in importance. I do not mean to undervalue the others, +but only to insist upon the superior value and importance of these. +Teaching a pupil to read before he enters upon the active business of +life is like giving a new settler an axe as he goes to seek his new home +in the forest. Teaching him a lesson in history is, on the other hand, +only cutting down a tree or two for him. A knowledge of natural history +is like a few bushels of grain gratuitously placed in his barn; but the +art of ready reckoning is the plow which will remain by him for years, +and help him to draw out from the soil a new treasure every year of his +life. + +The great object, then, of the common schools in our country is to teach +the whole population to read, to write, and to calculate. In fact, so +essential is it that the accomplishment of these objects should be +secured, that it is even a question whether common schools should not be +confined to them. I say it is a _question_, for it is sometimes made so, +though public opinion has decided that some portion of attention, at +least, should be paid to the acquisition of additional knowledge. But, +after all, the amount of _knowledge_ which is actually acquired at +schools is very small. It must be very small. The true policy is to aim +at making all the pupils good readers, writers, and calculators, and to +consider the other studies of the school important chiefly as practice +in turning these arts to useful account. In other words, the scholars +should be taught these arts thoroughly first of all, and in the other +studies the main design should be to show them how to use, and interest +them in using, the arts they have thus acquired. + +A great many teachers feel a much stronger interest in the one or two +scholars they may have in Surveying or in Latin than they do in the +large classes in the elementary branches which fill the school. But a +moment's reflection will show that such a preference is founded on a +very mistaken view. Leading forward one or two minds from step to step +in an advanced study is certainly far inferior in real dignity and +importance to opening all the stores of written knowledge to fifty or a +hundred. The man who neglects the interests of his school in these great +branches to devote his time to two or three, or half a dozen older +scholars, is unjust both to his employers and to himself. + +It is the duty, therefore, of every teacher who commences a common +district school for a single season to make, when he commences, an +estimate of the state of his pupils in reference to these three +branches. How do they all write? How do they all read? How do they +calculate? It would be well if he would make a careful examination of +the school in this respect. Let them all write a specimen. Let all read, +and let him make a memorandum of the manner, noticing how many read +fluently, how many with difficulty, how many know only their letters, +and how many are to be taught these. Let him ascertain, also, what +progress they have made in arithmetic--how many can readily perform the +elementary processes, and what number need instruction in these. After +thus surveying the ground, let him form his plan, and lay out his whole +strength in carrying forward as rapidly as possible the _whole school_ +in these studies. By this means he is acting most directly and +powerfully on the intelligence of the whole future community in that +place. He is opening to fifty or a hundred minds stores of knowledge +which they will go on exploring for years to come. What a descent now +from such a work as this to the mere hearing of the recitation of two or +three boys in Trigonometry! + +I repeat it, that a thorough and enlightened survey of the whole school +should be taken, and plans formed for elevating the whole mass in those +great branches of knowledge which are to be of immediate practical use +to them in future life. + +If the school is one more advanced in respect to the age and studies of +the pupils, the teacher should, in the same manner, before he forms his +plans, consider well what are the great objects which he has to +accomplish. He should ascertain what is the existing state of his +school both as to knowledge and character; how long, generally, his +pupils are to remain under his care; what are to be their future +stations and conditions in life, and what objects he can reasonably hope +to effect for them while they remain under his influence. By means of +this forethought and consideration he will be enabled to work +understandingly. + +It is desirable, too, that what I have recommended in reference to the +whole school should be done in respect to the case of each individual. +When a new pupil comes under your charge, ascertain (by other means, +however, than formal examination) to what stage his education has +advanced, and deliberately consider what objects you can reasonably +expect to effect for him while he remains under your care. You can not, +indeed, always form your plans to suit so exactly your general views in +regard to the school and to individuals as you could wish. But these +general views will, in a thousand cases, modify your plans, or affect in +a greater or less degree all your arrangements. They will keep you to a +steady purpose, and your work will go on far more systematically and +regularly than it would do if, as in fact many teachers do, you were to +come headlong into your school, take things just as you find them, and +carry them forward at random without end or aim. + +This survey of your field being made, you are prepared to commence +definite operations, and the great difficulty in carrying your plans +into effect is how to act more efficiently on _the greatest numbers at a +time._ The whole business of public instruction, if it goes on at all, +must go on by the teacher's skill in multiplying his power, by acting on +_numbers at once._ In most books on education we are taught, almost +exclusively, how to operate on the _individual_. It is the error into +which theoretic writers almost always fall. We meet in every periodical, +and in every treatise, and, in fact, in almost every conversation on the +subject, with remarks which sound very well by the fireside, but they +are totally inefficient and useless in school, from their being +apparently based upon the supposition that the teacher has but _one_ +pupil to attend to at a time. The great question in the management of +schools is not how you can take _one_ scholar, and lead him forward most +rapidly in a prescribed course, but how you can classify and arrange +_numbers_, comprising every possible variety both as to knowledge and +capacity, so as to carry them all forward effectually together. + +The extent to which a teacher may multiply his power by acting on +numbers at a time is very great. In order to estimate it, we must +consider carefully what it is when carried to the greatest extent to +which it is capable of being carried under the most favorable +circumstances. Now it is possible for a teacher to speak so as to be +easily heard by three hundred persons, and three hundred pupils can be +easily so seated as to see his illustrations or diagrams. Now suppose +that three hundred pupils, all ignorant of the method of reducing +fractions to a common denominator, and yet all old enough to learn, are +collected in one room. Suppose they are all attentive and desirous of +learning, it is very plain that the process may be explained to the +whole at once, so that half an hour spent in that exercise would enable +a very large proportion of them to understand the subject. So, if a +teacher is explaining to a class in Grammar the difference between a +noun and verb, the explanation would do as well for several hundred as +for the dozen who constitute the class, if arrangements could only be +made to have the hundreds hear it; but there are, perhaps, only a +hundred pupils in the school, and of these a large part understand +already the point to be explained, and another large part are too young +to attend to it. I wish the object of these remarks not to be +misunderstood. I do not recommend the attempt to teach on so extensive a +scale; I admit that it is impracticable; I only mean to show in what the +impracticability consists, namely, in the difficulty of making such +arrangements as to derive the full benefit from the instructions +rendered. The instructions of the teacher are, _in the nature of +things,_ available to the extent I have represented, but in actual +practice the full benefit can not be derived. Now, so far as we thus +fall short of this full benefit, so far there is, of course, waste; and +it is difficult or impossible to make such arrangements as will avoid +the waste, in this manner, of a large portion of every effort which the +teacher makes. + +A very small class instructed by an able teacher is like a factory of a +hundred spindles, with a water-wheel of power sufficient for a thousand. +In such a case, even if the owner, from want of capital or any other +cause, can not add the other nine hundred, he ought to know how much of +his power is in fact unemployed, and make arrangements to bring it into +useful exercise as soon as he can. The teacher, in the same manner, +should understand what is the full beneficial effect which it is +possible, _in theory_, to derive from his instructions. He should +understand, too, that just so far as he falls short of this full effect +there is waste. It may be unavoidable; part of it unquestionably is, +like the friction of machinery, unavoidable. Still, it is waste; and it +ought to be so understood, that, by the gradual perfection of the +machinery, it may be more and more fully prevented. + +Always bear in mind, then, when you are devoting your time to two or +three individuals in a class, that your are losing a large part of your +labor. Your instructions are conducive to good effect only to the one +tenth or one twentieth of the extent to which, under more favorable +circumstances, they might be made available. And though you can not +always avoid this loss, you ought to be aware of it, and so to shape +your measures as to diminish it as much as possible. + +We come now to consider the particular measures to be adopted in giving +instruction. + +The objects which are to be secured in the management of the classes +are twofold: + +1. Recitation. 2. Instruction. + +These two objects are, it is plain, entirely distinct. Under the latter +is included all the explanation, and assistance, and additional +information which the teacher may give his pupils, and under the former, +such an _examination_ of individuals as is necessary to secure their +careful attention to their lessons. It is unsafe to neglect either of +these points. If the class meetings are mere _recitations_, they soon +become dull and mechanical; the pupils generally take little interest in +their studies, and imbibe no literary spirit. Their intellectual +progress will, accordingly, suddenly cease the moment they leave school, +and so cease to be called upon to recite lessons. On the other hand, if +_instruction_ is all that is aimed at, and _recitation_ (by which I +mean, as above explained, such an examination of individuals as is +necessary to ascertain that they have faithfully performed the tasks +assigned) is neglected, the exercise soon becomes not much more than a +lecture, to which those, and those only, will attend who please. + +The business, therefore, of a thorough examination of the class must not +be omitted. I do not mean that each individual scholar must every day be +examined, but simply that the teacher must, in some way or other, +satisfy himself by reasonable evidence that the whole class are really +prepared. A great deal of ingenuity may be exercised in contriving means +for effecting this object in the shortest possible time. I know of no +part of the field of a teacher's labors which may be more facilitated by +a little ingenuity than this. + +One teacher, for instance, has a spelling lesson to hear. He begins at +the head of the line, and putting one word to each boy, goes regularly +down, each successive pupil calculating the chances whether a word which +he can accidentally spell will or will not come to him. If he spells it, +the teacher can not tell whether he is prepared or not. That word is +only one among fifty constituting the lesson. If he misses it, the +teacher can not decide that he was unprepared. It might have been a +single accidental error. + +Another teacher, hearing the same lesson, requests the boys to bring +their slates, and, as he dictates the words one after another, requires +all to write them. After they are all written, he calls upon the pupils +to spell them aloud as they have written them, simultaneously, pausing a +moment after each, to give those who are wrong an opportunity to +indicate it by some mark opposite the word misspelled. They all count +the number of errors and report them. He passes down the class, glancing +his eye at the work of each one to see that all is right, noticing +particularly those slates which, from the character of the boys, need a +more careful inspection. A teacher who had never tried this experiment +would be surprised at the rapidity with which such work will be +performed by a class after a little practice. + +Now how different are these two methods in their actual results! In the +latter case the whole class are thoroughly examined. In the former not a +single member of it is. Let me not be understood to recommend exactly +this method of teaching spelling as the best one to be adopted in all +cases. I only bring it forward as an illustration of the idea that a +little machinery, a little ingenuity in contriving ways of acting on the +_whole_ rather than on individuals, will very much promote the teacher's +designs. + +In order to facilitate such plans, it is highly desirable that the +classes should be trained to military precision and exactness in these +manipulations. What I mean by this may perhaps be best illustrated by +describing a case: it will show, in another branch, how much will be +gained by acting upon numbers at once instead of upon each individual in +succession. + +Imagine, then, that a teacher requested all the pupils of his school who +could write to take out their slates at the hour for a general +exercise. As soon as the first bustle of opening and shutting the desks +was over, he looked around the room, and saw some ruling lines across +their slates, others wiping them all over on both sides with sponges, +others scribbling, or writing, or making figures. + +"All those," says he, speaking, however, with a pleasant tone and with a +pleasant look, "who have taken out any thing besides slates, may rise." + +Several, in various parts of the room, stood up. + +"All those who have written any thing since they took out their slates +may rise too, and those who have wiped their slates." + +"When all were up, he said to them, though not with a frown or a scowl, +as if they had committed a great offense, + +"Suppose a company of soldiers should be ordered to _form a line_, and +instead of simply obeying that order they should all set at work, each +in his own way, doing something else. One man at one end of the line +begins to load and fire his gun; another takes out his knapsack and +begins to eat his luncheon; a third amuses himself by going as fast as +possible through the exercise; and another still, begins to march about +hither and thither, facing to the right and left, and performing all the +evolutions he can think of. What should you say to such a company as +that?" + +The boys laughed. + +"It is better," said the teacher, "when numbers are acting under the +direction of one, that they should all act _exactly together_. In this +way we advance much faster than we otherwise should. Be careful, +therefore, to do exactly what I command, and nothing more. + +"_Provide a place on your slates large enough to write a single line_," +added the teacher, in a distinct voice. I print his orders in Italics, +and his remarks and explanations in Roman letters. + +"_Prepare to write_. + +"I mean by this," he continued, "that you place your slates before you +with your pencils at the place where you are to begin, so that all may +commence precisely at the same instant." + +The teacher who tries such an experiment as this will find at such a +juncture an expression of fixed and pleasant attention upon every +countenance in school. All will be intent, all will be interested. Boys +love order, and system, and acting in concert, and they will obey with +great alacrity such commands as these if they are good-humoredly, though +decidedly expressed. + +The teacher observed in one part of the room a hand raised, indicating +that the boy wished to speak to him. He gave him liberty by pronouncing +his name. + +"I have no pencil," said the boy. + +A dozen hands all around him were immediately seen fumbling in pockets +and desks, and in a few minutes several pencils were reached out for his +acceptance. + +The boy looked at the pencils and then at the teacher; he did not +exactly know whether he was to take one or not. + +"All those boys," said the teacher, pleasantly, "who have taken out +pencils, may rise. + +"Have these boys done right or wrong?" + +"Right;" "Wrong;" "Right," answered their companions, variously. + +"Their motive was to help their class-mate out of his difficulties; that +is a good feeling, certainly." + +"Yes, sir, right;" "Right." + +"But I thought you promised me a moment ago," replied the teacher, "not +to do any thing unless I commanded it. Did I ask for pencils?" + +A pause. + +"I do not blame these boys at all in this case; still, it is better to +adhere rigidly to the principle of _exact obedience _ when numbers are +acting together. I thank them, therefore, for being so ready to assist +a companion, but they must put their pencils away, as they were taken +out without orders." + +Now such a dialogue as this, if the teacher speaks in a good-humored, +though decided manner, would be universally well received in any school. +Whenever strictness of discipline is unpopular, it is rendered so simply +by the ill-humored and ill-judged means by which it is attempted to be +introduced. But all children will love strict discipline if it is +pleasantly, though firmly maintained. It is a great, though very +prevalent mistake, to imagine that boys and girls like a lax and +inefficient government, and dislike the pressure of steady control. What +they dislike is sour looks and irritating language, and they therefore +very naturally dislike every thing introduced or sustained by means of +them. If, however, exactness and precision in all the operations of a +class and of the school are introduced and enforced in the proper +manner, that is, by a firm, but mild and good-humored authority, +scholars will universally be pleased with them. They like to see the +uniform appearance, the straight line, the simultaneous movement. They +like to feel the operation of system, and to realize, while they are at +the school-room, that they form a community, governed by fixed and +steady laws, firmly but kindly administered. On the other hand, laxity +of discipline, and the disorder which will result from it, will only +lead the pupils to contemn their teacher and to hate their school. + +By introducing and maintaining such a discipline as I have described, +great facilities will be secured for examining the classes. For example, +to take a case different from the one before described, let us suppose +that a class have been performing a number of examples in Addition. They +come together to the recitation, and, under one mode of managing +classes, the teacher is immediately beset by a number of the pupils with +excuses. One had no slate; another was absent when the lesson was +assigned; a third performed the work, but it got rubbed out, and a +fourth did not know what was to be done. The teacher stops to hear all +these, and to talk about them, fretting himself, and fretting the +delinquents by his impatient remarks. The rest of the class are waiting, +and, having nothing good to do, the temptation is almost irresistible to +do something bad. One boy is drawing pictures on his slate to make his +neighbors laugh, another is whispering, and two more are at play. The +disorder continues while the teacher goes round examining slate after +slate, his whole attention being engrossed by each individual, as the +pupils come to him successively, while the rest are left to themselves, +interrupted only by an occasional harsh, or even angry, but utterly +useless rebuke from him. + +But, under another mode of managing classes and schools, a very +different result would be produced. + +A boy approaches the teacher to render an excuse; the teacher replies, +addressing himself, however, to the whole class, "I shall give all an +opportunity to offer their excuses presently. No one must come till he +is called." + +The class then regularly take their places in the recitation seats, the +prepared and unprepared together. The following commands are given and +obeyed promptly. They are spoken pleasantly, but still in the tone of +command. + +"The class may rise. + +"All those that are not fully prepared with this lesson may sit." + +A number sit; and others, doubtful whether they are prepared or not, or +thinking that there is something peculiar in their cases, which they +wish to state, raise their hands, or make any other signal which is +customary to indicate a wish to speak. Such a signal ought always to be +agreed upon, and understood in school. + +The teacher shakes his head, saying, "I will hear you presently. If +there is, on any account whatever, any doubt whether you are prepared, +you must sit. + +"Those that are standing may read their answers to No. 1. Unit figure?" + +_Boys._ "Five." + +_Teacher._ "Tens?" + +_B._ "Six." + +_T._ "Hundreds?" + +_B._ "Seven." + +While these numbers are thus reading, the teacher looks at the boys, and +can easily see whether any are not reading their own answers, but only +following the rest. If they have been trained to speak exactly together, +his ear will also at once detect any erroneous answer which any one may +give. He takes down the figures given by the majority on his own slate, +and reads them aloud. + +"This is the answer obtained by the majority; it is undoubtedly right. +Those who have different answers may sit." + +These directions, if understood and obeyed, would divide the class +evidently into two portions. Those standing have their work done, and +done correctly, and those sitting have some excuse or error to be +examined. A new lesson may now be assigned, and the first portion may be +dismissed, which in a well-regulated school will be two thirds of the +class. Their slates may be slightly examined as they pass by the teacher +on their way to their seats to see that all is fair; but it will be safe +to take it for granted that a result in which a majority agree will be +right. Truth is consistent with itself, but error, in such a case, never +is. This the teacher can at any time show by comparing the answers that +are wrong; they will always be found, not only to differ from the +correct result, but to contradict each other. + +The teacher may now, if he pleases, after the majority of the class have +gone, hear the reasons of those who were unprepared, and look for the +errors of those whose work was incorrect; but it is better to spend as +little time as possible in such a way. If a scholar is not prepared, it +is not of much consequence whether it is because he forgot his book or +mistook the lesson; or if it is ascertained that his answer is +incorrect, it is ordinarily a mere waste of time to search for the +particular error. + +"I have looked over my work, sir," says the boy, perhaps, "and I can not +find where it is wrong." He means by it that he does not believe that it +is wrong. + +"It is no matter if you can not," would be the proper reply, "since it +certainly is wrong; you have made a mistake in adding somewhere, but it +is not worth while for me to spend two or three minutes apiece with all +of you to ascertain where. Try to be careful next time." + +Indeed the teacher should understand and remember what many teachers are +very prone to forget, namely, that the mere fact of finding an +arithmetical error in a pupil's work on the slate, and pointing it out +to him, has very little effect in correcting the false habit in his mind +from which it arose. + +The cases of those who are unprepared at a recitation ought by no means +to be passed by unnoticed, although it would be unwise to spend much +time in examining each in detail. + +"It is not of much consequence," the teacher might say, "whether you +have good excuses or bad, so long as you are not prepared. In future +life you will certainly be unsuccessful if you fail, no matter for what +reason, to discharge the duties which devolve upon you. A carpenter, for +instance, would certainly lose his custom if he should not perform his +work faithfully and in season. Excuses, no matter how reasonable, will +do him little good. It is just so in respect to punctuality in time as +well as in respect to performance of duty. What we want is that every +boy should be in his place at the proper moment; not that he should be +late, and have good excuses for it. When you come to be men, tardiness +will always be punished. Excuses will not help the matter at all. +Suppose, hereafter, when you are about to take a journey, you reach the +pier five minutes after the steamer has gone, what good will excuses do +you? There you are, left hopelessly behind, no matter if your excuses +are the best in the world. So in this school. I want good punctuality +and good recitations, not good excuses. I hope every one will be +prepared to-morrow." + +[Illustration] + +It is not probable, however, that every one would be prepared the next +day in such a case, but by acting steadily on these principles the +number of delinquencies would be so much diminished that the very few +which should be left could easily be examined in detail, and the +remedies applied. + +Simultaneous recitation, by which I mean the practice of addressing a +question to all the class to be answered by all together, is a practice +which has been for some years rapidly extending in our schools, and, if +adopted with proper limits and restrictions, is attended with great +advantage. The teacher must guard against some dangers, however, which +will be likely to attend it. + +1. Some will answer very eagerly, instantly after the question is +completed. They wish to show their superior readiness. Let the teacher +mention this, expose kindly the motive which leads to it, and tell them +it is as irregular to answer before the rest as after them. + +2. Some will defer their answers until they can catch those of their +comrades for a guide. Let the teacher mention this fault, expose the +motive which leads to it, and tell them that if they do not answer +independently and at once, they had better not answer at all. + +3. Some will not answer at all. The teacher can see by looking around +the room who do not, for they can not counterfeit the proper motion of +the lips with promptness and decision unless they know what the answer +is to be. He ought occasionally to say to such a one, "I perceive you do +not answer," and ask him questions individually. + +4. In some cases there is danger of confusion in the answers, from the +fact that the question may be of such a nature that the answer is long, +and may by different individuals be differently expressed. This evil +must be guarded against by so shaping the question as to admit of a +reply in a single word. In reading large numbers, for example, each +figure may be called for by itself, or they may be given one after +another, the pupils keeping exact time. When it is desirable to ask a +question to which the answer is necessarily long it may be addressed to +an individual, or the whole class may write their replies, which may +then be read in succession. + +In a great many cases where simultaneous answering is practiced, after a +short time the evils above specified are allowed to grow, until at last +some half a dozen bright members of a class answer for all, the rest +dragging after them, echoing their replies, or ceasing to take any +interest in an exercise which brings no personal and individual +responsibility upon them. To prevent this, the teacher should exercise +double vigilance at such a time. He should often address questions to +individuals alone, especially to those most likely to be inattentive and +careless, and guard against the ingress of every abuse which might, +without close vigilance, appear. + +With these cautions, the method here alluded to will be found to be of +very great advantage in many studies; for example, all the arithmetical +tables may be recited in this way; words may be spelled, answers to sums +given, columns of figures added, or numbers multiplied, and many +questions in history, geography, and other miscellaneous studies +answered, especially the general questions asked for the purpose of a +review. + +But, besides being useful as a mode of examination, this plan of +answering questions simultaneously is a very important means of fixing +in the mind any facts which the teacher may communicate to his pupils. +If, for instance, he says some day to a class that Vasco de Gama was the +discoverer of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, and leaves it +here, in a few days not one in twenty will recollect the name. But let +him call upon them all to spell it simultaneously, and then to pronounce +it distinctly three or four times in concert, and the word will be very +strongly impressed upon their minds. The reflecting teacher will find a +thousand cases in the instruction of his classes, and in his general +exercises in the school, in which this principle will be of great +utility. It is universal in its application. What we _say_ we fix, by +the very act of saying it, in the mind. Hence, reading aloud, though a +slower, is a far more thorough method of acquiring knowledge than +reading silently, and it is better, in almost all cases, whether in the +family, or in Sabbath or common schools, when general instructions are +given, to have the leading points fixed in the mind by questions +answered simultaneously. + +But we are wandering a little from our subject, which is, in this part +of our chapter, the methods of _examining_ a class, not of giving or +fixing instructions. + +Another mode of examining classes, which it is important to describe, +consists in requiring _written answers_ to the questions asked. The form +and manner in which this plan may be adopted is various. The class may +bring their slates to the recitation, and the teacher may propose +questions successively, the answers to which all the class may write, +numbering them carefully. After a dozen answers are written, the teacher +may call at random for them, or he may repeat a question, and ask each +pupil to read the answer he had written, or he may examine the slates. +Perhaps this method may be very successfully employed in reviews by +dictating to the class a list of questions relating to the ground they +have gone over for a week, and then instructing them to prepare answers +written out at length, and to bring them in at the next exercise. This +method may be made more formal still by requiring a class to write a +full and regular abstract of all they have learned during a specified +time. The practice of thus reducing to writing what has been learned +will be attended with many advantages so obvious that they need not be +described. + +It will be perceived that three methods of examining classes have now +been named, and these will afford the teacher the means of introducing a +very great variety in his mode of conducting his recitations, while he +still carries his class forward steadily in their prescribed course. +Each is attended with its peculiar advantages. The _single replies,_ +coming from individuals specially addressed, are more rigid, and more to +be relied upon, but they consume a great deal of time, and, while one is +questioned, it requires much skill to keep up interest in the rest. The +_simultaneous answers_ of a class awaken more general interest, but it +is difficult, without special care, to secure by this means a special +examination of all. The _written replies_ are more thorough, but they +require more time and attention, and while they habituate the pupil to +express himself in writing, they would, if exclusively adopted, fail to +accustom him to an equally important practice, that of the oral +communication of his thoughts. A constant variety, of which these three +methods should be the elements, is unquestionably the best mode. We not +only, by this means, secure in a great degree the advantages which each +is fitted to produce, but we gain also the additional advantage and +interest of variety. + +By these, and perhaps by other means, it is the duty of the teacher to +satisfy himself that his pupils are really attentive to their duties. +It is not perhaps necessary that every individual should be every day +minutely examined; this is, in many cases, impossible; but the system of +examination should be so framed and so administered as to be daily felt +by all, and to bring upon every one a daily responsibility. + + * * * * * + +We come now to consider the second general head which was to be +discussed in this chapter. + +The study of books alone is insufficient to give knowledge to the young. +In the first stage, learning to read a book is of no use whatever +without the voice of the living teacher. The child can not take a step +alone. As the pupil, however, advances in his course, his dependence +upon his teacher for guidance and help continually diminishes, until at +last the scholar sits in his solitary study, with no companion but his +books, and desiring, for a solution of every difficulty, nothing but a +larger library. In schools, however, the pupils have made so little +progress in this course, that they all need more or less of the oral +assistance of a teacher. Difficulties must be explained; questions must +be answered; the path must be smoothed, and the way pointed out by a +guide who has traveled it before, or it will be impossible for the pupil +to go on. This is the part of our subject which we now approach. + +The great principle which is to guide the teacher in this part of his +duty is this: _Assist your pupils in such a way as to lead them, as soon +as possible, to do without assistance._ This is fundamental. In a short +time they will be away from your reach; they will have no teacher to +consult; and unless you teach them how to understand books themselves, +they must necessarily stop suddenly in their course the moment you cease +to help them forward. I shall proceed, therefore, to consider the +subject in the following plan: + +1. Means of exciting interest in study. + +2. The kind and decree of assistance to be rendered. + +3. Miscellaneous suggestions. + +1. Interesting the pupils in their studies. There are various +principles of human nature which may be of great avail in accomplishing +this object. Making intellectual effort and acquiring knowledge are +always pleasant to the human mind, unless some peculiar circumstances +render them otherwise. The teacher has, therefore, only to remove +obstructions and sources of pain, and the employment of his pupils will +be of itself a pleasure. + +"I am going to give you a new exercise to-day," said a teacher to a +class of boys in Latin. "I am going to have you parse your whole lesson +in writing. It will be difficult, but I think you may be able to +accomplish it." + +The class looked surprised. They did not know _what parsing in writing_ +could be. + +"You may first, when you take your seats, and are ready to prepare the +lesson, write upon your slates a list of the ten first nouns that you +find in the lesson, arranging them in a column. Do you understand so +far?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"Then rule lines for another column, just beyond this. In parsing nouns, +what is the first particular to be named?" + +"What the noun is from." + +"Yes; that is, its nominative. Now you may write, at the head of the +first column, the word _Nouns_, and at the head of the second, _Nom._, +for nominative. Then rule a line for the third column. What shall this +contain!" "The declension." "Yes; and the fourth?" "Gender." "The +fifth?" "Number." + +In the same manner the other columns were designated. The sixth was to +contain case; the seventh, the word with which the noun was connected in +construction; and the eighth, a reference to the rule. + +"Now I wish you," continued the teacher, "to fill up such a table as +this with _ten_ nouns. Do you understand how I mean?" + +"Yes, sir;" "No, sir," they answered, variously. + +"All who do understand may take their seats, as I wish to give as little +explanation as possible. The more you can depend upon yourselves, the +better." + +Those who saw clearly what was to be done left the class, and the +teacher continued his explanation to those who were left behind. He made +the plan perfectly clear to them by taking a particular noun and running +it through the table, showing what should be written opposite to the +word in all the columns, and then dismissed them. + +The class separated, as every class would, in such a case, with a strong +feeling of interest in the work before them. It was not so difficult as +to perplex them, and yet it required attention and care. They were +interested and pleased--pleased with the effort which it required them +to make, and they anticipated, with interest and pleasure, the time of +coming again to the class to report and compare their work. + +When the time for the class came, the teacher addressed them somewhat as +follows: + +"Before looking at your slates, I am going to predict what the faults +are. I have not seen any of your work, but shall judge altogether from +my general knowledge of school-boys, and the difficulties I know they +meet with. Do you think I shall succeed?" + +The scholars made no reply, and an unskillful teacher would imagine that +time spent in such remarks would be wholly wasted. By no means. The +influence of them was to awaken universal interest in the approaching +examination of the slates. Every scholar would be intent, watching, with +eager interest, to see whether the imagined faults would be found upon +his work. The class was, by that single pleasant remark, put into the +best possible state for receiving the criticisms of the teacher. + +"The first fault which I suppose will be found is that some are +unfinished." + +The scholars looked surprised. They did not expect to have that called +a fault. + +"How many plead guilty to it?" + +A few raised their hands, and the teacher continued: + +"I suppose that some will be found partly effaced. The slates were not +laid away carefully, or they were not clean, so that the writing is not +distinct. How many find this the case with their work?" + +"I suppose that, in some cases, the lines will not be perpendicular, but +will slant, probably toward the left, like writing. + +"I suppose, also, that, in some cases, the writing will be careless, so +that I can not easily read it. How many plead guilty to this?" + +After mentioning such other faults as occurred to him, relating chiefly +to the form of the table, and the mere mechanical execution of the work, +he said, + +"I think I shall not look at your slates to-day. You can all see, I have +no doubt, how you can considerably improve them in mechanical execution +in your next lesson; and I suppose you would a little prefer that I +should not see your first imperfect efforts. In fact, I should rather +not see them. At the next recitation they probably will be much better." + +One important means by which the teacher may make his scholars careful +of their reputation is to show them, thus, that he is careful of it +himself. + +Now in such a case as this, for it is, except in the principles which it +is intended to illustrate, imaginary, a very strong interest would be +awakened in the class in the work assigned them. Intellectual effort in +new and constantly varied modes is in itself a pleasure, and this +pleasure the teacher may deepen and increase very easily by a little +dexterous management, designed to awaken curiosity and concentrate +attention. It ought, however, to be constantly borne in mind that this +variety should be confined to the modes of pursuing an object--the +object itself being permanent, and constant, and steadily pursued. For +instance, if a little class are to be taught simple addition, after the +process is once explained, which may be done, perhaps, in two or three +lessons, they will need many days of patient practice to render it +familiar, to impress it firmly in their recollection, and to enable them +to work with rapidity. Now this object must be steadily pursued. It +would be very unwise for the teacher to say to himself, My class are +tired of addition; I must carry them on to subtraction, or give them +some other study. It would be equally unwise to keep them many days +performing example after example in monotonous succession, each lesson a +mere repetition of the last. He must steadily pursue his object of +familiarizing them fully with this elementary process, but he may give +variety and spirit to the work by changing occasionally the modes. One +week He may dictate examples to them, and let them come together to +compare their results, one of the class being appointed to keep a list +of all who are correct each day. At another time each one may write an +example, which he may read aloud to all the others, to be performed and +brought in at the next time. Again, he may let them work on paper with +pen and ink, that he may see how few mistakes they make, as mistakes in +ink can not be easily removed. He may excite interest by devising +ingenious examples, such as finding out how much all the numbers from +one to fifty will make when added together, or the amount of the ages of +the whole class, or any such investigation, the result of which they +might feel an interest in learning. Thus the object is steadily pursued, +though the means of pursuing it are constantly changing. We have the +advantage of regular progress in the acquisition of knowledge truly +valuable, while this progress is made with all the spirit and interest +which variety can give. + +The necessity of making such efforts as this, however, to keep up the +interest of the class in their work, and to make it pleasant to them, +will depend altogether upon circumstances; or, rather, it will vary +much with circumstances. A class of pupils somewhat advanced in their +studies, and understanding and feeling the value of knowledge, will need +very little of such effort as this; while young and giddy children, who +have been accustomed to dislike books and school, and every thing +connected with them, will need more. It ought, however, in all cases, to +be made a means, not an end--the means to lead on a pupil to an +_interest in progress in knowledge itself,_ which is, after all, the +great motive which ought to be brought as soon and as extensively as +possible to operate in the school-room. + +Another way to awaken interest in the studies of the school is to bring +out, as frequently and as distinctly as possible, the connection between +these studies and the practical business of life. The events which are +occurring around you, and which interest the community in which you are +placed, may, by a little ingenuity, be connected in a thousand ways with +the studies of the school. If the practice, which has been already +repeatedly recommended, of appropriating a quarter of an hour each day +to a general exercise, should be adopted, it will afford great +facilities for doing this. + +There is no branch of study attended to in school which may, by +judicious efforts, be made more effectual in accomplishing this object, +leading the pupils to see the practical utility and the value of +knowledge, than composition. If such subjects as are suitable themes for +_moral essays_ are assigned, the scholars will indeed dislike the work +of writing, and derive little benefit from it. The mass of pupils in our +schools are not to be writers of moral essays or orations, and they do +not need to form that style of empty, florid, verbose declamation which +the practice of writing composition in our schools, as it is too +frequently managed, tends to form. Assign practical subjects--subjects +relating to the business of the school, or the events taking place +around you. Is there a question before the community on the subject of +the location of a new school-house? Assign it to your pupils as a +question for discussion, and direct them not to write empty declamation, +but to obtain from their parents the real arguments in the case, and to +present them distinctly and clearly, and in simple language, to their +companions. Was a building burned by lightning in the neighborhood? Let +those who saw the scene describe it, their productions to be read by the +teacher aloud, and let them see that clear descriptions please, and that +good legible writing can be read fluently, and that correct spelling, +and punctuation, and grammar make the article go smoothly and +pleasantly, and enable it to produce its full effect. Is the erection of +a public building going forward in the neighborhood of your school? You +can make it a very fruitful source of subjects and questions to give +interest and impulse to the studies of the school-room. Your classes in +geometry may measure, your arithmeticians may calculate and make +estimates, your writers may describe its progress from week to week, and +anticipate the scenes which it will in future years exhibit. + +By such means the practical bearings and relations of the studies of the +school-room may be constantly kept in view; but I ought to guard the +teacher, while on this subject, most distinctly against the danger of +making the school-room a scene of literary amusement instead of study. +These means of awakening interest and relieving the tedium of the +uninterrupted and monotonous study of text-books must not encroach on +the regular duties of the school. They must be brought forward with +judgment and moderation, and made subordinate and subservient to these +regular duties. Their design is to give spirit and interest, and a +feeling of practical utility to what the pupils are doing; and if +resorted to with these restrictions and within these limits, they will +produce powerful, but safe results. + +Another way to excite interest, and that of the right kind, in school, +is not to _remove_ difficulties, but to teach the pupils how to +_surmount_ them. A text-book so contrived as to make study mere play, +and to dispense with thought and effort, is the worst text-book that can +be made, and the surest to be, in the end, a dull one. The great source +of literary enjoyment, which is the successful exercise of intellectual +power, is, by such a mode of presenting a subject, cut off. Secure, +therefore, severe study. Let the pupil see that you are aiming to secure +it, and that the pleasure which you expect that they will receive is +that of firmly and patiently encountering and overcoming difficulty; of +penetrating, by steady and persevering effort, into regions from which +the idle and the inefficient are debarred, and that it is your province +to lead them forward, not to carry them. They will soon understand this, +and like it. + +Never underrate the difficulties which your pupils will have to +encounter, or try to persuade them that what you assign is _easy_. Doing +easy things is generally dull work, and it is especially discouraging +and disheartening for a pupil to spend his strength in doing what is +really difficult for him when his instructor, by calling his work easy, +gives him no credit for what may have been severe and protracted labor. +If a thing is really hard for the pupil, his teacher ought to know it +and admit it. The child then feels that he has some sympathy. + +It is astonishing how great an influence may be exerted over a child by +his simply knowing that his efforts are observed and appreciated. You +pass a boy in the street wheeling a heavy load in a barrow; now simply +stop to look at him, with a countenance which says, "That is a heavy +load; I should not think that boy could wheel it;" and how quick will +your look give fresh strength and vigor to his efforts. On the other +hand, when, in such a case, the boy is faltering under his load, try the +effect of telling him, "Why, that is not heavy; you can wheel it easily +enough; trundle it along." The poor boy will drop his load, disheartened +and discouraged, and sit down upon it in despair. It is so in respect +to the action of the young in all cases. They are animated and incited +by being told _in the right way_ that they have something difficult to +do. A boy is performing some service for you. He is watering your horse, +perhaps, at a well by the road-side as you are traveling. Say to him, +"Hold up the pail high, so that the horse can drink; it is not heavy." + +[Illustration] + +He will be discouraged, and will be ready to set the pail down. Say to +him, on the other hand, "I had better dismount myself. I don't think you +can hold the pail up. It is very heavy;" and his eye will brighten up at +once. "Oh no, sir," he will reply, "I can hold it very easily." Hence, +even if the work you are assigning to a class _is_ easy, do not tell +them so unless you wish to destroy all their spirit and interest in +doing it; and if you wish to excite their spirit and interest, make your +work difficult, and let them see that you know it is so; not so +difficult as to tax their powers too heavily, but enough so to require a +vigorous and persevering effort. Let them distinctly understand, too, +that you know it is difficult, that you mean to make it so, but that +they have your sympathy and encouragement in the efforts which it calls +them to make. + +You may satisfy yourself that human nature is, in this respect, what I +have described by some such experiment as the following. Select two +classes not very familiar with elementary arithmetic, and offer to each +of them the following example in addition: + + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 + 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 + 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 + etc., etc. + + +The numbers may be continued, according to the obvious law regulating +the above, until each one of the nine digits has commenced the line. Or, +if you choose Multiplication, let the example be this: + + Multiply 123456789 + by 123456789 + --------- + + +Now, when you bring the example to one of the classes, address the +pupils as follows: + +"I have contrived for you a very difficult sum. It is the most difficult +one that can be made with the number of figures contained in it, and I +do not think that any of you can do it, but you may try. I shall not be +surprised if every answer should contain mistakes." + +To the other class say as follows: + +"I have prepared an example for you, which I wish you to be very careful +to perform correctly. It is a little longer than those you have had +heretofore, but it is to be performed upon the same principles, and you +can all do it correctly, if you really try." + +Now under such circumstances the first class will go to their seats with +ardor and alacrity, determined to show you that they can do work, even +if it is difficult; and if they succeed, they come to the class the next +day with pride and pleasure. They have accomplished something which you +admit it was not easy to accomplish. On the other hand, the second class +will go to their seats with murmuring looks and words, and with a +hearty dislike of the task you have assigned them. They know that they +have something to do, which, however easy it may be to the teacher, is +really difficult for them; and they have to be perplexed and wearied +with the work, without having, at last, even the little satisfaction of +knowing that the teacher appreciates the difficulties with which they +had to contend. + +2. We now come to consider the subject of rendering assistance to the +pupil, which is one of the most important and delicate parts of a +teacher's work. The great difference which exists among teachers in +regard to the skill they possess in this part of their duty, is so +striking that it is very often noticed by others; and perhaps skill here +is of more avail in deciding the question of success or failure than any +thing besides. The first great principle is, however, simple and +effectual. + +_(1.) Divide and subdivide a difficult process, until your steps are so +short that the pupil can easily take them._ + +Most teachers forget the difference between the pupil's capacity and +their own, and they pass rapidly forward, through a difficult train of +thought, in their own ordinary gait, their unfortunate followers vainly +trying to keep up with them. The case is precisely analogous to that of +the father, who walks with the step of a man, while his little son is by +his side, wearying and exhausting himself with fruitless efforts to +reach his feet as far, and to move them as rapidly as a full-grown man. + +But to show what I mean by subdividing a difficult process so as to make +each step simple, I will take a case which may serve as an example. I +will suppose that the teacher of a common school undertakes to show his +boys, who, we will suppose, are acquainted with nothing but elementary +arithmetic, how longitude is determined by means of the eclipses of +Jupiter's satellites; not a very simple question, but still one which, +like all others, may be, merely by the power of the subdivision alluded +to, easily explained. I will suppose that the subject has come up at a +general exercise; perhaps the question was asked in writing by one of +the older boys. I will present the explanation chiefly in the form of +question and answer, that it may be seen that the steps are so short +that the boys may take them themselves. + +"Which way," asks the teacher, "are the Rocky Mountains from us?" + +"West," answer two or three of the boys. + +In such cases as this, it is very desirable that the answers should be +general, so that throughout the school there should be a spirited +interest in the questions and replies. This will never be the case if a +small number of the boys only take part in the answers, and many +teachers complain that when they try this experiment they can seldom +induce many of the pupils to take a part. + +The reason ordinarily is that they say that _any_ of the boys may answer +instead of that _all_ of them may. The boys do not get the idea that it +is wished that a universal reply should come from all parts of the room, +in which every one's voice should be heard. If the answers were feeble +in the instance we are supposing, the teacher would perhaps say, + +"I only heard one or two answers; do not more of you know where the +Rocky Mountains are? Will you all think and answer together? Which way +are they from us?" + +"West," answer a large number of boys. + +"You do not answer fully enough yet; I do not think more than forty +answered, and there are about sixty here. I should like to have _every +one in the room_ answer, and all precisely together." + +He then repeats the question, and obtains a full response. A similar +effort will always succeed. + +"Now does the sun, in going round the earth, pass over the Rocky +Mountains, or over us, first?" + +To this question the teacher hears a confused answer. Some do not +reply; some say, "Over the Rocky Mountains;" others, "Over us;" and +others still, "The sun does not move at all." + +"It is true that the sun, strictly speaking, does not move; the earth +turns round, presenting the various countries in succession to the sun, +but the effect is precisely the same as it would be if the sun moved, +and, accordingly, I use that language. Now how long does it take the sun +to pass round the earth?" + +"Twenty-four hours." + +"Does he go toward the west or toward the east from us?" + +"Toward the west." + +But it is not necessary to give the replies; the questions alone will be +sufficient. The reader will observe that they inevitably lead the pupil, +by short and simple steps, to a clear understanding of the point to be +explained. + +"Will the sun go toward or from the Rocky Mountains after leaving us?" + +"How long did you say it takes the sun to go round the globe and come to +us again?" + +"How long to go half round?" "Quarter round?" + +"How long will it take him to go to the Rocky Mountains?" + +No answer. + +"You can not tell. It would depend upon the distance. Suppose, then, the +Rocky Mountains were half round the globe, how long would it take the +sun to go to them?" "Suppose they were quarter round?" + +"The whole distance is divided into portions called degrees--360 in all. +How many will the sun pass in going half round?" "In going quarter +round?" + +"Ninety degrees, then, make one quarter of the circumference of the +globe. This, you have already said, will take six hours. In one hour, +then, how many degrees will the sun pass over?" + +Perhaps no answer. If so, the teacher will subdivide the question on the +principle we are explaining, so as to make the steps such that the +pupils _can_ take them. + +"How many degrees will the sun pass over in three hours?" + +"Forty-five." + +"How large a part of that, then, will he pass in one hour?" + +"One third of it." + +"And what is one third of forty-five?" + +The boys would readily answer fifteen, and the teacher would then dwell +for a moment on the general truth thus deduced, that the sun, in passing +round the earth, passes over fifteen degrees every hour. + +"Suppose, then, it takes the sun one hour to go from us to the River +Mississippi, how many degrees west of us would the river be?" + +Having thus familiarized the pupils to the fact that the motion of the +sun is a proper measure of the difference of longitude between two +places, the teacher must dismiss the subject for a day, and when the +next opportunity of bringing it forward occurs, he would, perhaps, take +up the subject of the sun's motion as a measure _of time._ + +"Is the sun ever exactly over our heads?" + +"Is he ever exactly south of us?" + +"When he is exactly south of us, or, in other words, exactly opposite to +us in his course round the earth, he is said to be in our meridian; for +the word meridian means a line drawn exactly north or south from any +place." + +There is no limit to the simplicity which may be imparted, even to the +most difficult subjects, by subdividing the steps. This point, for +instance, the meaning of meridian, may be the subject, if it were +necessary, of many questions, which would render it simple to the +youngest child. The teacher may point to the various articles in the +room, or buildings, or other objects without, and ask if they are or are +not in his meridian. But to proceed: + +"When the sun is exactly opposite to us, in the south, at the highest +point to which he rises, what o'clock is it?" + +"When the sun is exactly opposite to us, can he be opposite to the Rocky +Mountains?" + +"Does he get opposite to the Rocky Mountains before or after he is +opposite to us?" + +"When he is opposite to the Rocky Mountains, what o'clock is it there?" + +"Is it twelve o'clock here, then, before or after it is twelve o'clock +there?" + +"Suppose the River Mississippi is fifteen degrees from us, how long is +it twelve o'clock here before it is twelve o'clock there?" + +"When it is twelve o'clock here, then, what time will it be there?" + +Some will probably answer "one," and some "eleven." If so, the step is +too long, and may be subdivided thus: + +"When it is noon here, is the sun going toward the Mississippi, or has +he passed it?" + +"Then has noon gone by at that river, or has it not yet come?" + +"Then will it be one hour before or one hour after noon?" + +"Then will it be eleven or one?" + +Such minuteness and simplicity would, in ordinary cases, not be +necessary. I go into it here merely to show how, by simply subdividing +the steps, a subject ordinarily perplexing may be made plain. The reader +will observe that in the above there are no explanations by the +teacher--there are not even leading questions; that is, there are no +questions the form of which suggests the answers desired. The pupil goes +on from step to step simply because he has but one short step to take at +a time. + +"Can it be noon, then," continues the teacher, "here and at a place +fifteen degrees west of us at the same time?" + +"Can it be noon here and at a place ten miles west of us at the same +time?" + +It is unnecessary to continue the illustration, for it will be very +evident to every reader that, by going forward in this way, the whole +subject may be laid out before the pupils so that they shall perfectly +understand it. They can, by a series of questions like the above, be led +to see, by their own reasoning, that time, as denoted by the clock, must +differ in every two places not upon the same meridian, and that the +difference must be exactly proportional to the difference of longitude. +So that a watch which is right in one place can not, strictly speaking, +be right in any other place east or west of the first; and that, if the +time of day at two places can be compared, either by taking a +chronometer from one to another, or by observing some celestial +phenomenon, like the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, and ascertaining +precisely the time of their occurrence, according to the reckoning at +both, the distance east or west by degrees may be determined. The reader +will observe, too, that the method by which this explanation is made is +strictly in accordance with the principle I am illustrating, which is by +simply _dividing the process into short steps._ There is no ingenious +reasoning on the part of the teacher, no happy illustrations, no +apparatus, no diagrams. It is a pure process of mathematical reasoning, +made clear and easy by _simple analysis._ + +In applying this method, however, the teacher should be very careful not +to subdivide too much. It is best that the pupils should walk as fast as +they can. The object of the teacher should be to smooth the path not +much more than barely enough to enable the pupil to go on. He should not +endeavor to make it very easy. + +(2.) Truths must not only be taught to the pupils, but they must +_fixed_, and _made familiar._ This is a point which seems to be very +generally overlooked. + +"Can you say the Multiplication Table?" said a teacher to a boy who was +standing before him in his class. + +"Yes, sir." + +"Well, I should like to have you say the line beginning nine times one." + +The boy repeated it slowly, but correctly. + +"Now I should like to have you try again, and I will, at the same time, +say another line, to see if I can put you out." + +The boy looked surprised. The idea of his teacher's trying to perplex +and embarrass him was entirely new. + +"You must not be afraid," said the teacher. "You will undoubtedly not +succeed in getting through, but you will not be to blame for the +failure. I only try it as a sort of intellectual experiment." + +The boy accordingly began again, but was soon completely confused by the +teacher's accompaniment. He stopped in the middle of his line, saying, + +"I could say it, only you put me out." + +"Well, now try to say the Alphabet, and let me see if I can put you out +there." + +As might have been expected, the teacher failed. The boy went regularly +onward to the end. + +"You see, now," said the teacher to the class who had witnessed the +experiment, "that this boy knows his Alphabet in a different sense from +that in which he knows his Multiplication Table. In the latter, his +knowledge is only imperfectly his own; he can make use of it only under +favorable circumstances. In the former it is entirely his own; +circumstances have no control over him." + +A child has a lesson in Latin Grammar to recite. She hesitates and +stammers, miscalls the cases, and then corrects herself, and, if she +gets through at last, she considers herself as having recited well, and +very many teachers would consider it well too. If she hesitates a little +longer than usual in trying to summon to her recollection a particular +word, she says, perhaps, "Don't tell me," and if she happens at last to +guess right, she takes her book with a countenance beaming with +satisfaction. + +"Suppose you had the care of an infant school," might the instructor say +to such a scholar, "and were endeavoring to teach a little child to +count, and she should recite her lesson to you in this way, 'One, two, +four--no, three--one, two, three----stop, don't tell me--five--no, +four--four--five--------I shall think in a minute--six--is that right? +five, six,' &c. Should you call that reciting well?" + +Nothing is more common than for pupils to say, when they fail of +reciting their lesson, that they could say it at their seats, but that +they can not now say it before the class. When such a thing is said for +the first time it should not be severely reproved, because nine children +in ten honestly think that if the lesson were learned so that it could +be recited any where, their duty is discharged. But it should be kindly, +though distinctly explained to them, that in the business of life they +must have their knowledge so much at command that they can use it at all +times and in all circumstances, or it will do them little good. + +One of the most common cases of difficulty in pursuing mathematical +studies, or studies of any kind where the succeeding lessons depend upon +those which precede, is the fact that the pupil, though he may +understand what precedes, is not _familiar_ with it. This is very +strikingly the case with Geometry. The class study the definitions, and +the teacher supposes they fully understand them; in fact, they do +_understand_ them, but the name and the thing are so feebly connected in +their minds that a direct effort and a short pause are necessary to +recall the idea when they hear or see the word. When they come on, +therefore, to the demonstrations, which in themselves would be difficult +enough, they have double duty to perform. The words used do not readily +suggest the idea, and the connection of the ideas requires careful +study. Under this double burden many a young geometrician sinks +discouraged. + +A class should go on slowly, and dwell on details so long as to fix +firmly and make perfectly familiar whatever they undertake to learn. In +this manner the knowledge they acquire will become their own. It will be +incorporated, as it were, into their very minds, and they can not +afterward be deprived of it. + +The exercises which have for their object this rendering familiar what +has been learned may be so varied as to interest the pupil very much, +instead of being tiresome, as it might at first be supposed. + +Suppose, for instance, a teacher has explained to a large class in +grammar the difference between an adjective and an adverb; if he leave +it here, in a fortnight one half of the pupils would have forgotten the +distinction, but by dwelling upon it a few lessons he may fix it +forever. The first lesson might be to require the pupils to write twenty +short sentences containing only adjectives. The second to write twenty +containing only adverbs. The third to write sentences in two forms, one +containing the adjective, and the other expressing the same idea by +means of the adverb, arranging them in two columns, thus: + + He writes well. | His writing is good. + +Again, they may make out a list of adjectives, with the adverbs derived +from each in another column. Then they may classify adverbs on the +principle of their meaning, or according to their termination. The +exercise may be infinitely varied, and yet the object of the whole may +be to make _perfectly familiar_, and to fix forever in the mind the +distinction explained. + +These two points seem to me to be fundamental, so far as assisting +pupils through the difficulties which lie in their way is concerned. +Diminish the difficulties as far as is necessary by shortening and +simplifying the steps, and make thorough work as you go on. These +principles, carried steadily into practice, will be effectual in leading +any mind through any difficulties which may occur. And though they can +not, perhaps, be fully applied to every mind in a large school, yet they +can be so far acted upon in reference to the whole mass as to accomplish +the object for a very large majority. + +3. _General cautions_. A few miscellaneous suggestions, which we shall +include under this head, will conclude this chapter. + +(1.) Never do any thing _for_ a scholar, but teach him to do it for +himself. How many cases occur in the schools of our country where the +boy brings his slate to the teacher, saying he can not do a certain sum. +The teacher takes the slate and pencil, performs the work in silence, +brings the result, and returns the slate to the hands of his pupil, who +walks off to his seat, and goes to work on the next example, perfectly +satisfied with the manner in which he is passing on. A man who has not +done this a hundred times himself will hardly believe it possible that +such a practice can prevail, it is so evidently a mere waste of time +both for master and scholar. + +(2.) Never get out of patience with dullness. Perhaps I ought to say, +never get out of patience with any thing. That would, perhaps, be the +wisest rule. But, above all things, remember that dullness and +stupidity--and you will certainly find them in every school--are the +very last things to get out of patience with. If the Creator has so +formed the mind of a boy that he must go through life slowly and with +difficulty, impeded by obstructions which others do not feel, and +depressed by discouragements which others never know, his lot is surely +hard enough without having you to add to it the trials and suffering +which sarcasm and reproach from you can heap upon him. Look over your +school-room, therefore, and wherever you find one whom you perceive the +Creator to have endued with less intellectual power than others, fix +your eye upon him with an expression of kindness and sympathy. Such a +boy will have suffering enough from the selfish tyranny of his +companions; he ought to find in you a protector and friend. One of the +greatest enjoyments which a teacher's life affords is the interest of +seeking out such a one, bowed down with burdens of depression and +discouragement, unaccustomed to sympathy and kindness, and expecting +nothing for the future but a weary continuation of the cheerless toils +which have imbittered the past; and the pleasure of taking off the +burden, of surprising the timid, disheartened sufferer by kind words and +cheering looks, and of seeing in his countenance the expression of ease +and even of happiness gradually returning. + +(3.) The teacher should be interested in _all_ his scholars, and aim +equally to secure the progress of all. Let there be no neglected ones in +the school-room. We should always remember that, however unpleasant in +countenance and manners that bashful boy in the corner may be, or +however repulsive in appearance, or unhappy in disposition, that girl, +seeming to be interested in nobody, and nobody appearing interested in +her, they still have, each of them, a mother, who loves her own child, +and takes a deep and constant interest in its history. Those mothers +have a right, too, that their children should receive their full share +of attention in a school which has been established for the common and +equal benefit of all. + +(4.) Do not hope or attempt to make all your pupils alike. Providence +has determined that human minds should differ from each other for the +very purpose of giving variety and interest to this busy scene of life. +Now if it were possible for a teacher so to plan his operations as to +send his pupils forth upon the community formed on the same model, as if +they were made by machinery, he would do so much toward spoiling one of +the wisest of the plans which the Almighty has formed for making this +world a happy scene. Let it be the teacher's aim to co-operate with, not +vainly to attempt to thwart, the designs of Providence. We should bring +out those powers with which the Creator has endued the minds placed +under our control. We must open our garden to such influences as shall +bring forward all the plants, each in a way corresponding to its own +nature. It is impossible if it were wise, and it would be foolish if it +were possible, to stimulate, by artificial means, the rose, in hope of +its reaching the size and magnitude of the apple-tree, or to try to +cultivate the fig and the orange where wheat only will grow. No; it +should be the teacher's main design to shelter his pupils from every +deleterious influence, and to bring every thing to bear upon the +community of minds before him which will encourage in each one the +development of its own native powers. For the rest, he must remember +that his province is to cultivate, not to create. + +Error on this point is very common. Many teachers, even among those who +have taken high rank through the success with which they have labored in +the field, have wasted much time in attempting to do what never can be +done, to form the character of those brought under their influence after +a certain uniform model, which they have conceived as the standard of +excellence. Their pupils must write just such a hand, they must compose +in just such a style, they must be similar in sentiment and feeling, and +their manners must be formed according to a fixed and uniform model; and +when, in such a case, a pupil comes under their charge whom Providence +has designed to be entirely different from the beau ideal adopted as the +standard, more time, and pains, and anxious solicitude is wasted in vain +attempts to produce the desired conformity than half the school require +beside. + +(5.) Do not allow the faults or obliquities of character, or the +intellectual or moral wants of any individual of your pupils to engross +a disproportionate share of your time. I have already said that those +who are peculiarly in need of sympathy or help should receive the +special attention they seem to require; what I mean to say now is, do +not carry this to an extreme. When a parent sends you a pupil who, in +consequence of neglect or mismanagement at home, has become wild and +ungovernable, and full of all sorts of wickedness, he has no right to +expect that you shall turn your attention away from the wide field +which, in your whole school-room, lies before you, to spend your time, +and exhaust your spirits and strength in endeavoring to repair the +injuries which his own neglect has occasioned. When you open a school, +you do not engage, either openly or tacitly, to make every pupil who may +be sent to you a learned or a virtuous man. You do engage to give them +all faithful instruction, and to bestow upon each such a degree of +attention as is consistent with the claims of the rest. But it is both +unwise and unjust to neglect the many trees in your nursery which, by +ordinary attention, may be made to grow straight and tall, and to bear +good fruit, that you may waste your labor upon a crooked stick, from +which all your toil can secure very little beauty or fruitfulness. + +Let no one now understand me to say that such cases are to be neglected. +I admit the propriety, and, in fact, have urged the duty, of paying to +them a little more than their due share of attention. What I now condemn +is the practice, of which all teachers are in danger, of devoting such a +disproportionate and unreasonable degree of attention to them as to +encroach upon their duties to others. The school, the whole school, is +your field, the elevation _of the mass_ in knowledge and virtue, and no +individual instance, either of dullness or precocity, should draw you +away from its steady pursuit. + +(6.) The teacher should guard against unnecessarily imbibing those +faulty mental habits to which his station and employment expose him. +Accustomed to command, and to hold intercourse with minds which are +immature and feeble compared with our own, we gradually acquire habits +that the rough collisions and the friction of active life prevent from +gathering around other men. Narrow-minded prejudices and prepossessions +are imbibed through the facility with which, in our own little +community, we adopt and maintain opinions. A too strong confidence in +our own views on every subject almost inevitably comes from never +hearing our opinions contradicted or called in question, and we express +those opinions in a tone of authority, and even sometimes of arrogance, +which we acquire in the school-room, for there, when we speak, nobody +can reply. + +These peculiarities show themselves first, and, in fact, most commonly, +in the school-room; and the opinions thus formed very often relate to +the studies and management of the school. One has a peculiar mode of +teaching spelling, which is successful almost entirely through the magic +influence of his interest in it, and he thinks no other mode of teaching +this branch is even tolerable. Another must have all his pupils write on +the angular system, or the anti-angular system, and he enters with all +the zeal into a controversy on the subject, as if the destiny of the +whole rising generation depended upon its decision. Tell him that all +that is of any consequence in any handwriting is that it should be +legible, rapid, and uniform, and that, for the rest, it would be better +that every human being should write a different hand, and he looks upon +you with astonishment, wondering that you can not see the vital +importance of the question whether the vertex of an _o_ should, be +pointed or round. So in every thing. He has _his way_ in every minute +particular--a way from which he can not deviate, and to which he wishes +every one else to conform. + +This set, formal mannerism is entirely inconsistent with that commanding +intellectual influence which the teacher should exert in the +administration of his school. He should work with what an artist calls +boldness and freedom of touch. Activity and enterprise of mind should +characterize all his measures if he wishes to make bold, original, and +efficient men. + +(7.) Assume no false appearances in your school either as to knowledge +or character. Perhaps it may justly be said to be the common practice of +teachers in this country to affect a dignity of deportment in the +presence of their pupils which in other cases is laid aside, and to +pretend to superiority in knowledge and an infallibility of judgment +which no sensible man would claim before other sensible men, but which +an absurd fashion seems to require of the teacher. It can, however, +scarcely be said to be a fashion, for the temptation is almost +exclusively confined to the young and the ignorant, who think they must +make up by appearance what they want in reality. Very few of the older, +and more experienced, and successful instructors in our country fall +into it at all; but some young beginner, whose knowledge is very +limited, and who, in manner and habits, has only just ceased to be a +boy, walks into his school-room with a countenance of forced gravity, +and with a dignified and solemn step, which is ludicrous even to +himself. I describe accurately, for I describe from recollection. This +unnatural, and forced, and ludicrous dignity cleaves to him like a +disease through the whole period of his duty. In the presence of his +scholars he is always under restraint, assuming a stiff and formal +dignity which is as ridiculous as it is unnatural. He is also obliged to +resort to arts which are certainly not very honorable to conceal his +ignorance. + +A scholar, for example, brings him a sum in arithmetic which he does not +know how to perform. This may be the case with a most excellent teacher, +and one well qualified for his business. In order to be successful as a +teacher, it is not necessary to understand every thing. Instead, +however, of saying frankly, "I do not understand that example; I will +examine it," he looks at it embarrassed and perplexed, not knowing how +he shall escape the exposure of his ignorance. His first thought is to +give some general directions to the pupil, and send him to his seat to +make a new experiment, hoping that in some way or other, he scarcely +knows how, he will get through; and, at any rate, if he should not, the +teacher thinks that he himself at least gains time by the manoeuvre, and +he is glad to postpone his trouble, though he knows it must soon return. + +All efforts to conceal ignorance, and all affectation of knowledge not +possessed, are as unwise as they are dishonest. If a scholar asks a +question which you can not answer, or brings you a difficulty which you +can not solve, say frankly, "I do not know." It is the only way to avoid +continual anxiety and irritation, and the surest means of securing real +respect. Let the scholars understand that the superiority of the teacher +does not consist in his infallibility, or in his universal acquisitions, +but in a well-balanced mind, where the boundary between knowledge and +ignorance is distinctly marked; in a strong desire to go forward in +mental improvement, and in fixed principles of action and systematic +habits. You may even take up in school a study entirely new to you, and +have it understood at the outset that you know no more of it than the +class commencing, but that you can be their guide on account of the +superior maturity and discipline of your powers, and the comparative +ease with which you can meet and overcome difficulties. This is the +understanding which ought always to exist between master and scholars. +The fact that the teacher does not know every thing can not long be +concealed if he tries to conceal it, and in this, as in every other +case, HONESTY IS THE BEST POLICY. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +MORAL DISCIPLINE. + + +Under the title which I have placed at the head of this chapter I intend +to discuss the methods by which the teacher is to secure a moral +ascendency over his pupils, so that he may lead them to do what is +right, and bring them back to duty when they do what is wrong. I shall +use, in what I have to say, a very plain and familiar style; and as very +much depends not only on the general principles by which the teacher is +actuated, but also on the tone and manner in which, in cases of +discipline, he addresses his pupils, I shall describe particular cases, +real and imaginary, because by this method I can better illustrate the +course to be pursued. I shall also present and illustrate the various +principles which I consider important, and in the order in which they +occur to my mind. + +1. The first duty, then, of the teacher when he enters his school is to +beware of the danger of making an unfavorable impression at first upon +his pupils. Many years ago, when I was a child, the teacher of the +school where my early studies were performed closed his connection with +the establishment, and after a short vacation another was expected. On +the appointed day the boys began to collect, some from curiosity, at an +early hour, and many speculations were started as to the character of +the new instructor. We were standing near a table with our hats on--and +our position, and the exact appearance of the group, is indelibly fixed +on my memory--when a small and youthful-looking man entered the room, +and walked up toward us. Supposing him to be some stranger, or, rather, +not making any supposition at all, we stood looking at him as he +approached, and were thunder-struck at hearing him accost us with a +stern voice and sterner brow, "Take off your hats. Take off your hats +and go to your seats." The conviction immediately rushed upon our minds +that this must be our new teacher. The first emotion was that of +surprise, and the second was that of the ludicrous, though I believe we +contrived to smother the laugh until we got out into the open air. + +So long since was this little occurrence that I have entirely forgotten +the name of the teacher, and have not the slightest recollection of any +other act in his administration of the school. But this recollection of +his first greeting of his pupils, and the expression of his countenance +at the moment, will go with me to the end of life. So strong are first +impressions. + +Be careful, then, when you first see your pupils, that you meet them +with a smile. I do not mean a pretended cordiality, which has no +existence in the heart, but think of the relation which you are to +sustain to them, and think of the very interesting circumstances under +which, for some months at least, your destinies are to be united to +theirs, until you can not help feeling a strong interest in them. Shut +your eyes for a day or two to their faults, if possible, and take an +interest in all their pleasures and pursuits, that the first attitude in +which you exhibit yourself before them may be one which shall allure, +not repel. + +2. In endeavoring to correct the faults of your pupils, do not, as many +teachers do, seize only upon _those particular cases_ of transgression +which may happen to come under your notice. These individual instances +are very few, probably, compared with the whole number of faults against +which you ought to exert an influence. And though you perhaps ought not +to neglect those which may accidentally come under your notice, yet the +observing and punishing such cases is a very small part of your duty. + +You accidentally hear, I will suppose, as you are walking home from +school, two of your boys in earnest conversation, and one of them uses +profane language. Now the course to be pursued in such a case is, most +evidently, not to call the boy to you the next day and punish him, and +there let the matter rest. This would, perhaps, be better than nothing. +But the chief impression which it would make upon the individual and +upon the other scholars would be, "I must take care how I _let the +master hear me_ use such language again." A wise teacher, who takes +enlarged and extended views of his duty in regard to the moral progress +of his pupils, would act very differently. He would look at the whole +subject. "Does this fault," he would say to himself, "prevail among my +pupils? If so, how extensively? It is comparatively of little +consequence to punish the particular transgression. The great point is +to devise some plan to reach the whole evil, and to correct it if +possible." + +In one case where such a circumstance occurred, the teacher managed it +most successfully in the following manner. + +He said nothing to the boy, and, in fact, the boy did not know that he +was overheard. He allowed a day or two to elapse, so that the +conversation might be forgotten, and then took an opportunity one day, +after school, when all things had gone on pleasantly, and the school was +about to be closed, to bring forward the whole subject. He told the boys +that he had something to say to them after they had laid by their books +and were ready to go home. The desks were soon closed, and every face in +the room was turned toward the master with a look of fixed attention. +It was almost evening. The sun had gone down. The boys' labors were +over. Their duties for the day were over; their minds were at rest, and +every thing was favorable for making a deep and permanent impression. + +"A few days ago," says the teacher, when all was still, "I accidentally +overheard some conversation between two of the boys of this school, and +one of them swore." + +There was a pause. + +"Perhaps you expect that I am now going to call the boy out and punish +him. Is that what I ought to do?" + +There was no answer. + +"I think a boy who uses bad language of any kind does what he knows is +wrong. He breaks God's commands. He does what he knows would be +displeasing to his parents, and he sets a bad example. He does wrong, +therefore, and justly deserves punishment." + +There were, of course, many boys who felt that they were in danger. +Every one who had used profane language was aware that he might be the +one who had been overheard, and, of course, all were deeply interested +in what the teacher was saying. + +"He might, I say," continued the teacher, "justly be punished; but I am +not going to punish him; for if I should, I am afraid that it would only +make him a little more careful hereafter not to commit this sin when I +could possibly be within hearing, instead of persuading him, as I wish +to, to avoid such a sin in future altogether. I am satisfied that that +boy would be far happier, even in this world, if he would make it a +principle always to do his duty, and never, in any case, to do wrong. +And then, when I think how soon he and all of us will be in another +world, where we shall all be judged for what we do here, I feel strongly +desirous of persuading him to abandon entirely this practice. I am +afraid that punishing him now would not do that. + +"Besides," continues the teacher, "I think it very probable that there +are many other boys in this school who are sometimes guilty of this +fault, and I have thought that it would be a great deal better and +happier for us all if, instead of punishing this particular boy whom I +have accidentally overheard, and who probably is not more to blame than +many other boys in school, I should bring up the whole subject, and +endeavor to persuade all the boys to reform." + +I am aware that there are, unfortunately, in our country a great many +teachers from whose lips such an appeal as this would be wholly in vain. +The man who is accustomed to scold, and storm, and punish with unsparing +severity every transgression, under the influence of irritation and +anger, must not expect that he can win over his pupils to confidence in +him and to the principles of duty by a word. But such an appeal will not +be lost when it comes from a man whose daily and habitual management +corresponds with it. But to return to the story: + +The teacher made some farther remarks, explaining the nature of the sin, +not in the language of execration and affected abhorrence, but calmly, +temperately, and without any disposition to make the worst of the +occurrence which had taken place. In concluding what he said, he +addressed the boys as follows: + +"Now, boys, the question is, do you wish to abandon this habit or not? +If you do, all is well. I shall immediately forget all the past, and +will do all I can to help you resist and overcome temptation in future. +But all I can do is only to help you; and the first thing to be done, if +you wish to engage in this work of reform, is to acknowledge your fault; +and I should like to know how many are willing to do this." + +"I wish all those who are willing to tell me whether they use profane +language would rise." + +Every individual but one rose. + +"I am very glad to see so large a number," said the teacher; "and I +hope you will find that the work of confessing and forsaking your faults +is, on the whole, pleasant, not painful business. Now those who can +truly and honestly say that they never do use profane language of any +kind may take their seats." + +Three only of the whole number, which consisted of not far from twenty, +sat down. It was in a sea-port town, where the temptation to yield to +this vice is even greater than would be, in the interior of our country, +supposed possible. + +"Those who are now standing," pursued the teacher, "admit that they do, +sometimes at least, commit this sin. I suppose all, however, are +determined to reform; for I do not know what else should induce you to +rise and acknowledge it here, unless it is a desire hereafter to break +yourselves of the habit. But do you suppose that it will be enough for +you merely to resolve here that you will reform?" + +"No, sir," said the boys. + +"Why not? If you now sincerely determine never more to use a profane +word, will you not easily avoid it?" + +The boys were silent. Some said faintly, "No, sir." + +"It will not be easy for you to avoid the sin hereafter," continued the +teacher, "even if you do now sincerely and resolutely determine to do +so. You have formed the habit of sin, and the habit will not be easily +overcome. But I have detained you long enough now. I will try to devise +some method by which you may carry your plan into effect, and to-morrow +I will tell you what it is." + +So the boys were dismissed for the day; the pleasant countenance and +cheerful tone of the teacher conveying to them the impression that they +were engaging in the common effort to accomplish a most desirable +purpose, in which they were to receive the teacher's help, not that he +was pursuing them, with threatening and punishment, into the forbidden +practice into which they had wickedly strayed. Great caution is, +however, in such a case, necessary to guard against the danger that the +teacher, in attempting to avoid the tones of irritation and anger, +should so speak of the sin as to blunt his pupils' sense of its guilt, +and lull their consciences into a slumber. + +At the appointed time on the following day the subject was again brought +before the school, and some plans proposed by which the resolutions now +formed might be more certainly kept. These plans were readily and +cheerfully adopted by the boys, and in a short time the vice of +profaneness was, in a great degree, banished from the school. + +I hope the reader will keep in mind the object of the above +illustration, which is to show that it is the true policy of the teacher +not to waste his time and strength in contending against _such +accidental instances_ of transgression as may chance to fall under his +notice, but to take an enlarged and extended view of the whole ground, +endeavoring to remove _whole classes of faults_--to elevate and improve +_multitudes together_. + +By these means, his labors will not only be more effectual, but far more +pleasant. You can not come into collision with an individual scholar, to +punish him for a mischievous spirit, or even to rebuke him for some +single act by which he has given you trouble, without an uncomfortable +and uneasy feeling, which makes, in ordinary cases, the discipline of a +school the most unpleasant part of a teacher's duty. But you can plan a +campaign against a whole class of faults, and put into operation a +system of measures to correct them, and watch from day to day the +operation of that system with all the spirit and interest of a game. It +is, in fact, a game where your ingenuity and moral power are brought +into the field, in opposition to the evil tendencies of the hearts which +are under your influence. You will notice the success or the failure of +the means you may put into operation with all the interest with which +the experimental philosopher observes the curious processes he guides, +though your interest may be much purer and higher, for he works upon +matter, but you are experimenting upon mind. + +Remember, then, as for the first time you take your new station at the +head of your school, that it is not your duty simply to watch with an +eagle eye for those accidental instances of transgression which may +chance to fall under your notice. You are to look over the whole ground. +You are to make yourself acquainted, as soon as possible, with the +classes of character and classes of faults which may prevail in your +dominions, and to form deliberate and well-digested plans for improving +the one and correcting the other. + +And this is to be the course pursued not only with great delinquencies, +such as those to which I have already alluded, but to every little +transgression against the rules of order and propriety. You can correct +them far more easily and pleasantly in the mass than in detail. + +To illustrate this principle by another case. A teacher, who takes the +course I am condemning, approaches the seat of one of his pupils, and +asks to see one of his books. As the boy opens his desk, the teacher +observes that it is in complete disorder. Books, maps, papers, +play-things, are there in promiscuous confusion, and, from the impulse +of the moment, the displeased teacher pours out upon the poor boy a +torrent of reproach. + +"What a looking desk! Why, John, I am really ashamed of you! Look!" +continues he, holding up the lid, so that the boys in the neighborhood +can look in; "see what a mass of disorder and confusion. If ever I see +your desk in such a state again, I shall most certainly punish you." + +The boys around laugh, very equivocally, however, for, with the feeling +of amusement, there is mingled the fear that the angry master may take +it into his head to inspect their domains. The boy accidentally exposed +looks sullen, and begins to throw his books into some sort of +arrangement, just enough to shield himself from the charge of absolutely +disobeying the injunction that he has received, and there the matter +ends. + +Another teacher takes no apparent notice of the confusion which he thus +accidentally witnesses. "I must take up," thinks he to himself, "the +subject of order before the whole school. I have not yet spoken of it." +He thanks the boy for the book he borrowed, and goes away. He makes a +memorandum of the subject, and the boy does not know that the condition +of his desk was noticed; perhaps he does not even know that there was +any thing amiss. + +A day or two after, at a time regularly appropriated to such subjects, +he addresses the boys as follows: + +"In our efforts to improve the school as much as possible, there is one +subject which we must not forget. I mean the order of the desks." + +The boys all begin to open their desk lids. + +"You may stop a moment," says the teacher. "I shall give you all an +opportunity to examine your desks presently. + +"I do not know what the condition of your desks is. I have not examined +them, and have not, in fact, seen the inside of more than one or two. As +I have not brought up this subject before, I presume that there are a +great many which can be arranged better than they are. Will you all now +look into your desks, and see whether you consider them in good order? +Stop a moment, however. Let me tell you what good order is. All those +things which are alike should be arranged together. Books should be in +one place, papers in another, and thus every thing should be classified. +Again, every thing should be so placed that it can be taken out without +disturbing other things. There is another principle, also, which I will +mention: the various articles should have _constant_ places, that is, +they should not be changed from day to day. By this means you soon +remember where every thing belongs, and you can put away your things +much more easily every night than if you had every night to arrange them +in a new way. Now will you look into your desks, and tell me whether +they are, on these three principles, well arranged?" + +The boys of most schools, where this subject had not been regularly +attended to, would nearly all answer in the negative. + +"I will allow you, then, some time to-day, fifteen minutes to arrange +your desks, and I hope you will try to keep them in good order +hereafter. A few days hence I shall examine them. If any of you wish for +assistance or advice from me in putting them in order, I shall be happy +to render it." + +By such a plan, which will occupy but little more time than the +irritating and useless scolding which I supposed in the other case, how +much more will be accomplished. Such an address would of itself, +probably, be the means of putting in order, and keeping in order, at +least one half of the desks in the room, and following up the plan in +the same manner and in the same spirit with which it was begun would +secure the rest. + +I repeat it, therefore, make it a principle in all cases to aim as much +as possible at the correction of those faults which are likely to be +general by _general measures_. You avoid by this means a vast amount of +irritation and impatience, both on your own part and on the part of your +scholars, and you produce twenty times the useful effect. + +3. The next principle which occurs to me as deserving the teacher's +attention in the outset of his course is this: + +Interest your scholars in doing something themselves to elevate the +moral character of the school, so as to secure a _decided majority who +will, of their own accord, co-operate with you._ + +Let your pupils understand, not by any formal speech which you make to +that effect, but by the manner in which, from time to time, you +incidentally allude to the subject, that you consider the school, when +you commence it, as _at par_, so to speak--that is, on a level with +other schools, and that your various plans for improving and amending it +are not to be considered in the light of finding fault, and punishing +transgressions, and controlling evil propensities, so as just to keep +things in a tolerable state, but as efforts to improve and carry +forward the institution to a still higher state of excellence. Such is +the tone and manner of some teachers that they never appear to be more +than merely satisfied. When the scholars do right, nothing is said about +it. The teacher seems to consider that a matter of course. It does not +appear to interest or please him at all. Nothing arouses him but when +they do wrong, and that only excites him to anger and frowns. Now in +such a case there can, of course, be no stimulus to effort on the part +of the pupils but the cold and heartless stimulus of fear. + +Now it is wrong for the teacher to expect that things will go right in +his school as a matter of course. All that he can expect _as a matter of +course_ is, that things should go on as well as they do ordinarily in +schools--the ordinary amount of idleness, the ordinary amount of +misconduct. This is the most that he can expect to come as a matter of +course. He should feel this, and then all he can gain which will be +better than this will be a source of positive pleasure; a pleasure which +his pupils have procured for him, and which, consequently, they should +share. They should understand that the teacher is engaged in various +plans for improving the school, in which they should be invited to +engage, not from the selfish desire of thereby saving him trouble, but +because it will really be happy employment for them to engage in such an +enterprise, and because, by such efforts, their own moral powers will be +exerted and strengthened in the best possible way. + +In another chapter I have explained to what extent, and in what manner, +the assistance of the pupils may be usefully and successfully employed +in carrying forward the general arrangements of the school. The same +_principles_ will apply here, though perhaps a little more careful and +delicate management is necessary in interesting them in subjects which +relate to moral discipline. + +One important method of accomplishing this end is to present these +plans before the minds of the scholars as experiments--moral +experiments, whose commencement, progress, and results they may take a +great interest in witnessing. Let us take, for example, the case alluded +to under the last head--the plan of effecting a reform in regard to +keeping desks in order. Suppose the teacher were to say, when the time +had arrived at which he had promised to give them an opportunity to put +the desks in order, + +"I think it would be a good plan to keep some account of our efforts for +improving the school in this respect. We might make a record of what we +do to-day, noting the day of the month and the number of desks which may +be found to be disorderly. Then, at the end of any time you may propose, +we will have the desks examined again, and see how many are disorderly +then. We can thus see how much improvement has been made in that time. +Should you like to adopt the plan?" + +If the boys should appear not much interested in the proposal, the +teacher might, at his own discretion, waive it. In all probability, +however, they would like it, and would indicate their interest by their +countenances, or perhaps by a response. If so, the teacher might +proceed. + +"You may all examine your desks, then, and decide whether they are in +order or not. I do not know, however, but that we ought to appoint a +committee to examine them; for perhaps all the boys would not be honest, +and report their desks as they really are." + +"Yes, sir;" "yes, sir," say the boys. + +"Do you mean that you will be honest, or that you would like to have a +committee appointed?" + +There was a confused murmur. Some answer one, and some the other. + +"I think," proceeds the teacher, "the boys will be honest, and report +their desks just as they are. At any rate, the number of dishonest boys +in this school can not be so large as materially to affect the result. +I think we had better take your own statements. As soon as the desks are +all examined, those who have found theirs in a condition which does not +satisfy them are requested to rise and be counted." + +The teacher then looks around the room, and selecting some intelligent +boy who has influence among his companions, and whose influence he is +particularly desirous of enlisting on the side of good order, says, +"Shall I nominate some one to keep an account of the number?" + +"Yes, sir," say the boys. + +"Well, I nominate William Jones. How many are in favor of requesting +William Jones to perform this duty?" + +"It is a vote. William, I will thank you to write upon a piece of paper +that on the 8th of December the subject of order in the desks was +brought up, and that the boys resolved on making an effort to improve +the school in this respect. Then say that the boys reported all their +desks which they thought were disorderly, and that the number was +thirty-five; and that after a week or two, the desks are to be examined +again, and the disorderly ones counted, that we may see how much we have +improved. After you have written it you may bring it to me, and I will +tell you whether it is right." + +"How many desks do you think will be found to be disorderly when we come +to make the examination?" + +The boys hesitate. + +The teacher names successively several numbers, and asks whether they +think the real number will be greater or less. He notices their votes +upon them, and at last fixes upon one which seems to be about the +general sense of the school. Then the teacher himself mentions the +number which he supposes will be found to be disorderly. His estimate +will ordinarily be larger than that of the scholars, because he knows +better how easily resolutions are broken. This number, too, is recorded, +and then the whole subject is dismissed. + +Now, of course, no reader of these remarks will understand me to be +recommending, by this imaginary dialogue, a particular course to be +taken in regard to this subject, far less the particular language to be +used. All I mean is to show by a familiar illustration how the teacher +is to endeavor to enlist the interest and to excite the curiosity of his +pupils in his plans for the improvement of his school, by presenting +them as moral experiments, which they are to assist him in +trying--experiments whose progress they are to watch, and whose results +they are to predict. If the precise steps which I have described should +actually be taken, although it would occupy but a few minutes, and would +cause no thought and no perplexing care, yet it would undoubtedly be the +means of awakening a very general interest in the subject of order +throughout the school. All would be interested in the work of +arrangement. + +All would watch, too, with interest the progress and the result of the +experiment; and if, a few days afterward, the teacher should +accidentally, in recess, see a disorderly desk, a good-humored remark +made with a smile to the by-standers, "I suspect my prediction will turn +out the correct one," would have far more effect than the most severe +reproaches, or the tingling of a rap over the knuckles with a ratan. + +I know from experience that scholars of every kind can be led by such +measures as these, or rather by such a spirit as this, to take an active +interest, and to exert a most powerful influence in regard to the whole +condition of the institution. I have seen the experiment successful in +boys' schools and in girls' schools, among very little children, and +among the seniors and juniors at college. + +In one of the colleges of New England a new and beautiful edifice was +erected. The lecture-rooms were fitted up in handsome style, and the +officers, when the time for the occupation of the building approached, +were anticipating with regret what seemed to be the unavoidable +defacing, and cutting, and marking of the seats and walls. It was, +however, thought that if the subject was properly presented to the +students, they would take an interest in preserving the property from +injury. They were accordingly addressed somewhat as follows: + +"It seems, young gentlemen, to be generally the custom in colleges for +the students to ornament the walls and benches of their recitation-rooms +with various inscriptions and caricatures, so that after the premises +have been for a short time in the possession of a class, every thing +within reach, which will take an impression from a penknife or a trace +from a pencil, is covered with names, and dates, and heads, and +inscriptions of every kind. The faculty do not know what you wish in +this respect in regard to the new accommodations which the trustees have +now provided for you, and which you are soon to enter. They have had +them fitted up for you handsomely, and if you wish to have them kept in +good order, we will assist you. If the students think proper to express +by a vote, or in any other way, their wish to keep them in good order, +we will engage to have such incidental injuries as may from time to +time occur immediately repaired. Such injuries will, of course, be done; +for, whatever may be the wish and general opinion of the whole, it is +not to be expected that every individual in so large a community will be +careful. If, however, as a body, you wish to have the building preserved +in its present state, and will, as a body, take the necessary +precautions, we will do our part." + +[Illustration] + +The students responded to this appeal most heartily. They passed a vote +expressing a desire to preserve the premises in order, and for many +years, and, for aught I know, to the present hour, the whole is kept as +a room occupied by gentlemen should be kept. At some other colleges, and +those, too, sustaining the very highest rank among the institutions of +the country, the doors of the public buildings are sometimes _studded +with nails as thick as they can possibly be driven, and then covered +with a thick coat of sand dried into the paint, as a protection from the +knives of the students!!_ + +The particular methods by which the teacher is to interest his pupils in +his various plans for their improvement can not be fully described here. +In fact, it does not depend so much on the methods he adopts as upon the +view which he himself takes of these plans, and the _tone and manner in +which he speaks of them to his pupils_. + +A teacher, for example, perhaps on the first day of his labors in a new +school, calls a class to read. They pretend to form a line, but it +crooks in every direction. One boy is leaning back against a desk; +another comes forward as far as possible, to get near the fire; the rest +lounge in every position and in every attitude. John is holding up his +book high before his face to conceal an apple from which he is +endeavoring to secure an enormous bite. James is, by the same sagacious +device, concealing a whisper which he is addressing to his next +neighbor, and Moses is seeking amusement by crowding and elbowing the +little boy who is unluckily standing next him. + +"What a spectacle!" says the master to himself, as he looks at this sad +display. "What shall I do?" The first impulse is to break forth upon +them at once with all the artillery of reproof, and threatening, and +punishment. I have seen, in such a case, a scolding and frowning master +walk up and down before such a class with a stern and angry air, +commanding this one to stand back, and that one to come forward, +ordering one boy to put down his book, and scolding at a second for +having lost his place, and knocking the knees of another with his ruler +because he was out of the line. The boys scowl at their teacher, and, +with ill-natured reluctance, they obey just enough to escape punishment. + +Another teacher looks calmly at the scene, and says to himself, "What +shall I do to remove effectually these evils? If I can but interest the +boys in reform, it will be far more easy to effect it than if I attempt +to accomplish it by the mere exercise of my authority." + +In the mean time things go on during the reading in their own way. The +teacher simply _observes_. He is in no haste to commence his operations. +He looks for the faults; watches, without seeming to watch, the +movements which he is attempting to control. He studies the materials +with which he is to work, and lets their true character develop itself. +He tries to find something to approve in the exercise as it proceeds, +and endeavors to interest the class by narrating some fact connected +with the reading, or making some explanation which interests the boys. +At the end of the exercise he addresses them, perhaps, as follows: + +"I have observed, boys, in some military companies, that the officers +are very strict, requiring implicit and precise obedience. The men are +required to form a precise line." (Here there is a sort of involuntary +movement all along the line, by which it is very sensibly straightened.) +"They make all the men stand erect" (at this word heads go up, and +straggling feet draw in all along the class), "in the true military +posture. They allow nothing to be done in the ranks but to attend to +the exercise" (John hastily crowds his apple into his pocket), "and thus +they regulate every thing in exact and steady discipline, so that all +things go on in a most systematic and scientific manner. This discipline +is so admirable in some countries, especially in Europe, where much +greater attention is paid to military tactics than in our country, that +I have heard it said by travelers that some of the soldiers who mount +guard at public places look as much like statues as they do like living +men. + +"Other commanders act differently. They let the men do pretty much as +they please. So you will see such a company lounging into a line when +the drum beats, as if they took little interest in what was going on. +While the captain is giving his commands, one is eating his luncheon, +another is talking with his next neighbor. Part are out of the line; +part lounge on one foot; they hold their guns in every position; and, on +the whole, present a very disorderly and unsoldier-like appearance. + +"I have observed, too, that boys very generally prefer to _see_ the +strict companies, but perhaps they would prefer to _belong_ to the lax +ones." + +"No, sir;" "No, sir," say the boys. + +"Suppose you all had your choice either to belong to a company like the +first one I described, where the captain was strict in all his +requirements, or to one like the latter, where you could do pretty much +as you pleased, which should you prefer?" + +Unless I am entirely mistaken in my idea of the inclinations of boys, it +would be very difficult to get a single honest expression of preference +for the latter. They would say with one voice, + +"The first." + +"I suppose it would be so. You would be put to some inconvenience by the +strict commands of the captain, but then you would be more than paid by +the beauty of regularity and order which you would all witness. There is +nothing so pleasant as regularity, and nobody likes regularity more than +boys do. To show this, I should like to have you now form a line as +exact as you can." + +After some unnecessary shoving and pushing, increased by the disorderly +conduct of a few bad boys, a line is formed. Most of the class are +pleased with the experiment, and the teacher takes no notice of the few +exceptions. The time to attend to _them_ will come by-and-by. + +"Hands down." The boys obey. + +"Shoulders back." + +"There; there is a very perfect line." + +"Do you stand easily in that position?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"I believe your position is the military one now, pretty nearly; and +military men study the postures of the human body for the sake of +finding the one most easy; for they wish to preserve as much as possible +of the soldiers' strength for the time of battle. I should like to try +the experiment of your standing thus at the next lesson. It is a very +great improvement upon your common mode. Are you willing to do it?" + +"Yes, sir," say the boys. + +"You will get tired, I have no doubt; for the military position, though +most convenient and easy in the end, is not to be learned and fixed in +practice without effort. In fact, I do not expect you will succeed the +first day very well. You will probably become restless and uneasy before +the end of the lesson, especially the smaller boys. I must excuse it, I +suppose, if you do, as it will be the first time." + +By such methods as these the teacher will certainly secure a majority in +favor of all his plans. But perhaps some experienced teacher, who knows +from his own repeated difficulties with bad boys what sort of spirits +the teacher of district schools has sometimes to deal with, may ask, as +he reads this, + +"Do you expect that such a method as this will succeed in keeping your +school in order? Why there are boys in almost every school whom you +would no more coax into obedience and order in this way than you would +persuade the northeast wind to change its course by reasoning." + +I know there are. And my readers are requested to bear in mind that my +object is not to show how the whole government of the school may be +secured, but how one important advantage may be gained, which will +assist in accomplishing the object. All I should expect or hope for, by +such measures as these, is _to interest and gain over to our side the +majority_. What is to be done with those who can not be reached by such +kinds of influence I shall endeavor presently to show. The object now is +simply to gain the _majority_--to awaken a general interest, which you +can make effectual in promoting your plans, and thus to narrow the field +of discipline by getting those right who can be got right by such +measures. + +Thus securing a majority to be on your side in the general +administration of the school is absolutely indispensable to success. A +teacher may, indeed, by the force of mere authority, so control his +pupils as to preserve order in the schoolroom, and secure a tolerable +progress in study, but the progress will be slow, and the cultivation of +moral principle must be, in such a case, entirely neglected. The +principles of duty can not be inculcated by fear; and though pain and +terror must in many instances be called in to coerce an individual +offender, whom milder measures will not reach, yet these agents, and +others like them, can never be successfully employed as the ordinary +motives to action. They can not produce any thing but mere external and +heartless obedience in the presence of the teacher, with an inclination +to throw off all restraint when the pressure of stern authority is +removed. + +We should all remember that our pupils are but for a very short time +under our direct control. Even when they are in school the most untiring +vigilance will not enable us to watch, except for a very small portion +of the time, any one individual. Many hours of the day, too, they are +entirely removed from our inspection, and a few months will take them +away from us altogether. Subjecting them, then, to mere external +restraint is a very inadequate remedy for the moral evil to which they +are exposed. What we aim at is to bring forward and strengthen an +internal principle which will act when both parent and teacher are away, +and control where external circumstances are all unfavorable. + +I have thus far, under this head, been endeavoring to show the +importance of securing, by gentle measures, a majority of the scholars +to cooperate with the teacher in his plans. The particular methods of +doing this demand a little attention. + +(1.) The teacher should study human nature as it exhibits itself in the +school-room by taking an interest in the sports and enjoyments of the +pupils, and connecting, as much as possible, what is interesting and +agreeable with the pursuits of the school, so as to lead the scholars to +like the place. An attachment to the institution, and to the duties of +it, will give the teacher a very strong hold upon the community of mind +which exists there. + +(2.) Every thing which is unpleasant in the discipline of the school +should be attended to, as far as possible, privately. Sometimes it is +necessary to bring a case forward in public for reproof or punishment, +but this is seldom required. In some schools it is the custom to +postpone cases of discipline till the close of the day, and then, just +before the boys are dismissed at night, all the difficulties are +settled. Thus, day after day, the impression which is last made upon +their minds is received from a season of suffering, and terror, and +tears. + +Now such a practice may be attended with many advantages, but it seems +to be, on the whole, unwise. Awing the pupils, by showing them the +painful consequences of doing wrong, should be very seldom resorted to. +It is far better to allure them by showing them the pleasures of doing +right. Doing right is pleasant to every body, and no persons are so +easily convinced of this, or, rather, so easily led to see it, as +children. Now the true policy is to let them experience the pleasure of +doing their duty, and they will easily be allured to it. + +In many cases, where a fault has been publicly committed, it seems, at +first view, to be necessary that it should be publicly punished; but the +end will, in most cases, be answered if it is _noticed_ publicly, so +that the pupils may know that it received attention, and then the +ultimate disposal of the case may be made a private affair between the +teacher and the individual concerned. If, however, every case of +disobedience, or idleness, or disorder, is brought out publicly before +the school, so that all witness the teacher's displeasure and feel the +effects of it (for to witness it is to feel its most unpleasant +effects), the school becomes, in a short time, hardened to such scenes. +Unpleasant associations become connected with the management of the +school, and the scholars are prepared to do wrong with less reluctance, +since the consequence is only a repetition of what they are obliged to +see every day. + +Besides, if a boy does something wrong, and you severely reprove him in +the presence of his class, you punish the class almost as much as you do +him. In fact, in many cases you punish them more; for I believe it is +almost invariably more unpleasant for a good boy to stand by and listen +to rebukes, than for a bad boy to take them. Keep these things, +therefore, as much as possible out of sight. Never bring forward cases +of discipline except on mature deliberation, and for a distinct and +well-defined purpose. + +(3.) Never bring forward a case of discipline of this kind unless you +are sure that public opinion will go in your favor. If a case comes up +in which the sympathy of the scholars is excited for the criminal in +such a way as to be against yourself, the punishment will always do more +harm than good. Now this, unless there is great caution, will often +happen. In fact, it is probable that a very large proportion of the +punishments which are ordinarily inflicted in schools only prepare the +way for more offenses. + +It is, however, possible to bring forward individual cases in such a way +as to produce a very strong moral effect of the right kind. This is to +be done by seizing upon those peculiar emergencies which will arise in +the course of the administration of a school, and which each teacher +must watch for and discover himself. They can not be pointed out. I may, +however, give a clearer idea of what is meant by such emergencies by an +example. It is a case which actually occurred as here narrated. + +In a school where nearly all the pupils were faithful and docile, there +were one or two boys who were determined to find amusement in those +mischievous tricks so common in schools and colleges. There was one boy, +in particular, who was the life and soul of all these plans. Devoid of +principle, idle as a scholar, morose and sullen in his manners, he was, +in every respect, a true specimen of the whole class of mischief-makers, +wherever they are to be found. His mischief consisted, as usual, in such +exploits as stopping up the keyhole of the door, upsetting the teacher's +inkstand, or fixing something to his desk to make a noise and interrupt +the school. + +It so happened that there was a standing feud between the boys of his +neighborhood and those of another situated a mile or two from it. By his +malicious activity he had stimulated this quarrel to a high pitch, and +was very obnoxious to the boys of the other party. One day, when taking +a walk, the teacher observed a number of boys with excited looks, and +armed with sticks and stones, standing around a shoemaker's shop, to +which his poor pupil had gone for refuge from them. They had got him +completely within their power, and were going to wait until he should be +wearied with his confinement and come out, when they were going to +inflict upon him the punishment they thought he deserved. + +The teacher interfered, and by the united influence of authority, +management, and persuasion, succeeded in effecting a rescue. The boy +would probably have preferred to owe his safety to any one else than to +the teacher whom he had so often tried to tease, but he was glad to +escape in any way. The teacher said nothing about the subject, and the +boy soon supposed it was entirely forgotten. + +But it was not forgotten. The teacher knew perfectly well that the boy +would before long be at his old tricks again, and was reserving this +story as the means of turning the whole current of public opinion +against such tricks, should they again occur. + +One day he came to school in the afternoon, and found the room filled +with smoke; the doors and windows were all closed, though, as soon as he +came in, some of the boys opened them. He knew by this circumstance that +it was roguery, not accident, which caused the smoke. He appeared not to +notice it, however, said he was sorry it smoked, and asked the +mischievous boy--for he was sure to be always near in such a case--to +assist him in putting up the wood of the fire more compactly. The boy +supposed that the smoke was understood to be accidental, and perhaps +secretly laughed at the dullness of his master. + +In the course of the afternoon, the teacher ascertained by private +inquiries that his suspicions were correct as to the author of the +mischief. At the close of school, when the studies were ended, and the +books laid away, he said to the scholars that he wanted to tell them a +story. + +He then, with a pleasant tone and manner, gave a very minute, and, to +the boys, a very interesting narrative of his adventure two or three +weeks before, when he rescued this boy from his danger. He called him, +however, simply _a boy_, without mentioning his name, or even hinting +that he was a member of the school. No narrative could excite a stronger +interest among an audience of school-boys than such a one as this, and +no act of kindness from a teacher would make as vivid an impression as +interfering to rescue a trembling captive from such a situation as the +one this boy had been in. + +The scholars listened with profound interest and attention, and though +the teacher said little about his share in the affair, and spoke of what +he did as if it were a matter of course that he should thus befriend a +boy in distress, an impression very favorable to himself must have been +made. After he had finished his narrative, he said, + +"Now should you like to know who this boy was?" + +"Yes, sir," "Yes, sir," said they, eagerly. + +"It was a boy that you all know." + +The boys looked around upon one another. Who could it be? + +"He is a member of this school." + +There was an expression of fixed, and eager, and increasing interest on +every face in the room. + +"He is here now," said the teacher, winding up the interest and +curiosity of the scholars, by these words, to the highest pitch. + +"But I can not tell you his name; for what return do you think he made +to me? To be sure it was no very great favor that I did him; I should +have been unworthy the name of teacher if I had not done it for him, or +for any boy in my school. But, at any rate, it showed my good wishes for +him; it showed that I was his friend; and what return do you think he +made me for it? Why, to-day he spent his time between schools in filling +the room with smoke, that he might torment his companions here, and give +me trouble, and anxiety, and suffering when I should come. If I should +tell you his name, the whole school would turn against him for his +ingratitude." + +The business ended here, and it put a stop, a final stop, to all +malicious tricks in the school. Now it is not very often that so fine an +opportunity occurs to kill, by a single blow, the disposition to do +willful, wanton injury, as this circumstance afforded; but the principle +illustrated by it, bringing forward individual cases of transgression in +a public manner, only for the sake of the general effect, and so +arranging what is said and done as to produce the desired effect upon +the public mind in the highest degree, may very frequently be acted +upon. Cases are continually occurring, and if the teacher will keep it +constantly in mind, that when a particular case comes before the whole +school, the object is an influence upon the whole, and not the +punishment or reform of the guilty individual, he will insensibly so +shape his measures as to produce the desired result. + +(4.) There should be a great difference made between the _measures which +you take_ to prevent wrong, and the _feelings of displeasure which you +express_ against the wrong when it is done. The former should be strict, +authoritative, unbending; the latter should be mild and gentle. Your +measures, if uniform and systematic, will never give offense, however +powerfully you may restrain and control those subject to them. It is the +morose look, the harsh expression, the tone of irritation and +fretfulness, which is so unpopular in school. The sins of childhood are +by nine tenths of mankind enormously overrated, and perhaps none +overrate them more extravagantly than teachers. We confound the trouble +they give us with their real moral turpitude, and measure the one by the +other. Now if a fault prevails in school, one teacher will scold and +fret himself about it day after day, until his scholars are tired both +of school and of him; and yet he will _do_ nothing effectual to remove +it. Another will take efficient and decided measures, and yet say very +little on the subject, and the whole evil will be removed without +suspending for a moment the good-humor and pleasant feeling which should +prevail in school. + +The expression of your displeasure on account of any thing that is wrong +will seldom or never do any good. The scholars consider it scolding; it +is scolding; and though it may, in many cases, contain many sound +arguments and eloquent expostulations, it operates simply as a +punishment. It is unpleasant to hear it. General instruction must indeed +be given, but not general reproof. + +(5.) Feel that in the management of the school _you_ are under +obligation as well as the scholars, and let this feeling appear in all +that you do. Your scholars wish you to dismiss school earlier than usual +on some particular occasion, or to allow them an extra holiday. Show by +the manner in which you consider and speak of the question that your +main inquiry is what is _your duty_. Speak often of your responsibility +to your employers--not formally, but incidentally and naturally, as you +will speak if you feel this responsibility. + +It will assist very much, too, in securing cheerful, good-humored +obedience to the regulations of the school, if you extend their +authority over yourself. Not that the teacher is to have no liberty from +which the scholars are debarred; this would be impossible. But the +teacher should submit, himself, to every thing which he requires of his +scholars, unless it is in cases where a different course is necessary. + +Suppose, for instance, a study-card, like the one described in a +preceding chapter, is made so as to mark the time of recess and of +study. The teacher, near the close of recess, is sitting with a group of +his pupils around him, telling them some story. They are all interested, +and they see he is interested. He looks at his watch, and shows by his +manner that he is desirous of finishing what he is saying, but that he +knows that the striking of the bell will cut short his story. Perhaps +he says not a word about it, but his pupils see that he is submitting to +the control which is placed over them; and when the card goes up, and he +stops instantly in the middle of his sentence and rises with the rest, +each one to go to his own place, to engage at once in their several +duties, he teaches them a most important lesson, and in the most +effectual way. Such a lesson of fidelity and obedience, and such an +example of it, will have more influence than half an hour's scolding +about whispering without leave, or a dozen public punishments. At least +so I found it, for I have tried both. + +Show then continually that you see and enjoy the beauty of system and +strict discipline, and that you submit to law yourself as well as +require submission of others. + +(6.) Lead your pupils to see that they must share with you the credit or +the disgrace which success or failure in the management of the school +may bring. Lead them to feel this, not by telling them so, for there are +very few things which can be impressed upon children by direct efforts +to impress them, but by so speaking of the subject, from time to time, +as to lead them to see that you understand it so. + +Repeat, with judicious caution, what is said of the school, both for and +against it, and thus endeavor to interest the scholars in its public +reputation. This feeling of interest in the institution may very easily +be awakened. It sometimes springs up spontaneously, and, where it is not +guided aright by the teacher, sometimes produces very bad effects upon +the minds of the pupils in rival institutions. When two schools are +situated near each other, evil consequences will result from this +feeling, unless the teacher manages it so as to deduce good +consequences. I recollect that in my boyish days there was a standing +quarrel between the boys of a town school and an academy which were in +the same village. We were all ready at any time, when out of school, to +fight for the honor of our respective institutions, each for his own, +but very few were ready to be diligent and faithful when in it, though +it would seem that that might have been rather a more effectual means of +establishing the point. If the scholars are led to understand that the +school is to a great extent their institution, that they must assist to +sustain its character, and that they share the honor of its excellence, +if any honor is acquired, a feeling will prevail in the school which may +be turned to a most useful account. + +(7.) In giving instruction on moral duty, the subject should generally +be taken up in reference to imaginary cases, or cases which are unknown +to most of the scholars. If this is done, the pupils feel that the +object of bringing up the subject is to do good; whereas, if questions +of moral duty are only introduced from time to time, when some +prevailing or accidental fault in school calls for reproof, the feeling +will be that the teacher is only endeavoring to remove from his own path +a source of inconvenience and trouble. The most successful mode of +giving general moral instruction that I have known, and which has been +adopted in many schools with occasional variations of form, is the +following: + +When the time has arrived, a subject is assigned, and small papers are +distributed to the whole school, that all may write something concerning +it. These are then read and commented on by the teacher, and become the +occasion of any remarks which he may wish to make. The interest of the +pupils is strongly excited to hear the papers read, and the instruction +which the teacher may give produces a deeper effect when ingrafted thus +upon something which originates in the minds of the pupils. + +To take a particular case. A teacher addresses his scholars thus: "The +subject for the moral exercise to-day is _Prejudice_. Each one may take +one of the papers which have been distributed, and you may write upon +them any thing you please relating to the subject. As many as have +thought of any thing to write may raise their hands." + +One or two only of the older scholars gave the signal. + +"I will mention the kinds of communications you can make, and perhaps +what I say will suggest something to you. As fast as you think of any +thing, you may raise your hands, and as soon as I see a sufficient +number up, I will give directions to begin. + +"You can describe any case in which you have been prejudiced yourselves +either against persons or things." + +Here a number of the hands went up. + +"You can mention any facts relating to antipathies of any kind, or any +cases where you know other persons to be prejudiced. You can ask any +questions in regard to the subject--questions about the nature of +prejudice, or the causes of it, or the remedy for it." + +As he said this, many hands were successively raised, and at last +directions were given for all to begin to write. Five minutes were +allowed, and at the end of that time the papers were collected and read. +The following specimens, transcribed verbatim from the originals, with +the remarks made as nearly as could be remembered immediately after the +exercise, will give an idea of the ordinary operation of this plan. + +"I am very much prejudiced against spiders and every insect in the known +world with scarcely an exception. There is a horrid sensation created by +their ugly forms that makes me wish them all to Jericho. The butterfly's +wings are pretty, but he is dreadful ugly. The is no affectation in this, +for my pride will not permit me to show this prejudice to any great degree +when I can help it. I do not fear the little wretches, but I do hate them. +ANTI-SPIDER-SPARER." + +"This is not expressed very well; the phrases '_to Jericho?