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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12291 ***
+
+THE TEACHER.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+MORAL INFLUENCES
+
+EMPLOYED IN
+
+THE INSTRUCTION AND GOVERNMENT
+
+OF
+
+THE YOUNG.
+
+A NEW AND REVISED EDITION.
+
+BY JACOB ABBOTT.
+
+With Engravings.
+
+1873.
+
+
+Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight
+hundred and fifty-six, by
+
+HARPER & BROTHERS,
+
+in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of
+New York.
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This book is intended to detail, in a familiar and practical manner, a
+system of arrangements for the organization and management of a school,
+based on the employment, so far as is practicable, of _Moral
+Influences_, as a means of effecting the objects in view. Its design is,
+not to bring forward new theories or new plans, but to develop and
+explain, and to carry out to their practical applications such
+principles as, among all skillful and experienced teachers, are
+generally admitted and acted upon. Of course it is not designed for the
+skillful and experienced themselves, but it is intended to embody what
+they already know, and to present it in a practical form for the use of
+those who are beginning the work, and who wish to avail themselves of
+the experience which others have acquired.
+
+Although moral influences are the chief foundations on which the power
+of the teacher over the minds and hearts of his pupils is, according to
+this treatise, to rest, still it must not be imagined that the system
+here recommended is one of persuasion. It is a system of
+authority--supreme and unlimited authority--a point essential in all
+plans for the supervision of the young; but it is authority secured and
+maintained as far as possible by moral measures. There will be no
+dispute about the propriety of making the most of this class of means.
+Whatever difference of opinion there may be on the question whether
+physical force is necessary at all, every one will agree that, if ever
+employed, it must be only as a last resort, and that no teacher ought to
+make war upon the body, unless it is proved that he can not conquer
+through the medium of the mind.
+
+In regard to the anecdotes and narratives which are very freely
+introduced to illustrate principles in this work, the writer ought to
+state that, though they are all substantially true--that is, all except
+those which are expressly introduced as mere suppositions, he has not
+hesitated to alter very freely, for obvious reasons, the unimportant
+circumstances connected with them. He has endeavored thus to destroy the
+personality of the narratives without injuring or altering their moral
+effect.
+
+From the very nature of our employment, and of the circumstances under
+which the preparation for it must be made, it is plain that, of the many
+thousands who are in the United States annually entering the work, a
+very large majority must depend for all their knowledge of the art,
+except what they acquire from their own observation and experience, on
+what they can obtain from books. It is desirable that the class of works
+from which such knowledge can be obtained should be increased. Some
+excellent and highly useful specimens have already appeared, and very
+many more would be eagerly read by teachers, if properly prepared. It is
+essential, however, that they should be written by experienced
+teachers, who have for some years been actively engaged and specially
+interested in the work; that they should be written in a very practical
+and familiar style, and that they should exhibit principles which are
+unquestionably true, and generally admitted by good teachers, and not
+the new theories peculiar to the writer himself. In a word, utility and
+practical effect should be the only aim.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+INTEREST IN TEACHING.
+Source of enjoyment in teaching.--The boy and the steam-engine.--His
+contrivance.--His pleasure, and the source of it.--Firing at the
+mark.--Plan of clearing the galleries in the British House of
+Commons.--Pleasure of experimenting, and exercising intellectual and
+moral power.--The indifferent and inactive teacher.--His subsequent
+experiments; means of awakening interest.--Offenses of pupils.
+--Different ways of regarding them.
+
+Teaching really attended with peculiar trials and difficulties.--1.
+Moral responsibility for the conduct of pupils.--2. Multiplicity of the
+objects of attention.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS.
+Objects to be aimed at in the general arrangements.--Systematizing the
+teacher's work.--Necessity of having only one thing to attend to at a
+time.
+
+1. Whispering and leaving seats.--An experiment.--Method of regulating
+this.--Introduction of the new plan.--Difficulties.--Dialogue with
+pupils.--Study-card.--Construction and use.
+2. Mending pens.--Unnecessary trouble from this source.--Degree of
+importance to be attached to good pens.--Plan for providing them.
+3. Answering questions.--Evils.--Each pupil's fair proportion of
+time.--Questions about lessons.--When the teacher should refuse to
+answer them.--Rendering assistance.--When to be refused.
+4. Hearing recitations.--Regular arrangement of
+them.--Punctuality.--Plan and schedule.--General exercises.--Subjects to
+be attended to at them.
+
+General arrangements of government.--Power to be delegated to
+pupils.--Gardiner Lyceum.--Its government.--The trial.--Real republican
+government impracticable in schools.--Delegated power.--Experiment with
+the writing-books.--Quarrel about the nail.--Offices for
+pupils.--Cautions.--Danger of insubordination.--New plans to be
+introduced gradually.
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+INSTRUCTION.
+The three important branches.--The objects which are really most
+important.--Advanced scholars.--Examination of school and scholars at
+the outset.--Acting on numbers.--Extent to which it may be
+carried.--Recitation and Instruction.
+
+1. Recitation.--Its object.--Importance of a thorough examination of the
+class.--Various modes.--Perfect regularity and order necessary.
+--Example.--Story of the pencils.--Time wasted by too minute an
+attention to individuals.--Example.--Answers given simultaneously to
+save time.--Excuses.--Dangers in simultaneous recitation.--Means of
+avoiding them.--Advantages of this mode.--Examples.--Written answers.
+2. Instruction.--Means of exciting
+interest.--Variety.--Examples.--Showing the connection between the
+studies of school and the business of life.--Example from the
+controversy between general and state governments.--Mode of illustrating
+it.--Proper way of meeting difficulties.--Leading pupils to surmount
+them.--True way to encourage the young to meet difficulties.--The boy
+and the wheel-barrow.--Difficult examples in arithmetic.
+
+Proper way of rendering assistance.--(1.) Simply analyzing intricate
+subjects.--Dialogue on longitude.--(2.) Making previous truths perfectly
+familiar.--Experiment with the multiplication table.--Latin Grammar
+lesson.--Geometry.
+
+3. General cautions.--Doing work _for_ the scholar.--Dullness.--Interest
+in _all_ the pupils.--Making all alike.--Faults of pupils.--The
+teacher's own mental habits.--False pretensions.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+MORAL DISCIPLINE.
+First impressions.--Story.--Danger of devoting too much attention to
+individual instances.--The profane boy.--Case described.--Confession of
+the boys.--Success.--The untidy desk.--Measures in consequence.
+--Interesting the scholars in the good order of the school.--Securing a
+majority.--Example.--Reports about the desks.--The new College
+building.--Modes of interesting the boys.--The irregular class.--Two
+ways of remedying the evil.--Boys' love of system and regularity.
+--Object of securing a majority, and particular means of doing
+it.--Making school pleasant.--Discipline should generally be
+private.--In all cases that are brought before the school, public
+opinion in the teacher's favor should be secured.--Story of the
+rescue.--Feelings of displeasure against what is wrong.--The teacher
+under moral obligation, and governed, himself, by law.--Description of
+the _Moral Exercise_.--Prejudice.--The scholars' written remarks, and
+the teacher's comments.--The spider.--List of subjects.--Anonymous
+writing.--Specimens.--Marks of a bad scholar.--Consequences of being
+behindhand.--New scholars.--A satirical spirit.--Variety.
+
+Treatment of individual offenders.--Ascertaining who they are.--Studying
+their characters.--Securing their personal attachment.--Asking
+assistance.--The whistle.--Open, frank dealing.--Example.--Dialogue with
+James.--Communications in writing.
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE.
+The American mechanic at Paris.--A Congregational teacher among
+Quakers.--Parents have the ultimate right to decide how their children
+shall be educated.
+
+Agreement in religious opinion in this country.--Principle which is to
+guide the teacher on this subject.--Limits and restrictions to religious
+influence in school.--Religious truths which are generally admitted in
+this country.--The existence of God.--Human responsibility.--Immortality
+of the soul.--A revelation.--Nature of piety.--Salvation by
+Christ.--Teacher to do nothing on this subject but what he may do by the
+common consent of his employers.--Reasons for explaining distinctly
+these limits.
+
+Particular measures proposed.--Opening exercises.--Prayer.--Singing.
+--Direct instruction.--Mode of giving it.--Example; arrangement of the
+Epistles in the New Testament.--Dialogue.--Another example; scene in the
+woods.--Cautions.--Affected simplicity of language.--Evils of
+it.--Minute details.--Example; motives to study.--Dialogue.--Mingling
+religious influence with the direct discipline of the school.--Fallacious
+indications of piety.--Sincerity of the teacher.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+MOUNT VERNON SCHOOL.
+Reason for inserting the description.--Advantage of visiting schools,
+and of reading descriptions of them.--Addressed to a new scholar.--Her
+personal duty.--Study-card.--Rule.--But one rule.--Cases when this rule
+maybe waived.--1. At the direction of teachers.--2. On extraordinary
+emergencies.--Reasons for the rule.--Anecdote.--Punishments.--Incidents
+described.--Confession.
+
+2. Order of daily exercises.--Opening of the school.--Schedules.--Hours
+of study and recess.--General exercises.--Business.--Examples.--Sections.
+
+3. Instruction and supervision of
+pupils.--Classes.--Organization.--Sections.--Duties of superintendents.
+
+4. Officers.--Design in appointing them.--Their names and
+duties.--Example of the operation of the system.
+
+5. The court.--Its plan and design.--A trial described.
+
+6. Religious instruction.--Principles inculcated.--Measures.--Religious
+exercises in school.--Meeting on Saturday afternoon.--Concluding
+remarks.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+SCHEMING.
+Time lost upon fruitless schemes.--Proper province of ingenuity and
+enterprise.--Cautions.--Case supposed.--The spelling class; an
+experiment with it; its success and its consequences.--System of
+literary institutions in this country.--Directions to a young teacher on
+the subject of forming new plans.--New institutions; new
+schoolbooks.--Ingenuity and enterprise very useful, within proper
+limits.--Ways of making known new plans.--Periodicals.--Family
+newspapers.--Teachers' meetings.
+
+Rights of committees, trustees, or patrons, in the control of the
+school.--Principle which ought to govern.--Case supposed.--Extent to
+which the teacher is bound by the wishes of his employers.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+REPORTS OF CASES.
+Plan of the chapter.--Hats and bonnets.--Injury to clothes.--Mistakes which
+are not censurable.--Tardiness; plan for punishing it.--Helen's
+lesson.--Firmness in measures united with mildness of manner.--Insincere
+confession: scene in a class.--Court.--Trial of a case.--Teacher's
+personal character.--The way to elevate the character of the
+employment.--Six hours only to be devoted to school.--The chestnut
+burr.--Scene in the wood.--Dialogue in school.--An experiment.--Series
+of lessons in writing.--The correspondence.--Two kinds of
+management.--Plan of weekly reports.--The shopping exercise.
+--Example.--Artifices in recitations.--Keeping resolution notes of
+teacher's lecture.--Topics.--Plan and illustration of the exercise.
+--Introduction of music.--Tabu.--Mental analysis.--Scene in a class.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+THE TEACHER'S FIRST DAY.
+Embarrassments of young teachers in first entering upon their
+duties.--Preliminary information to be acquired in respect to the
+school.--Visits to the parents.--Making acquaintance with the
+scholars.--Opening the school.--Mode of setting the scholars at work on
+the first day.--No sudden changes to be made.--Misconduct.--Mode of
+disposing of the cases of it.--Conclusion.
+
+
+
+
+THE TEACHER.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+
+INTEREST IN TEACHING.
+
+A most singular contrariety of opinion prevails in the community in
+regard to the _pleasantness_ of the business of teaching. Some teachers
+go to their daily task merely upon compulsion; they regard it as
+intolerable drudgery. Others love the work: they hover around the
+school-room as long as they can, and never cease to think, and seldom to
+talk, of their delightful labors.
+
+Unfortunately, there are too many of the former class, and the first
+object which, in this work, I shall attempt to accomplish, is to show my
+readers, especially those who have been accustomed to look upon the
+business of teaching as a weary and heartless toil, how it happens that
+it is, in any case, so pleasant. The human mind is always essentially
+the same. That which is tedious and joyless to one, will be so to
+another, if pursued in the same way, and under the same circumstances.
+And teaching, if it is pleasant, animating, and exciting to one, may be
+so to all.
+
+I am met, however, at the outset, in my effort to show why it is that
+teaching is ever a pleasant work, by the want of a name for a certain
+faculty or capacity of the human mind, through which most of the
+enjoyment of teaching finds its avenue. Every mind is so constituted as
+to take a positive pleasure in the exercise of ingenuity in adapting
+means to an end, and in watching the operation of them--in accomplishing
+by the intervention of instruments what we could not accomplish
+without--in devising (when we see an object to be effected which is too
+great for our _direct_ and _immediate_ power) and setting at work some
+_instrumentality_ which may be sufficient to accomplish it.
+
+[Illustration: Steam Engine]
+
+It is said that when the steam-engine was first put into operation,
+such was the imperfection of the machinery, that a boy was necessarily
+stationed at it to open and shut alternately the cock by which the steam
+was now admitted and now shut out from the cylinder. One such boy, after
+patiently doing his work for many days, contrived to connect this
+stop-cock with some of the moving parts of the engine by a wire, in such
+a manner that the engine itself did the work which had been intrusted to
+him; and after seeing that the whole business would go regularly
+forward, he left the wire in charge, and went away to play.
+
+Such is the story. Now if it is true, how much pleasure the boy must
+have experienced in devising and witnessing the successful operation of
+his scheme. I do not mean the pleasure of relieving himself from a dull
+and wearisome duty; I do not mean the pleasure of anticipated play; but
+I mean the strong interest he must have taken in _contriving and
+executing his plan_. When, wearied out with his dull, monotonous work,
+he first noticed those movements of the machinery which he thought
+adapted to his purpose, and the plan flashed into his mind, how must his
+eye have brightened, and how quick must the weary listlessness of his
+employment have vanished. While he was maturing his plan and carrying it
+into execution--while adjusting his wires, fitting them to the exact
+length and to the exact position--and especially when, at last, he began
+to watch the first successful operation of his contrivance, he must have
+enjoyed a pleasure which very few even of the joyous sports of childhood
+could have supplied.
+
+It is not, however, exactly the pleasure of exercising _ingenuity in
+contrivance_ that I refer to here; for the teacher has not, after all, a
+great deal of absolute _contriving_ to do, or, rather, his _principal
+business_ is not contriving. The greatest and most permanent source of
+pleasure to the boy, in such a case as I have described, is his feeling
+that he is accomplishing a great effect by a slight effort of his own;
+the feeling of _power_; acting through the _intervention of
+instrumentality_, so as to multiply his power. So great would be this
+satisfaction, that he would almost wish to have some other similar work
+assigned him, that he might have another opportunity to contrive some
+plan for its easy accomplishment.
+
+Looking at an object to be accomplished, or an evil to be remedied, then
+studying its nature and extent, and devising and executing some means
+for effecting the purpose desired, is, in all cases, a source of
+pleasure; especially when, by the process, we bring to view or into
+operation new powers, or powers heretofore hidden, whether they are our
+own powers, or those of objects upon which we act. Experimenting has a
+sort of magical fascination for all. Some do not like the trouble of
+making preparations, but all are eager to see the results. Contrive a
+new machine, and every body will be interested to witness or to hear of
+its operation. Develop any heretofore unknown properties of matter, or
+secure some new useful effect from laws which men have not hitherto
+employed for their purposes, and the interest of all around you will be
+excited to observe your results; and, especially, you will yourself take
+a deep and permanent pleasure in guiding and controlling the power you
+have thus obtained.
+
+This is peculiarly the case with experiments upon mind, or experiments
+for producing effects through the medium of voluntary acts of others,
+making it necessary that the contriver should take into consideration
+the laws of mind in forming his plans. To illustrate this by rather a
+childish case: I once knew a boy who was employed by his father to
+remove all the loose small stones, which, from the peculiar nature of
+the ground, had accumulated in the road before the house. The boy was
+set at work by his father to take them up, and throw them over into the
+pasture across the way. He soon got tired of picking up the stones one
+by one, and so he sat down upon the bank to try to devise some better
+means of accomplishing his work. He at length conceived and adopted the
+following plan: He set up in the pasture a narrow board for a target,
+or, as boys would call it, a mark, and then, collecting all the boys of
+the neighborhood, he proposed to them an amusement which boys are always
+ready for--firing at a mark. The stones in the road furnished the
+ammunition, and, of course, in a very short time the road was cleared;
+the boys working for the accomplishment of their leader's task, when
+they supposed they were only finding amusement for themselves.
+
+Here, now, is experimenting upon the mind--the production of useful
+effect with rapidity and ease by the intervention of proper
+instrumentality--the conversion, by means of a little knowledge of human
+nature, of that which would have otherwise been dull and fatiguing labor
+into a most animating sport, giving pleasure to twenty instead of
+tedious labor to one. Now the contrivance and execution of such plans is
+a source of positive pleasure. It is always pleasant to bring even the
+properties and powers of matter into requisition to promote our designs;
+but there is a far higher pleasure in controlling, and guiding, and
+moulding to our purpose the movements of mind.
+
+It is this which gives interest to the plans and operation of human
+governments. Governments can, in fact, do little by actual force. Nearly
+all the power that is held, even by the most despotic executive, must be
+based on an adroit management of the principles of human nature, so as
+to lead men voluntarily to co-operate with the leader in his plans. Even
+an army could not be got into battle, in many cases, without a most
+ingenious arrangement, by means of which half a dozen men can drive,
+literally drive, as many thousands into the very face of danger and
+death. The difficulty of leading men to battle must have been, for a
+long time, a very perplexing one to generals. It was at last removed by
+the very simple expedient of creating a greater danger behind than there
+is before. Without ingenuity of contrivance like this, turning one
+principle of human nature against another, and making it for the
+momentary interest of men to act in a given way, no government could
+stand.
+
+I know of nothing which illustrates more perfectly the way by which a
+knowledge of human nature is to be turned to account in managing human
+minds than a plan which was adopted for clearing the galleries of the
+British House of Commons many years ago, before the present Houses of
+Parliament were built. There was then, as now, a gallery appropriated to
+spectators, and it was customary to require these visitors to retire
+when a vote was to be taken or private business was to be transacted.
+When the officer in attendance was ordered to clear the gallery, it was
+sometimes found to be a very troublesome and slow operation; for those
+who first went out remained obstinately as close to the doors as
+possible, so as to secure the opportunity to come in again first when
+the doors should be re-opened. The consequence was, there was so great
+an accumulation around the doors outside, that it was almost impossible
+for the crowd to get out. The whole difficulty arose from the eager
+desire of every one to remain as near as possible to the door, _through
+which they were to come back again_. Notwithstanding the utmost efforts
+of the officers, fifteen minutes were sometimes consumed in effecting
+the object, when the order was given that the spectators should retire.
+
+The whole difficulty was removed by a very simple plan. One door only
+was opened when the crowd was to retire, and they were then admitted,
+when the gallery was opened again, through _the other_. The consequence
+was, that as soon as the order was given to clear the galleries, every
+one fled as fast as possible through the open door around to the one
+which was closed, so as to be ready to enter first, when that, in its
+turn, should be opened. This was usually in a few minutes, as the
+purpose for which the spectators were ordered to retire was in most
+cases simply to allow time for taking a vote. Here it will be seen
+that, by the operation of a very simple plan, the very eagerness of the
+crowd to get back as soon as possible, which had been the _sole cause of
+the difficulty_, was turned to account most effectually to the removal
+of it. Before, the first that went out were so eager to return, that
+they crowded around the door of egress in such a manner as to prevent
+others going out; but by this simple plan of ejecting them by one door
+and admitting them by another, that very eagerness made them clear the
+passage at once, and caused every one to hurry away into the lobby the
+moment the command was given.
+
+The planner of this scheme must have taken great pleasure in witnessing
+its successful operation; though the officer who should go steadily on,
+endeavoring to remove the reluctant throng by dint of mere driving,
+might well have found his task unpleasant. But the exercise of ingenuity
+in studying the nature of the difficulty with which a man has to
+contend, and bringing in some antagonist principle of human nature to
+remove it, or, if not an antagonist principle, a similar principle,
+operating, by a peculiar arrangement of circumstances, in an antagonist
+manner, is always pleasant. From this source a large share of the
+enjoyment which men find in the active pursuits of life has its origin.
+
+The teacher has the whole field which this subject opens fully before
+him. He has human nature to deal with most directly. His whole work is
+one of experimenting upon mind; and the mind which is before him to be
+the subject of his operation is exactly in the state to be most easily
+and pleasantly operated upon. The reason now why some teachers find
+their work delightful, and some find it wearisomeness and tedium itself,
+is that some do and some do not take this view of the nature of it. One
+instructor is like the engine-boy, turning, without cessation or change,
+his everlasting stop-cock, in the same ceaseless, mechanical, and
+monotonous routine. Another is like the little workman in his brighter
+moments, arranging his invention, and watching with delight the
+successful and easy accomplishment of his wishes by means of it. One is
+like the officer, driving by vociferations, and threats, and
+demonstrations of violence, the spectators from the galleries. The other
+like the shrewd contriver, who converts the very desire to return, which
+was the sole cause of the difficulty, to a most successful and efficient
+means of its removal.
+
+These principles show how teaching may, in some cases, be a delightful
+employment, while in others its tasteless dullness is interrupted by
+nothing but its perplexities and cares. The school-room is in reality a
+little empire of mind. If the one who presides in it sees it in its true
+light; studies the nature and tendency of the minds which he has to
+control; adapts his plans and his measures to the laws of human nature,
+and endeavors to accomplish his purposes for them, not by mere labor and
+force, but by ingenuity and enterprise, he will take pleasure in
+administering his little government. He will watch, with care and
+interest, the operation of the moral and intellectual causes which he
+sets in operation, and find, as he accomplishes his various objects with
+increasing facility and power, that he will derive a greater and greater
+pleasure from his work.
+
+Now when a teacher thus looks upon his school as a field in which he is
+to exercise skill, and ingenuity, and enterprise; when he studies the
+laws of human nature, and the character of those minds upon which he has
+to act; when he explores deliberately the nature of the field which he
+has to cultivate, and of the objects which he wishes to accomplish, and
+applies means judiciously and skillfully adapted to the object, he must
+necessarily take a strong interest in his work. But when, on the other
+hand, he goes to his employment only to perform a certain regular round
+of daily toil, undertaking nothing and anticipating nothing but this
+dull and unchangeable routine, and when he looks upon his pupils merely
+as passive objects of his labors, whom he is to treat with simple
+indifference while they obey his commands, and to whom he is only to
+apply reproaches and punishment when they do wrong, such a teacher never
+can take pleasure in the school. Weariness and dullness must reign in
+both master and scholars when things, as he imagines, are going right,
+and mutual anger and crimination when they go wrong.
+
+[Illustration: School Master]
+
+Scholars never can be successfully instructed by the power of any dull
+mechanical routine, nor can they be properly governed by the blind,
+naked strength of the master; such means must fail of the accomplishment
+of the purposes designed, and consequently the teacher who tries such a
+course must have constantly upon his mind the discouraging,
+disheartening burden of unsuccessful and almost useless labor. He is
+continually uneasy, dissatisfied, and filled with anxious cares, and
+sources of vexation and perplexity continually arise. He attempts to
+remove evils by waging against them a useless and most vexatious warfare
+of threatening and punishment; and he is trying continually _to drive_,
+when he might know that neither the intellect nor the heart are capable
+of being driven.
+
+I will simply state one case, to illustrate what I mean by the
+difference between blind force and active ingenuity and enterprise in
+the management of school. I once knew the teacher of a school who made
+it his custom to have writing attended to in the afternoon. The school
+was in the country, and it was the old times when quills, instead of
+steel pens, were universally used. The boys were accustomed to take
+their places at the appointed hour, and each one would set up his pen in
+the front of his desk for the teacher to come and mend them. The teacher
+would accordingly pass around the school-room, mending the pens, from
+desk to desk, thus enabling the boys, in succession, to begin their
+task. Of course, each boy, before the teacher came to his desk, was
+necessarily idle, and, almost necessarily, in mischief. Day after day
+the teacher went through this regular routine. He sauntered slowly and
+listlessly through the aisles, and among the benches of the room,
+wherever he saw the signal of a pen. He paid, of course, very little
+attention to the writing, now and then reproving, with an impatient
+tone, some extraordinary instance of carelessness, or leaving his work
+to suppress some rising disorder. Ordinarily, however, he seemed to be
+lost in vacancy of thought, dreaming, perhaps, of other scenes, or
+inwardly repining at the eternal monotony and tedium of a teacher's
+life. His boys took no interest in their work, and of course made no
+progress. They were sometimes unnecessarily idle, and sometimes
+mischievous, but never usefully or pleasantly employed, for the whole
+hour was passed before the pens could all be brought down. Wasted time,
+blotted books, and fretted tempers were all the results which the system
+produced.
+
+The same teacher afterward acted on a very different principle. He
+looked over the field, and said to himself, "What are the objects which
+I wish to accomplish in this writing exercise, and how can I best
+accomplish them? I wish to obtain the greatest possible amount of
+industrious and careful practice in writing. The first thing evidently
+is to save the wasted time." He accordingly made preparation for mending
+the pens at a previous hour, so that all should be ready, at the
+appointed time, to commence the work together. This could be done quite
+as conveniently when the boys were engaged in studying, by requesting
+them to put out their pens at an appointed and _previous_ time. He sat
+at his table, and the pens of a whole bench were brought to him, and,
+after being carefully mended, were returned, to be in readiness for the
+writing hour. Thus the first difficulty, the loss of time, was obviated.
+
+"I must make them _industrious_ while they write," was his next thought.
+After thinking of a variety of methods, he determined to try the
+following: he required all to begin together at the top of the page, and
+write the same line, in a hand of the same size. They were all required
+to begin together, he himself beginning at the same time, and writing
+about as fast as he thought they ought to write in order to secure the
+highest improvement. When he had finished his line, he ascertained how
+many had preceded him and how many were behind. He requested the first
+to write slower, and the others faster; and by this means, after a few
+trials, he secured uniform, regular, systematic, and industrious
+employment throughout the school. Probably there were, at first,
+difficulties in the operation of the plan, which he had to devise ways
+and means to surmount; but what I mean to present particularly to the
+reader is, that he was _interested in his experiments_. While sitting in
+his desk, giving his command to _begin_ line after line, and noticing
+the unbroken silence, and attention, and interest which prevailed (for
+each boy was interested to see how nearly with the master he could
+finish his work), while presiding over such a scene he must have been
+interested. He must have been pleased with the exercise of his almost
+military command, and to witness how effectually order and industry, and
+excited and pleased attention, had taken the place of listless idleness
+and mutual dissatisfaction.
+
+After a few days, he appointed one of the older and more judicious
+scholars to give the word for beginning and ending the lines, and he sat
+surveying the scene, or walking from desk to desk, noticing faults, and
+considering what plans he could form for securing more and more fully
+the end he had in view. He found that the great object of interest and
+attention among the boys was to come out right, and that less pains were
+taken with the formation of the letters than there ought to be to secure
+the most rapid improvement.
+
+But how shall he secure greater pains? By stern commands and threats? By
+going from desk to desk, scolding one, rapping the knuckles of another,
+and holding up to ridicule a third, making examples of such individuals
+as may chance to attract his special attention? No; he has learned that
+he is operating upon a little empire of mind, and that he is not to
+endeavor to drive them as a man drives a herd, by mere peremptory
+command or half angry blows. He must study the nature of the effect that
+he is to produce, and of the materials upon which he is to work, and
+adopt, after mature deliberation, a plan to accomplish his purpose
+founded upon the principles which ought always to regulate the action
+of mind upon mind, and adapted to produce the _intellectual effect_
+which he wishes to accomplish.
+
+In the case supposed, the teacher concluded to appeal to emulation.
+While I describe the measure he adopted, let it be remembered that I am
+now only approving of the resort to ingenuity and invention, and the
+employment of moral and intellectual means for the accomplishment of his
+purposes, and not of the measures themselves. I am not sure the plan I
+am going to describe is a wise one; but I am sure that the teacher,
+while trying it, must _have been interested in his intellectual
+experiment._ His business, while pursued in such a way, could not have
+been a mere dull and uninteresting routine.
+
+He purchased, for three cents apiece, two long lead pencils--an article
+of great value in the opinion of the boys of country schools--and he
+offered them, as prizes, to the boy who would write most carefully; not
+to the one who should write _best_, but to the one whose book should
+exhibit most appearance of _effort_ and _care_ for a week. After
+announcing his plan, he watched with strong interest its operation. He
+walked round the room while the writing was in progress, to observe the
+effect of his measure. He did not reprove those who were writing
+carelessly; he simply noticed who and how many they were. He did not
+commend those who were evidently making effort; he noticed who and how
+many they were, that he might understand how far, and upon what sort of
+minds, his experiment was successful, and where it failed. He was taking
+a lesson in human nature--human nature as it exhibits itself in
+boys--and was preparing to operate more and more powerfully by future
+plans.
+
+The lesson which he learned by the experiment was this, that one or two
+prizes will not influence the majority of a large school. A few of the
+boys seemed to think that the pencils were possibly within their reach,
+and _they_ made vigorous efforts to secure them; but the rest wrote on
+as before. Thinking it certain that they should be surpassed by the
+others, they gave up the contest at once in despair.
+
+The obvious remedy was to _multiply_ his prizes, so as to bring one of
+them within the reach of all. He reflected, too, that the real prize, in
+such a case, is not the value of the pencil, but the _honor of the
+victory_; and as the honor of the victory might as well be coupled with
+an object of less, as well as with one of greater value, the next week
+he divided his two pencils into quarters, and offered to his pupils
+eight prizes instead of two. He offered one to every five scholars, as
+they sat on their benches, and every boy then saw that a reward would
+certainly come within five of him. His chance, accordingly, instead of
+being one in twenty, became one in five.
+
+Now is it possible for a teacher, after having philosophized upon the
+nature of the minds upon which he is operating, and surveyed the field,
+and ingeniously formed a plan, which plan he hopes will, through his own
+intrinsic power, produce certain effects--is it possible for him, when
+he comes, for the first day, to witness its operations, to come without
+feeling a strong interest in the result? It is not possible. After
+having formed such a plan, and made such arrangements, he will look
+forward almost with impatience to the next writing-hour. He wishes to
+see whether he has estimated the mental capacities and tendencies of his
+little community aright; and when the time comes, and he surveys the
+scene, and observes the operation of his measure, and sees many more are
+reached by it than were influenced before, he feels a strong
+gratification, and it is a gratification which is founded upon the
+noblest principles of our nature. He is tracing, on a most interesting
+field, the operation of cause and effect. From being the mere drudge,
+who drives, without intelligence or thought, a score or two of boys to
+their daily tasks, he rises to the rank of an intellectual philosopher,
+exploring the laws and successfully controlling the tendencies of mind.
+
+It will be observed, too, that all the time this teacher was performing
+these experiments, and watching with intense interest the results, his
+pupils were going on undisturbed in their pursuits. The exercises in
+writing were not interrupted or deranged. This is a point of fundamental
+importance; for, if what I should say on the subject of exercising
+ingenuity and contrivance in teaching should be the means, in any case,
+of leading a teacher to break in upon the regular duties of his school,
+and destroy the steady uniformity with which the great objects of such
+an institution should be pursued, my remarks had better never have been
+written. There may be variety in methods and plan, but, through all this
+variety, the school, and every individual pupil of it, must go steadily
+forward in the acquisition of that knowledge which is of greatest
+importance in the business of future life. In other words, the
+variations and changes admitted by the teacher ought to be mainly
+confined to the modes of accomplishing those permanent objects to which
+all the exercises and arrangements of the school ought steadily to aim.
+More on this subject, however, in another chapter.
+
+I will mention one other circumstance, which will help to explain the
+difference in interest and pleasure with which teachers engage in their
+work. I mean the different views they take _of the offenses of their
+pupils_. One class of teachers seem never to make it a part of their
+calculation that their pupils will do wrong, and when, any misconduct
+occurs they are discontented and irritated, and look and act as if some
+unexpected occurrence had broken in upon their plans. Others understand
+and consider all this beforehand. They seem to think a little, before
+they go into their school, what sort of beings boys and girls are, and
+any ordinary case of youthful delinquency or dullness does not surprise
+them. I do not mean that they treat such cases with indifference or
+neglect, but that they _expect_ them, and _are prepared for them_. Such
+a teacher knows that boys and girls are the _materials_ he has to work
+upon, and he takes care to make himself acquainted with these materials,
+_just as they are_. The other class, however, do not seem to know at all
+what sort of beings they have to deal with, or, if they know, do not
+_consider_. They expect from them what is not to be obtained, and then
+are disappointed and vexed at the failure. It is as if a carpenter
+should attempt to support an entablature by pillars of wood too small
+and weak for the weight, and then go on, from week to week, suffering
+anxiety and irritation as he sees them swelling and splitting under the
+burden, and finding fault _with the wood_ instead of taking it to
+himself; or as if a plowman were to attempt to work a hard and stony
+piece of ground with a poor team and a small plow, and then, when
+overcome by the difficulties of the task, should vent his vexation and
+anger in laying the blame on the ground instead of on the inadequate and
+insufficient instrumentality which he had provided for subduing it.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It is, of course, one essential part of a man's duty, in engaging in any
+undertaking, whether it will lead him to act upon matter or upon mind,
+to become first well acquainted with the circumstances of the case, the
+materials he is to act upon, and the means which he may reasonably
+expect to have at his command. If he underrates his difficulties, or
+overrates the power of his means of overcoming them, it is his
+mistake--a mistake for which _he_ is fully responsible. Whatever may be
+the nature of the effect which he aims at accomplishing, he ought fully
+to understand it, and to appreciate justly the difficulties which lie in
+the way.
+
+Teachers, however, very often overlook this. A man comes home from his
+school at night perplexed and irritated by the petty misconduct which he
+has witnessed, and been trying to check. He does not, however, look
+forward and endeavor to prevent the occasions of such misconduct,
+adapting his measures to the nature of the material upon which he has to
+operate, but he stands, like the carpenter at his columns, making
+himself miserable in looking at it after it occurs, and wondering what
+to do.
+
+"Sir," we might say to him, "what is the matter?"
+
+"Why, I have such boys I can do nothing with them. Were it not for
+_their misconduct_, I might have a very good school."
+
+"Were it not for their misconduct? Why, is there any peculiar depravity
+in them which you could not have foreseen?"
+
+"No; I suppose they are pretty much like all other boys," he replies,
+despairingly; "they are all hair-brained and unmanageable. The plans I
+have formed for my school would be excellent if my boys would only
+behave properly."
+
+"Excellent plans," might we not reply, "and yet not adapted to the
+materials upon which they are to operate! No. It is your business to
+know what sort of beings boys are, and to make your calculations
+accordingly."
+
+Two teachers may therefore manage their schools in totally different
+ways, so that one of them may necessarily find the business a dull,
+mechanical routine, except as it is occasionally varied by perplexity
+and irritation, and the other a prosperous and happy employment. The one
+goes on mechanically the same, and depends for his power on violence, or
+on threats and demonstrations of violence. The other brings all his
+ingenuity and enterprise into the field to accomplish a steady purpose
+by means ever varying, and depends for his power on his knowledge of
+human nature, and on the adroit adaptation of plans to her fixed and
+uniform tendencies.
+
+I am very sorry, however, to be obliged to say that probably the latter
+class of teachers are decidedly in the minority. To practice the art in
+such a way as to make it an agreeable employment is difficult, and it
+requires much knowledge of human nature, much attention and skill. And,
+after all, there are some circumstances necessarily attending the work
+which constitute a heavy drawback on the pleasures which it might
+otherwise afford. The almost universal impression that the business of
+teaching is attended with peculiar trials and difficulties proves this.
+
+There must be some cause for an impression so general. It is not right
+to call it a prejudice, for, although a single individual may conceive a
+prejudice, whole communities very seldom do, unless in some case which
+is presented at once to the whole, so that, looking at it through a
+common medium, all judge wrong together. But the general opinion in
+regard to teaching is composed of a vast number of _separate_ and
+_independent_ judgments, and there must be some good ground for the
+universal result.
+
+It is best, therefore, if there are any real and peculiar sources of
+trial and difficulty in this pursuit, that they should be distinctly
+known and acknowledged at the outset. Count the cost before going to
+war. It is even better policy to overrate than to underrate it. Let us
+see, then, what the real difficulties of teaching are.
+
+It is not, however, as is generally supposed, _the confinement._ A
+teacher is confined, it is true, but not more than men of other
+professions and employments; not more than a merchant, and probably not
+as much. A physician is confined in a different way, but more closely
+than a teacher: he can never leave home: he knows generally no
+vacation, and nothing but accidental rest.
+
+The lawyer is confined as much. It is true there are not throughout the
+year exact hours which he must keep, but, considering the imperious
+demands of his business, his personal liberty is probably restrained as
+much by it as that of the teacher. So with all the other professions.
+Although the nature of the confinement may vary, it amounts to about the
+same in all. On the other hand, the teacher enjoys, in reference to this
+subject of confinement, an advantage which scarcely any other class of
+men does or can enjoy. I mean vacations. A man in any other business may
+_force_ himself away from it for a time, but the cares and anxieties of
+his business will follow him wherever he goes. It seems to be reserved
+for the teacher to enjoy alone the periodical luxury of a _real and
+entire release from business and care_. On the whole, as to confinement,
+it seems to me that the teacher has little ground of complaint.
+
+There are, however, some real and serious difficulties which always
+have, and, it is to be feared, always will, cluster around this
+employment; and which must, for a long time, at least, lead most men to
+desire some other employment for the business of life. There may perhaps
+be some who, by their peculiar skill, can overcome or avoid them, and
+perhaps the science of teaching may, at some future day, be so far
+improved that all may avoid them. As I describe them, however, now, most
+of the teachers into whose hands this treatise may fall will probably
+find that their own experience corresponds, in this respect, with mine.
+
+1. The first great difficulty which the teacher feels is a sort of
+_moral responsibility for the conduct of others_. If his pupils do
+wrong, he feels almost personal responsibility for it. As he walks out
+some afternoon, wearied with his labors, and endeavoring to forget, for
+a little time, all his cares, he comes upon a group of boys in rude and
+noisy quarrels, or engaged in mischief of some sort, and his heart
+sinks within him. It is hard enough for any one to witness their bad
+conduct with a spirit unruffled and undisturbed, but for their teacher
+it is perhaps impossible. He feels _responsible_; in fact, he is
+responsible. If his scholars are disorderly, or negligent, or idle, or
+quarrelsome, he feels _condemned himself_ almost as if he were himself
+the actual transgressor.
+
+This difficulty is, in a great degree, peculiar to a teacher. A
+physician is called upon to prescribe for a patient; he examines the
+case, and writes his prescription. When this is done his duty is ended;
+and whether the patient obeys the prescription and lives, or neglects it
+and dies, the physician feels exonerated from all responsibility. He
+may, and in some cases does, feel _anxious concern_, and may regret the
+infatuation by which, in some unhappy case, a valuable life may be
+hazarded or destroyed. But he feels no _moral responsibility_ for
+another's guilt.
+
+It is so with all the other employments in life. They do, indeed, often
+bring men into collision with other men. But, though sometimes vexed and
+irritated by the conduct of a neighbor, a client, or a patient, they
+feel not half the bitterness of the solicitude and anxiety which come to
+the teacher through the criminality of his pupil. In ordinary cases he
+not only feels responsible for efforts, but for their results; and when,
+notwithstanding all his efforts, his pupils will do wrong, his spirit
+sinks with an intensity of anxious despondency which none but a teacher
+can understand.
+
+This feeling of something very like _moral accountability for the guilt
+of other persons_ is a continual burden. The teacher in the presence of
+the pupil never is free from it. It links him to them by a bond which
+perhaps he ought not to sunder, and which he can not sunder if he would.
+And sometimes, when those committed to his charge are idle, or
+faithless, or unprincipled, it wears away his spirits and his health
+together. I think there is nothing analogous to this moral connection
+between teacher and pupil unless it be in the case of a parent and
+child. And here, on account of the comparative smallness of the number
+under the parent's care, the evil is so much diminished that it is
+easily borne.
+
+2. The second great difficulty of the teacher's employments is _the
+immense multiplicity of the objects of his attention and care_ during
+the time he is employed in his business. His scholars are individuals,
+and notwithstanding all that the most systematic can do in the way of
+classification, they must be attended to in a great measure as
+individuals. A merchant keeps his commodities together, and looks upon a
+cargo composed of ten thousand articles, and worth a hundred thousand
+dollars, as one; he speaks of it as one; and there is, in many cases, no
+more perplexity in planning its destination than if it were a single box
+of raisins. A lawyer may have a great many important cases, but he has
+only one at a time; that is, he _attends_ to but one at a time. The one
+may be intricate, involving many facts, and requiring to be examined in
+many aspects and relations. But he looks at but few of these facts and
+regards but few of these relations at a time. The points which demand
+his attention come one after another in regular succession. His mind may
+thus be kept calm. He avoids confusion and perplexity. But no skill or
+classification will turn the poor teacher's hundred scholars into one,
+or enable him, except to a very limited extent, and for a very limited
+purpose, to regard them as one. He has a distinct and, in many respects,
+a different work to do for every one of the crowd before him.
+Difficulties must be explained in detail, questions must be answered one
+by one, and each scholar's own conduct must be considered by itself. His
+work is thus made up of a thousand minute particulars, which are all
+crowding upon his attention at once, and which he can not group
+together, or combine, or simplify. He must, by some means or other,
+attend to them in all their distracting individuality. And, in a large
+and complicated school, the endless multiplicity and variety of objects
+of attention and care impose a task under which few intellects can long
+stand.
+
+I have said that this endless multiplicity and variety can not be
+reduced and simplified by classification. I mean, of course, that this
+can be done only to a very limited extent compared with what may be
+effected in the other pursuits of mankind. Were it not for the art of
+classification and system, no school could have more than ten scholars,
+as I intend hereafter to show. The great reliance of the teacher is upon
+this art, to reduce to some tolerable order what would otherwise be the
+inextricable confusion of his business. He _must be systematic_. He must
+classify and arrange; but, after he has done all that he can, he must
+still expect that his daily business will continue to consist of a vast
+multitude of minute particulars, from one to another of which the mind
+must turn with a rapidity which few of the other employments of life
+ever demand.
+
+These are the essential sources of difficulty with which the teacher has
+to contend; but, as I shall endeavor to show in succeeding chapters,
+though they can not be entirely removed, they can be so far mitigated by
+the appropriate means as to render the employment a happy one. I have
+thought it best, however, as this work will doubtless be read by many
+who, when they read it, are yet to begin their labors, to describe
+frankly and fully to them the difficulties which beset the path they are
+about to enter. "The wisdom of the prudent is to understand his way." It
+is often wisdom to understand it beforehand.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS.
+
+
+The distraction and perplexity of the teacher's life are, as was
+explained in the last chapter, almost proverbial. There are other
+pressing and exhausting pursuits, which wear away the spirit by the
+ceaseless care which they impose, or perplex and bewilder the intellect
+by the multiplicity and intricacy of their details; but the business of
+teaching, by a pre-eminence not very enviable, stands, almost by common
+consent, at the head of the catalogue.
+
+I have already alluded to this subject in the preceding chapter, and
+probably the majority of actual teachers will admit the truth of the
+view there presented. Some will, however, doubtless say that they do not
+find the business of teaching so perplexing and exhausting an
+employment. They take things calmly. They do one thing at a time, and
+that without useless solicitude and anxiety. So that teaching, with
+them, though it has, indeed, its solicitudes and cares, as every other
+responsible employment must necessarily have, is, after all, a calm and
+quiet pursuit, which they follow from month to month, and from year to
+year, without any extraordinary agitations, or any unusual burdens of
+anxiety and care.
+
+There are, indeed, such cases, but they are exceptions, and
+unquestionably a considerable majority, especially of those who are
+beginners in the work, find it such as I have described. I think it need
+not be so, or, rather, I think the evil may be avoided to _a very great
+degree_. In this chapter I shall endeavor to show how order may be
+produced out of that almost inextricable mass of confusion into which so
+many teachers, on commencing their labors, find themselves plunged.
+
+The objects, then, to be aimed at in the general arrangements of schools
+are twofold:
+
+  1. That the teacher may be left uninterrupted, to attend to one thing
+  at a time.
+
+  2. That the individual scholars may have constant employment, and such
+  an amount and such kinds of study as shall be suited to the
+  circumstances and capacities of each.
+
+I shall examine each in their order.
+
+  1. The following are the principal things which, in a vast number of
+  schools, are all the time pressing upon the teacher; or, rather, they
+  are the things which must every where press upon the teacher, except so
+  far as, by the skill of his arrangements, he contrives to remove them.
+
+  1. Giving leave to whisper or to leave seats.
+  2. Distributing and changing pens.
+  3. Answering questions in regard to studies.
+  4. Hearing recitations.
+  5. Watching the behavior of the scholars.
+  6. Administering reproof and punishment for offenses as they occur.
+
+A pretty large number of objects of attention and care, one would say,
+to be pressing upon the mind of the teacher at one and the same
+time--and _all the time_ too! Hundreds and hundreds of teachers in every
+part of our country, there is no doubt, have all these crowding upon
+them from morning to night, with no cessation, except perhaps some
+accidental and momentary respite. During the winter months, while the
+principal common schools in our country are in operation, it is sad to
+reflect how many teachers come home every evening with bewildered and
+aching heads, having been vainly trying all the day to do six things at
+a time, while He who made the human mind has determined that it shall do
+but one. How many become discouraged and disheartened by what they
+consider the unavoidable trials of a teacher's life, and give up in
+despair, just because their faculties will not sustain a six-fold task.
+There are multitudes who, in early life, attempted teaching, and, after
+having been worried, almost to distraction, by the simultaneous pressure
+of these multifarious cares, gave up the employment in disgust, and now
+unceasingly wonder how any body can like teaching. I know multitudes of
+persons to whom the above description will exactly apply.
+
+I once heard a teacher who had been very successful, even in large
+schools, say that he could hear two classes recite, mend pens, and watch
+his school all at the same time, and that without any distraction of
+mind or any unusual fatigue. Of course the recitations in such a case
+must be from memory. There are very few minds, however, which can thus
+perform triple or quadruple work, and probably none which can safely be
+tasked so severely. For my part, I can do but one thing at a time; and I
+have no question that the true policy for all is to learn not _to do
+every thing at once_, but so to classify and arrange their work that
+_they shall have but one thing at once to do_. Instead of vainly
+attempting to attend simultaneously to a dozen things, they should so
+plan their work that only _one_ will demand attention.
+
+Let us, then, examine the various particulars above mentioned in
+succession, and see how each can be disposed of, so as not to be a
+constant source of interruption and derangement.
+
+1. _Whispering_ and _leaving seats_. In regard to this subject there
+are very different methods now in practice in different schools. In
+some, especially in very small schools, the teacher allows the pupils to
+act according to their own discretion. They whisper and leave their
+seats whenever they think it necessary. This plan may possibly be
+admissible in a very small school, that is, in one of ten or twelve
+pupils. I am convinced, however, that it is a very bad plan even here.
+No vigilant watch which it is possible for any teacher to exert will
+prevent a vast amount of mere talk entirely foreign to the business of
+the school. I tried this plan very thoroughly, with high ideas of the
+dependence which might be placed upon conscience and a sense of duty, if
+these principles are properly brought out to action in an effort to
+sustain the system. I was told by distinguished teachers that it would
+not be found to answer. But predictions of failure in such cases only
+prompt to greater exertions, and I persevered. But I was forced at last
+to give up the point, and adopt another plan. My pupils would make
+resolutions enough; they understood their duty well enough. They were
+allowed to leave their seats and whisper to their companions whenever,
+_in their honest judgment, it was necessary for the prosecution of their
+studies_. I knew that it sometimes would be necessary, and I was
+desirous to adopt this plan to save myself the constant interruption of
+hearing and replying to requests. But it would not do. Whenever, from
+time to time, I called them to account, I found that a large majority,
+according to their own confession, were in the habit of holding daily
+and deliberate communication with each other on subjects entirely
+foreign to the business of the school. A more experienced teacher would
+have predicted this result; but I had very high ideas of the power of
+cultivated conscience, and, in fact, still have. But then, like most
+other persons who become possessed of a good idea, I could not be
+satisfied without carrying it to an extreme.
+
+Still it is necessary, in ordinary schools, to give pupils sometimes
+the opportunity to whisper and leave seats.[1] Cases occur where this is
+unavoidable. It can not, therefore, be forbidden altogether. How, then,
+you will ask, can the teacher regulate this practice, so as to prevent
+the evils which will otherwise flow from it, without being continually
+interrupted by the request for permission?
+
+[Footnote 1: There are some large and peculiarly-organized schools in
+cities and large towns to which this remark may perhaps not apply.]
+
+By a very simple method. _Appropriate particular times at which all this
+business is to be done_, and _forbid it altogether_ at every other time.
+It is well, on other accounts, to give the pupils of a school a little
+respite, at least every hour; and if this is done, an intermission of
+study for two minutes each time will be sufficient. During this time
+_general_ permission should be given for the pupils to speak to each
+other, or to leave their seats, provided they do nothing at such a time
+to disturb the studies of others. This plan I have myself very
+thoroughly tested, and no arrangement which I ever made operated for so
+long a time so uninterruptedly and so entirely to my satisfaction as
+this. It of course will require some little time, and no little
+firmness, to establish the new order of things where a school has been
+accustomed to another course; but where this is once done, I know no one
+plan so simple and so easily put into execution which will do so much
+toward relieving the teacher of the distraction and perplexity of his
+pursuits.
+
+In making the change, however, it is of fundamental importance that the
+pupils should themselves be interested in it. Their co-operation, or,
+rather, the co-operation of the majority, which it is very easy to
+obtain, is absolutely essential to success. I say this is very easily
+obtained. Let us suppose that some teacher, who has been accustomed to
+require his pupils to ask and obtain permission every time they wish to
+speak to a companion, is induced by these remarks to introduce this
+plan. He says, accordingly, to his school,
+
+"You know that you are now accustomed to ask me whenever you wish to
+obtain permission to whisper to a companion or to leave your seats; now
+I have been thinking of a plan which will be better for both you and me.
+By our present plan you are sometimes obliged to wait before I can
+attend to your request. Sometimes I think it is unnecessary, and deny
+you, when perhaps I was mistaken, and it was really necessary. At other
+times, I think it very probable that when it is quite desirable for you
+to leave your seat you do not ask, because you think you may not obtain
+permission, and you do not wish to ask and be refused. Do you, or not,
+experience these inconveniences from our present plans?"
+
+The pupils would undoubtedly answer in the affirmative.
+
+"I myself experience great inconvenience too. I am very frequently
+interrupted when busily engaged, and it also occupies a great portion of
+my time and attention to consider and answer your requests for
+permission to speak to one another and to leave your seats. It requires
+as much mental effort to consider and decide whether I ought to allow a
+pupil to leave his seat, as it would to determine a much more important
+question; therefore I do not like our present plan, and I have another
+to propose."
+
+The pupils are now all attention to know what the new plan is. It will
+always be of great advantage to the school for the teacher to propose
+his new plans from time to time to his pupils in such a way as this. It
+interests them in the improvement of the school, exercises their
+judgment, establishes a common feeling between teacher and pupil, and in
+many other ways assists very much in promoting the welfare of the
+school.
+
+"My plan," continues the teacher, "is this: to allow you all, besides
+the recess, a short time, two or three minutes perhaps, every hour" (or
+every half hour, according to the character of the school, the age of
+the pupils, or other circumstances, to be judged of by the teacher),
+"during which you may all whisper or leave your seats _without_ asking
+permission."
+
+Instead of deciding the question of the _frequency_ of this general
+permission, the teacher may, if he pleases, leave it to the pupils to
+decide. It is often useful to leave the decision of such a question to
+them. On this subject, however, I shall speak in another place. It is
+only necessary here to say that _this_ point may be safely left to them,
+since the time is so small which is to be thus appropriated. Even if
+they vote to have the general permission to whisper every half hour, it
+will make but eight minutes in the forenoon. There being six half hours
+in the forenoon, and one of them ending at the close of school, and
+another at the recess, only _four_ of these _rests_, as a military man
+would call them, would be necessary; and four, of two minutes each,
+would make eight minutes. If the teacher thinks that evil would result
+from the interruption of the studies so often, he may offer the pupils
+_three_ minutes rest every _hour_ instead of _two_ minutes every _half
+hour_, and let them take their choice; or he may decide the case
+altogether himself.
+
+Such a change, from _particular permission on individual requests_ to
+_general permission_ at _stated times_, would unquestionably be popular
+in every school, if the teacher managed the business properly. And by
+presenting it as an object of common interest, an arrangement proposed
+for the common convenience of teacher and pupils, the latter may be much
+interested in carrying the plan into effect. We must not rely, however,
+entirely upon their _interest in it_. All that we can expect from such
+an effort to interest them, as I have described and recommended, is to
+get a majority on our side, so that we may have only a small minority to
+deal with by other measures. Still, _we must calculate on having this
+minority, and form our plans accordingly_, or we shall be greatly
+disappointed. I shall, however, in another place, speak of this
+principle of interesting the pupils in our plans for the purpose of
+securing a majority in our favor, and explain the methods by which the
+minority is then to be governed. I only mean here to say that, by such
+means, the teacher may easily interest a large proportion of the
+scholars in carrying his plans into effect, and that he must expect to
+be prepared with other measures for those who will not be governed by
+these.
+
+You can not reasonably expect, however, that, immediately after having
+explained your plan, it will at once go into full and complete
+operation. Even those who are firmly determined to keep the rule will,
+from inadvertence, for a day or two, make communication with each other.
+They must be _trained_, not by threatening and punishment, but by your
+good-humored assistance, to their new duties. When I first adopted this
+plan in my school, something like the following proceedings took place.
+
+"Do you suppose that you will perfectly keep this rule from this time?"
+
+"No, sir," was the answer.
+
+"I suppose you will not. Some, I am afraid, may not really be determined
+to keep it, and others will forget. Now I wish that every one of you
+would keep an exact account to-day of all the instances in which you
+speak to another person, or leave your seat, out of the regular times,
+and be prepared to report them at the close of the school. Of course,
+there will be no punishment; but it will very much assist you to watch
+yourselves, if you expect to make a report at the end of the forenoon.
+Do you like this plan?"
+
+"Yes, sir," was the answer; and all seemed to enter into it with spirit.
+
+In order to mark more definitely the times for communication, I wrote,
+in large letters, on a piece of pasteboard, "STUDY HOURS," and making a
+hole over the centre of it, I hung it upon a nail over my desk. At the
+close of each half hour a little bell was to be struck, and this card
+was to be taken down. When it was up, they were, on no occasion whatever
+(except some such extraordinary occurrence as sickness, or my sending
+one of them on a message to another, or something clearly out of the
+common course) to speak to each other; but were to wait, whatever they
+wanted, until the _Study Card_, as they called it, was taken down.
+
+"Suppose now," said I, "that a young lady has come into school, and has
+accidentally left her book in the entry--the book from which she is to
+study during the first half hour of the school. She sits near the door,
+and she might, in a moment, slip out and obtain it. If she does not, she
+must spend the half hour in idleness, and be unprepared in her lesson.
+What is it her duty to do?"
+
+"To go," "Not to go," answered the scholars, simultaneously.
+
+"It would be her duty _not_ to go; but I suppose it will be very
+difficult for me to convince you of it.
+
+"The reason is this," I continued; "if the one case I have supposed were
+the _only_ one which would be likely to occur, it would undoubtedly be
+better for her to go; but if it is understood that in such cases the
+rule may be dispensed with, that understanding will tend very much to
+cause such cases to occur. Scholars will differ in regard to the degree
+of inconvenience which they must submit to rather than break the rule.
+They will gradually do it on slighter and slighter occasions, until at
+last the rule will be disregarded entirely. We must therefore draw a
+_precise line_, and individuals must submit to a little inconvenience
+sometimes to promote the general good."
+
+At the close of the day I requested all in the school to rise. While
+they were standing, I called them to account in the following manner:
+
+"Now it is very probable that some have, from inadvertence or from
+design, omitted to keep an account of the number of transgressions of
+the rule which they have committed during the day; others, perhaps, do
+not wish to make a report of themselves. Now as this is a common and
+voluntary effort, I wish to have none render assistance who do not, of
+their own accord, desire to do so. All those, therefore, who are not
+able to make a report, from not having been correct in keeping it, and
+all those who are unwilling to report themselves, may sit."
+
+A very small number hesitatingly took their seats.
+
+"I am afraid that all do not sit who really wish not to report
+themselves. Now I am honest in saying I wish you to do just as you
+please. If a great majority of the school really wish to assist me in
+accomplishing the object, why, of course, I am glad; still, I shall not
+call upon any for such assistance unless it is freely and voluntarily
+rendered."
+
+One or two more took their seats while these things were saying. Among
+such there would generally be some who would refuse to have any thing to
+do with the measure simply from a desire to thwart and impede the plans
+of the teacher. If so, it is best to take no notice of them. If the
+teacher can contrive to obtain a great majority upon his side, so as to
+let them see that any opposition which they can raise is of no
+consequence and is not even noticed, they will soon be ashamed of it.
+
+The reports, then, of those who remained standing were called for;
+first, those who had whispered only once were requested to sit, then
+those who had whispered more than once and less than five times, and so
+on, until at last all were down. In such a case the pupils might, if
+thought expedient, again be requested to rise for the purpose of asking
+some other questions with reference to ascertaining whether they had
+spoken most in the former or latter part of the forenoon. The number who
+had spoken inadvertently, and the number who had done it by design,
+might be ascertained. These inquiries accustom the pupils to render
+honest and faithful accounts themselves. They become, by such means,
+familiarized to the practice, and by means of it the teacher can many
+times receive most important assistance.
+
+In all this, however, the teacher should speak in a pleasant tone, and
+maintain a pleasant and cheerful air. The acknowledgments should be
+considered by the pupils not as confessions of guilt for which they are
+to be rebuked or punished, but as voluntary and free reports of the
+result of _an experiment_ in which all were interested.
+
+Some will have been dishonest in their reports: to diminish the number
+of these, the teacher may say, after the report is concluded,
+
+"We will drop the subject here to-day. To-morrow we will make another
+effort, when we shall be more successful. I have taken your reports as
+you have offered them without any inquiry, because I had no doubt that a
+great majority of this school would be honest at all hazards. They would
+not, I am confident, make a false report even if, by a true one, they
+were to bring upon themselves punishment; so that I think I may have
+confidence that nearly all these reports have been faithful. Still it is
+very probable that among so large a number some may have made a report
+which, they are now aware, was not perfectly fair and honest. I do not
+wish to know who they are; if there are any such cases, I only wish to
+say to the rest how much pleasanter it is for you that you have been
+honest and open. The business is now all ended; you have done your duty;
+and, though you reported a little larger number than you would if you
+had been disposed to conceal your faults, yet you go away from school
+with a quiet conscience. On the other hand, how miserable must any boy
+feel, if he has any nobleness of mind whatever, to go away from school
+to-day thinking that he has not been honest; that he has been trying to
+conceal his faults, and thus to obtain a credit which he did not justly
+deserve. Always be honest, let the consequence be what it may."
+
+The reader will understand that the object of such measures is simply
+_to secure as large a majority as possible_ to make _voluntary_ efforts
+to observe the rule. I do not expect that by such measures _universal_
+obedience can be exacted. The teacher must follow up the plan after a
+few days by other measures for those pupils who will not yield to such
+inducements as these. Upon this subject, however, I shall speak more
+particularly at a future time.
+
+In my own school it required two or three weeks to exclude whispering
+and communication by signs. The period necessary to effect the
+revolution will be longer or shorter, according to the circumstances of
+the school and the dexterity of the teacher; and, after all, the teacher
+must not hope _entirely_ to exclude it. Approximation to excellence is
+all that we can expect; for unprincipled and deceiving characters will
+perhaps always be found, and no system whatever can prevent their
+existence. Proper treatment may indeed be the means of their
+reformation, but before this process has arrived at a successful result,
+others similar in character will have entered the school, so that the
+teacher can never expect perfection in the operation of any of his
+plans.
+
+I found so much relief from the change which this plan introduced, that
+I soon took measures for rendering it permanent; and though I am not
+much in favor of efforts to bring all teachers and all schools to the
+same plans, this principle of _whispering at limited and prescribed
+times alone_ seems to me well suited to universal adoption.
+
+The following simple apparatus has been used in several schools where
+this principle has been adopted. A drawing and description of it is
+inserted here, as by this means some teachers, who may like to try the
+course here recommended, may be saved the time and trouble of contriving
+something of the kind themselves.
+
+The figure _a a a a_ on the next page is a board about 18 inches by 12,
+to which the other parts of the apparatus are to be attached, and which
+is to be secured to the wall at the height of about 8 feet, and _b c d
+c_ is a plate of tin or brass, 8 inches by 12, of the form represented
+in the drawing. At _c c_, the lower extremities of the parts at the
+sides, the metal is bent round, so as to clasp a wire which runs from
+_c_ to _c_, the ends of which wire are bent at right angles, and run
+into the board. The plate will consequently turn on this axis as on a
+hinge. At the top of the plate, _d_, a small projection of the tin turns
+inward, and to this one end of the cord, _m m_, is attached. This cord
+passes back from _d_ to a small pulley at the upper part of the board,
+and at the lower end of it a tassel, loaded so as to be an exact
+counterpoise to the card, is attached. By raising the tassel, the plate
+will of course fall over forward till it is stopped by the part _b_
+striking the board, when it will be in a horizontal position. On the
+other hand, by pulling down the tassel, the plate will be raised and
+drawn upward against the board, so as to present its convex surface,
+with the words STUDY HOURS upon it, distinctly to the school. In the
+drawing it is represented in an inclined position, being not quite drawn
+up, that the parts might more easily be seen. At _d_ there is a small
+projection of the tin upward, which touches the clapper of the bell
+suspended above every time the plate passes up or down, and thus gives
+notice of its motions.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Of course the construction may be varied very much, and it may be more
+or less expensive, according to the wishes of the teacher. In the first
+apparatus of this kind which I used, the plate was simply a card of
+pasteboard, from which the machine took its name. This was cut out with
+a penknife, and, after being covered with marble-paper, a strip of white
+paper was pasted along the middle with the inscription upon it. The wire
+_c c_, and a similar one at the top of the plate, were passed through a
+perforation in the pasteboard, and then passed into the board. Instead
+of a pulley, the cord, which was a piece of twine, was passed through a
+little staple made of wire and driven into the board. The whole was made
+in one or two recesses in school, with such tools and materials as I
+could then command. The bell was a common table bell, with a wire
+passing through the handle. The whole was attached to such a piece of
+pine board as I could get on the occasion. This coarse contrivance was,
+for more than a year, the grand regulator of all the movements of the
+school.
+
+I afterward caused one to be made in a better manner. The plate was of
+tin, gilded, the border and the letters of the inscription being black.
+A parlor bell-rope was carried over a brass pulley, and then passed
+downward in a groove made in the mahogany board to which the card was
+attached.
+
+A little reflection will, however, show the teacher that the form and
+construction of the apparatus for marking the times of study and of rest
+may be greatly varied. The chief point is simply to secure the
+_principle_ of whispering at definite and limited times, and at those
+alone. If such an arrangement is adopted, and carried faithfully into
+effect, it will be found to relieve the teacher of more than half of the
+confusion and perplexity which would otherwise be his hourly lot. I have
+detailed thus particularly the method to be pursued in carrying this
+principle into effect, because I am convinced of its importance, and the
+incalculable assistance which such an arrangement will afford to the
+teacher in all his plans. Of course, I would not be understood to recommend
+its adoption in those cases where teachers, from their own experience,
+have devised and adopted _other_ plans which accomplish as effectually
+the same purpose. All that I mean is to insist upon the absolute
+necessity of _some_ plan, to remove this very common source of
+interruption and confusion, and I recommend this mode where a better is
+not known.
+
+2. The second of the sources of interruption, as I have enumerated them,
+is the distribution of pens and of stationery. This business ought, if
+possible, to have a specific time assigned to it. Scholars are, in
+general, far too particular in regard to their pens. The teacher ought
+to explain to them that, in the transaction of the ordinary business of
+life, they can not always have exactly such a pen as they would like.
+They must learn to write with various kinds of pens, and when furnished
+with one that the teacher himself would consider suitable to write a
+letter to a friend with, he must be content. They should understand that
+the _form_ of the letters is what is important in learning to write, not
+the smoothness and clearness of the hair lines; and that though writing
+looks better when executed with a perfect pen, a person may _learn_ to
+write nearly as well with one which is not absolutely perfect. So
+certain is this, though often overlooked, that a person would perhaps
+learn faster with chalk, upon a black board, than with the best
+goose-quill ever sharpened.
+
+I do not make these remarks to show that it is of no consequence whether
+scholars have good or bad pens, but only that this subject deserves very
+much less of the time and attention of the teacher than it usually
+receives. When the scholars are allowed, as they very often are, to come
+when they please to change their pens, breaking in upon any
+business--interrupting any classes--perplexing and embarrassing the
+teacher, however he may be employed, there is a very serious obstruction
+to the progress of the scholars, which is by no means repaid by the
+improvement in this branch.
+
+To guard against these evils, a regular and well-considered system
+should be adopted for the distribution of pens and stationary, and when
+adopted it should be strictly and steadily adhered to.
+
+3. Answering questions about studies. A teacher who does not adopt some
+system in regard to this subject will be always at the mercy of his
+scholars. One boy will want to know how to parse a word, another where
+the lesson is, another to have a sum explained, and a fourth will wish
+to show his work to see if it is right. The teacher does not like to
+discourage such inquiries. Each one, as it comes up, seems necessary;
+each one, too, is answered in a moment; but the endless number and the
+continual repetition of them consume his time and exhaust his patience.
+
+There is another view of the subject which ought to be taken. Perhaps it
+would not be far from the truth to estimate the average number of
+scholars in the schools in our country at fifty. At any rate, this will
+be near enough for our present purpose. There are three hours in each
+session, according to the usual arrangement, making one hundred and
+eighty minutes, which, divided among fifty, give about three minutes and
+a half to each individual. If the reader has, in his own school, a
+greater or a less number, he can easily correct the above calculation,
+so as to adapt it to his own case, and ascertain the portion which may
+justly be appropriated to each pupil. It will probably vary from two to
+four minutes. Now a period of four minutes slips away very fast while a
+man is looking over perplexing figures on a slate, and if he exceeds
+that time at all in individual attention to any one scholar, he is doing
+injustice to his other pupils. I do not mean that a man is to confine
+himself rigidly to the principle suggested by this calculation of
+cautiously appropriating no more time to any one of his pupils than such
+a calculation would assign to each, but simply that this is a point
+which should be kept in view, and should have a very strong influence in
+deciding how far it is right to devote attention exclusively to
+individuals. It seems to me that it shows very clearly that one ought
+to teach his pupils, as much as possible, _in masses_, and as little as
+possible by private attention to individual cases.
+
+The following directions will help the teacher to carry these principles
+into effect. When you assign a lesson, glance over it yourself, and
+consider what difficulties are likely to arise. You know the progress
+which your pupils have made, and can easily anticipate their
+difficulties. Tell them all together, in the class, what their
+difficulties will be, and how they may surmount them. Give them
+directions how they are to act in the emergencies which will be likely
+to occur. This simple step will remove a vast number of the questions
+which would otherwise become occasions for interrupting you. With regard
+to other difficulties, which can not be foreseen and guarded against,
+direct the pupils to bring them to the class at the next recitation.
+Half a dozen of the class might, and very probably would, meet with the
+same difficulty. If they bring this difficulty to you one by one, you
+have to explain it over and over again, whereas, when it is brought to
+the class, one explanation answers for all.
+
+As to all questions about the lesson--where it is, what it is, and how
+long it is--never answer them. Require each pupil to remember for
+himself, and if he was absent when the lesson was assigned, let him ask
+his class-mate in a rest.
+
+You _may_ refuse to give particular individuals the private assistance
+they ask for in such a way as to discourage and irritate them, but this
+is by no means necessary. It can be done in such a manner that the pupil
+will see the propriety of it, and acquiesce pleasantly in it.
+
+A child comes to you, for example, and says,
+
+"Will you tell me, sir, where the next lesson is?"
+
+"Were you not in the class at the time?"
+
+"Yes, sir; but I have forgotten."
+
+"Well, I have forgotten too. I have a great many classes to hear, and,
+of course, great many lessons to assign, and I never remember them. It
+is not necessary for me to remember."
+
+"May I speak to one of the class to ask about it?"
+
+"You can not speak, you know, till the Study Card is down; you may
+then."
+
+"But I want to get my lesson now."
+
+"I don't know what you will do, then. I am sorry you don't remember.
+
+"Besides," continues the teacher, looking pleasantly, however, while he
+says it, "if I knew, I think I ought not to tell you."
+
+"Why, sir?"
+
+"Because, you know, I have said I wish the scholars to remember where
+the lessons are, and not come to me. You know it would be very unwise
+for me, after assigning a lesson once for all in the class, to spend my
+time here at my desk in assigning it over again to each individual one
+by one. Now if I should tell _you_ where the lesson is now, I should
+have to tell others, and thus should adopt a practice which I have
+condemned."
+
+Take another case. You assign to a class of little girls a subject of
+composition, requesting them to copy their writing upon a sheet of
+paper, leaving a margin an inch wide at the top, and one of half an inch
+at the sides and bottom. The class take their seats, and, after a short
+time, one of them comes to you, saying she does not know how long an
+inch is.
+
+"Don't you know any thing about it?"
+
+"No, sir, not much."
+
+"Should you think _that_ is more or less than an inch?" (pointing to a
+space on a piece of paper much too large).
+
+"More."
+
+"Then you know something about it. Now I did not tell you to make the
+margins _exactly_ an inch and half an inch, but only as near as you
+could judge?"
+
+"Would _that_ be about right?" asks the girl, showing a distance.
+
+"I must not tell you, because, you know, I never in such cases help
+individuals; if that is as near as you can get it, you may make it so."
+
+It may be well, after assigning a lesson to a class, to say that all
+those who do not distinctly understand what they have to do may remain
+after the class have taken their seats, and ask: the task may then be
+distinctly assigned again, and the difficulties, so far as they can be
+foreseen, explained.
+
+By such means these sources of interruption and difficulty may, like the
+others, be almost entirely removed. Perhaps not altogether, for many
+cases may occur where the teacher may choose to give a particular class
+permission to come to him for help. Such permission, however, ought
+never to be given unless it is absolutely necessary, and should never be
+allowed to be taken unless it is distinctly given.
+
+4. Hearing recitations. I am aware that many attempt to do something
+else at the same time that they are hearing a recitation, and there may
+perhaps be some individuals who can succeed in this. If the exercise to
+which the teacher is attending consists merely in listening to the
+reciting word for word some passage committed to memory, it can be done.
+I hope, however, to show in a future chapter that there are other and
+far higher objects which every teacher ought to have in view in his
+recitations, and he who understands these objects, and aims at
+accomplishing them--who endeavors to _instruct_ his class, to enlarge
+and elevate their ideas, to awaken a deep and paramount interest in the
+subject which they are examining, will find that his time must be his
+own, and his attention uninterrupted while he is presiding at a class.
+All the other exercises and arrangements of the school are, in fact,
+preparatory and subsidiary to this. Here, that is, in the classes, the
+real business of teaching is to be done. Here the teacher comes in
+contact with his scholars mind with mind, and here, consequently, he
+must be uninterrupted and undisturbed. I shall speak more particularly
+on this subject hereafter under the head of instruction; all I wish to
+secure in this place is that the teacher should make such arrangements
+that he can devote his exclusive attention to his classes while he is
+actually engaged with them.
+
+Each recitation, too, should have its specified time, which should be
+adhered to with rigid accuracy. If any thing like the plan I have
+suggested for allowing rests of a minute or two every half hour should
+be adopted, it will mark off the forenoon into parts which ought to be
+precisely and carefully observed. I was formerly accustomed to think
+that I could not limit the time for my recitations without great
+inconvenience, and occasionally allowed one exercise to encroach upon
+the succeeding, and this upon the next, and thus sometimes the last was
+excluded altogether. But such a lax and irregular method of procedure is
+ruinous to the discipline of a school. On perceiving it at last, I put
+the bell into the hands of a pupil, commissioning her to ring regularly,
+having myself fixed the times, saying that I would show my pupils that I
+could be confined myself to system as well as they. At first I
+experienced a little inconvenience; but this soon disappeared, and at
+last the hours and half hours of our artificial division entirely
+superseded, in the school-room, the divisions of the clock face. I
+found, too, that it exerted an extremely favorable influence upon the
+scholars in respect to their willingness to submit readily to the
+necessary restrictions imposed upon them in school, to show them that
+the teacher was subject to law as well as they.
+
+But, in order that I may be specific and definite, I will draw up a plan
+for the regular division of time, for a common school, not to be
+_adopted_, but to be _imitated_; that is, I do not recommend exactly
+this plan, but that some plan, precise and specific, should be
+determined upon, and exhibited to the school by a diagram like the
+following:
+
+FORENOON.
+IX.       X.               XI.        XII.
++---------+---------+---+---+------------+
+|READING. |WRITING. |R. |G. |ARITHMETIC. |
++----+----+----+----+---+---+-----+------+
+|    |    |    |    |   |   |     |      |
+|    |    |    |    |   |   |     |      |
+|    |    |    |    |   |   |     |      |
+|    |    |    |    |   |   |     |      |
++----+----+----+----+---+---+-----+------+
+
+
+AFTERNOON.
+
+II.      III.              IV.         V.
++-----------+---------+---+---+----------+
+|GEOGRAPHY. |WRITING. |R. |G. |GRAMMAR.  |
++-----+-----+----+----+---+---+----+-----+
+|     |     |    |    |   |   |    |     |
+|     |     |    |    |   |   |    |     |
+|     |     |    |    |   |   |    |     |
+|     |     |    |    |   |   |    |     |
++-----+-----+----+----+---+---+----+-----+
+A drawing on a large sheet, made by some of the older scholars (for a
+teacher should never do any thing of this kind which his scholars can do
+for him), should be made and pasted up to view, the names of the classes
+being inserted in the columns under their respective heads. At the
+double lines at ten and three, there might be a rest of two minutes, an
+officer appointed for the purpose ringing a bell at each of the periods
+marked on the plan, and making the signal for the _rest_, whatever
+signal might be determined upon. It is a good plan to have the bell
+_touched_ five minutes before each half hour expires, and then exactly
+at its close. The first bell would notify the teacher or teachers, if
+there are more than one in the school, that the time for their
+respective recitations is drawing to a close. At the second bell the new
+classes should take their places without waiting to be called for. The
+scholars will thus see that the arrangements of the school are based
+upon system, to which the teacher himself conforms, and not subjected to
+his own varying will. They will thus not only go on more regularly, but
+they will themselves yield more easily and pleasantly to the necessary
+arrangements.
+
+The fact is, children love system and regularity. Each one is sometimes
+a little uneasy under the restraint which it imposes upon him
+individually, but they all love to see its operation upon others, and
+they are generally very willing to submit to its laws, if the rest of
+the community are required to submit too. They show this in their love
+of military parade; what allures them is chiefly the _order_ of it; and
+even a little child creeping upon the floor will be pleased when he gets
+his playthings in a row. A teacher may turn this principle to most
+useful account in forming his plans for his school, in observing that
+the teacher is governed by them too as well as they.
+
+It will be seen by reference to the foregoing plan that I have marked
+the time for the recesses by the letter R. at the top. Immediately after
+them, both in the forenoon and in the afternoon, twenty minutes are
+left, marked G., the initial standing for general exercise. They are
+intended to denote periods during which all the scholars are in their
+seats, with their work laid aside, ready to attend to whatever the
+teacher may desire to bring before the whole school. There are so many
+occasions on which it is necessary to address the whole school, that it
+is very desirable to appropriate a particular time for it. In most of
+the best schools I believe this plan is adopted. I will mention some of
+the subjects which would come up at such a time.
+
+1. There are some studies which can be advantageously attended to by the
+whole school together, such as Punctuation, and, to some extent,
+Spelling.
+
+2. Cases of discipline which it is necessary to bring before the whole
+school ought to come up at a regularly-appointed time. By attending to
+them here, there will be a greater importance attached to them. Whatever
+the teacher does will seem to be more deliberate, and, in fact, _will
+be_ more deliberate.
+
+3. General remarks, bringing up classes of faults which prevail; also
+general directions, which may at any time be needed; and, in fact, any
+business relating to the general arrangements of the school.
+
+4. Familiar lectures from the teacher on various subjects. These
+lectures, though necessarily brief and quite familiar in their form, may
+still be very exact and thorough in respect to the knowledge conveyed.
+When they are upon scientific subjects they may sometimes be illustrated
+by experiments, more or less imposing, according to the ingenuity of the
+teacher, the capacity of the older scholars to assist him in the
+preparations, or the means and facilities at his command.[2]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Footnote 2: In some of the larger institutions of the country the
+teacher will have convenient apparatus at his disposal, and a room
+specially adapted to the purpose of experiments. The engraving
+represents a room at the Spingler Institute at New York. But let not the
+teacher suppose that these special facilities are essential to enable
+him to give instruction to his pupils in such a way. I have known a much
+larger balloon than the one represented in the engraving to be
+constructed by the teacher and pupils of a common country school from
+directions in Rees's Cyclopedia, and sent up in the open air. The
+aeronaut that accompanied it was a hen--poor thing!] The design of such
+lectures should be to extend the _general knowledge_ of the pupils in
+regard to those subjects on which they will need information in their
+progress through life. In regard to each of these particulars I shall
+speak more particularly hereafter, in the chapters to which they
+respectively belong. My only object here is to show, in the general
+arrangements of the school, how a place is to be found for them. My
+practice has been to have two periods of short duration, each day,
+appropriated to these objects: the first to the _business of the
+school_, and the second to such studies or lectures as could be most
+profitably attended to at such a time.
+
+We come now to one of the most important subjects which present
+themselves to the teacher's attention in settling the principles upon
+which he shall govern his school. I mean the degree of influence which
+the boys themselves shall have in the management of its affairs. Shall
+the government of school be a _monarchy_ or a _republic?_ To this
+question, after much inquiry and many experiments, I answer, a monarchy;
+an absolute, unlimited monarchy; the teacher possessing exclusive power
+as far as the pupils are concerned, though strictly responsible to the
+committee or to the trustees under whom he holds his office.
+
+While, however, it is thus distinctly understood that the power of the
+teacher is supreme, that all the power rests in him, and that he alone
+is responsible for its exercise, there ought to be a very free and
+continual _delegation_ of power to the pupils. As much business as is
+possible should be committed to them. They should be interested as much
+as possible in the affairs of the school, and led to take an active part
+in carrying them forward; though they should, all the time, distinctly
+understand that it is only _delegated_ power which they exercise, and
+that the teacher can, at any time, revoke what he has granted, and alter
+or annul at pleasure any of their decisions. By this plan we have the
+responsibility resting where it ought to rest, and yet the boys are
+trained to business, and led to take an active interest in the welfare
+of the school. Trust is reposed in them, which may be greater or less,
+as they are able to bear. All the good effects of reposing trust and
+confidence, and committing the management of important business to the
+pupils will be secured, without the dangers which would result from the
+entire surrender of the management of the institution into their hands.
+
+There have been, in several cases, experiments made with reference to
+ascertaining how far a government strictly republican would be
+admissible in a school. A very fair experiment of this kind was made
+some years since at the Gardiner Lyceum, in Maine. At the time of its
+establishment, nothing was said of the mode of government which it was
+intended to adopt. For some time the attention of the instructors was
+occupied in arranging the course of study, and attending to the other
+concerns of the institution; and, in the infant state of the Lyceum, few
+cases of discipline occurred, and no regular system of government was
+necessary.
+
+Before long, however, complaints were made that the students at the
+Lyceum were guilty of breaking windows in an old building used as a
+town-house. The principal called the students together, mentioned the
+reports, and said that he did not know, and did not wish to know who
+were the guilty individuals. It was necessary, however, that the thing
+should be examined into, and that restitution should be made, and,
+relying on their faithfulness and ability, he should leave them to
+manage the business alone. For this purpose, he nominated one of the
+students as judge, some others as jurymen, and appointed the other
+officers necessary in the same manner. He told them that, in order to
+give them time to make a thorough investigation, they were excused from
+farther exercises during the day.
+
+The principal then left them, and they entered on the trial. The result
+was that they discovered the guilty individuals, ascertained the amount
+of mischief done by each, and sent to the selectmen a message, by which
+they agreed to pay a sum equal to three times the value of the injury
+sustained.
+
+The students were soon after informed that this mode of bringing
+offenders to justice would hereafter be always pursued, and arrangements
+were made for organizing a _regular republican government_ among the
+young men. By this government all laws which related to the internal
+police of the institution were to be made, all officers were appointed,
+and all criminal cases were to be tried. The students finding the part
+of a judge too difficult for them to sustain, one of the professors was
+appointed to hold that office, and, for similar reasons, another of the
+professors was made president of the legislative assembly. The principal
+was the executive, with power to _pardon_, but not to _sentence_, or
+even _accuse_.
+
+Some time after this a student was indicted for profane swearing; he was
+tried, convicted, and punished. After this he evinced a strong hostility
+to the government. He made great exertions to bring it into contempt,
+and when the next trial came on, he endeavored to persuade the witnesses
+that giving evidence was dishonorable, and he so far succeeded that the
+defendant was acquitted for want of evidence, when it was generally
+understood that there was proof of his guilt, which would have been
+satisfactory if it could have been brought forward. For some time after
+this the prospect was rather unfavorable, though many of the students
+themselves opposed with great earnestness these efforts, and were much
+alarmed lest they should lose their free government through the
+perverseness of one of their number. The attorney general, at this
+juncture, conceived the idea of indicting the individual alluded to for
+an attempt to overturn the government. He obtained the approbation of
+the principal, and the grand jury found a bill. The court, as the case
+was so important, invited some of the trustees, who were in town, to
+attend the trial. The parent of the defendant was also informed of the
+circumstances and requested to be present, and he accordingly attended.
+The prisoner was tried, found guilty, and sentenced, if I mistake not,
+to expulsion. At his earnest request, however, to be permitted to remain
+in the Lyceum and redeem his character, he was pardoned and restored,
+and from that time he became perfectly exemplary in his conduct and
+character. After this occurrence the system went on in successful
+operation for some time.
+
+The legislative power was vested in the hands of a general committee,
+consisting of eight or ten, chosen by the students from their own
+number. They met about once a week to transact such business as
+appointing officers, making and repealing regulations, and inquiring
+into the state of the Lyceum. The instructors had a negative upon all
+their proceedings, but no direct and positive power. They could pardon,
+but they could assign no punishments, nor make laws inflicting any.
+
+Now such a plan as this may succeed for a short time, and under very
+favorable circumstances; and the circumstance which it is chiefly
+important should be favorable is, that the man who is called to preside
+over such an association should possess such talents of _generalship_
+that he can really manage the institution _himself_, while the power is
+_nominally_ and _apparently_ in the hands of the boys. Should this not
+be the case, or should the teacher, from any cause, lose his personal
+influence in the school, so that the institution should really be
+surrendered into the hands of the pupils, things must be on a very
+unstable footing. And, accordingly, where such a plan has been adopted,
+it has, I believe, in every instance, been ultimately abandoned.
+
+_Real self-government_ is an experiment sufficiently hazardous among
+men, though Providence, in making a daily supply of food necessary for
+every human being, has imposed a most powerful check upon the tendency
+to anarchy and confusion. Let the populace of Paris or of London
+materially interrupt the order and break in upon the arrangements of the
+community, and in eight-and-forty hours nearly the whole of the mighty
+mass will be in the hands of the devourer, hunger, and they will be soon
+brought to submission. On the other hand, a month's anarchy and
+confusion in a college or an academy would be delight to half the
+students, or else times have greatly changed since I was within college
+walls.
+
+Although it is thus evident that the important concerns of a literary
+institution can not be safely committed into the hands of the students,
+very great benefits will result from calling upon them to act upon and
+to decide questions relative to the school within such limits and under
+such restrictions as are safe and proper. Such a practice will assist
+the teacher very much if he manages it with any degree of dexterity; for
+it will interest his pupils in the success of the school, and secure, to
+a very considerable extent, their co-operation in the government of it.
+It will teach them self-control and self-government, and will accustom
+them to submit to the majority--that lesson which, of all others, it is
+important for a republican to learn.
+
+In endeavoring to interest the pupils of a school in the work of
+co-operating with the teacher in its administration, no little dexterity
+will be necessary at the outset. In all probability, the formal
+announcement of this principle, and the endeavor to introduce it by a
+sudden revolution, would totally fail. Boys, like men, must be gradually
+prepared for; power, and they must exercise it only so far as they are
+prepared. This, however, can very easily be done. The teacher should say
+nothing of his general design, but, when some suitable opportunity
+presents, he should endeavor to lead his pupils to co-operate with him
+in some particular instance.
+
+For example, let us suppose that he has been accustomed to distribute
+the writing-books with his own hand when the writing-hour arrives, and
+that he concludes to delegate this simple business first to his
+scholars. He accordingly states to them, just before the writing
+exercise of the day on which he proposes the experiment, as follows:
+
+"I have thought that time will be saved if you will help me distribute
+the books, and I will accordingly appoint four distributors, one for
+each division of the seats, who may come to me and receive the books,
+and distribute them each to his own division. Are you willing to adopt
+this plan?"
+
+The boys answer "Yes, sir," and the teacher then looks carefully around
+the room, and selects four pleasant and popular boys--boys who he knows
+would gladly assist him, and who would, at the same time, be agreeable
+to their school-mates. This latter point is necessary in order to secure
+the popularity and success of the plan.