_' and +'_dreadful ugly_' are vulgar, and not in good taste. Such a dislike, +too, is more commonly called an antipathy than a prejudice, though +perhaps it comes under the general head of prejudices." + +"How may we overcome prejudice? I think that when we are prejudiced +against a person, it is the hardest thing in the world to overcome it." + +A prejudice is usually founded on some unpleasant association +connected with the subject of it. The best way to overcome the +prejudice, therefore, is to connect some pleasant association with it. + +For example (to take the case of the antipathy to the spider, alluded +to in the last article), the reason why that young lady dislikes spiders +is undoubtedly because she has some unpleasant idea associated with the +thought of that animal, perhaps, for example, the idea of their crawling +upon her, which is certainly not a very pleasant one for any body. Now +the way to correct such a prejudice is to try to connect some pleasant +thoughts with the sight of the animal. + +I once found a spider in an empty apartment hanging in its web on the +wall, with a large ball of eggs which it had suspended by its side. My +companion and myself cautiously brought up a tumbler under the web, and +pressed it suddenly against the wall, so as to inclose both spider and +eggs within it. We then contrived to run in a pair of shears, so as to +cut off the web, and let both the animal and its treasure fall down into +the tumbler. We put a book over the top, and walked off with our prize +to a table to see what the spider would do. + +At first it tried to climb up the side of the tumbler, but its feet +slipped on account of the smoothness of the glass. We then inclined the +glass so as to favor its climbing, and to enable it to reach the book at +the top. As soon as it touched the book, it was safe. It could cling to +the book easily, and we placed the tumbler again upright to watch its +motions. + +It attached a thread to the book, and let itself down by it to the +bottom of the tumbler, and walked round and round the ball of eggs, +apparently in great trouble. Presently it ascended by its thread, and +then came down again. It attached a new thread to the ball, and then +went up, drawing the ball with it. It hung the ball at a proper distance +from the book, and bound it firmly in its place by threads running from +it in every direction to the parts of the book which were near, and then +the animal took its place quietly by its side. + +Now I do not say that if any body had a strong antipathy to a spider, +seeing one perform such a work as this would entirely remove it, but it +would certainly soften it. It would _tend_ to remove it. It would +connect an interesting and pleasant association with the object. So if +she should watch a spider in the fields making his web. You have all +seen those beautiful regular webs in the morning dew ("Yes, sir;" "Yes, +sir"), composed of concentric circles, and radii diverging in every +direction. ("Yes, sir.") Well, watch a spider when making one of these, +or observe his artful ingenuity and vigilance when he is lying in wait +for a fly. By thus connecting pleasant ideas with the sight of the +animal, you will destroy the unpleasant association which constitutes +the prejudice. In the same manner, if I wished to create an antipathy to +a spider in a child, it would be very easily done. I would tie her hands +behind her, and put three or four upon her to crawl over her face. + +[Illustration] + +"Thus you must destroy prejudices in all cases by connecting pleasant +thoughts and associations with the objects of them." + +"I am very often prejudiced against new scholars without knowing why." + +"We sometimes hear a person talk in this way: 'I do not like such or +such a person at all.' + +"'Why?' + +"'Oh, I don't know; I do not like her at all. I can't bear her.' + +"'But why not? What is your objection to her?' + +"'Oh, I don't know; I have not any particular reason, but I never did +like her.' + +"Now, whenever you hear any person talk so, you may be sure that her +opinion on any subject is worth nothing at all. She forms opinions in +one case without grounds, and it depends merely upon accident whether +she does or not in other cases." + +"Why is it that so many of our countrymen _are_, or seem to be, +prejudiced against the unfortunate children of Africa? Almost every _large +white_ boy who meets a _small black_ boy insults him in some way or other." + +"It is so hard to _overcome_ prejudices, that we ought to be careful how +we _form_ them." + +"When I see a new scholar enter this school, and she does not happen to +suit me exactly in her ways and manners, I very often get prejudiced +against her; though sometimes I find her a valuable friend after I get +acquainted with her." + + +"There is an inquiry I should like very much to make, though I suppose +it would not be quite right to make it. I should like to ask all those +who have some particular friend in school, and who can recollect the +impression which the individual made upon them when they first saw her, +to rise, and then I should like to inquire in how many cases the first +impression was favorable, and in how many unfavorable." + +"Yes, sir;" "Yes, sir." + +"Do you mean you would like to have the inquiry made?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"All, then, who have intimate friends, and can recollect the impression +which they first made upon them, may rise." + +[About thirty rose; more than two thirds of whom voted that the first +impression made by the persons who had since become their particular +friends was unfavorable.] + +"This shows how much dependence you can justly place on first +impressions." + +"It was the next Monday morning after I had attained the wise age +of four years that I was called up into my mother's room, and told that +I was the next day going to school. + +"I called forth all my reasoning powers, and with all the ability of a +child of four years, I reasoned with my mother, but to no purpose. I +told her that I _hated_ the school-mistress then, though I had never +seen her. The very first day I tottered under the weight of the mighty +fool's-cap. I only attended her school two quarters; with prejudice I +went, and with prejudice I came away. + +"The old school-house is now torn down, and a large brick house takes +the place of it. But I never pass by without remembering my teacher. I +am prejudiced to [against] the very spot." + +"Is it not right to allow prejudice to have influence over our minds as +far as this? If any thing comes to our knowledge with which wrong +_seems_ to be connected, and one in whom we have always felt confidence +is engaged in it, is it not right to allow our prejudice in favor of +this individual to have so much influence over us as to cause us to +believe that all is really right, though every circumstance which has +come to our knowledge is against such a conclusion? I felt this +influence, not many weeks since, in a very great degree." + + +"The disposition to judge favorably of a fraud in such a case would not +be prejudice; or, at least, if it were so, it would not be a sufficient +ground to justify us in withholding blame. Well-grounded confidence in +such a person, if there was reason for it, ought to have such an effect, +but not prejudice." + + +The above may be considered as a fair specimen of the ordinary +operation of such an exercise. It is taken as an illustration, not by +selection, from the large number of similar exercises which I have +witnessed, but simply because it was an exercise occurring at the time +when a description was to be written. Besides the articles quoted above, +there were thirty or forty others which were read and commented on. The +above will, however, be sufficient to give the reader a clear idea of +the exercise, and to show what is the nature of the moral effect it is +calculated to produce. + +The subjects which may be advantageously brought forward in such a way +are, of course, very numerous. They are such as the following: + +1. DUTIES TO PARENTS.--Anecdotes of good or bad conduct at home. +Questions. Cases where it is most difficult to obey. Dialogues between +parents and children. Excuses which are often made for disobedience. + +2. SELFISHNESS.--Cases of selfishness any of the pupils have observed. +Dialogues they have heard exhibiting it. Questions about its nature. +Indications of selfishness. + +3. FAULTS OF THE SCHOOL.--Any bad practices the scholars may have +observed in regard to general deportment, recitations, habits of study, +or the scholars' treatment of one another. Each scholar may write what +is his own greatest trouble in school, and whether he thinks any thing +can be done to remove it. Any thing they think can be improved in the +management of the school by the teacher. Unfavorable things they have +heard said about it out of school, though without names. + +4. EXCELLENCES OF THE SCHOOL.--Good practices which ought to be +persevered in. Any little incidents the scholars may have noticed +illustrating good character. Cases which have occurred in which scholars +have done right in temptation, or when others around were doing wrong. +Favorable reports in regard to the school in the community around. + +5. THE SABBATH.--Any thing the scholars may have known to be done on the +Sabbath which they doubt whether right or wrong. Questions in regard to +the subject. Various opinions they have heard expressed. Difficulties +they have in regard to proper ways of spending the Sabbath. + + +(8.) We have one other method to describe by which a favorable moral +influence may be exerted in school. The method can, however, go into +full effect only where there are several pupils who have made +considerable advances in mental cultivation. + +It is to provide a way by which teachers and pupils may write +anonymously for the school. This may be done by having a place of +deposit for such articles as may be written, where any person may leave +what he wishes to have read, nominating by a memorandum upon the article +itself the reader. If a proper feeling on the subject of good discipline +and the formation of good character prevails in school, many articles, +which will have a great deal of effect upon the pupils, will find their +way through such an avenue once opened. The teacher can himself often +bring forward in this way his suggestions with more effect than he +otherwise could do. Such a plan is, in fact, like the plan of a +newspaper for an ordinary community, where sentiments and opinions stand +on their own basis, and influence the community just in proportion to +their intrinsic merits, unassisted by the authority of the writer's +name, and unimpeded by any prejudice which may exist against him. + +The following articles, which were really offered for such a purpose in +the Mount Vernon school, will serve as specimens to illustrate the +actual operation of the plan. One or two of them were written by +teachers. I do not know the authors of the others. I do not offer them +as remarkable compositions: every teacher will see that they are not so. +The design of inserting them is merely to show that the ordinary +literary ability to be found in every school may be turned to useful +account by simply opening a channel for it, and to furnish such teachers +as may be inclined to try the experiment the means of making the plan +clearly understood by their pupils. + + +MARKS OF A BAD SCHOLAR. + +"At the time when she should be ready to take her seat at school, she +commences preparation for leaving home. To the extreme annoyance of +those about her, all is now hurry, and bustle, and ill-humor. Thorough +search is to be made for every book or paper for which she has occasion; +some are found in one place, some in another, and others are forgotten +altogether. Being finally equipped, she casts her eye at the clock, +hopes to be in tolerable good season (notwithstanding that the hour for +opening the school has already arrived), and sets out in the most +violent hurry. + +"After so much haste, she is unfitted for attending properly to the +duties of the school until a considerable time after her arrival. If +present at the devotional exercises, she finds it difficult to command +her attention even when desirous of so doing, and her deportment at this +hour is, accordingly, marked with an unbecoming listlessness and +abstraction. + +"When called to recitations, she recollects that some task was assigned, +which, till that moment, she had forgotten; of others she had mistaken +the extent, most commonly thinking them to be shorter than her +companions suppose. In her answers to questions with which she should be +familiar, she always manifests more or less of hesitation, and what she +ventures to express is very commonly in the form of a question. In +these, as in all exercises, there is an inattention to general +instructions. Unless what is said be addressed particularly to herself, +her eyes are directed toward another part of the room; it may be, her +thoughts are employed about something not at all connected with the +school. If reproved by her teacher for negligence in any respects, she +is generally provided with an abundance of excuses, and however mild the +reproof, she receives it as a piece of extreme severity. + +"Throughout her whole deportment there is an air of indolence and a want +of interest in those exercises which should engage her attention. In her +seat, she most commonly sits in some lazy posture--either with her +elbows upon her desk, her head leaning upon her hands, or with her seat +tipped forward or backward. When she has occasion to leave her seat, it +is in a sauntering, lingering gait--perhaps some trick is contrived on +the way for exciting the mirth of her companions. + +"About every thing in which it is possible to be so, she is untidy. Her +books are carelessly used, and placed in her desk without order. If she +has a piece of waste paper to dispose of, she finds it much more +convenient to tear it into small pieces and scatter it about her desk, +than to put it in a proper place. Her hands and clothes are usually +covered with ink. Her written exercises are blotted and full of +mistakes." + + + +THE CONSEQUENCES OF BEING BEHINDHAND. + + +"The following incident, which I witnessed on a late journey, +illustrates an important principle, and I will relate it. + +"When our steam-boat started from the wharf, all our passengers had not +come. After we had proceeded a few yards, there appeared among the crowd +on the wharf a man with his trunk under his arm, out of breath, and with +a most disappointed and disconsolate air. The captain determined to stop +for him; but stopping an immense steam-boat, moving swiftly through the +water, is not to be done in a moment; so we took a grand sweep, wheeling +majestically around an English ship which was at anchor in the harbor. +As we came toward the wharf again, we saw the man in a small boat coming +off from it. As the steam-boat swept round, they barely succeeded in +catching a rope from the stern, and then immediately the steam-engine +began its work again, and we pressed forward, the little boat following +us so swiftly that the water around her was all in a foam. + +"They pulled upon the rope attached to the little boat until they drew +it alongside. They then let down a rope, with a hook in the end of it, +from an iron crane which projected over the side of the steam-boat, and +hooked it into a staple in the front of the small boat. '_Hoist away_!' +said the captain. The sailors hoisted, and the front part of the little +boat began to rise, the stern plowing and foaming through the water, +and the man still in it, with his trunk under his arm. They 'hoisted +away' until I began to think that the poor man would actually tumble out +behind. He clung to the seat, and looked as though he was saying to +himself, 'I will take care how I am tardy the next time.' However, after +a while, they hoisted up the stern of the boat, and he got safely on +board. + +"_Moral_--Though coming to school a few minutes earlier or later may not +in itself be a matter of much consequence, yet the habit of being five +minutes too late, if once formed, will, in actual life, be a source of +great inconvenience, and sometimes of lasting injury." + +NEW SCHOLARS. + +There is at ------ a young ladies' school, taught by Mr. ------. + + * * * * * + +"But, with all these excellences, there is one fault, which I considered +a great one, and which does not comport with the general character of +the school for kindness and good feeling. It is the little effort made +by the scholars to become acquainted with the new ones who enter. +Whoever goes there must push herself forward, or she will never feel at +home. The young ladies seem to forget that the new-comer must feel +rather unpleasantly in the midst of a hundred persons to whom she is +wholly a stranger, and with no one to speak to. Two or three will stand +together, and instead of deciding upon some plan by which the individual +may be made to feel at ease, something like the following conversation +takes place: + +"_Miss X._ How do you like the looks of Miss A., who entered school +to-day? + +"_Miss Y._ I don't think she is very pretty, but she looks as if she +might be a good scholar. + +"_Miss X._ She does not strike me very pleasantly. Did you ever see +such a face? And her complexion is so dark, I should think she had +always lived in the open air; and what a queer voice she has! + +"_Miss Y._ I wonder if she has a taste for Arithmetic? + +"_Miss X._ She does not look as if she had much taste for any thing. See +how strangely she arranges her hair! + +"_Miss S._ Whether she has much taste or not, some one of us ought to go +and get acquainted with her. See how unpleasantly she feels! + +"_Miss X._ I don't want to get acquainted with her until I know whether +I shall like her or not. + +"Thus nothing is done to relieve her. When she does become acquainted, +all her first strange appearance is forgotten; but this is sometimes not +the case for several weeks. It depends entirely on the character of the +individual herself. If she is forward, and willing to make the necessary +effort, she can find many friends; but if she is diffident, she has much +to suffer. This arises principally from thoughtlessness. The young +ladies do not seem to realize that there is any thing for them to do. +They feel enough at home themselves, and the remembrance of the time +when they entered school does not seem to arise in their minds." + + +A SATIRICAL SPIRIT. + +I witnessed, a short time since, a meeting between two friends, who had +had but little intercourse before for a long while. I thought a part of +their conversation might be useful, and I shall therefore relate it, as +nearly as I can recollect, leaving each individual to draw her own +inferences. + +For some time I sat silent, but not uninterested, while the days of +'Auld Lang Syne' came up to the remembrance of the two friends. After +speaking of several individuals who were among their former +acquaintances, one asked, 'Do you remember Miss W.? 'Yes,' replied the +former, I remember her as the fear, terror, and abhorrence of all who +knew her.' _I_ knew the lady by report, and asked why she was so +regarded. The reply was, 'Because she was so severe, so satirical in her +remarks upon others. She spared neither friend nor foe.' + + +"The friends resumed their conversation. 'Did you know,' said the one +who had first spoken of Miss W., 'that she sometimes had seasons of +bitter repentance for indulging in this unhappy propensity of hers? She +would, at such times, resolve to be more on her guard, but, after all +her good resolutions, she would yield to the slightest temptations. When +she was expressing, and apparently really _feeling_ sorrow for having +wounded the feelings of others, those who knew her would not venture to +express any sympathy, for, very likely, the next moment _that_ would be +turned into ridicule. No confidence could be placed in her.' + +"A few more facts will be stated respecting the same individual, which I +believe are strictly true. Miss W. possessed a fine and well-cultivated +mind, great penetration, and a tact at discriminating character rarely +equaled. She could, if she chose, impart a charm to her conversation +that would interest and even fascinate those who listened to it; still, +she was not beloved. Weaknesses and foibles met with unmerciful +severity, and well-meaning intentions and kind actions did not always +escape without the keen sarcasm which it is so difficult for the best +regulated mind to bear unmoved. The mild and gentle seemed to shrink +from her; and thus she, who might have been the bright and beloved +ornament of the circle in which she moved, was regarded with distrust, +fear, and even hatred. This dangerous habit of making satirical remarks +was evinced in childhood; it was cherished; it 'grew with her growth, +and strengthened with her strength,' until she became what I have +described. +LAURA." + +Though such a satirical spirit is justly condemned, a little +good-humored raillery may sometimes be allowed as a mode of attacking +faults in school which can not be reached by graver methods. The teacher +must not be surprised if some things connected with his own +administration come in sometimes for a share. + +VARIETY. + +"I was walking out a few days since, and not being particularly in +haste, I concluded to visit a certain school for an hour or two. In a +few minutes after I had seated myself on the sofa, the '_Study Card_' +was dropped, and the general noise and confusion indicated that recess +had arrived. A line of military characters, bearing the title of the +'Freedom's Band,' was soon called out, headed by one of their own +number. The tune chosen to guide them was Kendall's March. + +"'Please to form a regular line,' said the lady commander. 'Remember +that there is to be no speaking in the ranks. Do not begin to step until +I strike the bell. Miss B., I requested you not to step until I gave the +signal.' + +"Presently the command was given, and the whole line _stepped_ for a few +minutes to all intents and purposes. Again the bell sounded. 'Some of +you have lost the step,' said the general. 'Look at me, and begin again. +Left! right! left! right!' The line was once more in order, and I +observed a new army on the opposite side of the room, performing the +same manoeuvres, always to the tune of 'Kendall's March.' After a time +the recess closed, and order was again restored. In about half an hour I +approached a class which was reciting behind the railing. 'Miss A.,' +said a teacher, 'how many kinds of magnitude are there?' _Miss A._ +(Answer inaudible.) _Several voices._ 'We can't hear.' _Teacher._ 'Will +you try to speak a little louder, Miss A.?" + +"Some of the class at length seemed _to guess_ the meaning of the young +lady, but _I_ was unable to do even that until the answer was repeated +by the teacher. Finding that I should derive little instruction from +the recitation, I returned to the sofa. + +"In a short time the _propositions_ were read. 'Proposed, that the +committee be impeached for not providing suitable pens.' 'Lost, a +pencil, with a piece of India-rubber attached to it by a blue ribbon,' +&c., &c. + +"Recess was again announced, and the lines commenced their evolutions to +the tune of 'Kendall's March.' Thought I, 'Oh that there were a new tune +under the sun!' + +"Before the close of school some compositions were read. One was +entitled 'The Magic King,' and commenced, 'As I was sitting alone last +evening, I heard a gentle tap on the door, and immediately a beautiful +fairy appeared before me. She placed a ring on my finger, and left me.' +The next began, 'It is my week to write composition, but I do not know +what to say. However, I must write something, so it shall be a +dialogue.' Another was entitled the 'Magical Shoe,' and contained a +marvelous narration of adventures made in a pair of shoes more valuable +than the far-famed 'seven-league boots.' A fourth began, 'Are you +acquainted with that new scholar?' 'No; but I don't believe I shall like +her.' And soon the 'Magical Thimble,' the 'Magical Eye-glass,' &c., were +read in succession, until I could not but exclaim, 'How pleasing is +variety!' School was at length closed, and the young ladies again +attacked the piano. 'Oh,' repeated I to myself, '_how pleasing is +variety!_ as I left the room to the tune of Kendall's March." + +By means like these, and others similar to them, it will not be +difficult for any teacher to obtain so far an ascendency over the minds +of his pupils as to secure an overwhelming majority in favor of good +order and co-operation with him in his plans for elevating the character +of the school. But let it be distinctly understood that this, and this +only, has been the object of this chapter thus far. The first point +brought up was the desirableness of making at first a favorable +impression; the second, the necessity of taking general views of the +condition of the school, and aiming to improve it in the mass, and not +merely to rebuke or punish accidental faults; and the third, the +importance and the means of gaining a general influence and ascendency +over the minds of the pupils. But, though an overwhelming majority can +be reached by such methods as these, all can not. We must have the +majority secured, however, in order to enable us to reach and to reduce +the others. But to this work we must come at last. + +4. I am, therefore, now to consider, under a fourth general head, what +course is to be taken with _individual_ offenders whom the general +influences of the school-room will not control. + +The teacher must always expect that there will be such cases. They are +always to be found in the best and most skillfully-managed schools. The +following suggestions will perhaps assist the teacher in dealing with +them. + +(1.) The first point to be attended to is to ascertain who they are. Not +by appearing suspiciously to watch any individuals, for this would be +almost sufficient to make them bad, if they were not so before. Observe, +however; notice, from day to day, the conduct of individuals, not for +the purpose of reproving or punishing their faults, but to enable you to +understand their characters. This work will often require great +adroitness and very close scrutiny, and you will find, as the results of +it, a considerable variety of character, which the general influences +above described will not be sufficient to control. The number of +individuals will not be great, but the diversity of character comprised +in it will be such as to call into exercise all your powers of vigilance +and discrimination. On one seat you will find a coarse, rough-looking +boy, who openly disobeys your commands and opposes your wishes while in +school, and makes himself a continual source of trouble and annoyance +during play-hours by bullying and hectoring every gentle and timid +schoolmate. On another sits a more sly rogue, whose demure and +submissive look is assumed to conceal a mischief-making disposition. +Here is one whose giddy spirit is always leading him into difficulty, +but who is of so open and frank a disposition that you will most easily +lead him back to duty; but there is another who, when reproved, will fly +into a passion; and then a third, who will stand sullen and silent +before you when he has done wrong, and is not to be touched by kindness +nor awed by authority. + +[Illustration] + +Now all these characters must be studied. It is true that the caution +given in a preceding part of this chapter, against devoting undue and +disproportionate attention to such persons, must not be forgotten. +Still, these individuals will require, and it is right that they should +receive, a far greater degree of attention, so far as the moral +administration of the school is concerned, than their mere numbers would +appear to justify. This is the field in which the teacher is to study +human nature, for here it shows itself without disguise. It is through +this class, too, that a very powerful moral influence is to be exerted +upon the rest of the school. The manner in which such individuals are +managed, the tone the teacher assumes toward them, the gentleness with +which he speaks of their faults, and the unbending decision with which +he restrains them from wrong, will have a most powerful effect upon the +rest of the school. That he may occupy this field, therefore, to the +best advantage, it is necessary that he should first thoroughly explore +it. + +By understanding the dispositions and characters of such a class of +pupils as I have described, I do not mean merely watching them with +vigilance in school, so that none of their transgressions shall go +unobserved and unpunished. I intend a far deeper and more thorough +examination of character. Every boy has something or other which is good +in his disposition and character which he is aware of, and on which he +prides himself; find out what it is, for it may often be made the +foundation on which you may build the superstructure of reform. Every +one has his peculiar sources of enjoyment and objects of pursuit, which +are before his mind from day to day. Find out what they are, that by +taking an interest in what interests him, and perhaps sometimes +assisting him in his plans, you can bind him to you. Every boy is, from +the circumstances in which he is placed at home, exposed to temptations +which have perhaps had far greater influence in the formation of his +character than any deliberate and intentional depravity of his own; +ascertain what these temptations are, that you may know where to pity +him and where to blame. The knowledge which such an examination of +character will give you, will not be confined to making you acquainted +with the individual. It will be the most valuable knowledge which a man +can possess, both to assist him in the general administration of the +school and in his intercourse among mankind in the business of life. Men +are but boys, only with somewhat loftier objects of pursuit. Their +principles, motives, and ruling passions are essentially the same. +Extended commercial speculations are, so far as the human heart is +concerned, substantially what trading in jack-knives and toys is at +school, and building a snow fort, to its own architects, the same as +erecting a monument of marble. + +(2.) After exploring the ground, the first thing to be done as a +preparation for reforming individual character in school is to secure +the personal attachment of the individuals to be reformed. This must not +be attempted by professions and affected smiles, and still less by that +sort of obsequiousness, common in such cases, which produces no effect +but to make the bad boy suppose that his teacher is afraid of him; +which, by the way, is, in fact, in such cases, usually true. Approach +the pupil in a bold and manly, but frank and pleasant manner. Approach +him as his superior, but still as his friend; desirous to make him +happy, not merely to obtain his good-will. And the best way to secure +these appearances is just to secure the reality. Actually be the boy's +friend. Really desire to make him happy--happy, too, in his own way, not +in yours. Feel that you are his superior, and that you must and will +enforce obedience; but with this, feel that probably obedience will be +rendered without any contest. If these are really the feelings which +reign within you, the boy will see it, and they will exert a strong +influence over him; but you can not counterfeit appearances. + +A most effectual way to secure the good-will of a scholar is to ask him +to assist you. The Creator has so formed the human heart that doing good +must be a source of pleasure, and he who tastes this pleasure once will +almost always wish to taste it again. To do good to any individual +creates or increases the desire to do it. + +There is a boy in your school who is famous for his skill in making +whistles from the green branches of the poplar. He is a bad boy, and +likes to turn his ingenuity to purposes of mischief. You observe him +some day in school, when he thinks your attention is engaged in another +way, blowing softly upon one which he has concealed in his desk for the +purpose of amusing his neighbors without attracting the attention of the +teacher. Now there are two remedies. Will you try the physical one? Then +call him out into the floor, inflict painful punishment, and send him +smarting to his seat, with his heart full of anger and revenge, to plot +some new and less dangerous scheme of annoyance. Will you try the moral +one? Then wait till the recess, and while he is out at his play, send a +message out by another boy, saying that you have heard he is very +skillful in making whistles, and asking him to make one for you to carry +home to a little child at your boarding-house. What would, in ordinary +cases, be the effect? It would certainly be a very simple application, +but its effect would be to open an entirely new train of thought and +feeling for the boy. "What!" he would say to himself, while at work on +his task, "give the master _pleasure_ by making whistles! Who would have +conceived of it? I never thought of any thing but giving him trouble and +pain. I wonder who told him I could make whistles?" He would find, too, +that the new enjoyment was far higher and purer than the old, and would +have little disposition to return to the latter. + +I do not mean by this illustration that such a measure as this would be +the only notice that ought to be taken of such an act of willful +disturbance in school. Probably it would not. What measures in direct +reference to the fault committed would be necessary would depend upon +the circumstances of the case. It is not necessary to our purpose that +they should be described here. + +The teacher can awaken in the hearts of his pupils a personal attachment +for him by asking in various ways their assistance in school, and then +appearing honestly gratified with the assistance rendered. Boys and +girls are delighted to have what powers and attainments they possess +brought out into action, especially where they can lead to useful +results. They love to be of some consequence in the world, and will be +especially gratified to be able to assist their teacher. Even if the +studies of a turbulent boy are occasionally interrupted for half an +hour, that he might help you arrange papers, or rule books, or +distribute exercises, it will be time well spent. Get him to co-operate +with you in any thing, and he will feel how much more pleasant it is to +co-operate than to thwart and oppose; and, by judicious measures of this +kind, almost any boy may be brought over to your side. + +Another means of securing the personal attachment of boys is to notice +them, to take an interest in their pursuits, and the qualities and +powers which they value in one another. It is astonishing what an +influence is exerted by such little circumstances as stopping at a +play-ground a moment to notice with interest, though perhaps without +saying a word, speed of running, or exactness of aim, the force with +which a ball is struck, or the dexterity with which it is caught or +thrown. The teacher must, indeed, in all his intercourse with his +pupils, never forget his station, nor allow them to lay aside the +respect, without which authority can not be maintained. But he may be, +notwithstanding this, on the most intimate and familiar footing with +them all. He may take a strong and open interest in all their +enjoyments, and thus awaken on their part a personal attachment to +himself, which will exert over them a constant and powerful control. + +(3.) The efforts described under the last head for gaining a personal +influence over those who, from their disposition and character, are most +in danger of doing wrong, will not be sufficient entirely to prevent +transgression. Cases of deliberate, intentional wrong will occur, and +the question will rise, What is the duty of the teacher in such an +emergency? When such cases occur, the course to be taken is, first of +all, to come to a distinct understanding on the subject with the guilty +individual. Think of the case calmly, until you have obtained just and +clear ideas of it. Endeavor to understand precisely in what the guilt of +it consists. Notice every palliating circumstance, and take as favorable +a view of the thing as you can, while, at the same time, you fix most +firmly in your mind the determination to put a stop to it. Then go to +the individual, and lay the subject before him, for the purpose of +understanding distinctly from his own lips what he intends to do. I can, +however, as usual, explain more fully what I mean by describing a +particular case, substantially true. + +The teacher of a school observed himself, and learned from several +quarters, that a certain boy was in the habit of causing disturbance +during time of prayer, at the opening and close of school, by +whispering, playing, making gestures to the other boys, and throwing +things about from seat to seat. The teacher's first step was to speak of +the subject generally before the whole school, not alluding, however, to +any particular instance which had come under his notice. These general +remarks produced, as he expected, but little effect. + +He waited for some days, and the difficulty still continued. Had the +irregularity been very great, it would have been necessary to have taken +more immediate measures, but he thought the case admitted of a little +delay. In the mean time, he took pains to cultivate the acquaintance of +the boy, to discover, and to show that he noticed, what was good in his +character and conduct, occasionally to ask some assistance from him, and +thus to gain some personal ascendency over him. + +One day, when every thing had gone smoothly and prosperously, the +teacher told the boy, at the close of the school, that he wished to talk +with him a little, and asked him to walk home with him. It was not +uncommon for the teacher to associate thus with his pupils out of +school, and this request, accordingly, attracted no special attention. +On the walk the teacher thus accosted the criminal: + +"Do you like frank, open dealing, James?" + +James hesitated a moment, and then answered, faintly, + +"Yes, sir." + +"Most boys do, and I do, and I supposed that you would prefer being +treated in that way. Do you?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"Well, I am going to tell you of one of your faults. I have asked you to +walk with me, because I supposed it would be more agreeable for you to +have me see you privately than to bring it up in school." + +James said it would be more agreeable. + +"Well, the fault is being disorderly at prayer-time. Now, if you like +frank and open dealing, and are willing to deal so with me, I should +like to talk with you a little about it, but if you are not willing, I +will dismiss the subject. I do not wish to talk with you now about it +unless you yourself desire it; but if we talk at all, we must both be +open, and honest, and sincere. Now, should you rather have me talk with +you or not?" + +"Yes, sir, I should rather have you talk with me now than in school." + +The teacher then described his conduct in a mild manner, using the style +of simple narration, admitting no harsh epithets, no terms of reproach. +The boy was surprised, for he supposed that he had not been noticed. He +thought, perhaps, that he should have been punished if he had been +observed. The teacher said, in conclusion, + +"Now, James, I do not suppose you have done this from any designed +irreverence toward God, or deliberate intention of giving me trouble and +pain. You have several times lately assisted me in various ways, and I +know, from the cheerful manner with which you comply with my wishes, +that your prevailing desire is to give me pleasure, not pain. You have +fallen into this practice through thoughtlessness, but that does not +alter the character of the sin. To do so is a great sin against God, and +a great offense against good order in school. You see, yourself, that my +duty to the school will require me to adopt the most decided measures to +prevent the continuance and the spread of such a practice. I should be +imperiously bound to do it, even if the individual was the very best +friend I had in school, and if the measures necessary should bring upon +him great disgrace and suffering. Do you not think it would be so?" + +"Yes, sir," said James, seriously, "I suppose it would." + +"I wish to remove the evil, however, in the pleasantest way. Do you +remember my speaking on this subject in school the other day?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"Well, my object in what I said then was almost entirely to persuade you +to reform without having to speak to you directly. I thought it would be +pleasanter to you to be reminded of your duty in that way. But I do not +think it did you much good. Did it?" + +"I don't think I have played _so much_ since then." + +"Nor I. You have improved a little, but you have not decidedly and +thoroughly reformed. So I was obliged to take the next step which would +be least unpleasant to you, that is, talking with you alone. Now you +told me when we began that you would deal honestly and sincerely with +me, if I would with you. I have been honest and open. I have told you +all about it so far as I am concerned. Now I wish you to be honest, and +tell me what you are going to do. If you think, from this conversation, +that you have done wrong, and if you are fully determined to do so no +more, and to break off at once, and forever, from this practice, I +should like to have you tell me, and then the whole thing will be +settled. On the other hand, if you feel about it pretty much as you have +done, I should like to have you tell me that too, honestly and frankly, +that we may have a distinct understanding, and that I may be considering +what to do next. I shall not be offended with you for giving me either +of these answers, but be sure that you are honest; you promised to be +so." + +The boy looked up in his master's face, and said, with great +earnestness, + +"Mr T. I _will_ do better. I _will not_ trouble you any more." + +I have detailed this case thus particularly because it exhibits clearly +what I mean by going directly and frankly to the individual, and coming +at once to a full understanding. In nine cases out of ten this course +will be effectual. For four years, with a very large school, I found +this sufficient in every case of discipline which occurred, except in +three or four instances, where something more was required. To make it +successful, however, the work must be done properly. Several things are +necessary. It must be deliberate; generally better after a little delay. +It must be indulgent, so far as the view which the teacher takes of the +guilt of the pupil is concerned; every palliating consideration must be +felt. It must be firm and decided in regard to the necessity of a +change, and the determination of the teacher to effect it. It must also +be open and frank; no insinuations, no hints, no surmises, but plain, +honest, open dealing. + +In many cases the communication may be made most delicately and most +successfully in writing. The more delicately you touch the feelings of +your pupils, the more tender these feelings will become. Many a teacher +hardens and stupefies the moral sense of his pupils by the harsh and +rough exposures to which he drags out the private feelings of the heart. +A man may easily produce such a state of feeling in his schoolroom, that +to address even the gentlest reproof to any individual, in the hearing +of the next, would be a most severe punishment; and, on the other hand, +he may so destroy that sensitiveness that his vociferated reproaches +will be as unheeded as the idle wind. + +If, now, the teacher has taken the course recommended in this +chapter--if he has, by his general influence in the school, done all in +his power to bring the majority of his pupils to the side of order and +discipline--if he has then studied, attentively and impartially, the +characters of those who can not thus be led--if he has endeavored to +make them his friends, and to acquire, by every means, a personal +influence over them--if, finally, when they do wrong, he goes plainly, +but in a gentle and delicate manner, to them, and lays before them the +whole case--if he has done all this, he has gone as far as moral +influence will carry him. My opinion is, that this course, faithfully +and judiciously pursued, will, in almost all instances, succeed; but it +will not in all; and where it fails, there must be other, and more +vigorous and decided measures. What these measures of restraint or +punishment shall be must depend upon the circumstances of the case; but +in resorting to them, the teacher must be decided and unbending. + +The course above recommended is not trying lax and inefficient measures +for a long time in hopes of their being ultimately successful, and then, +when they are found not to be so, changing the policy. There should be, +through the whole, the tone and manner of _authority_, not of +_persuasion_. The teacher must be a _monarch_, and, while he is gentle +and forbearing, always looking on the favorable side of conduct so far +as guilt is concerned; he must have an eagle eye and an efficient hand, +so far as relates to arresting the evil and stopping the consequences. +He may slowly and cautiously, and even tenderly, approach a delinquent. +He may be several days in gathering around him the circumstances of +which he is ultimately to avail himself in bringing him to submission; +but, while he proceeds thus slowly and tenderly, he must come with the +air of authority and power. The fact that the teacher bases all his +plans on the idea of his ultimate authority in every case may be +perfectly evident to all the pupils, while he proceeds with moderation +and gentleness in all his specific measures. Let it be seen, then, that +the constitution of your school is a monarchy, absolute and unlimited; +but let it also be seen that the one who holds the power is himself +under the control of moral principle in all that he does, and that he +endeavors to make the same moral principle which guides him go as far as +it is possible to make it go in the government of his subjects. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE. + +[Illustration] + +In consequence of the unexampled religious freedom possessed in this +country, for which it is happily distinguished above all other countries +on the face of the earth, there necessarily results a vast variety of +religious sentiment and action. We can not enjoy the blessings without +the inconveniences of freedom. Where every man is allowed to believe as +he pleases, some will, undoubtedly, believe wrong, and others will be +divided, by embracing views of a subject which are different, though +perhaps equally consistent with truth. Hence we have among us every +shade and every variety of religious opinion, and, in many cases, +contention and strife, resulting from hopeless efforts to produce +uniformity. + +A stranger who should come among us would suppose, from the tone of our +religious journals, and from the general aspect of society on the +subject of religion, that the whole community was divided into a +thousand contending sects, who hold nothing in common, and whose sole +objects are the annoyance and destruction of each other. But if we leave +out of view some hundreds, or, if you please, some thousands of +theological controversialists who manage the public discussions, and say +and do all that really comes before the public on this subject, it will +be found that there is vastly more religious truth admitted by common +consent among the people of New England than is generally supposed. This +common ground I shall endeavor briefly to describe; for it is very plain +that the teacher must, in ordinary cases, confine himself to it. By +common consent, however, I do not mean the consent of every body; I mean +that of the great majority of serious, thinking men. + +But let us examine first, for a moment, what right any member of the +community has to express and to disseminate his opinions with a view to +the inquiry whether the teacher is really bound to confine himself to +what he can do on this subject with the common consent of his employers. + +The various monarchical nations of Europe have been for many years, as +is well known, strongly agitated with questions of politics. It is with +difficulty that public tranquillity is preserved. Every man takes sides. +Now, in this state of things, a wealthy gentleman residing in one of +these countries is opposed to the revolutionary projects so constantly +growing up there, and being, both from principle and feeling, strongly +attached to monarchical government, wishes to bring up his children with +the same feelings which he himself cherishes. He has a right to do so. +No matter if his opinions are wrong. He ought, it will be generally +supposed in this country, to be republican. I suppose him to adopt +opinions which will generally, by my readers, be considered wrong, that +I may bring more distinctly to view the right he has to educate his +children as _he thinks_ it proper that they should be educated. He may +be wrong to _form_ such opinions; but the opinions once formed, he has a +right, with which no human power can justly interfere, to educate his +children in conformity with those opinions. It is alike the law of God +and nature that the father should control, as he alone is responsible, +the education of his child. + +Now, under these circumstances, he employs an American mechanic, who is +residing in Paris, to come to his house and teach his children the use +of the lathe. After some time he comes into their little work-shop, and +is astonished to find the lathe standing still, and the boys gathered +round the Republican turner, who is relating to them stories of the +tyranny of kings, the happiness of republicans, and the glory of war. +The parent remonstrates. The mechanic defends himself. + +"I am a Republican," he says, "upon principle, and wherever I go I must +exert all the influence in my power to promote free principles, and to +expose the usurpations and the tyranny of kings." + +To this the monarchist might very properly reply, + +"In your efforts to promote your principles, you are limited, or you +ought to be limited, to modes that are proper and honorable. I employ +you for a distinct and specific purpose, which has nothing to do with +questions of government, and you ought not to allow your love of +republican principles to lead you to take advantage of the position in +which I place you, and interfere with my plans for the political +education of my children." + +Now for the parallel case. A member of a Congregational society is +employed to teach a school in a district occupied exclusively by +Friends--a case not uncommon. He is employed there, not as a religious +teacher, but for another specific and well-defined object. It is for the +purpose of teaching the children of that district _reading, writing,_ +and _calculation_, and for such other purposes analogous to this as the +law providing for the establishment of district schools contemplated. +Now, when he is placed in such a situation, with such a trust confided +to him, and such duties to discharge, it is not right for him to make +use of the influence which this official station gives him over the +minds of the children committed to his care for the accomplishment of +_any other purposes whatever_ which the parents would disapprove. It +would not be considered right by men of the world to attempt to +accomplish any other purposes in such a case; and are the pure and holy +principles of piety to be extended by methods more exceptionable than +those by which political and party contests are managed? + +There is a very great and obvious distinction between the general +influence which the teacher exerts as a member of the community and that +which he can employ in his school-room as teacher. He has unquestionably +a right to exert _upon the community, by such means as he shares in +common with every other citizen_, as much influence as he can command +for the dissemination of his own political, or religious, or scientific +opinions. But the strong ascendency which, in consequence of his +official station, he has obtained over the minds of his pupils, is +sacred. He has no right to use it for any purpose _foreign to the +specific objects_ for which he is employed, unless _by the consent, +expressed or implied_, of those by whom he is intrusted with his charge. +The parents who send their children to him to be taught to read, to +write, and to calculate, may have erroneous views of their duty as +parents in other respects. He _may know_ that their views are erroneous. +They may be taking a, course which the teacher _knows_ is wrong. But he +has not, on this account, a right to step in between the parent and +child, to guide the latter according to his own opinions, and to violate +the wishes and thwart the plans of the former. + +God has constituted the relation between the parent and the child, and +according to any view which a rational man can take of this relation, +the parent is alone responsible for the guidance he gives to that mind, +so entirely in his power. He is responsible to God; and where our +opinions in regard to the manner in which any of the duties arising +from the relation are to be performed, differ from his, we have no right +to interfere, without his consent, to rectify what we thus imagine to be +wrong. I know of but one exception which any man whatever would be +inclined to make to this principle, and that is where the parent would, +if left to himself, take such a course as would ultimately make his +children _unsafe members of society._ The _community_ have a right to +interfere in such a case, as they in fact do by requiring every man to +provide for the instruction of his children, and in some other ways +which need not now be specified. Beyond this, however, no interference +contrary to the parent's consent is justifiable. Where parents will do +wrong, notwithstanding any persuasions which we can address to them, we +must not violate the principles of an arrangement which God has himself +made, but must submit patiently to the awful consequences which will in +some cases occur, reflecting that the responsibility for these +consequences is on the head of those who neglect their duty, and that +the being who makes them liable will settle the account. + +Whatever, then, the teacher attempts to do beyond the _specific_ and +_defined_ duties which are included among the objects for which he is +employed, must be done _by permission_--by the voluntary consent, +whether tacit or openly expressed, of those by whom he is employed. +This, of course, confines him to what is generally common ground among +his particular employers. In a republican country, where all his patrons +are republican, he may, without impropriety, explain and commend to his +pupils, as occasion may occur, the principles of free governments, and +the blessings which may be expected to flow from them. But it would not +be justifiable for him to do this under a monarchy, or in a community +divided in regard to this subject, because this question does not come +within the objects for the promotion of which his patrons have +associated and employed him, and consequently he has no right, while +continuing their teacher, to go into it without their consent. In the +same manner, an Episcopal teacher, in a private school formed and +supported by Episcopalians, may use and commend forms of prayer, and +explain the various usages of that church, exhibiting their excellence, +and their adaptation to the purposes for which they are intended. He may +properly do this, because, in the case supposed, the patrons of the +school are _united_ on this subject, and their _tacit consent_ may be +supposed to be given. But place the same teacher over a school of +Friends, whose parents dislike forms and ceremonies of every kind in +religion, and his duty would be changed altogether. So, if a Roman +Catholic is intrusted with the instruction of a common district school +in a community composed of many Protestant denominations, it would be +plainly his duty to avoid all influence, direct or indirect, over the +minds of his pupils, except in those religious sentiments and opinions +which are common to himself and all his employers. I repeat the +principle. _He is employed for a specific purpose, and he has no right +to wander from that purpose, except as far as he can go with the common +consent of his employers._ + +Now the common ground on religious subjects in this country is very +broad. There are, indeed, many principles which are, in my view, +essential parts of Christianity, which are subjects of active discussion +among us. But, setting these aside, there are other principles equally +essential, in regard to which the whole community are agreed; or, at +least, if there is a dissenting minority, it is so small that it is +hardly to be considered. Let us look at some of these principles. + +1. Our community is agreed that _there is a God._ There is probably not +a school in our country where the parents of the scholars would not wish +to have the teacher, in his conversation with his pupils, take this for +granted, and allude reverently to that great Being, with the design of +leading them to realize his existence and to feel his authority. + +2. Our community are agreed that _we are responsible to God for all our +conduct._ Though some persons absurdly pretend to believe that the Being +who formed this world, if, indeed, they think there is any such Being, +has left it and its inhabitants to themselves, not inspecting their +conduct, and never intending to call them to account, they are too few +among us to need consideration. A difference of opinion on this subject +might embarrass the teacher in France, and in other countries in Europe, +but not here. However negligent men may be in _obeying_ God's commands, +they do almost universally in our country admit in theory the authority +from which they come, and believing this, the parent, even if he is +aware that he himself does not obey these commands, chooses to have his +children taught to respect them. The teacher will thus be acting with +the consent of his employers, in almost any part of our country, in +endeavoring to influence his pupils to perform moral duties, not merely +from worldly motives, nor from mere abstract principles of right and +wrong, but _from regard to the authority of God._ + +3. The community are agreed, too, in the belief of _the immortality of +the soul._ They believe, almost without exception, that there is a +future state of being to which this is introductory and preparatory, and +almost every father and mother in our country wish to have their +children keep this in mind, and to be influenced by it in all their +conduct. + +4. The community are agreed that _we have a revelation from Heaven._ I +believe there are very few instances where the parents would not be glad +to have the Bible read from time to time, its geographical and +historical meanings illustrated, and its moral lessons brought to bear +upon the hearts and lives of their children. Of course, if the teacher +is so unwise as to make such a privilege, if it were allowed him, the +occasion of exerting an influence upon one side or the other of some +question which divides the community around him, he must expect to +excite jealousy and distrust, and to be excluded from a privilege which +he might otherwise have been permitted freely to enjoy. There may, alas! +be some cases where the use of the Scriptures is altogether forbidden in +school; but probably in almost every such case it would be found that it +is from fear of its perversion to sect or party purposes, and not from +any unwillingness to have the Bible used in the way I have described. + +5. The community are agreed, in theory, that _personal attachment to the +Supreme Being is the duty of every human soul;_ and every parent, with +exceptions so few that they are not worth naming, wishes that his +children should cherish that affection, and yield their hearts to its +influence. He is willing, therefore, that the teacher, of course without +interfering with the regular duties for the performance of which he +holds his office, should, from time to time, so speak of this duty, of +God's goodness to men, of his daily protection and his promised favors, +as to awaken, if possible, this attachment in the hearts of his +children. Of course, it is very easy for the teacher, if he is so +disposed, to abuse this privilege also. He can, under pretense of +awakening and cherishing the spirit of piety in the hearts of his +pupils, present the subject in such aspects and relations as to arouse +the sectarian or denominational feelings of some of his employers; but I +believe, if this was honestly and fully avoided, there are few, if any +parents in our country who would not be gratified to have the great +principle of love to God manifest itself in the instructions of the +school-room, and showing itself, by its genuine indications, in the +hearts and conduct of their children. + +6. The community are agreed not only in believing that piety consists +primarily in love to God, but that _the life of piety is to be commenced +by penitence for past sins, and forgiveness, in some way or other, +through a Savior._ I am aware that one class of theological writers, in +the heat of controversy, charge the other with believing that Jesus +Christ was nothing more nor less than a teacher of religion, and there +are unquestionably individuals who take this view. But these +individuals are few. There are very few in our community who do not in +some sense look upon Jesus Christ as our _Savior_--our Redeemer; who do +not feel themselves _in some way_ indebted to him for the offer of +pardon. There may be here and there a theological student, or a +contributor to the columns of a polemical magazine, who ranks Jesus +Christ with Moses and with Paul. But the great mass of the fathers and +mothers, of every name and denomination through all the ranks of +society, look up to the Savior of sinners with something at least of the +feeling that he is the object of extraordinary affection and reverence. +I am aware, however, that I am approaching the limit which, in many +parts of our country, ought to bound the religious influence of the +teacher in a public school, and on this subject, as on every other, he +ought to do nothing directly or indirectly which would be displeasing to +those who have intrusted children to his care. + +So much ground, it seems, the teacher may occupy, by common consent, in +this country, and it certainly is a great deal. It may be doubted +whether, after all our disputes, there is a country in the world whose +inhabitants have so much in common in regard to religious belief. There +is, perhaps, no country in the world where the teacher may be allowed to +do so much toward leading his pupils to fear God and to obey his +commands, with the cordial consent of parents, as he can here.