+
+Unless the boys are very different from any I have ever met with, they
+will be pleased with the duty thus assigned them. They will learn system
+and regularity by being taught to perform this simple duty in a proper
+manner. After a week, the teacher may consider their term of service as
+having expired, and thanking them in public for the assistance they have
+rendered him, he may ask the scholars if they are willing to continue
+the plan, and if the vote is in favor of it, as it unquestionably would
+be, each boy probably hoping that he should be appointed to the office,
+the teacher may nominate four others, including, perhaps, upon the list,
+some boy popular among his companions, but whom he has suspected to be
+not very friendly to himself or the school. I think the most scrupulous
+statesman would not object to securing influence by conferring office in
+such a case. If difficulties arise from the operation of such a measure,
+the plan can easily be modified to avoid or correct them. If it is
+successful, it may be continued, and the principle may be extended, so
+as in the end to affect very considerably all the arrangements and the
+whole management of the school.
+
+Or, let us imagine the following scene to have been the commencement of
+the introduction of the principle of limited self-government into a
+school.
+
+The preceptor of an academy was sitting at his desk, at the close of
+school, while the pupils were putting up their books and leaving the
+room. A boy came in with angry looks, and, with his hat in his hands
+bruised and dusty, advanced to the master's desk, and complained that
+one of his companions had thrown down his hat upon the floor, and had
+almost spoiled it.
+
+The teacher looked calmly at the mischief, and then asked how it
+happened.
+
+"I don't know, sir. I hung it on my nail, and he pulled it down."
+
+"I wish you would ask him to come here," said the teacher. "Ask him
+pleasantly."
+
+The accused soon came in, and the two boys stood together before the
+master.
+
+"There seems to be some difficulty between you boys about a nail to hang
+your hats upon. I suppose each of you think it is your own nail."
+
+"Yes, sir," said both the boys.
+
+"It will be more convenient for me to talk with you about this to-morrow
+than to-night, if you are willing to wait. Besides, we can examine it
+more calmly then. But if we put it off till then, you must not talk
+about it in the mean time, blaming one another, and keeping up the
+irritation that you feel. Are you both willing to leave it just where it
+is till to-morrow, and try to forget all about it till then? I expect I
+shall find you both a little to blame."
+
+The boys rather reluctantly consented. The next day the master heard the
+case, and settled it so far as it related to the two boys. It was easily
+settled in the morning, for they had had time to get calm, and were,
+after sleeping away their anger, rather ashamed of the whole affair, and
+very desirous to have it forgotten.
+
+That day, when the hour for the transaction of general business came,
+the teacher stated to the school that it was necessary to take some
+measures to provide each boy with a nail for his hat. In order to show
+that it was necessary, he related the circumstances of the quarrel which
+had occurred the day before. He did this, not with such an air and
+manner as to convey the impression that his object was to find fault
+with the boys, or to expose their misconduct, but to show the necessity
+of doing something to remedy the evil which had been the cause of so
+unpleasant an occurrence. Still, though he said nothing in the way of
+reproof or reprehension, and did not name the boys, but merely gave a
+cool and impartial narrative of the facts, the effect, very evidently,
+was to bring such quarrels into discredit. A calm review of misconduct,
+after the excitement has gone by, will do more to bring it into disgrace
+than the most violent invectives and reproaches directed against the
+individuals guilty of it at the time.
+
+"Now, boys," continued the master, "will you assist me in making
+arrangements to prevent the recurrence of all temptations of this kind
+hereafter? It is plain that every boy ought to have a nail appropriated
+expressly to his use. The first thing to be done is to ascertain whether
+there are enough for all. I should like, therefore, to have two
+committees appointed: one to count and report the number of nails in the
+entry, and also how much room there is for more; the other to ascertain
+the number of scholars in school. They can count all who are here, and,
+by observing the vacant desks, they can ascertain the number absent.
+When this investigation is made, I will tell you what to do next."
+
+The boys seemed pleased with the plan, and the committees were
+appointed, two members on each. The master took care to give the
+quarrelers some share in the work, apparently forgetting, from this
+time, the unpleasant occurrence which had brought up the subject.
+
+When the boys came to inform him of the result of their inquiries, he
+asked them to make a little memorandum of it in writing, as he might
+forget the numbers, he said, before the time came for reading them. The
+boys brought him, presently, a rough scrap of paper, with the figures
+marked upon it. He told them he should forget which was the number of
+nails, and which the number of scholars, unless they wrote it down.
+
+"It is the custom among men," said he, "to make out their report, in
+such a case, fully, so that it would explain itself; and I should like
+to have you, if you are willing, make out yours a little more
+distinctly."
+
+Accordingly, after a little additional explanation, the boys made
+another attempt, and presently returned with something like the
+following:
+
+"The committee for counting the nails report as follows:
+    Number of nails. . . . 35
+    Room for more  . . . . 15."
+
+The other report was very similar, though somewhat rudely written and
+expressed, and both were perfectly satisfactory to the preceptor, as he
+plainly showed by the manner in which he received them.
+
+I need not finish the description of this case by narrating particularly
+the reading of the reports, the appointment of a committee to assign the
+nails, and to paste up the names of the scholars, one to each. The work,
+in such a case, might be done in recesses, and out of school hours; and
+though, at first, the teacher will find that it is as much trouble to
+accomplish business in this way as it would be to attend to it directly
+himself, yet, after a very little experience, he will find that his
+pupils will acquire dexterity and readiness, and will be able to render
+him very material assistance in the accomplishment of his plans.
+
+This, however--the assistance rendered to the teacher--is not the main
+object of the adoption of such measures as this. The main design is to
+interest the pupils in the management and the welfare of the school--to
+identify them, as it were, with it. And such measures as the above will
+accomplish this object; and every teacher who will try the experiment,
+and carry it into effect with any tolerable degree of skill, will find
+that it will, in a short time, change the whole aspect of the school in
+regard to the feelings subsisting between himself and his pupils.
+
+Each teacher who tries such an experiment will find himself insensibly
+repeating it, and after a time he may have quite a number of officers
+and committees who are intrusted with various departments of business.
+He will have a secretary, chosen by ballot by the scholars, to keep a
+record of all the important transactions in the school for each day. At
+first he will dictate to the secretary, thus directing him precisely
+what to say, or even writing it for him, and then merely requiring him
+to copy it into the book provided for the purpose. Afterward he will
+give the pupil less and less assistance, till he can keep the record
+properly himself. The record of each day will be read on the succeeding
+day at the hour for business. The teacher will perhaps have a committee
+to take care of the fire, and another to see that the room is constantly
+in good order. He will have distributors for each division of seats, to
+distribute books, and compositions, and pens, and to collect votes. And
+thus, in a short time, his school will become _regularly organized as a
+society or legislative assembly_. The boys will learn submission to the
+majority in such unimportant things as may be committed to them; they
+will learn system and regularity, and every thing else, indeed, that
+belongs to the science of political self-government.
+
+There are dangers, however. What useful practice has not its dangers?
+One of these is, that the teacher will allow these arrangements to take
+up too much time. He must guard against this. I have found from
+experience that fifteen minutes each day, with a school of 135, is
+enough. This ought never to be exceeded.
+
+Another danger is, that the boys will be so engaged in the duties of
+their _offices_ as to neglect their _studies_. This would be, and ought
+to be, fatal to the whole plan. This danger may be avoided in the
+following manner. State publicly that you will not appoint any to office
+who are not good scholars, always punctual, and always prepared; and
+when any boy who holds an office is going behindhand in his studies, say
+to him kindly, "You have not time to get your lessons, and I am afraid
+it is owing to the fact that you spend so much time in helping me. Now
+if you wish to resign your office, so as to have more time for your
+lessons, you can. In fact, I think you ought to do it. You may try it
+for a day or two, and I will notice how you recite, and then we can
+decide."
+
+Such a communication will generally be found to have a powerful effect.
+If it does not remedy the evil, the resignation must be insisted on. A
+few decided cases of this kind will effectually remove the evil I am
+considering.
+
+Another difficulty which is likely to attend the plan of allowing the
+pupils of a school to take some part in this way in the administration
+of it is that it may tend to make them insubordinate, so that they will,
+in many instances, submit with less good humor to such decisions as you
+may consider necessary. I do not mean that this will be the case with
+all, but that there will be a few who will be ungenerous enough, if you
+allow them to decide sometimes what shall be done, to endeavor to make
+trouble, or at least to show symptoms of impatience and vexation because
+you do not allow them always to decide.
+
+Sometimes this feeling may show itself by the discontented looks, or
+gestures, or even words with which some unwelcome regulation or order on
+the part of the teacher will be received. Such a spirit should be
+immediately and decidedly checked whenever it appears. It will not be
+difficult to check, and even entirely to remove it. On one occasion
+when, after learning the wish of the scholars on some subject which had
+been brought before them, I decided contrary to it, there arose a murmur
+of discontent all over the room. This was the more distinct, because I
+have always accustomed my pupils to answer questions asked, and to
+express their wishes and feelings on any subject I may present to them
+with great freedom.
+
+I asked all those who had expressed their dissatisfaction to rise.
+
+About one third of the scholars arose.
+
+"Perhaps you understood that when I put the question to vote I meant to
+abide by your decision, and that, consequently, I ought not to have
+reversed it, as I did afterward?"
+
+"Yes, sir," "Yes, sir," they replied.
+
+Do you suppose it would be safe to leave the decision of important
+questions to the scholars in this school?"
+
+"Yes, sir;" "No, sir." The majority were, however, in the affirmative.
+
+Thus far, only those who were standing had answered. I told them that,
+as they were divided in opinion, they might sit, and I would put the
+question to the whole school.
+
+"You know," I continued, addressing the whole, "what sort of persons the
+girls who compose this school are. You know about how many are governed
+habitually by steady principle, and how many by impulse and feeling. You
+know, too, what proportion have judgment and foresight necessary to
+consider and decide independently such questions as continually arise in
+the management of a school. Now suppose I should resign the school into
+your own hands as to its management, and only come in to give
+instruction to the classes, leaving all general control of its
+arrangements with you, would it go on safely or not?"
+
+As might have been foreseen, there was, when the question was fairly
+proposed, scarcely a solitary vote in favor of government by scholars.
+They seemed to see clearly the absurdity of such a scheme.
+
+"Besides," I continued, "the trustees of this school have committed it
+to my charge; they hold me responsible; the public hold _me_
+responsible, not you. Now if I should surrender it into your hands, and
+you, from any cause, should manage the trust unfaithfully or
+unskillfully, I should necessarily be held accountable. I could never
+shift the responsibility upon you. Now it plainly is not just or right
+that one party should hold the power, and another be held accountable
+for its exercise. It is clear, therefore, in every view of the subject,
+that I should retain the management of this school in my own hands. Are
+you not satisfied that it is?"
+
+The scholars universally answered "Yes, sir." They seemed satisfied, and
+doubtless were.
+
+It was then stated to them that the object in asking them to vote was,
+in some cases, to obtain an expression of their opinion or their wishes
+in order to help _me_ decide, and only in those cases where it was
+expressly stated did I mean to give the final decision to them.
+
+Still, however, if cases are often referred to them, the feeling will
+gradually creep in that the school is managed on republican principles,
+as they call it, and they will, unless this point is specially guarded,
+gradually lose that spirit of entire and cordial subordination so
+necessary for the success of any school. It should often be distinctly
+explained to them that a republican government is one where the power
+essentially resides in the community, and is exercised by a ruler only
+so far as the community delegates it to him, whereas in the school the
+government is based on the principle that the power, primarily and
+essentially, resides in the teacher, the scholars exercising only such
+as _he_ may delegate to _them_.
+
+With these limitations and restrictions, and with this express
+understanding in regard to what is, in all cases, the ultimate
+authority, I think there will be no danger in throwing a very large
+share of the business which will, from time to time, come up in the
+school, upon the scholars themselves for decision. In my own experience
+this plan has been adopted with the happiest results. In the Mount
+Vernon School a small red morocco wrapper lies constantly on a little
+shelf, accessible to all. By its side is a little pile of papers, about
+one inch by six, on which any one may write her motion, or her
+_proposition_, as the scholars call it, whatever it may be, and when
+written it is inclosed in the wrapper, to be brought to me at the
+appointed time for attending to the general business of the school.
+Through this wrapper all questions are asked, all complaints entered,
+all proposals made. Is there discontent in the school? It shows itself
+by "_propositions_" in the wrapper. Is any body aggrieved or injured? I
+learn it through the wrapper. In fact, it is a little safety-valve,
+which lets off what, if confined, might threaten explosion---an index--a
+thermometer, which reveals to me, from day to day, more of the state of
+public opinion in the little community than any thing beside.
+
+These propositions are generally read aloud. Some cases are referred to
+the scholars for decision; some I decide myself; others are laid aside
+without notice of any kind; others still, merely suggest remarks on the
+subjects to which they allude.
+
+The principles, then, which this chapter has been intended to establish,
+are simply these: in making your general arrangements, look carefully
+over your ground, consider all the objects which you have to accomplish,
+and the proper degree of time and attention which each deserves. Then
+act upon system. Let the mass of particulars which would otherwise
+crowd upon you in promiscuous confusion be arranged and classified. Let
+each be assigned to its proper time and place, so that your time may be
+your own, under your own command, and not, as is too often the case, at
+the mercy of the thousand accidental circumstances which may occur.
+
+In a word, be, in the government of your school, yourself supreme, and
+let your supremacy be that of _authority_; but delegate power, as freely
+as possible, to those under your care. Show them that you are desirous
+of reposing trust in them just so far as they show themselves capable of
+exercising it. Thus interest them in your plans, and make them feel that
+they participate in the honor or the disgrace of success or failure.
+
+I have gone much into detail in this chapter, proposing definite
+measures by which the principles I have recommended may be carried into
+effect. I wish, however, that it may be distinctly understood that all I
+contend for is the _principles_ themselves, no matter what the
+particular measures are by which they are secured. Every good school
+must be systematic, but all need not be on precisely the same system. As
+this work is intended almost exclusively for beginners, much detail has
+been admitted, and many of the specific measures here proposed may
+perhaps be safely adopted where no others are established. There may
+also, perhaps, be cases where teachers, whose schools are already in
+successful operation, may ingraft upon their own plans some things which
+are here proposed. If they should attempt it, it must be done cautiously
+and gradually. There is no other way by which they can be safely
+introduced, or even introduced at all. This is a point of so much
+importance, that I must devote a paragraph to it before closing the
+chapter.
+
+Let a teacher propose to his pupils, formally, from his desk, the plan
+of writing propositions, for example, as explained above, and procure
+his wrapper, and put it in its place, and what would be the result?
+Why, not a single paper, probably, could he get, from one end of the
+week to the other. But let him, on the other hand, when a boy comes to
+him to ask some question, the answer to which many in the school would
+equally wish to hear, say to the inquirer,
+
+"Will you be so good as to write that question, and put it on my desk,
+and then, at the regular time, I will answer it to all the school."
+
+When he reads it, let him state that it was written at his request, and
+give the other boys permission to leave their proposals or questions on
+his desk in the same way. In a few days he will have another, and thus
+the plan may be gently and gradually introduced.
+
+So with officers. They should be appointed among the scholars only _as
+fast as they are actually needed_, and the plan should thus be
+cautiously carried only so far as it proves good on trial. Be always
+cautious about innovations and changes. Make no rash experiments on a
+large scale, but always test your principle in the small way, and then,
+if it proves good, gradually extend its operation as circumstances seem
+to require.
+
+By thus cautiously and slowly introducing plans, founded on the
+systematic principles here brought to view, a very considerable degree
+of quiet, and order, and regularity may be introduced into the largest
+and most miscellaneous schools. And this order and quiet are absolutely
+necessary to enable the teacher to find that interest and enjoyment in
+his work which were exhibited in the last chapter; the pleasure of
+_directing and controlling mind_, and doing it, not by useless and
+anxious complaints, or stern threats and painful punishments, but by
+regarding the scene of labor in its true light, as a community of
+intellectual and moral beings, and governing it by moral and
+intellectual power. It is, in fact, the pleasure of exercising _power_.
+I do not mean arbitrary, personal authority, but the power to produce,
+by successful but quiet contrivance, extensive and happy results; the
+pleasure of calmly considering every difficulty, and, without irritation
+or anger, devising the proper moral means to remedy the moral evil; and
+then the interest and pleasure of witnessing its effects.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+
+INSTRUCTION.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+We come now to consider the subject of Instruction.
+
+There are three kinds of human knowledge which stand strikingly distinct
+from all the rest. They lie at the foundation. They constitute the roots
+of the tree. In other words, they are the _means_ by which all other
+knowledge is attained. I need not say that I mean Reading, Writing, and
+Calculation.
+
+Teachers do not perhaps always consider how entirely and essentially
+distinct these three branches of learning are from all the rest. They
+are arts; the acquisition of them is not to be considered as knowledge,
+so much as the means by which knowledge may be obtained. A child who is
+studying Geography, or History, or Natural Science, is learning
+_facts_--gaining information; on the other hand, the one who is learning
+to write, or to read, or to calculate, may be adding little or nothing
+to his stock of knowledge. He is acquiring _skill_, which, at some
+future time, he may make the means of increasing his knowledge to any
+extent.
+
+This distinction ought to be kept constantly in view, and the teacher
+should feel that these three fundamental branches stand by themselves,
+and stand first in importance. I do not mean to undervalue the others,
+but only to insist upon the superior value and importance of these.
+Teaching a pupil to read before he enters upon the active business of
+life is like giving a new settler an axe as he goes to seek his new home
+in the forest. Teaching him a lesson in history is, on the other hand,
+only cutting down a tree or two for him. A knowledge of natural history
+is like a few bushels of grain gratuitously placed in his barn; but the
+art of ready reckoning is the plow which will remain by him for years,
+and help him to draw out from the soil a new treasure every year of his
+life.
+
+The great object, then, of the common schools in our country is to teach
+the whole population to read, to write, and to calculate. In fact, so
+essential is it that the accomplishment of these objects should be
+secured, that it is even a question whether common schools should not be
+confined to them. I say it is a _question_, for it is sometimes made so,
+though public opinion has decided that some portion of attention, at
+least, should be paid to the acquisition of additional knowledge. But,
+after all, the amount of _knowledge_ which is actually acquired at
+schools is very small. It must be very small. The true policy is to aim
+at making all the pupils good readers, writers, and calculators, and to
+consider the other studies of the school important chiefly as practice
+in turning these arts to useful account. In other words, the scholars
+should be taught these arts thoroughly first of all, and in the other
+studies the main design should be to show them how to use, and interest
+them in using, the arts they have thus acquired.
+
+A great many teachers feel a much stronger interest in the one or two
+scholars they may have in Surveying or in Latin than they do in the
+large classes in the elementary branches which fill the school. But a
+moment's reflection will show that such a preference is founded on a
+very mistaken view. Leading forward one or two minds from step to step
+in an advanced study is certainly far inferior in real dignity and
+importance to opening all the stores of written knowledge to fifty or a
+hundred. The man who neglects the interests of his school in these great
+branches to devote his time to two or three, or half a dozen older
+scholars, is unjust both to his employers and to himself.
+
+It is the duty, therefore, of every teacher who commences a common
+district school for a single season to make, when he commences, an
+estimate of the state of his pupils in reference to these three
+branches. How do they all write? How do they all read? How do they
+calculate? It would be well if he would make a careful examination of
+the school in this respect. Let them all write a specimen. Let all read,
+and let him make a memorandum of the manner, noticing how many read
+fluently, how many with difficulty, how many know only their letters,
+and how many are to be taught these. Let him ascertain, also, what
+progress they have made in arithmetic--how many can readily perform the
+elementary processes, and what number need instruction in these. After
+thus surveying the ground, let him form his plan, and lay out his whole
+strength in carrying forward as rapidly as possible the _whole school_
+in these studies. By this means he is acting most directly and
+powerfully on the intelligence of the whole future community in that
+place. He is opening to fifty or a hundred minds stores of knowledge
+which they will go on exploring for years to come. What a descent now
+from such a work as this to the mere hearing of the recitation of two or
+three boys in Trigonometry!
+
+I repeat it, that a thorough and enlightened survey of the whole school
+should be taken, and plans formed for elevating the whole mass in those
+great branches of knowledge which are to be of immediate practical use
+to them in future life.
+
+If the school is one more advanced in respect to the age and studies of
+the pupils, the teacher should, in the same manner, before he forms his
+plans, consider well what are the great objects which he has to
+accomplish. He should ascertain what is the existing state of his
+school both as to knowledge and character; how long, generally, his
+pupils are to remain under his care; what are to be their future
+stations and conditions in life, and what objects he can reasonably hope
+to effect for them while they remain under his influence. By means of
+this forethought and consideration he will be enabled to work
+understandingly.
+
+It is desirable, too, that what I have recommended in reference to the
+whole school should be done in respect to the case of each individual.
+When a new pupil comes under your charge, ascertain (by other means,
+however, than formal examination) to what stage his education has
+advanced, and deliberately consider what objects you can reasonably
+expect to effect for him while he remains under your care. You can not,
+indeed, always form your plans to suit so exactly your general views in
+regard to the school and to individuals as you could wish. But these
+general views will, in a thousand cases, modify your plans, or affect in
+a greater or less degree all your arrangements. They will keep you to a
+steady purpose, and your work will go on far more systematically and
+regularly than it would do if, as in fact many teachers do, you were to
+come headlong into your school, take things just as you find them, and
+carry them forward at random without end or aim.
+
+This survey of your field being made, you are prepared to commence
+definite operations, and the great difficulty in carrying your plans
+into effect is how to act more efficiently on _the greatest numbers at a
+time._ The whole business of public instruction, if it goes on at all,
+must go on by the teacher's skill in multiplying his power, by acting on
+_numbers at once._ In most books on education we are taught, almost
+exclusively, how to operate on the _individual_. It is the error into
+which theoretic writers almost always fall. We meet in every periodical,
+and in every treatise, and, in fact, in almost every conversation on the
+subject, with remarks which sound very well by the fireside, but they
+are totally inefficient and useless in school, from their being
+apparently based upon the supposition that the teacher has but _one_
+pupil to attend to at a time. The great question in the management of
+schools is not how you can take _one_ scholar, and lead him forward most
+rapidly in a prescribed course, but how you can classify and arrange
+_numbers_, comprising every possible variety both as to knowledge and
+capacity, so as to carry them all forward effectually together.
+
+The extent to which a teacher may multiply his power by acting on
+numbers at a time is very great. In order to estimate it, we must
+consider carefully what it is when carried to the greatest extent to
+which it is capable of being carried under the most favorable
+circumstances. Now it is possible for a teacher to speak so as to be
+easily heard by three hundred persons, and three hundred pupils can be
+easily so seated as to see his illustrations or diagrams. Now suppose
+that three hundred pupils, all ignorant of the method of reducing
+fractions to a common denominator, and yet all old enough to learn, are
+collected in one room. Suppose they are all attentive and desirous of
+learning, it is very plain that the process may be explained to the
+whole at once, so that half an hour spent in that exercise would enable
+a very large proportion of them to understand the subject. So, if a
+teacher is explaining to a class in Grammar the difference between a
+noun and verb, the explanation would do as well for several hundred as
+for the dozen who constitute the class, if arrangements could only be
+made to have the hundreds hear it; but there are, perhaps, only a
+hundred pupils in the school, and of these a large part understand
+already the point to be explained, and another large part are too young
+to attend to it. I wish the object of these remarks not to be
+misunderstood. I do not recommend the attempt to teach on so extensive a
+scale; I admit that it is impracticable; I only mean to show in what the
+impracticability consists, namely, in the difficulty of making such
+arrangements as to derive the full benefit from the instructions
+rendered. The instructions of the teacher are, _in the nature of
+things,_ available to the extent I have represented, but in actual
+practice the full benefit can not be derived. Now, so far as we thus
+fall short of this full benefit, so far there is, of course, waste; and
+it is difficult or impossible to make such arrangements as will avoid
+the waste, in this manner, of a large portion of every effort which the
+teacher makes.
+
+A very small class instructed by an able teacher is like a factory of a
+hundred spindles, with a water-wheel of power sufficient for a thousand.
+In such a case, even if the owner, from want of capital or any other
+cause, can not add the other nine hundred, he ought to know how much of
+his power is in fact unemployed, and make arrangements to bring it into
+useful exercise as soon as he can. The teacher, in the same manner,
+should understand what is the full beneficial effect which it is
+possible, _in theory_, to derive from his instructions. He should
+understand, too, that just so far as he falls short of this full effect
+there is waste. It may be unavoidable; part of it unquestionably is,
+like the friction of machinery, unavoidable. Still, it is waste; and it
+ought to be so understood, that, by the gradual perfection of the
+machinery, it may be more and more fully prevented.
+
+Always bear in mind, then, when you are devoting your time to two or
+three individuals in a class, that your are losing a large part of your
+labor. Your instructions are conducive to good effect only to the one
+tenth or one twentieth of the extent to which, under more favorable
+circumstances, they might be made available. And though you can not
+always avoid this loss, you ought to be aware of it, and so to shape
+your measures as to diminish it as much as possible.
+
+We come now to consider the particular measures to be adopted in giving
+instruction.
+
+The objects which are to be secured in the management of the classes
+are twofold:
+
+1. Recitation. 2. Instruction.
+
+These two objects are, it is plain, entirely distinct. Under the latter
+is included all the explanation, and assistance, and additional
+information which the teacher may give his pupils, and under the former,
+such an _examination_ of individuals as is necessary to secure their
+careful attention to their lessons. It is unsafe to neglect either of
+these points. If the class meetings are mere _recitations_, they soon
+become dull and mechanical; the pupils generally take little interest in
+their studies, and imbibe no literary spirit. Their intellectual
+progress will, accordingly, suddenly cease the moment they leave school,
+and so cease to be called upon to recite lessons. On the other hand, if
+_instruction_ is all that is aimed at, and _recitation_ (by which I
+mean, as above explained, such an examination of individuals as is
+necessary to ascertain that they have faithfully performed the tasks
+assigned) is neglected, the exercise soon becomes not much more than a
+lecture, to which those, and those only, will attend who please.
+
+The business, therefore, of a thorough examination of the class must not
+be omitted. I do not mean that each individual scholar must every day be
+examined, but simply that the teacher must, in some way or other,
+satisfy himself by reasonable evidence that the whole class are really
+prepared. A great deal of ingenuity may be exercised in contriving means
+for effecting this object in the shortest possible time. I know of no
+part of the field of a teacher's labors which may be more facilitated by
+a little ingenuity than this.
+
+One teacher, for instance, has a spelling lesson to hear. He begins at
+the head of the line, and putting one word to each boy, goes regularly
+down, each successive pupil calculating the chances whether a word which
+he can accidentally spell will or will not come to him. If he spells it,
+the teacher can not tell whether he is prepared or not. That word is
+only one among fifty constituting the lesson. If he misses it, the
+teacher can not decide that he was unprepared. It might have been a
+single accidental error.
+
+Another teacher, hearing the same lesson, requests the boys to bring
+their slates, and, as he dictates the words one after another, requires
+all to write them. After they are all written, he calls upon the pupils
+to spell them aloud as they have written them, simultaneously, pausing a
+moment after each, to give those who are wrong an opportunity to
+indicate it by some mark opposite the word misspelled. They all count
+the number of errors and report them. He passes down the class, glancing
+his eye at the work of each one to see that all is right, noticing
+particularly those slates which, from the character of the boys, need a
+more careful inspection. A teacher who had never tried this experiment
+would be surprised at the rapidity with which such work will be
+performed by a class after a little practice.
+
+Now how different are these two methods in their actual results! In the
+latter case the whole class are thoroughly examined. In the former not a
+single member of it is. Let me not be understood to recommend exactly
+this method of teaching spelling as the best one to be adopted in all
+cases. I only bring it forward as an illustration of the idea that a
+little machinery, a little ingenuity in contriving ways of acting on the
+_whole_ rather than on individuals, will very much promote the teacher's
+designs.
+
+In order to facilitate such plans, it is highly desirable that the
+classes should be trained to military precision and exactness in these
+manipulations. What I mean by this may perhaps be best illustrated by
+describing a case: it will show, in another branch, how much will be
+gained by acting upon numbers at once instead of upon each individual in
+succession.
+
+Imagine, then, that a teacher requested all the pupils of his school who
+could write to take out their slates at the hour for a general
+exercise. As soon as the first bustle of opening and shutting the desks
+was over, he looked around the room, and saw some ruling lines across
+their slates, others wiping them all over on both sides with sponges,
+others scribbling, or writing, or making figures.
+
+"All those," says he, speaking, however, with a pleasant tone and with a
+pleasant look, "who have taken out any thing besides slates, may rise."
+
+Several, in various parts of the room, stood up.
+
+"All those who have written any thing since they took out their slates
+may rise too, and those who have wiped their slates."
+
+"When all were up, he said to them, though not with a frown or a scowl,
+as if they had committed a great offense,
+
+"Suppose a company of soldiers should be ordered to _form a line_, and
+instead of simply obeying that order they should all set at work, each
+in his own way, doing something else. One man at one end of the line
+begins to load and fire his gun; another takes out his knapsack and
+begins to eat his luncheon; a third amuses himself by going as fast as
+possible through the exercise; and another still, begins to march about
+hither and thither, facing to the right and left, and performing all the
+evolutions he can think of. What should you say to such a company as
+that?"
+
+The boys laughed.
+
+"It is better," said the teacher, "when numbers are acting under the
+direction of one, that they should all act _exactly together_. In this
+way we advance much faster than we otherwise should. Be careful,
+therefore, to do exactly what I command, and nothing more.
+
+"_Provide a place on your slates large enough to write a single line_,"
+added the teacher, in a distinct voice. I print his orders in Italics,
+and his remarks and explanations in Roman letters.
+
+"_Prepare to write_.
+
+"I mean by this," he continued, "that you place your slates before you
+with your pencils at the place where you are to begin, so that all may
+commence precisely at the same instant."
+
+The teacher who tries such an experiment as this will find at such a
+juncture an expression of fixed and pleasant attention upon every
+countenance in school. All will be intent, all will be interested. Boys
+love order, and system, and acting in concert, and they will obey with
+great alacrity such commands as these if they are good-humoredly, though
+decidedly expressed.
+
+The teacher observed in one part of the room a hand raised, indicating
+that the boy wished to speak to him. He gave him liberty by pronouncing
+his name.
+
+"I have no pencil," said the boy.
+
+A dozen hands all around him were immediately seen fumbling in pockets
+and desks, and in a few minutes several pencils were reached out for his
+acceptance.
+
+The boy looked at the pencils and then at the teacher; he did not
+exactly know whether he was to take one or not.
+
+"All those boys," said the teacher, pleasantly, "who have taken out
+pencils, may rise.
+
+"Have these boys done right or wrong?"
+
+"Right;" "Wrong;" "Right," answered their companions, variously.
+
+"Their motive was to help their class-mate out of his difficulties; that
+is a good feeling, certainly."
+
+"Yes, sir, right;" "Right."
+
+"But I thought you promised me a moment ago," replied the teacher, "not
+to do any thing unless I commanded it. Did I ask for pencils?"
+
+A pause.
+
+"I do not blame these boys at all in this case; still, it is better to
+adhere rigidly to the principle of _exact obedience _ when numbers are
+acting together. I thank them, therefore, for being so ready to assist
+a companion, but they must put their pencils away, as they were taken
+out without orders."
+
+Now such a dialogue as this, if the teacher speaks in a good-humored,
+though decided manner, would be universally well received in any school.
+Whenever strictness of discipline is unpopular, it is rendered so simply
+by the ill-humored and ill-judged means by which it is attempted to be
+introduced. But all children will love strict discipline if it is
+pleasantly, though firmly maintained. It is a great, though very
+prevalent mistake, to imagine that boys and girls like a lax and
+inefficient government, and dislike the pressure of steady control. What
+they dislike is sour looks and irritating language, and they therefore
+very naturally dislike every thing introduced or sustained by means of
+them. If, however, exactness and precision in all the operations of a
+class and of the school are introduced and enforced in the proper
+manner, that is, by a firm, but mild and good-humored authority,
+scholars will universally be pleased with them. They like to see the
+uniform appearance, the straight line, the simultaneous movement. They
+like to feel the operation of system, and to realize, while they are at
+the school-room, that they form a community, governed by fixed and
+steady laws, firmly but kindly administered. On the other hand, laxity
+of discipline, and the disorder which will result from it, will only
+lead the pupils to contemn their teacher and to hate their school.
+
+By introducing and maintaining such a discipline as I have described,
+great facilities will be secured for examining the classes. For example,
+to take a case different from the one before described, let us suppose
+that a class have been performing a number of examples in Addition. They
+come together to the recitation, and, under one mode of managing
+classes, the teacher is immediately beset by a number of the pupils with
+excuses. One had no slate; another was absent when the lesson was
+assigned; a third performed the work, but it got rubbed out, and a
+fourth did not know what was to be done. The teacher stops to hear all
+these, and to talk about them, fretting himself, and fretting the
+delinquents by his impatient remarks. The rest of the class are waiting,
+and, having nothing good to do, the temptation is almost irresistible to
+do something bad. One boy is drawing pictures on his slate to make his
+neighbors laugh, another is whispering, and two more are at play. The
+disorder continues while the teacher goes round examining slate after
+slate, his whole attention being engrossed by each individual, as the
+pupils come to him successively, while the rest are left to themselves,
+interrupted only by an occasional harsh, or even angry, but utterly
+useless rebuke from him.
+
+But, under another mode of managing classes and schools, a very
+different result would be produced.
+
+A boy approaches the teacher to render an excuse; the teacher replies,
+addressing himself, however, to the whole class, "I shall give all an
+opportunity to offer their excuses presently. No one must come till he
+is called."
+
+The class then regularly take their places in the recitation seats, the
+prepared and unprepared together. The following commands are given and
+obeyed promptly. They are spoken pleasantly, but still in the tone of
+command.
+
+"The class may rise.
+
+"All those that are not fully prepared with this lesson may sit."
+
+A number sit; and others, doubtful whether they are prepared or not, or
+thinking that there is something peculiar in their cases, which they
+wish to state, raise their hands, or make any other signal which is
+customary to indicate a wish to speak. Such a signal ought always to be
+agreed upon, and understood in school.
+
+The teacher shakes his head, saying, "I will hear you presently. If
+there is, on any account whatever, any doubt whether you are prepared,
+you must sit.
+
+"Those that are standing may read their answers to No. 1. Unit figure?"
+
+_Boys._ "Five."
+
+_Teacher._ "Tens?"
+
+_B._ "Six."
+
+_T._ "Hundreds?"
+
+_B._ "Seven."
+
+While these numbers are thus reading, the teacher looks at the boys, and
+can easily see whether any are not reading their own answers, but only
+following the rest. If they have been trained to speak exactly together,
+his ear will also at once detect any erroneous answer which any one may
+give. He takes down the figures given by the majority on his own slate,
+and reads them aloud.
+
+"This is the answer obtained by the majority; it is undoubtedly right.
+Those who have different answers may sit."
+
+These directions, if understood and obeyed, would divide the class
+evidently into two portions. Those standing have their work done, and
+done correctly, and those sitting have some excuse or error to be
+examined. A new lesson may now be assigned, and the first portion may be
+dismissed, which in a well-regulated school will be two thirds of the
+class. Their slates may be slightly examined as they pass by the teacher
+on their way to their seats to see that all is fair; but it will be safe
+to take it for granted that a result in which a majority agree will be
+right. Truth is consistent with itself, but error, in such a case, never
+is. This the teacher can at any time show by comparing the answers that
+are wrong; they will always be found, not only to differ from the
+correct result, but to contradict each other.
+
+The teacher may now, if he pleases, after the majority of the class have
+gone, hear the reasons of those who were unprepared, and look for the
+errors of those whose work was incorrect; but it is better to spend as
+little time as possible in such a way. If a scholar is not prepared, it
+is not of much consequence whether it is because he forgot his book or
+mistook the lesson; or if it is ascertained that his answer is
+incorrect, it is ordinarily a mere waste of time to search for the
+particular error.
+
+"I have looked over my work, sir," says the boy, perhaps, "and I can not
+find where it is wrong." He means by it that he does not believe that it
+is wrong.
+
+"It is no matter if you can not," would be the proper reply, "since it
+certainly is wrong; you have made a mistake in adding somewhere, but it
+is not worth while for me to spend two or three minutes apiece with all
+of you to ascertain where. Try to be careful next time."
+
+Indeed the teacher should understand and remember what many teachers are
+very prone to forget, namely, that the mere fact of finding an
+arithmetical error in a pupil's work on the slate, and pointing it out
+to him, has very little effect in correcting the false habit in his mind
+from which it arose.
+
+The cases of those who are unprepared at a recitation ought by no means
+to be passed by unnoticed, although it would be unwise to spend much
+time in examining each in detail.
+
+"It is not of much consequence," the teacher might say, "whether you
+have good excuses or bad, so long as you are not prepared. In future
+life you will certainly be unsuccessful if you fail, no matter for what
+reason, to discharge the duties which devolve upon you. A carpenter, for
+instance, would certainly lose his custom if he should not perform his
+work faithfully and in season. Excuses, no matter how reasonable, will
+do him little good. It is just so in respect to punctuality in time as
+well as in respect to performance of duty. What we want is that every
+boy should be in his place at the proper moment; not that he should be
+late, and have good excuses for it. When you come to be men, tardiness
+will always be punished. Excuses will not help the matter at all.
+Suppose, hereafter, when you are about to take a journey, you reach the
+pier five minutes after the steamer has gone, what good will excuses do
+you? There you are, left hopelessly behind, no matter if your excuses
+are the best in the world. So in this school. I want good punctuality
+and good recitations, not good excuses. I hope every one will be
+prepared to-morrow."
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It is not probable, however, that every one would be prepared the next
+day in such a case, but by acting steadily on these principles the
+number of delinquencies would be so much diminished that the very few
+which should be left could easily be examined in detail, and the
+remedies applied.
+
+Simultaneous recitation, by which I mean the practice of addressing a
+question to all the class to be answered by all together, is a practice
+which has been for some years rapidly extending in our schools, and, if
+adopted with proper limits and restrictions, is attended with great
+advantage. The teacher must guard against some dangers, however, which
+will be likely to attend it.
+
+1. Some will answer very eagerly, instantly after the question is
+completed. They wish to show their superior readiness. Let the teacher
+mention this, expose kindly the motive which leads to it, and tell them
+it is as irregular to answer before the rest as after them.
+
+2. Some will defer their answers until they can catch those of their
+comrades for a guide. Let the teacher mention this fault, expose the
+motive which leads to it, and tell them that if they do not answer
+independently and at once, they had better not answer at all.
+
+3. Some will not answer at all. The teacher can see by looking around
+the room who do not, for they can not counterfeit the proper motion of
+the lips with promptness and decision unless they know what the answer
+is to be. He ought occasionally to say to such a one, "I perceive you do
+not answer," and ask him questions individually.
+
+4. In some cases there is danger of confusion in the answers, from the
+fact that the question may be of such a nature that the answer is long,
+and may by different individuals be differently expressed. This evil
+must be guarded against by so shaping the question as to admit of a
+reply in a single word. In reading large numbers, for example, each
+figure may be called for by itself, or they may be given one after
+another, the pupils keeping exact time. When it is desirable to ask a
+question to which the answer is necessarily long it may be addressed to
+an individual, or the whole class may write their replies, which may
+then be read in succession.
+
+In a great many cases where simultaneous answering is practiced, after a
+short time the evils above specified are allowed to grow, until at last
+some half a dozen bright members of a class answer for all, the rest
+dragging after them, echoing their replies, or ceasing to take any
+interest in an exercise which brings no personal and individual
+responsibility upon them. To prevent this, the teacher should exercise
+double vigilance at such a time. He should often address questions to
+individuals alone, especially to those most likely to be inattentive and
+careless, and guard against the ingress of every abuse which might,
+without close vigilance, appear.
+
+With these cautions, the method here alluded to will be found to be of
+very great advantage in many studies; for example, all the arithmetical
+tables may be recited in this way; words may be spelled, answers to sums
+given, columns of figures added, or numbers multiplied, and many
+questions in history, geography, and other miscellaneous studies
+answered, especially the general questions asked for the purpose of a
+review.
+
+But, besides being useful as a mode of examination, this plan of
+answering questions simultaneously is a very important means of fixing
+in the mind any facts which the teacher may communicate to his pupils.
+If, for instance, he says some day to a class that Vasco de Gama was the
+discoverer of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, and leaves it
+here, in a few days not one in twenty will recollect the name. But let
+him call upon them all to spell it simultaneously, and then to pronounce
+it distinctly three or four times in concert, and the word will be very
+strongly impressed upon their minds. The reflecting teacher will find a
+thousand cases in the instruction of his classes, and in his general
+exercises in the school, in which this principle will be of great
+utility. It is universal in its application. What we _say_ we fix, by
+the very act of saying it, in the mind. Hence, reading aloud, though a
+slower, is a far more thorough method of acquiring knowledge than
+reading silently, and it is better, in almost all cases, whether in the
+family, or in Sabbath or common schools, when general instructions are
+given, to have the leading points fixed in the mind by questions
+answered simultaneously.
+
+But we are wandering a little from our subject, which is, in this part
+of our chapter, the methods of _examining_ a class, not of giving or
+fixing instructions.
+
+Another mode of examining classes, which it is important to describe,
+consists in requiring _written answers_ to the questions asked. The form
+and manner in which this plan may be adopted is various. The class may
+bring their slates to the recitation, and the teacher may propose
+questions successively, the answers to which all the class may write,
+numbering them carefully. After a dozen answers are written, the teacher
+may call at random for them, or he may repeat a question, and ask each
+pupil to read the answer he had written, or he may examine the slates.
+Perhaps this method may be very successfully employed in reviews by
+dictating to the class a list of questions relating to the ground they
+have gone over for a week, and then instructing them to prepare answers
+written out at length, and to bring them in at the next exercise. This
+method may be made more formal still by requiring a class to write a
+full and regular abstract of all they have learned during a specified
+time. The practice of thus reducing to writing what has been learned
+will be attended with many advantages so obvious that they need not be
+described.
+
+It will be perceived that three methods of examining classes have now
+been named, and these will afford the teacher the means of introducing a
+very great variety in his mode of conducting his recitations, while he
+still carries his class forward steadily in their prescribed course.
+Each is attended with its peculiar advantages. The _single replies,_
+coming from individuals specially addressed, are more rigid, and more to
+be relied upon, but they consume a great deal of time, and, while one is
+questioned, it requires much skill to keep up interest in the rest. The
+_simultaneous answers_ of a class awaken more general interest, but it
+is difficult, without special care, to secure by this means a special
+examination of all. The _written replies_ are more thorough, but they
+require more time and attention, and while they habituate the pupil to
+express himself in writing, they would, if exclusively adopted, fail to
+accustom him to an equally important practice, that of the oral
+communication of his thoughts. A constant variety, of which these three
+methods should be the elements, is unquestionably the best mode. We not
+only, by this means, secure in a great degree the advantages which each
+is fitted to produce, but we gain also the additional advantage and
+interest of variety.
+
+By these, and perhaps by other means, it is the duty of the teacher to
+satisfy himself that his pupils are really attentive to their duties.
+It is not perhaps necessary that every individual should be every day
+minutely examined; this is, in many cases, impossible; but the system of
+examination should be so framed and so administered as to be daily felt
+by all, and to bring upon every one a daily responsibility.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We come now to consider the second general head which was to be
+discussed in this chapter.
+
+The study of books alone is insufficient to give knowledge to the young.
+In the first stage, learning to read a book is of no use whatever
+without the voice of the living teacher. The child can not take a step
+alone. As the pupil, however, advances in his course, his dependence
+upon his teacher for guidance and help continually diminishes, until at
+last the scholar sits in his solitary study, with no companion but his
+books, and desiring, for a solution of every difficulty, nothing but a
+larger library. In schools, however, the pupils have made so little
+progress in this course, that they all need more or less of the oral
+assistance of a teacher. Difficulties must be explained; questions must
+be answered; the path must be smoothed, and the way pointed out by a
+guide who has traveled it before, or it will be impossible for the pupil
+to go on. This is the part of our subject which we now approach.
+
+The great principle which is to guide the teacher in this part of his
+duty is this: _Assist your pupils in such a way as to lead them, as soon
+as possible, to do without assistance._ This is fundamental. In a short
+time they will be away from your reach; they will have no teacher to
+consult; and unless you teach them how to understand books themselves,
+they must necessarily stop suddenly in their course the moment you cease
+to help them forward. I shall proceed, therefore, to consider the
+subject in the following plan:
+
+1. Means of exciting interest in study.
+
+2. The kind and decree of assistance to be rendered.
+
+3. Miscellaneous suggestions.
+
+1. Interesting the pupils in their studies. There are various
+principles of human nature which may be of great avail in accomplishing
+this object. Making intellectual effort and acquiring knowledge are
+always pleasant to the human mind, unless some peculiar circumstances
+render them otherwise. The teacher has, therefore, only to remove
+obstructions and sources of pain, and the employment of his pupils will
+be of itself a pleasure.
+
+"I am going to give you a new exercise to-day," said a teacher to a
+class of boys in Latin. "I am going to have you parse your whole lesson
+in writing. It will be difficult, but I think you may be able to
+accomplish it."
+
+The class looked surprised. They did not know _what parsing in writing_
+could be.
+
+"You may first, when you take your seats, and are ready to prepare the
+lesson, write upon your slates a list of the ten first nouns that you
+find in the lesson, arranging them in a column. Do you understand so
+far?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"Then rule lines for another column, just beyond this. In parsing nouns,
+what is the first particular to be named?"
+
+"What the noun is from."
+
+"Yes; that is, its nominative. Now you may write, at the head of the
+first column, the word _Nouns_, and at the head of the second, _Nom._,
+for nominative. Then rule a line for the third column. What shall this
+contain!" "The declension." "Yes; and the fourth?" "Gender." "The
+fifth?" "Number."
+
+In the same manner the other columns were designated. The sixth was to
+contain case; the seventh, the word with which the noun was connected in
+construction; and the eighth, a reference to the rule.
+
+"Now I wish you," continued the teacher, "to fill up such a table as
+this with _ten_ nouns. Do you understand how I mean?"
+
+"Yes, sir;" "No, sir," they answered, variously.
+
+"All who do understand may take their seats, as I wish to give as little
+explanation as possible. The more you can depend upon yourselves, the
+better."
+
+Those who saw clearly what was to be done left the class, and the
+teacher continued his explanation to those who were left behind. He made
+the plan perfectly clear to them by taking a particular noun and running
+it through the table, showing what should be written opposite to the
+word in all the columns, and then dismissed them.
+
+The class separated, as every class would, in such a case, with a strong
+feeling of interest in the work before them. It was not so difficult as
+to perplex them, and yet it required attention and care. They were
+interested and pleased--pleased with the effort which it required them
+to make, and they anticipated, with interest and pleasure, the time of
+coming again to the class to report and compare their work.
+
+When the time for the class came, the teacher addressed them somewhat as
+follows:
+
+"Before looking at your slates, I am going to predict what the faults
+are. I have not seen any of your work, but shall judge altogether from
+my general knowledge of school-boys, and the difficulties I know they
+meet with. Do you think I shall succeed?"
+
+The scholars made no reply, and an unskillful teacher would imagine that
+time spent in such remarks would be wholly wasted. By no means. The
+influence of them was to awaken universal interest in the approaching
+examination of the slates. Every scholar would be intent, watching, with
+eager interest, to see whether the imagined faults would be found upon
+his work. The class was, by that single pleasant remark, put into the
+best possible state for receiving the criticisms of the teacher.
+
+"The first fault which I suppose will be found is that some are
+unfinished."
+
+The scholars looked surprised. They did not expect to have that called
+a fault.
+
+"How many plead guilty to it?"
+
+A few raised their hands, and the teacher continued:
+
+"I suppose that some will be found partly effaced. The slates were not
+laid away carefully, or they were not clean, so that the writing is not
+distinct. How many find this the case with their work?"
+
+"I suppose that, in some cases, the lines will not be perpendicular, but
+will slant, probably toward the left, like writing.
+
+"I suppose, also, that, in some cases, the writing will be careless, so
+that I can not easily read it. How many plead guilty to this?"
+
+After mentioning such other faults as occurred to him, relating chiefly
+to the form of the table, and the mere mechanical execution of the work,
+he said,
+
+"I think I shall not look at your slates to-day. You can all see, I have
+no doubt, how you can considerably improve them in mechanical execution
+in your next lesson; and I suppose you would a little prefer that I
+should not see your first imperfect efforts. In fact, I should rather
+not see them. At the next recitation they probably will be much better."
+
+One important means by which the teacher may make his scholars careful
+of their reputation is to show them, thus, that he is careful of it
+himself.
+
+Now in such a case as this, for it is, except in the principles which it
+is intended to illustrate, imaginary, a very strong interest would be
+awakened in the class in the work assigned them. Intellectual effort in
+new and constantly varied modes is in itself a pleasure, and this
+pleasure the teacher may deepen and increase very easily by a little
+dexterous management, designed to awaken curiosity and concentrate
+attention. It ought, however, to be constantly borne in mind that this
+variety should be confined to the modes of pursuing an object--the
+object itself being permanent, and constant, and steadily pursued. For
+instance, if a little class are to be taught simple addition, after the
+process is once explained, which may be done, perhaps, in two or three
+lessons, they will need many days of patient practice to render it
+familiar, to impress it firmly in their recollection, and to enable them
+to work with rapidity. Now this object must be steadily pursued. It
+would be very unwise for the teacher to say to himself, My class are
+tired of addition; I must carry them on to subtraction, or give them
+some other study. It would be equally unwise to keep them many days
+performing example after example in monotonous succession, each lesson a
+mere repetition of the last. He must steadily pursue his object of
+familiarizing them fully with this elementary process, but he may give
+variety and spirit to the work by changing occasionally the modes. One
+week He may dictate examples to them, and let them come together to
+compare their results, one of the class being appointed to keep a list
+of all who are correct each day. At another time each one may write an
+example, which he may read aloud to all the others, to be performed and
+brought in at the next time. Again, he may let them work on paper with
+pen and ink, that he may see how few mistakes they make, as mistakes in
+ink can not be easily removed. He may excite interest by devising
+ingenious examples, such as finding out how much all the numbers from
+one to fifty will make when added together, or the amount of the ages of
+the whole class, or any such investigation, the result of which they
+might feel an interest in learning. Thus the object is steadily pursued,
+though the means of pursuing it are constantly changing. We have the
+advantage of regular progress in the acquisition of knowledge truly
+valuable, while this progress is made with all the spirit and interest
+which variety can give.
+
+The necessity of making such efforts as this, however, to keep up the
+interest of the class in their work, and to make it pleasant to them,
+will depend altogether upon circumstances; or, rather, it will vary
+much with circumstances. A class of pupils somewhat advanced in their
+studies, and understanding and feeling the value of knowledge, will need
+very little of such effort as this; while young and giddy children, who
+have been accustomed to dislike books and school, and every thing
+connected with them, will need more. It ought, however, in all cases, to
+be made a means, not an end--the means to lead on a pupil to an
+_interest in progress in knowledge itself,_ which is, after all, the
+great motive which ought to be brought as soon and as extensively as
+possible to operate in the school-room.
+
+Another way to awaken interest in the studies of the school is to bring
+out, as frequently and as distinctly as possible, the connection between
+these studies and the practical business of life. The events which are
+occurring around you, and which interest the community in which you are
+placed, may, by a little ingenuity, be connected in a thousand ways with
+the studies of the school. If the practice, which has been already
+repeatedly recommended, of appropriating a quarter of an hour each day
+to a general exercise, should be adopted, it will afford great
+facilities for doing this.
+
+There is no branch of study attended to in school which may, by
+judicious efforts, be made more effectual in accomplishing this object,
+leading the pupils to see the practical utility and the value of
+knowledge, than composition. If such subjects as are suitable themes for
+_moral essays_ are assigned, the scholars will indeed dislike the work
+of writing, and derive little benefit from it. The mass of pupils in our
+schools are not to be writers of moral essays or orations, and they do
+not need to form that style of empty, florid, verbose declamation which
+the practice of writing composition in our schools, as it is too
+frequently managed, tends to form. Assign practical subjects--subjects
+relating to the business of the school, or the events taking place
+around you. Is there a question before the community on the subject of
+the location of a new school-house? Assign it to your pupils as a
+question for discussion, and direct them not to write empty declamation,
+but to obtain from their parents the real arguments in the case, and to
+present them distinctly and clearly, and in simple language, to their
+companions. Was a building burned by lightning in the neighborhood? Let
+those who saw the scene describe it, their productions to be read by the
+teacher aloud, and let them see that clear descriptions please, and that
+good legible writing can be read fluently, and that correct spelling,
+and punctuation, and grammar make the article go smoothly and
+pleasantly, and enable it to produce its full effect. Is the erection of
+a public building going forward in the neighborhood of your school? You
+can make it a very fruitful source of subjects and questions to give
+interest and impulse to the studies of the school-room. Your classes in
+geometry may measure, your arithmeticians may calculate and make
+estimates, your writers may describe its progress from week to week, and
+anticipate the scenes which it will in future years exhibit.
+
+By such means the practical bearings and relations of the studies of the
+school-room may be constantly kept in view; but I ought to guard the
+teacher, while on this subject, most distinctly against the danger of
+making the school-room a scene of literary amusement instead of study.
+These means of awakening interest and relieving the tedium of the
+uninterrupted and monotonous study of text-books must not encroach on
+the regular duties of the school. They must be brought forward with
+judgment and moderation, and made subordinate and subservient to these
+regular duties. Their design is to give spirit and interest, and a
+feeling of practical utility to what the pupils are doing; and if
+resorted to with these restrictions and within these limits, they will
+produce powerful, but safe results.
+
+Another way to excite interest, and that of the right kind, in school,
+is not to _remove_ difficulties, but to teach the pupils how to
+_surmount_ them. A text-book so contrived as to make study mere play,
+and to dispense with thought and effort, is the worst text-book that can
+be made, and the surest to be, in the end, a dull one. The great source
+of literary enjoyment, which is the successful exercise of intellectual
+power, is, by such a mode of presenting a subject, cut off. Secure,
+therefore, severe study. Let the pupil see that you are aiming to secure
+it, and that the pleasure which you expect that they will receive is
+that of firmly and patiently encountering and overcoming difficulty; of
+penetrating, by steady and persevering effort, into regions from which
+the idle and the inefficient are debarred, and that it is your province
+to lead them forward, not to carry them. They will soon understand this,
+and like it.
+
+Never underrate the difficulties which your pupils will have to
+encounter, or try to persuade them that what you assign is _easy_. Doing
+easy things is generally dull work, and it is especially discouraging
+and disheartening for a pupil to spend his strength in doing what is
+really difficult for him when his instructor, by calling his work easy,
+gives him no credit for what may have been severe and protracted labor.
+If a thing is really hard for the pupil, his teacher ought to know it
+and admit it. The child then feels that he has some sympathy.
+
+It is astonishing how great an influence may be exerted over a child by
+his simply knowing that his efforts are observed and appreciated. You
+pass a boy in the street wheeling a heavy load in a barrow; now simply
+stop to look at him, with a countenance which says, "That is a heavy
+load; I should not think that boy could wheel it;" and how quick will
+your look give fresh strength and vigor to his efforts. On the other
+hand, when, in such a case, the boy is faltering under his load, try the
+effect of telling him, "Why, that is not heavy; you can wheel it easily
+enough; trundle it along." The poor boy will drop his load, disheartened
+and discouraged, and sit down upon it in despair. It is so in respect
+to the action of the young in all cases. They are animated and incited
+by being told _in the right way_ that they have something difficult to
+do. A boy is performing some service for you. He is watering your horse,
+perhaps, at a well by the road-side as you are traveling. Say to him,
+"Hold up the pail high, so that the horse can drink; it is not heavy."
+
+[Illustration]
+
+He will be discouraged, and will be ready to set the pail down. Say to
+him, on the other hand, "I had better dismount myself. I don't think you
+can hold the pail up. It is very heavy;" and his eye will brighten up at
+once. "Oh no, sir," he will reply, "I can hold it very easily." Hence,
+even if the work you are assigning to a class _is_ easy, do not tell
+them so unless you wish to destroy all their spirit and interest in
+doing it; and if you wish to excite their spirit and interest, make your
+work difficult, and let them see that you know it is so; not so
+difficult as to tax their powers too heavily, but enough so to require a
+vigorous and persevering effort. Let them distinctly understand, too,
+that you know it is difficult, that you mean to make it so, but that
+they have your sympathy and encouragement in the efforts which it calls
+them to make.
+
+You may satisfy yourself that human nature is, in this respect, what I
+have described by some such experiment as the following. Select two
+classes not very familiar with elementary arithmetic, and offer to each
+of them the following example in addition:
+
+  1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
+  2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
+  3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2
+    etc., etc.
+
+
+The numbers may be continued, according to the obvious law regulating
+the above, until each one of the nine digits has commenced the line. Or,
+if you choose Multiplication, let the example be this:
+
+  Multiply 123456789
+        by 123456789
+           ---------
+
+
+Now, when you bring the example to one of the classes, address the
+pupils as follows:
+
+"I have contrived for you a very difficult sum. It is the most difficult
+one that can be made with the number of figures contained in it, and I
+do not think that any of you can do it, but you may try. I shall not be
+surprised if every answer should contain mistakes."
+
+To the other class say as follows:
+
+"I have prepared an example for you, which I wish you to be very careful
+to perform correctly. It is a little longer than those you have had
+heretofore, but it is to be performed upon the same principles, and you
+can all do it correctly, if you really try."
+
+Now under such circumstances the first class will go to their seats with
+ardor and alacrity, determined to show you that they can do work, even
+if it is difficult; and if they succeed, they come to the class the next
+day with pride and pleasure. They have accomplished something which you
+admit it was not easy to accomplish. On the other hand, the second class
+will go to their seats with murmuring looks and words, and with a
+hearty dislike of the task you have assigned them. They know that they
+have something to do, which, however easy it may be to the teacher, is
+really difficult for them; and they have to be perplexed and wearied
+with the work, without having, at last, even the little satisfaction of
+knowing that the teacher appreciates the difficulties with which they
+had to contend.
+
+2. We now come to consider the subject of rendering assistance to the
+pupil, which is one of the most important and delicate parts of a
+teacher's work. The great difference which exists among teachers in
+regard to the skill they possess in this part of their duty, is so
+striking that it is very often noticed by others; and perhaps skill here
+is of more avail in deciding the question of success or failure than any
+thing besides. The first great principle is, however, simple and
+effectual.
+
+_(1.) Divide and subdivide a difficult process, until your steps are so
+short that the pupil can easily take them._
+
+Most teachers forget the difference between the pupil's capacity and
+their own, and they pass rapidly forward, through a difficult train of
+thought, in their own ordinary gait, their unfortunate followers vainly
+trying to keep up with them. The case is precisely analogous to that of
+the father, who walks with the step of a man, while his little son is by
+his side, wearying and exhausting himself with fruitless efforts to
+reach his feet as far, and to move them as rapidly as a full-grown man.
+
+But to show what I mean by subdividing a difficult process so as to make
+each step simple, I will take a case which may serve as an example. I
+will suppose that the teacher of a common school undertakes to show his
+boys, who, we will suppose, are acquainted with nothing but elementary
+arithmetic, how longitude is determined by means of the eclipses of
+Jupiter's satellites; not a very simple question, but still one which,
+like all others, may be, merely by the power of the subdivision alluded
+to, easily explained. I will suppose that the subject has come up at a
+general exercise; perhaps the question was asked in writing by one of
+the older boys. I will present the explanation chiefly in the form of
+question and answer, that it may be seen that the steps are so short
+that the boys may take them themselves.
+
+"Which way," asks the teacher, "are the Rocky Mountains from us?"
+
+"West," answer two or three of the boys.
+
+In such cases as this, it is very desirable that the answers should be
+general, so that throughout the school there should be a spirited
+interest in the questions and replies. This will never be the case if a
+small number of the boys only take part in the answers, and many
+teachers complain that when they try this experiment they can seldom
+induce many of the pupils to take a part.
+
+The reason ordinarily is that they say that _any_ of the boys may answer
+instead of that _all_ of them may. The boys do not get the idea that it
+is wished that a universal reply should come from all parts of the room,
+in which every one's voice should be heard. If the answers were feeble
+in the instance we are supposing, the teacher would perhaps say,
+
+"I only heard one or two answers; do not more of you know where the
+Rocky Mountains are? Will you all think and answer together? Which way
+are they from us?"
+
+"West," answer a large number of boys.
+
+"You do not answer fully enough yet; I do not think more than forty
+answered, and there are about sixty here. I should like to have _every
+one in the room_ answer, and all precisely together."
+
+He then repeats the question, and obtains a full response. A similar
+effort will always succeed.
+
+"Now does the sun, in going round the earth, pass over the Rocky
+Mountains, or over us, first?"
+
+To this question the teacher hears a confused answer. Some do not
+reply; some say, "Over the Rocky Mountains;" others, "Over us;" and
+others still, "The sun does not move at all."
+
+"It is true that the sun, strictly speaking, does not move; the earth
+turns round, presenting the various countries in succession to the sun,
+but the effect is precisely the same as it would be if the sun moved,
+and, accordingly, I use that language. Now how long does it take the sun
+to pass round the earth?"
+
+"Twenty-four hours."
+
+"Does he go toward the west or toward the east from us?"
+
+"Toward the west."
+
+But it is not necessary to give the replies; the questions alone will be
+sufficient. The reader will observe that they inevitably lead the pupil,
+by short and simple steps, to a clear understanding of the point to be
+explained.
+
+"Will the sun go toward or from the Rocky Mountains after leaving us?"
+
+"How long did you say it takes the sun to go round the globe and come to
+us again?"
+
+"How long to go half round?" "Quarter round?"
+
+"How long will it take him to go to the Rocky Mountains?"
+
+No answer.
+
+"You can not tell. It would depend upon the distance. Suppose, then, the
+Rocky Mountains were half round the globe, how long would it take the
+sun to go to them?" "Suppose they were quarter round?"
+
+"The whole distance is divided into portions called degrees--360 in all.
+How many will the sun pass in going half round?" "In going quarter
+round?"
+
+"Ninety degrees, then, make one quarter of the circumference of the
+globe. This, you have already said, will take six hours. In one hour,
+then, how many degrees will the sun pass over?"
+
+Perhaps no answer. If so, the teacher will subdivide the question on the
+principle we are explaining, so as to make the steps such that the
+pupils _can_ take them.
+
+"How many degrees will the sun pass over in three hours?"
+
+"Forty-five."
+
+"How large a part of that, then, will he pass in one hour?"
+
+"One third of it."
+
+"And what is one third of forty-five?"
+
+The boys would readily answer fifteen, and the teacher would then dwell
+for a moment on the general truth thus deduced, that the sun, in passing
+round the earth, passes over fifteen degrees every hour.
+
+"Suppose, then, it takes the sun one hour to go from us to the River
+Mississippi, how many degrees west of us would the river be?"
+
+Having thus familiarized the pupils to the fact that the motion of the
+sun is a proper measure of the difference of longitude between two
+places, the teacher must dismiss the subject for a day, and when the
+next opportunity of bringing it forward occurs, he would, perhaps, take
+up the subject of the sun's motion as a measure _of time._
+
+"Is the sun ever exactly over our heads?"
+
+"Is he ever exactly south of us?"
+
+"When he is exactly south of us, or, in other words, exactly opposite to
+us in his course round the earth, he is said to be in our meridian; for
+the word meridian means a line drawn exactly north or south from any
+place."
+
+There is no limit to the simplicity which may be imparted, even to the
+most difficult subjects, by subdividing the steps. This point, for
+instance, the meaning of meridian, may be the subject, if it were
+necessary, of many questions, which would render it simple to the
+youngest child. The teacher may point to the various articles in the
+room, or buildings, or other objects without, and ask if they are or are
+not in his meridian. But to proceed:
+
+"When the sun is exactly opposite to us, in the south, at the highest
+point to which he rises, what o'clock is it?"
+
+"When the sun is exactly opposite to us, can he be opposite to the Rocky
+Mountains?"
+
+"Does he get opposite to the Rocky Mountains before or after he is
+opposite to us?"
+
+"When he is opposite to the Rocky Mountains, what o'clock is it there?"
+
+"Is it twelve o'clock here, then, before or after it is twelve o'clock
+there?"
+
+"Suppose the River Mississippi is fifteen degrees from us, how long is
+it twelve o'clock here before it is twelve o'clock there?"
+
+"When it is twelve o'clock here, then, what time will it be there?"
+
+Some will probably answer "one," and some "eleven." If so, the step is
+too long, and may be subdivided thus:
+
+"When it is noon here, is the sun going toward the Mississippi, or has
+he passed it?"
+
+"Then has noon gone by at that river, or has it not yet come?"
+
+"Then will it be one hour before or one hour after noon?"
+
+"Then will it be eleven or one?"
+
+Such minuteness and simplicity would, in ordinary cases, not be
+necessary. I go into it here merely to show how, by simply subdividing
+the steps, a subject ordinarily perplexing may be made plain. The reader
+will observe that in the above there are no explanations by the
+teacher--there are not even leading questions; that is, there are no
+questions the form of which suggests the answers desired. The pupil goes
+on from step to step simply because he has but one short step to take at
+a time.
+
+"Can it be noon, then," continues the teacher, "here and at a place
+fifteen degrees west of us at the same time?"
+
+"Can it be noon here and at a place ten miles west of us at the same
+time?"
+
+It is unnecessary to continue the illustration, for it will be very
+evident to every reader that, by going forward in this way, the whole
+subject may be laid out before the pupils so that they shall perfectly
+understand it. They can, by a series of questions like the above, be led
+to see, by their own reasoning, that time, as denoted by the clock, must
+differ in every two places not upon the same meridian, and that the
+difference must be exactly proportional to the difference of longitude.
+So that a watch which is right in one place can not, strictly speaking,
+be right in any other place east or west of the first; and that, if the
+time of day at two places can be compared, either by taking a
+chronometer from one to another, or by observing some celestial
+phenomenon, like the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, and ascertaining
+precisely the time of their occurrence, according to the reckoning at
+both, the distance east or west by degrees may be determined. The reader
+will observe, too, that the method by which this explanation is made is
+strictly in accordance with the principle I am illustrating, which is by
+simply _dividing the process into short steps._ There is no ingenious
+reasoning on the part of the teacher, no happy illustrations, no
+apparatus, no diagrams. It is a pure process of mathematical reasoning,
+made clear and easy by _simple analysis._
+
+In applying this method, however, the teacher should be very careful not
+to subdivide too much. It is best that the pupils should walk as fast as
+they can. The object of the teacher should be to smooth the path not
+much more than barely enough to enable the pupil to go on. He should not
+endeavor to make it very easy.
+
+(2.) Truths must not only be taught to the pupils, but they must
+_fixed_, and _made familiar._ This is a point which seems to be very
+generally overlooked.
+
+"Can you say the Multiplication Table?" said a teacher to a boy who was
+standing before him in his class.
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"Well, I should like to have you say the line beginning nine times one."
+
+The boy repeated it slowly, but correctly.
+
+"Now I should like to have you try again, and I will, at the same time,
+say another line, to see if I can put you out."
+
+The boy looked surprised. The idea of his teacher's trying to perplex
+and embarrass him was entirely new.
+
+"You must not be afraid," said the teacher. "You will undoubtedly not
+succeed in getting through, but you will not be to blame for the
+failure. I only try it as a sort of intellectual experiment."
+
+The boy accordingly began again, but was soon completely confused by the
+teacher's accompaniment. He stopped in the middle of his line, saying,
+
+"I could say it, only you put me out."
+
+"Well, now try to say the Alphabet, and let me see if I can put you out
+there."
+
+As might have been expected, the teacher failed. The boy went regularly
+onward to the end.
+
+"You see, now," said the teacher to the class who had witnessed the
+experiment, "that this boy knows his Alphabet in a different sense from
+that in which he knows his Multiplication Table. In the latter, his
+knowledge is only imperfectly his own; he can make use of it only under
+favorable circumstances. In the former it is entirely his own;
+circumstances have no control over him."
+
+A child has a lesson in Latin Grammar to recite. She hesitates and
+stammers, miscalls the cases, and then corrects herself, and, if she
+gets through at last, she considers herself as having recited well, and
+very many teachers would consider it well too. If she hesitates a little
+longer than usual in trying to summon to her recollection a particular
+word, she says, perhaps, "Don't tell me," and if she happens at last to
+guess right, she takes her book with a countenance beaming with
+satisfaction.
+
+"Suppose you had the care of an infant school," might the instructor say
+to such a scholar, "and were endeavoring to teach a little child to
+count, and she should recite her lesson to you in this way, 'One, two,
+four--no, three--one, two, three----stop, don't tell me--five--no,
+four--four--five--------I shall think in a minute--six--is that right?
+five, six,' &c. Should you call that reciting well?"
+
+Nothing is more common than for pupils to say, when they fail of
+reciting their lesson, that they could say it at their seats, but that
+they can not now say it before the class. When such a thing is said for
+the first time it should not be severely reproved, because nine children
+in ten honestly think that if the lesson were learned so that it could
+be recited any where, their duty is discharged. But it should be kindly,
+though distinctly explained to them, that in the business of life they
+must have their knowledge so much at command that they can use it at all
+times and in all circumstances, or it will do them little good.
+
+One of the most common cases of difficulty in pursuing mathematical
+studies, or studies of any kind where the succeeding lessons depend upon
+those which precede, is the fact that the pupil, though he may
+understand what precedes, is not _familiar_ with it. This is very
+strikingly the case with Geometry. The class study the definitions, and
+the teacher supposes they fully understand them; in fact, they do
+_understand_ them, but the name and the thing are so feebly connected in
+their minds that a direct effort and a short pause are necessary to
+recall the idea when they hear or see the word. When they come on,
+therefore, to the demonstrations, which in themselves would be difficult
+enough, they have double duty to perform. The words used do not readily
+suggest the idea, and the connection of the ideas requires careful
+study. Under this double burden many a young geometrician sinks
+discouraged.
+
+A class should go on slowly, and dwell on details so long as to fix
+firmly and make perfectly familiar whatever they undertake to learn. In
+this manner the knowledge they acquire will become their own. It will be
+incorporated, as it were, into their very minds, and they can not
+afterward be deprived of it.
+
+The exercises which have for their object this rendering familiar what
+has been learned may be so varied as to interest the pupil very much,
+instead of being tiresome, as it might at first be supposed.
+
+Suppose, for instance, a teacher has explained to a large class in
+grammar the difference between an adjective and an adverb; if he leave
+it here, in a fortnight one half of the pupils would have forgotten the
+distinction, but by dwelling upon it a few lessons he may fix it
+forever. The first lesson might be to require the pupils to write twenty
+short sentences containing only adjectives. The second to write twenty
+containing only adverbs. The third to write sentences in two forms, one
+containing the adjective, and the other expressing the same idea by
+means of the adverb, arranging them in two columns, thus:
+
+  He writes well.  |  His writing is good.
+
+Again, they may make out a list of adjectives, with the adverbs derived
+from each in another column. Then they may classify adverbs on the
+principle of their meaning, or according to their termination. The
+exercise may be infinitely varied, and yet the object of the whole may
+be to make _perfectly familiar_, and to fix forever in the mind the
+distinction explained.
+
+These two points seem to me to be fundamental, so far as assisting
+pupils through the difficulties which lie in their way is concerned.
+Diminish the difficulties as far as is necessary by shortening and
+simplifying the steps, and make thorough work as you go on. These
+principles, carried steadily into practice, will be effectual in leading
+any mind through any difficulties which may occur. And though they can
+not, perhaps, be fully applied to every mind in a large school, yet they
+can be so far acted upon in reference to the whole mass as to accomplish
+the object for a very large majority.
+
+3. _General cautions_. A few miscellaneous suggestions, which we shall
+include under this head, will conclude this chapter.
+
+(1.) Never do any thing _for_ a scholar, but teach him to do it for
+himself. How many cases occur in the schools of our country where the
+boy brings his slate to the teacher, saying he can not do a certain sum.
+The teacher takes the slate and pencil, performs the work in silence,
+brings the result, and returns the slate to the hands of his pupil, who
+walks off to his seat, and goes to work on the next example, perfectly
+satisfied with the manner in which he is passing on. A man who has not
+done this a hundred times himself will hardly believe it possible that
+such a practice can prevail, it is so evidently a mere waste of time
+both for master and scholar.
+
+(2.) Never get out of patience with dullness. Perhaps I ought to say,
+never get out of patience with any thing. That would, perhaps, be the
+wisest rule. But, above all things, remember that dullness and
+stupidity--and you will certainly find them in every school--are the
+very last things to get out of patience with. If the Creator has so
+formed the mind of a boy that he must go through life slowly and with
+difficulty, impeded by obstructions which others do not feel, and
+depressed by discouragements which others never know, his lot is surely
+hard enough without having you to add to it the trials and suffering
+which sarcasm and reproach from you can heap upon him. Look over your
+school-room, therefore, and wherever you find one whom you perceive the
+Creator to have endued with less intellectual power than others, fix
+your eye upon him with an expression of kindness and sympathy. Such a
+boy will have suffering enough from the selfish tyranny of his
+companions; he ought to find in you a protector and friend. One of the
+greatest enjoyments which a teacher's life affords is the interest of
+seeking out such a one, bowed down with burdens of depression and
+discouragement, unaccustomed to sympathy and kindness, and expecting
+nothing for the future but a weary continuation of the cheerless toils
+which have imbittered the past; and the pleasure of taking off the
+burden, of surprising the timid, disheartened sufferer by kind words and
+cheering looks, and of seeing in his countenance the expression of ease
+and even of happiness gradually returning.
+
+(3.) The teacher should be interested in _all_ his scholars, and aim
+equally to secure the progress of all. Let there be no neglected ones in
+the school-room. We should always remember that, however unpleasant in
+countenance and manners that bashful boy in the corner may be, or
+however repulsive in appearance, or unhappy in disposition, that girl,
+seeming to be interested in nobody, and nobody appearing interested in
+her, they still have, each of them, a mother, who loves her own child,
+and takes a deep and constant interest in its history. Those mothers
+have a right, too, that their children should receive their full share
+of attention in a school which has been established for the common and
+equal benefit of all.
+
+(4.) Do not hope or attempt to make all your pupils alike. Providence
+has determined that human minds should differ from each other for the
+very purpose of giving variety and interest to this busy scene of life.
+Now if it were possible for a teacher so to plan his operations as to
+send his pupils forth upon the community formed on the same model, as if
+they were made by machinery, he would do so much toward spoiling one of
+the wisest of the plans which the Almighty has formed for making this
+world a happy scene. Let it be the teacher's aim to co-operate with, not
+vainly to attempt to thwart, the designs of Providence. We should bring
+out those powers with which the Creator has endued the minds placed
+under our control. We must open our garden to such influences as shall
+bring forward all the plants, each in a way corresponding to its own
+nature. It is impossible if it were wise, and it would be foolish if it
+were possible, to stimulate, by artificial means, the rose, in hope of
+its reaching the size and magnitude of the apple-tree, or to try to
+cultivate the fig and the orange where wheat only will grow. No; it
+should be the teacher's main design to shelter his pupils from every
+deleterious influence, and to bring every thing to bear upon the
+community of minds before him which will encourage in each one the
+development of its own native powers. For the rest, he must remember
+that his province is to cultivate, not to create.
+
+Error on this point is very common. Many teachers, even among those who
+have taken high rank through the success with which they have labored in
+the field, have wasted much time in attempting to do what never can be
+done, to form the character of those brought under their influence after
+a certain uniform model, which they have conceived as the standard of
+excellence. Their pupils must write just such a hand, they must compose
+in just such a style, they must be similar in sentiment and feeling, and
+their manners must be formed according to a fixed and uniform model; and
+when, in such a case, a pupil comes under their charge whom Providence
+has designed to be entirely different from the beau ideal adopted as the
+standard, more time, and pains, and anxious solicitude is wasted in vain
+attempts to produce the desired conformity than half the school require
+beside.
+
+(5.) Do not allow the faults or obliquities of character, or the
+intellectual or moral wants of any individual of your pupils to engross
+a disproportionate share of your time. I have already said that those
+who are peculiarly in need of sympathy or help should receive the
+special attention they seem to require; what I mean to say now is, do
+not carry this to an extreme. When a parent sends you a pupil who, in
+consequence of neglect or mismanagement at home, has become wild and
+ungovernable, and full of all sorts of wickedness, he has no right to
+expect that you shall turn your attention away from the wide field
+which, in your whole school-room, lies before you, to spend your time,
+and exhaust your spirits and strength in endeavoring to repair the
+injuries which his own neglect has occasioned. When you open a school,
+you do not engage, either openly or tacitly, to make every pupil who may
+be sent to you a learned or a virtuous man. You do engage to give them
+all faithful instruction, and to bestow upon each such a degree of
+attention as is consistent with the claims of the rest. But it is both
+unwise and unjust to neglect the many trees in your nursery which, by
+ordinary attention, may be made to grow straight and tall, and to bear
+good fruit, that you may waste your labor upon a crooked stick, from
+which all your toil can secure very little beauty or fruitfulness.
+
+Let no one now understand me to say that such cases are to be neglected.
+I admit the propriety, and, in fact, have urged the duty, of paying to
+them a little more than their due share of attention. What I now condemn
+is the practice, of which all teachers are in danger, of devoting such a
+disproportionate and unreasonable degree of attention to them as to
+encroach upon their duties to others. The school, the whole school, is
+your field, the elevation _of the mass_ in knowledge and virtue, and no
+individual instance, either of dullness or precocity, should draw you
+away from its steady pursuit.
+
+(6.) The teacher should guard against unnecessarily imbibing those
+faulty mental habits to which his station and employment expose him.
+Accustomed to command, and to hold intercourse with minds which are
+immature and feeble compared with our own, we gradually acquire habits
+that the rough collisions and the friction of active life prevent from
+gathering around other men. Narrow-minded prejudices and prepossessions
+are imbibed through the facility with which, in our own little
+community, we adopt and maintain opinions. A too strong confidence in
+our own views on every subject almost inevitably comes from never
+hearing our opinions contradicted or called in question, and we express
+those opinions in a tone of authority, and even sometimes of arrogance,
+which we acquire in the school-room, for there, when we speak, nobody
+can reply.
+
+These peculiarities show themselves first, and, in fact, most commonly,
+in the school-room; and the opinions thus formed very often relate to
+the studies and management of the school. One has a peculiar mode of
+teaching spelling, which is successful almost entirely through the magic
+influence of his interest in it, and he thinks no other mode of teaching
+this branch is even tolerable. Another must have all his pupils write on
+the angular system, or the anti-angular system, and he enters with all
+the zeal into a controversy on the subject, as if the destiny of the
+whole rising generation depended upon its decision. Tell him that all
+that is of any consequence in any handwriting is that it should be
+legible, rapid, and uniform, and that, for the rest, it would be better
+that every human being should write a different hand, and he looks upon
+you with astonishment, wondering that you can not see the vital
+importance of the question whether the vertex of an _o_ should, be
+pointed or round. So in every thing. He has _his way_ in every minute
+particular--a way from which he can not deviate, and to which he wishes
+every one else to conform.
+
+This set, formal mannerism is entirely inconsistent with that commanding
+intellectual influence which the teacher should exert in the
+administration of his school. He should work with what an artist calls
+boldness and freedom of touch. Activity and enterprise of mind should
+characterize all his measures if he wishes to make bold, original, and
+efficient men.
+
+(7.) Assume no false appearances in your school either as to knowledge
+or character. Perhaps it may justly be said to be the common practice of
+teachers in this country to affect a dignity of deportment in the
+presence of their pupils which in other cases is laid aside, and to
+pretend to superiority in knowledge and an infallibility of judgment
+which no sensible man would claim before other sensible men, but which
+an absurd fashion seems to require of the teacher. It can, however,
+scarcely be said to be a fashion, for the temptation is almost
+exclusively confined to the young and the ignorant, who think they must
+make up by appearance what they want in reality. Very few of the older,
+and more experienced, and successful instructors in our country fall
+into it at all; but some young beginner, whose knowledge is very
+limited, and who, in manner and habits, has only just ceased to be a
+boy, walks into his school-room with a countenance of forced gravity,
+and with a dignified and solemn step, which is ludicrous even to
+himself. I describe accurately, for I describe from recollection. This
+unnatural, and forced, and ludicrous dignity cleaves to him like a
+disease through the whole period of his duty. In the presence of his
+scholars he is always under restraint, assuming a stiff and formal
+dignity which is as ridiculous as it is unnatural. He is also obliged to
+resort to arts which are certainly not very honorable to conceal his
+ignorance.
+
+A scholar, for example, brings him a sum in arithmetic which he does not
+know how to perform. This may be the case with a most excellent teacher,
+and one well qualified for his business. In order to be successful as a
+teacher, it is not necessary to understand every thing. Instead,
+however, of saying frankly, "I do not understand that example; I will
+examine it," he looks at it embarrassed and perplexed, not knowing how
+he shall escape the exposure of his ignorance. His first thought is to
+give some general directions to the pupil, and send him to his seat to
+make a new experiment, hoping that in some way or other, he scarcely
+knows how, he will get through; and, at any rate, if he should not, the
+teacher thinks that he himself at least gains time by the manoeuvre, and
+he is glad to postpone his trouble, though he knows it must soon return.
+
+All efforts to conceal ignorance, and all affectation of knowledge not
+possessed, are as unwise as they are dishonest. If a scholar asks a
+question which you can not answer, or brings you a difficulty which you
+can not solve, say frankly, "I do not know." It is the only way to avoid
+continual anxiety and irritation, and the surest means of securing real
+respect. Let the scholars understand that the superiority of the teacher
+does not consist in his infallibility, or in his universal acquisitions,
+but in a well-balanced mind, where the boundary between knowledge and
+ignorance is distinctly marked; in a strong desire to go forward in
+mental improvement, and in fixed principles of action and systematic
+habits. You may even take up in school a study entirely new to you, and
+have it understood at the outset that you know no more of it than the
+class commencing, but that you can be their guide on account of the
+superior maturity and discipline of your powers, and the comparative
+ease with which you can meet and overcome difficulties. This is the
+understanding which ought always to exist between master and scholars.
+The fact that the teacher does not know every thing can not long be
+concealed if he tries to conceal it, and in this, as in every other
+case, HONESTY IS THE BEST POLICY.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+MORAL DISCIPLINE.
+
+
+Under the title which I have placed at the head of this chapter I intend
+to discuss the methods by which the teacher is to secure a moral
+ascendency over his pupils, so that he may lead them to do what is
+right, and bring them back to duty when they do what is wrong. I shall
+use, in what I have to say, a very plain and familiar style; and as very
+much depends not only on the general principles by which the teacher is
+actuated, but also on the tone and manner in which, in cases of
+discipline, he addresses his pupils, I shall describe particular cases,
+real and imaginary, because by this method I can better illustrate the
+course to be pursued. I shall also present and illustrate the various
+principles which I consider important, and in the order in which they
+occur to my mind.
+
+1. The first duty, then, of the teacher when he enters his school is to
+beware of the danger of making an unfavorable impression at first upon
+his pupils. Many years ago, when I was a child, the teacher of the
+school where my early studies were performed closed his connection with
+the establishment, and after a short vacation another was expected. On
+the appointed day the boys began to collect, some from curiosity, at an
+early hour, and many speculations were started as to the character of
+the new instructor. We were standing near a table with our hats on--and
+our position, and the exact appearance of the group, is indelibly fixed
+on my memory--when a small and youthful-looking man entered the room,
+and walked up toward us. Supposing him to be some stranger, or, rather,
+not making any supposition at all, we stood looking at him as he
+approached, and were thunder-struck at hearing him accost us with a
+stern voice and sterner brow, "Take off your hats. Take off your hats
+and go to your seats." The conviction immediately rushed upon our minds
+that this must be our new teacher. The first emotion was that of
+surprise, and the second was that of the ludicrous, though I believe we
+contrived to smother the laugh until we got out into the open air.
+
+So long since was this little occurrence that I have entirely forgotten
+the name of the teacher, and have not the slightest recollection of any
+other act in his administration of the school. But this recollection of
+his first greeting of his pupils, and the expression of his countenance
+at the moment, will go with me to the end of life. So strong are first
+impressions.
+
+Be careful, then, when you first see your pupils, that you meet them
+with a smile. I do not mean a pretended cordiality, which has no
+existence in the heart, but think of the relation which you are to
+sustain to them, and think of the very interesting circumstances under
+which, for some months at least, your destinies are to be united to
+theirs, until you can not help feeling a strong interest in them. Shut
+your eyes for a day or two to their faults, if possible, and take an
+interest in all their pleasures and pursuits, that the first attitude in
+which you exhibit yourself before them may be one which shall allure,
+not repel.
+
+2. In endeavoring to correct the faults of your pupils, do not, as many
+teachers do, seize only upon _those particular cases_ of transgression
+which may happen to come under your notice. These individual instances
+are very few, probably, compared with the whole number of faults against
+which you ought to exert an influence. And though you perhaps ought not
+to neglect those which may accidentally come under your notice, yet the
+observing and punishing such cases is a very small part of your duty.
+
+You accidentally hear, I will suppose, as you are walking home from
+school, two of your boys in earnest conversation, and one of them uses
+profane language. Now the course to be pursued in such a case is, most
+evidently, not to call the boy to you the next day and punish him, and
+there let the matter rest. This would, perhaps, be better than nothing.
+But the chief impression which it would make upon the individual and
+upon the other scholars would be, "I must take care how I _let the
+master hear me_ use such language again." A wise teacher, who takes
+enlarged and extended views of his duty in regard to the moral progress
+of his pupils, would act very differently. He would look at the whole
+subject. "Does this fault," he would say to himself, "prevail among my
+pupils? If so, how extensively? It is comparatively of little
+consequence to punish the particular transgression. The great point is
+to devise some plan to reach the whole evil, and to correct it if
+possible."
+
+In one case where such a circumstance occurred, the teacher managed it
+most successfully in the following manner.
+
+He said nothing to the boy, and, in fact, the boy did not know that he
+was overheard. He allowed a day or two to elapse, so that the
+conversation might be forgotten, and then took an opportunity one day,
+after school, when all things had gone on pleasantly, and the school was
+about to be closed, to bring forward the whole subject. He told the boys
+that he had something to say to them after they had laid by their books
+and were ready to go home. The desks were soon closed, and every face in
+the room was turned toward the master with a look of fixed attention.