[3] + +[Footnote 3: In speaking of this common ground, and in commenting upon +it, I wish not to be understood that I consider these truths as +comprising all that is essential in Christianity. Very far from it. A +full expression of the Christian faith would go far in advance of all +here presented. We must not confound, however, what is essential to +prepare the way for the forgiveness of sin with what is essential that a +child should understand in order to secure his penitence and +forgiveness. The former is a great deal, the latter very little.] + +The ground which I have been laying out is common all over our country; +in particular places there will be even much more that is common. Of +course the teacher, in such cases, will be at much greater liberty. If a +Roman Catholic community establish a school, and appoint a Roman +Catholic teacher, he may properly, in his intercourse with his scholars, +allude, with commendation, to the opinions and practices of that church. +If a college is established by the Methodist denomination, the teacher +of that institution may, of course, explain and enforce there the views +of that society. Each teacher is confined only to _those views which are +common to the founders and supporters of the particular institution to +which he is attached._ + +I trust the principle which I have been attempting to enforce is fully +before the reader's mind, namely, that moral and religious instruction +in a school being in a great degree extra-official in its nature, must +be carried no farther than the teacher can go with the common consent, +either expressed or implied, of those who have founded, and who support +his school. Of course, if those founders forbid it altogether, they have +a right to do so, and the teacher must submit. The only question that +can justly arise is whether he will remain in such a situation, or go +and seek employment where a door of usefulness, here closed against him, +will be opened. While he remains, he must honestly and fully submit to +the wishes of those in whose hands Providence has placed the ultimate +responsibility of training up the children of his school. It is only for +a partial and specific purpose that they are placed under his care. + +The religious reader may inquire why I am so anxious to restrain, rather +than to urge on, the exercise of religious influence in schools. "There +is far too little," some one will say, "instead of too much, and +teachers need to be encouraged and led on in this duty, not to be +restrained from it." There is, indeed, far too little religious +influence exerted in common schools. What I have said has been intended +to prepare the way for an increase of it. My view of it is this: + +If teachers do universally confine themselves to the limits which I have +been attempting to define, they may accomplish within these limits a +vast amount of good. By attempting, however, to exceed them, the +confidence of parents is destroyed or weakened, and the door is closed. +In this way, injury to a very great extent has been done in many parts +of our country. Parents are led to associate with the very idea of +religion, indirect and perhaps secret efforts to influence their +children in a way which they themselves would disapprove. They transfer +to the cause of piety itself the dislike which was first awakened by +exceptionable means to promote it; and other teachers, seeing these evil +effects, are deterred from attempting what they might easily have +accomplished. Before, therefore, attempting to enforce the duty and to +explain the methods of exerting religious influence in school, I thought +proper distinctly to state with what restrictions and within what limits +the work is to be done. + +There are many teachers who profess to cherish the spirit and to +entertain the hopes of piety, who yet make no effort whatever to extend +its influence to the hearts of their pupils. Others appeal sometimes to +religious truth merely to assist them in the government of the school. +They perhaps bring it before the minds of disobedient pupils in a vain +effort to make an impression upon the conscience of one who has done +wrong, and who can not by other means be brought to submission. But the +pupil in such cases understands, or at least he believes, that the +teacher applies to religious truth only to eke out his own authority, +and of course it produces no effect. Another teacher thinks he must, to +discharge his duty, give a certain amount, weekly, of what he considers +religious instruction. Pie accordingly appropriates a regular portion of +time to a formal lecture or exhortation, which he delivers without +regard to the mental habits of thought and feeling which prevail among +his charge. He forgets that the heart must be led, not driven to piety, +and that unless his efforts are adapted to the nature of the minds he is +acting upon, and suited to influence them, he must as certainly fail of +success as when there is a want of adaptedness between the means and the +end in any other undertaking whatever. + +The arrangement which seems to me as well calculated as any for the +religious exercises of a school is this: + +1. In the morning, open the school with a very short prayer, resembling +in its object and length the opening prayer in the morning at +Congregational churches. The posture which, from some considerable +experience, I would recommend at this exercise, is sitting with the head +reclined upon the desk. The prayer, besides being short, should be +simple in its language and specific in its petitions. A degree of +particularity and familiarity which would be improper elsewhere is not +only allowable here, but necessary to the production of the proper +effect. That the reader may understand to what extent I mean to be +understood to recommend this, I will subjoin a form, such as in spirit I +suppose such a prayer ought to be. + +"Our Father in Heaven, who hast kindly preserved the pupils and the +teacher of this school during the past night, come and grant us a +continuance of thy protection and blessing during this day. We can not +spend the day prosperously and happily without thee. Come, then, and, be +in this school-room during this day, and help us all to be faithful and +successful in duty. + +"Guide the teacher in all that he may do. Give him wisdom, and patience, +and faithfulness. May he treat all his pupils with kindness; and if any +of them should do any thing that is wrong, wilt thou help him, gently +but firmly, to endeavor to bring him back to duty. May he sympathize +with the difficulties and trials of all, and promote the present +happiness as well as the intellectual progress of all who are committed +to his care. + +"Take care of the pupils too. May they spend the day pleasantly and +happily together. Wilt thou, who didst originally give us all our +powers, direct and assist us all, this day, in the use and improvement +of them. Remove difficulties from our path, and give us all fidelity and +patience in every duty. Let no one of us destroy our peace and happiness +this day by breaking any of thy commands, or encouraging our companions +in sins, or neglecting, in any respect, our duty. We ask all in the name +of our great Redeemer. Amen." + +Of course the prayer of each day will be varied, unless in special cases +the teacher prefers to read some form like the above. But let every one +be _minute and particular,_ relating especially to school--to school +temptations, and trials, and difficulties. Let every one be filled with +expressions relating to school, so that it will bear upon every sentence +the impression that it is the petition of a teacher and his pupils at +the throne of grace. + +2. If the pupils can sing, there may be a single verse, or sometimes two +verses, of some well-known hymn sung after the prayer at the opening of +the school. Teachers will find it much easier to introduce this practice +than it would at first be supposed. In almost every school there are +enough who can sing to begin, especially if the first experiment is made +in a recess, or before or after school; and the beginning once made, the +difficulty is over. If but few tunes are sung, a very large proportion +of the scholars will soon learn them. + +3. Let there be no other regular exercise until the close of the +afternoon school. When that hour has arrived, let the teacher devote a +very short period, five minutes perhaps, to religious _instruction_, +given in various ways. At one time he may explain and illustrate some +important truth. At another, read and comment upon a very short portion +of Scripture. At another, relate an anecdote or fact which will tend to +interest the scholars in the performance of duty. The teacher should be +very careful not to imitate on these occasions the formal style of +exhortation from the pulpit. Let him use no cant and hackneyed phrases, +and never approach the subject of personal piety, or speak of such +feelings as penitence for sin, trust in God, and love for the Savior, +unless his own heart is really at the time warmed by the emotions which +he wishes to awaken in others. Children very easily detect hypocrisy. +They know very well when a parent or teacher is talking to them on +religious subjects merely as a matter of course for the sake of effect, +and such constrained and formal efforts never do any good. + +Let, then, every thing which you do in reference to this subject be done +with proper regard to the character and condition of the youthful mind, +and in such a way as shall be calculated to _interest_ as well as to +_instruct_. A cold and formal exhortation, or even an apparently earnest +one, delivered in a tone of affected solemnity, will produce no good +effect. Perhaps I ought not to say it will produce _no_ good effect, for +good does sometimes result as a sort of accidental consequence from +almost any thing. I mean it will have no effectual _tendency_ to do +good. You must vary your method, too, in order to interest your pupils. +Watch their countenances when you are addressing them, and see if they +look interested. If they do not, be assured that there is something +wrong, or at least something ill-judged or inefficient in your manner of +explaining the truths which you wish to have produce an effect upon +their minds. + +That you may be prepared to bring moral and religious truths before +their minds in the way I have described, your own mind must take a +strong interest in this class of truths. You must habituate yourself to +look at the moral and religious aspects and relations of all that you +see and hear. When you are reading, notice such facts and remember such +narratives as you can turn to good account in this way. In the same way, +treasure up in your mind such occurrences as may come under your own +personal observation when traveling, or when mixing with society. + +That the spirit and manner of these religious exercises may be the more +distinctly understood, I will give some examples. + +Let us suppose, then, that the hour for closing school has come. The +books are laid aside; the room is still; the boys expect the few words +which the teacher is accustomed to address to them, and, looking up to +him, they listen to hear what he has to say. + +"You may take your Bibles." + +The boys, by a simultaneous movement, open their desks, and take from +them their copies of the sacred volume. + +"What is the first book of the New Testament?" + +"Matthew," they all answer at once. + +"The second?" "Mark." "The third?" "Luke." "The next?" "John." "The +next?" "The Acts." "The next?" + +Many answer, "Romans." + +"The next?" + +A few voices say faintly, and with hesitation, "First of Corinthians." + +"I perceive your answers become fainter and fainter. Do you know what is +the last book of the New Testament?" + +The boys answer promptly, "Revelations." + +"Do you know what books are between the Acts and the book of +Revelation?" + +Some say "No, sir;" some begin to enumerate such books as occur to them, +and some, perhaps, begin to name them promptly and in their regular +order. + +"I do not mean," interrupts the teacher, "the _names_ of the books, but +the _kinds_ of books." + +The boys hesitate. + +"They are epistles or letters. Do you know who wrote the letters?" + +"Paul," "Peter," answer many voices at once. + +"Yes, there were several writers. Now the point which I wish to bring +before you is this; do you know in what order, I mean on what +principles, the books are arranged?" + +"No, sir," is the universal reply. + +I will tell you. First come all Paul's epistles. If you turn over the +leaves of the Testament, you will see that Paul's letters are all put +together after the book of the Acts; and what I wish you to notice is, +that they are arranged in the _order_ of _their length_. The longest +comes first, and then the next, and so on to the shortest, which is the +epistle to Philemon. This, of course, comes last--no, I am wrong in +saying it is the last of Paul's epistles; there is one more to the +Hebrews; and this comes after all the others, for there has been a good +deal of dispute whether it was really written by Paul. You will see that +his name is not at the beginning of it, as it is in his other epistles: +so it was put last. + +Then comes the Epistle of James. Will you see whether it is longer than +any that come after it? The boys, after a minute's examination, answer, +"Yes, sir;" "Yes, sir." + +"What comes next?" + +"The epistles of Peter." + +"Yes; and you will see that the longest of Peter's epistles is next in +length to that of James's; and, indeed, all his are arranged in the +order of their length." + +"Yes, sir." + +"What comes next?" + +"John's." + +"Yes; and they are arranged in the order of their length. Do you now +understand the principle of the arrangement of the epistles?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"I should like to have any of you who are interested in it to try to +express this principle in a few sentences, on paper, and lay it on my +desk to-morrow, and I will read what you write. You will find it very +difficult to express it. Now you may lay aside your books. It will be +pleasanter for you if you do it silently." + +Intelligent children will be interested even in so simple a point as +this--much more interested than a maturer mind, unacquainted with the +peculiarities of children, would suppose. By bringing up from time to +time some such literary inquiry as this, they will be led insensibly to +regard the Bible as opening a field for interesting intellectual +research, and will more easily be led to study it. + +At another time the teacher spends his five minutes in aiming to +accomplish a very different object. I will suppose it to be one of those +afternoons when all has gone smoothly and pleasantly in school. There +has been nothing to excite strong interest or emotion; and there has +been (as every teacher knows there sometimes will be), without any +assignable cause which he can perceive, a calm, and quiet, and happy +spirit diffused over the minds and countenances of the little assembly. +His evening communication should accord with this feeling, and he should +make it the occasion to promote those pure and hallowed emotions in +which every immortal mind must find its happiness, if it is to enjoy any +worth possessing. + +When all is still, the teacher addresses his pupils as follows: + +"I have nothing but a simple story to tell you to-night. It is true, and +the fact interested me very much when I witnessed it, but I do not know +that it will interest you now merely to hear it repeated. It is this: + +"Last vacation, I was traveling in a remote and thinly-settled country, +among the mountains, in another state. I was riding with a gentleman on +an almost unfrequented road. Forests were all around us, and the houses +were small and very few. + +"At length, as we were passing an humble and solitary dwelling, the +gentleman said to me, 'There is a young woman sick in this house; should +you like to go in and see her?' 'Yes, sir,' said I, 'very much. She can +have very few visitors, I think, in this lonely place, and if you think +she would like to see us, I should like to go.' + +"We turned our horses toward the door, and as we were riding up, I +asked what was the matter with the young woman. + +"'Consumption,' the gentleman replied; 'and I suppose she will not live +long.' + +"At that moment we dismounted and entered the house. It was a very +pleasant summer afternoon, and the door was open. We entered, and were +received by an elderly lady, who seemed glad to see us. In one corner of +the room was a bed, on which was lying the patient whom we had come to +visit. She was pale and thin in her countenance, but there was a very +calm and happy expression beaming in her eye. I went up to her bedside, +and asked her how she did. + +"I talked with her some time, and found that she was a Christian. She +did not seem to know whether she would get well again or not, and, in +fact, she did not appear to care much about it. She was evidently happy +then, and she believed that she should continue so. She had been +penitent for her sins, and had sought and obtained forgiveness, and +enjoyed, in her loneliness, not only the protection of God, but also his +presence in her heart, diffusing peace and happiness there. When I came +into the house, I said to myself, 'I pity, I am sure, a person who is +confined by sickness in this lonely place, with nothing to interest or +amuse her;' but when I came out, I said to myself, 'I do not pity her at +all.'" + +Never destroy the effect of such a communication as this by attempting +to follow it up with an exhortation, or with general remarks, vainly +attempting to strengthen the impression. + +_Never_, do I say? Perhaps there may be some exceptions. But children +are not reached by formal exhortations; their hearts are touched and +affected in other ways. Sometimes you must reprove, sometimes you must +condemn; but indiscriminate and perpetual harangues about the guilt of +impenitence, and earnest entreaties to begin a life of piety, only +harden the hearts they are intended to soften, and consequently confirm +those who hear them in the habits of sin. + +In the same way a multitude of other subjects, infinite in number and +variety, may be brought before your pupils at stated seasons for +religious instruction. It is unnecessary to give any more particular +examples, but still it may not be amiss to suggest a few general +principles, which ought to guide those who are addressing the young on +every subject, and especially on the subject of religion. + +1. _Make no effort to simplify language when addressing the young._ +Children always observe this, and are always displeased with it, unless +they are very young; and it is not necessary. They can understand +ordinary language well enough, if the _subject_ is within their +comprehension, and treated in a manner adapted to their powers. If you +doubt whether children can understand language, tell such a story as +this, with ardor of tone and proper gesticulation, to a child only two +or three years old: + +"I saw an enormous dog in the street the other day. He was sauntering +along slowly, until he saw a huge piece of meat lying down on the +ground. He grasped it instantly between his teeth, and ran away with all +speed, until he disappeared around a corner so that I could see him no +more." + +In such a description there is a large number of words which such a +child would not understand if they stood alone, but the whole +description would be perfectly intelligible. The reason is, the +_subject_ is simple; the facts are such as a very little child would be +interested in; and the connection of each new word, in almost every +instance, explains its meaning. That is the way by which children learn +all language. They learn the meaning of words, not by definitions, but +by their connection in the sentences in which they hear them; and, by +long practice, they acquire an astonishing facility of doing this. It is +true they sometimes mistake, but not often, and the teacher of children +of almost any age need not be afraid that he shall not be understood. +There is no danger from his using the _language_ of men, if his subject, +and the manner in which he treats it, and the form and structure of his +sentences, are what they ought to be. Of course there may be cases, in +fact there often will be cases, where particular words will require +special explanation, but they will be comparatively few, and instead of +making efforts to avoid them, it will be better to let them come. The +pupils will be interested and profited by the explanation. + +Perhaps some may ask what harm it will do to simplify language when +talking to children. "It certainly can do no injury," they may say, "and +it diminishes all possibility of being misunderstood." It does injury in +at least three ways: + +(1.) It disgusts the young persons to whom it is addressed, and prevents +their being interested in what is said. I once met two children, twelve +years of age, who had just returned from hearing a very able discourse, +delivered before a number of Sabbath-schools assembled on some public +occasion. "How did you like the discourse?" said I. + +"Very well indeed," they replied; "only," said one of them, smiling, "he +talked to us as if we were all little children." + +Girls and boys, however young, never consider themselves little +children, for they can always look down upon some younger than +themselves. They are mortified when treated as though they could not +understand what is really within the reach of their faculties. They do +not like to have their powers underrated, and they are right in this +feeling. It is common to all, old and young. + +(2.) Children are kept back in learning language if their teacher makes +effort to _come down,_ as it is called, to their comprehension in the +use of words. Notice that I say _in the use of words;_ for, as I shall +show presently, it is absolutely necessary to come down to the +comprehension of children in some other respects. If, however, in the +use of words, those who address children confine themselves to such +words as children already understand, how are they to make progress in +that most important of all studies, the knowledge of language? Many a +mother keeps back her child, in this way, to a degree that is hardly +conceivable, thus doing all in her power to perpetuate in the child an +ignorance of its mother tongue. + +Teachers ought to make constant efforts to increase their scholars' +stock of words by using new ones from time to time, taking care to +explain them when the connection does not do it for them; so that, +instead of _coming down_ to the language of childhood, they ought rather +to go as far away from it as they can, without leaving their pupils +behind them. + +(3.) But perhaps the greatest evil of this practice is, it satisfies the +teacher. He thinks he addresses his pupils in the right manner, and +overlooks altogether the real peculiarities in which the power to +interest the young depends. He talks to them in simple language, and +wonders why they are not interested. He certainly is _plain_ enough. He +is vexed with them for not attending to what he says, attributing it to +their dullness or regardlessness of all that is useful or good, instead +of perceiving that the great difficulty is his own want of skill. These +three evils are sufficient to deter the teacher from the practice. + +2. Present your subject, not in its _general views_, but in its _minute +details_. This is the great secret of interesting the young. Present it +in its details and in its practical exemplifications; do this with any +subject whatever, and children will always be interested. + +To illustrate this, let us suppose two teachers wishing to explain to +their pupils the same subject, and taking the following opposite methods +of doing it. One, at the close of school, addresses his charge as +follows: + +"The moral character of any action, that is, whether it is right or +wrong, depends upon the _motives_ with which it is performed. Men look +only at the outward conduct, but God looks at the heart. In order, now, +that any action should be pleasing to God, it is necessary it should be +performed from the motive of a desire to please him. + +"Now there are a great many other motives of action which prevail among +mankind besides this right one. There is love of praise, love of money, +affection for friends, and many others." + +By the time the teacher has proceeded thus far, he finds, as he looks +around the room, that the countenances of his pupils are assuming a +listless and inattentive air. One is restless in his seat, evidently +paying no attention. Another has reclined his head upon his desk, lost +in a reverie, and others are looking round the room at one another, or +at the door, restless and impatient, hoping that the dull lecture will +soon be over. + +The other teacher says: + +"I have thought of an experiment I might try, which would illustrate to +you a very important subject. Suppose I should call one of the boys, A, +to me, and should say to him, 'I wish you to go to your seat, and +transcribe a piece of poetry as handsomely as you can. If it is written +as well as you can possibly write it, I will give you a quarter of a +dollar. Suppose I say this to him privately, so that none of the rest of +the boys can hear, and he goes to take his seat and begins to work. You +perceive that I have presented to him a motive to exertion." + +"Yes, sir," say the boys, all looking with interest at the teacher, +wondering how this experiment is going to end. + +"Well, what would that motive be?" + +"Money." "The quarter of a dollar." "Love of money," or perhaps other +answers, are heard from the various parts of the room. + +"Yes, love of money it is called. Now suppose I should call another boy, +one with whom I was particularly acquainted, and who I should know +would make an effort to please me, and should say to him, 'For a +particular reason, I want you to copy this poetry'--giving him the +same--'I wish you to copy it handsomely, for I wish to send it away, and +have not time to copy it myself. Can you do it for me?' + +"Suppose the boy should say he could, and should take it to his seat and +begin, neither of the boys knowing what the other was doing. I should +now have offered to this second boy a motive. Would it be the same with +the other?" + +"No, sir." + +"What was the other?" + +"Love of money." + +"What is this?" + +The boys hesitate. + +"It might be called," continues the teacher, "friendship. It is the +motive of a vast number of the actions which are performed in this +world. + +"Do you think of any other common motive of action besides love of money +and friendship?" + +"Love of honor," says one; "fear," says another. + +"Yes," continues the teacher, "both these are common motives. I might, +to exhibit them, call two more boys, one after the other, and say to the +one, 'I will thank you to go and copy this piece of poetry as well as +you can. I want to send it to the school committee as a specimen of +improvement made in this school.' + +"To the other I might say, 'You have been a careless boy to-day; you +have not got your lessons well. Now take your seat and copy this poetry. +Do it carefully. Unless you take pains, and do it as well as you +possibly can, I shall punish you severely before you go home.' + +"How many motives have I got now? Four, I believe." + +"Yes, sir," say the boys. + +"Love of money, friendship, love of honor, and fear. We called the first +boy A; let us call the others B, C, and D; no, we shall remember better +to call them by the name of their motives. We will call the first M, for +money; the second, F, for friendship; the third, H, for honor; and the +last, F--we have got an F already; what shall we do? On the whole, it is +of no consequence; we will have two F's, but we will take care not to +confound them. + +"But there are a great many other motives entirely distinct from these. +For example, suppose I should say to a fifth boy, 'Will you copy this +piece of poetry? It belongs to one of the little boys in school: he +wants a copy of it, and I told him I would try to get some one to copy +it for him.' This motive, now, would be benevolence; that is, if the boy +who was asked to copy it was not particularly acquainted with the other, +and did it chiefly to oblige him. We will call this boy B, for +Benevolence. + +"Now suppose I call a sixth boy, and say to him, 'I have set four or +five boys to work copying this piece of poetry; now I wish you to sit +down, and see if you can not do it better than any of them. After all +are done, I will compare them, and see if yours is not the best.' This +would be trying to excite emulation. We must call this boy, then, E. But +the time I intended to devote to talking with you on this subject for +to-day is expired. Perhaps to-morrow I will take up the subject again." + +The reader now will observe that the grand peculiarity of the +instructions given by this last teacher, as distinguished from those of +the first, consists in this, that the parts of the subject are presented +_in detail_, and _in particular exemplification._ In the first case, the +whole subject was dispatched in a single, general, and comprehensive +description; in the latter, it is examined minutely, one point being +brought forward at a time. The discussions are enlivened, too, by +meeting and removing such little difficulties as will naturally come up +in such an investigation. Boys and girls will take an interest in such a +lecture; they will regret to have it come to a conclusion, and will +give their attention when the subject is again brought forward on the +following day. Let us suppose the time for continuing the exercise to +have arrived. The teacher resumes the discussion thus: + +"I was talking to you yesterday about the motives of action. How many +had I made?" + +Some say "Four," some "Five," some "Six." + +"Can you name any of them?" + +The boys attempt to recollect them, and they give the names in the order +in which they accidentally occur to the various individuals. Of course +the words Fear, Emulation, Honor, Friendship, and others, come in +confused and irregular sounds from every part of the school-room. + +"You do not recollect the order," says the teacher, "and it is of no +consequence, for the order I named was only accidental. Now to go on +with my account: suppose all these boys to sit down and go to writing, +each one acting under the impulse of the motive which had been presented +to him individually. But, in order to make the supposition answer my +purpose, I must add two other cases. I will imagine that one of these +boys is called away a few minutes, and leaves his paper on his desk, and +that another boy, of an ill-natured and morose disposition, happening to +pass by and see his paper, thinks he will sit down and write upon it a +few lines, just to tease and vex the one who was called away. We will +also suppose that I call another boy to me, who I have reason to believe +is a sincere Christian, and say to him, 'Here is a new duty for you to +perform this afternoon. This piece of poetry is to be copied; now do it +carefully and faithfully. You know that this morning you committed +yourself to God's care during the day; now remember that he has been +watching you all the time thus far, and that he will be noticing you all +the time you are doing this; he will be pleased if you do your duty +faithfully.' + +"The boys thus all go to writing. Now suppose a stranger should come +in, and, seeing them all busy, should say to me, + +"'What are all these boys doing?' + +"'They are writing.' + +"'What are they writing?' + +"'They are writing a piece of poetry.' + +"'They seem to be very busy; they are very industrious, good boys.' + +"'Oh no! it is not by any means certain that they are _good_ boys.' + +"'I mean that they are good boys _now_; that they are doing right at +_this time_." + +'_That_ is not certain; some of them are doing right and some are doing +very wrong, though they are all writing the same piece of poetry.' + +The stranger would perhaps look surprised while I said this, and would +ask an explanation, and I might properly reply as follows: + +'Whether the boys are at this moment doing right or wrong depends not +so much upon what they are doing as upon the feelings of the heart with +which they are doing it. I acknowledge that they are all doing the same +thing outwardly; they are all writing the same extract, and they are all +doing it attentively and carefully, but they are thinking of very +different things.' + +'What are they thinking of?' + +'Do you see that boy?' I might say, pointing to one of them. 'His name +is M. He is writing for money. He is saying to himself all the time, "I +hope I shall get the quarter of a dollar." He is calculating what he +shall buy with it, and every good or bad letter that he makes, he is +considering the chance whether he shall succeed or fail in obtaining +it.' + +'What is the next boy to him thinking of?' + +'His name is B. He is copying to oblige a little fellow whom he +scarcely knows, and is trying to make his copy handsome, so as to give +him pleasure. He is thinking how gratified his schoolmate will be when +he receives it, and is forming plans to get acquainted with him. + +"'Do you see that boy in the back seat? He has maliciously taken another +boy's place just to spoil his work. He knows, too, that he is breaking +the rules of the school in being out of his place, but he stays +notwithstanding, and is delighting himself with thinking how +disappointed and sad his schoolmate will be when he comes in and finds +his work spoiled by having another handwriting in it, when he was +depending on doing it all himself.' + +"'I see,' the stranger might say by this time, 'that there is a great +difference among these boys; have you told me about them all?' + +"'No,' I might reply, 'there are several others. I will only mention one +more. He sits in the middle of the second desk. He is writing carefully, +simply because he wishes to do his duty and please God. He thinks that +God is present, and loves him, and takes care of him, and he is obedient +and grateful in return. I do not mean that he is all the time thinking +of God, but love to him is his motive of effort.' + +"Do you see now, boys, what I mean to teach you by this long +supposition?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"I presume you do. Perhaps it would be difficult for you to express it +in words; I can express it in general terms thus: + +"_Our characters depend, not on what we do, but on the spirit and motive +with which we do it._ What I have been saying throws light upon one +important verse in the Bible, which I should like to have read. James, +have you a Bible in your desk?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"Will you turn to 1 Samuel, xvi., 7, and then rise and read it? Read it +loud, so that all the school can hear." + +James read as follows: + +"MAN LOOKETH ON THE OUTWARD APPEARANCE, BUT GOD LOOKETH ON THE HEART." + +This is the way to reach the intellect and the heart of the young. Go +_into detail._ Explain truth and duty, not in an abstract form, but +exhibit it _in actual and living examples._ + +(3.) Be very cautious how you bring in the awful sanctions of religion +to assist you directly in the discipline of your school. You will derive +a most powerful indirect assistance from the influence of religion in +the little community which you govern, but this will be through the +prevalence of its spirit in the hearts of your pupils, and not from any +assistance which you can usually derive from it in managing particular +cases of transgression. Many teachers make great mistakes in this +respect. A bad boy, who has done something openly and directly +subversive of the good order of the school, or the rights of his +companions, is called before the master, who thinks that the most +powerful weapon to wield against him is the Bible. So, while the +trembling culprit stands before him, he administers to him a reproof, +which consists of an almost ludicrous mixture of scolding, entreaty, +religious instruction, and threatening of punishment. But such an +occasion as this is no time to touch a bad boy's heart. He is steeled at +such a moment against any thing but mortification and the desire to get +out of the hands of the master, and he has an impression that the +teacher appeals to religious principles only to assist him to sustain +his own authority. Of course, religious truth, at such a time, can make +no good impression. There may be exceptions to this rule. There +doubtless are. I have found some; and every successful teacher who reads +this will probably call to mind some which have occurred in the course +of his own experience. I am only speaking of what ought to be the +general rule, which is to reserve religious truths for moments of a +different character altogether. Bring the principles of the Bible +forward when the mind is calm, when the emotions are quieted, and all +within is at rest; and in exhibiting them, be actuated, not by a desire +to make your duties of government easier, but to promote the real and +permanent happiness of your charge. + +(4.) Do not be eager to draw from your pupils an expression of their +personal interest in religious truth. Lay before them, and enforce, by +all the means in your power, the principles of Christian duty, but do +not converse with them for the purpose of gratifying your curiosity in +regard to their piety, or your spiritual pride by counting up the +numbers of those who have been led to piety by your influence. Beginning +to act from Christian principle is the beginning of a new life, and it +may be an interesting subject of inquiry to you to ascertain how many of +your pupils have experienced the change; but, in many cases, it would +merely gratify curiosity to know. There is no question, too, that, in +very many instances, the faint glimmering of religious interest, which +would have kindled into a bright flame, is extinguished at once, and +perhaps forever, by the rough inquiries of a religious friend. Besides, +if you make inquiries, and form a definite opinion of your pupils, they +will know that this is your practice, and many a one will repose in the +belief that you consider him or her a Christian, and you will thus +increase the number, already unfortunately too large, of those who +maintain the form and pretenses of piety without its power; whose hearts +are filled with self-sufficiency and spiritual pride, and perhaps zeal +for the truths and external duties of religion, while the real spirit of +piety has no place there. They trust to some imaginary change, long +since passed by, and which has proved to be spurious by its failing of +its fruits. The best way--in fact, the only way--to guard against this +danger, especially with the young, is to show, by your manner of +speaking and acting on this subject at all times, that you regard a +truly religious life as the only evidence of piety, and that, +consequently, however much interest your pupils may apparently take in +religious instruction, they can not know, and you can not know, whether +Christian principle reigns within them in any other way than by +following them through life, and observing how, and with what spirit, +the various duties which devolve upon them are performed. + +There are very many fallacious indications of piety, so fallacious and +so plausible that there are very few, even among intelligent Christians, +who are not often greatly deceived. "By their fruits ye shall know +them," said the Savior; a direction sufficiently plain, one would think, +and pointing to a test sufficiently easy to be applied. But it is slow +and tedious work to wait for fruits, and we accordingly seek a criterion +which will help us quicker to a result. You see your pupil serious and +thoughtful. It is well; but it is not proof of piety. You see him deeply +interested when you speak of his obligations to his Maker, and the +duties he owes to Him. This is well, but it is no proof of piety. You +know he reads his Bible daily, and offers his morning and evening +prayers. When you speak to him of God's goodness, and of his past +ingratitude, his bosom heaves with emotion, and the tear stands in his +eye. It is all well. You may hope that he is going to devote his life to +the service of God; but you can not know, you can not even believe with +any great confidence. These appearances are not piety. They are not +conclusive evidences of it. They are only, in the young, faint grounds +of hope that the genuine fruits of piety will appear. + +I am aware that there are many persons so habituated to judging with +confidence of the piety of others from some such indications as I have +described, that they will think I carry my cautions to the extreme. +Perhaps I do; but the Savior said, "By their fruits ye shall know them," +and it is safest to follow his direction. + +By the word "fruits," however, our Savior unquestionably does not mean +the mere moral virtues of this life. The fruits to be looked at are the +fruits of _piety_, that is, indications of permanent attachment to the +Creator, and a desire to obey his commands. We must look for these. + +There is no objection to your giving particular individuals special +instruction adapted to their wants and circumstances. You may do this by +writing or in other ways, but do not lead them to make up their minds +fully that they are Christians in such a sense as to induce them to feel +that the work is done. Let them understand that becoming a Christian is +_beginning_ a work, not _finishing_ it. Be cautious how you form an +opinion even yourself on the question of the genuineness of their piety. +Be content not to know. You will be more faithful and watchful if you +consider it uncertain, and they will be more faithful and watchful too. + +(5.) Bring very fully and frequently before your pupils the practical +duties of religion in all their details, especially their duties at +home, to their parents, and to their brothers and sisters. Do not, +however, allow them to mistake morality for religion. Show them clearly +what piety is in its essence, and this you can do most successfully by +exhibiting its effects. + +(6.) Finally, let me insert as the keystone of all that I have been +saying in this chapter, be sincere, and ardent, and consistent in your +own piety. The whole structure which I have been attempting to build +will tumble into ruins without this. Be constantly watchful and careful, +not only to maintain intimate communion with God, and to renew it daily +in your seasons of retirement, but to guard your conduct. Let piety +control and regulate it. Show your pupils that it makes you amiable, +patient, forbearing, benevolent in little things as well as in great +things, and your example will co-operate with your instructions, and +allure your pupils to walk in the paths which you tread. But no +clearness and faithfulness in religious teaching will atone for the +injury which a bad example will effect. Conduct speaks louder than +words, and no persons are more shrewd than the young to discover the +hollowness of empty professions, and the heartlessness of mere +pretended interest in their good. + +I am aware that this book may fall into the hands of some who may take +little interest in the subject of this chapter. To such I may perhaps +owe an apology for having thus fully discussed a topic in which only a +part of my readers can be supposed to be interested. My apology is this: +It is obvious and unquestionable that we all owe allegiance to the +Supreme. It is so obvious and unquestionable as to be entirely beyond +the necessity of proof, for it is plain that nothing but such a bond of +union can keep the peace among the millions of distinct intelligences +with which the creation is filled. It is therefore the plain duty of +every man to establish that connection himself and his Maker which the +Bible requires, and to do what he can to bring others to the peace and +happiness of piety. These truths are so plain that they admit of no +discussion and no denial, and it seems to me highly unsafe for any man +to neglect or to postpone the performance of the duty which arises from +them. A still greater hazard is incurred when such a man, having forty +or fifty fellow-beings almost entirely under his influence, leads them, +by his example, away from their Maker, and so far that he must, in many +cases, hopelessly confirm the separation. With these views, I could not, +when writing on the duties of a teacher of the young, refrain from +bringing distinctly to view this which has so imperious a claim. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE MOUNT VERNON SCHOOL. + + +Perhaps there is no way by which teachers can, in a given time, do more +to acquire a knowledge of their art, and an interest in it, than by +visiting each others' schools. + +It is not always the case that any thing is observed by the visitor +which he can directly and wholly introduce into his own school, but what +he sees suggests to him modifications or changes, and it gives him, at +any rate, renewed strength and resolution in his work to see how similar +objects are accomplished, or similar difficulties removed by others. I +have often thought that there ought, on this account, to be far greater +freedom and frequency in the inter-change of visits than there is. + +Next, however, to a visit to a school, comes the reading of a vivid +description of it. I do not mean a cold, theoretical exposition of the +general principles of its management and instruction, for these are +essentially the same in all good schools. I mean a minute account of the +plans and arrangements by which these general principles are applied. +Suppose twenty of the most successful teachers in New England would +write such a description, each of his own school, how valuable would be +the volume which should contain them! + +With these views, I have concluded to devote one chapter to the +description of a school which was for several years under my care.[4] +The account was originally prepared and _printed_, but not published, +for the purpose of distribution among the scholars, simply because this +seemed to be the easiest and surest method of making them, on their +admission to the school, acquainted with its arrangements and plans. It +is addressed, therefore, throughout to a pupil, and I preserve its +original form, as, by its being addressed to pupils, and intended to +influence them, it is an example of the mode of address and the kind of +influence recommended in this work. It was chiefly designed for new +scholars; a copy of it was presented to each on the day of her admission +to the school, and it was made her first duty to read it attentively. + +[Footnote 4: The author was still connected with this school at the time +when this work was written.] + +The system which it describes is one which gradually grew up in the +institution under the writer's care. The school was commenced with a +small number of pupils, and without any system or plan whatever, and the +one here described was formed insensibly and by slow degrees, through +the influence of various and accidental circumstances. I have no idea +that it is superior to the plans of government and instruction adopted +in many other schools. It is true that there must necessarily be _some_ +system in every large institution; but various instructors will fall +upon different principles of organization, which will naturally be such +as are adapted to the habits of thought and manner of instruction of +their respective authors, and consequently each will be best for its own +place. While, therefore, some system--some methodical arrangement is +necessary in all schools, it is not necessary that it should be the same +in all. It is not even desirable that it should be. I consider this plan +as only one among a multitude of others, each of which will be +successful, not by the power of its intrinsic qualities, but just in +proportion to the ability and faithfulness with which it is carried into +effect. + +There may be features of this plan which teachers who may read it may be +inclined to adopt. In other cases, suggestions may occur to the mind of +the reader, which may modify in some degree his present plans. Others +may merely be interested in seeing how others effect what they, by other +methods, are equally successful in effecting. + +It is in these and similar ways that I have often myself been highly +benefited in visiting schools and, in reading descriptions of them, and +it is for such purposes that I insert the account here. + + +TO A NEW SCHOLAR ON HER ADMISSION TO THE MOUNT VERNON SCHOOL. + + +As a large school is necessarily somewhat complicated in its plan, and +as new scholars usually find that it requires some time and gives them +no little trouble to understand the arrangements they find in operation +here, I have concluded to write a brief description of these +arrangements, by help of which you will, I hope, the sooner feel at home +in your new place of duty. That I may be more distinct and specific, I +shall class what I have to say under separate heads. + + +I. YOUR PERSONAL DUTY. + + +Your first anxiety as you come into the school-room, and take your seat +among the busy multitude, if you are conscientiously desirous of doing +your duty, will be, lest, ignorant as you are of the whole plan and of +all the regulations of the institution, you should inadvertently do what +will be considered wrong. I wish first, then, to put you at rest on this +score. There is but one rule of this school. That you can easily keep. + +You will observe on one side of my desk a clock upon the wall, and not +far from it a piece of apparatus that is probably new to you. It is a +metallic plate, upon which are marked, in gilded letters, the words +"_Study Hours."_ This is upright, but it is so attached by its lower +edge to its support by means of a hinge that it can fall over from +above, and thus be in a _horizontal_ position; or it will rest in an +_inclined_ position--_half down,_ as it is called. It is drawn up and +let down by a cord passing over a pulley. When it passes either way, its +upper part touches a bell, which gives all in the room notice of its +motion. + +Now when this "_Study Card"_ [5] as the scholars call it, is _up_, so +that the words "STUDY HOURS" are presented to the view of the school, it +is the signal for silence and study. THERE IS THEN TO BE NO +COMMUNICATION AND NO LEAVING OF SEATS EXCEPT AT THE DIRECTION OF +TEACHERS. When it is _half down,_ each scholar may leave her seat and +whisper, but she must do nothing which will disturb others. When it is +_down_, all the duties of school are suspended, and scholars are left +entirely to their liberty. + +[Footnote 5: This apparatus has been previously described. See p. 47.] + +As this is the only rule of the school, it deserves a little more full +explanation; for not only your progress in study, but your influence in +promoting the welfare of the school, and, consequently, your peace and +happiness while you are a member of it, will depend upon the strictness +with which you observe it. + +Whenever, then, the study card goes up, and you hear the sound of its +little bell, immediately and instantaneously stop, whatever you are +saying. If you are away from your seat, go directly to it and there +remain, and forget in your own silent and solitary studies, so far as +you can, all that are around you. You will remember that all +_communication_ is forbidden. Whispering, making signs, writing upon +paper or a slate, bowing to any one, and, in fact, _every_ possible way +by which one person may have any sort of mental intercourse with +another, is wrong. A large number of the scholars take a pride and +pleasure in carrying this rule into as perfect an observance as +possible. They say that as this is the only rule with which I trouble +them, they ought certainly to observe this faithfully. I myself, +however, put it upon other ground. I am satisfied that it is better and +pleasanter for you to observe it most rigidly, if it is attempted to be +enforced at all. + +You will ask, "Can not we obtain permission of you or of the teachers to +leave our seats or to whisper if it is necessary?" The answer is "No." +You must never ask permission of me or of the teachers. You can leave +seats or speak at the _direction_ of the teachers, that is, when they of +their own accord ask you to do it, but you are never to ask their +permission. If you should, and if any teachers should give you +permission, it would be of no avail. I have never given them authority +to grant any permissions of the kind. + +You will then say, "Are we never, on any occasion whatever, to leave our +seats in study hours?" Yes, you are. There are two ways: + +1. _At the direction of teachers._--Going to and from recitations is +considered as at the _direction_ of teachers. So, if a person is +requested by a teacher to transact any business, or is elected to a +public office, or appointed upon a committee, leaving seats or speaking, +so far as is really necessary for the accomplishing such a purpose, is +considered as at the direction of teachers, and is consequently right. +In the same manner, if a teacher should ask you individually, or give +general notice to the members of a class, to come to her seat for +private instruction, or to go to any part of the school-room for her, it +would be right to do it. The distinction, you observe, is this: the +teacher may, _of her own accord,_ direct any leaving of seats which she +may think necessary to accomplish the objects of the school. She must +not, however, _at the request of an individual,_ for the sake of her +mere private convenience, give her permission to speak or to leave her +seat. If, for example, a teacher should say to you in your class, "As +soon as you have performed a certain work you may bring it to me," you +would, in bringing it, be acting under her _direction_, and would +consequently do right. If, however, you should want a pencil, and should +ask her to give you leave to borrow it, even if she should give you +leave you would do wrong to go, for you would not be acting at her +_direction,_ but simply by her _consent_, and she has no authority to +grant consent. + +2. The second case in which you may leave your seat is when some very +uncommon occurrence takes place, which is sufficient reason for +suspending all rules. If your neighbor is faint, you may speak to her, +and, if necessary, lead her out. If your mother or some other friend +should come into the school-room, you can go and sit with her upon the +sofa, and talk about the school.