+It was almost evening. The sun had gone down. The boys' labors were
+over. Their duties for the day were over; their minds were at rest, and
+every thing was favorable for making a deep and permanent impression.
+
+"A few days ago," says the teacher, when all was still, "I accidentally
+overheard some conversation between two of the boys of this school, and
+one of them swore."
+
+There was a pause.
+
+"Perhaps you expect that I am now going to call the boy out and punish
+him. Is that what I ought to do?"
+
+There was no answer.
+
+"I think a boy who uses bad language of any kind does what he knows is
+wrong. He breaks God's commands. He does what he knows would be
+displeasing to his parents, and he sets a bad example. He does wrong,
+therefore, and justly deserves punishment."
+
+There were, of course, many boys who felt that they were in danger.
+Every one who had used profane language was aware that he might be the
+one who had been overheard, and, of course, all were deeply interested
+in what the teacher was saying.
+
+"He might, I say," continued the teacher, "justly be punished; but I am
+not going to punish him; for if I should, I am afraid that it would only
+make him a little more careful hereafter not to commit this sin when I
+could possibly be within hearing, instead of persuading him, as I wish
+to, to avoid such a sin in future altogether. I am satisfied that that
+boy would be far happier, even in this world, if he would make it a
+principle always to do his duty, and never, in any case, to do wrong.
+And then, when I think how soon he and all of us will be in another
+world, where we shall all be judged for what we do here, I feel strongly
+desirous of persuading him to abandon entirely this practice. I am
+afraid that punishing him now would not do that.
+
+"Besides," continues the teacher, "I think it very probable that there
+are many other boys in this school who are sometimes guilty of this
+fault, and I have thought that it would be a great deal better and
+happier for us all if, instead of punishing this particular boy whom I
+have accidentally overheard, and who probably is not more to blame than
+many other boys in school, I should bring up the whole subject, and
+endeavor to persuade all the boys to reform."
+
+I am aware that there are, unfortunately, in our country a great many
+teachers from whose lips such an appeal as this would be wholly in vain.
+The man who is accustomed to scold, and storm, and punish with unsparing
+severity every transgression, under the influence of irritation and
+anger, must not expect that he can win over his pupils to confidence in
+him and to the principles of duty by a word. But such an appeal will not
+be lost when it comes from a man whose daily and habitual management
+corresponds with it. But to return to the story:
+
+The teacher made some farther remarks, explaining the nature of the sin,
+not in the language of execration and affected abhorrence, but calmly,
+temperately, and without any disposition to make the worst of the
+occurrence which had taken place. In concluding what he said, he
+addressed the boys as follows:
+
+"Now, boys, the question is, do you wish to abandon this habit or not?
+If you do, all is well. I shall immediately forget all the past, and
+will do all I can to help you resist and overcome temptation in future.
+But all I can do is only to help you; and the first thing to be done, if
+you wish to engage in this work of reform, is to acknowledge your fault;
+and I should like to know how many are willing to do this."
+
+"I wish all those who are willing to tell me whether they use profane
+language would rise."
+
+Every individual but one rose.
+
+"I am very glad to see so large a number," said the teacher; "and I
+hope you will find that the work of confessing and forsaking your faults
+is, on the whole, pleasant, not painful business. Now those who can
+truly and honestly say that they never do use profane language of any
+kind may take their seats."
+
+Three only of the whole number, which consisted of not far from twenty,
+sat down. It was in a sea-port town, where the temptation to yield to
+this vice is even greater than would be, in the interior of our country,
+supposed possible.
+
+"Those who are now standing," pursued the teacher, "admit that they do,
+sometimes at least, commit this sin. I suppose all, however, are
+determined to reform; for I do not know what else should induce you to
+rise and acknowledge it here, unless it is a desire hereafter to break
+yourselves of the habit. But do you suppose that it will be enough for
+you merely to resolve here that you will reform?"
+
+"No, sir," said the boys.
+
+"Why not? If you now sincerely determine never more to use a profane
+word, will you not easily avoid it?"
+
+The boys were silent. Some said faintly, "No, sir."
+
+"It will not be easy for you to avoid the sin hereafter," continued the
+teacher, "even if you do now sincerely and resolutely determine to do
+so. You have formed the habit of sin, and the habit will not be easily
+overcome. But I have detained you long enough now. I will try to devise
+some method by which you may carry your plan into effect, and to-morrow
+I will tell you what it is."
+
+So the boys were dismissed for the day; the pleasant countenance and
+cheerful tone of the teacher conveying to them the impression that they
+were engaging in the common effort to accomplish a most desirable
+purpose, in which they were to receive the teacher's help, not that he
+was pursuing them, with threatening and punishment, into the forbidden
+practice into which they had wickedly strayed. Great caution is,
+however, in such a case, necessary to guard against the danger that the
+teacher, in attempting to avoid the tones of irritation and anger,
+should so speak of the sin as to blunt his pupils' sense of its guilt,
+and lull their consciences into a slumber.
+
+At the appointed time on the following day the subject was again brought
+before the school, and some plans proposed by which the resolutions now
+formed might be more certainly kept. These plans were readily and
+cheerfully adopted by the boys, and in a short time the vice of
+profaneness was, in a great degree, banished from the school.
+
+I hope the reader will keep in mind the object of the above
+illustration, which is to show that it is the true policy of the teacher
+not to waste his time and strength in contending against _such
+accidental instances_ of transgression as may chance to fall under his
+notice, but to take an enlarged and extended view of the whole ground,
+endeavoring to remove _whole classes of faults_--to elevate and improve
+_multitudes together_.
+
+By these means, his labors will not only be more effectual, but far more
+pleasant. You can not come into collision with an individual scholar, to
+punish him for a mischievous spirit, or even to rebuke him for some
+single act by which he has given you trouble, without an uncomfortable
+and uneasy feeling, which makes, in ordinary cases, the discipline of a
+school the most unpleasant part of a teacher's duty. But you can plan a
+campaign against a whole class of faults, and put into operation a
+system of measures to correct them, and watch from day to day the
+operation of that system with all the spirit and interest of a game. It
+is, in fact, a game where your ingenuity and moral power are brought
+into the field, in opposition to the evil tendencies of the hearts which
+are under your influence. You will notice the success or the failure of
+the means you may put into operation with all the interest with which
+the experimental philosopher observes the curious processes he guides,
+though your interest may be much purer and higher, for he works upon
+matter, but you are experimenting upon mind.
+
+Remember, then, as for the first time you take your new station at the
+head of your school, that it is not your duty simply to watch with an
+eagle eye for those accidental instances of transgression which may
+chance to fall under your notice. You are to look over the whole ground.
+You are to make yourself acquainted, as soon as possible, with the
+classes of character and classes of faults which may prevail in your
+dominions, and to form deliberate and well-digested plans for improving
+the one and correcting the other.
+
+And this is to be the course pursued not only with great delinquencies,
+such as those to which I have already alluded, but to every little
+transgression against the rules of order and propriety. You can correct
+them far more easily and pleasantly in the mass than in detail.
+
+To illustrate this principle by another case. A teacher, who takes the
+course I am condemning, approaches the seat of one of his pupils, and
+asks to see one of his books. As the boy opens his desk, the teacher
+observes that it is in complete disorder. Books, maps, papers,
+play-things, are there in promiscuous confusion, and, from the impulse
+of the moment, the displeased teacher pours out upon the poor boy a
+torrent of reproach.
+
+"What a looking desk! Why, John, I am really ashamed of you! Look!"
+continues he, holding up the lid, so that the boys in the neighborhood
+can look in; "see what a mass of disorder and confusion. If ever I see
+your desk in such a state again, I shall most certainly punish you."
+
+The boys around laugh, very equivocally, however, for, with the feeling
+of amusement, there is mingled the fear that the angry master may take
+it into his head to inspect their domains. The boy accidentally exposed
+looks sullen, and begins to throw his books into some sort of
+arrangement, just enough to shield himself from the charge of absolutely
+disobeying the injunction that he has received, and there the matter
+ends.
+
+Another teacher takes no apparent notice of the confusion which he thus
+accidentally witnesses. "I must take up," thinks he to himself, "the
+subject of order before the whole school. I have not yet spoken of it."
+He thanks the boy for the book he borrowed, and goes away. He makes a
+memorandum of the subject, and the boy does not know that the condition
+of his desk was noticed; perhaps he does not even know that there was
+any thing amiss.
+
+A day or two after, at a time regularly appropriated to such subjects,
+he addresses the boys as follows:
+
+"In our efforts to improve the school as much as possible, there is one
+subject which we must not forget. I mean the order of the desks."
+
+The boys all begin to open their desk lids.
+
+"You may stop a moment," says the teacher. "I shall give you all an
+opportunity to examine your desks presently.
+
+"I do not know what the condition of your desks is. I have not examined
+them, and have not, in fact, seen the inside of more than one or two. As
+I have not brought up this subject before, I presume that there are a
+great many which can be arranged better than they are. Will you all now
+look into your desks, and see whether you consider them in good order?
+Stop a moment, however. Let me tell you what good order is. All those
+things which are alike should be arranged together. Books should be in
+one place, papers in another, and thus every thing should be classified.
+Again, every thing should be so placed that it can be taken out without
+disturbing other things. There is another principle, also, which I will
+mention: the various articles should have _constant_ places, that is,
+they should not be changed from day to day. By this means you soon
+remember where every thing belongs, and you can put away your things
+much more easily every night than if you had every night to arrange them
+in a new way. Now will you look into your desks, and tell me whether
+they are, on these three principles, well arranged?"
+
+The boys of most schools, where this subject had not been regularly
+attended to, would nearly all answer in the negative.
+
+"I will allow you, then, some time to-day, fifteen minutes to arrange
+your desks, and I hope you will try to keep them in good order
+hereafter. A few days hence I shall examine them. If any of you wish for
+assistance or advice from me in putting them in order, I shall be happy
+to render it."
+
+By such a plan, which will occupy but little more time than the
+irritating and useless scolding which I supposed in the other case, how
+much more will be accomplished. Such an address would of itself,
+probably, be the means of putting in order, and keeping in order, at
+least one half of the desks in the room, and following up the plan in
+the same manner and in the same spirit with which it was begun would
+secure the rest.
+
+I repeat it, therefore, make it a principle in all cases to aim as much
+as possible at the correction of those faults which are likely to be
+general by _general measures_. You avoid by this means a vast amount of
+irritation and impatience, both on your own part and on the part of your
+scholars, and you produce twenty times the useful effect.
+
+3. The next principle which occurs to me as deserving the teacher's
+attention in the outset of his course is this:
+
+Interest your scholars in doing something themselves to elevate the
+moral character of the school, so as to secure a _decided majority who
+will, of their own accord, co-operate with you._
+
+Let your pupils understand, not by any formal speech which you make to
+that effect, but by the manner in which, from time to time, you
+incidentally allude to the subject, that you consider the school, when
+you commence it, as _at par_, so to speak--that is, on a level with
+other schools, and that your various plans for improving and amending it
+are not to be considered in the light of finding fault, and punishing
+transgressions, and controlling evil propensities, so as just to keep
+things in a tolerable state, but as efforts to improve and carry
+forward the institution to a still higher state of excellence. Such is
+the tone and manner of some teachers that they never appear to be more
+than merely satisfied. When the scholars do right, nothing is said about
+it. The teacher seems to consider that a matter of course. It does not
+appear to interest or please him at all. Nothing arouses him but when
+they do wrong, and that only excites him to anger and frowns. Now in
+such a case there can, of course, be no stimulus to effort on the part
+of the pupils but the cold and heartless stimulus of fear.
+
+Now it is wrong for the teacher to expect that things will go right in
+his school as a matter of course. All that he can expect _as a matter of
+course_ is, that things should go on as well as they do ordinarily in
+schools--the ordinary amount of idleness, the ordinary amount of
+misconduct. This is the most that he can expect to come as a matter of
+course. He should feel this, and then all he can gain which will be
+better than this will be a source of positive pleasure; a pleasure which
+his pupils have procured for him, and which, consequently, they should
+share. They should understand that the teacher is engaged in various
+plans for improving the school, in which they should be invited to
+engage, not from the selfish desire of thereby saving him trouble, but
+because it will really be happy employment for them to engage in such an
+enterprise, and because, by such efforts, their own moral powers will be
+exerted and strengthened in the best possible way.
+
+In another chapter I have explained to what extent, and in what manner,
+the assistance of the pupils may be usefully and successfully employed
+in carrying forward the general arrangements of the school. The same
+_principles_ will apply here, though perhaps a little more careful and
+delicate management is necessary in interesting them in subjects which
+relate to moral discipline.
+
+One important method of accomplishing this end is to present these
+plans before the minds of the scholars as experiments--moral
+experiments, whose commencement, progress, and results they may take a
+great interest in witnessing. Let us take, for example, the case alluded
+to under the last head--the plan of effecting a reform in regard to
+keeping desks in order. Suppose the teacher were to say, when the time
+had arrived at which he had promised to give them an opportunity to put
+the desks in order,
+
+"I think it would be a good plan to keep some account of our efforts for
+improving the school in this respect. We might make a record of what we
+do to-day, noting the day of the month and the number of desks which may
+be found to be disorderly. Then, at the end of any time you may propose,
+we will have the desks examined again, and see how many are disorderly
+then. We can thus see how much improvement has been made in that time.
+Should you like to adopt the plan?"
+
+If the boys should appear not much interested in the proposal, the
+teacher might, at his own discretion, waive it. In all probability,
+however, they would like it, and would indicate their interest by their
+countenances, or perhaps by a response. If so, the teacher might
+proceed.
+
+"You may all examine your desks, then, and decide whether they are in
+order or not. I do not know, however, but that we ought to appoint a
+committee to examine them; for perhaps all the boys would not be honest,
+and report their desks as they really are."
+
+"Yes, sir;" "yes, sir," say the boys.
+
+"Do you mean that you will be honest, or that you would like to have a
+committee appointed?"
+
+There was a confused murmur. Some answer one, and some the other.
+
+"I think," proceeds the teacher, "the boys will be honest, and report
+their desks just as they are. At any rate, the number of dishonest boys
+in this school can not be so large as materially to affect the result.
+I think we had better take your own statements. As soon as the desks are
+all examined, those who have found theirs in a condition which does not
+satisfy them are requested to rise and be counted."
+
+The teacher then looks around the room, and selecting some intelligent
+boy who has influence among his companions, and whose influence he is
+particularly desirous of enlisting on the side of good order, says,
+"Shall I nominate some one to keep an account of the number?"
+
+"Yes, sir," say the boys.
+
+"Well, I nominate William Jones. How many are in favor of requesting
+William Jones to perform this duty?"
+
+"It is a vote. William, I will thank you to write upon a piece of paper
+that on the 8th of December the subject of order in the desks was
+brought up, and that the boys resolved on making an effort to improve
+the school in this respect. Then say that the boys reported all their
+desks which they thought were disorderly, and that the number was
+thirty-five; and that after a week or two, the desks are to be examined
+again, and the disorderly ones counted, that we may see how much we have
+improved. After you have written it you may bring it to me, and I will
+tell you whether it is right."
+
+"How many desks do you think will be found to be disorderly when we come
+to make the examination?"
+
+The boys hesitate.
+
+The teacher names successively several numbers, and asks whether they
+think the real number will be greater or less. He notices their votes
+upon them, and at last fixes upon one which seems to be about the
+general sense of the school. Then the teacher himself mentions the
+number which he supposes will be found to be disorderly. His estimate
+will ordinarily be larger than that of the scholars, because he knows
+better how easily resolutions are broken. This number, too, is recorded,
+and then the whole subject is dismissed.
+
+Now, of course, no reader of these remarks will understand me to be
+recommending, by this imaginary dialogue, a particular course to be
+taken in regard to this subject, far less the particular language to be
+used. All I mean is to show by a familiar illustration how the teacher
+is to endeavor to enlist the interest and to excite the curiosity of his
+pupils in his plans for the improvement of his school, by presenting
+them as moral experiments, which they are to assist him in
+trying--experiments whose progress they are to watch, and whose results
+they are to predict. If the precise steps which I have described should
+actually be taken, although it would occupy but a few minutes, and would
+cause no thought and no perplexing care, yet it would undoubtedly be the
+means of awakening a very general interest in the subject of order
+throughout the school. All would be interested in the work of
+arrangement.
+
+All would watch, too, with interest the progress and the result of the
+experiment; and if, a few days afterward, the teacher should
+accidentally, in recess, see a disorderly desk, a good-humored remark
+made with a smile to the by-standers, "I suspect my prediction will turn
+out the correct one," would have far more effect than the most severe
+reproaches, or the tingling of a rap over the knuckles with a ratan.
+
+I know from experience that scholars of every kind can be led by such
+measures as these, or rather by such a spirit as this, to take an active
+interest, and to exert a most powerful influence in regard to the whole
+condition of the institution. I have seen the experiment successful in
+boys' schools and in girls' schools, among very little children, and
+among the seniors and juniors at college.
+
+In one of the colleges of New England a new and beautiful edifice was
+erected. The lecture-rooms were fitted up in handsome style, and the
+officers, when the time for the occupation of the building approached,
+were anticipating with regret what seemed to be the unavoidable
+defacing, and cutting, and marking of the seats and walls. It was,
+however, thought that if the subject was properly presented to the
+students, they would take an interest in preserving the property from
+injury. They were accordingly addressed somewhat as follows:
+
+"It seems, young gentlemen, to be generally the custom in colleges for
+the students to ornament the walls and benches of their recitation-rooms
+with various inscriptions and caricatures, so that after the premises
+have been for a short time in the possession of a class, every thing
+within reach, which will take an impression from a penknife or a trace
+from a pencil, is covered with names, and dates, and heads, and
+inscriptions of every kind. The faculty do not know what you wish in
+this respect in regard to the new accommodations which the trustees have
+now provided for you, and which you are soon to enter. They have had
+them fitted up for you handsomely, and if you wish to have them kept in
+good order, we will assist you. If the students think proper to express
+by a vote, or in any other way, their wish to keep them in good order,
+we will engage to have such incidental injuries as may from time to
+time occur immediately repaired. Such injuries will, of course, be done;
+for, whatever may be the wish and general opinion of the whole, it is
+not to be expected that every individual in so large a community will be
+careful. If, however, as a body, you wish to have the building preserved
+in its present state, and will, as a body, take the necessary
+precautions, we will do our part."
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The students responded to this appeal most heartily. They passed a vote
+expressing a desire to preserve the premises in order, and for many
+years, and, for aught I know, to the present hour, the whole is kept as
+a room occupied by gentlemen should be kept. At some other colleges, and
+those, too, sustaining the very highest rank among the institutions of
+the country, the doors of the public buildings are sometimes _studded
+with nails as thick as they can possibly be driven, and then covered
+with a thick coat of sand dried into the paint, as a protection from the
+knives of the students!!_
+
+The particular methods by which the teacher is to interest his pupils in
+his various plans for their improvement can not be fully described here.
+In fact, it does not depend so much on the methods he adopts as upon the
+view which he himself takes of these plans, and the _tone and manner in
+which he speaks of them to his pupils_.
+
+A teacher, for example, perhaps on the first day of his labors in a new
+school, calls a class to read. They pretend to form a line, but it
+crooks in every direction. One boy is leaning back against a desk;
+another comes forward as far as possible, to get near the fire; the rest
+lounge in every position and in every attitude. John is holding up his
+book high before his face to conceal an apple from which he is
+endeavoring to secure an enormous bite. James is, by the same sagacious
+device, concealing a whisper which he is addressing to his next
+neighbor, and Moses is seeking amusement by crowding and elbowing the
+little boy who is unluckily standing next him.
+
+"What a spectacle!" says the master to himself, as he looks at this sad
+display. "What shall I do?" The first impulse is to break forth upon
+them at once with all the artillery of reproof, and threatening, and
+punishment. I have seen, in such a case, a scolding and frowning master
+walk up and down before such a class with a stern and angry air,
+commanding this one to stand back, and that one to come forward,
+ordering one boy to put down his book, and scolding at a second for
+having lost his place, and knocking the knees of another with his ruler
+because he was out of the line. The boys scowl at their teacher, and,
+with ill-natured reluctance, they obey just enough to escape punishment.
+
+Another teacher looks calmly at the scene, and says to himself, "What
+shall I do to remove effectually these evils? If I can but interest the
+boys in reform, it will be far more easy to effect it than if I attempt
+to accomplish it by the mere exercise of my authority."
+
+In the mean time things go on during the reading in their own way. The
+teacher simply _observes_. He is in no haste to commence his operations.
+He looks for the faults; watches, without seeming to watch, the
+movements which he is attempting to control. He studies the materials
+with which he is to work, and lets their true character develop itself.
+He tries to find something to approve in the exercise as it proceeds,
+and endeavors to interest the class by narrating some fact connected
+with the reading, or making some explanation which interests the boys.
+At the end of the exercise he addresses them, perhaps, as follows:
+
+"I have observed, boys, in some military companies, that the officers
+are very strict, requiring implicit and precise obedience. The men are
+required to form a precise line." (Here there is a sort of involuntary
+movement all along the line, by which it is very sensibly straightened.)
+"They make all the men stand erect" (at this word heads go up, and
+straggling feet draw in all along the class), "in the true military
+posture. They allow nothing to be done in the ranks but to attend to
+the exercise" (John hastily crowds his apple into his pocket), "and thus
+they regulate every thing in exact and steady discipline, so that all
+things go on in a most systematic and scientific manner. This discipline
+is so admirable in some countries, especially in Europe, where much
+greater attention is paid to military tactics than in our country, that
+I have heard it said by travelers that some of the soldiers who mount
+guard at public places look as much like statues as they do like living
+men.
+
+"Other commanders act differently. They let the men do pretty much as
+they please. So you will see such a company lounging into a line when
+the drum beats, as if they took little interest in what was going on.
+While the captain is giving his commands, one is eating his luncheon,
+another is talking with his next neighbor. Part are out of the line;
+part lounge on one foot; they hold their guns in every position; and, on
+the whole, present a very disorderly and unsoldier-like appearance.
+
+"I have observed, too, that boys very generally prefer to _see_ the
+strict companies, but perhaps they would prefer to _belong_ to the lax
+ones."
+
+"No, sir;" "No, sir," say the boys.
+
+"Suppose you all had your choice either to belong to a company like the
+first one I described, where the captain was strict in all his
+requirements, or to one like the latter, where you could do pretty much
+as you pleased, which should you prefer?"
+
+Unless I am entirely mistaken in my idea of the inclinations of boys, it
+would be very difficult to get a single honest expression of preference
+for the latter. They would say with one voice,
+
+"The first."
+
+"I suppose it would be so. You would be put to some inconvenience by the
+strict commands of the captain, but then you would be more than paid by
+the beauty of regularity and order which you would all witness. There is
+nothing so pleasant as regularity, and nobody likes regularity more than
+boys do. To show this, I should like to have you now form a line as
+exact as you can."
+
+After some unnecessary shoving and pushing, increased by the disorderly
+conduct of a few bad boys, a line is formed. Most of the class are
+pleased with the experiment, and the teacher takes no notice of the few
+exceptions. The time to attend to _them_ will come by-and-by.
+
+"Hands down." The boys obey.
+
+"Shoulders back."
+
+"There; there is a very perfect line."
+
+"Do you stand easily in that position?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"I believe your position is the military one now, pretty nearly; and
+military men study the postures of the human body for the sake of
+finding the one most easy; for they wish to preserve as much as possible
+of the soldiers' strength for the time of battle. I should like to try
+the experiment of your standing thus at the next lesson. It is a very
+great improvement upon your common mode. Are you willing to do it?"
+
+"Yes, sir," say the boys.
+
+"You will get tired, I have no doubt; for the military position, though
+most convenient and easy in the end, is not to be learned and fixed in
+practice without effort. In fact, I do not expect you will succeed the
+first day very well. You will probably become restless and uneasy before
+the end of the lesson, especially the smaller boys. I must excuse it, I
+suppose, if you do, as it will be the first time."
+
+By such methods as these the teacher will certainly secure a majority in
+favor of all his plans. But perhaps some experienced teacher, who knows
+from his own repeated difficulties with bad boys what sort of spirits
+the teacher of district schools has sometimes to deal with, may ask, as
+he reads this,
+
+"Do you expect that such a method as this will succeed in keeping your
+school in order? Why there are boys in almost every school whom you
+would no more coax into obedience and order in this way than you would
+persuade the northeast wind to change its course by reasoning."
+
+I know there are. And my readers are requested to bear in mind that my
+object is not to show how the whole government of the school may be
+secured, but how one important advantage may be gained, which will
+assist in accomplishing the object. All I should expect or hope for, by
+such measures as these, is _to interest and gain over to our side the
+majority_. What is to be done with those who can not be reached by such
+kinds of influence I shall endeavor presently to show. The object now is
+simply to gain the _majority_--to awaken a general interest, which you
+can make effectual in promoting your plans, and thus to narrow the field
+of discipline by getting those right who can be got right by such
+measures.
+
+Thus securing a majority to be on your side in the general
+administration of the school is absolutely indispensable to success. A
+teacher may, indeed, by the force of mere authority, so control his
+pupils as to preserve order in the schoolroom, and secure a tolerable
+progress in study, but the progress will be slow, and the cultivation of
+moral principle must be, in such a case, entirely neglected. The
+principles of duty can not be inculcated by fear; and though pain and
+terror must in many instances be called in to coerce an individual
+offender, whom milder measures will not reach, yet these agents, and
+others like them, can never be successfully employed as the ordinary
+motives to action. They can not produce any thing but mere external and
+heartless obedience in the presence of the teacher, with an inclination
+to throw off all restraint when the pressure of stern authority is
+removed.
+
+We should all remember that our pupils are but for a very short time
+under our direct control. Even when they are in school the most untiring
+vigilance will not enable us to watch, except for a very small portion
+of the time, any one individual. Many hours of the day, too, they are
+entirely removed from our inspection, and a few months will take them
+away from us altogether. Subjecting them, then, to mere external
+restraint is a very inadequate remedy for the moral evil to which they
+are exposed. What we aim at is to bring forward and strengthen an
+internal principle which will act when both parent and teacher are away,
+and control where external circumstances are all unfavorable.
+
+I have thus far, under this head, been endeavoring to show the
+importance of securing, by gentle measures, a majority of the scholars
+to cooperate with the teacher in his plans. The particular methods of
+doing this demand a little attention.
+
+(1.) The teacher should study human nature as it exhibits itself in the
+school-room by taking an interest in the sports and enjoyments of the
+pupils, and connecting, as much as possible, what is interesting and
+agreeable with the pursuits of the school, so as to lead the scholars to
+like the place. An attachment to the institution, and to the duties of
+it, will give the teacher a very strong hold upon the community of mind
+which exists there.
+
+(2.) Every thing which is unpleasant in the discipline of the school
+should be attended to, as far as possible, privately. Sometimes it is
+necessary to bring a case forward in public for reproof or punishment,
+but this is seldom required. In some schools it is the custom to
+postpone cases of discipline till the close of the day, and then, just
+before the boys are dismissed at night, all the difficulties are
+settled. Thus, day after day, the impression which is last made upon
+their minds is received from a season of suffering, and terror, and
+tears.
+
+Now such a practice may be attended with many advantages, but it seems
+to be, on the whole, unwise. Awing the pupils, by showing them the
+painful consequences of doing wrong, should be very seldom resorted to.
+It is far better to allure them by showing them the pleasures of doing
+right. Doing right is pleasant to every body, and no persons are so
+easily convinced of this, or, rather, so easily led to see it, as
+children. Now the true policy is to let them experience the pleasure of
+doing their duty, and they will easily be allured to it.
+
+In many cases, where a fault has been publicly committed, it seems, at
+first view, to be necessary that it should be publicly punished; but the
+end will, in most cases, be answered if it is _noticed_ publicly, so
+that the pupils may know that it received attention, and then the
+ultimate disposal of the case may be made a private affair between the
+teacher and the individual concerned. If, however, every case of
+disobedience, or idleness, or disorder, is brought out publicly before
+the school, so that all witness the teacher's displeasure and feel the
+effects of it (for to witness it is to feel its most unpleasant
+effects), the school becomes, in a short time, hardened to such scenes.
+Unpleasant associations become connected with the management of the
+school, and the scholars are prepared to do wrong with less reluctance,
+since the consequence is only a repetition of what they are obliged to
+see every day.
+
+Besides, if a boy does something wrong, and you severely reprove him in
+the presence of his class, you punish the class almost as much as you do
+him. In fact, in many cases you punish them more; for I believe it is
+almost invariably more unpleasant for a good boy to stand by and listen
+to rebukes, than for a bad boy to take them. Keep these things,
+therefore, as much as possible out of sight. Never bring forward cases
+of discipline except on mature deliberation, and for a distinct and
+well-defined purpose.
+
+(3.) Never bring forward a case of discipline of this kind unless you
+are sure that public opinion will go in your favor. If a case comes up
+in which the sympathy of the scholars is excited for the criminal in
+such a way as to be against yourself, the punishment will always do more
+harm than good. Now this, unless there is great caution, will often
+happen. In fact, it is probable that a very large proportion of the
+punishments which are ordinarily inflicted in schools only prepare the
+way for more offenses.
+
+It is, however, possible to bring forward individual cases in such a way
+as to produce a very strong moral effect of the right kind. This is to
+be done by seizing upon those peculiar emergencies which will arise in
+the course of the administration of a school, and which each teacher
+must watch for and discover himself. They can not be pointed out. I may,
+however, give a clearer idea of what is meant by such emergencies by an
+example. It is a case which actually occurred as here narrated.
+
+In a school where nearly all the pupils were faithful and docile, there
+were one or two boys who were determined to find amusement in those
+mischievous tricks so common in schools and colleges. There was one boy,
+in particular, who was the life and soul of all these plans. Devoid of
+principle, idle as a scholar, morose and sullen in his manners, he was,
+in every respect, a true specimen of the whole class of mischief-makers,
+wherever they are to be found. His mischief consisted, as usual, in such
+exploits as stopping up the keyhole of the door, upsetting the teacher's
+inkstand, or fixing something to his desk to make a noise and interrupt
+the school.
+
+It so happened that there was a standing feud between the boys of his
+neighborhood and those of another situated a mile or two from it. By his
+malicious activity he had stimulated this quarrel to a high pitch, and
+was very obnoxious to the boys of the other party. One day, when taking
+a walk, the teacher observed a number of boys with excited looks, and
+armed with sticks and stones, standing around a shoemaker's shop, to
+which his poor pupil had gone for refuge from them. They had got him
+completely within their power, and were going to wait until he should be
+wearied with his confinement and come out, when they were going to
+inflict upon him the punishment they thought he deserved.
+
+The teacher interfered, and by the united influence of authority,
+management, and persuasion, succeeded in effecting a rescue. The boy
+would probably have preferred to owe his safety to any one else than to
+the teacher whom he had so often tried to tease, but he was glad to
+escape in any way. The teacher said nothing about the subject, and the
+boy soon supposed it was entirely forgotten.
+
+But it was not forgotten. The teacher knew perfectly well that the boy
+would before long be at his old tricks again, and was reserving this
+story as the means of turning the whole current of public opinion
+against such tricks, should they again occur.
+
+One day he came to school in the afternoon, and found the room filled
+with smoke; the doors and windows were all closed, though, as soon as he
+came in, some of the boys opened them. He knew by this circumstance that
+it was roguery, not accident, which caused the smoke. He appeared not to
+notice it, however, said he was sorry it smoked, and asked the
+mischievous boy--for he was sure to be always near in such a case--to
+assist him in putting up the wood of the fire more compactly. The boy
+supposed that the smoke was understood to be accidental, and perhaps
+secretly laughed at the dullness of his master.
+
+In the course of the afternoon, the teacher ascertained by private
+inquiries that his suspicions were correct as to the author of the
+mischief. At the close of school, when the studies were ended, and the
+books laid away, he said to the scholars that he wanted to tell them a
+story.
+
+He then, with a pleasant tone and manner, gave a very minute, and, to
+the boys, a very interesting narrative of his adventure two or three
+weeks before, when he rescued this boy from his danger. He called him,
+however, simply _a boy_, without mentioning his name, or even hinting
+that he was a member of the school. No narrative could excite a stronger
+interest among an audience of school-boys than such a one as this, and
+no act of kindness from a teacher would make as vivid an impression as
+interfering to rescue a trembling captive from such a situation as the
+one this boy had been in.
+
+The scholars listened with profound interest and attention, and though
+the teacher said little about his share in the affair, and spoke of what
+he did as if it were a matter of course that he should thus befriend a
+boy in distress, an impression very favorable to himself must have been
+made. After he had finished his narrative, he said,
+
+"Now should you like to know who this boy was?"
+
+"Yes, sir," "Yes, sir," said they, eagerly.
+
+"It was a boy that you all know."
+
+The boys looked around upon one another. Who could it be?
+
+"He is a member of this school."
+
+There was an expression of fixed, and eager, and increasing interest on
+every face in the room.
+
+"He is here now," said the teacher, winding up the interest and
+curiosity of the scholars, by these words, to the highest pitch.
+
+"But I can not tell you his name; for what return do you think he made
+to me? To be sure it was no very great favor that I did him; I should
+have been unworthy the name of teacher if I had not done it for him, or
+for any boy in my school. But, at any rate, it showed my good wishes for
+him; it showed that I was his friend; and what return do you think he
+made me for it? Why, to-day he spent his time between schools in filling
+the room with smoke, that he might torment his companions here, and give
+me trouble, and anxiety, and suffering when I should come. If I should
+tell you his name, the whole school would turn against him for his
+ingratitude."
+
+The business ended here, and it put a stop, a final stop, to all
+malicious tricks in the school. Now it is not very often that so fine an
+opportunity occurs to kill, by a single blow, the disposition to do
+willful, wanton injury, as this circumstance afforded; but the principle
+illustrated by it, bringing forward individual cases of transgression in
+a public manner, only for the sake of the general effect, and so
+arranging what is said and done as to produce the desired effect upon
+the public mind in the highest degree, may very frequently be acted
+upon. Cases are continually occurring, and if the teacher will keep it
+constantly in mind, that when a particular case comes before the whole
+school, the object is an influence upon the whole, and not the
+punishment or reform of the guilty individual, he will insensibly so
+shape his measures as to produce the desired result.
+
+(4.) There should be a great difference made between the _measures which
+you take_ to prevent wrong, and the _feelings of displeasure which you
+express_ against the wrong when it is done. The former should be strict,
+authoritative, unbending; the latter should be mild and gentle. Your
+measures, if uniform and systematic, will never give offense, however
+powerfully you may restrain and control those subject to them. It is the
+morose look, the harsh expression, the tone of irritation and
+fretfulness, which is so unpopular in school. The sins of childhood are
+by nine tenths of mankind enormously overrated, and perhaps none
+overrate them more extravagantly than teachers. We confound the trouble
+they give us with their real moral turpitude, and measure the one by the
+other. Now if a fault prevails in school, one teacher will scold and
+fret himself about it day after day, until his scholars are tired both
+of school and of him; and yet he will _do_ nothing effectual to remove
+it. Another will take efficient and decided measures, and yet say very
+little on the subject, and the whole evil will be removed without
+suspending for a moment the good-humor and pleasant feeling which should
+prevail in school.
+
+The expression of your displeasure on account of any thing that is wrong
+will seldom or never do any good. The scholars consider it scolding; it
+is scolding; and though it may, in many cases, contain many sound
+arguments and eloquent expostulations, it operates simply as a
+punishment. It is unpleasant to hear it. General instruction must indeed
+be given, but not general reproof.
+
+(5.) Feel that in the management of the school _you_ are under
+obligation as well as the scholars, and let this feeling appear in all
+that you do. Your scholars wish you to dismiss school earlier than usual
+on some particular occasion, or to allow them an extra holiday. Show by
+the manner in which you consider and speak of the question that your
+main inquiry is what is _your duty_. Speak often of your responsibility
+to your employers--not formally, but incidentally and naturally, as you
+will speak if you feel this responsibility.
+
+It will assist very much, too, in securing cheerful, good-humored
+obedience to the regulations of the school, if you extend their
+authority over yourself. Not that the teacher is to have no liberty from
+which the scholars are debarred; this would be impossible. But the
+teacher should submit, himself, to every thing which he requires of his
+scholars, unless it is in cases where a different course is necessary.
+
+Suppose, for instance, a study-card, like the one described in a
+preceding chapter, is made so as to mark the time of recess and of
+study. The teacher, near the close of recess, is sitting with a group of
+his pupils around him, telling them some story. They are all interested,
+and they see he is interested. He looks at his watch, and shows by his
+manner that he is desirous of finishing what he is saying, but that he
+knows that the striking of the bell will cut short his story. Perhaps
+he says not a word about it, but his pupils see that he is submitting to
+the control which is placed over them; and when the card goes up, and he
+stops instantly in the middle of his sentence and rises with the rest,
+each one to go to his own place, to engage at once in their several
+duties, he teaches them a most important lesson, and in the most
+effectual way. Such a lesson of fidelity and obedience, and such an
+example of it, will have more influence than half an hour's scolding
+about whispering without leave, or a dozen public punishments. At least
+so I found it, for I have tried both.
+
+Show then continually that you see and enjoy the beauty of system and
+strict discipline, and that you submit to law yourself as well as
+require submission of others.
+
+(6.) Lead your pupils to see that they must share with you the credit or
+the disgrace which success or failure in the management of the school
+may bring. Lead them to feel this, not by telling them so, for there are
+very few things which can be impressed upon children by direct efforts
+to impress them, but by so speaking of the subject, from time to time,
+as to lead them to see that you understand it so.
+
+Repeat, with judicious caution, what is said of the school, both for and
+against it, and thus endeavor to interest the scholars in its public
+reputation. This feeling of interest in the institution may very easily
+be awakened. It sometimes springs up spontaneously, and, where it is not
+guided aright by the teacher, sometimes produces very bad effects upon
+the minds of the pupils in rival institutions. When two schools are
+situated near each other, evil consequences will result from this
+feeling, unless the teacher manages it so as to deduce good
+consequences. I recollect that in my boyish days there was a standing
+quarrel between the boys of a town school and an academy which were in
+the same village. We were all ready at any time, when out of school, to
+fight for the honor of our respective institutions, each for his own,
+but very few were ready to be diligent and faithful when in it, though
+it would seem that that might have been rather a more effectual means of
+establishing the point. If the scholars are led to understand that the
+school is to a great extent their institution, that they must assist to
+sustain its character, and that they share the honor of its excellence,
+if any honor is acquired, a feeling will prevail in the school which may
+be turned to a most useful account.
+
+(7.) In giving instruction on moral duty, the subject should generally
+be taken up in reference to imaginary cases, or cases which are unknown
+to most of the scholars. If this is done, the pupils feel that the
+object of bringing up the subject is to do good; whereas, if questions
+of moral duty are only introduced from time to time, when some
+prevailing or accidental fault in school calls for reproof, the feeling
+will be that the teacher is only endeavoring to remove from his own path
+a source of inconvenience and trouble. The most successful mode of
+giving general moral instruction that I have known, and which has been
+adopted in many schools with occasional variations of form, is the
+following:
+
+When the time has arrived, a subject is assigned, and small papers are
+distributed to the whole school, that all may write something concerning
+it. These are then read and commented on by the teacher, and become the
+occasion of any remarks which he may wish to make. The interest of the
+pupils is strongly excited to hear the papers read, and the instruction
+which the teacher may give produces a deeper effect when ingrafted thus
+upon something which originates in the minds of the pupils.
+
+To take a particular case. A teacher addresses his scholars thus: "The
+subject for the moral exercise to-day is _Prejudice_. Each one may take
+one of the papers which have been distributed, and you may write upon
+them any thing you please relating to the subject. As many as have
+thought of any thing to write may raise their hands."
+
+One or two only of the older scholars gave the signal.
+
+"I will mention the kinds of communications you can make, and perhaps
+what I say will suggest something to you. As fast as you think of any
+thing, you may raise your hands, and as soon as I see a sufficient
+number up, I will give directions to begin.
+
+"You can describe any case in which you have been prejudiced yourselves
+either against persons or things."
+
+Here a number of the hands went up.
+
+"You can mention any facts relating to antipathies of any kind, or any
+cases where you know other persons to be prejudiced. You can ask any
+questions in regard to the subject--questions about the nature of
+prejudice, or the causes of it, or the remedy for it."
+
+As he said this, many hands were successively raised, and at last
+directions were given for all to begin to write. Five minutes were
+allowed, and at the end of that time the papers were collected and read.
+The following specimens, transcribed verbatim from the originals, with
+the remarks made as nearly as could be remembered immediately after the
+exercise, will give an idea of the ordinary operation of this plan.
+
+"I am very much prejudiced against spiders and every insect in the known
+world with scarcely an exception. There is a horrid sensation created by
+their ugly forms that makes me wish them all to Jericho. The butterfly's
+wings are pretty, but he is dreadful ugly. The is no affectation in this,
+for my pride will not permit me to show this prejudice to any great degree
+when I can help it. I do not fear the little wretches, but I do hate them.
+ANTI-SPIDER-SPARER."
+
+"This is not expressed very well; the phrases '_to Jericho?_' and
+'_dreadful ugly_' are vulgar, and not in good taste. Such a dislike,
+too, is more commonly called an antipathy than a prejudice, though
+perhaps it comes under the general head of prejudices."
+
+"How may we overcome prejudice? I think that when we are prejudiced
+against a person, it is the hardest thing in the world to overcome it."
+
+A prejudice is usually founded on some unpleasant association
+connected with the subject of it. The best way to overcome the
+prejudice, therefore, is to connect some pleasant association with it.
+
+For example (to take the case of the antipathy to the spider, alluded
+to in the last article), the reason why that young lady dislikes spiders
+is undoubtedly because she has some unpleasant idea associated with the
+thought of that animal, perhaps, for example, the idea of their crawling
+upon her, which is certainly not a very pleasant one for any body. Now
+the way to correct such a prejudice is to try to connect some pleasant
+thoughts with the sight of the animal.
+
+I once found a spider in an empty apartment hanging in its web on the
+wall, with a large ball of eggs which it had suspended by its side. My
+companion and myself cautiously brought up a tumbler under the web, and
+pressed it suddenly against the wall, so as to inclose both spider and
+eggs within it. We then contrived to run in a pair of shears, so as to
+cut off the web, and let both the animal and its treasure fall down into
+the tumbler. We put a book over the top, and walked off with our prize
+to a table to see what the spider would do.
+
+At first it tried to climb up the side of the tumbler, but its feet
+slipped on account of the smoothness of the glass. We then inclined the
+glass so as to favor its climbing, and to enable it to reach the book at
+the top. As soon as it touched the book, it was safe. It could cling to
+the book easily, and we placed the tumbler again upright to watch its
+motions.
+
+It attached a thread to the book, and let itself down by it to the
+bottom of the tumbler, and walked round and round the ball of eggs,
+apparently in great trouble. Presently it ascended by its thread, and
+then came down again. It attached a new thread to the ball, and then
+went up, drawing the ball with it. It hung the ball at a proper distance
+from the book, and bound it firmly in its place by threads running from
+it in every direction to the parts of the book which were near, and then
+the animal took its place quietly by its side.