[6] And so in many other similar cases. +Be very careful not to abuse this privilege, and make slight causes the +grounds of your exceptions. It ought to be a very clear case. If a young +lady is unwell in a trifling degree, so as to need no assistance, you +would evidently do wrong to talk to her. The rule, in fact, is very +similar to that which all well-bred people observe at church. They never +speak or leave their seats unless some really important cause, such as +sickness, requires them to break over all rules and go out. You have, in +the same manner, in really important cases, such as serious sickness in +your own case or in that of your companions, or the coming in of a +stranger, or any thing else equally extraordinary, power to lay aside +any rule, and to act as the emergency may require. In using this +discretion, however, be sure to be on the safe side. In such cases, +never ask permission. You must act on your own responsibility. + +[Footnote 6: A sofa was placed against the wall, by the side of the +teachers' for the accommodation of visitors.] + +_Reasons for this rule._--When the school was first established, there +was no absolute prohibition of whispering. Each scholar was allowed to +whisper in relation to her studies. They were often, very often, +enjoined to be conscientious and faithful, but, as might have been +anticipated, the experiment failed. It was almost universally the +practice to whisper more or less about subjects entirely foreign to the +business of the school. This all the scholars repeatedly acknowledged; +and they almost unanimously admitted that the good of the school +required the prohibition of all communication during certain hours. I +gave them their choice, either always to ask permission when they wished +to speak, or to have a certain time allowed for the purpose, during +which free intercommunication might be allowed to all the school, with +the understanding, however, that, out of this time, no permission should +ever be asked or granted. They very wisely chose the latter plan, and +the Study Card was constructed and put up, to mark the times of free +communication and of silent study. The card was at first down every half +hour for one or two minutes. The scholars afterward thinking that their +intellectual habits would be improved and the welfare of the school +promoted by their having a longer time for uninterrupted study, of their +own accord, without any influence from me, proposed that the card should +be down only once an hour. This plan was adopted by them by vote. I wish +it to be understood that it was not _my_ plan, but _theirs_; and that I +am at any time willing to have the Study Card down once in half an hour, +whenever a majority of the scholars, voting by ballot, desire it. + +You will find that this system of having a distinct time for whispering, +when all may whisper freely, all communication being entirely excluded +at other times, will at first give you some trouble. It will be hard for +you, if you are not accustomed to it, to learn conscientiously and +faithfully to comply. Besides, at first you will often need some little +information or desire to ask for an article which you might obtain in a +moment, but which you can not innocently ask for till the card is down, +and this might keep you waiting an hour. You will, however, after a few +such instances, soon learn to make your preparations beforehand, and if +you are a girl of enlarged views and elevated feelings, you will +good-humoredly acquiesce in suffering a little inconvenience yourself +for the sake of helping to preserve those _distinct_ and well _defined_ +lines by which all boundaries must be marked in a large establishment, +if order and system are to be preserved at all. + +Though at first you may experience a little inconvenience, you will soon +take pleasure in the scientific strictness of the plan. It will gratify +you to observe the profound stillness of the room where a hundred are +studying. You will take pleasure in observing the sudden transition from +the silence of study hours to the joyful sounds and the animating +activity of recess when the Study Card goes down; and then when it rises +again at the close of the recess, you will be gratified to observe how +suddenly the sounds which have filled the air, and made the room so +lively a scene, are hushed into silence by the single and almost +inaudible touch of that little bell. You will take pleasure in this; for +young and old always take pleasure in the strict and rigid operation of +_system_ rather than in laxity and disorder. I am convinced, also, that +the scholars do like the operation of this plan, for I do not have to +make any efforts to sustain it. With the exception that occasionally, +usually not oftener than once in several months, I allude to the +subject, and that chiefly on account of a few careless and unfaithful +individuals, I have little to say or to do to maintain the authority of +the Study Card. Most of the scholars obey it of their own accord, +implicitly and cordially. And I believe they consider this faithful +monitor not only one of the most useful, but one of the most agreeable +friends they have. We should not only regret its services, but miss its +company if it should be taken away. + +This regulation then, namely, to abstain from all communication with +one another, and from all leaving of seats, at certain times which are +marked by the position of the Study Card, is the only one which can +properly be called a _rule_ of the school. There are a great many +arrangements and plans relating to the _instruction_ of the pupils, but +no other specific _rules_ relating to _their conduct._ You are, of +course, while in the school, under the same moral obligations which rest +upon you elsewhere. You must be kind to one another, respectful to +superiors, and quiet and orderly in your deportment. You must do nothing +to encroach upon another's rights, or to interrupt and disturb your +companions in their pursuits. You must not produce disorder, or be +wasteful of the public property, or do any thing else which you might +know is in itself wrong. But you are to avoid these things, not because +there are any rules in this school against them, for there are none, but +because they are in _themselves wrong_--in all places and under all +circumstances, wrong. The universal and unchangeable principles of duty +are the same here as elsewhere. I do not make rules pointing them out, +but expect that you will, through your own conscience and moral +principle, discover and obey them. + +It is wrong, for instance, for you to speak harshly or unkindly to your +companions, or to do any thing to wound their feelings unnecessarily, in +any way. But this is a universal principle of duty, not a rule of +school. + +So it is wrong for you to be rude and noisy, and thus disturb others who +are studying, or to brush by them carelessly, so as to jostle them at +their writing or derange their books. But to be careful not to do injury +to others in the reckless pursuit of our own pleasures is a universal +principle of duty, not a rule of school. + +Such a case as this, for example, once occurred. A number of little +girls began to amuse themselves in recess with running about among the +desks in pursuit of one another, and they told me, in excuse for it, +when I called them to account, that they did not know that it was +"_against the rule"_. + +[Illustration] + +"It is not against the rule," said I; "I have never made any rule +against running about among the desks." + +"Then," asked they, "did we do wrong?" + +"Do you think it would be a good plan," I inquired, "to have it a common +amusement in the recess for the girls to hunt each other among the +desks?" + +"No, sir," they replied, simultaneously. + +"Why not? There are some reasons. I do not know, however, whether you +will have the ingenuity to think of them." + +"We may start the desks from their places," said one. + +"Yes," said I, "they are fastened down very slightly, so that I may +easily alter their position." + +"We might upset the inkstands," said another. + +"Sometimes," added a third, "we run against the scholars who are sitting +in their seats." + +"It seems, then, you have ingenuity enough to discover the reasons. Why +did not these reasons prevent your doing it?" + +"We did not think of them before." + +"True; that is the exact state of the case. Now, when persons are so +eager to promote their own enjoyment as to forget the rights and the +comforts of others, it is _selfishness. _ Now is there any rule in this +school against selfishness?" + +"No, sir." + +"You are right. There is not. But selfishness is wrong, very wrong, in +whatever form it appears, here and every where else, and that whether I +make any rules against it or not." + +You will see, from this anecdote, that, though there is but one rule of +the school, I by no means intend to say that there is only _one way of +doing wrong here._ That would be very absurd. You _must not do any thing +which you may know, by proper reflection, to be in itself wrong._ This, +however, is a universal principle of duty, not a _rule_ of the Mount +Vernon School. If I should attempt to make rules which would specify and +prohibit every possible way by which you might do wrong, my laws would +be innumerable, and even then I should fail of securing my object, +unless you had the disposition to do your duty. No legislation can enact +laws as fast as a perverted ingenuity can find means to evade them. + +You will perhaps ask what will be the consequence if we transgress +either the single rule of the school or any of the great principles of +duty. In other words, What are the punishments which are resorted to in +the Mount Vernon School? The answer is, there are no punishments. I do +not say that I should not, in case all other means should fail, resort +to the most decisive measures to secure obedience and subordination. +Most certainly I should do so, as it would plainly be my duty to do it. +If you should at any time be so unhappy as to violate your obligations +to yourself, to your companions, or to me--should you misimprove your +time, or exhibit an unkind or a selfish spirit, or be disrespectful or +insubordinate to your teachers, I should go frankly and openly, but +kindly to you, and endeavor to convince you of your fault. I should very +probably do this by addressing a note to you, as I suppose this would be +less unpleasant to you than a conversation. In such a case, I shall hope +that you will as frankly and openly reply, telling me whether you admit +your fault and are determined to amend, or else informing me of the +contrary. I shall wish you to be _sincere_, and then I shall know what +course to take next. But as to the consequences which may result to you +if you should persist in what is wrong, it is not necessary that you +should know them beforehand. They who wander from duty always plunge +themselves into troubles which they do not anticipate; and if you do +what, at the time you are doing it, you know to be wrong, it will not be +unjust that you should suffer the consequences, even if they were not +beforehand understood and expected. This will be the case with you all +through life, and it will be the case here. + +I say it _will_ be the case here; I ought rather to say that it will be +the case should you be so unhappy as to do wrong and to persist in it. +Such persistance, however, never occurs--at least it occurs so seldom, +and at intervals so great, that every thing of the nature of punishment, +that is, the depriving a pupil of any enjoyment, or subjecting her to +any disgrace, or giving her pain in any way in consequence of her +faults, except the simple pain of awakening conscience in her bosom, is +almost entirely unknown. I hope that you will always be ready to confess +and forsake your faults, and endeavor, while you remain in school, to +improve in character, and attain, as far as possible, every moral +excellence. + +I ought to remark, before dismissing this topic, that I place very great +confidence in the scholars in regard to their moral conduct and +deportment, and they fully deserve it. I have no care and no trouble in +what is commonly called _the government of the school._ Neither myself +nor any one else is employed in any way in watching the scholars, or +keeping any sort of account of them. I should not at any time hesitate +to call all the teachers into an adjoining room, leaving the school +alone for half an hour, and I should be confident that, at such a time, +order, and stillness, and attention to study would prevail as much as +ever. The scholars would not look to see whether I was in my desk, but +whether the Study Card was up. The school was left in this way, half an +hour every day, during a quarter, that we might have a teachers' +meeting, and the studies went on generally quite as well, to say the +least, as when the teachers were present. One or two instances of +irregular conduct occurred. I do not now recollect precisely what they +were. They were, however, fully acknowledged and not repeated, and I +believe the scholars were generally more scrupulous and faithful then +than at other times. They would not betray the confidence reposed in +them. This plan was continued until it was found more convenient to have +the teachers' meetings in the afternoons. + +When any thing wrong is done in school, I generally state the case, and +request the individuals who have done it to let me know who they are. +They inform me sometimes by notes and sometimes in conversation; but +they always inform me. The plan _always_ succeeds. The scholars all know +that there is nothing to be feared from confessing faults to me; but +that, on the other hand, it is a most direct and certain way to secure +returning peace and happiness. + +I can illustrate this by describing a case which actually occurred, +though the description is not to be considered so much an accurate +account of what took place in a particular instance as an illustration +of the _general spirit and manner_ in which such cases are disposed of. +I accidentally understood that some of the younger scholars were in the +habit, during recesses and after school, of ringing the door-bell and +then running away, to amuse themselves with the perplexity of their +companions who should go to the door and find no one there. I explained +in a few words, one day, to the school, that this was wrong. + +"How many," I then asked, "have ever been put to the trouble to go to +the door when the bell has thus been rung? They may rise." + +A very large number of scholars stood up. Those who had done the +mischief were evidently surprised at the extent of the trouble they had +occasioned. + +"Now," I continued, "I think all will be convinced that the trouble +which this practice has occasioned to the fifty or sixty young ladies, +who can not be expected to find amusement in such a way, is far greater +than the pleasure it can have given to the few who are young enough to +have enjoyed it. Therefore it was wrong. Do you think that the girls who +rang the bell might have known this by proper reflection?" + +"Yes, sir," the school generally answered. + +"I do not mean," said I, "if they had set themselves formally at work to +think about the subject, but with such a degree of reflection as ought +reasonably to be expected of little girls in the hilarity of recess and +of play." + +"Yes, sir," was still the reply, but fainter than before. + +"There is one way by which I might ascertain whether you were old enough +to know that this was wrong, and that is by asking those who have +refrained from doing this, because they supposed it would be wrong, to +rise. Then, if some of the youngest scholars in school should stand up, +as I have no doubt they would, it would prove that all might have known, +if they had been equally conscientious. But if I ask those to rise who +have _not_ rung the bell, I shall make known to the whole school who +they are that have done it, and I wish that the exposure of faults +should be private, unless it is _necessary_ that it should be public. I +will, therefore, not do it. I have myself, however, no doubt that all +might have known that it was wrong. + +"There is," continued I, "another injury which must grow out of such a +practice. This I should not have expected the little girls could think +of. In fact, I doubt whether any in school will think of it. Can any one +tell me what it is?" + +No one replied. + +"I should suppose that it would lead you to disregard the bell when it +rings, and that consequently a gentleman or lady might sometimes ring in +vain, the scholars near the door saying, 'Oh, it is only the little +girls.'" + +"Yes, sir," was heard from all parts of the room. + +I found, from farther inquiry, that this had been the case, and I closed +by saying, + +"I am satisfied that those who have inadvertently fallen into this +practice are sorry for it, and that if I should leave it here, no more +cases of it would occur, and this is all I wish. At the same time, they +who have done this will feel more effectually relieved from the pain +which having done wrong must necessarily give them, if they individually +acknowledge it to me. I wish, therefore, that all who have thus rung the +bell in play would write me notes stating the facts. If any one does not +do it, she will punish herself severely, for she will feel for many days +to come that while her companions were willing to acknowledge their +faults, she wished to conceal and cover hers. Conscience will reproach +her bitterly for her insincerity, and, whenever she hears the sound of +the door-bell, it will remind her not only of her fault, but of what is +far worse, _her willingness to appear innocent when she was really +guilty."_ + +Before the close of the school I had eight or ten notes acknowledging +the fault, describing the circumstances of each case, and expressing +promises to do so no more. + +It is by such methods as this, rather than by threatening and +punishment, that I manage the cases of discipline which from time to +time occur; but even such as this, slight as it is, occur very seldom. +Weeks and weeks sometimes elapse without one. When they do occur, they +are always easily settled by confession and reform. Sometimes I am asked +to _forgive_ the offense. But I have no power to forgive. God must +forgive you when you do wrong, or the burden must remain. My duty is to +take measures to prevent future transgression, and to lead those who +have been guilty of it to God for pardon. If they do not go to Him, +though they may satisfy me, as principal of a school, by not repeating +the offence, they must remain _unforgiven_. I can _forget_, and I do +forget. For example, in this last case I have not the slightest +recollection of any individual who was engaged in it. The evil was +entirely removed, and had it not afforded me a convenient illustration +here, perhaps I should never have thought of it again; still, it may not +yet be _forgiven._ It may seem strange that I should speak so seriously +of God's forgiveness for such a trifle as that. Does He notice a child's +ringing a door-bell in play? He notices when a child is willing to yield +to temptation to do what she knows to be wrong, and to act even in the +slightest trifle from a selfish disregard for the convenience of others. +This spirit He always notices, and though I may stop any particular form +of its exhibition, it is for Him alone to forgive it and to purify the +heart from its power. But I shall speak more particularly on this +subject under the head of Religious Instruction. + + + + +II. ORDER OF DAILY EXERCISES. + + +There will be given you, when you enter the school, a blank schedule, in +which the divisions of each forenoon for one week are marked, and in +which your own employments for every half hour are to be written. (A +copy of this is inserted on page 222.) + +This schedule, when filled up, forms a sort of a map for the week, in +which you can readily find what are your duties for any particular +time. The following description will enable you better to understand it. + +_Opening of the School._ + +The first thing which will call your attention as the hour for the +commencement of the school approaches in the morning is the ringing of a +bell five minutes before the time arrives by the regulator, who sits at +the curtained desk before the Study Card. One minute before the time the +bell is rung again, which is the signal for all to take their seats and +prepare for the opening of the school. When the precise moment arrives, +the Study Card is drawn up, and at the sound of its little bell, all the +scholars recline their heads upon their desks, and unite with me in a +very short prayer for God's protection and blessing during the day. I +adopted the plan of allowing the scholars to sit, because I thought it +would be pleasanter for them, and they have, in return, been generally, +so far as I know, faithful in complying with my wish that they would all +assume the posture proposed, so that the school may present the uniform +and serious aspect which is proper when we are engaged in so solemn a +duty. If you move your chair back a little, you will find the posture +not inconvenient; but the only reward you will have for faithfully +complying with the general custom is the pleasure of doing your duty, +for no one watches you, and you would not be called to account should +you neglect to conform to the usage of the school. + +I hope, however, that you will conform to it. Indeed, all truly refined +and well-bred people make it a universal rule of life to conform to the +innocent religious usages of those around them, wherever they may be. + +After the prayer we sing one or two verses of a hymn. The music is led +by a piano, and we wish all to join in it who can sing. The exercises +which follow are exhibited to the eye by the diagram on the next page. + + +MOUNT VERNON SCHOOL + +SCHEDULE OF STUDIES. 1833. + +_Miss_ + ++---------+---------------+-----------+-----+-----------+-----+-----------+ +| |FIRST HOUR. |SECOND HOUR| |THIRD HOUR | |FOURTH HOUR| +| +---------------+-----------+--+--+-----------+--+--+-----------+ +| |EVENING LESSONS|LANGUAGES. |G.|R.|MATHEMATICS|G.|R.|SECTIONS. | ++---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+--+-----+-----+--+--+-----------+ +|MONDAY | | | | | | | | | | | | ++---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+ +-----+-----+--+ +-----------+ +|TUESDAY | | | | | | | | | | | | ++---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+ +-----+-----+--+ +-----------+ +|WEDNESDAY| | | | | | | | | | | | ++---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+ +-----+-----+--+ +-----------+ +|THURSDAY | | | | | | | | | | | | ++---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+ +-----+-----+--+ +-----------+ +|FRIDAY | | | | | | | | | | | | ++---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+ +-----+-----+--+ +-----------+ +|SATURDAY | | | | | | | | | | | | ++---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+--+-----+-----+--+--+-----------+ + + +I now proceed to describe in detail the several hours, as represented +in the diagram. + + +_First Hour._--_Evening Lessons._ + +The first hour of the day, as you will see by the schedule, is marked +evening lessons, because most, though not all, of the studies assigned +to it are intended to be prepared out of school. These studies are +miscellaneous in their character, comprising Geography, History, Natural +and Intellectual Philosophy, and Natural History. This hour, like all +the other hours for study, is divided into two equal parts, some classes +reciting in the first part, and others in the second. A bell is always +rung _five minutes before_ the time for closing the recitation, to give +the teachers notice that their time is nearly expired, and then again +_at the time,_ to give notice to new classes to take their places. Thus +you will observe that five minutes before the half hour expires the bell +will ring, soon after which the classes in recitation will take their +seats. Precisely at the end of the half hour it will ring again, when +new classes will take their places. In the same manner, notice is given +five minutes before the second half of the hour expires, and so in all +the other three hours. + +At the end of the first hour the Study Card will be let half down five +minutes, and you will perceive that the sound of its bell will +immediately produce a decided change in the whole aspect of the room. It +is the signal, as has been before explained, for universal permission to +whisper and to leave seats, though not for loud talking or play, so that +those who wish to continue their studies may do so without interruption. +When the five-minute period has expired the card goes up again, and its +sound immediately restores silence and order. + +_Second Hour._--_Languages._ We then commence the second hour of the +school. This is devoted to the study of the languages. The Latin, +French, and English classes recite at this time. By English classes I +mean those studying the English _as a language,_ that is, classes in +Grammar, Rhetoric, and Composition. The hour is divided as the first +hour is, and the bell is rung in the same way, that is, at the close of +each half hour, and also five minutes before the close, to give the +classes notice that the time for recitation is about to expire. + + +_First General Exercise._ + +You will observe, then, that there follows upon the schedule a quarter +of an hour marked G. That initial stands for General Exercise, and when +it arrives each pupil is to lay aside her work, and attend to any +exercise which may be proposed. This quarter of an hour is appropriated +to a great variety of purposes. Sometimes I give a short and familiar +lecture on some useful subject connected with science or art, or the +principles of duty. Sometimes we have a general reading lesson. +Sometimes we turn the school into a Bible class. Again, the time is +occupied in attending to some _general_ business of the school. The bell +is rung one minute before the close of the time, and when the period +appropriated to this purpose has actually expired, the Study Card, for +the first time in the morning, is let entirely down, and the room is at +once suddenly transformed into a scene of life, and motion, and gayety. + + +_First Recess._ + +The time for the recess is a quarter of an hour, and, as you will see, +it is marked R. on the schedule. We have various modes of amusing +ourselves, and finding exercise and recreation in recesses. Sometimes +the girls bring their battledores to school. Sometimes they have a large +number of soft balls with which they amuse themselves. A more common +amusement is marching to the music of the piano. For this purpose a set +of signals by the whistle has been devised, by which commands are +communicated to the school. + +In these and similar amusements the recesses pass away, and one minute +before it expires the bell is rung to give notice of the approach of +study hours. + +At this signal the scholars begin to prepare for a return to the +ordinary duties of school, and when, at the full expiration of the +recess, the Study Card again goes up, silence, and attention, and order +is immediately restored. + + +_Third Hour.--Mathematics_. + +There follows next, as you will see by reference to the schedule, an +hour marked Mathematics. It is time for studying and reciting +Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, and similar studies. It is divided, as +the previous hours were, into two equal parts, and the bell is rung, as +has been described, five minutes before the close, and also precisely at +the close of each half hour. + + +_Second General Exercise.--Business_. + +Then follow two quarter hours, appropriated like those heretofore +described, the first to a General Exercise, the second to a recess. At +the first of these the general business of the school is transacted. As +this business will probably appear new to you, and will attract your +attention, I will describe its nature and design. + +At first you will observe a young lady rise at the secretary's desk to +read a journal of what was done the day before. The notices which I +gave, the arrangements I made, the subjects discussed and decided, and, +in fact, every thing important and interesting in the business or +occurrences of the preceding day, is recorded by the secretary of the +school, and read at this time. This journal ought not to be a mere dry +record of votes and business, but, as far as possible, an interesting +description, in a narrative style, of the occurrences of the day. The +secretary must keep a memorandum, and ascertain that every thing +important really finds a place in the record, but she may employ any +good writer in school to prepare, from her minutes, the full account. + +After the record is read, you will observe me take from a little red +morocco wrapper which has been brought to my desk a number of narrow +slips of paper, which I am to read aloud. In most assemblies, it is +customary for any person wishing it to rise in his place and propose any +plan, or, as it is called, "make any motion" that he pleases. It would +be unpleasant for a young lady to do this in presence of a hundred +companions, and we have consequently resorted to another plan. The red +wrapper is placed in a part of the room accessible to all, and any one +who pleases writes upon a narrow slip of paper any thing she wishes to +lay before the school, and deposits it there, and at the appointed time +the whole are brought to me. These propositions are of various kinds. I +can, perhaps, best give you an idea of them by such specimens as occur +to me. + +"A.B. resigns her office of copyist, as she is about to leave school." + +"Proposed that a class in Botany be formed. There are many who would +like to join it." + +"When will vacation commence?" + +"Proposed that a music committee be appointed, so that we can have some +marching in recess." + +"Proposed that school begin at nine o'clock." + +"Mr. Abbott, will you have the goodness to explain to us what is meant +by the Veto Message?" + +"Proposed that we have locks upon our desks." + +You see that the variety is very great, and there are usually from four +or five to ten or fifteen of such papers daily. You will be at liberty +to make in this way any suggestion or inquiry, or to propose any change +you please in any part of the instruction or administration of the +school. If any thing dissatisfies you, you ought not to murmur at it in +private, or complain of it to your companions, thus injuring to no +purpose both your own peace and happiness and theirs, but you ought +immediately to bring up the subject in the way above described, that the +evil may be removed. I receive some of the most valuable suggestions in +this way from the older and most reflecting pupils. These suggestions +are read. Sometimes I decide the question that arises myself. Sometimes +I say that the pupils may decide it. Sometimes I ask their opinion and +wishes, and then, after taking them into consideration, come to a +conclusion. + +For example, I will insert a few of these propositions, as these papers +are called, describing the way in which they would be disposed of. Most +of them are real cases. + +"Mr. Abbott, the first class in Geography is so large that we have not +room in the recitation seats. Can not we have another place?" + +After reading this, I should perhaps say, "The class in Geography may +rise and be counted." They rise. Those in each division are counted by +the proper officer, as will hereafter be explained, and the numbers are +reported aloud to me. It is all done in a moment. + +"How many of you think you need better accommodations?" + +If a majority of hands are raised, I say, "I wish the teacher of that +class would ascertain whether any other place of recitation is vacant, +or occupied by a smaller class at that time, and report the case to me." + +"Proposed that we be allowed to walk upon the common in the recesses." + +"I should like to have some plan formed by which you can walk on the +common in recesses, but there are difficulties. If all should go out +together, it is probable that some would be rude and noisy, and that +others would come back tardy and out of breath. Besides, as the recess +is short, so many would be in haste to prepare to go out, that there +would be a great crowd and much confusion in the ante-room and +passage-ways. I do not mention these as insuperable objections, but +only as difficulties which there must be some plan to avoid. Perhaps, +however, they can not be avoided. Do any of you think of any plan?" + +I see, perhaps, two or three hands raised, and call upon the individuals +by name, and they express their opinions. One says that a part can go +out at a time. Another proposes that those who are tardy one day should +not go out again, &c. + +"I think it possible that a plan can be formed on these or some such +principles. If you will appoint a committee who will prepare a plan, and +mature its details, and take charge of the execution of it, you may try +the experiment. I will allow it to go on as long as you avoid the evils +I have above alluded to." + +A committee is then raised, to report in writing at the business hour of +the following day. + +"Proposed that the Study Card be down every half hour." + +"You may decide this question yourselves. That you may vote more freely, +I wish you to vote by ballot. The boxes will be open during the next +recess. The vote-receivers will write the question and place it upon the +boxes. All who feel interested in the subject may carry in their votes, +Aye or Nay. When the result is reported to me I will read it to the +school." + +In this and similar ways the various business brought up is disposed of. +This custom is useful to the scholars, for it exercises and strengthens +their judgment and their reflecting powers more than almost any thing +besides; so that, if interesting them in this way in the management of +the school were of no benefit to me, I should retain the practice as +most valuable to them. But it is most useful to me and to the school. I +think that nothing has contributed more to its prosperity than the +active interest which the scholars have always taken in its concerns, +and the assistance they have rendered me in carrying my plans into +effect. + +You will observe that in transacting this business very little is +actually done by myself, except making the ultimate decision. All the +details of business are assigned to teachers, or to officers and +committees appointed for the purpose. By this means we dispatch business +very rapidly. The system of offices will be explained in another place; +but I may say here that all appointments and elections are made in this +quarter hour, and by means of the assistance of these officers the +transaction of business is so facilitated that much more can sometimes +be accomplished than you would suppose possible. I consider this period +as one of the most important in the whole morning. + + +_Second Recess._ + +After the expiration of the quarter hour above described, the Study Card +is dropped, and a recess succeeds. + + +_Fourth Hour._--_Sections_. + +In all the former part of the day the scholars are divided into +_classes_, according to their proficiency in particular branches of +study, and they resort to their _recitations_ for _instruction. _ They +now are divided into six _sections_, as we call them, and placed under +the care of _superintendents_, not for instruction, but for what may be +called supervision. _Teaching_ a pupil is not all that is necessary to +be done for her in school. There are many other things to be attended +to, such as supplying her with the various articles necessary for her +use, seeing that her desk is convenient, that her time is well arranged, +that she has not too much to do nor too little, and that no difficulty +which can be removed obstructs her progress in study or her happiness in +school. The last hour is appropriated to this purpose, with the +understanding, however, that such a portion of it as is not wanted by +the superintendent is to be spent in study. You will see, then, when the +last hour arrives, that all the scholars go in various directions to the +meetings of their respective sections. Here they remain as long as the +superintendent retains them. Sometimes they adjourn almost immediately, +perhaps after having simply attended to the distribution of pens for the +next day; at other times they remain during the hour, attending to such +exercises as the superintendent may plan. The design, however, and +nature of this whole arrangement I shall explain more fully in another +place. + + +_Close of the School._ + +As the end of the hour approaches, five minutes' notice is given by the +bell, and when the time arrives the Study Card is half dropped for a +moment before the closing exercises. When it rises again the room is +restored to silence and order. We then sing a verse or two of a hymn, +and commend ourselves to God's protection in a short prayer. As the +scholars raise their heads from the posture of reverence which they have +assumed, they pause a moment till the regulator lets down the Study +Card, and the sound of its bell is the signal that our duties at school +are ended for the day. + + +III. INSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION OF PUPILS. + +For the instruction of the pupils the school is divided into _classes_, +and for their general supervision into _sections_, as has been intimated +under the preceding caption. The head of a _class_ is called a +_teacher_, and the head of a _section_ a _superintendent_. The same +individual may be both the teacher of a class and the superintendent of +a section. The two offices are, however, entirely distinct in their +nature and design. As you will perceive by recalling to mind the daily +order of exercises, the classes meet and recite during the first three +hours of the school, and the sections assemble on the fourth and last. +We shall give each a separate description. + +1. CLASSES. + +The object of the division into classes is _instruction_. Whenever it is +desirable that several individuals should pursue a particular study, a +list of their names is made out, a book selected, a time for recitation +assigned, a teacher appointed, and the exercises begin. In this way a +large number of classes have been formed, and the wishes of parents, or +the opinion of the principal, and, in many cases, that of the pupil, +determines how many and what shall be assigned to each individual. A +list of these classes, with the average age of the members, the name of +the teacher, and the time of recitation, is posted in a conspicuous +place, and public notice is given whenever a new class is formed. You +will therefore have the opportunity to know all the arrangements of +school in this respect, and I wish you to exercise your own judgment and +discretion a great deal in regard to your studies. I do not mean I +expect you to _decide_, but to _reflect_ upon them. Look at the list, +and consider what are most useful for you. Propose to me or to your +parents changes, whenever you think they are necessary; and when you +finish one study, reflect carefully, yourself, on the question what you +shall next commence. + +The scholars prepare their lessons when they please. They are expected +to be present and prepared at the time of recitation, but they make the +preparation when it is most convenient. The more methodical and +systematic of the young ladies mark the times of _study_ as well as of +_recitation_ upon their schedules, so that the employment of their whole +time at school is regulated by a systematic plan. You will observe, too, +that by this plan of having a great many classes reciting through the +first three hours of the morning, every pupil can be employed as much or +as little as her parents desire. In a case of ill health, she may, as +has often been done in such cases at the request of parents, join one or +two classes only, and occupy the whole forenoon in preparing for them, +and be entirely free from school duties at home. Or she may, as is much +more frequently the case, choose to join a great many classes, so as to +fill up, perhaps, her whole schedule with recitations, in which case she +must prepare all her lessons at home. It is the duty of teachers to take +care, however, when a pupil pleads want of time as a reason for being +unprepared in any lesson, that the case is fully examined, in order that +it may be ascertained whether the individual has joined too many +classes, in which case some one should be dropped, and thus the time and +the employments of each individual should be so adjusted as to give her +constant occupation _in school,_ and as much more as her parents may +desire. By this plan of the classes, each scholar advances just as +rapidly in her studies as her time, and talents, and health will allow. +No one is kept back by the rest. Each class goes on regularly and +systematically, all its members keeping exactly together in that study; +but the various members of it will have joined a greater or less number +of other classes, according to their age, or abilities, or progress in +study, so that all will or may have full employment for their time. + +When you first enter the school, you will, for a day or two, be assigned +to but few classes, for your mind will be distracted by the excitement +of new scenes and pursuits, and the intellectual effort necessary for +_joining_ a class is greater than that requisite for _going on_ with it +after being once under way. After a few days you will come to me and +say, perhaps (for this is ordinarily the process), + +"Mr. Abbott, I think I have time for some more studies." + +"I will thank you to bring me your schedule," I say in reply, "so that I +can see what you have now to do." + +By glancing my eye over the schedule in such a case, I see in a moment +what duties have been already assigned you, and from my general +schedule, containing all the studies of the school, I select what would +be most suitable for you after conferring with you about your past +pursuits, and your own wishes or those of your parents in regard to your +future course. Additions are thus made until your time is fully +occupied. + +The manner of recitation in the classes is almost boundlessly varied. +The design is not to have you commit to memory what the book contains, +but to understand and digest it--to incorporate it fully into your own +mind, that it may come up in future life in such a form as you wish it +for use. Do not then, in ordinary cases, endeavor to fix _words_, but +_ideas_ in your minds. Conceive clearly--paint distinctly to your +imagination what is described--contemplate facts in all their bearings +and relations, and thus endeavor to exercise the judgment, and the +thinking and reasoning powers, rather than the mere memory, upon the +subjects which will come before you. + + +2. SECTIONS. + +In describing the order of daily exercises, I alluded to the _sections_ +which assemble in the last hour of the school. It is necessary that I +should fully describe the system of sections, as it constitutes a very +important part of the plan of the school. + +Besides giving the scholars the necessary intellectual instruction, +there are, as I have already remarked, a great many other points which +must receive attention in order to promote their progress, and to secure +the regular operation and general welfare of the school. These various +points have something common in their nature, but it is difficult to +give them a common name. They are such as supplying the pupils with pens +and paper, and stationery of other kinds; becoming acquainted with each +individual; ascertaining that she has enough and not too much to do; +arranging her work so that no one of her duties shall interfere with +another; assisting her to discover and correct her faults, and removing +any sources of difficulty or causes of discontent which may gradually +come in her way. These, and a multitude of similar points, constituting +what may be called the general _administration_ of the school, become, +when the number of pupils is large, a most important branch of the +teacher's duty. + +To accomplish these objects more effectually, the school is divided into +six sections, arranged, not according to proficiency in particular +studies, as the several classes are, but according to _age and general +maturity of mind._ Each one of these sections is assigned to the care of +a superintendent. These superintendents, it is true, during most of +school hours, are also teachers. Their duties, however, as _Teachers_ +and as _Superintendents_, are entirely distinct. I shall briefly +enumerate the duties which devolve upon her in the latter capacity. + +1. A superintendent ought to prepare an exact list of the members of her +section, and to become intimately acquainted with them, so as to be as +far as possible their friend and confidante, and to feel a stronger +interest in their progress in study and their happiness in school, and a +greater personal attachment to them than to any other scholars. + +2. She is to superintend the preparation of their schedules; to see that +each one has enough and not too much to do, by making known to me the +necessity of a change, where such necessity exists; to see that the +schedules are submitted to the parents, and that their opinion or +suggestions, if they wish to make any, are reported to me. + +3. She is to take care that all the daily wants of her section are +supplied--that all have pens and paper, and desks of suitable height. If +any are new scholars, she ought to interest herself in assisting them to +become acquainted in school; if they are friendless and alone, to find +companions for them, and to endeavor in every way to make their time +pass pleasantly and happily. + +4. To watch the characters of the members of her section. To inquire of +their several teachers as to the progress they make in study, and the +faithfulness and punctuality with which they prepare their lessons. She +ought to ascertain whether they are punctual at school and regular in +their habits--whether their desks are neat and well arranged, and their +exercises carefully executed. She ought to correct, through her own +influence, any evils of this kind she may find, or else immediately to +refer the cases where this can not be done to me. + +The better and the more pleasantly to accomplish the object of exerting +a favorable influence upon the characters of the members of their +section, the superintendents ought often to bring up subjects connected +with moral and religious duty in section meetings. This may be done in +the form of subjects assigned for composition, or proposed for free +discussion in writing or conversation, or the superintendents may write +themselves, and read to the section the instructions they wish to give. + +When subjects for written composition are thus assigned, they should be +so presented to the pupils as to lead their minds to a very practical +mode of regarding them. For example, instead of simply assigning the +subject _Truth_ as the theme of an abstract moral essay, bring up +definite points of a practical character, such especially as are +connected with the trials and temptations of early life. "I wish you +would all give me your opinions," the teacher might say in such a case, +"on the question, What is the most frequent inducement that leads +children to tell falsehoods? Also, do you think it is right to tell +untruths to very little children, as many persons do, or to people who +are sick? Also, whether it would be right to tell a falsehood to an +insane man in order to manage him?" + +Sometimes, instead of assigning a subject of composition _verbally_, the +superintendent exhibits an engraving, and the several members of the +class then write any thing they please which is suggested to them by +the engraving. For example, suppose the picture thus exhibited were to +represent a girl sewing in an attic. The compositions to which it would +give rise might be very various. One pupil would perhaps simply give an +account of the picture itself, describing the arrangements of the room, +and specifying the particular articles of furniture contained in it. +Another would give a soliloquy supposed to be spoken by the sewing-girl +as she sits at her work. Another would narrate the history of her life, +of course an imaginary one. Another would write an essay on the +advantages of industry and independence. + +This is a very good way of assigning subjects of composition, and, if +well managed, it may be the means of awakening a great interest in +writing among almost all the pupils of a school. + +5. Though the superintendents, as such, have, necessarily speaking, no +_teaching_ to do, still they ought particularly to secure the progress +of every pupil in what may be called the _essential_ studies, such as +reading, writing, and spelling. For this purpose, they either see that +their pupils are going on successfully in classes in school in these +branches, or they may attend to them in the section, provided that they +never allow such instruction to interfere with their more appropriate +and important duties. + +In a word, the superintendents are to consider the members of their +sections as pupils confided to their care, and they are not merely to +discharge mechanically any mere routine of duty, such as can be here +pointed out, but to exert all their powers, their ingenuity, their +knowledge of human character, their judgment and discretion, in every +way, to secure for each of those committed to their care the highest +benefits which the institution to which they belong can afford. They are +to keep a careful and faithful record of their plans and of the history +of their respective sections, and to endeavor as faithfully and as +diligently to advance the interests of the members of them as if the +sections were separate and independent schools of their own. + +A great responsibility is thus evidently intrusted to them, but not a great +deal of _power_. They ought not to make changes, except in very plain +cases, without referring the subject to me. They ought not to make rash +experiments, or even to try many new plans, without first obtaining my +approval of them. They ought to refer all cases which they can not easily +manage to my care. They ought to understand the distinction between _seeing +that a thing is done_ and _doing it_. For example, if a superintendent +thinks that one of her section is in too high a class in Arithmetic, her +duty is not to undertake, by her own authority, to remove her to a lower +one, for, as superintendent, she has no authority over Arithmetic classes, +nor should she go to the opposite extreme of saying, "I have no authority +over Arithmetic classes, and therefore I have nothing to do with this +case." She ought to go to the teacher of the class to which her pupil +had been unwisely assigned, converse with her, obtain her opinion, then +find some other class more suited to her attainments, and after fully +ascertaining all the facts in the case, bring them to me, that I may +make the change. This is _superintendence--looking over_ the condition +and progress of the scholar. The superintendents have thus great +responsibility, and yet, comparatively, little power. They accomplish a +great deal of good, and, in its ordinary course, it is by their direct +personal efforts; but in making changes, and remedying defects and +evils, they act generally in a different way. + +The last hour of school is devoted to the sections. No classes recite +then, but the sections meet, if the superintendents wish, and attend to +such exercises as they provide. Each section has its own organization, +its own officers and plans. These arrangements of course vary in their +character according to the ingenuity and enterprise of the +superintendents, and more especially according to the talents and +intellectual ardor of the members of the section. + +The two upper sections are called senior, the next two middle, and the +two younger junior. The senior sections are distinguished by using paper +for section purposes with a light blue tinge. To the middle sections is +assigned a light straw color; and to the junior, pink. These colors are +used for the schedules of the members, and for the records and other +documents of the section. + +This account, though it is brief, will be sufficient to explain to you +the general principles of the plan. You will soon become acquainted with +the exercises and arrangements of the particular section to which you +will be assigned, and by taking an active interest in them, and +endeavoring to cooperate with the superintendent in all her measures and +to comply with her wishes, you will very materially add to her +happiness, and do your part toward elevating the character of the +circle to which you will belong. + + + +IV. OFFICERS. + +In consequence of the disposition early manifested by the scholars to +render me every assistance in their power in carrying into effect the +plans of the school and promoting its prosperity, I gradually adopted +the plan of assigning to various officers and committees, a number of +specific duties relating to the general business of the school. These +officers have gradually multiplied as the school has increased and as +business has accumulated. The system has, from time to time, been +revised, condensed, and simplified, and at the present time it is thus +arranged. The particular duties of each officer are minutely described +to the individuals themselves at the time of their election; all I +intend here is to give a general view of the plan, such as is necessary +for the scholars at large. + +There are, then, _five departments_ of business intrusted to officers of +the school. The names of the officers, and a brief exposition of their +duties, are as follows: + +[I omit the particular explanation of the duties of the officers, as the +arrangement must vary in different schools, and the details of any one +plan can only be useful in the school-room to which it belongs. It will +be sufficient to name the officers of each department, with their +duties, in general terms.] + +1. REGULATORS.--To assist in the ordinary routine of business in school: +ringing the bells; managing the Study Card; distributing and collecting +papers; counting votes, &c. + +2. SECRETARIES.--Keeping the records, and executing writing of various +kinds. + +3. ACCOUNTANTS.--Keeping a register of the scholars, and various other +duties connected with the accounts. + +4. LIBRARIANS.--To take charge of books and stationery. + +5. CURATORS.--To secure neatness and good order in the apartments. + +The secretaries and accountants are appointed by the principal, and +will generally be chosen from the teachers. The first in each of the +other departments are chosen by ballot, by the scholars. Each one thus +chosen nominates the second in her department, and they two the +assistants. These nominations must be approved at a teachers' meeting; +for, if a scholar is inattentive to her studies, disorderly in her desk, +or careless and troublesome in her manners, she evidently ought not to +be appointed to public office. No person can hold an office in two of +these departments. She can, if she pleases, however, resign one to +accept another. Each of these departments ought often to assemble and +consult together, and form plans for carrying into effect with greater +efficiency the objects intrusted to them. They are to keep a record of +all their proceedings, the head of the department acting as secretary +for this purpose. + +The following may be given as an example of the manner in which business +is transacted by means of these officers. On the day that the above +description of their duties was written, I wished for a sort of +directory to assist the collector employed to receive payments for the +bills, and, to obtain it, I took the following steps: + +At the business quarter hour I issued the following order: + +"Before the close of school, I wish the distributors to leave upon each +of the desks a piece of paper" (the size I described). "It is for a +purpose which I shall then explain." + +Accordingly, at some leisure moment before the close of school, each one +of the regulators went with her box to the stationery shelves, which you +will see in the corners of the room, where a supply of paper of all the +various sizes used in school is kept, and, taking out a sufficient +number, they supplied all the desks in their respective divisions. + +When the time for closing school arrived, I requested each young lady to +write the name of her parent or guardian upon the paper, and opposite +to it his place of business. This was done in a minute or two. + +"All those whose parent's or guardian's name begins with a letter above +_m_ may rise." + +They rose. + +"The distributors may collect the papers." + +The officers then passed round in regular order, each through her own +division, and collected the papers. + +"Deliver them at the accountants' desk." + +They were accordingly carried there, and received by the accountants. + +In the same manner, the others were collected and received by the +accountants, but kept separate. + +"I wish now the second accountant would copy these in a little book I +have prepared for the purpose, arranging them alphabetically, referring +all doubtful cases again to me." + +The second accountant then arranged the papers, and prepared them to go +into the book, and the writer who belongs to the department copied them +fairly. + +I describe this case, because it was one which occurred at the time I +was writing the above description, and not because there is any thing +otherwise peculiar in it. Such cases are continually taking place, and +by the division of labor above illustrated, I am very much assisted in a +great many of the duties which would otherwise consume a great portion +of my time. + +Any of the scholars may at any time make suggestions in writing to any +of these officers or to the whole school; and if an officer should be +partial, or unfaithful, or negligent in her duty, any scholar may +propose her impeachment. After hearing what she chooses to write in her +defense, a vote is taken on sustaining the impeachment. If it is +sustained, she is deprived of the office, and another appointed to fill +her place. + + + + +V. THE COURT. + +I have already described how all serious cases of doing wrong or neglect +of duty are managed in the school. I manage them myself, by coming as +directly and as openly as I can to the heart and conscience of the +offender. There are, however, a number of little transgressions, too +small to be individually worthy of serious attention, but which are yet +troublesome to the community when frequently repeated. These relate +chiefly to _order in the school-rooms_. These misdemeanors are tried, +half in jest and half in earnest, by a sort of _court_, whose forms of +process might make a legal gentleman smile. They, however, fully answer +our purpose. I can best give you an idea of the court by describing an +actual trial. I ought, however, first to say that any young lady who +chooses to be free from the jurisdiction of the court can signify that +wish to me, and she is safe from it. This, however, is never done. They +all see the useful influence of it, and wish to sustain it. + +Near the close of school, I find, perhaps, on my desk a paper, of which +the following may be considered a copy. It is called the indictment. + +We accuse Miss A.B. of having waste papers in the aisle opposite her desk, +at 11 o'clock, on Friday, Oct. 12. + C.D.} + E.F.} Witnesses. + +I give notice after school that a case is to be tried. Those interested, +twenty or thirty perhaps, gather around my desk, while the sheriff goes +to summon the accused and the witnesses. A certain space is marked off +as the precincts of the court, within which no one must enter in the +slightest degree, on pain of imprisonment, that is, confinement to her +seat until court adjourns. + +"Miss A.B., you are accused of having an untidy floor about your desk. +Have you any objection to the indictment?" + +While she is looking over the indictment to discover a misspelled word, +or an error in the date, or some other latent flaw, I appoint any two of +the by-standers jury. The jury come forward to listen to the cause. + +The accused returns the indictment, saying she has no objection, and the +witnesses are called upon to present their testimony. + +Perhaps the prisoner alleges in defense that the papers were out _in the +aisle_, not _under her desk_, or that she did not put them there, or +that they were too few or too small to deserve attention. + +My charge to the jury would be somewhat as follows: + +"You are to consider and decide whether she was guilty of disorder, +taking into view the testimony of the witnesses and also her defense. It +is considered here that each young lady is responsible not only for the +appearance of the carpet _under her desk_, but also for _the aisle +opposite to it_, so that her first ground of defense must be abandoned. +So, also, with the second, that she did not put them there. She ought +not to _have_ them there. Each scholar must keep her own place in a +proper condition; so that if disorder is found there, no matter who made +it, she is responsible if she only had time to remove it. As to the +third, you must judge whether enough has been proved by the witnesses to +make out real disorder." The jury write _guilty_ or _not guilty_ upon +the paper, and it is returned to me. If sentence is pronounced, it is +usually confinement to the seat during a recess, or part of a recess, or +something that requires a slight effort or sacrifice for the public +good. The sentence is always something _real_, though always _slight_, +and the court has a great deal of influence in a double way--making +amusement and preserving order. + +The cases tried are very various, but none of the serious business of +the school is intrusted to it. Its sessions are always held out of +school hours, and, in fact, it is hardly considered by the scholars as a +constituent part of the arrangements of the school; so much so, that I +hesitated much about inserting an account of it in this description. + + + + +VI. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. + +In giving you this account, brief as it is, I ought not to omit to speak +of one feature of our plan, which we have always intended should be one +of the most prominent and distinctive characteristics of the school. The +gentlemen who originally interested themselves in its establishment had +mainly in view the exertion, by the principal, of a decided moral and +religious influence over the hearts of the pupils. Knowing, as they did, +how much more dutiful and affectionate at home you would be, how much +more successful in your studies at school, how much happier in your +intercourse with each other, and in your prospects for the future both +here and hereafter, if your hearts could be brought under the influence +of Christian principle, they were strongly desirous that the school +should be so conducted that its religious influence, though gentle and +alluring in its character, should be frank, and open, and decided. I +need not say that I myself entered very cordially into these views. It +has been my constant effort, and one of the greatest sources of my +enjoyment, to try to win my pupils to piety, and to create such an +atmosphere in school that conscience, and moral principle, and affection +for the unseen Jehovah should reign here. You can easily see how much +pleasanter it is for me to have the school controlled by such influence, +than if it were necessary for me to hire you to diligence in duty by +prizes or rewards, or to deter you from neglect or from transgression by +reproaches, and threatenings, and punishments. + +The influence which the school has thus exerted has always been +cordially welcomed by my pupils, and approved, so far as I have known, +by their parents, though four or five denominations, and fifteen or +twenty different congregations, have been from time to time represented +in the school. There are few parents who would not like to have their +children _Christians_--sincerely and practically so; for everything +which a parent can desire in a child is promoted just in proportion as +she opens her heart to the influence of the spirit of piety. But that +you may understand what course is taken, I shall describe, first, what I +wish to effect in the hearts of my pupils, and then what means I take to +accomplish the object. + +1. A large number of young persons of your age, and in circumstances +similar to those in which you are placed, perform with some fidelity +their various outward duties, _but maintain no habitual and daily +communion with God_. It is very wrong for them to live thus without God, +but they do not see, or, rather, do not feel the guilt of it. They only +think of their accountability to _human beings_ like themselves; for +example, their parents, teachers, brothers and sisters, and friends. +Consequently, they think most of their _external_ conduct, which is all +that human beings can see. Their i>hearts_ are neglected, and become +very impure, full of evil thoughts, and desires, and passions, which are +not repented of, and consequently not forgiven. Now what I wish to +accomplish in regard to all my pupils is, that they should begin to +_feel their accountability to God_, and to act according to it; that +they should explore their _hearts_, and ask God's forgiveness for all +their past sins, through Jesus Christ, who died for them that they might +be forgiven; and that they should from this time try to live _near to +God_, feel his presence, and enjoy that solid peace and happiness which +flows from a sense of his protection. When such a change takes place, it +relieves the mind from that constant and irritating uneasiness which the +great mass of mankind feel as a constant burden; the ceaseless +forebodings of a troubled conscience reproaching them for their past +accumulated guilt, and warning them of a judgment to come. The change +which I endeavor to promote relieves the heart both of the present +suffering and of the future danger. + +After endeavoring to induce you to begin to act from Christian +principle, I wish to explain to you your various duties to yourselves, +your parents, and to God. + +2. The measures to which I resort to accomplish these objects are three: + +First, _Religious Exercises in School_.--We open and close the school +with a very short prayer and one or two verses of a hymn. Sometimes I +occupy ten or fifteen minutes at one of the general exercises, or at the +close of the school, in giving instruction upon practical religious +duty. The subjects are sometimes suggested by a passage of Scripture +read for the purpose, but more commonly in another way. + +You will observe often, at the close of the school or at an appointed +general exercise, that a scholar will bring to my desk a dark-colored +morocco wrapper containing several small strips of paper, upon which +questions relating to moral or religious duty, or subjects for remarks +from me, or anecdotes, or short statements of facts, giving rise to +inquiries of various kinds, are written. This wrapper is deposited in a +place accessible to all the scholars, and any one who pleases deposits +in it any question or suggestion on religious subjects which may occur +to her. You can at any time do this yourself, thus presenting any doubt, +or difficulty, or inquiry which may at any time occur to you. + +Secondly, _Religious Exercise on Saturday afternoon_.--In order to bring +up more distinctly and systematically the subject of religious duty, I +established, a long time ago, a religious meeting on Saturday afternoon. +It is intended for those who feel interested in receiving such +instruction, and who can conveniently attend at that time. If you have +no other engagements, and if your parents approve of it, I should be +happy to have you attend. There will be very little to interest you +except the subject itself, for I make all the instructions which I give +there as plain, direct, and practical as is in my power. A considerable +number of the scholars usually attend, and frequently bring with them +many of their female friends. You can at any time invite any one whom +you please to come to the meeting. It commences at half past three, and +continues about half an hour. + +Thirdly, _Personal Religious Instruction._--In consequence of the large +number of my pupils, and the constant occupation of my time in school, I +have scarcely any opportunity of religious conversation with them, even +with those who particularly desire it. The practice has therefore +arisen, and gradually extended itself almost universally in school, of +writing to me on the subject. These communications are usually brief +notes, expressing the writer's interest in the duties of piety, or +bringing forward her own peculiar practical difficulties, or making +specific inquiries, or asking particular instruction in regard to some +branch of religious duty. I answer in a similar way, very briefly and +concisely, however, for the number of notes of this kind which I receive +is very large, and the time which I can devote to such a correspondence +necessarily limited. I should like to receive such communications from +all my pupils; for advice or instruction communicated in reply, being +directly personal, is far more likely to produce effect. Besides, my +remarks, being in writing, can be read a second time, and be more +attentively considered and reconsidered than when words are merely +spoken. These communications must always be begun by the pupil. I never +(unless there may be occasional exceptions in some few very peculiar +cases) commence. I am prevented from doing this both by my unwillingness +to obtrude such a subject personally upon those who might not welcome +it, and by want of time. I have scarcely time to write to all those who +are willing first to write to me. Many cases have occurred where +individuals have strongly desired some private communication with me, +but have hesitated long, and shrunk reluctantly from the first step. I +hope it will not be so with you. Should you ever wish to receive from +me any direct religious instruction, I hope you will write immediately +and freely. I shall very probably not even notice that it is the first +time I have received such a communication from you. So numerous and so +frequent are these communications, that I seldom observe, when I receive +one from any individual for the first time, that it comes from one who +has not written me before. + +Such are the means to which I resort in endeavoring to lead my pupils to +God and to duty, and you will observe that the whole design of them is +to win and to allure, not to compel. The regular devotional exercises of +school are all which you will _necessarily_ witness. These are very +short, occupying much less time than many of the pupils think desirable. +The rest is all private and voluntary. I never make any effort to urge +any one to attend the Saturday meeting, nor do I, except in a few rare +and peculiar cases, ever address any one personally, unless she desires +to be so addressed. You will be left, therefore, in this school, +unmolested, to choose your own way. If you should choose to neglect +religious duty, and to wander away from God, I shall still do all in my +power to make you happy in school, and to secure for you in future life +such a measure of enjoyment as can fall to the share of one over whose +prospects in another world there hangs so gloomy a cloud. I shall never +reproach you, and perhaps may not even know what your choice is. Should +you, on the other hand, prefer the peace and happiness of piety, and be +willing to begin to walk in its paths, you will find many, both among +the teachers and pupils of the Mount Vernon School, to sympathize with +you, and to encourage and help you on your way. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +SCHEMING. + +[Illustration] + +Some of the best teachers in our country, or, rather, of those who might +be the best, lose a great deal of their time, and endanger, or perhaps +entirely destroy, their hopes of success by a scheming spirit, which is +always reaching forward to something new. One has in his mind some new +school-book by which Arithmetic, Grammar, or Geography are to be taught +with unexampled rapidity, and his own purse to be filled in a much more +easy way than by waiting for the rewards of patient industry. Another +has the plan of a school, bringing into operation new principles of +management or instruction, which he is to establish on some favored +spot, and which is to become, in a few years, a second Hofwyl. Another +has some royal road to learning, and, though he is trammeled and held +down by what he calls the ignorance and stupidity of his trustees or his +school committee, yet, if he could fairly put his principles and methods +to the test, he is certain of advancing the science of education half a +century at least at a single leap. + +Ingenuity in devising new ways, and enterprise in following them, are +among the happiest characteristics of a new country rapidly filling with +a thriving population. Without these qualities there could be no +advance; society must be stationary; and from a stationary to a +retrograde condition, the progress is inevitable. The disposition to +make improvements and changes may, however, be too great. If so, it must +be checked. On the other hand, a slavish attachment to old established +practices may prevail. Then the spirit of enterprise and experiment must +be awakened and encouraged. Which of these two is to be the duty of a +writer at any time will of course depend upon the situation of the +community at the time when he writes, and of the class of readers for +which he takes his pen. Now, at the present time, it is undoubtedly +true, that while among the great mass of teachers there may be too +little originality and enterprise, there is still among many a spirit of +innovation and change to which a caution ought to be addressed. But, +before I proceed, let me protect myself from misconception by one or two +remarks. + +1. There are a few individuals in various parts of our country who, by +ingenuity and enterprise, have made real and important improvements in +many departments of our science, and are still making them. The science +is to be carried forward by such men. Let them not, therefore, +understand that any thing which I shall say applies at all to those real +improvements which are from time to time brought before the public. As +examples of this, there might easily be mentioned, were it necessary, +several new modes of study, and new text-books, and literary +institutions on new plans, which have been brought forward within a few +years, and have proved, on actual trial, to be of real and permanent +value. + +These are, or rather they were, when first conceived by the original +projectors, new schemes, and the result has proved that they were good +ones. Every teacher, too, must hope that such improvements will continue +to be made. Let nothing, therefore, which shall be said on the subject +of scheming in this chapter be interpreted as intended to condemn real +improvements of this kind, or to check those which may now be in +progress by men of age or experience, or of sound judgment, who are +capable of distinguishing between a real improvement and a whimsical +innovation which can never live any longer than it is sustained by the +enthusiasm of the original inventor. + +2. There are a great many teachers in our country who make their +business a mere dull and formal routine, through which they plod on, +month after month, and year after year, without variety or change, and +who are inclined to stigmatize with the appellation of idle scheming all +plans, of whatever kind, to give variety or interest to the exercises of +the school. Now whatever may be said in this chapter against unnecessary +innovation and change does not apply to efforts to secure variety in the +details of daily study, while the great leading objects are steadily +pursued. This subject has already been discussed in the chapter on +Instruction, where it has been shown that every wise teacher, while he +pursues the same great object, and adopts in substance the same leading +measures at all times, will exercise all the ingenuity he possesses, and +bring all his inventive powers into requisition to give variety and +interest to the minute details. + + +To explain now what is meant by such scheming as is to be condemned, let +us suppose a case which is riot very uncommon. A young man, while +preparing for college, takes a school. When he first enters upon the +duties of his office, he is diffident and timid, and walks cautiously in +the steps which precedent has marked out for him. Distrusting himself, +he seeks guidance in the example which others have set for him, and, +very probably, he imitates precisely, though it may be insensibly and +involuntarily, the manners and the plans of his own last teacher. This +servitude soon, however, if he is a man of natural abilities, passes +away; he learns to try one experiment after another, until he insensibly +finds that a plan may succeed, even if it was not pursued by his former +teacher. So far it is well. He throws greater interest into his school, +and into all its exercises, by the spirit with which he conducts them. +He is successful. After the period of his services has expired, he +returns to the pursuit of his studies, encouraged by his success, and +anticipating farther triumphs in his subsequent attempts. + +He goes on through college, we will suppose, teaching from time to time +in the vacations, as opportunity occurs, taking more and more interest +in the employment, and meeting with greater and greater success. This +success is owing in a very great degree to the _freedom_ of his +practice, that is, to his escape from the thraldom of imitation. So long +as he leaves the great objects of the school untouched, and the great +features of its organization unchanged, his many plans for accomplishing +these objects in new and various ways awaken interest and spirit both in +himself and in his scholars, and all goes on well. + +Now in such a case as this, a young teacher, philosophizing upon his +success and the causes of it, will almost invariably make this mistake, +namely, he will attribute to something essentially excellent in his +plans the success which, in fact, results from the novelty of them. + + +When he proposes something new to a class, they all take an interest in +it because it is _new_. He takes, too, a special interest in it because +it is an experiment which he is trying, and he feels a sort of pride and +pleasure in securing its success. The new method which he adopts may not +be, _in itself,_ in the least degree better than old methods, yet it may +succeed vastly better in his hands than any old method he had tried +before. And why? Why, because it is new. It awakens interest in his +class, because it offers them variety; and it awakens interest in him, +because it is a plan which he has devised, and for whose success, +therefore, he feels that his credit is at stake. Either of these +circumstances is abundantly sufficient to account for its success. +Either of these would secure success, unless the plan was a very bad one +indeed. + +This may easily be illustrated by supposing a particular case. The +teacher has, we will imagine, been accustomed to teach spelling in the +usual way, by assigning a lesson in the spelling-book, which the +scholars, after studying it in their seats, recite by having the words +put to them individually in the class. After some time, he finds that +one class has lost its interest in this study. He can compel them to +study the lesson, it is true, but he perceives, perhaps, that it is a +weary task to them. Of course, they proceed with less alacrity, and +consequently with less rapidity and success. He thinks, very justly, +that it is highly desirable to secure cheerful, not forced, reluctant +efforts from his pupils, and he thinks of trying some new plan. +Accordingly, he says to them, + +"Boys, I am going to try a new plan for this class." + +The mere annunciation of a new plan awakens universal attention. The +boys all look up, wondering what it is to be. + +"Instead of having you study your lessons in your seats, as heretofore, +I am going to let you all go together into one corner of the room, and +choose some one to read the lesson to you, spelling all the words aloud. +You will all listen, and endeavor to remember how the difficult ones are +spelled. +Do you think you can remember?" + +"Yes, sir," say the boys. Children always think they _can_ do every +thing which is proposed to them as a new plan or experiment, though they +are very often inclined to think they _can not_ do what is required of +them as a task. + +"You may have," continues the teacher, "the words read to you once or +twice, just as you please. Only, if you have them read but once, you +must take a shorter lesson." + +He pauses and looks round upon the class. Some say "Once," some "Twice." + +"I am willing that you should decide this question. How many are in +favor of having shorter lessons, and having them read but once? How many +prefer longer lessons, and having them read twice?" + +After comparing the numbers, it is decided according to the majority, +and the teacher assigns or allows them to assign a lesson. + +"Now," he proceeds, "I am not only going to have you study in a +different way, but recite in a different way too. You may take your +slates with you, and after you have had time to hear the lesson read +slowly and carefully twice, I shall come and dictate to you the words +aloud, and you will all write them from my dictation. Then I shall +examine your slates, and see how many mistakes are made." + +Any class of boys, now, would be exceedingly interested in such a +proposal as this, especially if the master's ordinary principles of +government and instruction had been such as to interest the pupils in +the welfare of the school and in their own progress in study. They will +come together in the place assigned, and listen to the one who is +appointed to read the words to them, with every faculty aroused, and +their whole souls engrossed in the new duties assigned them. The +teacher, too, feels a special interest in his experiment. Whatever else +he may be employed about, his eye turns instinctively to this group with +an intensity of interest which an experienced teacher who has long been +in the field, and who has tried experiments of this sort a hundred +times, can scarcely conceive; for let it be remembered that I am +describing the acts and feelings of a new beginner, of one who is +commencing his work with a feeble and trembling step, and perhaps this +is his first step away from the beaten path in which he has been +accustomed to walk. + +This new plan is continued, we will suppose, for a week, during which +time the interest of the pupils continues. They get longer lessons and +make fewer mistakes than they did by the old method. Now, in +speculating on this subject, the teacher reasons very justly that it is +of no consequence whether the pupil receives his knowledge through the +eye or through the ear; whether they study in solitude or in company. +The point is to secure their progress in learning to spell the words of +the English language, and as this point is secured far more rapidly and +effectually by his new method, the inference is to his mind very +obvious, that he has made a great improvement--one of real and permanent +value. Perhaps he will consider it an extraordinary discovery. + +But the truth is, that in almost all such cases as this, the secret of +the success is not that the teacher has discovered a _better_ method +than the ordinary ones, but that he has discovered a _new_ one. The +experiment will succeed in producing more successful results just as +long as the novelty of it continues to excite unusual interest and +attention in the class, or the thought that it is a plan of the +teacher's own invention leads him to take a peculiar interest in it. And +this may be a month, or perhaps a quarter; and precisely the same +effects would have been produced if the whole had been reversed, that +is, if the plan of dictation had been the old one, which in process of +time had, in this supposed school, lost its interest, and the teacher, +by his ingenuity and enterprise, had discovered and introduced what is +now the common mode. + +"Very well," perhaps my reader will reply, "it is surely something +gained to awaken and continue interest in a dull study for a quarter, or +even a month. The experiment is worth something as a pleasant and useful +change, even if it is not permanently superior to the other." + +It is indeed worth something. It is worth a great deal; and the teacher +who can devise and execute such plans, _understanding their real place +and value, and adhering steadily through them all to the great object +which ought to engage his attention,_ is in the almost certain road to +success as an instructor. What I wish is not to discourage such efforts; +they ought to be encouraged to the utmost; but to have their real +nature and design, and the real secret of their success fully +understood, and to have the teacher, above all, take good care that all +his new plans are made, not the substitutes for the great objects which +he ought to keep steadily in view, but only the means by which he may +carry them into more full and complete effect. + +In the case we are supposing, however, we will imagine that the teacher +does not do this. He fancies that he has made an important discovery, +and begins to inquire whether _the principle,_ as he calls it, can not +be applied to some other studies. He goes to philosophizing upon it, and +can find many reasons why knowledge received through the ear makes a +more ready and lasting impression than when it comes through the eye. He +attempts to apply the method to Arithmetic and Geography, and in a short +time is forming plans for the complete metamorphosis of his school. When +engaged in hearing a recitation, his mind is distracted with his schemes +and plans, and instead of devoting his attention fully to the work he +may have in hand, his thoughts are wandering continually to new schemes +and fancied improvements, which agitate and perplex him, and which elude +his efforts to give them a distinct and definite form. He thinks he +must, however, carry out his _principle_. He thinks of its applicability +to a thousand other cases. He revolves over and over again in his mind +plans for changing the whole arrangement of his school. He is again and +again lost in perplexity, his mind is engrossed and distracted, and his +present duties are performed with no interest, and consequently with +little spirit or success. + +Now his error is in allowing a new idea, which ought only to have +suggested to him an agreeable change for a time in one of his classes, +to swell itself into undue and exaggerated importance, and to draw off +his mind from what ought to be the objects of his steady pursuit. + +Perhaps some teacher of steady intellectual habits and a well-balanced +mind may think that this picture is fanciful, and that there is little +danger that such consequences will ever actually result from such a +cause. But, far from having exasperated the results. I am of opinion +that I might have gone much farther. There is no doubt that a great many +instances have occurred in which some simple idea like the one I have +alluded to has led the unlucky conceiver of it, in his eager pursuit, +far deeper into the difficulty than I have here supposed. He gets into a +contention with the school committee, that formidable foe to the +projects of all scheming teachers; and it would not be very difficult to +find many actual cases where the individual has, in consequence of some +such idea, quietly planned and taken measures to establish some new +institution, where he can carry on unmolested his plans, and let the +world see the full results of his wonderful discoveries. + +We have in our country a very complete system of literary institutions, +so far as external organization will go, and the prospect of success is +far more favorable in efforts to carry these institutions into more +complete and prosperous operation, than in plans for changing them, or +substituting others in their stead. Were it not that such a course would +be unjust to individuals, a long and melancholy catalogue might easily +be made out of abortive plans which have sprung up in the minds of young +men in the manner I have described, and which, after perhaps temporary +success, have resulted in partial or total failure. These failures are +of every kind. Some are school-books on a new plan, which succeeds in +the inventor's hand chiefly on account of the spirit which carried it +into effect, but which in ordinary hands, and under ordinary +circumstances, and especially after long-continued use, have failed of +exhibiting any superiority. Others are institutions, commenced with +great zeal by the projectors, and which prosper just as long as that +zeal continues. Zeal will make any thing succeed for a time. Others are +new plans of instruction or government, generally founded on some good +principle carried to an extreme, or made to grow into exaggerated and +disproportionate importance. Examples almost innumerable of these things +might be particularized, if it were proper, and it would be found, upon +examination, that the amount of ingenuity and labor wasted upon such +attempts would have been sufficient, if properly expended, to have +elevated very considerably the standard of education, and to have placed +existing institutions in a far more prosperous and thriving state than +they now exhibit. + +The reader will perhaps ask, Shall we make no efforts at improvement? +Must every thing in education go on in a uniform and monotonous manner, +and, while all else is advancing, shall our cause alone stand still? By +no means. It must advance; but let it advance mainly by the industry and +fidelity of those who are employed in it; by changes slowly and +cautiously made; not by great efforts to reach forward to brilliant +discoveries, which will draw off the attention from essential duties, +and, after leading the projector through perplexities and difficulties +without number, end in mortification and failure. + +Were I to give a few concise and summary directions in regard to this +subject to a young teacher, they would be the following: + +1. Examine thoroughly the system of public and private schools as now +constituted in most of the states of this Union, until you fully +understand it and appreciate its excellences and its completeness; see +how fully it provides for the wants of the various classes of our +population. + +By this I mean to refer only to the completeness of the _system_ as a +system of organization. I do not refer at all to the internal management +of these institutions; this last is, of course, a field for immediate +and universal effort at progress and improvement. + +2. If, after fully understanding this system as it now exists, you are +of opinion that something more is necessary; if you think some classes +of the community are not fully provided for, or that some of our +institutions may be advantageously exchanged for others, the plan of +which you have in mind, consider whether your age, and experience, and +standing as an instructor are such as to enable you to place confidence +in your opinion. + +I do not mean by this that a young man may not make a useful discovery, +but only that he may be led away by the ardor of early life to fancy +that essential and important which is really not so. It is important +that each one should determine whether this is not the case with +himself, if his mind is revolving some new plan. + +3. Perhaps you are contemplating only a single new institution, which is +to depend for its success on yourself and some coadjutors whom you have +in mind and whom you well know. If this is the case, consider whether +the establishment you are contemplating can be carried on, after you +shall have left it, by such men as can ordinarily be obtained. If the +plan is founded on some peculiar notions of your own, which would enable +you to succeed in it when others, who might also be interested in such a +scheme, would probably fail, consider whether there may not be danger +that your plan may be imitated by others who can not carry it into +successful operation, so that it may be the indirect means of doing +injury. A man is, in some degree, responsible for his example and for +the consequences which may indirectly flow from his course, as well as +for the immediate results which he produces. The Fellenberg school at +Hofwyl was perhaps, by its direct results, as successful for a time as +any other institution in the world; but there is a great offset to the +good which it has thus done to be found in the history of the thousand +wretched imitations of it which have been started only to linger a +little while and die, and in which a vast amount of time, and talent, +and money have been wasted. + +[Illustration] + +4. Consider the influence you may have upon the other institutions of +our country, by attaching yourself to some one under the existing +organization. If you take an academy or a private school, constituted +and organized like other similar institutions, success in your own will +give you influence over others. A successful teacher of an academy +raises the general standard of academic instruction. A college +professor, if he brings extraordinary talents to bear upon the regular +duties of that office, throws light, universally, upon the whole science +of college discipline and instruction, and thus aids in infusing a +continually renewed life and vigor into those venerable seats of +learning that might otherwise sink into decrepitude and decay. By going, +however, to some new field, establishing some new and fanciful +institution, you take yourself from such a sphere; you exert no +influence over others, except upon feeble imitators, who fail in their +attempts, and bring discredit upon your plans by the awkwardness with +which they attempt to adopt them. How much more service, then, to the +cause of education will a man of genius render, by falling in with the +regularly organized institutions of the country and elevating them, than +if in early life he were to devote his powers to some magnificent +project of an establishment to which his talents would unquestionably +have given temporary success, but which would have taken him away from +the community of teachers, and confined the results of his labors to the +more immediate effects which his daily duties might produce. + +5. Perhaps, however, your plan is not the establishment of some new +institution, but the introduction of some new study or pursuit into the +one with which you are connected. Before, however, you interrupt the +regular arrangements of your school to make such a change, consider +carefully what is the real and appropriate object of your institution. +Every thing is not to be done in school. The principles of division of +labor apply with peculiar force to this employment; so that you must not +only consider whether the branch which you are now disposed to introduce +is important, but whether it is really such an one as it is on the whole +best to include among the objects to be pursued in such an institution. +Many teachers seem to imagine that if any thing is in itself important, +and especially if it is an important branch of education, the question +is settled of its being a proper object of attention in school. But this +is very far from being the case. The whole work of education can never +be intrusted to the teacher. Much must of course remain in the hands of +the parent; it ought so to remain. The object of a school is not to take +children out of the parental hands, substituting the watch and +guardianship of a stranger for the natural care of father and mother. +Far from it. It is only the association of the children for those +purposes which can be more successfully accomplished by association. It +is a union for few, specific, and limited objects, for the +accomplishment of that part (and it is comparatively a small part of +the general objects of education) which can be most successfully +effected by public institutions and in assemblies of the young. + +6. If the branch which you are desiring to introduce appears to you to +be an important part of education, and if it seems to you that it can be +most successfully attended to in schools, then consider whether the +introduction of it, _and of all the other branches having equal claims_, +will or will not give to the common schools too great a complexity. +Consider whether it will succeed in the hands of ordinary teachers. +Consider whether it will require so much time and effort as will draw +off in any considerable degree, the attention of the teacher from the +more essential parts of his duty. All will admit that it is highly +important that every school should be simple in its plan--as simple as +its size and general circumstances will permit, and especially that the +public schools in every town and village of our country should never +lose sight of what is and must be, after all, their great +design--_teaching the whole population to ready write, and calculate._ + +7. If it is a school-book which you are wishing to introduce, consider +well before you waste your time in preparing it, and your spirits in the +vexatious work of getting it through the press; whether it is, _for +general use_, so superior to those already published as to induce +teachers to make a change in favor of yours. I have italicized the words +_for general use_, for no delusion is more common than for a teacher to +suppose that because a text-book which he has prepared and uses in +manuscript is better for _him_ than any other work which he can obtain, +it will therefore be better for _general circulation_. Every man, if he +has any originality of mind, has of course some peculiar method of his +own, and he can of course prepare a text-book which will be better +adapted to this method than those ordinarily in use. The history of a +vast number of text-books, Arithmetics, Geographies, and Grammars, is +this: A man of somewhat ingenious mind, adopts some peculiar mode of +instruction in one of these branches, and is quite successful, not +because the method has any very peculiar excellence, but simply because +he takes a greater interest in it, both on account of its novelty and +also from the fact that it is his own invention. He conceives the plan +of writing a text-book to develop and illustrate this method. He hurries +through the work. By some means or other he gets it printed. In due time +it is regularly advertised. The journals of education give notice of it; +the author sends a few copies to his friends, and that is the end of it. +Perhaps a few schools may make a trial of it, and if, for any reason, +the teachers who try it are interested in the work, probably in their +hands it succeeds. But it does not succeed so well as to attract general +attention, and consequently does not get into general circulation. The +author loses his time and his patience. The publisher, unless, +unfortunately, it was published on the author's account, loses his +paper, and in a few months scarcely any body knows that such a book ever +saw the light. + +It is in this way that the great multitude of school-books which are now +constantly issuing from the press take their origin. Far be it from me +to discourage the preparation of good school-books. This department of +our literature offers a fine field for the efforts of learning and +genius. What I contend against is the endless multiplicity of useless +works, hastily conceived and carelessly executed, and which serve no +purpose but to employ uselessly talents which, if properly applied, +might greatly benefit both the community and the possessor. + +8. If, however, after mature deliberation, you conclude that you have +the plan of a school-book which you ought to try to mature and execute, +be slow and cautious about it. Remember that so great is now the +competition in this branch, nothing but superior excellence or very +extraordinary exertions will secure the favorable reception of a work. +Examine all that your predecessors have done before you. Obtain, +whatever may be the trouble and expense, all other text-books on the +subject, and examine them thoroughly. If you see that you can make a +very decided advance on all that has been done, and that the public will +probably submit to the inconvenience and expense of a change to secure +the result of your labors, go forward slowly and carefully in your work, +no matter how much investigation, how much time and labor it may +require. The more difficulty you may find in gaining the eminence, the +less likely will you be to be followed by successful competitors. + +9. Consider, in forming your text-book, not merely the whole subject on +which you are to write, but also look extensively and thoroughly at the +institutions throughout the country, and consider carefully the +character of the teachers by whom you expect it to be used. Sometimes a +man publishes a text-book, and when it fails on trial, he says "it is +because they did not know how to use it. The book in itself was good. +The whole fault was in the awkwardness and ignorance of the teacher." +How absurd! As if, to make a good text-book, it was not as necessary to +adapt it to teachers as to scholars. A _good text-book, which the +teachers for whom it was intended did not know how to use!!_ In other +words, a good contrivance, but entirely unfit for the purpose for which +it was intended. + +10. Lastly, in every new plan, consider carefully whether its success in +your hands, after you have tried it and found it successful, be owing to +its novelty and to your own special interest in it, or to its own innate +and intrinsic superiority. If the former, use it so long as it will +last, simply to give variety and interest to your plans. Recommend it in +conversation or in other ways to teachers with whom you are acquainted, +not as a wonderful discovery, which is going to change the whole science +of education, but as one method among others which may be introduced +from time to time to relieve the monotony of the teacher's labors. + +In a word, do not go away from the established institutions of our +country, or deviate from the great objects which are at present, and +ought continually to be pursued by them, without great caution, +circumspection, and deliberate inquiry. But, within these limits, +exercise ingenuity and invention as much as you will. Pursue steadily +the great objects which demand the teacher's attention. They are simple +and few. Never lose sight of them, nor turn to the right or to the left +to follow any ignis fatuus which may arise to allure you away, but +exercise as much ingenuity and enterprise as you please in giving +variety and interest to the modes by which these objects are pursued. + +If planning and scheming are confined within these limits, and conducted +on these principles, the teacher will save all the agitating perplexity +and care which will otherwise be his continual portion. He can go +forward peaceably and quietly, and while his own success is greatly +increased, he may be of essential service to the cause in which he is +engaged, by making known his various experiments and plans to others. +For this purpose, it seems to me highly desirable that every teacher +should KEEP A JOURNAL of all his plans. In these should be carefully +entered all his experiments; the new methods he adopts; the course he +takes in regard to difficulties which may arise, and any interesting +incidents which may occur which it would be useful for him to refer to +at some future time. These, or the most interesting of them, should be +made known to other teachers. This may be done in several ways: + +(1.) By publishing them in periodicals devoted to education. Such +contributions, furnished by judicious men, would be among the most +valuable articles in such a work. They would be far more valuable than +any general speculations, however well conceived or expressed. + +(2.) In newspapers intended for general circulation. There are very few +editors whose papers circulate in families who would not gladly receive +articles of this kind to fill a teacher's department in their columns. +If properly written, they would be read with interest and profit by +multitudes of parents, and would throw much light on family government +and instruction. + +(3.) By reading them in teachers' meetings. If half a dozen teachers who +are associated in the same vicinity would meet once a fortnight, simply +to hear each other's journals, they would be amply repaid for their time +and labor. Teachers' meetings will be interesting and useful, when those +who come forward in them will give up the prevailing practice of +delivering orations, and come down at once to the scenes and to the +business of the school-room. + +There is one topic connected with the subject of this chapter which +deserves a few paragraphs. I refer to the rights of the committee, or +the trustees, or patrons in the control of the school. The right to such +control, when claimed at all, is usually claimed in reference to the +teacher's new plans, which renders it proper to allude to the subject +here; and it ought not to be omitted, for a great many cases occur in +which teachers have difficulties with the trustees or committee of their +school. Sometimes these difficulties result at last in an open rupture; +at other times in only a slight and temporary misunderstanding, arising +from what the teacher calls an unwise and unwarrantable interference on +the part of the committee or the trustees in the arrangements of the +school. Difficulties of some sort very often arise. In fact, a right +understanding of this subject is, in most cases, absolutely essential to +the harmony and co-operation of the teacher and the representatives of +his patrons. + +There are then, it must be recollected, three different parties +connected with every establishment for education: the parents of the +scholars, the teacher, and the pupils themselves. Sometimes, as, for +example, in a common private school, the parents are not organized, and +whatever influence they exert they must exert in their individual +capacity. At other times, as in a common district or town school, they +are by law organized, and the school committee chosen for this purpose +are their legal representatives. In other instances, a board of trustees +are constituted by the appointment of the founders of the institution, +or by the Legislature of a state, to whom is committed the oversight of +its concerns, and who are consequently the representatives of the +founders and patrons of the school. + +There are differences between these various modes of organization which +I shall not now stop to examine, as it will be sufficiently correct for +my purpose to consider them all as only various ways of organizing the +_employers_ in the contract by which the teacher is employed. The +teacher is the agent; the patrons represented in these several ways are +the principals. When, therefore, in the following paragraphs I use the +word _employers_, I mean to be understood to speak of the committee, or +the trustees, or the visitors, or the parents themselves, as the case in +each particular institution may be; that is, the persons for whose +purpose and at whose expense the institution is maintained, or their +representatives. + +Now there is a very reasonable and almost universally established rule, +which teachers are very frequently prone to forget, namely, _the +employed ought always to be responsible to the employers, and to be +under their direction._ So obviously reasonable is this rule, and, in +fact, so absolutely indispensable in the transaction of all the business +of life, that it would be idle to attempt to establish and illustrate it +here. It has, however, limitations, and it is applicable to a much +greater extent, in some departments of human labor than in others. It is +_applicable_ to the business of teaching, and though I confess that it +is somewhat less absolute and imperious here, still it is obligatory, I +believe, to a far greater extent than teachers have been generally +willing to admit. + +A young lady, I will imagine, wishes to introduce the study of Botany +into her school. The parents or the committee object; they say that they +wish the children to confine their attention exclusively to the +elementary branches of education. "It will do them no good," says the +chairman of the committee, "to learn by heart some dozen or two of +learned names. We want them to read well, to write well, and to +calculate well, and not to waste their time in studying about pistils, +and stamens, and nonsense." + +Now what is the duty of the teacher in such a case? Why, very plainly +her duty is the same as that of the governor of a state, where the +people, through their representatives, regularly chosen, negative a +proposal which he considers calculated to promote the public good. It is +his duty to submit to the public will; and, though he may properly do +all in his power to present the subject to his employers in such a light +as to lead them to regard it as he does, he must still, until they do so +regard it, bow to their authority; and every magistrate who takes an +enlarged and comprehensive view of his duties as the executive of a +republican community, will do this without any humiliating feelings of +submission to unauthorized interference with his plans. He will, on the +other hand, enjoy the satisfaction of feeling that he confines himself +to his proper sphere, and leave to others the full possession of rights +which properly pertain to them. + +It is so with every case where the relation of employer and employed +subsists. You engage a carpenter to erect a house for you, and you +present your plan; instead of going to work and executing your orders +according to your wishes, he falls to criticising and condemning it; he +finds fault with this, and ridicules that, and tells you you ought to +make such and such an alteration in it. It is perfectly right for him to +give his opinion, in the tone and spirit of _recommendation or +suggestion_, with a distinct understanding that with his employer rests +the power and the right to decide. But how many teachers take +possession of their school-room as though it was an empire in which they +are supreme, who resist every interference of their employers as they +would an attack upon their personal freedom, and who feel that in regard +to every thing connected with school they have really no actual +responsibility. + +In most cases, the employers, knowing how sensitive teachers very +frequently are on this point, acquiesce in it, and leave them to +themselves. Whenever, in any case, they think that the state of the +school requires their interference, they come cautiously and fearfully +to the teacher, as if they were encroaching upon his rights, instead of +advancing with the confidence and directness with which employers have +always a right to approach the employed; and the teacher, with the view +he has insensibly taken of the subject, being perhaps confirmed by the +tone and manner which his employers use, makes the conversation quite as +often an occasion of resentment and offense as of improvement. He is +silent, perhaps, but in his heart he accuses his committee or his +trustees of improper interference in _his_ concerns, as though it was no +part of _their_ business to look after work which is going forward for +their advantage, and for which they pay. + +Perhaps some individuals who have had some collision with their trustees +or committee will ask me if I mean that a teacher ought to be entirely +and immediately under the supervision and control of the trustees, just +as a mechanic is when employed by another man. By no means. There are +various circumstances connected with the nature of this employment, such +as the impossibility of the employers fully understanding it in all its +details, and the character and the standing of the teacher himself, +which always will, in matter of fact, prevent this. The employers always +will, in a great many respects, place more confidence in the teacher and +in his views than they will in their own. But still, the ultimate power +is theirs. Even if they err, if they wish to have a course pursued +which is manifestly inexpedient and wrong, _they still have a right to +decide._ It is their work; it is going on at their instance and at their +expense, and the power of ultimate decision on all disputed questions +must, from the very nature of the case, rest with them. The teacher may, +it is true, have his option either to comply with their wishes or to +seek employment in another sphere; but while he remains in the employ of +any persons, whether in teaching or in any other service, he is bound to +yield to the wishes of his employers when they insist upon it, and to +submit good-humoredly to their direction when they shall claim their +undoubted right to direct. + +This is to be done, it must be remembered, when they are wrong as well +as when they are right. The obligation of the teacher is not founded +upon _the superior wisdom_ of his employers in reference to the business +for which they have engaged him, for they are very probably his +inferiors in this respect, but _upon their right as employers_ to +determine _how their own work shall be done._ A gardener, we will +suppose, is engaged by a gentleman to lay out his grounds. The gardener +goes to work, and, after a few hours, the gentleman comes out to see how +he goes on and to give directions. He proposes something which the +gardener, who, to make the case stronger, we will suppose knows better +than the proprietor of the grounds, considers ridiculous and absurd; +nay, we will suppose _it is_ ridiculous and absurd. Now what can the +gardener do? There are obviously two courses. He can say to the +proprietor, after a vain attempt to convince him he is wrong, "Well, +sir, I will do just as you say. The grounds are yours: I have no +interest in it or responsibility, except to accomplish your wishes." +This would be right. Or he might say, "Sir, you have a right to direct +upon your own grounds, and I do not wish to interfere with your plans; +but I must ask you to obtain another gardener. I have a reputation at +stake, and this work, if I do it even at your direction, will be +considered as a specimen of my taste and of my planning, so that I must, +in justice to myself, decline remaining in your employment." This, too, +would be right, though probably, both in the business of gardening and +of teaching, the case ought to be a strong one to render it expedient. + +But it would not be right for him, after his employer should have gone +away, to say to himself, with a feeling of resentment at the imaginary +_interference_, "I shall not follow any such directions; I understand my +own trade, and shall receive no instructions in it from him," and then, +disobeying all directions, go on and do the work contrary to the orders +of his employer, who alone has a right to decide. + +And yet a great many teachers take a course as absurd and unjustifiable +as this would be. Whenever the parents, or the committee, or the +trustees express, however mildly and properly, their wishes in regard to +the manner in which they desire to have their own work performed, their +pride is at once aroused. They seem to feel it an indignity to act in +any other way than just in accordance with their own will and pleasure; +and they absolutely refuse to comply, resenting the interference as an +insult; or else, if they apparently yield, it is with mere cold +civility, and entirely without any honest desire to carry the wishes +thus expressed into actual effect. + +Parents may, indeed, often misjudge. A good teacher will, however, soon +secure their confidence, and they may acquiesce in his opinion. But they +ought to be watchful, and the teacher ought to feel and acknowledge +their authority on all questions connected with the education of their +children. They have originally entire power in regard to the course +which is to be pursued with them. Providence has made the parents +responsible, and wholly responsible, for the manner in which their +children are prepared for the duties of this life, and it is interesting +to observe how very cautious the laws of society are about interfering +with the parent's wishes in regard to the education of the child. There +are many cases in which enlightened governments might make arrangements +which would be better than those made by the parents if they are left to +themselves. But they will not do it; they ought not to do it. God has +placed the responsibility in the hands of the father and mother, and +unless the manner in which it is exercised is calculated to endanger or +to injure the community, there can rightfully be no interference except +that of argument and persuasion. + +It ought also to be considered that upon the parents will come the +consequences of the good or bad education of their children, and not +upon the teacher, and consequently it is right that they should direct. +The teacher remains, perhaps, a few months with his charge, and then +goes to other places, and perhaps hears of them no more. He has thus +very little at stake. The parent has every thing at stake; and it is +manifestly unjust to give one man the power of deciding, while he +escapes all the consequences of his mistakes, if he makes any, and to +take away all the _power_ from those upon whose heads all the suffering +which will follow an abuse of the power must descend. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +REPORTS OF CASES. + +There is, perhaps, no way by which a writer can more effectually explain +his views on the subject of education than by presenting a great variety +of actual cases, whether real or imaginary, and describing particularly +the course of treatment which he would recommend in each. This method of +communicating knowledge is very extensively resorted to in the medical +profession, where writers detail particular cases, and report the +symptoms and the treatment for each succeeding day, so that the reader +may almost fancy himself actually a visitor at the sick-bed, and the +nature and effects of the various prescriptions become fixed in the mind +with almost as much distinctness and permanency as actual experience +would give. + +This principle has been kept in view, the reader may perhaps think, too +closely in all the chapters of this volume, almost every point brought +up having been illustrated by anecdotes and narratives. I propose, +however, devoting one chapter now to presenting a number of +miscellaneous cases, without any attempt to arrange them. Sometimes the +case will be merely stated, the reader being left to draw the inference; +at others, such remarks will be added as the case suggests. All will, +however, be intended to answer some useful purpose, either to exhibit +good or bad management and its consequences, or to bring to view some +trait of human nature, as it exhibits itself in children, which it may +be desirable for the teacher to know. Let it be understood, however, +that these cases are not selected with reference to their being strange +or extraordinary. They are rather chosen because they are common; that +is, they, or cases similar, will be constantly occurring to the teacher, +and reading such a chapter will be the best substitute for experience +which the teacher can have. Some are descriptions of literary exercises +or plans which the reader can adopt in classes or with a whole school; +others are cases of discipline, good or bad management, which the +teacher can imitate or avoid. The stories are from various sources, and +are the results of the experience of several individuals. + +1. HATS AND BONNETS.--The master of a district school was accidentally +looking out of the window one day, and he saw one of the boys throwing +stones at a hat, which was put up for that purpose upon the fence. He +said nothing about it at the time, but made a memorandum of the +occurrence, that he might bring it before the school at the proper time. +When the hour set apart for attending to the general business of the +school had arrived, and all were still, he said, + +"I saw one of the boys throwing stones at a hat to-day: did he do right +or wrong?" + +There were one or two faint murmurs which sounded like "_Wrong_" but the +boys generally made no answer. + +"Perhaps it depends a little upon the question whose hat it was. Do you +think it does depend upon that?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"Well, suppose then it was not his own hat, and he was throwing stones +at it without the owner's consent, would it be plain in that case +whether he was doing right or wrong?" + +"Yes, sir; wrong," was the universal reply. + +"Suppose it was his own hat, would he have been right? Has a boy a right +to do what he pleases with his own hat?" + +"Yes, sir," "Yes, sir;" "No, sir," "No, sir," answered the boys, +confusedly. + +"I do not know whose hat it was. If the boy who did it is willing to +rise and tell me, it will help us to decide this question." + +The boy, knowing that a severe punishment was not in such a case to be +anticipated, and, in fact, apparently pleased with the idea of +exonerating himself from the blame of willfully injuring the property of +another, rose and said, + +"I suppose it was I, sir, who did it, and it was my own hat." + +"Well," said the master, "I am glad that you are willing to tell frankly +how it was; but let us look at this case. There are two senses in which +a hat may be said to belong to any person. It may belong to him because +he bought it and paid for it, or it may belong to him because it fits +him and he wears it. In other words, a person may have a hat as his +property, or he may have it only as a part of his dress. Now you see +that, according to the first of these senses, all the hats in this +school belong to your fathers. There is not, in fact, a single boy in +this school who has a hat of his own." + +The boys laughed. + +"Is not this the fact?" + +"Yes, sir." + +It certainly is so, though I suppose James did not consider it. Your +fathers bought your hats. They worked for them and paid for them. You +are only the wearers, and consequently every generous boy, and, in fact, +every honest boy, will be careful of the property which is intrusted to +him, but which, strictly speaking, is not his own. + + +2. MISTAKES.--A wide difference must always be made between mistakes +arising from carelessness, and those resulting from circumstances beyond +control, such as want of sufficient data, and the like. The former are +always censurable; the latter never; for they may be the result of +correct reasoning from insufficient data, and it is the reasoning only +for which the child is responsible. + +"What do you suppose a prophet is?" said a teacher to a class of little +boys. The word occurred in their reading lesson. + +The scholars all hesitated; at last one ventured to reply: + +"If a man should sell a yoke of oxen, and get more for them than they +are worth, he would be a prophet." + +"Yes," said the instructor, "that is right; that is one kind of +_profit_, but this is another and a little different," and he proceeded +to explain the word, and the difference of the spelling. + +This child had, without doubt, heard of some transaction of the kind +which he described, and had observed that the word _profit_ was applied +to it. Now the care which he had exercised in attending to it at the +time, and remembering it when the same word (for the difference in the +spelling he of course knew nothing about) occurred again, was really +commendable. The fact, which is a mere accident, that we affix very +different significations to the same sound, was unknown to him. The +fault, if any where, was in the language and not in him, for he reasoned +correctly from the data he possessed, and he deserved credit for it. + +The teacher should always discriminate carefully between errors of this +kind, and those that result from culpable carelessness. + +3. TARDINESS.--"My duty to this school," said a teacher to his pupils, +"demands, as I suppose you all admit, that I should require you all to +be here punctually at the time appointed for the commencement of the +school. I have done nothing on this subject yet, for I wished to see +whether you would not come early on principle. I wish now, however, to +inquire in regard to this subject, and to ascertain how many have been +tardy, and to consider what must be done hereafter." + +He made the inquiries, and ascertained pretty nearly how many had been +tardy, and how often within a week. + +The number was found to be so great that the scholars admitted that +something ought to be done. + +"What shall I do?" asked he. "Can any one propose a plan which will +remedy the difficulty?" + +There was no answer. + +"The easiest and pleasantest way to secure punctuality is for the +scholars to come early of their own accord, upon principle. It is +evident, from the reports, that many of you do so, but some do not. Now +there is no other plan which will not be attended with very serious +difficulty, but I am willing to adopt the one which will be most +agreeable to yourselves, if it will be likely to accomplish the object. +Has any one any plan to propose?" + +There was a pause. + +"It would evidently," continued the teacher, "be the easiest for me to +leave this subject, and do nothing about it. It is of no personal +consequence to me whether you come early or not, but as long as I hold +this office I must be faithful, and I have no doubt the school +committee, if they knew how many of you were tardy, would think I ought +to do something to diminish the evil. + +"The best plan that I can think of is that all who are tardy should lose +their recess." + +The boys looked rather anxiously at one another, but continued silent. + +"There is a great objection to this plan from the fact that a boy is +sometimes necessarily absent, and by this rule he will lose his recess +with the rest, so that the innocent will be punished with the guilty." + +"I should think, sir," said William, "that those who are _necessarily_ +tardy might be excused." + +"Yes, I should be very glad to excuse them, if I could find out who they +are." + +The boys seemed to be surprised at this remark, as if they thought it +would not be a difficult matter to decide. + +"How can I tell?" asked the master. + +"You can hear their excuses, and then decide." + +"Yes," said the teacher: "but here are fifteen or twenty boys tardy this +morning; now how long would it take me to hear their excuses, and +understand each case thoroughly, so that I could really tell whether +they were tardy from good reasons or not?" + +No answer. + +"Should you not think it would take a minute apiece?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"It would, undoubtedly, and even then I could not in many cases tell. It +would take fifteen minutes, at least. I can not do this in school hours, +for I have not time, and if I do it in recess it will consume the whole +of every recess. Now I need the _rest_ of a recess as well as you, and +it does not seem to me to be just that I should lose the whole of mine +every day, and spend it in a most unpleasant business, when I take pains +myself to come punctually every morning. Would it be just?" + +"No, sir." + +"I think it would be less unjust to deprive all those of their recess +who are tardy; for then the loss of a recess by a boy who had not been +to blame would not be very common, and the evil would be divided among +the whole; but in the plan of my hearing the excuses it would all come +upon one." + +After a short pause one of the boys said that they might be required to +bring written excuses. + +"Yes, that is another plan," said the teacher; "but there are objections +to it. Can any of you think what they are? I suppose you have all been, +either at this school or at some other, required to bring written +excuses, so that you have seen the plan tried. Now have you never +noticed any objection to it?" + +One boy said that it gave the parents a great deal of trouble at home. + +"Yes," said the teacher, "this is a great objection; it is often very +inconvenient to write. But that is not the greatest difficulty; can any +of you think of any other?" + +There was a pause. + +"Do you think that these written excuses are, after all, a fair test of +the real reasons for tardiness? I understand that sometimes boys will +tease their fathers or mothers for an excuse when they do not deserve +it, 'Yes, sir,' and sometimes they will loiter about when sent of an +errand before school, knowing that they can get a written excuse, when +they might easily have been punctual." + +"Yes, sir," "Yes, sir," said the boys. + +"Well, now, if we adopt this plan, some unprincipled boy would always +contrive to have an excuse, whether necessarily tardy or not; and, +besides, each parent would have a different principle and a different +opinion as to what was a reasonable excuse, so that there would be no +uniformity, and, consequently, no justice in the operation of the +system." + +The boys admitted the truth of this, and, as no other plan was +presented, the rule was adopted of requiring all those who were tardy to +remain in their seats during the recess, whether they were necessarily +tardy or not. The plan very soon diminished the number of loiterers. + +4. HELEN'S LESSON.--The possibility of being inflexibly firm in +measures, and, at the same time, gentle and mild in manners and +language, is happily illustrated in the following description, which is +based on an incident narrated by Mrs. Sherwood: + +"Mrs. M. had observed, even during the few days that Helen had been +under her care, that she was totally unaccustomed to habits of diligence +and application. After making all due allowance for long-indulged habits +of indolence and inattention, she one morning assigned an easy lesson to +her pupil, informing her at the same time that she should hear it +immediately before dinner. Helen made no objections to the plan, but she +silently resolved not to perform the required task. Being in some +measure a stranger, she thought her aunt would not insist upon perfect +obedience, and besides, in her estimation, she was too old to be treated +like a child. + +"During the whole morning Helen exerted herself to be mild and obliging; +her conduct toward her aunt was uncommonly affectionate. By these and +various other artifices she endeavored to gain her first victory. +Meanwhile Mrs. M. quietly pursued her various avocations, without +apparently noticing Helen's conduct. At length dinner-hour arrived; the +lesson was called for, but Helen was unprepared. Mrs. M. told Helen she +was sorry that she had not learned the lesson, and concluded by saying +that she hoped she would be prepared before tea-time. + +"Helen, finding she was not to come to the table, began to be a little +alarmed. She was acquainted in some measure with the character of her +aunt, still she hoped to be allowed to partake of the dessert, as she +had been accustomed to on similar occasions at home, and soon regained +her wonted composure. But the dinner-cloth was removed, and there sat +Helen, suffering not a little from hunger; still she would not complain; +she meant to convince her aunt that she was not moved by trifles. + +"A walk had been proposed for the afternoon, and as the hour drew near, +Helen made preparations to accompany the party. Mrs. M. reminded her of +her lesson, but she just noticed the remark by a toss of the head, and +was soon in the green fields, apparently the gayest of the gay. After +her return from the excursion she complained of a head-ache, which in +fact she had. She threw herself languidly on the sofa, sighed deeply, +and took up her History. + +"Tea was now on the table, and most tempting looked the white loaf. Mrs. +M. again heard the pupil recite, but was sorry to find the lesson still +imperfectly prepared. She left her, saying she thought half an hour's +additional study would conquer all the difficulties she found in the +lesson. + +"During all this time Mrs. M. appeared so perfectly calm, composed, and +even kind, and so regardless of sighs and doleful exclamations, that +Helen entirely lost her equanimity, and let her tears flow freely and +abundantly. Her mother was always moved by her tears, and would not her +aunt relent? No. Mrs. M. quietly performed the duties of the table, and +ordered the tea-equipage to be removed. This latter movement brought +Helen to reflection. It is useless to resist, thought she; indeed, why +should I wish to? Nothing too much has been required of me. How +ridiculous I have made myself appear in the eyes of my aunt, and even of +the domestics! + +"In less than an hour she had the satisfaction of reciting her lesson +perfectly; her aunt made no comments on the occasion, but assigned her +the next lesson, and went on sewing. Helen did not expect this; she had +anticipated a refreshing cup of tea after the long siege. She had +expected that even something nicer than usual would be necessary to +compensate her for her past sufferings. At length, worn out by +long-continued watching and fasting, she went to the closet, provided +herself with a cracker, and retired to bed to muse deliberately on the +strange character of her aunt. + +"Teachers not unfrequently threaten their pupils with some proper +punishment, but, when obliged to put the threat into execution, contrive +in some indirect way to abate its rigor, and thus destroy all its +effects. For example, a mother was in the habit, when her little boy ran +beyond his prescribed play-ground, of putting him into solitary +confinement. On such occasions, she was very careful to have some +amusing book or diverting plaything in a conspicuous part of the room, +and not unfrequently a piece of gingerbread was given to solace the +runaway. The mother thought it very strange her little boy should so +often transgress, when he knew what to expect from such a course of +conduct. The boy was wiser than the mother; he knew perfectly well how +to manage the business. He could play with the boys beyond the garden +gate, and if detected, to be sure he was obliged to spend a quiet hour +in the pleasant parlor. But this was not intolerable as long as he could +expect a paper of sugar-plums, a cake, or at least something amply to +compensate him for the loss of a game at marbles." + +5. COMPLAINTS or LONG LESSONS.--A college officer assigned lessons which +the idle and ignorant members of the class thought too long. They +murmured for a time, and at last openly complained. The other members of +the class could say nothing in behalf of the professor, awed by the +greatest of all fears to a collegian, the fear of being called a +"_fisher_" or a "_blueskin_" The professor paid no attention to the +petitions and complaints which were poured in upon him, and which, +though originated by the idle, all were compelled to vote for. He +coldly, and with uncompromising dignity, went on; the excitement in the +class increased, and what is called a college rebellion, with all its +disastrous consequences to the infatuated rebels, ensued. + +Another professor had the dexterity to manage the case in a different +way. After hearing that there was dissatisfaction, he brought up the +subject as follows: + +"I understand, gentlemen, that you consider your lessons too long. +Perhaps I have overrated the abilities of the class, but I have not +intended to assign you more than you can accomplish. I feel no other +interest in the subject than the pride and pleasure it would give me to +have my class stand high, in respect to the amount of ground it has gone +over, when you come to examination. I propose, therefore, that you +appoint a committee, in whose abilities and judgment you can confide, +and let them examine this subject and report. They might ascertain how +much other classes have done, and how much is expedient for this class +to attempt; and then, by estimating the number of recitations assigned +to this study, they can easily determine what should be the length of +the lessons." + +The plan was adopted, and the report put an end to the difficulty. + +6. ENGLISH COMPOSITION.