+
+Now I do not say that if any body had a strong antipathy to a spider,
+seeing one perform such a work as this would entirely remove it, but it
+would certainly soften it. It would _tend_ to remove it. It would
+connect an interesting and pleasant association with the object. So if
+she should watch a spider in the fields making his web. You have all
+seen those beautiful regular webs in the morning dew ("Yes, sir;" "Yes,
+sir"), composed of concentric circles, and radii diverging in every
+direction. ("Yes, sir.") Well, watch a spider when making one of these,
+or observe his artful ingenuity and vigilance when he is lying in wait
+for a fly. By thus connecting pleasant ideas with the sight of the
+animal, you will destroy the unpleasant association which constitutes
+the prejudice. In the same manner, if I wished to create an antipathy to
+a spider in a child, it would be very easily done. I would tie her hands
+behind her, and put three or four upon her to crawl over her face.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+"Thus you must destroy prejudices in all cases by connecting pleasant
+thoughts and associations with the objects of them."
+
+"I am very often prejudiced against new scholars without knowing why."
+
+"We sometimes hear a person talk in this way: 'I do not like such or
+such a person at all.'
+
+"'Why?'
+
+"'Oh, I don't know; I do not like her at all. I can't bear her.'
+
+"'But why not? What is your objection to her?'
+
+"'Oh, I don't know; I have not any particular reason, but I never did
+like her.'
+
+"Now, whenever you hear any person talk so, you may be sure that her
+opinion on any subject is worth nothing at all. She forms opinions in
+one case without grounds, and it depends merely upon accident whether
+she does or not in other cases."
+
+"Why is it that so many of our countrymen _are_, or seem to be,
+prejudiced against the unfortunate children of Africa? Almost every _large
+white_ boy who meets a _small black_ boy insults him in some way or other."
+
+"It is so hard to _overcome_ prejudices, that we ought to be careful how
+we _form_ them."
+
+"When I see a new scholar enter this school, and she does not happen to
+suit me exactly in her ways and manners, I very often get prejudiced
+against her; though sometimes I find her a valuable friend after I get
+acquainted with her."
+
+
+"There is an inquiry I should like very much to make, though I suppose
+it would not be quite right to make it. I should like to ask all those
+who have some particular friend in school, and who can recollect the
+impression which the individual made upon them when they first saw her,
+to rise, and then I should like to inquire in how many cases the first
+impression was favorable, and in how many unfavorable."
+
+"Yes, sir;" "Yes, sir."
+
+"Do you mean you would like to have the inquiry made?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"All, then, who have intimate friends, and can recollect the impression
+which they first made upon them, may rise."
+
+[About thirty rose; more than two thirds of whom voted that the first
+impression made by the persons who had since become their particular
+friends was unfavorable.]
+
+"This shows how much dependence you can justly place on first
+impressions."
+
+"It was the next Monday morning after I had attained the wise age
+of four years that I was called up into my mother's room, and told that
+I was the next day going to school.
+
+"I called forth all my reasoning powers, and with all the ability of a
+child of four years, I reasoned with my mother, but to no purpose. I
+told her that I _hated_ the school-mistress then, though I had never
+seen her. The very first day I tottered under the weight of the mighty
+fool's-cap. I only attended her school two quarters; with prejudice I
+went, and with prejudice I came away.
+
+"The old school-house is now torn down, and a large brick house takes
+the place of it. But I never pass by without remembering my teacher. I
+am prejudiced to [against] the very spot."
+
+"Is it not right to allow prejudice to have influence over our minds as
+far as this? If any thing comes to our knowledge with which wrong
+_seems_ to be connected, and one in whom we have always felt confidence
+is engaged in it, is it not right to allow our prejudice in favor of
+this individual to have so much influence over us as to cause us to
+believe that all is really right, though every circumstance which has
+come to our knowledge is against such a conclusion? I felt this
+influence, not many weeks since, in a very great degree."
+
+
+"The disposition to judge favorably of a fraud in such a case would not
+be prejudice; or, at least, if it were so, it would not be a sufficient
+ground to justify us in withholding blame. Well-grounded confidence in
+such a person, if there was reason for it, ought to have such an effect,
+but not prejudice."
+
+
+The above may be considered as a fair specimen of the ordinary
+operation of such an exercise. It is taken as an illustration, not by
+selection, from the large number of similar exercises which I have
+witnessed, but simply because it was an exercise occurring at the time
+when a description was to be written. Besides the articles quoted above,
+there were thirty or forty others which were read and commented on. The
+above will, however, be sufficient to give the reader a clear idea of
+the exercise, and to show what is the nature of the moral effect it is
+calculated to produce.
+
+The subjects which may be advantageously brought forward in such a way
+are, of course, very numerous. They are such as the following:
+
+1. DUTIES TO PARENTS.--Anecdotes of good or bad conduct at home.
+Questions. Cases where it is most difficult to obey. Dialogues between
+parents and children. Excuses which are often made for disobedience.
+
+2. SELFISHNESS.--Cases of selfishness any of the pupils have observed.
+Dialogues they have heard exhibiting it. Questions about its nature.
+Indications of selfishness.
+
+3. FAULTS OF THE SCHOOL.--Any bad practices the scholars may have
+observed in regard to general deportment, recitations, habits of study,
+or the scholars' treatment of one another. Each scholar may write what
+is his own greatest trouble in school, and whether he thinks any thing
+can be done to remove it. Any thing they think can be improved in the
+management of the school by the teacher. Unfavorable things they have
+heard said about it out of school, though without names.
+
+4. EXCELLENCES OF THE SCHOOL.--Good practices which ought to be
+persevered in. Any little incidents the scholars may have noticed
+illustrating good character. Cases which have occurred in which scholars
+have done right in temptation, or when others around were doing wrong.
+Favorable reports in regard to the school in the community around.
+
+5. THE SABBATH.--Any thing the scholars may have known to be done on the
+Sabbath which they doubt whether right or wrong. Questions in regard to
+the subject. Various opinions they have heard expressed. Difficulties
+they have in regard to proper ways of spending the Sabbath.
+
+
+(8.) We have one other method to describe by which a favorable moral
+influence may be exerted in school. The method can, however, go into
+full effect only where there are several pupils who have made
+considerable advances in mental cultivation.
+
+It is to provide a way by which teachers and pupils may write
+anonymously for the school. This may be done by having a place of
+deposit for such articles as may be written, where any person may leave
+what he wishes to have read, nominating by a memorandum upon the article
+itself the reader. If a proper feeling on the subject of good discipline
+and the formation of good character prevails in school, many articles,
+which will have a great deal of effect upon the pupils, will find their
+way through such an avenue once opened. The teacher can himself often
+bring forward in this way his suggestions with more effect than he
+otherwise could do. Such a plan is, in fact, like the plan of a
+newspaper for an ordinary community, where sentiments and opinions stand
+on their own basis, and influence the community just in proportion to
+their intrinsic merits, unassisted by the authority of the writer's
+name, and unimpeded by any prejudice which may exist against him.
+
+The following articles, which were really offered for such a purpose in
+the Mount Vernon school, will serve as specimens to illustrate the
+actual operation of the plan. One or two of them were written by
+teachers. I do not know the authors of the others. I do not offer them
+as remarkable compositions: every teacher will see that they are not so.
+The design of inserting them is merely to show that the ordinary
+literary ability to be found in every school may be turned to useful
+account by simply opening a channel for it, and to furnish such teachers
+as may be inclined to try the experiment the means of making the plan
+clearly understood by their pupils.
+
+
+MARKS OF A BAD SCHOLAR.
+
+"At the time when she should be ready to take her seat at school, she
+commences preparation for leaving home. To the extreme annoyance of
+those about her, all is now hurry, and bustle, and ill-humor. Thorough
+search is to be made for every book or paper for which she has occasion;
+some are found in one place, some in another, and others are forgotten
+altogether. Being finally equipped, she casts her eye at the clock,
+hopes to be in tolerable good season (notwithstanding that the hour for
+opening the school has already arrived), and sets out in the most
+violent hurry.
+
+"After so much haste, she is unfitted for attending properly to the
+duties of the school until a considerable time after her arrival. If
+present at the devotional exercises, she finds it difficult to command
+her attention even when desirous of so doing, and her deportment at this
+hour is, accordingly, marked with an unbecoming listlessness and
+abstraction.
+
+"When called to recitations, she recollects that some task was assigned,
+which, till that moment, she had forgotten; of others she had mistaken
+the extent, most commonly thinking them to be shorter than her
+companions suppose. In her answers to questions with which she should be
+familiar, she always manifests more or less of hesitation, and what she
+ventures to express is very commonly in the form of a question. In
+these, as in all exercises, there is an inattention to general
+instructions. Unless what is said be addressed particularly to herself,
+her eyes are directed toward another part of the room; it may be, her
+thoughts are employed about something not at all connected with the
+school. If reproved by her teacher for negligence in any respects, she
+is generally provided with an abundance of excuses, and however mild the
+reproof, she receives it as a piece of extreme severity.
+
+"Throughout her whole deportment there is an air of indolence and a want
+of interest in those exercises which should engage her attention. In her
+seat, she most commonly sits in some lazy posture--either with her
+elbows upon her desk, her head leaning upon her hands, or with her seat
+tipped forward or backward. When she has occasion to leave her seat, it
+is in a sauntering, lingering gait--perhaps some trick is contrived on
+the way for exciting the mirth of her companions.
+
+"About every thing in which it is possible to be so, she is untidy. Her
+books are carelessly used, and placed in her desk without order. If she
+has a piece of waste paper to dispose of, she finds it much more
+convenient to tear it into small pieces and scatter it about her desk,
+than to put it in a proper place. Her hands and clothes are usually
+covered with ink. Her written exercises are blotted and full of
+mistakes."
+
+
+
+THE CONSEQUENCES OF BEING BEHINDHAND.
+
+
+"The following incident, which I witnessed on a late journey,
+illustrates an important principle, and I will relate it.
+
+"When our steam-boat started from the wharf, all our passengers had not
+come. After we had proceeded a few yards, there appeared among the crowd
+on the wharf a man with his trunk under his arm, out of breath, and with
+a most disappointed and disconsolate air. The captain determined to stop
+for him; but stopping an immense steam-boat, moving swiftly through the
+water, is not to be done in a moment; so we took a grand sweep, wheeling
+majestically around an English ship which was at anchor in the harbor.
+As we came toward the wharf again, we saw the man in a small boat coming
+off from it. As the steam-boat swept round, they barely succeeded in
+catching a rope from the stern, and then immediately the steam-engine
+began its work again, and we pressed forward, the little boat following
+us so swiftly that the water around her was all in a foam.
+
+"They pulled upon the rope attached to the little boat until they drew
+it alongside. They then let down a rope, with a hook in the end of it,
+from an iron crane which projected over the side of the steam-boat, and
+hooked it into a staple in the front of the small boat. '_Hoist away_!'
+said the captain. The sailors hoisted, and the front part of the little
+boat began to rise, the stern plowing and foaming through the water,
+and the man still in it, with his trunk under his arm. They 'hoisted
+away' until I began to think that the poor man would actually tumble out
+behind. He clung to the seat, and looked as though he was saying to
+himself, 'I will take care how I am tardy the next time.' However, after
+a while, they hoisted up the stern of the boat, and he got safely on
+board.
+
+"_Moral_--Though coming to school a few minutes earlier or later may not
+in itself be a matter of much consequence, yet the habit of being five
+minutes too late, if once formed, will, in actual life, be a source of
+great inconvenience, and sometimes of lasting injury."
+
+NEW SCHOLARS.
+
+There is at ------ a young ladies' school, taught by Mr. ------.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"But, with all these excellences, there is one fault, which I considered
+a great one, and which does not comport with the general character of
+the school for kindness and good feeling. It is the little effort made
+by the scholars to become acquainted with the new ones who enter.
+Whoever goes there must push herself forward, or she will never feel at
+home. The young ladies seem to forget that the new-comer must feel
+rather unpleasantly in the midst of a hundred persons to whom she is
+wholly a stranger, and with no one to speak to. Two or three will stand
+together, and instead of deciding upon some plan by which the individual
+may be made to feel at ease, something like the following conversation
+takes place:
+
+"_Miss X._ How do you like the looks of Miss A., who entered school
+to-day?
+
+"_Miss Y._ I don't think she is very pretty, but she looks as if she
+might be a good scholar.
+
+"_Miss X._ She does not strike me very pleasantly. Did you ever see
+such a face? And her complexion is so dark, I should think she had
+always lived in the open air; and what a queer voice she has!
+
+"_Miss Y._ I wonder if she has a taste for Arithmetic?
+
+"_Miss X._ She does not look as if she had much taste for any thing. See
+how strangely she arranges her hair!
+
+"_Miss S._ Whether she has much taste or not, some one of us ought to go
+and get acquainted with her. See how unpleasantly she feels!
+
+"_Miss X._ I don't want to get acquainted with her until I know whether
+I shall like her or not.
+
+"Thus nothing is done to relieve her. When she does become acquainted,
+all her first strange appearance is forgotten; but this is sometimes not
+the case for several weeks. It depends entirely on the character of the
+individual herself. If she is forward, and willing to make the necessary
+effort, she can find many friends; but if she is diffident, she has much
+to suffer. This arises principally from thoughtlessness. The young
+ladies do not seem to realize that there is any thing for them to do.
+They feel enough at home themselves, and the remembrance of the time
+when they entered school does not seem to arise in their minds."
+
+
+A SATIRICAL SPIRIT.
+
+I witnessed, a short time since, a meeting between two friends, who had
+had but little intercourse before for a long while. I thought a part of
+their conversation might be useful, and I shall therefore relate it, as
+nearly as I can recollect, leaving each individual to draw her own
+inferences.
+
+For some time I sat silent, but not uninterested, while the days of
+'Auld Lang Syne' came up to the remembrance of the two friends. After
+speaking of several individuals who were among their former
+acquaintances, one asked, 'Do you remember Miss W.? 'Yes,' replied the
+former, I remember her as the fear, terror, and abhorrence of all who
+knew her.' _I_ knew the lady by report, and asked why she was so
+regarded. The reply was, 'Because she was so severe, so satirical in her
+remarks upon others. She spared neither friend nor foe.'
+
+
+"The friends resumed their conversation. 'Did you know,' said the one
+who had first spoken of Miss W., 'that she sometimes had seasons of
+bitter repentance for indulging in this unhappy propensity of hers? She
+would, at such times, resolve to be more on her guard, but, after all
+her good resolutions, she would yield to the slightest temptations. When
+she was expressing, and apparently really _feeling_ sorrow for having
+wounded the feelings of others, those who knew her would not venture to
+express any sympathy, for, very likely, the next moment _that_ would be
+turned into ridicule. No confidence could be placed in her.'
+
+"A few more facts will be stated respecting the same individual, which I
+believe are strictly true. Miss W. possessed a fine and well-cultivated
+mind, great penetration, and a tact at discriminating character rarely
+equaled. She could, if she chose, impart a charm to her conversation
+that would interest and even fascinate those who listened to it; still,
+she was not beloved. Weaknesses and foibles met with unmerciful
+severity, and well-meaning intentions and kind actions did not always
+escape without the keen sarcasm which it is so difficult for the best
+regulated mind to bear unmoved. The mild and gentle seemed to shrink
+from her; and thus she, who might have been the bright and beloved
+ornament of the circle in which she moved, was regarded with distrust,
+fear, and even hatred. This dangerous habit of making satirical remarks
+was evinced in childhood; it was cherished; it 'grew with her growth,
+and strengthened with her strength,' until she became what I have
+described.
+LAURA."
+
+Though such a satirical spirit is justly condemned, a little
+good-humored raillery may sometimes be allowed as a mode of attacking
+faults in school which can not be reached by graver methods. The teacher
+must not be surprised if some things connected with his own
+administration come in sometimes for a share.
+
+VARIETY.
+
+"I was walking out a few days since, and not being particularly in
+haste, I concluded to visit a certain school for an hour or two. In a
+few minutes after I had seated myself on the sofa, the '_Study Card_'
+was dropped, and the general noise and confusion indicated that recess
+had arrived. A line of military characters, bearing the title of the
+'Freedom's Band,' was soon called out, headed by one of their own
+number. The tune chosen to guide them was Kendall's March.
+
+"'Please to form a regular line,' said the lady commander. 'Remember
+that there is to be no speaking in the ranks. Do not begin to step until
+I strike the bell. Miss B., I requested you not to step until I gave the
+signal.'
+
+"Presently the command was given, and the whole line _stepped_ for a few
+minutes to all intents and purposes. Again the bell sounded. 'Some of
+you have lost the step,' said the general. 'Look at me, and begin again.
+Left! right! left! right!' The line was once more in order, and I
+observed a new army on the opposite side of the room, performing the
+same manoeuvres, always to the tune of 'Kendall's March.' After a time
+the recess closed, and order was again restored. In about half an hour I
+approached a class which was reciting behind the railing. 'Miss A.,'
+said a teacher, 'how many kinds of magnitude are there?' _Miss A._
+(Answer inaudible.) _Several voices._ 'We can't hear.' _Teacher._ 'Will
+you try to speak a little louder, Miss A.?"
+
+"Some of the class at length seemed _to guess_ the meaning of the young
+lady, but _I_ was unable to do even that until the answer was repeated
+by the teacher. Finding that I should derive little instruction from
+the recitation, I returned to the sofa.
+
+"In a short time the _propositions_ were read. 'Proposed, that the
+committee be impeached for not providing suitable pens.' 'Lost, a
+pencil, with a piece of India-rubber attached to it by a blue ribbon,'
+&c., &c.
+
+"Recess was again announced, and the lines commenced their evolutions to
+the tune of 'Kendall's March.' Thought I, 'Oh that there were a new tune
+under the sun!'
+
+"Before the close of school some compositions were read. One was
+entitled 'The Magic King,' and commenced, 'As I was sitting alone last
+evening, I heard a gentle tap on the door, and immediately a beautiful
+fairy appeared before me. She placed a ring on my finger, and left me.'
+The next began, 'It is my week to write composition, but I do not know
+what to say. However, I must write something, so it shall be a
+dialogue.' Another was entitled the 'Magical Shoe,' and contained a
+marvelous narration of adventures made in a pair of shoes more valuable
+than the far-famed 'seven-league boots.' A fourth began, 'Are you
+acquainted with that new scholar?' 'No; but I don't believe I shall like
+her.' And soon the 'Magical Thimble,' the 'Magical Eye-glass,' &c., were
+read in succession, until I could not but exclaim, 'How pleasing is
+variety!' School was at length closed, and the young ladies again
+attacked the piano. 'Oh,' repeated I to myself, '_how pleasing is
+variety!_ as I left the room to the tune of Kendall's March."
+
+By means like these, and others similar to them, it will not be
+difficult for any teacher to obtain so far an ascendency over the minds
+of his pupils as to secure an overwhelming majority in favor of good
+order and co-operation with him in his plans for elevating the character
+of the school. But let it be distinctly understood that this, and this
+only, has been the object of this chapter thus far. The first point
+brought up was the desirableness of making at first a favorable
+impression; the second, the necessity of taking general views of the
+condition of the school, and aiming to improve it in the mass, and not
+merely to rebuke or punish accidental faults; and the third, the
+importance and the means of gaining a general influence and ascendency
+over the minds of the pupils. But, though an overwhelming majority can
+be reached by such methods as these, all can not. We must have the
+majority secured, however, in order to enable us to reach and to reduce
+the others. But to this work we must come at last.
+
+4. I am, therefore, now to consider, under a fourth general head, what
+course is to be taken with _individual_ offenders whom the general
+influences of the school-room will not control.
+
+The teacher must always expect that there will be such cases. They are
+always to be found in the best and most skillfully-managed schools. The
+following suggestions will perhaps assist the teacher in dealing with
+them.
+
+(1.) The first point to be attended to is to ascertain who they are. Not
+by appearing suspiciously to watch any individuals, for this would be
+almost sufficient to make them bad, if they were not so before. Observe,
+however; notice, from day to day, the conduct of individuals, not for
+the purpose of reproving or punishing their faults, but to enable you to
+understand their characters. This work will often require great
+adroitness and very close scrutiny, and you will find, as the results of
+it, a considerable variety of character, which the general influences
+above described will not be sufficient to control. The number of
+individuals will not be great, but the diversity of character comprised
+in it will be such as to call into exercise all your powers of vigilance
+and discrimination. On one seat you will find a coarse, rough-looking
+boy, who openly disobeys your commands and opposes your wishes while in
+school, and makes himself a continual source of trouble and annoyance
+during play-hours by bullying and hectoring every gentle and timid
+schoolmate. On another sits a more sly rogue, whose demure and
+submissive look is assumed to conceal a mischief-making disposition.
+Here is one whose giddy spirit is always leading him into difficulty,
+but who is of so open and frank a disposition that you will most easily
+lead him back to duty; but there is another who, when reproved, will fly
+into a passion; and then a third, who will stand sullen and silent
+before you when he has done wrong, and is not to be touched by kindness
+nor awed by authority.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Now all these characters must be studied. It is true that the caution
+given in a preceding part of this chapter, against devoting undue and
+disproportionate attention to such persons, must not be forgotten.
+Still, these individuals will require, and it is right that they should
+receive, a far greater degree of attention, so far as the moral
+administration of the school is concerned, than their mere numbers would
+appear to justify. This is the field in which the teacher is to study
+human nature, for here it shows itself without disguise. It is through
+this class, too, that a very powerful moral influence is to be exerted
+upon the rest of the school. The manner in which such individuals are
+managed, the tone the teacher assumes toward them, the gentleness with
+which he speaks of their faults, and the unbending decision with which
+he restrains them from wrong, will have a most powerful effect upon the
+rest of the school. That he may occupy this field, therefore, to the
+best advantage, it is necessary that he should first thoroughly explore
+it.
+
+By understanding the dispositions and characters of such a class of
+pupils as I have described, I do not mean merely watching them with
+vigilance in school, so that none of their transgressions shall go
+unobserved and unpunished. I intend a far deeper and more thorough
+examination of character. Every boy has something or other which is good
+in his disposition and character which he is aware of, and on which he
+prides himself; find out what it is, for it may often be made the
+foundation on which you may build the superstructure of reform. Every
+one has his peculiar sources of enjoyment and objects of pursuit, which
+are before his mind from day to day. Find out what they are, that by
+taking an interest in what interests him, and perhaps sometimes
+assisting him in his plans, you can bind him to you. Every boy is, from
+the circumstances in which he is placed at home, exposed to temptations
+which have perhaps had far greater influence in the formation of his
+character than any deliberate and intentional depravity of his own;
+ascertain what these temptations are, that you may know where to pity
+him and where to blame. The knowledge which such an examination of
+character will give you, will not be confined to making you acquainted
+with the individual. It will be the most valuable knowledge which a man
+can possess, both to assist him in the general administration of the
+school and in his intercourse among mankind in the business of life. Men
+are but boys, only with somewhat loftier objects of pursuit. Their
+principles, motives, and ruling passions are essentially the same.
+Extended commercial speculations are, so far as the human heart is
+concerned, substantially what trading in jack-knives and toys is at
+school, and building a snow fort, to its own architects, the same as
+erecting a monument of marble.
+
+(2.) After exploring the ground, the first thing to be done as a
+preparation for reforming individual character in school is to secure
+the personal attachment of the individuals to be reformed. This must not
+be attempted by professions and affected smiles, and still less by that
+sort of obsequiousness, common in such cases, which produces no effect
+but to make the bad boy suppose that his teacher is afraid of him;
+which, by the way, is, in fact, in such cases, usually true. Approach
+the pupil in a bold and manly, but frank and pleasant manner. Approach
+him as his superior, but still as his friend; desirous to make him
+happy, not merely to obtain his good-will. And the best way to secure
+these appearances is just to secure the reality. Actually be the boy's
+friend. Really desire to make him happy--happy, too, in his own way, not
+in yours. Feel that you are his superior, and that you must and will
+enforce obedience; but with this, feel that probably obedience will be
+rendered without any contest. If these are really the feelings which
+reign within you, the boy will see it, and they will exert a strong
+influence over him; but you can not counterfeit appearances.
+
+A most effectual way to secure the good-will of a scholar is to ask him
+to assist you. The Creator has so formed the human heart that doing good
+must be a source of pleasure, and he who tastes this pleasure once will
+almost always wish to taste it again. To do good to any individual
+creates or increases the desire to do it.
+
+There is a boy in your school who is famous for his skill in making
+whistles from the green branches of the poplar. He is a bad boy, and
+likes to turn his ingenuity to purposes of mischief. You observe him
+some day in school, when he thinks your attention is engaged in another
+way, blowing softly upon one which he has concealed in his desk for the
+purpose of amusing his neighbors without attracting the attention of the
+teacher. Now there are two remedies. Will you try the physical one? Then
+call him out into the floor, inflict painful punishment, and send him
+smarting to his seat, with his heart full of anger and revenge, to plot
+some new and less dangerous scheme of annoyance. Will you try the moral
+one? Then wait till the recess, and while he is out at his play, send a
+message out by another boy, saying that you have heard he is very
+skillful in making whistles, and asking him to make one for you to carry
+home to a little child at your boarding-house. What would, in ordinary
+cases, be the effect? It would certainly be a very simple application,
+but its effect would be to open an entirely new train of thought and
+feeling for the boy. "What!" he would say to himself, while at work on
+his task, "give the master _pleasure_ by making whistles! Who would have
+conceived of it? I never thought of any thing but giving him trouble and
+pain. I wonder who told him I could make whistles?" He would find, too,
+that the new enjoyment was far higher and purer than the old, and would
+have little disposition to return to the latter.
+
+I do not mean by this illustration that such a measure as this would be
+the only notice that ought to be taken of such an act of willful
+disturbance in school. Probably it would not. What measures in direct
+reference to the fault committed would be necessary would depend upon
+the circumstances of the case. It is not necessary to our purpose that
+they should be described here.
+
+The teacher can awaken in the hearts of his pupils a personal attachment
+for him by asking in various ways their assistance in school, and then
+appearing honestly gratified with the assistance rendered. Boys and
+girls are delighted to have what powers and attainments they possess
+brought out into action, especially where they can lead to useful
+results. They love to be of some consequence in the world, and will be
+especially gratified to be able to assist their teacher. Even if the
+studies of a turbulent boy are occasionally interrupted for half an
+hour, that he might help you arrange papers, or rule books, or
+distribute exercises, it will be time well spent. Get him to co-operate
+with you in any thing, and he will feel how much more pleasant it is to
+co-operate than to thwart and oppose; and, by judicious measures of this
+kind, almost any boy may be brought over to your side.
+
+Another means of securing the personal attachment of boys is to notice
+them, to take an interest in their pursuits, and the qualities and
+powers which they value in one another. It is astonishing what an
+influence is exerted by such little circumstances as stopping at a
+play-ground a moment to notice with interest, though perhaps without
+saying a word, speed of running, or exactness of aim, the force with
+which a ball is struck, or the dexterity with which it is caught or
+thrown. The teacher must, indeed, in all his intercourse with his
+pupils, never forget his station, nor allow them to lay aside the
+respect, without which authority can not be maintained. But he may be,
+notwithstanding this, on the most intimate and familiar footing with
+them all. He may take a strong and open interest in all their
+enjoyments, and thus awaken on their part a personal attachment to
+himself, which will exert over them a constant and powerful control.
+
+(3.) The efforts described under the last head for gaining a personal
+influence over those who, from their disposition and character, are most
+in danger of doing wrong, will not be sufficient entirely to prevent
+transgression. Cases of deliberate, intentional wrong will occur, and
+the question will rise, What is the duty of the teacher in such an
+emergency? When such cases occur, the course to be taken is, first of
+all, to come to a distinct understanding on the subject with the guilty
+individual. Think of the case calmly, until you have obtained just and
+clear ideas of it. Endeavor to understand precisely in what the guilt of
+it consists. Notice every palliating circumstance, and take as favorable
+a view of the thing as you can, while, at the same time, you fix most
+firmly in your mind the determination to put a stop to it. Then go to
+the individual, and lay the subject before him, for the purpose of
+understanding distinctly from his own lips what he intends to do. I can,
+however, as usual, explain more fully what I mean by describing a
+particular case, substantially true.
+
+The teacher of a school observed himself, and learned from several
+quarters, that a certain boy was in the habit of causing disturbance
+during time of prayer, at the opening and close of school, by
+whispering, playing, making gestures to the other boys, and throwing
+things about from seat to seat. The teacher's first step was to speak of
+the subject generally before the whole school, not alluding, however, to
+any particular instance which had come under his notice. These general
+remarks produced, as he expected, but little effect.
+
+He waited for some days, and the difficulty still continued. Had the
+irregularity been very great, it would have been necessary to have taken
+more immediate measures, but he thought the case admitted of a little
+delay. In the mean time, he took pains to cultivate the acquaintance of
+the boy, to discover, and to show that he noticed, what was good in his
+character and conduct, occasionally to ask some assistance from him, and
+thus to gain some personal ascendency over him.
+
+One day, when every thing had gone smoothly and prosperously, the
+teacher told the boy, at the close of the school, that he wished to talk
+with him a little, and asked him to walk home with him. It was not
+uncommon for the teacher to associate thus with his pupils out of
+school, and this request, accordingly, attracted no special attention.
+On the walk the teacher thus accosted the criminal:
+
+"Do you like frank, open dealing, James?"
+
+James hesitated a moment, and then answered, faintly,
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"Most boys do, and I do, and I supposed that you would prefer being
+treated in that way. Do you?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"Well, I am going to tell you of one of your faults. I have asked you to
+walk with me, because I supposed it would be more agreeable for you to
+have me see you privately than to bring it up in school."
+
+James said it would be more agreeable.
+
+"Well, the fault is being disorderly at prayer-time. Now, if you like
+frank and open dealing, and are willing to deal so with me, I should
+like to talk with you a little about it, but if you are not willing, I
+will dismiss the subject. I do not wish to talk with you now about it
+unless you yourself desire it; but if we talk at all, we must both be
+open, and honest, and sincere. Now, should you rather have me talk with
+you or not?"
+
+"Yes, sir, I should rather have you talk with me now than in school."
+
+The teacher then described his conduct in a mild manner, using the style
+of simple narration, admitting no harsh epithets, no terms of reproach.
+The boy was surprised, for he supposed that he had not been noticed. He
+thought, perhaps, that he should have been punished if he had been
+observed. The teacher said, in conclusion,
+
+"Now, James, I do not suppose you have done this from any designed
+irreverence toward God, or deliberate intention of giving me trouble and
+pain. You have several times lately assisted me in various ways, and I
+know, from the cheerful manner with which you comply with my wishes,
+that your prevailing desire is to give me pleasure, not pain. You have
+fallen into this practice through thoughtlessness, but that does not
+alter the character of the sin. To do so is a great sin against God, and
+a great offense against good order in school. You see, yourself, that my
+duty to the school will require me to adopt the most decided measures to
+prevent the continuance and the spread of such a practice. I should be
+imperiously bound to do it, even if the individual was the very best
+friend I had in school, and if the measures necessary should bring upon
+him great disgrace and suffering. Do you not think it would be so?"
+
+"Yes, sir," said James, seriously, "I suppose it would."
+
+"I wish to remove the evil, however, in the pleasantest way. Do you
+remember my speaking on this subject in school the other day?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"Well, my object in what I said then was almost entirely to persuade you
+to reform without having to speak to you directly. I thought it would be
+pleasanter to you to be reminded of your duty in that way. But I do not
+think it did you much good. Did it?"
+
+"I don't think I have played _so much_ since then."
+
+"Nor I. You have improved a little, but you have not decidedly and
+thoroughly reformed. So I was obliged to take the next step which would
+be least unpleasant to you, that is, talking with you alone. Now you
+told me when we began that you would deal honestly and sincerely with
+me, if I would with you. I have been honest and open. I have told you
+all about it so far as I am concerned. Now I wish you to be honest, and
+tell me what you are going to do. If you think, from this conversation,
+that you have done wrong, and if you are fully determined to do so no
+more, and to break off at once, and forever, from this practice, I
+should like to have you tell me, and then the whole thing will be
+settled. On the other hand, if you feel about it pretty much as you have
+done, I should like to have you tell me that too, honestly and frankly,
+that we may have a distinct understanding, and that I may be considering
+what to do next. I shall not be offended with you for giving me either
+of these answers, but be sure that you are honest; you promised to be
+so."
+
+The boy looked up in his master's face, and said, with great
+earnestness,
+
+"Mr T. I _will_ do better. I _will not_ trouble you any more."
+
+I have detailed this case thus particularly because it exhibits clearly
+what I mean by going directly and frankly to the individual, and coming
+at once to a full understanding. In nine cases out of ten this course
+will be effectual. For four years, with a very large school, I found
+this sufficient in every case of discipline which occurred, except in
+three or four instances, where something more was required. To make it
+successful, however, the work must be done properly. Several things are
+necessary. It must be deliberate; generally better after a little delay.
+It must be indulgent, so far as the view which the teacher takes of the
+guilt of the pupil is concerned; every palliating consideration must be
+felt. It must be firm and decided in regard to the necessity of a
+change, and the determination of the teacher to effect it. It must also
+be open and frank; no insinuations, no hints, no surmises, but plain,
+honest, open dealing.
+
+In many cases the communication may be made most delicately and most
+successfully in writing. The more delicately you touch the feelings of
+your pupils, the more tender these feelings will become. Many a teacher
+hardens and stupefies the moral sense of his pupils by the harsh and
+rough exposures to which he drags out the private feelings of the heart.
+A man may easily produce such a state of feeling in his schoolroom, that
+to address even the gentlest reproof to any individual, in the hearing
+of the next, would be a most severe punishment; and, on the other hand,
+he may so destroy that sensitiveness that his vociferated reproaches
+will be as unheeded as the idle wind.
+
+If, now, the teacher has taken the course recommended in this
+chapter--if he has, by his general influence in the school, done all in
+his power to bring the majority of his pupils to the side of order and
+discipline--if he has then studied, attentively and impartially, the
+characters of those who can not thus be led--if he has endeavored to
+make them his friends, and to acquire, by every means, a personal
+influence over them--if, finally, when they do wrong, he goes plainly,
+but in a gentle and delicate manner, to them, and lays before them the
+whole case--if he has done all this, he has gone as far as moral
+influence will carry him. My opinion is, that this course, faithfully
+and judiciously pursued, will, in almost all instances, succeed; but it
+will not in all; and where it fails, there must be other, and more
+vigorous and decided measures. What these measures of restraint or
+punishment shall be must depend upon the circumstances of the case; but
+in resorting to them, the teacher must be decided and unbending.
+
+The course above recommended is not trying lax and inefficient measures
+for a long time in hopes of their being ultimately successful, and then,
+when they are found not to be so, changing the policy. There should be,
+through the whole, the tone and manner of _authority_, not of
+_persuasion_. The teacher must be a _monarch_, and, while he is gentle
+and forbearing, always looking on the favorable side of conduct so far
+as guilt is concerned; he must have an eagle eye and an efficient hand,
+so far as relates to arresting the evil and stopping the consequences.
+He may slowly and cautiously, and even tenderly, approach a delinquent.
+He may be several days in gathering around him the circumstances of
+which he is ultimately to avail himself in bringing him to submission;
+but, while he proceeds thus slowly and tenderly, he must come with the
+air of authority and power. The fact that the teacher bases all his
+plans on the idea of his ultimate authority in every case may be
+perfectly evident to all the pupils, while he proceeds with moderation
+and gentleness in all his specific measures. Let it be seen, then, that
+the constitution of your school is a monarchy, absolute and unlimited;
+but let it also be seen that the one who holds the power is himself
+under the control of moral principle in all that he does, and that he
+endeavors to make the same moral principle which guides him go as far as
+it is possible to make it go in the government of his subjects.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+
+RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In consequence of the unexampled religious freedom possessed in this
+country, for which it is happily distinguished above all other countries
+on the face of the earth, there necessarily results a vast variety of
+religious sentiment and action. We can not enjoy the blessings without
+the inconveniences of freedom. Where every man is allowed to believe as
+he pleases, some will, undoubtedly, believe wrong, and others will be
+divided, by embracing views of a subject which are different, though
+perhaps equally consistent with truth. Hence we have among us every
+shade and every variety of religious opinion, and, in many cases,
+contention and strife, resulting from hopeless efforts to produce
+uniformity.
+
+A stranger who should come among us would suppose, from the tone of our
+religious journals, and from the general aspect of society on the
+subject of religion, that the whole community was divided into a
+thousand contending sects, who hold nothing in common, and whose sole
+objects are the annoyance and destruction of each other. But if we leave
+out of view some hundreds, or, if you please, some thousands of
+theological controversialists who manage the public discussions, and say
+and do all that really comes before the public on this subject, it will
+be found that there is vastly more religious truth admitted by common
+consent among the people of New England than is generally supposed. This
+common ground I shall endeavor briefly to describe; for it is very plain
+that the teacher must, in ordinary cases, confine himself to it. By
+common consent, however, I do not mean the consent of every body; I mean
+that of the great majority of serious, thinking men.
+
+But let us examine first, for a moment, what right any member of the
+community has to express and to disseminate his opinions with a view to
+the inquiry whether the teacher is really bound to confine himself to
+what he can do on this subject with the common consent of his employers.
+
+The various monarchical nations of Europe have been for many years, as
+is well known, strongly agitated with questions of politics. It is with
+difficulty that public tranquillity is preserved. Every man takes sides.
+Now, in this state of things, a wealthy gentleman residing in one of
+these countries is opposed to the revolutionary projects so constantly
+growing up there, and being, both from principle and feeling, strongly
+attached to monarchical government, wishes to bring up his children with
+the same feelings which he himself cherishes. He has a right to do so.
+No matter if his opinions are wrong. He ought, it will be generally
+supposed in this country, to be republican. I suppose him to adopt
+opinions which will generally, by my readers, be considered wrong, that
+I may bring more distinctly to view the right he has to educate his
+children as _he thinks_ it proper that they should be educated. He may
+be wrong to _form_ such opinions; but the opinions once formed, he has a
+right, with which no human power can justly interfere, to educate his
+children in conformity with those opinions. It is alike the law of God
+and nature that the father should control, as he alone is responsible,
+the education of his child.
+
+Now, under these circumstances, he employs an American mechanic, who is
+residing in Paris, to come to his house and teach his children the use
+of the lathe. After some time he comes into their little work-shop, and
+is astonished to find the lathe standing still, and the boys gathered
+round the Republican turner, who is relating to them stories of the
+tyranny of kings, the happiness of republicans, and the glory of war.
+The parent remonstrates. The mechanic defends himself.
+
+"I am a Republican," he says, "upon principle, and wherever I go I must
+exert all the influence in my power to promote free principles, and to
+expose the usurpations and the tyranny of kings."
+
+To this the monarchist might very properly reply,
+
+"In your efforts to promote your principles, you are limited, or you
+ought to be limited, to modes that are proper and honorable. I employ
+you for a distinct and specific purpose, which has nothing to do with
+questions of government, and you ought not to allow your love of
+republican principles to lead you to take advantage of the position in
+which I place you, and interfere with my plans for the political
+education of my children."
+
+Now for the parallel case. A member of a Congregational society is
+employed to teach a school in a district occupied exclusively by
+Friends--a case not uncommon. He is employed there, not as a religious
+teacher, but for another specific and well-defined object. It is for the
+purpose of teaching the children of that district _reading, writing,_
+and _calculation_, and for such other purposes analogous to this as the
+law providing for the establishment of district schools contemplated.
+Now, when he is placed in such a situation, with such a trust confided
+to him, and such duties to discharge, it is not right for him to make
+use of the influence which this official station gives him over the
+minds of the children committed to his care for the accomplishment of
+_any other purposes whatever_ which the parents would disapprove. It
+would not be considered right by men of the world to attempt to
+accomplish any other purposes in such a case; and are the pure and holy
+principles of piety to be extended by methods more exceptionable than
+those by which political and party contests are managed?
+
+There is a very great and obvious distinction between the general
+influence which the teacher exerts as a member of the community and that
+which he can employ in his school-room as teacher. He has unquestionably
+a right to exert _upon the community, by such means as he shares in
+common with every other citizen_, as much influence as he can command
+for the dissemination of his own political, or religious, or scientific
+opinions. But the strong ascendency which, in consequence of his
+official station, he has obtained over the minds of his pupils, is
+sacred. He has no right to use it for any purpose _foreign to the
+specific objects_ for which he is employed, unless _by the consent,
+expressed or implied_, of those by whom he is intrusted with his charge.
+The parents who send their children to him to be taught to read, to
+write, and to calculate, may have erroneous views of their duty as
+parents in other respects. He _may know_ that their views are erroneous.
+They may be taking a, course which the teacher _knows_ is wrong. But he
+has not, on this account, a right to step in between the parent and
+child, to guide the latter according to his own opinions, and to violate
+the wishes and thwart the plans of the former.
+
+God has constituted the relation between the parent and the child, and
+according to any view which a rational man can take of this relation,
+the parent is alone responsible for the guidance he gives to that mind,
+so entirely in his power. He is responsible to God; and where our
+opinions in regard to the manner in which any of the duties arising
+from the relation are to be performed, differ from his, we have no right
+to interfere, without his consent, to rectify what we thus imagine to be
+wrong. I know of but one exception which any man whatever would be
+inclined to make to this principle, and that is where the parent would,
+if left to himself, take such a course as would ultimately make his
+children _unsafe members of society._ The _community_ have a right to
+interfere in such a case, as they in fact do by requiring every man to
+provide for the instruction of his children, and in some other ways
+which need not now be specified. Beyond this, however, no interference
+contrary to the parent's consent is justifiable. Where parents will do
+wrong, notwithstanding any persuasions which we can address to them, we
+must not violate the principles of an arrangement which God has himself
+made, but must submit patiently to the awful consequences which will in
+some cases occur, reflecting that the responsibility for these
+consequences is on the head of those who neglect their duty, and that
+the being who makes them liable will settle the account.
+
+Whatever, then, the teacher attempts to do beyond the _specific_ and
+_defined_ duties which are included among the objects for which he is
+employed, must be done _by permission_--by the voluntary consent,
+whether tacit or openly expressed, of those by whom he is employed.
+This, of course, confines him to what is generally common ground among
+his particular employers. In a republican country, where all his patrons
+are republican, he may, without impropriety, explain and commend to his
+pupils, as occasion may occur, the principles of free governments, and
+the blessings which may be expected to flow from them. But it would not
+be justifiable for him to do this under a monarchy, or in a community
+divided in regard to this subject, because this question does not come
+within the objects for the promotion of which his patrons have
+associated and employed him, and consequently he has no right, while
+continuing their teacher, to go into it without their consent. In the
+same manner, an Episcopal teacher, in a private school formed and
+supported by Episcopalians, may use and commend forms of prayer, and
+explain the various usages of that church, exhibiting their excellence,
+and their adaptation to the purposes for which they are intended. He may
+properly do this, because, in the case supposed, the patrons of the
+school are _united_ on this subject, and their _tacit consent_ may be
+supposed to be given. But place the same teacher over a school of
+Friends, whose parents dislike forms and ceremonies of every kind in
+religion, and his duty would be changed altogether. So, if a Roman
+Catholic is intrusted with the instruction of a common district school
+in a community composed of many Protestant denominations, it would be
+plainly his duty to avoid all influence, direct or indirect, over the
+minds of his pupils, except in those religious sentiments and opinions
+which are common to himself and all his employers. I repeat the
+principle. _He is employed for a specific purpose, and he has no right
+to wander from that purpose, except as far as he can go with the common
+consent of his employers._
+
+Now the common ground on religious subjects in this country is very
+broad. There are, indeed, many principles which are, in my view,
+essential parts of Christianity, which are subjects of active discussion
+among us. But, setting these aside, there are other principles equally
+essential, in regard to which the whole community are agreed; or, at
+least, if there is a dissenting minority, it is so small that it is
+hardly to be considered. Let us look at some of these principles.
+
+1. Our community is agreed that _there is a God._ There is probably not
+a school in our country where the parents of the scholars would not wish
+to have the teacher, in his conversation with his pupils, take this for
+granted, and allude reverently to that great Being, with the design of
+leading them to realize his existence and to feel his authority.
+
+2. Our community are agreed that _we are responsible to God for all our
+conduct._ Though some persons absurdly pretend to believe that the Being
+who formed this world, if, indeed, they think there is any such Being,
+has left it and its inhabitants to themselves, not inspecting their
+conduct, and never intending to call them to account, they are too few
+among us to need consideration. A difference of opinion on this subject
+might embarrass the teacher in France, and in other countries in Europe,
+but not here. However negligent men may be in _obeying_ God's commands,
+they do almost universally in our country admit in theory the authority
+from which they come, and believing this, the parent, even if he is
+aware that he himself does not obey these commands, chooses to have his
+children taught to respect them. The teacher will thus be acting with
+the consent of his employers, in almost any part of our country, in
+endeavoring to influence his pupils to perform moral duties, not merely
+from worldly motives, nor from mere abstract principles of right and
+wrong, but _from regard to the authority of God._
+
+3. The community are agreed, too, in the belief of _the immortality of
+the soul._ They believe, almost without exception, that there is a
+future state of being to which this is introductory and preparatory, and
+almost every father and mother in our country wish to have their
+children keep this in mind, and to be influenced by it in all their
+conduct.
+
+4. The community are agreed that _we have a revelation from Heaven._ I
+believe there are very few instances where the parents would not be glad
+to have the Bible read from time to time, its geographical and
+historical meanings illustrated, and its moral lessons brought to bear
+upon the hearts and lives of their children. Of course, if the teacher
+is so unwise as to make such a privilege, if it were allowed him, the
+occasion of exerting an influence upon one side or the other of some
+question which divides the community around him, he must expect to
+excite jealousy and distrust, and to be excluded from a privilege which
+he might otherwise have been permitted freely to enjoy. There may, alas!
+be some cases where the use of the Scriptures is altogether forbidden in
+school; but probably in almost every such case it would be found that it
+is from fear of its perversion to sect or party purposes, and not from
+any unwillingness to have the Bible used in the way I have described.
+
+5. The community are agreed, in theory, that _personal attachment to the
+Supreme Being is the duty of every human soul;_ and every parent, with
+exceptions so few that they are not worth naming, wishes that his
+children should cherish that affection, and yield their hearts to its
+influence. He is willing, therefore, that the teacher, of course without
+interfering with the regular duties for the performance of which he
+holds his office, should, from time to time, so speak of this duty, of
+God's goodness to men, of his daily protection and his promised favors,
+as to awaken, if possible, this attachment in the hearts of his
+children. Of course, it is very easy for the teacher, if he is so
+disposed, to abuse this privilege also. He can, under pretense of
+awakening and cherishing the spirit of piety in the hearts of his
+pupils, present the subject in such aspects and relations as to arouse
+the sectarian or denominational feelings of some of his employers; but I
+believe, if this was honestly and fully avoided, there are few, if any
+parents in our country who would not be gratified to have the great
+principle of love to God manifest itself in the instructions of the
+school-room, and showing itself, by its genuine indications, in the
+hearts and conduct of their children.
+
+6. The community are agreed not only in believing that piety consists
+primarily in love to God, but that _the life of piety is to be commenced
+by penitence for past sins, and forgiveness, in some way or other,
+through a Savior._ I am aware that one class of theological writers, in
+the heat of controversy, charge the other with believing that Jesus
+Christ was nothing more nor less than a teacher of religion, and there
+are unquestionably individuals who take this view. But these
+individuals are few. There are very few in our community who do not in
+some sense look upon Jesus Christ as our _Savior_--our Redeemer; who do
+not feel themselves _in some way_ indebted to him for the offer of
+pardon. There may be here and there a theological student, or a
+contributor to the columns of a polemical magazine, who ranks Jesus
+Christ with Moses and with Paul. But the great mass of the fathers and
+mothers, of every name and denomination through all the ranks of
+society, look up to the Savior of sinners with something at least of the
+feeling that he is the object of extraordinary affection and reverence.
+I am aware, however, that I am approaching the limit which, in many
+parts of our country, ought to bound the religious influence of the
+teacher in a public school, and on this subject, as on every other, he
+ought to do nothing directly or indirectly which would be displeasing to
+those who have intrusted children to his care.
+
+So much ground, it seems, the teacher may occupy, by common consent, in
+this country, and it certainly is a great deal. It may be doubted
+whether, after all our disputes, there is a country in the world whose
+inhabitants have so much in common in regard to religious belief. There
+is, perhaps, no country in the world where the teacher may be allowed to
+do so much toward leading his pupils to fear God and to obey his
+commands, with the cordial consent of parents, as he can here.[3]
+
+[Footnote 3: In speaking of this common ground, and in commenting upon
+it, I wish not to be understood that I consider these truths as
+comprising all that is essential in Christianity. Very far from it. A
+full expression of the Christian faith would go far in advance of all
+here presented. We must not confound, however, what is essential to
+prepare the way for the forgiveness of sin with what is essential that a
+child should understand in order to secure his penitence and
+forgiveness. The former is a great deal, the latter very little.]
+
+The ground which I have been laying out is common all over our country;
+in particular places there will be even much more that is common. Of
+course the teacher, in such cases, will be at much greater liberty. If a
+Roman Catholic community establish a school, and appoint a Roman
+Catholic teacher, he may properly, in his intercourse with his scholars,
+allude, with commendation, to the opinions and practices of that church.
+If a college is established by the Methodist denomination, the teacher
+of that institution may, of course, explain and enforce there the views
+of that society. Each teacher is confined only to _those views which are
+common to the founders and supporters of the particular institution to
+which he is attached._
+
+I trust the principle which I have been attempting to enforce is fully
+before the reader's mind, namely, that moral and religious instruction
+in a school being in a great degree extra-official in its nature, must
+be carried no farther than the teacher can go with the common consent,
+either expressed or implied, of those who have founded, and who support
+his school. Of course, if those founders forbid it altogether, they have
+a right to do so, and the teacher must submit. The only question that
+can justly arise is whether he will remain in such a situation, or go
+and seek employment where a door of usefulness, here closed against him,
+will be opened. While he remains, he must honestly and fully submit to
+the wishes of those in whose hands Providence has placed the ultimate
+responsibility of training up the children of his school. It is only for
+a partial and specific purpose that they are placed under his care.
+
+The religious reader may inquire why I am so anxious to restrain, rather
+than to urge on, the exercise of religious influence in schools. "There
+is far too little," some one will say, "instead of too much, and
+teachers need to be encouraged and led on in this duty, not to be
+restrained from it." There is, indeed, far too little religious
+influence exerted in common schools. What I have said has been intended
+to prepare the way for an increase of it. My view of it is this:
+
+If teachers do universally confine themselves to the limits which I have
+been attempting to define, they may accomplish within these limits a
+vast amount of good. By attempting, however, to exceed them, the
+confidence of parents is destroyed or weakened, and the door is closed.
+In this way, injury to a very great extent has been done in many parts
+of our country. Parents are led to associate with the very idea of
+religion, indirect and perhaps secret efforts to influence their
+children in a way which they themselves would disapprove. They transfer
+to the cause of piety itself the dislike which was first awakened by
+exceptionable means to promote it; and other teachers, seeing these evil
+effects, are deterred from attempting what they might easily have
+accomplished. Before, therefore, attempting to enforce the duty and to
+explain the methods of exerting religious influence in school, I thought
+proper distinctly to state with what restrictions and within what limits
+the work is to be done.
+
+There are many teachers who profess to cherish the spirit and to
+entertain the hopes of piety, who yet make no effort whatever to extend
+its influence to the hearts of their pupils. Others appeal sometimes to
+religious truth merely to assist them in the government of the school.
+They perhaps bring it before the minds of disobedient pupils in a vain
+effort to make an impression upon the conscience of one who has done
+wrong, and who can not by other means be brought to submission. But the
+pupil in such cases understands, or at least he believes, that the
+teacher applies to religious truth only to eke out his own authority,
+and of course it produces no effect. Another teacher thinks he must, to
+discharge his duty, give a certain amount, weekly, of what he considers
+religious instruction. Pie accordingly appropriates a regular portion of
+time to a formal lecture or exhortation, which he delivers without
+regard to the mental habits of thought and feeling which prevail among
+his charge. He forgets that the heart must be led, not driven to piety,
+and that unless his efforts are adapted to the nature of the minds he is
+acting upon, and suited to influence them, he must as certainly fail of
+success as when there is a want of adaptedness between the means and the
+end in any other undertaking whatever.
+
+The arrangement which seems to me as well calculated as any for the
+religious exercises of a school is this:
+
+1. In the morning, open the school with a very short prayer, resembling
+in its object and length the opening prayer in the morning at
+Congregational churches. The posture which, from some considerable
+experience, I would recommend at this exercise, is sitting with the head
+reclined upon the desk. The prayer, besides being short, should be
+simple in its language and specific in its petitions. A degree of
+particularity and familiarity which would be improper elsewhere is not
+only allowable here, but necessary to the production of the proper
+effect. That the reader may understand to what extent I mean to be
+understood to recommend this, I will subjoin a form, such as in spirit I
+suppose such a prayer ought to be.
+
+"Our Father in Heaven, who hast kindly preserved the pupils and the
+teacher of this school during the past night, come and grant us a
+continuance of thy protection and blessing during this day. We can not
+spend the day prosperously and happily without thee. Come, then, and, be
+in this school-room during this day, and help us all to be faithful and
+successful in duty.
+
+"Guide the teacher in all that he may do. Give him wisdom, and patience,
+and faithfulness. May he treat all his pupils with kindness; and if any
+of them should do any thing that is wrong, wilt thou help him, gently
+but firmly, to endeavor to bring him back to duty. May he sympathize
+with the difficulties and trials of all, and promote the present
+happiness as well as the intellectual progress of all who are committed
+to his care.
+
+"Take care of the pupils too. May they spend the day pleasantly and
+happily together. Wilt thou, who didst originally give us all our
+powers, direct and assist us all, this day, in the use and improvement
+of them. Remove difficulties from our path, and give us all fidelity and
+patience in every duty. Let no one of us destroy our peace and happiness
+this day by breaking any of thy commands, or encouraging our companions
+in sins, or neglecting, in any respect, our duty. We ask all in the name
+of our great Redeemer. Amen."
+
+Of course the prayer of each day will be varied, unless in special cases
+the teacher prefers to read some form like the above. But let every one
+be _minute and particular,_ relating especially to school--to school
+temptations, and trials, and difficulties. Let every one be filled with
+expressions relating to school, so that it will bear upon every sentence
+the impression that it is the petition of a teacher and his pupils at
+the throne of grace.
+
+2. If the pupils can sing, there may be a single verse, or sometimes two
+verses, of some well-known hymn sung after the prayer at the opening of
+the school. Teachers will find it much easier to introduce this practice
+than it would at first be supposed. In almost every school there are
+enough who can sing to begin, especially if the first experiment is made
+in a recess, or before or after school; and the beginning once made, the
+difficulty is over. If but few tunes are sung, a very large proportion
+of the scholars will soon learn them.
+
+3. Let there be no other regular exercise until the close of the
+afternoon school. When that hour has arrived, let the teacher devote a
+very short period, five minutes perhaps, to religious _instruction_,
+given in various ways. At one time he may explain and illustrate some
+important truth. At another, read and comment upon a very short portion
+of Scripture. At another, relate an anecdote or fact which will tend to
+interest the scholars in the performance of duty. The teacher should be
+very careful not to imitate on these occasions the formal style of
+exhortation from the pulpit. Let him use no cant and hackneyed phrases,
+and never approach the subject of personal piety, or speak of such
+feelings as penitence for sin, trust in God, and love for the Savior,
+unless his own heart is really at the time warmed by the emotions which
+he wishes to awaken in others. Children very easily detect hypocrisy.
+They know very well when a parent or teacher is talking to them on
+religious subjects merely as a matter of course for the sake of effect,
+and such constrained and formal efforts never do any good.
+
+Let, then, every thing which you do in reference to this subject be done
+with proper regard to the character and condition of the youthful mind,
+and in such a way as shall be calculated to _interest_ as well as to
+_instruct_. A cold and formal exhortation, or even an apparently earnest
+one, delivered in a tone of affected solemnity, will produce no good
+effect. Perhaps I ought not to say it will produce _no_ good effect, for
+good does sometimes result as a sort of accidental consequence from
+almost any thing. I mean it will have no effectual _tendency_ to do
+good. You must vary your method, too, in order to interest your pupils.
+Watch their countenances when you are addressing them, and see if they
+look interested. If they do not, be assured that there is something
+wrong, or at least something ill-judged or inefficient in your manner of
+explaining the truths which you wish to have produce an effect upon
+their minds.
+
+That you may be prepared to bring moral and religious truths before
+their minds in the way I have described, your own mind must take a
+strong interest in this class of truths. You must habituate yourself to
+look at the moral and religious aspects and relations of all that you
+see and hear. When you are reading, notice such facts and remember such
+narratives as you can turn to good account in this way. In the same way,
+treasure up in your mind such occurrences as may come under your own
+personal observation when traveling, or when mixing with society.
+
+That the spirit and manner of these religious exercises may be the more
+distinctly understood, I will give some examples.
+
+Let us suppose, then, that the hour for closing school has come. The
+books are laid aside; the room is still; the boys expect the few words
+which the teacher is accustomed to address to them, and, looking up to
+him, they listen to hear what he has to say.
+
+"You may take your Bibles."
+
+The boys, by a simultaneous movement, open their desks, and take from
+them their copies of the sacred volume.
+
+"What is the first book of the New Testament?"
+
+"Matthew," they all answer at once.
+
+"The second?" "Mark." "The third?" "Luke." "The next?" "John." "The
+next?" "The Acts." "The next?"
+
+Many answer, "Romans."
+
+"The next?"
+
+A few voices say faintly, and with hesitation, "First of Corinthians."
+
+"I perceive your answers become fainter and fainter. Do you know what is
+the last book of the New Testament?"
+
+The boys answer promptly, "Revelations."
+
+"Do you know what books are between the Acts and the book of
+Revelation?"
+
+Some say "No, sir;" some begin to enumerate such books as occur to them,
+and some, perhaps, begin to name them promptly and in their regular
+order.
+
+"I do not mean," interrupts the teacher, "the _names_ of the books, but
+the _kinds_ of books."
+
+The boys hesitate.
+
+"They are epistles or letters. Do you know who wrote the letters?"
+
+"Paul," "Peter," answer many voices at once.
+
+"Yes, there were several writers. Now the point which I wish to bring
+before you is this; do you know in what order, I mean on what
+principles, the books are arranged?"
+
+"No, sir," is the universal reply.
+
+I will tell you. First come all Paul's epistles. If you turn over the
+leaves of the Testament, you will see that Paul's letters are all put
+together after the book of the Acts; and what I wish you to notice is,
+that they are arranged in the _order_ of _their length_. The longest
+comes first, and then the next, and so on to the shortest, which is the
+epistle to Philemon. This, of course, comes last--no, I am wrong in
+saying it is the last of Paul's epistles; there is one more to the
+Hebrews; and this comes after all the others, for there has been a good
+deal of dispute whether it was really written by Paul. You will see that
+his name is not at the beginning of it, as it is in his other epistles:
+so it was put last.
+
+Then comes the Epistle of James. Will you see whether it is longer than
+any that come after it? The boys, after a minute's examination, answer,
+"Yes, sir;" "Yes, sir."
+
+"What comes next?"
+
+"The epistles of Peter."
+
+"Yes; and you will see that the longest of Peter's epistles is next in
+length to that of James's; and, indeed, all his are arranged in the
+order of their length."
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"What comes next?"
+
+"John's."
+
+"Yes; and they are arranged in the order of their length. Do you now
+understand the principle of the arrangement of the epistles?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"I should like to have any of you who are interested in it to try to
+express this principle in a few sentences, on paper, and lay it on my
+desk to-morrow, and I will read what you write. You will find it very
+difficult to express it. Now you may lay aside your books. It will be
+pleasanter for you if you do it silently."
+
+Intelligent children will be interested even in so simple a point as
+this--much more interested than a maturer mind, unacquainted with the
+peculiarities of children, would suppose. By bringing up from time to
+time some such literary inquiry as this, they will be led insensibly to
+regard the Bible as opening a field for interesting intellectual
+research, and will more easily be led to study it.
+
+At another time the teacher spends his five minutes in aiming to
+accomplish a very different object. I will suppose it to be one of those
+afternoons when all has gone smoothly and pleasantly in school. There
+has been nothing to excite strong interest or emotion; and there has
+been (as every teacher knows there sometimes will be), without any
+assignable cause which he can perceive, a calm, and quiet, and happy
+spirit diffused over the minds and countenances of the little assembly.
+His evening communication should accord with this feeling, and he should
+make it the occasion to promote those pure and hallowed emotions in
+which every immortal mind must find its happiness, if it is to enjoy any
+worth possessing.
+
+When all is still, the teacher addresses his pupils as follows:
+
+"I have nothing but a simple story to tell you to-night. It is true, and
+the fact interested me very much when I witnessed it, but I do not know
+that it will interest you now merely to hear it repeated. It is this:
+
+"Last vacation, I was traveling in a remote and thinly-settled country,
+among the mountains, in another state. I was riding with a gentleman on
+an almost unfrequented road. Forests were all around us, and the houses
+were small and very few.
+
+"At length, as we were passing an humble and solitary dwelling, the
+gentleman said to me, 'There is a young woman sick in this house; should
+you like to go in and see her?' 'Yes, sir,' said I, 'very much. She can
+have very few visitors, I think, in this lonely place, and if you think
+she would like to see us, I should like to go.'
+
+"We turned our horses toward the door, and as we were riding up, I
+asked what was the matter with the young woman.
+
+"'Consumption,' the gentleman replied; 'and I suppose she will not live
+long.'
+
+"At that moment we dismounted and entered the house. It was a very
+pleasant summer afternoon, and the door was open. We entered, and were
+received by an elderly lady, who seemed glad to see us. In one corner of
+the room was a bed, on which was lying the patient whom we had come to
+visit. She was pale and thin in her countenance, but there was a very
+calm and happy expression beaming in her eye. I went up to her bedside,
+and asked her how she did.
+
+"I talked with her some time, and found that she was a Christian. She
+did not seem to know whether she would get well again or not, and, in
+fact, she did not appear to care much about it. She was evidently happy
+then, and she believed that she should continue so. She had been
+penitent for her sins, and had sought and obtained forgiveness, and
+enjoyed, in her loneliness, not only the protection of God, but also his
+presence in her heart, diffusing peace and happiness there. When I came
+into the house, I said to myself, 'I pity, I am sure, a person who is
+confined by sickness in this lonely place, with nothing to interest or
+amuse her;' but when I came out, I said to myself, 'I do not pity her at
+all.'"
+
+Never destroy the effect of such a communication as this by attempting
+to follow it up with an exhortation, or with general remarks, vainly
+attempting to strengthen the impression.
+
+_Never_, do I say? Perhaps there may be some exceptions. But children
+are not reached by formal exhortations; their hearts are touched and
+affected in other ways. Sometimes you must reprove, sometimes you must
+condemn; but indiscriminate and perpetual harangues about the guilt of
+impenitence, and earnest entreaties to begin a life of piety, only
+harden the hearts they are intended to soften, and consequently confirm
+those who hear them in the habits of sin.
+
+In the same way a multitude of other subjects, infinite in number and
+variety, may be brought before your pupils at stated seasons for
+religious instruction. It is unnecessary to give any more particular
+examples, but still it may not be amiss to suggest a few general
+principles, which ought to guide those who are addressing the young on
+every subject, and especially on the subject of religion.
+
+1. _Make no effort to simplify language when addressing the young._
+Children always observe this, and are always displeased with it, unless
+they are very young; and it is not necessary. They can understand
+ordinary language well enough, if the _subject_ is within their
+comprehension, and treated in a manner adapted to their powers. If you
+doubt whether children can understand language, tell such a story as
+this, with ardor of tone and proper gesticulation, to a child only two
+or three years old:
+
+"I saw an enormous dog in the street the other day. He was sauntering
+along slowly, until he saw a huge piece of meat lying down on the
+ground. He grasped it instantly between his teeth, and ran away with all
+speed, until he disappeared around a corner so that I could see him no
+more."
+
+In such a description there is a large number of words which such a
+child would not understand if they stood alone, but the whole
+description would be perfectly intelligible. The reason is, the
+_subject_ is simple; the facts are such as a very little child would be
+interested in; and the connection of each new word, in almost every
+instance, explains its meaning. That is the way by which children learn
+all language. They learn the meaning of words, not by definitions, but
+by their connection in the sentences in which they hear them; and, by
+long practice, they acquire an astonishing facility of doing this. It is
+true they sometimes mistake, but not often, and the teacher of children
+of almost any age need not be afraid that he shall not be understood.
+There is no danger from his using the _language_ of men, if his subject,
+and the manner in which he treats it, and the form and structure of his
+sentences, are what they ought to be. Of course there may be cases, in
+fact there often will be cases, where particular words will require
+special explanation, but they will be comparatively few, and instead of
+making efforts to avoid them, it will be better to let them come. The
+pupils will be interested and profited by the explanation.
+
+Perhaps some may ask what harm it will do to simplify language when
+talking to children. "It certainly can do no injury," they may say, "and
+it diminishes all possibility of being misunderstood." It does injury in
+at least three ways:
+
+(1.) It disgusts the young persons to whom it is addressed, and prevents
+their being interested in what is said. I once met two children, twelve
+years of age, who had just returned from hearing a very able discourse,
+delivered before a number of Sabbath-schools assembled on some public
+occasion. "How did you like the discourse?" said I.
+
+"Very well indeed," they replied; "only," said one of them, smiling, "he
+talked to us as if we were all little children."
+
+Girls and boys, however young, never consider themselves little
+children, for they can always look down upon some younger than
+themselves. They are mortified when treated as though they could not
+understand what is really within the reach of their faculties. They do
+not like to have their powers underrated, and they are right in this
+feeling. It is common to all, old and young.
+
+(2.) Children are kept back in learning language if their teacher makes
+effort to _come down,_ as it is called, to their comprehension in the
+use of words. Notice that I say _in the use of words;_ for, as I shall
+show presently, it is absolutely necessary to come down to the
+comprehension of children in some other respects. If, however, in the
+use of words, those who address children confine themselves to such
+words as children already understand, how are they to make progress in
+that most important of all studies, the knowledge of language? Many a
+mother keeps back her child, in this way, to a degree that is hardly
+conceivable, thus doing all in her power to perpetuate in the child an
+ignorance of its mother tongue.
+
+Teachers ought to make constant efforts to increase their scholars'
+stock of words by using new ones from time to time, taking care to
+explain them when the connection does not do it for them; so that,
+instead of _coming down_ to the language of childhood, they ought rather
+to go as far away from it as they can, without leaving their pupils
+behind them.
+
+(3.) But perhaps the greatest evil of this practice is, it satisfies the
+teacher. He thinks he addresses his pupils in the right manner, and
+overlooks altogether the real peculiarities in which the power to
+interest the young depends. He talks to them in simple language, and
+wonders why they are not interested. He certainly is _plain_ enough. He
+is vexed with them for not attending to what he says, attributing it to
+their dullness or regardlessness of all that is useful or good, instead
+of perceiving that the great difficulty is his own want of skill. These
+three evils are sufficient to deter the teacher from the practice.
+
+2. Present your subject, not in its _general views_, but in its _minute
+details_. This is the great secret of interesting the young. Present it
+in its details and in its practical exemplifications; do this with any
+subject whatever, and children will always be interested.
+
+To illustrate this, let us suppose two teachers wishing to explain to
+their pupils the same subject, and taking the following opposite methods
+of doing it. One, at the close of school, addresses his charge as
+follows:
+
+"The moral character of any action, that is, whether it is right or
+wrong, depends upon the _motives_ with which it is performed. Men look
+only at the outward conduct, but God looks at the heart. In order, now,
+that any action should be pleasing to God, it is necessary it should be
+performed from the motive of a desire to please him.
+
+"Now there are a great many other motives of action which prevail among
+mankind besides this right one. There is love of praise, love of money,
+affection for friends, and many others."
+
+By the time the teacher has proceeded thus far, he finds, as he looks
+around the room, that the countenances of his pupils are assuming a
+listless and inattentive air. One is restless in his seat, evidently
+paying no attention. Another has reclined his head upon his desk, lost
+in a reverie, and others are looking round the room at one another, or
+at the door, restless and impatient, hoping that the dull lecture will
+soon be over.
+
+The other teacher says:
+
+"I have thought of an experiment I might try, which would illustrate to
+you a very important subject. Suppose I should call one of the boys, A,
+to me, and should say to him, 'I wish you to go to your seat, and
+transcribe a piece of poetry as handsomely as you can. If it is written
+as well as you can possibly write it, I will give you a quarter of a
+dollar. Suppose I say this to him privately, so that none of the rest of
+the boys can hear, and he goes to take his seat and begins to work. You
+perceive that I have presented to him a motive to exertion."
+
+"Yes, sir," say the boys, all looking with interest at the teacher,
+wondering how this experiment is going to end.
+
+"Well, what would that motive be?"
+
+"Money." "The quarter of a dollar." "Love of money," or perhaps other
+answers, are heard from the various parts of the room.
+
+"Yes, love of money it is called. Now suppose I should call another boy,
+one with whom I was particularly acquainted, and who I should know
+would make an effort to please me, and should say to him, 'For a
+particular reason, I want you to copy this poetry'--giving him the
+same--'I wish you to copy it handsomely, for I wish to send it away, and
+have not time to copy it myself. Can you do it for me?'
+
+"Suppose the boy should say he could, and should take it to his seat and
+begin, neither of the boys knowing what the other was doing. I should
+now have offered to this second boy a motive. Would it be the same with
+the other?"
+
+"No, sir."
+
+"What was the other?"
+
+"Love of money."
+
+"What is this?"
+
+The boys hesitate.
+
+"It might be called," continues the teacher, "friendship. It is the
+motive of a vast number of the actions which are performed in this
+world.
+
+"Do you think of any other common motive of action besides love of money
+and friendship?"
+
+"Love of honor," says one; "fear," says another.
+
+"Yes," continues the teacher, "both these are common motives. I might,
+to exhibit them, call two more boys, one after the other, and say to the
+one, 'I will thank you to go and copy this piece of poetry as well as
+you can. I want to send it to the school committee as a specimen of
+improvement made in this school.'
+
+"To the other I might say, 'You have been a careless boy to-day; you
+have not got your lessons well. Now take your seat and copy this poetry.
+Do it carefully. Unless you take pains, and do it as well as you
+possibly can, I shall punish you severely before you go home.'
+
+"How many motives have I got now? Four, I believe."
+
+"Yes, sir," say the boys.
+
+"Love of money, friendship, love of honor, and fear. We called the first
+boy A; let us call the others B, C, and D; no, we shall remember better
+to call them by the name of their motives. We will call the first M, for
+money; the second, F, for friendship; the third, H, for honor; and the
+last, F--we have got an F already; what shall we do? On the whole, it is
+of no consequence; we will have two F's, but we will take care not to
+confound them.
+
+"But there are a great many other motives entirely distinct from these.
+For example, suppose I should say to a fifth boy, 'Will you copy this
+piece of poetry? It belongs to one of the little boys in school: he
+wants a copy of it, and I told him I would try to get some one to copy
+it for him.' This motive, now, would be benevolence; that is, if the boy
+who was asked to copy it was not particularly acquainted with the other,
+and did it chiefly to oblige him. We will call this boy B, for
+Benevolence.
+
+"Now suppose I call a sixth boy, and say to him, 'I have set four or
+five boys to work copying this piece of poetry; now I wish you to sit
+down, and see if you can not do it better than any of them. After all
+are done, I will compare them, and see if yours is not the best.' This
+would be trying to excite emulation. We must call this boy, then, E. But
+the time I intended to devote to talking with you on this subject for
+to-day is expired. Perhaps to-morrow I will take up the subject again."
+
+The reader now will observe that the grand peculiarity of the
+instructions given by this last teacher, as distinguished from those of
+the first, consists in this, that the parts of the subject are presented
+_in detail_, and _in particular exemplification._ In the first case, the
+whole subject was dispatched in a single, general, and comprehensive
+description; in the latter, it is examined minutely, one point being
+brought forward at a time. The discussions are enlivened, too, by
+meeting and removing such little difficulties as will naturally come up
+in such an investigation. Boys and girls will take an interest in such a
+lecture; they will regret to have it come to a conclusion, and will
+give their attention when the subject is again brought forward on the
+following day. Let us suppose the time for continuing the exercise to
+have arrived. The teacher resumes the discussion thus:
+
+"I was talking to you yesterday about the motives of action. How many
+had I made?"
+
+Some say "Four," some "Five," some "Six."
+
+"Can you name any of them?"
+
+The boys attempt to recollect them, and they give the names in the order
+in which they accidentally occur to the various individuals. Of course
+the words Fear, Emulation, Honor, Friendship, and others, come in
+confused and irregular sounds from every part of the school-room.
+
+"You do not recollect the order," says the teacher, "and it is of no
+consequence, for the order I named was only accidental. Now to go on
+with my account: suppose all these boys to sit down and go to writing,
+each one acting under the impulse of the motive which had been presented
+to him individually. But, in order to make the supposition answer my
+purpose, I must add two other cases. I will imagine that one of these
+boys is called away a few minutes, and leaves his paper on his desk, and
+that another boy, of an ill-natured and morose disposition, happening to
+pass by and see his paper, thinks he will sit down and write upon it a
+few lines, just to tease and vex the one who was called away. We will
+also suppose that I call another boy to me, who I have reason to believe
+is a sincere Christian, and say to him, 'Here is a new duty for you to
+perform this afternoon. This piece of poetry is to be copied; now do it
+carefully and faithfully. You know that this morning you committed
+yourself to God's care during the day; now remember that he has been
+watching you all the time thus far, and that he will be noticing you all
+the time you are doing this; he will be pleased if you do your duty
+faithfully.'
+
+"The boys thus all go to writing. Now suppose a stranger should come
+in, and, seeing them all busy, should say to me,
+
+"'What are all these boys doing?'
+
+"'They are writing.'
+
+"'What are they writing?'
+
+"'They are writing a piece of poetry.'
+
+"'They seem to be very busy; they are very industrious, good boys.'
+
+"'Oh no! it is not by any means certain that they are _good_ boys.'
+
+"'I mean that they are good boys _now_; that they are doing right at
+_this time_."
+
+'_That_ is not certain; some of them are doing right and some are doing
+very wrong, though they are all writing the same piece of poetry.'
+
+The stranger would perhaps look surprised while I said this, and would
+ask an explanation, and I might properly reply as follows:
+
+'Whether the boys are at this moment doing right or wrong depends not
+so much upon what they are doing as upon the feelings of the heart with
+which they are doing it. I acknowledge that they are all doing the same
+thing outwardly; they are all writing the same extract, and they are all
+doing it attentively and carefully, but they are thinking of very
+different things.'
+
+'What are they thinking of?'
+
+'Do you see that boy?' I might say, pointing to one of them. 'His name
+is M. He is writing for money. He is saying to himself all the time, "I
+hope I shall get the quarter of a dollar." He is calculating what he
+shall buy with it, and every good or bad letter that he makes, he is
+considering the chance whether he shall succeed or fail in obtaining
+it.'
+
+'What is the next boy to him thinking of?'
+
+'His name is B. He is copying to oblige a little fellow whom he
+scarcely knows, and is trying to make his copy handsome, so as to give
+him pleasure. He is thinking how gratified his schoolmate will be when
+he receives it, and is forming plans to get acquainted with him.
+
+"'Do you see that boy in the back seat? He has maliciously taken another
+boy's place just to spoil his work. He knows, too, that he is breaking
+the rules of the school in being out of his place, but he stays
+notwithstanding, and is delighting himself with thinking how
+disappointed and sad his schoolmate will be when he comes in and finds
+his work spoiled by having another handwriting in it, when he was
+depending on doing it all himself.'
+
+"'I see,' the stranger might say by this time, 'that there is a great
+difference among these boys; have you told me about them all?'
+
+"'No,' I might reply, 'there are several others. I will only mention one
+more. He sits in the middle of the second desk. He is writing carefully,
+simply because he wishes to do his duty and please God. He thinks that
+God is present, and loves him, and takes care of him, and he is obedient
+and grateful in return. I do not mean that he is all the time thinking
+of God, but love to him is his motive of effort.'
+
+"Do you see now, boys, what I mean to teach you by this long
+supposition?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"I presume you do. Perhaps it would be difficult for you to express it
+in words; I can express it in general terms thus:
+
+"_Our characters depend, not on what we do, but on the spirit and motive
+with which we do it._ What I have been saying throws light upon one
+important verse in the Bible, which I should like to have read. James,
+have you a Bible in your desk?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"Will you turn to 1 Samuel, xvi., 7, and then rise and read it? Read it
+loud, so that all the school can hear."
+
+James read as follows:
+
+"MAN LOOKETH ON THE OUTWARD APPEARANCE, BUT GOD LOOKETH ON THE HEART."
+
+This is the way to reach the intellect and the heart of the young. Go
+_into detail._ Explain truth and duty, not in an abstract form, but
+exhibit it _in actual and living examples._
+
+(3.) Be very cautious how you bring in the awful sanctions of religion
+to assist you directly in the discipline of your school. You will derive
+a most powerful indirect assistance from the influence of religion in
+the little community which you govern, but this will be through the
+prevalence of its spirit in the hearts of your pupils, and not from any
+assistance which you can usually derive from it in managing particular
+cases of transgression. Many teachers make great mistakes in this
+respect. A bad boy, who has done something openly and directly
+subversive of the good order of the school, or the rights of his
+companions, is called before the master, who thinks that the most
+powerful weapon to wield against him is the Bible. So, while the
+trembling culprit stands before him, he administers to him a reproof,
+which consists of an almost ludicrous mixture of scolding, entreaty,
+religious instruction, and threatening of punishment. But such an
+occasion as this is no time to touch a bad boy's heart. He is steeled at
+such a moment against any thing but mortification and the desire to get
+out of the hands of the master, and he has an impression that the
+teacher appeals to religious principles only to assist him to sustain
+his own authority. Of course, religious truth, at such a time, can make
+no good impression. There may be exceptions to this rule. There
+doubtless are. I have found some; and every successful teacher who reads
+this will probably call to mind some which have occurred in the course
+of his own experience. I am only speaking of what ought to be the
+general rule, which is to reserve religious truths for moments of a
+different character altogether. Bring the principles of the Bible
+forward when the mind is calm, when the emotions are quieted, and all
+within is at rest; and in exhibiting them, be actuated, not by a desire
+to make your duties of government easier, but to promote the real and
+permanent happiness of your charge.
+
+(4.) Do not be eager to draw from your pupils an expression of their
+personal interest in religious truth. Lay before them, and enforce, by
+all the means in your power, the principles of Christian duty, but do
+not converse with them for the purpose of gratifying your curiosity in
+regard to their piety, or your spiritual pride by counting up the
+numbers of those who have been led to piety by your influence. Beginning
+to act from Christian principle is the beginning of a new life, and it
+may be an interesting subject of inquiry to you to ascertain how many of
+your pupils have experienced the change; but, in many cases, it would
+merely gratify curiosity to know. There is no question, too, that, in
+very many instances, the faint glimmering of religious interest, which
+would have kindled into a bright flame, is extinguished at once, and
+perhaps forever, by the rough inquiries of a religious friend. Besides,
+if you make inquiries, and form a definite opinion of your pupils, they
+will know that this is your practice, and many a one will repose in the
+belief that you consider him or her a Christian, and you will thus
+increase the number, already unfortunately too large, of those who
+maintain the form and pretenses of piety without its power; whose hearts
+are filled with self-sufficiency and spiritual pride, and perhaps zeal
+for the truths and external duties of religion, while the real spirit of
+piety has no place there. They trust to some imaginary change, long
+since passed by, and which has proved to be spurious by its failing of
+its fruits. The best way--in fact, the only way--to guard against this
+danger, especially with the young, is to show, by your manner of
+speaking and acting on this subject at all times, that you regard a
+truly religious life as the only evidence of piety, and that,
+consequently, however much interest your pupils may apparently take in
+religious instruction, they can not know, and you can not know, whether
+Christian principle reigns within them in any other way than by
+following them through life, and observing how, and with what spirit,
+the various duties which devolve upon them are performed.
+
+There are very many fallacious indications of piety, so fallacious and
+so plausible that there are very few, even among intelligent Christians,
+who are not often greatly deceived. "By their fruits ye shall know
+them," said the Savior; a direction sufficiently plain, one would think,
+and pointing to a test sufficiently easy to be applied. But it is slow
+and tedious work to wait for fruits, and we accordingly seek a criterion
+which will help us quicker to a result. You see your pupil serious and
+thoughtful. It is well; but it is not proof of piety. You see him deeply
+interested when you speak of his obligations to his Maker, and the
+duties he owes to Him. This is well, but it is no proof of piety. You
+know he reads his Bible daily, and offers his morning and evening
+prayers. When you speak to him of God's goodness, and of his past
+ingratitude, his bosom heaves with emotion, and the tear stands in his
+eye. It is all well. You may hope that he is going to devote his life to
+the service of God; but you can not know, you can not even believe with
+any great confidence. These appearances are not piety. They are not
+conclusive evidences of it. They are only, in the young, faint grounds
+of hope that the genuine fruits of piety will appear.
+
+I am aware that there are many persons so habituated to judging with
+confidence of the piety of others from some such indications as I have
+described, that they will think I carry my cautions to the extreme.
+Perhaps I do; but the Savior said, "By their fruits ye shall know them,"
+and it is safest to follow his direction.
+
+By the word "fruits," however, our Savior unquestionably does not mean
+the mere moral virtues of this life. The fruits to be looked at are the
+fruits of _piety_, that is, indications of permanent attachment to the
+Creator, and a desire to obey his commands. We must look for these.
+
+There is no objection to your giving particular individuals special
+instruction adapted to their wants and circumstances. You may do this by
+writing or in other ways, but do not lead them to make up their minds
+fully that they are Christians in such a sense as to induce them to feel
+that the work is done. Let them understand that becoming a Christian is
+_beginning_ a work, not _finishing_ it. Be cautious how you form an
+opinion even yourself on the question of the genuineness of their piety.
+Be content not to know. You will be more faithful and watchful if you
+consider it uncertain, and they will be more faithful and watchful too.
+
+(5.) Bring very fully and frequently before your pupils the practical
+duties of religion in all their details, especially their duties at
+home, to their parents, and to their brothers and sisters. Do not,
+however, allow them to mistake morality for religion. Show them clearly
+what piety is in its essence, and this you can do most successfully by
+exhibiting its effects.
+
+(6.) Finally, let me insert as the keystone of all that I have been
+saying in this chapter, be sincere, and ardent, and consistent in your
+own piety. The whole structure which I have been attempting to build
+will tumble into ruins without this. Be constantly watchful and careful,
+not only to maintain intimate communion with God, and to renew it daily
+in your seasons of retirement, but to guard your conduct. Let piety
+control and regulate it. Show your pupils that it makes you amiable,
+patient, forbearing, benevolent in little things as well as in great
+things, and your example will co-operate with your instructions, and
+allure your pupils to walk in the paths which you tread. But no
+clearness and faithfulness in religious teaching will atone for the
+injury which a bad example will effect. Conduct speaks louder than
+words, and no persons are more shrewd than the young to discover the
+hollowness of empty professions, and the heartlessness of mere
+pretended interest in their good.
+
+I am aware that this book may fall into the hands of some who may take
+little interest in the subject of this chapter. To such I may perhaps
+owe an apology for having thus fully discussed a topic in which only a
+part of my readers can be supposed to be interested. My apology is this:
+It is obvious and unquestionable that we all owe allegiance to the
+Supreme. It is so obvious and unquestionable as to be entirely beyond
+the necessity of proof, for it is plain that nothing but such a bond of
+union can keep the peace among the millions of distinct intelligences
+with which the creation is filled. It is therefore the plain duty of
+every man to establish that connection himself and his Maker which the
+Bible requires, and to do what he can to bring others to the peace and
+happiness of piety. These truths are so plain that they admit of no
+discussion and no denial, and it seems to me highly unsafe for any man
+to neglect or to postpone the performance of the duty which arises from
+them. A still greater hazard is incurred when such a man, having forty
+or fifty fellow-beings almost entirely under his influence, leads them,
+by his example, away from their Maker, and so far that he must, in many
+cases, hopelessly confirm the separation. With these views, I could not,
+when writing on the duties of a teacher of the young, refrain from
+bringing distinctly to view this which has so imperious a claim.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE MOUNT VERNON SCHOOL.
+
+
+Perhaps there is no way by which teachers can, in a given time, do more
+to acquire a knowledge of their art, and an interest in it, than by
+visiting each others' schools.
+
+It is not always the case that any thing is observed by the visitor
+which he can directly and wholly introduce into his own school, but what
+he sees suggests to him modifications or changes, and it gives him, at
+any rate, renewed strength and resolution in his work to see how similar
+objects are accomplished, or similar difficulties removed by others. I
+have often thought that there ought, on this account, to be far greater
+freedom and frequency in the inter-change of visits than there is.
+
+Next, however, to a visit to a school, comes the reading of a vivid
+description of it. I do not mean a cold, theoretical exposition of the
+general principles of its management and instruction, for these are
+essentially the same in all good schools. I mean a minute account of the
+plans and arrangements by which these general principles are applied.
+Suppose twenty of the most successful teachers in New England would
+write such a description, each of his own school, how valuable would be
+the volume which should contain them!
+
+With these views, I have concluded to devote one chapter to the
+description of a school which was for several years under my care.[4]
+The account was originally prepared and _printed_, but not published,
+for the purpose of distribution among the scholars, simply because this
+seemed to be the easiest and surest method of making them, on their
+admission to the school, acquainted with its arrangements and plans. It
+is addressed, therefore, throughout to a pupil, and I preserve its
+original form, as, by its being addressed to pupils, and intended to
+influence them, it is an example of the mode of address and the kind of
+influence recommended in this work. It was chiefly designed for new
+scholars; a copy of it was presented to each on the day of her admission
+to the school, and it was made her first duty to read it attentively.