--The great prevailing fault of writers in this +country is an affectation of eloquence. It is almost universally the +fashion to aim, not at striking thoughts, simply and clearly expressed, +but at splendid language, glowing imagery, and magnificent periods. It +arises, perhaps, from the fact that public speaking is the almost +universal object of ambition, and, consequently, both at school and at +college, nothing is thought of but oratory. Vain attempts at oratory +result, in nine cases out of ten, in grandiloquence and empty +verbiage--common thoughts expressed in pompous periods. + +The teacher should guard against this, and assign to children such +subjects as are within the field of childish observation. A little skill +on his part will soon determine the question which kind of writing shall +prevail in his school. The following specimens, both written with some +skill, will illustrate the two kinds of writing alluded to. Both were +written by pupils of the same age, twelve; one a boy, the other a girl. +The subjects were assigned by the teacher. I need not say that the +following was the writer's first attempt at composition, and that it is +printed without alteration. + +THE PAINS OF A SAILOR'S LIFE. + +The joyful sailor embarks on board of his ship, the sails are spread to +catch the playful gale, swift as an arrow he cuts the rolling wave. A +few days thus sporting on the briny wave, when suddenly the sky is +overspread with clouds, the rain descends in torrents, the sails are +lowered, the gale begins, the vessel is carried with great velocity, and +the shrouds, unable to support the tottering mast, gives way to the +furious tempest; the vessel is drove among the rocks, is sprung aleak; +the sailor works at the pumps till, faint and weary, is heard from +below, six feet of water in the hold; the boats are got ready, but, +before they are into them, the vessel is dashed against a reef of rocks; +some, in despair, throw themselves into the sea; others get on the rocks +without any clothes or provisions, and linger a few days, perhaps weeks +or months, living on shell fish, or perhaps taken up by some ship; +others get on pieces of the wreck, and perhaps be cast on some foreign +country, where perhaps he may be taken by the natives, and sold into +slavery where he never more returns. + +In regard to the following specimen, it should be stated that when the +subject was assigned, the pupil was directed to see how precisely she +could imitate the language and conversation which two little children +really lost in the woods would use. While writing, therefore, her mind +was in pursuit of the natural and the simple, not of the eloquent. + +TWO CHILDREN LOST IN THE WOODS. + +_Emily_. Look here! see how many berries I've got. I don't believe +you've got so many. + +_Charles_. Yes, I'm sure I have. My basket's almost full; and if we +hurry, we shall get ever so many before we go home. So pick away as fast +as you can, Emily. + +_Emily_. There, mine is full. Now we'll go and find some flowers for +mother. You know somebody told us there were some red ones close to that +rock. + +_Charles_. Well, so we will. We'll leave our baskets here, and come back +and get them. + +_Emily_. But if we can't find our way back, what shall we do? + +_Charles_. Poh! I can find the way back. I only want a quarter to seven +years old, and I sha'n't lose myself, I know. + +_Emily_. Well, we've got flowers enough, and now I'm tired and want to +go home. + +_Charles. I_ don't; but, if you are tired, we'll go and find our +baskets. + +_Emily_. Where do you think they are? We've been looking a great while +for them. I know we are lost, for when we went after the flowers we +only turned once, and coming back we have turned three times. + +_Charles_. Have we? Well, never mind, I guess we shall find them. + +_Emily_. I'm afraid we sha'n't. Do let's run. + +_Charles_. Well, so do. Oh, Emily! here's a brook, and I am sure we +didn't pass any brook going. + +_Emily_. Oh dear! we must be lost. Hark! Charles, didn't you hear that +dreadful noise just now? Wasn't it a bear? + +_Charles_. Poh! I should love to see a bear here. I guess, if he should +come near me, I would give him one good slap that would make him feel +pretty bad. I could kill him at the first hit. + +_Emily_. I should like to see you taking hold of a bear. Why, didn't you +know bears were stronger than men? But only see how dark it grows; we +sha'n't see ma to-night, I'm afraid. + +_Charles_. So am I: do let's run some more. + +_Emily_. Oh, Charles, do you believe we shall ever find the way out of +this dreadful long wood? + +_Charles_. Let's scream, and see if somebody won't come. + +_Emily_. Well (screaming), ma! ma! + +_Charles_ (screaming also). Pa! pa! + +_Emily_. Oh dear! there's the sun setting. It will be dreadfully dark +by-and-by, won't it? + +We have given enough for a specimen. The composition, though faulty in +many respects, illustrates the point we had in view. + +7. Insincere Confession.--An assistant in a school informed the +principal that she had some difficulty in preserving order in a certain +class composed of small children. The principal accordingly went into +the class, and something like the following dialogue ensued: + +"Your teacher informs me," said the principal, "that there is not +perfect order in the class. Now if you are satisfied that there has not +been order, and wish to help me discover and correct the fault, we can +do it very easily. If, on the other hand, you do not wish to co-operate +with me, it will be a little more difficult for me to correct it, and I +must take a different course. Now I wish to know, at the outset, whether +you do or do not wish to help me?" + +A faint "Yes, sir," was murmured through the class. + +"I do not wish you to assist me unless you really and honestly desire it +yourselves; and if you undertake to do it, you must do it honestly. The +first thing which will be necessary will be an open and thorough +exposure of all which has been wrong, and this, you know, will be +unpleasant. But I will put the question to vote by asking how many are +willing that I should know, entirely and fully, all that they have done +in this class that has been wrong?" + +Very nearly all the hands were raised at once, promptly, and the others +were gradually brought up, though with more or less of hesitation. + +"Are you willing not only to tell me yourselves what you have done, but +also, in case any one has forgotten something which she has done, that +others should tell me of it?" + +The hands were all raised. + +After obtaining thus from the class a distinct and universal expression +of willingness that all the facts should be made known, the principal +called upon all those who had any thing to state to raise their hands, +and those who raised them had opportunity to say what they wished. A +great number of very trifling incidents were mentioned, such as could +not have produced any difficulty in the class, and, consequently, could +not have been the real instances of disorder alluded to. Or at least it +was evident, if they were, that in the statement they must have been so +palliated and softened that a really honest confession had not been +made. This result might, in such a case, have been expected. Such is +human nature, that in nine cases out of ten, unless such a result had +been particularly guarded against, it would have inevitably followed. + +Not only will such a result follow in individual cases like this, but, +unless the teacher watches and guards against it, it will grow into a +habit. I mean, boys will get a sort of an idea that it is a fine thing +to confess their faults, and by a show of humility and frankness will +deceive their teacher, and perhaps themselves, by a sort of +acknowledgment, which in fact exposes nothing of the guilt which the +transgressor professes to expose. A great many cases occur where +teachers are pleased with the confession of faults, and scholars +perceive it, and the latter get into the habit of coming to the teacher +when they have done something which they think may get them into +difficulty, and make a sort of half confession, which, by bringing +forward every palliating circumstance, and suppressing every thing of +different character, keeps entirely out of view all the real guilt of +the transgression. The criminal is praised by the teacher for the +frankness and honesty of the confession, and his fault is freely +forgiven. He goes away, therefore, well satisfied with himself, when, in +fact, he has been only submitting to a little mortification, +voluntarily, to avoid the danger of a greater; much in the same spirit +with that which leads a man to receive the small-pox by inoculation, to +avoid the danger of taking it in the natural way. + +The teacher who accustoms his pupils to confess their faults voluntarily +ought to guard carefully against this danger. When such a case as the +one just described occurs, it will afford a favorable opportunity of +showing distinctly to pupils the difference between an honest and a +hypocritical confession. In this instance the teacher proceeded thus: + +"Now there is one more question which I wish you all to answer by your +votes honestly. It is this. Do you think that the real disorder which +has been in this class--that is, the real cases which you referred to +when you stated to me that you thought that the class was not in good +order--have been now really exposed, so that I honestly and fully +understand the case? How many suppose so?" + +Not a single hand was raised. + +"How many of you think, and are willing to avow your opinion, that I +have _not_ been fully informed of the case?" + +A large proportion held up their hands. + +"Now it seems the class pretended to be willing that I should know all +the affair. You pretended to be willing to tell me the whole, but when I +call upon you for the information, instead of telling me honestly, you +attempt to amuse me by little trifles, which in reality made no +disturbance, and you omit the things which you know were the real +objects of my inquiries. Am I right in my supposition?" + +They were silent. After a moment's pause, one perhaps raised her hand, +and began now to confess something which she had before concealed. + +The teacher, however, interrupted her by saying, + +"I do not wish to have the confession made now. I gave you all time to +do that, and now I should rather not hear any more about the disorder. I +gave an opportunity to have it acknowledged, but it was not honestly +improved, and now I should rather not hear. I shall probably never know. + +"I wished to see whether this class would be honest--really honest, or +whether they would have the insincerity to pretend to be confessing when +they were not doing so honestly, so as to get the credit of being frank +and sincere, when in reality they are not so. Now am I not compelled to +conclude that this latter is the case?" + +Such an example will make a deep and lasting impression. It will show +that the teacher is upon his guard; and there are very few so hardened +in deception that they would not wish that they had been really sincere +rather than rest under such an imputation. + +8. Court.--A pupil, quite young (says a teacher), came to me one day +with a complaint that one of her companions had got her seat. There had +been some changes in the seats by my permission, and probably, from some +inconsistency in the promises which I had made, there were two claimants +for the same desk. The complainant came to me, and appealed to my +recollection of the circumstance. + +"I do not recollect any thing about it," said I. + +"Why, Mr. B.!" replied she, with astonishment. + +"No," said I; "you forget that I have, every day, arrangements, almost +without number, of such a kind to make, and as soon as I have made one I +immediately forget all about it." + +"Why, don't you remember that you got me a new baize?" + +"No; I ordered a dozen new baizes at that time, but I do not remember +who they were for." + +There was a pause; the disappointed complainant seemed not to know what +to do. + +"I will tell you what to do. Bring the case into court, and I will try +it regularly." + +"Why, Mr. B., I do not like to do any thing like that about it; besides, +I do not know how to write an indictment." + +"Oh," I answered, "the scholars will like to have a good trial, and this +will make a new sort of case. All our cases thus far have been for +_offenses_--that is what they call criminal cases--and this will be only +an examination of the conflicting claims of two individuals to the same +property, and it will excite a good deal of interest. I think you had +better bring it into court." + +She went slowly and thoughtfully to her seat, and presently returned +with an indictment. + +"Mr. B., is this right?" + +It was as follows: + +I accuse Miss A.B. of coming to take away my seat--the one Mr. B. gave +me. + + Witnesses, { C.D. + { E.T. + +"Why--yes--that will do; and yet it is not exactly right. You see this +is what they call a _civil_ case." + +"I don't think it is very _civil_." + +"No, I don't mean it was civil to take your seat, but this is not a case +where a person is prosecuted for having done any thing wrong." + +The plaintiff looked a little perplexed, as if she could not understand +how it could be otherwise than wrong for a girl to usurp her seat. + +"I mean, you do not bring it into court as a case of wrong. You do not +want her to be punished, do you?" + +"No, I only want her to give me up my seat; I don't want her to be +punished." + +"Well, then, you see that, although she may have done wrong to take your +seat, it is not in that point of view that you bring it into court. It +is a question about the right of property, and the lawyers call such +cases _civil_ cases, to distinguish them from cases where persons are +tried for the purpose of being punished for doing wrong. These last are +called criminal cases." + +The aggrieved party still looked perplexed. "Well, Mr. B.," she +continued, "what shall I do? How shall I write it? I can not say any +thing about _civil_ in it, can I?" + +A form was given her which would be proper for the purpose, and the case +was brought forward, and the evidence on both sides examined. The +irritation of the quarrel was soon dissipated in the amusement of a +semi-serious trial, and both parties good-humoredly acquiesced in the +decision. + +9. TEACHERS' PERSONAL CHARACTER.--Much has been said within a few years, +by writers on the subject of education in this country, on the +desirableness of raising the business of teaching to the rank of a +learned profession. There is but one way of doing this, and that is +raising the personal characters and attainments of the teachers +themselves. Whether an employment is elevated or otherwise in public +estimation, depends altogether on the associations, connected with it in +the public mind, and these depend altogether on the characters of the +individuals who are engaged in it. Franklin, by the simple fact that he +was a printer himself, has done more toward giving dignity and +respectability to the employment of printing, than a hundred orations +on the intrinsic excellence of the art. In fact, all mechanical +employments have, within a few years, risen in rank in this country, not +through the influence of efforts to impress the community directly with +a sense of their importance, but simply because mechanics themselves +have risen in intellectual and moral character. In the same manner, the +employment of the teacher will be raised most effectually in the +estimation of the public, not by the individual who writes the most +eloquent oration on the intrinsic dignity of the art, but by the one who +goes forward most successfully in the exercise of it, and who, by his +general attainments and public character, stands out most fully to the +view of the public as a well-informed, liberal-minded, and useful man. + +If this is so--and it can not well be denied--it furnishes to every +teacher a strong motive to exertion for the improvement of his own +personal character. But there is a stronger motive still in the results +which flow directly to himself from such efforts. No man ought to engage +in any business which, as mere business, will engross all his time and +attention. The Creator has bestowed upon every one a mind, upon the +cultivation of which our rank among intelligent beings, our happiness, +our moral and intellectual power, every thing valuable to us, depend; +and after all the cultivation which we can bestow, in this life, upon +this mysterious principle, it will still be in embryo. The progress +which it is capable of making is entirely indefinite. If by ten years of +cultivation we can secure a certain degree of knowledge and power, by +ten more we can double, or more than double it, and every succeeding +year of effort is attended with equal success. There is no point of +attainment where we must stop, or beyond which effort will bring in a +less valuable return. + +Look at that teacher, and consider for a moment his condition. He began +to teach when he was twenty years of age, and now he is forty. Between +the ages of fifteen and twenty he made a vigorous effort to acquire +such an education as would fit him for these duties. He succeeded, and +by these efforts he raised himself from being a mere laborer, receiving +for his daily toil a mere daily subsistence, to the respectability and +the comforts of an intellectual pursuit. But this change once produced, +he stops short in his progress. Once seated in his desk, he is +satisfied, and for twenty years he has been going through the same +routine, without any effort to advance or to improve. He does not +reflect that the same efforts, which so essentially altered his +condition and prospects at twenty, would have carried him forward to +higher and higher sources of influence and enjoyment as long as he +should continue them. His efforts ceased when he obtained a situation as +teacher at fifty dollars a month, and, though twenty years have glided +away, he is now exactly what he was then. + +There is probably no employment whatever which affords so favorable an +opportunity for personal improvement--for steady intellectual and moral +progress, as that of teaching. There are two reasons for this: + +First, there is time for it. With an ordinary degree of health and +strength, the mind can be vigorously employed at least ten hours a day. +As much as this is required of students in many literary institutions. +In fact, ten hours to study, seven to sleep, and seven to food, +exercise, and recreation, is perhaps as good an arrangement as can be +made; at any rate, very few persons will suppose that such a plan allows +too little under the latter head. Now six hours is as much as is +expected of a teacher under ordinary circumstances, and it is as much as +ought ever to be bestowed; for, though he may labor four hours out of +school in some new field, his health and spirits will soon sink under +the burden, if, after his weary labors during the day in school, he +gives up his evenings to the same perplexities and cares. And it is not +necessary. No one who knows any thing of the nature of the human mind, +and who will reflect a moment on the subject, can doubt that a man can +make a better school by expending six hours labor upon it with alacrity +and ardor, than he can by driving himself on to ten. Every teacher, +therefore, who is commencing his work, should begin with the firm +determination of devoting only six hours daily to the pursuit. Make as +good a school, and accomplish as much for it as you can in six hours, +and let the rest go. When you come from your school-room at night, leave +all your perplexities and cares behind you. No matter what unfinished +business or unsettled difficulties remain, dismiss them till another sun +shall rise, and the hour of duty for another day shall come. Carry no +school-work home with you, and do not even talk of your school-work at +home. You will then get refreshment and rest. Your mind, during the +evening, will be in a different world from that in which you have moved +during the day. At first this will be difficult. It will be hard for +you, unless your mind is uncommonly well disciplined, to dismiss all +your cares; and you will think, each evening, that some peculiar +emergency demands your attention _just at that time,_ and that as soon +as you have passed the crisis you will confine yourself to what you +admit are generally reasonable limits; but if you once allow school, +with its perplexities and cares, to get possession of the rest of the +day, it will keep possession. It will intrude itself into all your +waking thoughts, and trouble you in your dreams. You will lose all +command of your powers, and, besides cutting off from yourself all hope +of general intellectual progress, you will, in fact, destroy your +success as a teacher. Exhaustion, weariness, and anxiety will be your +continual portion, and in such a state no business can be successfully +prosecuted. + +There need be no fear that employers will be dissatisfied if the teacher +acts upon this principle. If he is faithful, and enters with all his +heart into the discharge of his duties during six hours, there will be +something in the ardor, and alacrity, and spirit with which his duties +will be performed which parents and scholars will both be very glad to +receive in exchange for the languid, and dull, and heartless toil in +which the other method must sooner or later result. + + * * * * * + +If the teacher, then, will confine himself to such a portion of time as +is, in fact, all he can advantageously employ, there will be much left +which can be devoted to his own private employment--more than is usual +in the other avocations of life. In most of these other avocations there +is not the same necessity for limiting the hours which a man may devote +to his business. A merchant, for example, may be employed nearly all the +day at his counting-room, and so may a mechanic. A physician may spend +all his waking hours in visiting patients, and feel little more than +healthy fatigue. The reason is, that in all these employments, and, in +fact, in most of the employments of life, there is so much to diversify, +so many little incidents constantly occurring to animate and relieve, +and so much bodily exercise, which alternates with and suspends the +fatigues of the mind, that the labors may be much longer continued, and +with less cessation, and yet the health not suffer. But the teacher, +while engaged in his work, has his mind continually on the stretch. +There is little relief, little respite, and he is almost entirely +deprived of bodily exercise. He must, consequently, limit his hours of +attending to his business, or his health will soon sink under labors +which Providence never intended the human mind to bear. + +There is another circumstance which facilitates the progress of the +teacher. It is a fact that all this general progress has a direct and +immediate bearing upon his pursuits. A lawyer may read in an evening an +interesting book of travels, and find nothing to help him with his case, +the next day, in court; but almost every fact which the teacher thus +learns will come _at once into use_ in some of his recitations at +school. We do not mean to imply by this that the members of the legal +profession have not need of a great variety and extent of knowledge; +they doubtless have. It is simply in the _directness_ and _certainty_ +with which the teacher's knowledge may be applied to his purpose that +the business of teaching has the advantage over every other pursuit. + +This fact, now, has a very important influence in encouraging and +leading forward the teacher to make constant intellectual progress, for +every step brings at once a direct reward. + +10. THE CHESTNUT BURR.--_A story for school-boys._--One fine Saturday +afternoon, in the fall of the year, the master was taking a walk in the +woods, and he came to a place where a number of boys were gathering +chestnuts. + +One of the boys was sitting upon a bank trying to open some chestnut +burrs which he had knocked off from the tree. The burrs were green, and +he was attempting to open them by pounding them with a stone. + +[Illustration] + +He was a very impatient boy, and was scolding in a loud, angry, tone +against the burrs. He did not see, he said, what in the world chestnuts +were made to grow so for. They ought to grow right out in the open air, +like apples, and not have such vile porcupine skins on them, just to +plague the boys. So saying, he struck with all his might a fine large +burr, crushed it to pieces, and then jumped up, using at the same time +profane and wicked words. As soon as he turned round he saw the master +standing very near him. He felt very much ashamed and afraid, and hung +down his head. + +"Roger," said the master (for this boy's name was Roger), "can you get +me a chestnut burr?" + +Roger looked up for a moment to see whether the master was in earnest, +and then began to look around for a burr. + +A boy who was standing near the tree, with a red cap full of burrs in +his hand, held out one of them. Roger took the burr and handed it to the +master, who quietly put it into his pocket, and walked away without +saying a word. + +As soon as he was gone, the boy with the red cap said to Roger, "I +expected that the master would have given you a good scolding for +talking so." + +"The master never scolds," said another boy, who was sitting on a log +pretty near, with a green satchel in his hand, "but you see if he does +not remember it." Roger looked as if he did not know what to think about +it. + +"I wish," said he, "I knew what he is going to do with that burr." + +That afternoon, when the lessons had been all recited, and it was about +time to dismiss the school, the boys put away their books, and the +master read a few verses in the Bible, and then offered a prayer, in +which he asked God to forgive all the sins which any of them had +committed that day, and to take care of them during the night. After +this he asked the boys all to sit down. He then took his handkerchief +out of his pocket and laid it on the desk, and afterward he put his +hand into his pocket again, and took out the chestnut burr, and all the +boys looked at it. + +"Boys," said he, "do you know what this is?" + +One of the boys in the back seat said, in a half whisper, "It is nothing +but a chestnut burr." + +"Lucy," said the master to a bright-eyed little girl near him, "what is +this?" + +"It is a chestnut burr, sir," said she. + +"Do you know what it is for?" + +"I suppose there are chestnuts in it." + +"But what is this rough, prickly covering for?" + +Lucy did not know. + +"Does any body here know?" said the master. + +One of the boys said that he supposed it was to hold the chestnuts +together, and keep them up on the tree. + +"But I heard a boy say," replied the master, "that they ought not to be +made to grow so. The nut itself, he thought, ought to hang alone on the +branches, without any prickly covering, just as apples do." + +"But the nuts themselves have no stems to be fastened by," answered the +same boy. + +"That is true; but I suppose this boy thought that God could have made +them grow with stems, and that this would have been better than to have +them in burrs." + +After a little pause the master said that he would explain TO them what +the chestnut burr was for, and wished them all to listen attentively. + +"How much of the chestnut is good to eat, William?" asked he, looking at +a boy before him. + +"Only the meat." + +"How long does it take the meat to grow?" + +"All summer, I suppose, it is growing." + +"Yes; it begins early in the summer, and gradually swells and grows +until it has become of full size, and is ripe, in the fall. Now suppose +there was a tree out here near the school-house, and the chestnut meats +should grow upon it without any shell or covering; suppose, too, that +they should taste like good ripe chestnuts at first, when they were very +small. Do you think they would be safe?" + +William said "No; the boys would pick and eat them before they had time +to grow." + +"Well, what harm would there be in that? Would it not be as well to have +the chestnuts early in the summer as to have them in the fall?" + +William hesitated. Another boy who sat next to him said, + +"There would not be so much meat in the chestnuts if they were eaten +before they had time to grow." + +"Right," said the master; "but would not the boys know this, and so all +agree to let the little chestnuts stay, and not eat them while they were +small?" + +William said he thought they would not. If the chestnuts were good, he +was afraid they would pick them off and eat them if they were small. + +All the rest of the boys in the school thought so too. + +"Here, then," said the master, "is one reason for having prickles around +the chestnuts when they are small. But then it is not necessary to have +all chestnuts guarded from boys in this way; a great many of the trees +are in the woods, which the boys do not see; what good do the burrs do +in these trees?" + +The boys hesitated. Presently the boy who had the green satchel under +the tree with Roger, who was sitting in one corner of the room, said, + +"I should think they would keep the squirrels from eating them. + +"And besides," continued he, after thinking a moment, "I should suppose, +if the meat of the chestnut had no covering, the rain would wet it and +make it rot, or the sun might dry and wither it." + +"Yes," said the master, "these are very good reasons why the nut should +be carefully guarded. First the meats are packed away in a hard brown +shell, which the water can not get through; this keeps it dry, and away +from dust and other things which might injure it. Then several nuts thus +protected grow closely together inside this green, prickly covering, +which spreads over them and guards them from the larger animals and the +boys. Where the chestnut gets its full growth and is ripe, this +covering, you know, splits open, and the nuts drop out, and then any +body can get them and eat them." + +The boys were then all satisfied that it was better that chestnuts +should grow in burrs. + +"But why," asked one of the boys, "do not apples grow so?" + +"Can any body answer that question?" asked the master. + +The boy with the green satchel said that apples had a smooth, tight +skin, which kept out the wet, but he did not see how they were guarded +from animals. + +The master said it was by their taste. "They are hard and sour before +they are full grown, and so the taste is not pleasant, and nobody wishes +to eat them, except sometimes a few foolish boys, and these are punished +by being made sick. When the apples are full grown, they change from +sour to sweet, and become mellow--then they can be eaten. Can you tell +me of any other fruits which are preserved in this way?" + +One boy answered, "Strawberries and blackberries;" and another said, +"Peaches and pears." + +Another boy asked why the peach-stone was not outside the peach, so as +to keep it from being eaten; but the master said that he would explain +this another time. Then he dismissed the scholars, after asking Roger to +wait until the rest had gone, as he wished to see him alone. + +Several of the articles which follow were communicated for this work by +different teachers, at the request of the author. + +11. THE SERIES OF WRITING LESSONS.--Very many pupils soon become weary +of the dull and monotonous business of writing, unless some plans are +devised to give interest and variety to the exercise; and, on this +account, this branch of education, in which improvement may be most +rapid, is often the last and most tedious to be acquired. + +A teacher, by adopting the following plan, succeeded in awakening a +great degree of interest on the subject, and, consequently, of promoting +rapid improvement. The plan was this: he prepared, on a large sheet of +paper, a series of lessons in coarse-hand, beginning with straight +lines, and proceeding to the elementary parts of the various letters, +and finally to the letters themselves. This paper was posted up in a +part of the room accessible to all. + +The writing-books were made of three sheets of foolscap paper, folded +into a convenient size, making twenty-four pages in the book. The books +were to be ruled by the pupil, for it was thought important that each +should learn this art. Every pupil in school, then, being furnished with +one of these writing-books, was required to commence this series, and to +practice each lesson until he could write it well; then, and not till +then, he was permitted to pass to the next. A few brief directions were +given under each lesson on the large sheet. For example, under the line +of straight marks, which constituted the first lesson, was written as +follows: + +_Straight, equidistant, parallel, smooth, well-terminated._ + +These directions were to call the attention of the pupil to the +excellences which he must aim at, and when he supposed he had secured +them, his book was to be presented to the teacher for examination. If +approved, the word _Passed_, or, afterward, simply _P_., was written +under the line, and he could then proceed to the next lesson. Other +requisites were necessary, besides the correct formation of the letters, +to enable one to pass; for example, the page must not be soiled or +blotted, no paper must be wasted, and, in no case, a leaf torn out. As +soon as _one line_ was written in the manner required, the scholar was +allowed to pass. In a majority of cases, however, not less than a page +would be practiced, and in many instances a sheet would be covered, +before one line could be produced which would be approved. + +One peculiar excellency of this method was, that although the whole +school were working under a regular and systematic plan, individuals +could go on independently; that is, the progress of no scholar was +retarded by that of his companion; the one more advanced might easily +pass the earlier lessons in a few days, while the others would require +weeks of practice to acquire the same degree of skill. + +During the writing-hour the scholars would practice each at the lesson +where he left off before, and at a particular time each day the books +were brought from the regular place of deposit and laid before the +teacher for examination. Without some arrangement for an examination of +all the books together, the teacher would be liable to interruption at +any time from individual questions and requests, which would consume +much time, and benefit only a few. + +When a page of writing could not pass, a brief remark, calling the +attention of the pupil to the faults which prevented it, was sometimes +made in pencil at the bottom of the page. In other cases, the fault was +of such a character as to require full and minute oral directions to the +pupil. At last, to facilitate the criticism of the writing, a set of +arbitrary marks, indicative of the various faults, was devised and +applied, as occasion might require, to the writing-books, by means of +red ink. + +These marks, which were very simple in their character, were easily +remembered, for there was generally some connection between the sign +and the thing signified. For example, the mark denoting that letters +were too short was simply lengthening them in red ink; a faulty curve +was denoted by making a new curve over the old one, &c. The following +are the principal criticisms and directions for which marks were +contrived: + + Strokes rough. Too tall or too short. + Curve wrong. Stems not straight. + Bad termination Careless work. + Too slanting, and the reverse. Paper wasted. + Too broad, and the reverse. Almost well enough to pass. + Not parallel. Bring your book to the teacher. + Form of the letter bad. Former fault not corrected. + Large stroke made too fine, and the reverse. + +A catalogue of these marks, with an explanation, was made out and placed +where it was accessible to all, and by means of them the books could be +very easily and rapidly, but thoroughly criticised. + +After the plan had gone on for some time, and its operation was fully +understood, the teacher gave up the business of examining the books into +the hands of a committee, appointed by him from among the older and more +advanced pupils. That the committee might be unbiased in their judgment, +they were required to examine and decide upon the books without knowing +the names of the writers. Each scholar was, indeed, required to place +her name on the right hand upper corner of every page of her +writing-book, for the convenience of the distributors; but this corner +was turned down when the book was brought in, that it might not be seen +by the committee. + +This committee was invested with plenary powers, and there was no appeal +from their decision. In case they exercised their authority in an +improper way, or failed on any account to give satisfaction, they were +liable to impeachment, but while they continued in office they were to +be strictly obeyed. + +This plan went on successfully for three months, and with very little +diminution of interest. The whole school went regularly through the +lessons in coarse-hand, and afterward through a similar series in +fine-hand, and improvement in this branch was thought to be greater than +at any former period in the same length of time. + +The same principle of arranging the several steps of an art or a study +into a series of lessons, and requiring the pupil to pass regularly from +one to the other, might easily be applied to other studies, and would +afford an agreeable variety. + +12. THE CORRESPONDENCE.--A master of a district school was walking +through the room with a large rule in his hands, and as he came up +behind two small boys, he observed that they were playing with some +papers. He struck them once or twice, though not very severely, on the +head with the rule which he had in his hand. Tears started from the eyes +of one. They were called forth by a mingled feeling of grief, +mortification, and pain. The other, who was of "sterner stuff," looked +steadily into the master's face, and when his back was turned, shook his +fist at him and laughed in defiance. + +Another teacher, seeing a similar case, did nothing. The boys, when they +saw him, hastily gathered up their playthings and put them away. An hour +or two after, a little boy, who sat near the master, brought them a note +addressed to them both. They opened it, and read as follows: + +"To EDWARD AND JOHN,--I observed, when I passed you to-day, from your +concerned looks, and your hurried manner of putting something into your +desk, that you were doing something that you knew was wrong. When you +attempt to do any thing whatever which conscience tells you is wrong, +you only make yourself uneasy and anxious while you do it, and then you +are forced to resort to concealment and deception when you see me +coming. You would be a great deal happier if you would always be doing +your duty, and then you would never be afraid. Your affectionate +teacher,----." + +As the teacher was arranging his papers in his desk at the close of +school, he found a small piece of paper neatly folded up in the form of +a note, and addressed to him. He read as follows: + +"DEAR TEACHER,--We are very much obliged to you for writing us a note. +We were making a paper box. We know it was wrong, and are determined not +to do so any more. We hope you will forgive us. + +"Your pupils, EDWARD, JOHN." + +Which of these teachers understood human nature best? + +13. WEEKLY REPORTS.--The plan described by the following article, which +was furnished by a teacher for insertion here, was originally adopted, +so far as I know, in a school on the Kennebec. I have adopted it with +great advantage. + +A teacher had one day been speaking to her scholars of certain cases of +slight disorder in the school, which, she remarked, had been gradually +creeping in, and which, as she thought, it devolved upon the scholars, +by systematic efforts, to repress. She enumerated instances of disorder +in the arrangement of the rooms, leaving the benches out of their +places, throwing waste papers upon the floor, having the desk in +disorder inside, spilling water upon the entry floor, irregular +deportment, such as too loud talking or laughing in recess, or in the +intermission at noon, or when coming to school, and making unnecessary +noise in going to or returning from recitations. + +"I have a plan to propose," said the teacher, "which I think may be the +pleasantest way of promoting a reform in things of this kind. It is +this. Let several of your number be chosen a committee to prepare +statedly--perhaps as often as once a week--a written report of the state +of the school. The report might be read before the school at the close +of each week. The committee might consist, in the whole, of seven or +eight, or even of eleven or twelve individuals, who should take the +whole business into their hands. This committee might appoint +individuals of their number to write in turn each week. By this +arrangement, it would not be known to the school generally who are the +writers of any particular report, if the individuals wish to be +anonymous. Two individuals might be appointed at the beginning of the +week, who should feel it their business to observe particularly the +course of things from day to day with reference to the report. +Individuals not members of the committee can render assistance by any +suggestions they may present to this committee. These should, however, +generally be made in writing. + +"Subjects for such a report will be found to suggest themselves very +abundantly, though you may not perhaps think so at first. The committee +may be empowered not only to state the particulars in which things are +going wrong, but the methods by which they may be made right. Let them +present us with any suggestions they please. If we do not like them, we +are not obliged to adopt them. For instance, it is generally the case, +whenever a recitation is attended in the corner yonder, that an end of +one of the benches is put against the door, so as to occasion a serious +interruption to the exercises when a person wishes to come in or go out. +It would come within the province of the committee to attend to such a +case as this, that is, to bring it up in the report. The remedy in such +a case is a very simple one. Suppose, however, that instead of the +_simple_ remedy, our committee should propose that the classes reciting +in the said corner should be dissolved and the studies abolished? We +should know the proposal was an absurd one, but then it would do no +hurt; we should have only to reject it. + +"Again, besides our faults, let our committee notice the respects in +which we are doing particularly well, that we may be encouraged to go on +doing well, or even to do better. If they think, for example, that we +are deserving of credit for the neatness with which books are kept--for +their freedom from blots, or scribblings, or dog's-ears, by which +school-books are so commonly defaced, let them tell us so. And the same +of any other excellence." + +With the plan as thus presented, the scholars were very much pleased. It +was proposed by one individual that such a committee should be appointed +immediately, and a report prepared for the ensuing week. This was done. +The committee were chosen by ballot. The following may be taken as a +specimen of their reports: + +WEEKLY REPORT. + +"The Committee appointed to write the weekly report have noticed several +things which they think wrong. In the first place, there have been a +greater number of tardy scholars during the past week than usual. Much +of this tardiness, we suppose, is owing to the interest felt in building +the bower; but we think this business ought to be attended to only in +play-hours. If only one or two come in late when we are reading in the +morning, or after we have composed ourselves to study at the close of +the recess, every scholar must look up from her book--we do not say they +ought to do so, but only that they will do so. However, we anticipate an +improvement in this respect, as we know 'a word to the wise is +sufficient.' + +"In the two back rows we are sorry to say that we have noticed +whispering. We know that this fact will very much distress our teacher, +as she expects assistance, and not trouble, from our older scholars. It +is not our business to reprove any one's misconduct, but it is our duty +to mention it, however disagreeable it may be. We think the younger +scholars, during the past week, have much improved in this respect. Only +three cases of whispering among them have occurred to our knowledge. + +"We remember some remarks made a few weeks ago by our teacher on the +practice of prompting each other in the classes. We wish she would +repeat them, for we fear that, by some, they are forgotten. In the class +in Geography, particularly in the questions on the map, we have noticed +sly whispers, which, we suppose, were the hints of some kind friend +designed to refresh the memory of her less attentive companion. We +propose that the following question be now put to vote. Shall the +practice of prompting in the classes be any longer continued? + +"We would propose that we have a composition exercise _this_ week +similar to the one on Thursday last. It was very interesting, and we +think all would be willing to try their thinking powers once more. We +would propose, also, that the readers of the compositions should sit +near the centre of the room, as last week many fine sentences escaped +the ears of those seated in the remote corners. + +"We were requested by a very public-spirited individual to mention once +more the want of three nails, for bonnets, in the entry. Also, to say +that the air from the broken pane of glass on the east side of the room +is very unpleasant to those who sit near. + +"Proposed that the girls who exhibited so much taste and ingenuity in +the arrangement of the festoons of evergreen, and tumblers of flowers +around the teacher's desk, be now requested to remove the faded roses +and drooping violets. We have gazed on these sad emblems long enough. + +"Finally, proposed that greater care be taken by those who stay at noon +to place their dinner-baskets in proper places. The contents of more +than one were partly strewed upon the entry floor this morning." + +If such a measure as this is adopted, it should not be continued +uninterrupted for a very long time. Every thing of this sort should be +occasionally changed, or it sooner or later becomes only a form. + +14. THE SHOPPING EXERCISE.--I have often, when going a shopping, found +difficulty and trouble in making change. I could never calculate very +readily, and in the hurry and perplexity of the moment I was always +making mistakes. I have heard others often make the same complaint, and +I resolved to try the experiment of regularly teaching children to make +change. I had a bright little class in Arithmetic, the members of which +were always ready to engage with interest in any thing new, and to them +I proposed my plan. It was to be called the Shopping Exercise. I first +requested each individual to write something upon her slate which she +would like to buy, if she was going a shopping, stating the quantity she +wished and the price of it. To make the first lesson as simple as +possible, I requested no one to go above ten, either in the quantity or +price. When all were ready, I called upon some to read what she had +written. Her next neighbor was then requested to tell us how much the +purchase would amount to. Then the first one named a bill, which she +supposed to be offered in payment, and the second showed what change was +needed. A short specimen of the exercise will probably make it clearer +than mere description. + +_Mary_. Eight ounces of candy at seven cents. + +_Susan_. Fifty-six cents. + +_Mary_. One dollar. + +_Susan_. Forty-four cents. + + * * * * * + +_Susan_. Nine yards of lace at eight cents. + +_Anna_. Seventy-two cents. + +_Susan_. Two dollars. + +_Anna_. One dollar and twenty-eight cents. + + * * * * * + +_Anna_. Three pieces of tape at five cents. + +_Jane_. Fifteen cents. + +_Anna_. Three dollars. + +_Jane_. Eighty-five cents. + +_Several voices_. Wrong. + +_Jane_. Two dollars and eighty-five cents. + + * * * * * + +_Jane_. Six pictures at eight cents. + +_Sarah_. Forty-two cents. + +_Several voices_. Wrong. + +_Sarah_. Forty-eight cents. + +_Jane_. One dollar. + +_Sarah_. Sixty-two cents. + +_Several voices_. Wrong. + +_Sarah_. Fifty-two cents. + + * * * * * + +It will be perceived that the same individual who names the article and +the price names also the bill which she would give in payment; and the +one who sits next her, who calculated the amount, calculated also the +change to be returned. She then proposed _her_ example to the one next +in the line, with whom the same course was pursued, and thus it passed +down the class. + +The exercise went on for some time in this way, till the pupils had +become so familiar with it that I thought it best to allow them to take +higher numbers. They were always interested in it, and made great +improvement in a short time, and I myself derived great advantage from +listening to them. + +There is one more circumstance I will add which may contribute to the +interest of this account. While the class were confined, in what they +purchased, to the number ten, they were sometimes inclined to turn the +exercise into a frolic. The variety of articles which they could find +costing less than ten cents was so small, that, for the sake of getting +something new, they would propose examples really ludicrous, such as +these: three meeting-houses at two cents; four pianos at nine cents. But +I soon found that if I allowed this at all, their attention was diverted +from the main object, and occupied in seeking the most diverting and +curious examples. + +15. ARTIFICES IN RECITATIONS.--The teacher of a small newly-established +school had all of his scholars classed together in some of their +studies. At recitations he usually sat in the middle of the room, while +the scholars occupied the usual places at their desks, which were +arranged around the sides. In the recitation in Rhetoric, the teacher, +after a time, observed that one or two of the class seldom answered +appropriately the questions which came to them, but yet were always +ready with some kind of answer--generally an exact quotation of the +words of the book. Upon noticing these individuals more particularly, he +was convinced that their books were open before them in some concealed +situation. Another practice not uncommon in the class was that of +_prompting_ each other, either by whispers or writing. The teacher took +no notice publicly of these practices for some time, until, at the close +of an uncommonly good recitation, he remarked, "I think we have had a +fine recitation to-day. It is one of the most agreeable things that I +ever do to hear a lesson that is learned as well as this. Do you think +it would be possible for us to have as good an exercise every day?" +"Yes, sir," answered several, faintly. "Do you think it would be +reasonable for me to expect of every member of the class that she should +always be able to recite all her lessons without ever missing a single +question?" "No, sir," answered all. "I do not expect it," said the +teacher. "All I wish is that each of you should be faithful in your +efforts to prepare your lessons. I wish you to study from a sense of +duty, and for the sake of your own improvement. You know I do not punish +you for failures. I have no going up or down, no system of marking. Your +only reward, when you have made faithful preparation for a recitation, +is the feeling of satisfaction which you will always experience; and +when you have been negligent, your only punishment is a sort of uneasy +feeling of self-reproach. I do not expect you all to be invariably +prepared with every question of your lessons. Sometimes you will be +unavoidably prevented from studying them, and at other times, when you +have studied them very carefully, you may have forgotten, or you may +fail from some misapprehension of the meaning in some cases. Do not, in +such a case, feel troubled because you may not have appeared as well as +some individual who has not been half as faithful as yourself. If you +have done your duty, that is enough. On the other hand, you ought to +feel no better satisfied with yourselves when your lesson has not been +studied well, because you may have happened to know the parts which came +to you. Have I _done_ well? should always be the question, not, Have I +managed to _appear_ well? + +"I will say a word here," continued the teacher, "upon a practice which +I have known to be very common in some schools, and which I have been +sorry to notice occasionally in this. I mean that of prompting, or +helping each other along in some way at recitations. Now where a severe +punishment is the consequence of a failure, there might seem to be some +reasonableness in helping your companions out of difficulty, though even +then such tricks are departures from honorable dealing. But, especially +where there is no purpose to be served but that of appearing to know +more than you do, it certainly must be considered a very mean kind of +artifice. I think I have sometimes observed an individual to be prompted +where evidently the assistance was not desired, and even where it was +not needed. To whisper to an individual the answer to a question is +sometimes to pay her rather a poor compliment at least, for it is the +same as saying 'I am a better scholar than you are; let me help you +along a little.' + +"Let us then, hereafter, have only fair, open, honest dealings with each +other; no attempts to appear to advantage by little artful manoeuvring; +no prompting; no peeping into books. Be faithful and conscientious, and +then banish anxiety for your success. Do you not think you will find +this the best course?" "Yes, sir," answered every scholar. "Are you +willing to pledge yourselves to adopt it?" "Yes, sir." "Those who are +may raise their hands," said the teacher. Every hand was raised; and the +pledge, there was evidence to believe, was honorably sustained. + +16. KEEPING RESOLUTIONS.--The following are notes of a familiar lecture +on this subject, given by a teacher at some general exercise in the +school. The practice of thus reducing to writing what the teacher may +say on such subjects will be attended with excellent effects. + +This is a subject upon which young persons find much difficulty. The +question is asked a thousand times, "How shall I ever learn to keep my +resolutions?" Perhaps the great cause of your failures is this. You are +not sufficiently _definite_ in forming your purposes. You will resolve +to do a thing without knowing with certainty whether it is even possible +to do it. Again, you make resolutions which are to run on indefinitely, +so that, of course, they can never be fully kept. For instance, one of +you will resolve to _rise earlier in the morning._ You fix upon no +definite hour, on any definite number of mornings, only you are going +to "_rise earlier_." Morning comes, and finds you sleepy and disinclined +to rise. You remember your resolution of rising earlier. "But then it is +_very_ early," you say. You resolved to rise earlier, but you didn't +resolve to rise just then. And this, it may be, is the last of your +resolution. Or perhaps you are, for a few mornings, a little earlier; +but then, at the end of a week or fortnight, you do not know exactly +whether your resolution has been broken or kept, for you had not decided +whether to rise earlier for ten days or for ten years. + +In the same vague and general manner, a person will resolve to be _more +studious_ or more diligent. In the case of an individual of a mature and +well-disciplined mind, of acquired firmness of character, such a +resolution might have effect. The individual will really devote more +time and attention to his pursuits. But for one of you to make such a +resolution would do no sort of good. It would only be a source of +trouble and disquiet. You perceive there is nothing definite--nothing +fixed about it. You have not decided what amount of additional time or +attention to give to your studies, or when you will begin, or when you +will end. There is no one time when you will feel that you are breaking +your resolution, because there were no particular times when you were to +study more. You waste one opportunity and another, and then, with a +feeling of discouragement and self-reproach, conclude to abandon your +resolution. "Oh! It does no good to make resolutions," you say; "I never +shall keep them." + +Now, if you would have the business of making resolutions a pleasant and +interesting instead of a discouraging, disquieting one, you must proceed +in a different manner. Be definite and distinct in your plan; decide +exactly what you will do, and how you will do it--when you will begin, +and when you will end. Instead of resolving to "rise earlier," resolve +to rise at the ringing of the sunrise bells, or at some other definite +time. Resolve to try this, as an experiment, for one morning, or for one +week, or fortnight. Decide positively, if you decide at all, and then +rise when the time comes, sleepy or not sleepy. Do not stop to repent of +your resolution, or to consider the wisdom or folly of it, when the time +for acting under it has once arrived. + +In all cases, little and great, make this a principle--to consider well +before you begin to act, but after you have begun to act, never stop to +consider. Resolve as deliberately as you please, but be sure to keep +your resolution, whether a wise one or an unwise one, after it is once +made. Never allow yourself to reconsider the question of getting up, +after the morning has come, except it be for some unforeseen +circumstance. Get up for that time, and be more careful how you make +resolutions again. + +17. TOPICS.--The plan of the Topic Exercise, as we called it, is this. +Six or seven topics are given out, information upon which is to be +obtained from any source, and communicated verbally before the whole +school, or sometimes before a class formed for this purpose the next +day. The subjects are proposed both by teacher and scholars, and if +approved, adopted. The exercise is intended to be voluntary, but ought +to be managed in a way sufficiently interesting to induce all to join. + +At the commencement of the exercise the teacher calls upon all who have +any information in regard to the topic assigned--suppose, for example, +it is _Alabaster_--to rise. Perhaps twenty individuals out of forty +rise. The teacher may perhaps say to those in their seats, + +"Do you not know any thing of this subject? Have you neither seen nor +heard of alabaster, and had no means of ascertaining any thing in regard +to it? If you have, you ought to rise. It is not necessary that you +should state a fact altogether new and unheard-of, but if you tell me +its color, or some of the uses to which it is applied, you will be +complying with my request." + +After these remarks, perhaps a few more rise, and possibly the whole +school. Individuals are then called upon at random, each to state only +one particular in regard to the topic in question. This arrangement is +made so as to give all an opportunity to speak. If any scholar, after +having mentioned one fact, has something still farther to communicate, +she remains standing till called upon again. As soon as an individual +has exhausted her stock of information, or if the facts that she +intended to mention are stated by another, she takes her seat. + +The topics at first most usually selected are the common objects by +which we are surrounded--for example, glass, iron, mahogany, and the +like. The list will gradually extend itself, until it will embrace a +large number of subjects. + +The object of this exercise is to induce pupils to seek for general +information in an easy and pleasant manner, as by the perusal of books, +newspapers, periodicals, and conversation with friends. It induces care +and attention in reading, and discrimination in selecting the most +useful and important facts from the mass of information. As individuals +are called upon, also, to express their ideas _verbally_, they soon +acquire by practice the power of expressing them with clearness and +force, and communicating with ease and confidence the knowledge they +possess. + +18. Music.--The girls of our school often amused themselves in recess by +collecting into little groups for singing. As there seemed to be a +sufficient power of voice, and a respectable number who were willing to +join in the performance, it was proposed one day that singing should be +introduced as a part of the devotional exercises of the school. + +The first attempt nearly resulted in a failure; only a few trembling +voices succeeded in singing Old Hundred to the words "Be thou," etc. On +the second day Peterborough was sung with much greater confidence on the +part of the increased number of singers. The experiment was tried with +greater and greater success for several days, when the teacher proposed +that a systematic plan should be formed, by which there might be singing +regularly at the close of school. It was then proposed that a number of +singing-books be obtained, and one of the scholars, who was well +acquainted with common tunes, be appointed as chorister. Her duty should +be to decide what particular tune may be sung each day, inform the +teacher of the metre of the hymn, and take the lead in the exercise. +This plan, being approved of by the scholars, was adopted, and put into +immediate execution. Several brought copies of the Sabbath School +Hymn-Book, which they had in their possession, and the plan succeeded +beyond all expectation. The greatest difficulty in the way was to get +some one to lead. The chorister, however, was somewhat relieved from the +embarrassment which she would naturally feel in making a beginning by +the appointment of one or two individuals with herself, who were to act +as her assistants. These constituted the _leading_ committee, or, as it +was afterward termed, _Singing Committee_. + +Singing now became a regular and interesting exercise of the school, and +the committee succeeded in managing the business themselves. + +19. TABU.--An article was one day read in a school relating to the +"Tabu" of the Sandwich Islanders. Tabu is a term with them which +signifies consecrated--not to be touched--to be let alone--not to be +violated. Thus, according to their religious observances, a certain day +will be proclaimed _Tabu_; that is, one upon which there is to be no +work or no going out. + +A few days after this article was read, the scholars observed one +morning a flower stuck up in a conspicuous place against the wall, with +the word TABU in large characters above it. This excited considerable +curiosity. The teacher informed them, in explanation, that the flower +was a very rare and beautiful specimen, brought by one of the scholars, +which he wished all to examine. "You would naturally feel a disposition +to examine it by the touch," said he, "but you will all see that, by the +time it was touched by sixty individuals, it would be likely to be +injured, if not destroyed. So I concluded to label it _Tabu_. And it has +occurred to me that this will be a convenient mode of apprising you +generally that any article must not be handled. You know we sometimes +have some apparatus exposed, which would be liable to injury from +disturbance, where there are so many persons to touch it. I shall, in +such a case, just mention that an article is Tabu, and you will +understand that it is not only not to be _injured_, but not even +_touched_." + +A little delicate management of this sort will often have more influence +over young persons than the most vehement scolding, or the most watchful +and jealous precautions. The Tabu was always most scrupulously regarded, +after this, whenever employed. + +20. MENTAL ANALYSIS.--Scene, a class in Arithmetic at recitation. The +teacher gives them an example in addition, requesting them, when they +have performed it, to rise. Some finish it very soon, others are very +slow in accomplishing the work. + +"I should like to ascertain," says the teacher, "how great is the +difference of rapidity with which different members of the class work in +addition. I will give you another example, and then notice by my watch +the shortest and longest time required to do it." + +The result of the experiment was that some members of the class were two +or three times as long in doing it as others. + +"Perhaps you think," said the teacher, "that this difference is +altogether owing to difference of skill; but it is not. It is mainly +owing to the different methods adopted by various individuals. I am +going to describe some of these, and, as I describe them, I wish you +would notice them carefully, and tell me which you practice." + +There are, then, three modes of adding up a column of figures, which I +shall describe. + +1. I shall call the first _counting_. You take the first figure, and +then add the next to it by counting up regularly. There are three +distinct ways of doing this. + +(a.) "Counting by your fingers." ("Yes, sir.") "You take the first +figure--suppose it is seven--and the one above it, eight. Now you +recollect that to add eight, you must count all the fingers of one +hand, and all but two again. So you say 'seven--eight, nine, ten, +eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen.'" + +"Yes, sir, yes, sir," said the scholars. + +(b.) The next mode of counting is to do it mentally, without using your +fingers at all; but, as it is necessary for you to have some plan to +secure your adding the right number, you divide the units into sets of +two each. Thus you remember that eight consists of four twos, and you +accordingly say, when adding eight to seven, 'Seven; eight, nine; ten, +eleven; twelve, thirteen,' &c. + +(c.) "The third mode is to add by threes in the same way. You recollect +that eight consists of two threes and a two; so you say, 'Seven; eight, +nine, ten; eleven, twelve, thirteen; fourteen, fifteen.'" + +The teacher here stops to ascertain how many of the class are accustomed +to add in either of these modes. It is a majority. + +2. The next general method is _calculating_; that is, you do not unite +one number to another by the dull and tedious method of applying the +units, one by one, as in the ways described under the preceding head, +but you come to a result more rapidly by some mode of calculating. These +modes are several. + +(a.) "Doubling a number, and then adding or subtracting, as the case may +require. For instance, in the example already specified, in order to add +seven and eight, you say, 'Twice seven are fourteen, and one are +fifteen'" ("Yes, sir, yes, sir"); "or, 'Twice eight are sixteen, and +taking one off leaves fifteen." ("Yes, sir.") + +(b.) Another way of calculating is to skip about the column, adding +those numbers which you can combine most easily, and then bringing in +the rest as you best can. Thus, if you see three eights in one column, +you say, 'Three times eight are twenty-four,' and then you try to bring +in the other numbers. Often, in such cases, you forget what you have +added and what you have not, and get confused ("Yes, sir"), or you omit +something in your work, and consequently it is incorrect. + +(c.) If nines occur, you sometimes add ten, and then take off one, for +it is very easy to add ten. + +(d.) Another method of calculating, which is, however, not very common, +is this: to take our old case, adding eight to seven, you take as much +from the eight to add to the seven as will be sufficient to make ten, +and then it will be easy to add the rest. Thus you think in a minute +that three from the eight will make the seven a ten, and then there will +be five more to add, which will make fifteen. If the next number was +seven, you would say five of it will make twenty, and then there will be +two left, which will make twenty-two.' This mode, though it may seem +more intricate than any of the others, is, in fact, more rapid than any +of them, when one is a little accustomed to it. + +"These are the four principal modes of calculating which occur to me. +Pupils do not generally practice any of them exclusively, but +occasionally resort to each, according to the circumstances of the +particular case." + +The teacher here stopped to inquire how many of the class were +accustomed to add by calculating in either of these ways or in any +simpler ways. + +3. "There is one more mode which I shall describe: it is by _memory_. +Before I explain this mode, I wish to ask you some questions, which I +should like to have you answer as quick as you can. + +"How much is four times five? Four _and_ five? + +"How much is seven times nine? Seven _and_ nine? + +"Eight times six? Eight _and_ six? + +"Nine times seven? Nine _and_ seven?" + +After asking a few questions of this kind, it was perceived that the +pupils could tell much more readily what was the result when the +numbers were to be multiplied than when they were to be added. + +"The reason is," said the teacher, "because you committed the +multiplication table to memory, and have not committed the addition +table. Now many persons have committed the addition table, so that it is +perfectly familiar to them, and when they see any two numbers, the +amount which is produced when they are added together comes to mind in +an instant. Adding in this way is the last of the three modes I was to +describe. + +"Now of these three methods the last is undoubtedly the best. If you +once commit the addition table thoroughly, you have it fixed for life; +whereas if you do not, you have to make the calculation over again every +time, and thus lose a vast amount of labor. I have no doubt that there +are some in this class who are in the habit of _counting_, who have +ascertained that seven and eight, for instance, make fifteen, by +counting up from seven to fifteen _hundreds of times_. Now how much +better it would be to spend a little time in fixing the fact in the mind +once for all, and then, when you come to the case, seven and eight +are--say at once 'Fifteen,' instead of mumbling over and over again, +hundreds of times, 'Seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, +fourteen, fifteen.' + +"The reason, then, that some of the class add so slowly, is not, +probably, because they want skill and rapidity of execution, but because +they work to a great disadvantage by working in the wrong way. I have +often been surprised at the dexterity and speed with which some scholars +can count with their fingers when adding, and yet they could not get +through the sum very quick--at least they would have done it in half the +time if the same effort had been made in traveling on a shorter road. We +will therefore study the addition table now, in the class, before we go +any farther." + +21. TARDINESS.--When only a few scholars in a school are tardy, it may +be their fault; but if a great many are so, it is the fault of the +teacher or of the school. If a school is prosperous, and the children +are going on well and happily in their studies, they will like their +work in it; but we all come reluctantly to work which we are conscious +we are not successfully performing. + +There may be two boys in a school, both good boys; one, may be going on +well in his classes, while the other, from the concurrence of some +accidental train of circumstances, may be behindhand in his work, or +wrongly classed, or so situated in other respects that his school duties +perplex and harass him day by day. Now how different will be the +feelings of these two boys in respect to coming to school. The one will +be eager and prompt to reach his place and commence his duties, while +the other will love much better to loiter in idleness and liberty in the +open air. Nor is he, under the circumstances of the case, to blame for +this preference. There is no one, old or young, who likes or can like to +do what he himself and all around him think that he does not do well. It +is true the teacher can not rely wholly on the interest which his +scholars take in their studies to make them punctual at school; but if +he finds among them any very general disposition to be tardy, he ought +to seek for the fault mainly in himself and not in them. + +The foregoing narratives and examples, it is hoped, may induce some of +the readers of this book to keep journals of their own experiments, and +of the incidents which may, from time to time, come under their notice, +illustrating the principles of education, or simply the characteristics +and tendencies of the youthful mind. The business of teaching will +excite interest and afford pleasure just in proportion to the degree in +which it is conducted by operations of mind upon mind, and the means of +making it most fully so are careful practice, based upon and regulated +by the results of careful observation. Every teacher, then, should make +observations and experiments upon mind a part of his daily duty, and +nothing will more facilitate this than keeping a record of results. +There can be no opportunity for studying human nature more favorable +than the teacher enjoys. The materials are all before him; his very +business, from day to day, brings him to act directly upon them; and the +study of the powers and tendencies of the human mind is not only the +most interesting and the noblest that can engage human attention, but +every step of progress he makes in it imparts an interest and charm to +what would otherwise be a weary toil. It at once relieves his labors, +while it doubles their efficiency and success. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +THE TEACHER'S FIRST DAY. + +[Illustration] + +The teacher enters upon the duties of his office by a much more sudden +transition than is common in the other avocations and employments of +life. In ordinary cases, business comes at first by slow degrees, and +the beginner is introduced to the labors and responsibilities of his +employment in a very gradual manner. The young teacher, however, enters +by a single step into the very midst of his labors. Having, perhaps, +never even heard a class recite before, he takes a short walk some +winter morning, and suddenly finds himself instated at the desk, his +fifty scholars around him, all looking him in the face, and waiting to +be employed. Every thing comes upon him at once. He can do nothing until +the day and the hour for opening the school arrives--then he has every +thing to do. + +Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that the young teacher +should look forward with unusual solicitude to his first day in school, +and he desires, ordinarily, special instructions in respect to this +occasion. Some such special instructions we propose to give in this +chapter. The experienced teacher may think some of them too minute and +trivial. But he must remember that they are intended for the youngest +beginner in the humblest school; and if he recalls to mind his own +feverish solicitude on the morning when he went to take his first +command in the district school, he will pardon the seeming minuteness of +detail. + +1. It will be well for the young teacher to take opportunity, between +the time of his engaging his school and that of his commencing it, to +acquire as much information in respect to it beforehand as possible, so +as to be somewhat acquainted with the scene of his labors before +entering upon it. Ascertain the names and the characters of the +principal families in the district, their ideas and wishes in respect to +the government of the school, the kind of management adopted by one or +two of the last teachers, the difficulties they fell into, the nature of +the complaints made against them, if any, and the families with whom +difficulty has usually arisen. This information must, of course, be +obtained in private conversation; a good deal of it must be, from its +very nature, highly confidential; but it is very important that the +teacher should be possessed of it. He will necessarily become possessed +of it by degrees in the course of his administration, when, however, it +may be too late to be of any service to him. But, by judicious and +proper efforts to acquire it beforehand, he will enter upon the +discharge of his duties with great advantage. It is like a navigator's +becoming acquainted beforehand with the nature and the dangers of the +sea over which he is about to sail. + +Such inquiries as these will, in ordinary cases, bring to the teacher's +knowledge, in most districts in our country, some cases of peculiarly +troublesome scholars, or unreasonable and complaining parents; and +stories of their unjustifiable conduct on former occasions will come to +him exaggerated by the jealousy of rival neighbors. There is danger that +his resentment may be roused a little, and that his mind will assume a +hostile attitude at once toward such individuals, so that he will enter +upon his work rather with a desire to seek a collision with them, or, at +least, with secret feelings of defiance toward them--feelings which will +lead to that kind of unbending perpendicularity in his demeanor toward +them which will almost inevitably lead to a collision. Now this is +wrong. There is, indeed, a point where firm resistance to unreasonable +demands becomes a duty; but, as a general principle, it is most +unquestionably true that it is the teacher's duty _to accommodate +himself to the character and expectations of his employers_, not to face +and brave them. Those italicized words _may be_ understood to mean +something which would be entirely wrong; but in the sense in which I +mean to use them there can be no question that they indicate the proper +path for one employed by others to do work _for them_ in all cases to +pursue. If, therefore, the teacher finds by his inquiries into the state +of his district that there are some peculiar difficulties and dangers +there, let him not cherish a disposition to face and resist them, but to +avoid them. Let him go with an intention to soothe rather than to +irritate feelings which have been wounded before, to comply with the +wishes of all so far as he can, even if they are not entirely +reasonable, and, while he endeavors to elevate the standard and correct +the opinions prevailing among his employers by any means in his power, +to aim at doing it gently, and in a tone and manner suitable to the +relation he sustains--in a word, let him skillfully _avoid_ the dangers +of his navigation, not obstinately run his ship against a rock on +purpose on the ground that the rock has no business to be there. + +This is the spirit, then, with which these preliminary inquiries in +regard to the patrons of the school ought to be made. We come now to a +second point. + +2. It will assist the young teacher very much in his first day's labors +if he takes measures for seeing and conversing with some of the older or +more intelligent scholars on the day or evening before he begins his +school, with a view of obtaining from them some acquaintance with the +internal arrangements and customs of the school. The object of this is +to obtain the same kind of information with respect to the interior of +the school that was recommended in respect to the district under the +former head. He may call upon a few families, especially those which +furnish a large number of scholars for the school, and make as many +minute inquiries of them as he can respecting all the interior +arrangements to which they have been accustomed, what reading-books and +other text-books have been used, what are the principal classes in all +the several departments of instruction, and what is the system of +discipline, and of rewards and punishments, to which the school has been +accustomed. + +If, in such conversations, the teacher should find a few intelligent and +communicative scholars, he might learn a great deal about the past +habits and condition of the school, which would be of great service to +him. Not, by any means, that he will adopt and continue these methods as +a matter of course, but only that a knowledge of them will render him +very important aid in marking out his own course. The more minute and +full the information of this sort is which he thus obtains, the better. +If practicable, it would be well to make out a catalogue of all the +principal classes, with the names of those individuals belonging to them +who will probably attend the new school, and the order in which they +were usually called upon to read or recite. The conversation which would +be necessary to accomplish this would of itself be of great service. It +would bring the teacher into an acquaintance with several important +families and groups of children under the most favorable circumstances. +The parents would see and be pleased with the kind of interest they +would see the teacher taking in his new duties. The children would be +pleased to be able to render their new instructor some service, and +would go to the school-room on the next morning with a feeling of +acquaintance with him, and a predisposition to be pleased. And if by +chance any family should be thus called upon that had heretofore been +captious or complaining, or disposed to be jealous of the higher +importance or influence of other families, that spirit would be entirely +softened and subdued by such an interview with their new instructor at +their own fireside on the evening preceding the commencement of his +labors. The great object, however, which the teacher would have in view +in such inquiries should be the value of the information itself. As to +the use which he will make of it, we shall speak hereafter. + +3. It is desirable that the young teacher should meet his scholars first +in an unofficial capacity. For this purpose, repair to the school-room +on the first day at an early hour, so as to see and become acquainted +with the scholars as they come in one by one. The intercourse between +teacher and pupil should be like that between parents and children, +where the utmost freedom is united with the most perfect respect. The +father who is most firm and decisive in his family government can mingle +most freely in the conversation and sports of his children without any +derogation of his authority, or diminution of the respect they owe. +Young teachers, however, are prone to forget this, and to imagine that +they must assume an appearance of stern authority always, when in the +presence of their scholars, if they wish to be respected or obeyed. This +they call keeping up their dignity. Accordingly, they wait, on the +morning of their induction into office, until their new subjects are all +assembled, and then walk in with an air of the highest dignity, and with +the step of a king; and sometimes a formidable instrument of discipline +is carried in the hand to heighten the impression. Now there is no +question that it is of great importance that scholars should have a high +idea of the teacher's firmness and inflexible decision in maintaining +his authority and repressing all disorder of every kind, but this +impression should be created by their seeing how he _acts_ in the +various emergencies which will spontaneously occur, and not by assuming +airs of importance or dignity, feigned for effect. In other words, their +respect for him should be based on _real traits_ of character as they +see them brought out into natural action, and not on appearances assumed +for the occasion. + +It seems to me, therefore, that it is best for the teacher first to meet +his scholars with the air and tone of free and familiar intercourse, and +he will find his opportunity more favorable for doing this if he goes +early on the first morning of his labors, and converses freely with +those whom he finds there, and with others as they come in. He may take +an interest with them in all the little arrangements connected with the +opening of the school--the building of the fire, the paths through the +snow, the arrangements of seats; calling upon them for information or +aid, asking their names, and, in a word, entering fully and freely into +conversation with them, just as a parent, under similar circumstances, +would do with his children. All the children thus addressed will be +pleased with the gentleness and affability of the teacher. Even a rough +and ill-natured boy, who has perhaps come to the school with the express +determination of attempting to make mischief, will be completely +disarmed by being asked politely to help the teacher arrange the fire, +or alter the position of his desk. Thus, by means of the half hour +during which the scholars are coming together, and of the visits made in +the preceding evening, as described under the last head, the teacher +will find, when he calls upon the children to take their seats, that he +has made a very large number of them his personal friends. Many of these +will have communicated their first impressions to the others, so that he +will find himself possessed, at the outset, of that which is of vital +consequence in the opening of any administration--a strong party in his +favor. + +4. The time for calling the school to order and commencing exercises of +some sort will at length arrive, though if the work of making personal +acquaintances is going on prosperously, it may perhaps be delayed a +little beyond the usual hour. When, however, the time arrives, we would +strongly recommend that the first service by which the regular duties of +the school are commenced should be an act of religious worship. There +are many reasons why the exercises of the school should every day be +thus commenced, and there are special reasons for it on the first day. + +There are very few districts where parents would have any objection to +this. They might, indeed, in some cases, if the subject were to be +brought up formally before them as a matter of doubt, anticipate some +difficulties, or create imaginary ones, growing out of the supposed +sensitiveness of contending sects; but if the teacher were, of his own +accord, to commence the plain, faithful, and honest discharge of this +duty as a matter of course, very few would think of making any objection +to it, and almost all would be satisfied and pleased with its actual +operation. If, however, the teacher should, in any case, have reason to +believe that such a practice would be contrary to the wishes of his +employers, it would, according to views we have presented in another +chapter, be wrong for him to attempt to introduce it. He might, if he +should see fit, make such an objection a reason for declining to take +the school; but he ought not, if he takes it, to act counter to the +known wishes of his employers in so important a point. But if, on the +other hand, no such objections are made known to him, he need not raise +the question himself at all, but take it for granted that in a Christian +land there will be no objection to imploring the Divine protection and +blessing at the opening of a daily school. + +If this practice is adopted, it will have a most powerful influence upon +the moral condition of the school. It must be so. Though many will be +inattentive, and many utterly unconcerned, yet it is not possible to +bring children, even in form, into the presence of God every day, and +to utter in their hearing the petitions which they ought to present, +without bringing a powerful element of moral influence to bear upon +their hearts. The good will be made better; the conscientious more +conscientious still; and the rude and savage will be subdued and +softened by the daily attempt to lead them to the throne of their +Creator. To secure this effect, the devotional service must be an honest +one. There must be nothing feigned or hypocritical; no hackneyed phrases +used without meaning, or intonations of assumed solemnity. It must be +honest, heartfelt, simple prayer; the plain and direct expression of +such sentiments as children ought to feel, and of such petitions as they +ought to offer. We shall speak presently of the mode of avoiding some +abuses to which this exercise is liable; but if these sources of abuse +are avoided, and the duty is performed in that plain, simple, direct, +and honest manner in which it certainly will be if it springs from the +heart, it must have a great influence on the moral progress of the +children, and, in fact, in all respects on the prosperity of the school. + +But, then, independently of the _advantages_ which may be expected to +result from the practice of daily prayer in school, it would seem to be +the imperious _duty_ of the teacher to adopt it. So many human minds +committed thus to the guidance of one, at a period when the character +receives so easily and so permanently its shape and direction, and in a +world of probation like this, is an occasion which seems to demand the +open recognition of the hand of God on the part of any individual to +whom such a trust is committed. The duty springs so directly out of the +attitude in which the teacher and pupil stand in respect to each other, +and the relation they together bear to the Supreme, that it would seem +impossible for any one to hesitate to admit the duty, without denying +altogether the existence of a God. + +How vast the responsibility _of giving form and character to the human +soul!_ How mighty the influence of which the unformed minds of a group +of children are susceptible! How much their daily teacher must +inevitably exert upon them! If we admit the existence of God at all, and +that he exerts any agency whatever in the moral world which he has +produced, here seems to be one of the strongest cases in which his +intervention should be sought. And then, when we reflect upon the +influence which would be exerted upon the future religious character of +this nation by having the millions of children training up in the +schools accustomed, through all the years of early life, to being +brought daily into the presence of the Supreme, with thanksgiving, +confession, and prayer, it can hardly seem possible that the teacher who +wishes to be faithful in his duties should hesitate in regard to this. +Some teacher may perhaps say that he can not perform it because he is +not a religious man--he makes no pretensions to piety. But this can +surely be no reason. He _ought to be_ a religious man, and his first +prayer offered in school may be the first act by which he becomes so. +Entering the service of Jehovah is a work which requires no preliminary +steps. It is to be done at once by sincere confession, and an honest +prayer for forgiveness for the past, and strength for time to come. A +daily religious service in school may be, therefore, the outward act by +which he, who has long lived without God, may return to his duty. + +If, from such considerations, the teacher purposes to have a daily +religious service in his school, he should by all means begin on the +first day, and when he first calls his school to order. He should +mention to his pupils the great and obvious duty of imploring God's +guidance and blessing in all their ways, and then read a short portion +of Scripture, with an occasional word or two of simple explanation, and +offer, himself, a short and simple prayer. In some cases, teachers are +disposed to postpone this duty a day or two, from timidity or other +causes, hoping that, after becoming acquainted a little with the +school, and having completed their more important arrangements, they +shall find it easier to begin. But this is a great mistake. The longer +the duty is postponed, the more difficult and trying it will be. And +then the moral impressions will be altogether more strong and salutary +if an act of solemn religious worship is made the first opening act of +the school. + +Where the teacher has not sufficient confidence that the general sense +of propriety among his pupils will preserve good order and decorum +during the exercise, it may be better for him to _read_ a prayer +selected from books of devotion, or prepared by himself expressly for +the occasion. By this plan his school will be, during the exercise, +under his own observation, as at other times. It may, in some schools +where the number is small, or the prevailing habits of seriousness and +order are good, be well to allow the older scholars to read the prayer +in rotation, taking especial care that it does not degenerate into a +mere reading exercise, but that it is understood, both by readers and +hearers, to be a solemn act of religious worship. In a word, if the +teacher is really honest and sincere in his wish to lead his pupils to +the worship of God, he will find no serious difficulty in preventing the +abuses and avoiding the dangers which some might fear, and in +accomplishing vast good, both in promoting the prosperity of the school, +and in the formation of the highest and best traits of individual +character. + +We have dwelt, perhaps, longer on this subject than we ought to have +done in this place; but its importance, when viewed in its bearings on +the thousands of children daily assembling in our district schools must +be our apology. The embarrassments and difficulties arising from the +extreme sensitiveness which exists among the various denominations of +Christians in our land, threaten to interfere very seriously with giving +a proper degree of religious instruction to the mass of the youthful +population. But we must not, because we have no national _church_, +cease to have a national _religion_. All our institutions ought to be so +administered as openly to recognize the hand of God, and to seek his +protection and blessing; and in regard to none is it more imperiously +necessary than in respect to our common schools. + +5. After the school is thus opened, the teacher will find himself +brought to the great difficulty which embarrasses the beginning of his +labors, namely, that of finding immediate employment at once for the +thirty or forty children who all look up to him waiting for their +orders. I say thirty or forty, for the young teachers first school will +usually be a small one. His object should be, in all ordinary cases, for +the first few days, twofold: first, to revive and restore, in the main, +the general routine of classes and exercises pursued by his predecessor +in the same school; and, secondly, while doing this, to become as fully +acquainted with his scholars as possible. + +It is best, then, _ordinarily_, for the teacher to begin the school as +his predecessor closed it, and make the transition to his own perhaps +more improved method a gradual one. In some cases a different course is +wise undoubtedly, as, for example, where a teacher is commencing a +private school, on a previously well-digested plan of his own, or where +one who has had experience, and has confidence in his power to bring his +new pupils promptly and at once into the system of classification and +instruction which he prefers. It is difficult, however, to do this, and +requires a good deal of address and decision. It is far easier and +safer, and in almost all cases better, in every respect, for a young +teacher to revive and restore the former arrangements in the main, and +take his departure from them. He may afterward make changes, as he may +find them necessary or desirable, and even bring the school soon into a +very different state from that in which he finds it; but it will +generally be more pleasant for himself, and better for the school, to +avoid the shock of a sudden and entire revolution. + +The first thing, then, when the scholars are ready to be employed, is +to set them at work in classes or upon lessons, as they would have been +employed had the former teacher continued in charge of the school. To +illustrate clearly how this may be done, we may give the following +dialogue: + +_Teacher_. Can any one of the boys inform me what was the first lesson +that the former master used to hear in the morning? + +The boys are silent, looking to one another. + +_Teacher_. Did he hear _any_ recitation immediately after school began? + +_Boys_ (faintly, and with hesitation). No, sir. + +_Teacher_. How long was it before he began to hear lessons? + +Several boys simultaneously. "About half an hour." "A little while." +"Quarter of an hour." + +"What did he do at this time?" + +"Set copies," "Looked over sums," and various other answers are perhaps +given. + +The teacher makes a memorandum of this, and then inquires, + +"And what lesson came after this?" + +"Geography." + +"All the boys in this school who studied Geography may rise." + +A considerable number rise. + +"Did you all recite together?" + +"No, sir." + +"There are two classes, then?" + +"Yes. sir." "Yes, sir." "More than two." + +"All who belong to the class that recites first in the morning may +remain standing; the rest may sit." + +The boys obey, and eight or ten of them remain standing. The teacher +calls upon one of them to produce his book, and assigns them a lesson in +regular course. He then requests some one of the number to write out, in +the course of the day, a list of the class, and to bring it with him to +the recitation the next morning. + +"Are there any other scholars in the school who think it would be well +for them to join this class?" + +In answer to this question probably some new scholars might rise, or +some hitherto belonging to other classes, who might be of suitable age +and qualifications to be transferred. If these individuals should appear +to be of the proper standing and character, they might at once be joined +to the class in question, and directed to take the same lesson. + +In the same manner, the other classes would pass in review before the +teacher, and he would obtain a memorandum of the usual order of +exercises, and in a short time set all his pupils at work preparing for +the lessons of the next day. He would be much aided in this by the +previous knowledge which he would have obtained by private conversation, +as recommended under a former head. Some individual cases would require +a little special attention, such as new scholars, small children, and +others; but he would be able, before a great while, to look around him +and see his whole school busy with the work he had assigned them, and +his own time, for the rest of the morning, in a great degree at his own +command. + +I ought to say, however, that it is not probable that he would long +continue these arrangements unaltered. In hearing the different classes +recite, he would watch for opportunities for combining them, or +discontinuing those where the number was small; he would alter the times +of recitation, and group individual scholars into classes, so as to +bring the school, in a very short time, into a condition corresponding +more nearly with his own views. All this can be done very easily and +pleasantly when the wheels are once in motion; for a school is like a +ship in one respect--most easily steered in the right direction when +under sail. + +By this plan, also, the teacher obtains what is almost absolutely +necessary at the commencement of his labors, time for _observation_. It +is of the first importance that he should become acquainted, as early as +possible, with the characters of the boys, especially to learn who those +are which are most likely to be troublesome. There always will be a few +who will require special watch and care, and generally there will be +only a few. A great deal depends on finding these individuals out in +good season, and bringing the pressure of a proper authority to bear +upon them soon. By the plan I have recommended of not attempting to +remodel the school wholly at once, the teacher obtains time for noticing +the pupils, and learning something about their individual characters. In +fact, so important is this, that it is the plan of some teachers, +whenever they commence a new school, to let the boys have their own way, +almost entirely, for a few days, in order to find out fully who the idle +and mischievous are. This is, perhaps, going a little too far; but it is +certainly desirable to enjoy as many opportunities for observation as +can be secured on the first few days of the school. + +6. Make it, then, a special object of attention, during the first day or +two, to discover who the idle and mischievous individuals are. They will +have generally seated themselves together in little knots; for, as they +are aware that the new teacher does not know them, they will imagine +that, though perhaps separated before, they can now slip together again +without any trouble. It is best to avoid, if possible, an open collision +with any of them at once, in order that they may be the better observed. +Whenever, therefore, you see idleness or play, endeavor to remedy the +evil for the time by giving the individual something special to do, or +by some other measure, without, however, seeming to notice the +misconduct. Continue thus adroitly to stop every thing disorderly, +while, at the same time, you notice and remember where the tendencies to +disorder exist. + +By this means, the individuals who would cause most of the trouble and +difficulty in the discipline of the school will soon betray themselves, +and those whose fidelity and good behavior can be relied upon will also +be known. The names of the former should be among the first that the +teacher learns, and their characters should be among the first which he +studies. The most prominent among them--those apparently most likely to +make trouble--he should note particularly, and make inquiries out of +school respecting them, their characters, and their education at home, +so as to become acquainted with them as early and as fully as possible, +for he must have this full acquaintance with them before he is prepared +to commence any decided course of discipline with them. The teacher +often does irreparable injury by rash action at the outset. He sees, for +instance, a boy secretly eating an apple which he has concealed in his +hand, and which he bites with his book before his mouth, or his head +under the lid of his desk. It is perhaps the first day of the school, +and the teacher thinks he had better make an example at the outset, and +calls the boy out, knowing nothing about his general character, and +inflicts some painful or degrading punishment before all the school. A +little afterward, as he becomes gradually acquainted with the boy, he +finds that he is of mild, gentle disposition, generally obedient and +harmless, and that his offense was only an act of momentary +thoughtlessness, arising from some circumstances of peculiar temptation +at the time; a boy in the next seat, perhaps, had just before given him +the apple. The teacher regrets, when too late, the hasty punishment. He +perceives that instead of having the influence of salutary example upon +the other boys, it must have shocked their sense of justice, and excited +dislike toward a teacher so quick and severe, rather than of fear of +doing wrong themselves. It would be safer to postpone such decided +measures a little--to avoid all open collisions, if possible, for a few +days. In such a case as the above, the boy might be kindly spoken to in +an under tone, in such a way as to show both the teacher's sense of the +impropriety of disorder, and also his desire to avoid giving pain to +the boy. If it then turns out that the individual is ordinarily a +well-disposed boy, all is right, and if he proves to be habitually +disobedient and troublesome, the lenity and forbearance exercised at +first will facilitate the effect aimed at by subsequent measures. Avoid, +then, for the few first days, all open collision with any of your +pupils, that you may have opportunity for minute and thorough +observation. + +And here the young teacher ought to be cautioned against a fault which +beginners are very prone to fall into, that of forming unfavorable +opinions of some of their pupils from their air and manner before they +see any thing in their conduct which ought to be disapproved. A boy or +girl comes to the desk to ask a question or make a request, and the +teacher sees in the cast of countenance, or in the bearing or tone of +the individual, something indicating a proud, or a sullen, or an +ill-humored disposition, and conceives a prejudice, often entirely +without foundation, which weeks perhaps do not wear away. Every +experienced teacher can recollect numerous cases of this sort, and he +learns, after a time, to suspend his judgment. Be cautious, therefore, +on this point, and in the survey of your pupils which you make during +the first few days of your school, trust to nothing but the most sure +and unequivocal evidences of character, for many of your most docile and +faithful pupils will be found among those whose appearance at first +prepossessed you strongly against them. + +One other caution ought also to be given. Do not judge too severely in +respect to the ordinary cases of misconduct in school. The young teacher +almost invariably does judge too severely. While engaged himself in +hearing a recitation, or looking over a "sum," he hears a stifled laugh, +and, looking up, sees the little offender struggling with the muscles of +his countenance to restore their gravity. The teacher is vexed at the +interruption, and severely rebukes or punishes the boy, when, after +all, the offense, in a moral point of view, was an exceedingly light +one--at least it might very probably have been so. In fact, a large +proportion of the offenses against order committed in school are the +mere momentary action of the natural buoyancy and life of childhood. +This is no reason why they should be indulged, or why the order and +regularity of the school should be sacrificed, but it should prevent +their exciting feelings of anger or impatience, or very severe +reprehension. While the teacher should take effectual measures for +restraining all such irregularities, he should do it with the tone and +manner which will show that he understands their true moral character, +and deals with them, not as heinous sins, which deserve severe +punishment, but as serious inconveniences, which he is compelled to +repress. + +There are often cases of real moral turpitude in school, such as where +there is intentional, willful mischief, or disturbance, or habitual +disobedience, and there may even be, in some cases, open rebellion. Now +the teacher should show that he distinguishes these cases from such +momentary acts of thoughtlessness as we have described, and a broad +distinction ought to be made in the treatment of them. In a word, then, +what we have been recommending under this head is, that the teacher +should make it his special study, for his first few days in school, to +acquire a knowledge of the characters of his pupils, to learn who are +the thoughtless ones, who the mischievous, and who the disobedient and +rebellious, and to do this with candid, moral discrimination, and with +as little open collision with individuals as possible. + +7. Another point to which the teacher ought to give his early attention +is to separate the bad boys as soon as he can from one another. The +idleness and irregularity of children in school often depends more on +accidental circumstances than on character. Two boys may be individually +harmless and well-disposed, and yet they may be of so mercurial a +temperament that, together, the temptation to continual play will be +irresistible. Another case that more often happens is where one is +actively and even intentionally bad, and is seated next to an innocent, +but perhaps thoughtless boy, and contrives to keep him always in +difficulty. Now remove the former away, where there are no very frail +materials for him to act upon, and place the latter where he is exposed +to no special temptation, and all would be well. + +This is all very obvious, and known familiarly to all teachers who have +had any experience. But beginners are not generally so aware of it at +the outset as to make any direct and systematic efforts to examine the +school with reference to its condition in this respect. It is usual to +go on, leaving the boys to remain seated as chance or their own +inclinations grouped them, and to endeavor to keep the peace among the +various neighborhoods by close supervision, rebukes, and punishment. Now +these difficulties may be very much diminished by looking a little into +the arrangement of the boys at the outset, and so modifying it as to +diminish the amount of temptation to which the individuals are exposed. + +This should be done, however, cautiously, deliberately, and with +good-nature, keeping the object of it a good deal out of view. It must +be done cautiously and deliberately, for the first appearances are +exceedingly fallacious in respect to the characters of the different +children. You see, perhaps, some indications of play between two boys +upon the same seat, and hastily conclude that they are disorderly boys, +and must be separated. Something in the air and manner of one or both of +them confirms this impression, and you take the necessary measures at +once. You then find, when you become more fully acquainted with them, +that the appearances which you observed were only momentary and +accidental, and that they would have been as safe together as any two +boys in the school. And perhaps you will even find that, by their new +position, you have brought one or the other into circumstances of +peculiar temptation. Wait, therefore, before you make such changes, +till you have ascertained _actual character_, doing this, however, +without any unnecessary delay. + +In such removals, too, it is well, in many cases, to keep the motive and +design of them as much as possible out of view; for by expressing +suspicion of a boy, you injure his character in his own opinion and in +that of others, and tend to make him reckless. Besides, if you remove a +boy from a companion whom he likes, avowedly to prevent his playing, you +offer him an inducement, if he is a bad boy, to continue to play in his +new position for the purpose of thwarting you, or from the influence of +resentment. It would be wrong, indeed, to use any subterfuge or +duplicity of any kind to conceal your object, but you are not bound to +explain it; and in the many changes which you will be compelled to make +in the course of the first week for various purposes, you may include +many of these without explaining particularly the design or intention of +any of them. + +In some instances, however, you may frankly state the whole case without +danger, provided it is done in such a manner as not to make the boy feel +that his character is seriously injured in your estimation. It must +depend upon the tact and judgment of the teacher to determine upon the +particular course to be pursued in the several cases, though he ought to +keep these general principles in view in all. + +In one instance, for example, he will see two boys together, James and +Joseph we will call them, exhibiting a tendency to play, and after +inquiring into their characters, he will find that they are +good-natured, pleasant boys, and that he had better be frank with them +on the subject. He calls one of them to his desk, and perhaps the +following dialogue ensues: + +"James, I am making some changes in the seats, and thought of removing +you to another place. Have you any particular preference for that seat?" + +The question is unexpected, and James hesitates. He wishes to sit next +to Joseph, but doubts whether it is quite prudent to avow it; so he +says, slowly and with hesitation, + +"No, sir, I do not know that I have." + +"If you have any reason, I wish you would tell me frankly, for I want +you to have such a seat as will be pleasant to you." + +James does not know what to say. Encouraged, however, by the +good-humored tone and look which the master assumes, he says, timidly, + +"Joseph and I thought we should like to sit together, if you are +willing." + +"Oh! you and Joseph are particular friends, then, I suppose?" + +"Why, yes, sir." + +"I am not surprised, then, that you want to sit together, though, to +tell the truth, that is rather a reason why I should separate you." + +"Why, sir?" + +"Because I have observed that when two great friends are seated +together, they are always more apt to whisper and play. Have you not +observed it?" + +"Why, yes, sir." + +"You may go and ask Joseph to come here." + +When the two boys make their appearance again, the teacher continues: + +"Joseph, James tells me that you and he would like to sit together, and +says you are particular friends; but I tell him," he adds, smiling, +"that that is rather a reason for separating you. Now if I should put +you both into different parts of the school, next to boys that you are +not acquainted with, it would be a great deal easier for you to be still +and studious than it is now. Do you not think so yourselves?" + +The boys look at one another and smile. + +"However, there is one way you can do. You can guard against the extra +temptation by extra care; and, on the whole, as I believe you are pretty +good boys, I will let you have your choice. You may stay as you are, +and make extra exertion to be perfectly regular and studious, or I will +find seats for you where it will be a great deal easier for you to be +so. Which do you think you should rather do?" + +The boys hesitate, look at one another, and presently say that they had +rather sit together. + +"Well," said the teacher, "it is immaterial to me whether you sit +together or apart, if you are only good boys, so you may take your seats +and try it a little while. If you find it too hard work to be studious +and orderly together, I can make a change hereafter. I shall soon see." + +Such a conversation will have many good effects. It will make the boys +expect to be watched, without causing them to feel that their characters +have suffered. It will stimulate them to greater exertion to avoid all +misconduct, and it will prepare the way for separating them afterward +without awakening feelings of resentment, if the experiment of their +sitting together should fail. + +Another case would be managed, perhaps, in a little different way, where +the tendency to play was more decided. After speaking to the individuals +mildly two or three times, you see them again at play. You ask them to +wait that day after school and come to your desk. + +They have, then, the rest of the day to think occasionally of the +difficulty they have brought themselves into, and the anxiety and +suspense which they will naturally feel will give you every advantage +for speaking to them with effect; and if you should be engaged a few +minutes with some other business after school, so that they should have +to stand a little while in silent expectation, waiting for their turn, +it would contribute to the permanence of the effect. + +"Well, boys," at length you say, with a serious but frank tone of voice, +"I saw you playing in a disorderly manner to-day, and, in the first +place, I wish you to tell me honestly all about it. I am not going to +punish you, but I wish you to be open and honest about it. What were you +doing?" + +The boys hesitate. + +"George, what did you have in your hand?" + +"A piece of paper." + +"And what were you doing with it?" + +_George_. William was trying to take it away from me. + +"Was there any thing on it?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"What?" + +George looks down, a little confused. + +_William_. George had been drawing some pictures on it. + +"I see each of you is ready to tell of the other's fault, but it would +be much more honorable if each was open in acknowledging his own. Have I +ever had to speak to you before for playing together in school?" + +"Yes, sir, I believe you have," says one, looking down. + +"More than once?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"More than twice?" + +"I do not recollect exactly; I believe you have." + +"Well, now, what do you think I ought to do next?" + +The boys have nothing to say. + +"Do you prefer sitting together, or are you willing to have me separate +you?" + +"We should rather sit together, sir, if you are willing," says George. + +"I have no objection to your sitting together, if you could only resist +the temptation to play. I want all the boys in the school to have +pleasant seats." + +There is a pause, the teacher hesitating what to do. + +"Suppose, now, I were to make one more experiment, and let you try to be +good boys in your present seat, would you really try?" + +"Yes, sir," "Yes, sir, we will," are the replies. + +"And if I should find that you still continue to play, and should have +to separate you, will you move into your new seats pleasantly, and with +good-humor, feeling that I have done right about if?" + +"Yes, sir, we will." + +Thus it will be seen that there may be cases where the teacher may make +arrangements for separating his scholars, on an open and distinct +understanding with them in respect to the cause of it. We have given +these cases, not that exactly such ones will be very likely to occur, or +that, when they do, the teacher is to manage them in exactly the way +here described, but to exhibit more clearly to the reader than could be +done by any general description, the spirit and tone which a teacher +ought to assume toward his pupils. We wished to exhibit this in contrast +with the harsh and impatient manner which teachers too often assume in +such a case, as follows: + +"John Williams and Samuel Smith, come here to me!" exclaims the master, +in a harsh, impatient tone, in the midst of the exercises of the +afternoon. + +The scholars all look up from their work. The culprits slowly rise from +their seats, and with a sullen air come down to the floor. + +"You are playing, boys, all the time, and I will not have it. John, do +you take your books, and go and sit out there by the window; and, +Samuel, you come and sit here on this front seat; and if I catch you +playing again, I shall certainly punish you severely." + +The boys make the move with as much rattling and distention to make a +noise; and when they get their new seats, and the teacher is again +engaged upon his work, they exchange winks and nods, and in ten minutes +are slyly cannonading each other with paper balls. + +In regard to all the directions that have been given under this head, I +ought to say again, before concluding it, that they are mainly +applicable to the case of beginners and of small schools. The general +principles are, it is true, of universal application, but it is only +where a school is of moderate size that the details of position, in +respect to individual scholars, can be minutely studied. More summary +processes are necessary, I am aware, when the school is very large, and +the time of the teacher is incessantly engaged. + +8. In some districts in New England the young teacher will find one or +more boys, generally among the larger ones, who will come to the school +with the express determination to make a difficulty if they can. The +best way is generally to face these individuals at once in the most +direct and open manner, and, at the same time, with perfect good-humor +and kindness of feeling and deportment toward them personally. An +example or two will best illustrate what I mean. + +A teacher heard a rapping noise repeatedly one day, just after he had +commenced his labors, under such circumstances as to lead him to suppose +it was designed. He did not appear to notice it, but remained after +school until the scholars had all gone, and then made a thorough +examination. He found, at length, a broken place in the plastering, +where a _lath_ was loose, and a string was tied to the end of it, and +thence carried along the wall, under the benches, to the seat of a +mischievous boy, and fastened to a nail. By pulling the string he could +spring the lath, and then let it snap back to its place. He left every +thing as it was, and the next day, while engaged in a lesson, he heard +the noise again. + +He rose from his seat. + +The scholars all looked up from their books. + +"Did you hear that noise?" said he. + +"Yes, sir." + +"Do you know what it is?" + +"No, sir." + +"Very well; I only wished to call your attention to it. I may perhaps +speak of it again by-and-by." + +He then resumed his exercise as if nothing had happened. The guilty boy +was agitated and confused, and was utterly at a loss to know what to do. +What could the teacher mean? Had he discovered the trick? and, if so, +what was he going to do? + +He grew more and more uneasy, and resolved that, at all events, it was +best for him to retreat. Accordingly, at the next recess, as the teacher +had anticipated, he went slyly to the lath, cut the string, then +returned to his seat, and drew the line in, rolled it up, and put it in +his pocket. The teacher, who was secretly watching him, observed the +whole manoeuvre. + +At the close of the school, when the books were laid aside, and all was +silence, he treated the affair thus: + +"Do you remember the noise to which I called your attention early this +afternoon"?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"I will explain it to you now. One of the boys tied a string to a loose +lath in the side of the room, and then, having the end of it at his +seat, he was pulling it to make a noise to disturb us." + +The scholars all looked astonished, and then began to turn round toward +one another to see who the offender could be. The culprit began to +tremble. + +"He did it several times yesterday, and would have gone on doing it had +I not spoken about it to-day. Do you think this was wrong or not?" + +"Yes, sir;" "Wrong;" "Wrong," are the replies. + +"What harm does it do?" + +"It interrupts the school." + +"Yes. Is there any other harm?" + +The boys hesitate. + +"It gives me trouble and pain. Should you not suppose it would?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"Have I ever treated any boy or girl in this school unjustly or +unkindly?" + +"No, sir;" "No, sir." + +"Then why should any boy or girl wish to give me trouble or pain?" + +There was a pause. The guilty individual expected that the next thing +would be to call him out for punishment. + +"Now what do you think I ought to do with such a boy?" + +No answer. + +"Perhaps I ought to punish him, but I am very unwilling to do that. I +concluded to try another plan--to treat him with kindness and +forbearance. So I called your attention to it this afternoon, to let him +know that I was observing it, and to give him an opportunity to remove +the string. And he did. He went, in the recess, and cut off the string. +I shall not tell you his name, for I do not wish to injure his +character. All I want is to have him a good boy." + +A pause. + +"I think I shall try this plan, for he must have some feelings of honor +and gratitude, and if he has, he certainly will not try to give me pain +or trouble again after this. And now I shall say no more about it, nor +think any more about it; only, to prove that it is all as I say, if you +look there under that window after school, you will see the lath with +the end of the string round it, and, by pulling it, you can make it +snap." + +Another case, a little more serious in its character, is the following: + +A teacher, having had some trouble with a rude and savage-looking boy, +made some inquiry respecting him out of school, and incidentally learned +that he had once or twice before openly rebelled against the authority +of the school, and that he was now, in the recesses, actually preparing +a club, with which he was threatening to defend himself if the teacher +should attempt to punish him. + +The next day, soon after the boys had gone out, he took his hat and +followed them, and, turning round a corner of the school-house, found +the boys standing around the young rebel, who was sitting upon a log, +shaving the handle of the club smooth with his pocket-knife. He was +startled at the unexpected appearance of the teacher, and the first +impulse was to hide his club behind him; but it was too late, and, +supposing that the teacher was ignorant of his designs, he went on +sullenly with his work, feeling, however, greatly embarrassed. + +"Pleasant day, boys," said the teacher. "This is a fine sunny nook for +you to talk in. + +"Seems to me, however, you ought to have a better seat than this old +log," continued he, taking his seat at the same time by the side of the +boy. + +"Not so bad a seat, however, after all. What are you making, Joseph?" + +Joseph mumbled out something inarticulate by way of reply. "I have got a +sharper knife," said he, drawing his penknife out of his pocket. And +then, "Let me try it," he continued, gently taking the club out of +Joseph's hand. + +The boys looked surprised, some exchanged nods and winks, others turned +away to conceal a laugh; but the teacher engaged in conversation with +them, and soon put them all at their ease except poor Joseph, who could +not tell how this strange interview was likely to end. + +In the mean time, the teacher went on shaving the handle smooth and +rounding the ends. "You want," said he, "a rasp or coarse file for the +ends, and then you could finish it finely. But what are you making this +formidable club for?" + +Joseph was completely at a loss what to say. He began to show evident +marks of embarrassment and confusion. + +"I know what it is for; it is to defend yourself against me with. Is it +not, boys?" said he, appealing to the others. + +A faint "Yes, sir" or two was the reply. + +"Well, now, Joseph, it will be a great deal better for us both to be +friends than to be enemies. You had better throw this club away, and +save yourself from punishment by being a good boy. Come, now," said he, +handing him back his club, "throw it over into the field as far as you +can, and we will all forget that you ever made it." + +Joseph sat the picture of shame and confusion. Better feelings were +struggling for admission, and the case was decided by a broad-faced, +good-natured-looking boy, who stood by his side, saying almost +involuntarily, + +"Better throw it, Joe." + +The club flew, end over end, into the field. Joseph returned to his +allegiance, and never attempted to rise in rebellion again. + +The ways by which boys engage in open, intentional disobedience are, of +course, greatly varied, and the exact treatment will depend upon the +features of the individual case; but the frankness, the openness, the +plain dealing, and the kind and friendly tone which it is the object of +the foregoing illustrations to exhibit, should characterize all. + +9. We have already alluded to the importance of a delicate regard for +the _characters_ of the boys in all the measures of discipline adopted +at the commencement of a school. This is, in fact, of the highest +importance at all times, and is peculiarly so at the outset. A wound to +the feelings is sometimes inflicted by a single transaction which +produces a lasting injury to the character. Children are very sensitive +to ridicule or disgrace, and some are most acutely so. A cutting reproof +administered in public, or a punishment which exposes the individual to +the gaze of others, will often burn far more deeply into the heart than +the teacher imagines. + +And it is often the cause of great and lasting injury, too. By +destroying the character of a pupil, you make him feel that he has +nothing more to lose or gain, and destroy that kind of interest in his +own moral condition which alone will allure him to virtuous conduct. To +expose children to public ridicule or contempt tends either to make them +sullen and despondent, or else to arouse their resentment and to make +them reckless and desperate. Most persons remember through life some +instances in their early childhood in which they were disgraced or +ridiculed at school, and the permanence of the recollection is a test of +the violence of the effect. + +Be very careful, then, to avoid, especially at the commencement of the +school, publicly exposing those who do wrong. Sometimes you may make the +offense public, as in the case of the snapping of the lath, described +under a former head, while you kindly conceal the name of the offender. +Even if the school generally understand who he is, the injury of public +exposure is almost altogether avoided, for the sense of disgrace does +not come nearly so vividly home to the mind of a child from hearing +occasional allusions to his offense by individuals among his playmates, +as when he feels himself, at a particular time, the object of universal +attention and dishonor. And then, besides, if the pupil perceives that +the teacher is tender of his reputation, he will, by a feeling somewhere +between imitation and sympathy, begin to feel a little tender of it too. +Every exertion should be made, therefore, to lead children to value +their character, and to help them to preserve it, and especially to +avoid, at the beginning, every unnecessary sacrifice of it. + +And yet there are cases where shame is the very best possible remedy for +juvenile faults. If a boy, for example, is self-conceited, bold, and +mischievous, with feelings somewhat callous, and an influence extensive +and bad, an opportunity will sometimes occur to hold up his conduct to +the just reprobation of the school with great advantage. By this means, +if it is done in such a way as to _secure_ the influence of the school +on the right side, many good effects are sometimes attained. His pride +and self-conceit are humbled, his bad influence receives a very decided +check, and he is forced to draw back at once from the prominent stand he +has occupied. + +Richard Jones, for example, is a rude, coarse, self-conceited boy, often +doing wrong both in school and out, and yet possessed of that peculiar +influence which a bad boy often contrives to exert in school. The +teacher, after watching some time for an opportunity to humble him, one +day overhears a difficulty among the boys, and, looking out of the +window, observes that he is taking away a sled from one of the little +boys to slide down hill upon, having none of his own. The little boy +resists as well as he can, and complains bitterly, but it is of no +avail. + +At the close of the school that day, the teacher commences conversation +on the subject as follows: + +"Boys, do you know what the difference is between stealing and robbery?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"What!" + +The boys hesitate, and look at one another. + +"Suppose a thief were to go into a man's store in the daytime, and take +away something secretly, would it be stealing or robbery?" + +"Stealing." + +"Suppose he should meet him in the road, and take it away by force?" + +"Then it would be robbery." + +"Yes; when that which belongs to another is taken secretly, it is called +stealing; when it is taken openly or with violence, it is called +robbery. Which, now, do you think is the worst?" + +"Robbery." + +"Yes, for it is more barefaced and determined--then it gives a great +deal more pain to the one who is injured. To-day I saw one of the boys +in this school taking away another boy's sled, openly and with +violence." + +The boys all look round toward Richard. + +"Was that of the nature of stealing or robbery? + +"Robbery," say the boys. + +"Was it real robbery?" + +They hesitate. + +"If any of you think of any reason why it was not real robbery, you may +name it." + +"He gave the sled back to him," says one of the boys. + +"Yes; and therefore, to describe the action correctly, we should not say +Richard robbed a boy of his sled, but that he robbed him of his sled +_for a time_, or he robbed him of the _use_ of his sled. Still, in +respect to the nature and the guilt of it, it was robbery. + +"There is another thing which ought to be observed about it. Whose sled +was it that Richard took away?" + +"James Thompson's." + +"James, you may stand up. + +"Notice his size, boys. I should like to have Richard Jones stand up +too, so that you might compare them; but I presume he feels very much +ashamed of what he has done, and it would be very unpleasant for him to +stand up. You will remember, however, how large he is. Now when I was a +boy, it used to be considered dishonorable and cowardly for a large, +strong boy to abuse a little one who can not defend himself. Is it +considered so now?" + +"Yes, sir." + +"It ought to be, certainly; though, were it not for such a case as this, +we should not have thought of considering Richard Jones a coward. It +seems he did not dare to try to take away a sled from a boy who was as +big as himself, but attacked little James, for he knew he was not strong +enough to defend himself." + +Now, in some such cases as this, great good may be done, both in +respect to the individual and to the state of public sentiment in +school, by openly exposing a boy's misconduct. The teacher must always +take care, however, that the state of mind and character in the guilty +individual is such that public exposure is adapted to work well as a +remedy, and also that, in managing it, he carries the sympathies of the +other boys with him. To secure this, he must avoid all harsh and +exaggerated expressions or direct reproaches, and while he is mild, and +gentle, and forbearing himself, lead the boys to understand and feel the +nature of the sin which he exposes. The opportunities for doing this to +advantage will, however, be rare. Generally it will be best to manage +cases of discipline more privately, so as to protect the characters of +those that offend. + +The teacher should thus, in accordance with the directions we have +given, commence his labors with careful circumspection, patience, +frankness, and honest good-will toward every individual of his charge. +He will find less difficulty at the outset than he would have expected, +and soon have the satisfaction of perceiving that a mild but most +efficient government is quietly and firmly established in the little +kingdom over which he is called to reign. + +THE END. + + + + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Teacher, by Jacob Abbott + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12291 *** |