+
+[Footnote 4: The author was still connected with this school at the time
+when this work was written.]
+
+The system which it describes is one which gradually grew up in the
+institution under the writer's care. The school was commenced with a
+small number of pupils, and without any system or plan whatever, and the
+one here described was formed insensibly and by slow degrees, through
+the influence of various and accidental circumstances. I have no idea
+that it is superior to the plans of government and instruction adopted
+in many other schools. It is true that there must necessarily be _some_
+system in every large institution; but various instructors will fall
+upon different principles of organization, which will naturally be such
+as are adapted to the habits of thought and manner of instruction of
+their respective authors, and consequently each will be best for its own
+place. While, therefore, some system--some methodical arrangement is
+necessary in all schools, it is not necessary that it should be the same
+in all. It is not even desirable that it should be. I consider this plan
+as only one among a multitude of others, each of which will be
+successful, not by the power of its intrinsic qualities, but just in
+proportion to the ability and faithfulness with which it is carried into
+effect.
+
+There may be features of this plan which teachers who may read it may be
+inclined to adopt. In other cases, suggestions may occur to the mind of
+the reader, which may modify in some degree his present plans. Others
+may merely be interested in seeing how others effect what they, by other
+methods, are equally successful in effecting.
+
+It is in these and similar ways that I have often myself been highly
+benefited in visiting schools and, in reading descriptions of them, and
+it is for such purposes that I insert the account here.
+
+
+TO A NEW SCHOLAR ON HER ADMISSION TO THE MOUNT VERNON SCHOOL.
+
+
+As a large school is necessarily somewhat complicated in its plan, and
+as new scholars usually find that it requires some time and gives them
+no little trouble to understand the arrangements they find in operation
+here, I have concluded to write a brief description of these
+arrangements, by help of which you will, I hope, the sooner feel at home
+in your new place of duty. That I may be more distinct and specific, I
+shall class what I have to say under separate heads.
+
+
+I. YOUR PERSONAL DUTY.
+
+
+Your first anxiety as you come into the school-room, and take your seat
+among the busy multitude, if you are conscientiously desirous of doing
+your duty, will be, lest, ignorant as you are of the whole plan and of
+all the regulations of the institution, you should inadvertently do what
+will be considered wrong. I wish first, then, to put you at rest on this
+score. There is but one rule of this school. That you can easily keep.
+
+You will observe on one side of my desk a clock upon the wall, and not
+far from it a piece of apparatus that is probably new to you. It is a
+metallic plate, upon which are marked, in gilded letters, the words
+"_Study Hours."_ This is upright, but it is so attached by its lower
+edge to its support by means of a hinge that it can fall over from
+above, and thus be in a _horizontal_ position; or it will rest in an
+_inclined_ position--_half down,_ as it is called. It is drawn up and
+let down by a cord passing over a pulley. When it passes either way, its
+upper part touches a bell, which gives all in the room notice of its
+motion.
+
+Now when this "_Study Card"_ [5] as the scholars call it, is _up_, so
+that the words "STUDY HOURS" are presented to the view of the school, it
+is the signal for silence and study. THERE IS THEN TO BE NO
+COMMUNICATION AND NO LEAVING OF SEATS EXCEPT AT THE DIRECTION OF
+TEACHERS. When it is _half down,_ each scholar may leave her seat and
+whisper, but she must do nothing which will disturb others. When it is
+_down_, all the duties of school are suspended, and scholars are left
+entirely to their liberty.
+
+[Footnote 5: This apparatus has been previously described. See p. 47.]
+
+As this is the only rule of the school, it deserves a little more full
+explanation; for not only your progress in study, but your influence in
+promoting the welfare of the school, and, consequently, your peace and
+happiness while you are a member of it, will depend upon the strictness
+with which you observe it.
+
+Whenever, then, the study card goes up, and you hear the sound of its
+little bell, immediately and instantaneously stop, whatever you are
+saying. If you are away from your seat, go directly to it and there
+remain, and forget in your own silent and solitary studies, so far as
+you can, all that are around you. You will remember that all
+_communication_ is forbidden. Whispering, making signs, writing upon
+paper or a slate, bowing to any one, and, in fact, _every_ possible way
+by which one person may have any sort of mental intercourse with
+another, is wrong. A large number of the scholars take a pride and
+pleasure in carrying this rule into as perfect an observance as
+possible. They say that as this is the only rule with which I trouble
+them, they ought certainly to observe this faithfully. I myself,
+however, put it upon other ground. I am satisfied that it is better and
+pleasanter for you to observe it most rigidly, if it is attempted to be
+enforced at all.
+
+You will ask, "Can not we obtain permission of you or of the teachers to
+leave our seats or to whisper if it is necessary?" The answer is "No."
+You must never ask permission of me or of the teachers. You can leave
+seats or speak at the _direction_ of the teachers, that is, when they of
+their own accord ask you to do it, but you are never to ask their
+permission. If you should, and if any teachers should give you
+permission, it would be of no avail. I have never given them authority
+to grant any permissions of the kind.
+
+You will then say, "Are we never, on any occasion whatever, to leave our
+seats in study hours?" Yes, you are. There are two ways:
+
+1. _At the direction of teachers._--Going to and from recitations is
+considered as at the _direction_ of teachers. So, if a person is
+requested by a teacher to transact any business, or is elected to a
+public office, or appointed upon a committee, leaving seats or speaking,
+so far as is really necessary for the accomplishing such a purpose, is
+considered as at the direction of teachers, and is consequently right.
+In the same manner, if a teacher should ask you individually, or give
+general notice to the members of a class, to come to her seat for
+private instruction, or to go to any part of the school-room for her, it
+would be right to do it. The distinction, you observe, is this: the
+teacher may, _of her own accord,_ direct any leaving of seats which she
+may think necessary to accomplish the objects of the school. She must
+not, however, _at the request of an individual,_ for the sake of her
+mere private convenience, give her permission to speak or to leave her
+seat. If, for example, a teacher should say to you in your class, "As
+soon as you have performed a certain work you may bring it to me," you
+would, in bringing it, be acting under her _direction_, and would
+consequently do right. If, however, you should want a pencil, and should
+ask her to give you leave to borrow it, even if she should give you
+leave you would do wrong to go, for you would not be acting at her
+_direction,_ but simply by her _consent_, and she has no authority to
+grant consent.
+
+2. The second case in which you may leave your seat is when some very
+uncommon occurrence takes place, which is sufficient reason for
+suspending all rules. If your neighbor is faint, you may speak to her,
+and, if necessary, lead her out. If your mother or some other friend
+should come into the school-room, you can go and sit with her upon the
+sofa, and talk about the school.[6] And so in many other similar cases.
+Be very careful not to abuse this privilege, and make slight causes the
+grounds of your exceptions. It ought to be a very clear case. If a young
+lady is unwell in a trifling degree, so as to need no assistance, you
+would evidently do wrong to talk to her. The rule, in fact, is very
+similar to that which all well-bred people observe at church. They never
+speak or leave their seats unless some really important cause, such as
+sickness, requires them to break over all rules and go out. You have, in
+the same manner, in really important cases, such as serious sickness in
+your own case or in that of your companions, or the coming in of a
+stranger, or any thing else equally extraordinary, power to lay aside
+any rule, and to act as the emergency may require. In using this
+discretion, however, be sure to be on the safe side. In such cases,
+never ask permission. You must act on your own responsibility.
+
+[Footnote 6: A sofa was placed against the wall, by the side of the
+teachers' for the accommodation of visitors.]
+
+_Reasons for this rule._--When the school was first established, there
+was no absolute prohibition of whispering. Each scholar was allowed to
+whisper in relation to her studies. They were often, very often,
+enjoined to be conscientious and faithful, but, as might have been
+anticipated, the experiment failed. It was almost universally the
+practice to whisper more or less about subjects entirely foreign to the
+business of the school. This all the scholars repeatedly acknowledged;
+and they almost unanimously admitted that the good of the school
+required the prohibition of all communication during certain hours. I
+gave them their choice, either always to ask permission when they wished
+to speak, or to have a certain time allowed for the purpose, during
+which free intercommunication might be allowed to all the school, with
+the understanding, however, that, out of this time, no permission should
+ever be asked or granted. They very wisely chose the latter plan, and
+the Study Card was constructed and put up, to mark the times of free
+communication and of silent study. The card was at first down every half
+hour for one or two minutes. The scholars afterward thinking that their
+intellectual habits would be improved and the welfare of the school
+promoted by their having a longer time for uninterrupted study, of their
+own accord, without any influence from me, proposed that the card should
+be down only once an hour. This plan was adopted by them by vote. I wish
+it to be understood that it was not _my_ plan, but _theirs_; and that I
+am at any time willing to have the Study Card down once in half an hour,
+whenever a majority of the scholars, voting by ballot, desire it.
+
+You will find that this system of having a distinct time for whispering,
+when all may whisper freely, all communication being entirely excluded
+at other times, will at first give you some trouble. It will be hard for
+you, if you are not accustomed to it, to learn conscientiously and
+faithfully to comply. Besides, at first you will often need some little
+information or desire to ask for an article which you might obtain in a
+moment, but which you can not innocently ask for till the card is down,
+and this might keep you waiting an hour. You will, however, after a few
+such instances, soon learn to make your preparations beforehand, and if
+you are a girl of enlarged views and elevated feelings, you will
+good-humoredly acquiesce in suffering a little inconvenience yourself
+for the sake of helping to preserve those _distinct_ and well _defined_
+lines by which all boundaries must be marked in a large establishment,
+if order and system are to be preserved at all.
+
+Though at first you may experience a little inconvenience, you will soon
+take pleasure in the scientific strictness of the plan. It will gratify
+you to observe the profound stillness of the room where a hundred are
+studying. You will take pleasure in observing the sudden transition from
+the silence of study hours to the joyful sounds and the animating
+activity of recess when the Study Card goes down; and then when it rises
+again at the close of the recess, you will be gratified to observe how
+suddenly the sounds which have filled the air, and made the room so
+lively a scene, are hushed into silence by the single and almost
+inaudible touch of that little bell. You will take pleasure in this; for
+young and old always take pleasure in the strict and rigid operation of
+_system_ rather than in laxity and disorder. I am convinced, also, that
+the scholars do like the operation of this plan, for I do not have to
+make any efforts to sustain it. With the exception that occasionally,
+usually not oftener than once in several months, I allude to the
+subject, and that chiefly on account of a few careless and unfaithful
+individuals, I have little to say or to do to maintain the authority of
+the Study Card. Most of the scholars obey it of their own accord,
+implicitly and cordially. And I believe they consider this faithful
+monitor not only one of the most useful, but one of the most agreeable
+friends they have. We should not only regret its services, but miss its
+company if it should be taken away.
+
+This regulation then, namely, to abstain from all communication with
+one another, and from all leaving of seats, at certain times which are
+marked by the position of the Study Card, is the only one which can
+properly be called a _rule_ of the school. There are a great many
+arrangements and plans relating to the _instruction_ of the pupils, but
+no other specific _rules_ relating to _their conduct._ You are, of
+course, while in the school, under the same moral obligations which rest
+upon you elsewhere. You must be kind to one another, respectful to
+superiors, and quiet and orderly in your deportment. You must do nothing
+to encroach upon another's rights, or to interrupt and disturb your
+companions in their pursuits. You must not produce disorder, or be
+wasteful of the public property, or do any thing else which you might
+know is in itself wrong. But you are to avoid these things, not because
+there are any rules in this school against them, for there are none, but
+because they are in _themselves wrong_--in all places and under all
+circumstances, wrong. The universal and unchangeable principles of duty
+are the same here as elsewhere. I do not make rules pointing them out,
+but expect that you will, through your own conscience and moral
+principle, discover and obey them.
+
+It is wrong, for instance, for you to speak harshly or unkindly to your
+companions, or to do any thing to wound their feelings unnecessarily, in
+any way. But this is a universal principle of duty, not a rule of
+school.
+
+So it is wrong for you to be rude and noisy, and thus disturb others who
+are studying, or to brush by them carelessly, so as to jostle them at
+their writing or derange their books. But to be careful not to do injury
+to others in the reckless pursuit of our own pleasures is a universal
+principle of duty, not a rule of school.
+
+Such a case as this, for example, once occurred. A number of little
+girls began to amuse themselves in recess with running about among the
+desks in pursuit of one another, and they told me, in excuse for it,
+when I called them to account, that they did not know that it was
+"_against the rule"_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+"It is not against the rule," said I; "I have never made any rule
+against running about among the desks."
+
+"Then," asked they, "did we do wrong?"
+
+"Do you think it would be a good plan," I inquired, "to have it a common
+amusement in the recess for the girls to hunt each other among the
+desks?"
+
+"No, sir," they replied, simultaneously.
+
+"Why not? There are some reasons. I do not know, however, whether you
+will have the ingenuity to think of them."
+
+"We may start the desks from their places," said one.
+
+"Yes," said I, "they are fastened down very slightly, so that I may
+easily alter their position."
+
+"We might upset the inkstands," said another.
+
+"Sometimes," added a third, "we run against the scholars who are sitting
+in their seats."
+
+"It seems, then, you have ingenuity enough to discover the reasons. Why
+did not these reasons prevent your doing it?"
+
+"We did not think of them before."
+
+"True; that is the exact state of the case. Now, when persons are so
+eager to promote their own enjoyment as to forget the rights and the
+comforts of others, it is _selfishness. _ Now is there any rule in this
+school against selfishness?"
+
+"No, sir."
+
+"You are right. There is not. But selfishness is wrong, very wrong, in
+whatever form it appears, here and every where else, and that whether I
+make any rules against it or not."
+
+You will see, from this anecdote, that, though there is but one rule of
+the school, I by no means intend to say that there is only _one way of
+doing wrong here._ That would be very absurd. You _must not do any thing
+which you may know, by proper reflection, to be in itself wrong._ This,
+however, is a universal principle of duty, not a _rule_ of the Mount
+Vernon School. If I should attempt to make rules which would specify and
+prohibit every possible way by which you might do wrong, my laws would
+be innumerable, and even then I should fail of securing my object,
+unless you had the disposition to do your duty. No legislation can enact
+laws as fast as a perverted ingenuity can find means to evade them.
+
+You will perhaps ask what will be the consequence if we transgress
+either the single rule of the school or any of the great principles of
+duty. In other words, What are the punishments which are resorted to in
+the Mount Vernon School? The answer is, there are no punishments. I do
+not say that I should not, in case all other means should fail, resort
+to the most decisive measures to secure obedience and subordination.
+Most certainly I should do so, as it would plainly be my duty to do it.
+If you should at any time be so unhappy as to violate your obligations
+to yourself, to your companions, or to me--should you misimprove your
+time, or exhibit an unkind or a selfish spirit, or be disrespectful or
+insubordinate to your teachers, I should go frankly and openly, but
+kindly to you, and endeavor to convince you of your fault. I should very
+probably do this by addressing a note to you, as I suppose this would be
+less unpleasant to you than a conversation. In such a case, I shall hope
+that you will as frankly and openly reply, telling me whether you admit
+your fault and are determined to amend, or else informing me of the
+contrary. I shall wish you to be _sincere_, and then I shall know what
+course to take next. But as to the consequences which may result to you
+if you should persist in what is wrong, it is not necessary that you
+should know them beforehand. They who wander from duty always plunge
+themselves into troubles which they do not anticipate; and if you do
+what, at the time you are doing it, you know to be wrong, it will not be
+unjust that you should suffer the consequences, even if they were not
+beforehand understood and expected. This will be the case with you all
+through life, and it will be the case here.
+
+I say it _will_ be the case here; I ought rather to say that it will be
+the case should you be so unhappy as to do wrong and to persist in it.
+Such persistance, however, never occurs--at least it occurs so seldom,
+and at intervals so great, that every thing of the nature of punishment,
+that is, the depriving a pupil of any enjoyment, or subjecting her to
+any disgrace, or giving her pain in any way in consequence of her
+faults, except the simple pain of awakening conscience in her bosom, is
+almost entirely unknown. I hope that you will always be ready to confess
+and forsake your faults, and endeavor, while you remain in school, to
+improve in character, and attain, as far as possible, every moral
+excellence.
+
+I ought to remark, before dismissing this topic, that I place very great
+confidence in the scholars in regard to their moral conduct and
+deportment, and they fully deserve it. I have no care and no trouble in
+what is commonly called _the government of the school._ Neither myself
+nor any one else is employed in any way in watching the scholars, or
+keeping any sort of account of them. I should not at any time hesitate
+to call all the teachers into an adjoining room, leaving the school
+alone for half an hour, and I should be confident that, at such a time,
+order, and stillness, and attention to study would prevail as much as
+ever. The scholars would not look to see whether I was in my desk, but
+whether the Study Card was up. The school was left in this way, half an
+hour every day, during a quarter, that we might have a teachers'
+meeting, and the studies went on generally quite as well, to say the
+least, as when the teachers were present. One or two instances of
+irregular conduct occurred. I do not now recollect precisely what they
+were. They were, however, fully acknowledged and not repeated, and I
+believe the scholars were generally more scrupulous and faithful then
+than at other times. They would not betray the confidence reposed in
+them. This plan was continued until it was found more convenient to have
+the teachers' meetings in the afternoons.
+
+When any thing wrong is done in school, I generally state the case, and
+request the individuals who have done it to let me know who they are.
+They inform me sometimes by notes and sometimes in conversation; but
+they always inform me. The plan _always_ succeeds. The scholars all know
+that there is nothing to be feared from confessing faults to me; but
+that, on the other hand, it is a most direct and certain way to secure
+returning peace and happiness.
+
+I can illustrate this by describing a case which actually occurred,
+though the description is not to be considered so much an accurate
+account of what took place in a particular instance as an illustration
+of the _general spirit and manner_ in which such cases are disposed of.
+I accidentally understood that some of the younger scholars were in the
+habit, during recesses and after school, of ringing the door-bell and
+then running away, to amuse themselves with the perplexity of their
+companions who should go to the door and find no one there. I explained
+in a few words, one day, to the school, that this was wrong.
+
+"How many," I then asked, "have ever been put to the trouble to go to
+the door when the bell has thus been rung? They may rise."
+
+A very large number of scholars stood up. Those who had done the
+mischief were evidently surprised at the extent of the trouble they had
+occasioned.
+
+"Now," I continued, "I think all will be convinced that the trouble
+which this practice has occasioned to the fifty or sixty young ladies,
+who can not be expected to find amusement in such a way, is far greater
+than the pleasure it can have given to the few who are young enough to
+have enjoyed it. Therefore it was wrong. Do you think that the girls who
+rang the bell might have known this by proper reflection?"
+
+"Yes, sir," the school generally answered.
+
+"I do not mean," said I, "if they had set themselves formally at work to
+think about the subject, but with such a degree of reflection as ought
+reasonably to be expected of little girls in the hilarity of recess and
+of play."
+
+"Yes, sir," was still the reply, but fainter than before.
+
+"There is one way by which I might ascertain whether you were old enough
+to know that this was wrong, and that is by asking those who have
+refrained from doing this, because they supposed it would be wrong, to
+rise. Then, if some of the youngest scholars in school should stand up,
+as I have no doubt they would, it would prove that all might have known,
+if they had been equally conscientious. But if I ask those to rise who
+have _not_ rung the bell, I shall make known to the whole school who
+they are that have done it, and I wish that the exposure of faults
+should be private, unless it is _necessary_ that it should be public. I
+will, therefore, not do it. I have myself, however, no doubt that all
+might have known that it was wrong.
+
+"There is," continued I, "another injury which must grow out of such a
+practice. This I should not have expected the little girls could think
+of. In fact, I doubt whether any in school will think of it. Can any one
+tell me what it is?"
+
+No one replied.
+
+"I should suppose that it would lead you to disregard the bell when it
+rings, and that consequently a gentleman or lady might sometimes ring in
+vain, the scholars near the door saying, 'Oh, it is only the little
+girls.'"
+
+"Yes, sir," was heard from all parts of the room.
+
+I found, from farther inquiry, that this had been the case, and I closed
+by saying,
+
+"I am satisfied that those who have inadvertently fallen into this
+practice are sorry for it, and that if I should leave it here, no more
+cases of it would occur, and this is all I wish. At the same time, they
+who have done this will feel more effectually relieved from the pain
+which having done wrong must necessarily give them, if they individually
+acknowledge it to me. I wish, therefore, that all who have thus rung the
+bell in play would write me notes stating the facts. If any one does not
+do it, she will punish herself severely, for she will feel for many days
+to come that while her companions were willing to acknowledge their
+faults, she wished to conceal and cover hers. Conscience will reproach
+her bitterly for her insincerity, and, whenever she hears the sound of
+the door-bell, it will remind her not only of her fault, but of what is
+far worse, _her willingness to appear innocent when she was really
+guilty."_
+
+Before the close of the school I had eight or ten notes acknowledging
+the fault, describing the circumstances of each case, and expressing
+promises to do so no more.
+
+It is by such methods as this, rather than by threatening and
+punishment, that I manage the cases of discipline which from time to
+time occur; but even such as this, slight as it is, occur very seldom.
+Weeks and weeks sometimes elapse without one. When they do occur, they
+are always easily settled by confession and reform. Sometimes I am asked
+to _forgive_ the offense. But I have no power to forgive. God must
+forgive you when you do wrong, or the burden must remain. My duty is to
+take measures to prevent future transgression, and to lead those who
+have been guilty of it to God for pardon. If they do not go to Him,
+though they may satisfy me, as principal of a school, by not repeating
+the offence, they must remain _unforgiven_. I can _forget_, and I do
+forget. For example, in this last case I have not the slightest
+recollection of any individual who was engaged in it. The evil was
+entirely removed, and had it not afforded me a convenient illustration
+here, perhaps I should never have thought of it again; still, it may not
+yet be _forgiven._ It may seem strange that I should speak so seriously
+of God's forgiveness for such a trifle as that. Does He notice a child's
+ringing a door-bell in play? He notices when a child is willing to yield
+to temptation to do what she knows to be wrong, and to act even in the
+slightest trifle from a selfish disregard for the convenience of others.
+This spirit He always notices, and though I may stop any particular form
+of its exhibition, it is for Him alone to forgive it and to purify the
+heart from its power. But I shall speak more particularly on this
+subject under the head of Religious Instruction.
+
+
+
+
+II. ORDER OF DAILY EXERCISES.
+
+
+There will be given you, when you enter the school, a blank schedule, in
+which the divisions of each forenoon for one week are marked, and in
+which your own employments for every half hour are to be written. (A
+copy of this is inserted on page 222.)
+
+This schedule, when filled up, forms a sort of a map for the week, in
+which you can readily find what are your duties for any particular
+time. The following description will enable you better to understand it.
+
+_Opening of the School._
+
+The first thing which will call your attention as the hour for the
+commencement of the school approaches in the morning is the ringing of a
+bell five minutes before the time arrives by the regulator, who sits at
+the curtained desk before the Study Card. One minute before the time the
+bell is rung again, which is the signal for all to take their seats and
+prepare for the opening of the school. When the precise moment arrives,
+the Study Card is drawn up, and at the sound of its little bell, all the
+scholars recline their heads upon their desks, and unite with me in a
+very short prayer for God's protection and blessing during the day. I
+adopted the plan of allowing the scholars to sit, because I thought it
+would be pleasanter for them, and they have, in return, been generally,
+so far as I know, faithful in complying with my wish that they would all
+assume the posture proposed, so that the school may present the uniform
+and serious aspect which is proper when we are engaged in so solemn a
+duty. If you move your chair back a little, you will find the posture
+not inconvenient; but the only reward you will have for faithfully
+complying with the general custom is the pleasure of doing your duty,
+for no one watches you, and you would not be called to account should
+you neglect to conform to the usage of the school.
+
+I hope, however, that you will conform to it. Indeed, all truly refined
+and well-bred people make it a universal rule of life to conform to the
+innocent religious usages of those around them, wherever they may be.
+
+After the prayer we sing one or two verses of a hymn. The music is led
+by a piano, and we wish all to join in it who can sing. The exercises
+which follow are exhibited to the eye by the diagram on the next page.
+
+
+MOUNT VERNON SCHOOL
+
+SCHEDULE OF STUDIES. 1833.
+
+_Miss_
+
++---------+---------------+-----------+-----+-----------+-----+-----------+
+|         |FIRST HOUR.    |SECOND HOUR|     |THIRD HOUR |     |FOURTH HOUR|
+|         +---------------+-----------+--+--+-----------+--+--+-----------+
+|         |EVENING LESSONS|LANGUAGES. |G.|R.|MATHEMATICS|G.|R.|SECTIONS.  |
++---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+--+-----+-----+--+--+-----------+
+|MONDAY   |        |      |     |     |  |  |     |     |  |  |           |
++---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+  +-----+-----+--+  +-----------+
+|TUESDAY  |        |      |     |     |  |  |     |     |  |  |           |
++---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+  +-----+-----+--+  +-----------+
+|WEDNESDAY|        |      |     |     |  |  |     |     |  |  |           |
++---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+  +-----+-----+--+  +-----------+
+|THURSDAY |        |      |     |     |  |  |     |     |  |  |           |
++---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+  +-----+-----+--+  +-----------+
+|FRIDAY   |        |      |     |     |  |  |     |     |  |  |           |
++---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+  +-----+-----+--+  +-----------+
+|SATURDAY |        |      |     |     |  |  |     |     |  |  |           |
++---------+--------+------+-----+-----+--+--+-----+-----+--+--+-----------+
+
+
+I now proceed to describe in detail the several hours, as represented
+in the diagram.
+
+
+_First Hour._--_Evening Lessons._
+
+The first hour of the day, as you will see by the schedule, is marked
+evening lessons, because most, though not all, of the studies assigned
+to it are intended to be prepared out of school. These studies are
+miscellaneous in their character, comprising Geography, History, Natural
+and Intellectual Philosophy, and Natural History. This hour, like all
+the other hours for study, is divided into two equal parts, some classes
+reciting in the first part, and others in the second. A bell is always
+rung _five minutes before_ the time for closing the recitation, to give
+the teachers notice that their time is nearly expired, and then again
+_at the time,_ to give notice to new classes to take their places. Thus
+you will observe that five minutes before the half hour expires the bell
+will ring, soon after which the classes in recitation will take their
+seats. Precisely at the end of the half hour it will ring again, when
+new classes will take their places. In the same manner, notice is given
+five minutes before the second half of the hour expires, and so in all
+the other three hours.
+
+At the end of the first hour the Study Card will be let half down five
+minutes, and you will perceive that the sound of its bell will
+immediately produce a decided change in the whole aspect of the room. It
+is the signal, as has been before explained, for universal permission to
+whisper and to leave seats, though not for loud talking or play, so that
+those who wish to continue their studies may do so without interruption.
+When the five-minute period has expired the card goes up again, and its
+sound immediately restores silence and order.
+
+_Second Hour._--_Languages._ We then commence the second hour of the
+school. This is devoted to the study of the languages. The Latin,
+French, and English classes recite at this time. By English classes I
+mean those studying the English _as a language,_ that is, classes in
+Grammar, Rhetoric, and Composition. The hour is divided as the first
+hour is, and the bell is rung in the same way, that is, at the close of
+each half hour, and also five minutes before the close, to give the
+classes notice that the time for recitation is about to expire.
+
+
+_First General Exercise._
+
+You will observe, then, that there follows upon the schedule a quarter
+of an hour marked G. That initial stands for General Exercise, and when
+it arrives each pupil is to lay aside her work, and attend to any
+exercise which may be proposed. This quarter of an hour is appropriated
+to a great variety of purposes. Sometimes I give a short and familiar
+lecture on some useful subject connected with science or art, or the
+principles of duty. Sometimes we have a general reading lesson.
+Sometimes we turn the school into a Bible class. Again, the time is
+occupied in attending to some _general_ business of the school. The bell
+is rung one minute before the close of the time, and when the period
+appropriated to this purpose has actually expired, the Study Card, for
+the first time in the morning, is let entirely down, and the room is at
+once suddenly transformed into a scene of life, and motion, and gayety.
+
+
+_First Recess._
+
+The time for the recess is a quarter of an hour, and, as you will see,
+it is marked R. on the schedule. We have various modes of amusing
+ourselves, and finding exercise and recreation in recesses. Sometimes
+the girls bring their battledores to school. Sometimes they have a large
+number of soft balls with which they amuse themselves. A more common
+amusement is marching to the music of the piano. For this purpose a set
+of signals by the whistle has been devised, by which commands are
+communicated to the school.
+
+In these and similar amusements the recesses pass away, and one minute
+before it expires the bell is rung to give notice of the approach of
+study hours.
+
+At this signal the scholars begin to prepare for a return to the
+ordinary duties of school, and when, at the full expiration of the
+recess, the Study Card again goes up, silence, and attention, and order
+is immediately restored.
+
+
+_Third Hour.--Mathematics_.
+
+There follows next, as you will see by reference to the schedule, an
+hour marked Mathematics. It is time for studying and reciting
+Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, and similar studies. It is divided, as
+the previous hours were, into two equal parts, and the bell is rung, as
+has been described, five minutes before the close, and also precisely at
+the close of each half hour.
+
+
+_Second General Exercise.--Business_.
+
+Then follow two quarter hours, appropriated like those heretofore
+described, the first to a General Exercise, the second to a recess. At
+the first of these the general business of the school is transacted. As
+this business will probably appear new to you, and will attract your
+attention, I will describe its nature and design.
+
+At first you will observe a young lady rise at the secretary's desk to
+read a journal of what was done the day before. The notices which I
+gave, the arrangements I made, the subjects discussed and decided, and,
+in fact, every thing important and interesting in the business or
+occurrences of the preceding day, is recorded by the secretary of the
+school, and read at this time. This journal ought not to be a mere dry
+record of votes and business, but, as far as possible, an interesting
+description, in a narrative style, of the occurrences of the day. The
+secretary must keep a memorandum, and ascertain that every thing
+important really finds a place in the record, but she may employ any
+good writer in school to prepare, from her minutes, the full account.
+
+After the record is read, you will observe me take from a little red
+morocco wrapper which has been brought to my desk a number of narrow
+slips of paper, which I am to read aloud. In most assemblies, it is
+customary for any person wishing it to rise in his place and propose any
+plan, or, as it is called, "make any motion" that he pleases. It would
+be unpleasant for a young lady to do this in presence of a hundred
+companions, and we have consequently resorted to another plan. The red
+wrapper is placed in a part of the room accessible to all, and any one
+who pleases writes upon a narrow slip of paper any thing she wishes to
+lay before the school, and deposits it there, and at the appointed time
+the whole are brought to me. These propositions are of various kinds. I
+can, perhaps, best give you an idea of them by such specimens as occur
+to me.
+
+"A.B. resigns her office of copyist, as she is about to leave school."
+
+"Proposed that a class in Botany be formed. There are many who would
+like to join it."
+
+"When will vacation commence?"
+
+"Proposed that a music committee be appointed, so that we can have some
+marching in recess."
+
+"Proposed that school begin at nine o'clock."
+
+"Mr. Abbott, will you have the goodness to explain to us what is meant
+by the Veto Message?"
+
+"Proposed that we have locks upon our desks."
+
+You see that the variety is very great, and there are usually from four
+or five to ten or fifteen of such papers daily. You will be at liberty
+to make in this way any suggestion or inquiry, or to propose any change
+you please in any part of the instruction or administration of the
+school. If any thing dissatisfies you, you ought not to murmur at it in
+private, or complain of it to your companions, thus injuring to no
+purpose both your own peace and happiness and theirs, but you ought
+immediately to bring up the subject in the way above described, that the
+evil may be removed. I receive some of the most valuable suggestions in
+this way from the older and most reflecting pupils. These suggestions
+are read. Sometimes I decide the question that arises myself. Sometimes
+I say that the pupils may decide it. Sometimes I ask their opinion and
+wishes, and then, after taking them into consideration, come to a
+conclusion.
+
+For example, I will insert a few of these propositions, as these papers
+are called, describing the way in which they would be disposed of. Most
+of them are real cases.
+
+"Mr. Abbott, the first class in Geography is so large that we have not
+room in the recitation seats. Can not we have another place?"
+
+After reading this, I should perhaps say, "The class in Geography may
+rise and be counted." They rise. Those in each division are counted by
+the proper officer, as will hereafter be explained, and the numbers are
+reported aloud to me. It is all done in a moment.
+
+"How many of you think you need better accommodations?"
+
+If a majority of hands are raised, I say, "I wish the teacher of that
+class would ascertain whether any other place of recitation is vacant,
+or occupied by a smaller class at that time, and report the case to me."
+
+"Proposed that we be allowed to walk upon the common in the recesses."
+
+"I should like to have some plan formed by which you can walk on the
+common in recesses, but there are difficulties. If all should go out
+together, it is probable that some would be rude and noisy, and that
+others would come back tardy and out of breath. Besides, as the recess
+is short, so many would be in haste to prepare to go out, that there
+would be a great crowd and much confusion in the ante-room and
+passage-ways. I do not mention these as insuperable objections, but
+only as difficulties which there must be some plan to avoid. Perhaps,
+however, they can not be avoided. Do any of you think of any plan?"
+
+I see, perhaps, two or three hands raised, and call upon the individuals
+by name, and they express their opinions. One says that a part can go
+out at a time. Another proposes that those who are tardy one day should
+not go out again, &c.
+
+"I think it possible that a plan can be formed on these or some such
+principles. If you will appoint a committee who will prepare a plan, and
+mature its details, and take charge of the execution of it, you may try
+the experiment. I will allow it to go on as long as you avoid the evils
+I have above alluded to."
+
+A committee is then raised, to report in writing at the business hour of
+the following day.
+
+"Proposed that the Study Card be down every half hour."
+
+"You may decide this question yourselves. That you may vote more freely,
+I wish you to vote by ballot. The boxes will be open during the next
+recess. The vote-receivers will write the question and place it upon the
+boxes. All who feel interested in the subject may carry in their votes,
+Aye or Nay. When the result is reported to me I will read it to the
+school."
+
+In this and similar ways the various business brought up is disposed of.
+This custom is useful to the scholars, for it exercises and strengthens
+their judgment and their reflecting powers more than almost any thing
+besides; so that, if interesting them in this way in the management of
+the school were of no benefit to me, I should retain the practice as
+most valuable to them. But it is most useful to me and to the school. I
+think that nothing has contributed more to its prosperity than the
+active interest which the scholars have always taken in its concerns,
+and the assistance they have rendered me in carrying my plans into
+effect.
+
+You will observe that in transacting this business very little is
+actually done by myself, except making the ultimate decision. All the
+details of business are assigned to teachers, or to officers and
+committees appointed for the purpose. By this means we dispatch business
+very rapidly. The system of offices will be explained in another place;
+but I may say here that all appointments and elections are made in this
+quarter hour, and by means of the assistance of these officers the
+transaction of business is so facilitated that much more can sometimes
+be accomplished than you would suppose possible. I consider this period
+as one of the most important in the whole morning.
+
+
+_Second Recess._
+
+After the expiration of the quarter hour above described, the Study Card
+is dropped, and a recess succeeds.
+
+
+_Fourth Hour._--_Sections_.
+
+In all the former part of the day the scholars are divided into
+_classes_, according to their proficiency in particular branches of
+study, and they resort to their _recitations_ for _instruction. _ They
+now are divided into six _sections_, as we call them, and placed under
+the care of _superintendents_, not for instruction, but for what may be
+called supervision. _Teaching_ a pupil is not all that is necessary to
+be done for her in school. There are many other things to be attended
+to, such as supplying her with the various articles necessary for her
+use, seeing that her desk is convenient, that her time is well arranged,
+that she has not too much to do nor too little, and that no difficulty
+which can be removed obstructs her progress in study or her happiness in
+school. The last hour is appropriated to this purpose, with the
+understanding, however, that such a portion of it as is not wanted by
+the superintendent is to be spent in study. You will see, then, when the
+last hour arrives, that all the scholars go in various directions to the
+meetings of their respective sections. Here they remain as long as the
+superintendent retains them. Sometimes they adjourn almost immediately,
+perhaps after having simply attended to the distribution of pens for the
+next day; at other times they remain during the hour, attending to such
+exercises as the superintendent may plan. The design, however, and
+nature of this whole arrangement I shall explain more fully in another
+place.
+
+
+_Close of the School._
+
+As the end of the hour approaches, five minutes' notice is given by the
+bell, and when the time arrives the Study Card is half dropped for a
+moment before the closing exercises. When it rises again the room is
+restored to silence and order. We then sing a verse or two of a hymn,
+and commend ourselves to God's protection in a short prayer. As the
+scholars raise their heads from the posture of reverence which they have
+assumed, they pause a moment till the regulator lets down the Study
+Card, and the sound of its bell is the signal that our duties at school
+are ended for the day.
+
+
+III. INSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION OF PUPILS.
+
+For the instruction of the pupils the school is divided into _classes_,
+and for their general supervision into _sections_, as has been intimated
+under the preceding caption. The head of a _class_ is called a
+_teacher_, and the head of a _section_ a _superintendent_. The same
+individual may be both the teacher of a class and the superintendent of
+a section. The two offices are, however, entirely distinct in their
+nature and design. As you will perceive by recalling to mind the daily
+order of exercises, the classes meet and recite during the first three
+hours of the school, and the sections assemble on the fourth and last.
+We shall give each a separate description.
+
+1. CLASSES.
+
+The object of the division into classes is _instruction_. Whenever it is
+desirable that several individuals should pursue a particular study, a
+list of their names is made out, a book selected, a time for recitation
+assigned, a teacher appointed, and the exercises begin. In this way a
+large number of classes have been formed, and the wishes of parents, or
+the opinion of the principal, and, in many cases, that of the pupil,
+determines how many and what shall be assigned to each individual. A
+list of these classes, with the average age of the members, the name of
+the teacher, and the time of recitation, is posted in a conspicuous
+place, and public notice is given whenever a new class is formed. You
+will therefore have the opportunity to know all the arrangements of
+school in this respect, and I wish you to exercise your own judgment and
+discretion a great deal in regard to your studies. I do not mean I
+expect you to _decide_, but to _reflect_ upon them. Look at the list,
+and consider what are most useful for you. Propose to me or to your
+parents changes, whenever you think they are necessary; and when you
+finish one study, reflect carefully, yourself, on the question what you
+shall next commence.
+
+The scholars prepare their lessons when they please. They are expected
+to be present and prepared at the time of recitation, but they make the
+preparation when it is most convenient. The more methodical and
+systematic of the young ladies mark the times of _study_ as well as of
+_recitation_ upon their schedules, so that the employment of their whole
+time at school is regulated by a systematic plan. You will observe, too,
+that by this plan of having a great many classes reciting through the
+first three hours of the morning, every pupil can be employed as much or
+as little as her parents desire. In a case of ill health, she may, as
+has often been done in such cases at the request of parents, join one or
+two classes only, and occupy the whole forenoon in preparing for them,
+and be entirely free from school duties at home. Or she may, as is much
+more frequently the case, choose to join a great many classes, so as to
+fill up, perhaps, her whole schedule with recitations, in which case she
+must prepare all her lessons at home. It is the duty of teachers to take
+care, however, when a pupil pleads want of time as a reason for being
+unprepared in any lesson, that the case is fully examined, in order that
+it may be ascertained whether the individual has joined too many
+classes, in which case some one should be dropped, and thus the time and
+the employments of each individual should be so adjusted as to give her
+constant occupation _in school,_ and as much more as her parents may
+desire. By this plan of the classes, each scholar advances just as
+rapidly in her studies as her time, and talents, and health will allow.
+No one is kept back by the rest. Each class goes on regularly and
+systematically, all its members keeping exactly together in that study;
+but the various members of it will have joined a greater or less number
+of other classes, according to their age, or abilities, or progress in
+study, so that all will or may have full employment for their time.
+
+When you first enter the school, you will, for a day or two, be assigned
+to but few classes, for your mind will be distracted by the excitement
+of new scenes and pursuits, and the intellectual effort necessary for
+_joining_ a class is greater than that requisite for _going on_ with it
+after being once under way. After a few days you will come to me and
+say, perhaps (for this is ordinarily the process),
+
+"Mr. Abbott, I think I have time for some more studies."
+
+"I will thank you to bring me your schedule," I say in reply, "so that I
+can see what you have now to do."
+
+By glancing my eye over the schedule in such a case, I see in a moment
+what duties have been already assigned you, and from my general
+schedule, containing all the studies of the school, I select what would
+be most suitable for you after conferring with you about your past
+pursuits, and your own wishes or those of your parents in regard to your
+future course. Additions are thus made until your time is fully
+occupied.
+
+The manner of recitation in the classes is almost boundlessly varied.
+The design is not to have you commit to memory what the book contains,
+but to understand and digest it--to incorporate it fully into your own
+mind, that it may come up in future life in such a form as you wish it
+for use. Do not then, in ordinary cases, endeavor to fix _words_, but
+_ideas_ in your minds. Conceive clearly--paint distinctly to your
+imagination what is described--contemplate facts in all their bearings
+and relations, and thus endeavor to exercise the judgment, and the
+thinking and reasoning powers, rather than the mere memory, upon the
+subjects which will come before you.
+
+
+2. SECTIONS.
+
+In describing the order of daily exercises, I alluded to the _sections_
+which assemble in the last hour of the school. It is necessary that I
+should fully describe the system of sections, as it constitutes a very
+important part of the plan of the school.
+
+Besides giving the scholars the necessary intellectual instruction,
+there are, as I have already remarked, a great many other points which
+must receive attention in order to promote their progress, and to secure
+the regular operation and general welfare of the school. These various
+points have something common in their nature, but it is difficult to
+give them a common name. They are such as supplying the pupils with pens
+and paper, and stationery of other kinds; becoming acquainted with each
+individual; ascertaining that she has enough and not too much to do;
+arranging her work so that no one of her duties shall interfere with
+another; assisting her to discover and correct her faults, and removing
+any sources of difficulty or causes of discontent which may gradually
+come in her way. These, and a multitude of similar points, constituting
+what may be called the general _administration_ of the school, become,
+when the number of pupils is large, a most important branch of the
+teacher's duty.
+
+To accomplish these objects more effectually, the school is divided into
+six sections, arranged, not according to proficiency in particular
+studies, as the several classes are, but according to _age and general
+maturity of mind._ Each one of these sections is assigned to the care of
+a superintendent. These superintendents, it is true, during most of
+school hours, are also teachers. Their duties, however, as _Teachers_
+and as _Superintendents_, are entirely distinct. I shall briefly
+enumerate the duties which devolve upon her in the latter capacity.
+
+1. A superintendent ought to prepare an exact list of the members of her
+section, and to become intimately acquainted with them, so as to be as
+far as possible their friend and confidante, and to feel a stronger
+interest in their progress in study and their happiness in school, and a
+greater personal attachment to them than to any other scholars.
+
+2. She is to superintend the preparation of their schedules; to see that
+each one has enough and not too much to do, by making known to me the
+necessity of a change, where such necessity exists; to see that the
+schedules are submitted to the parents, and that their opinion or
+suggestions, if they wish to make any, are reported to me.
+
+3. She is to take care that all the daily wants of her section are
+supplied--that all have pens and paper, and desks of suitable height. If
+any are new scholars, she ought to interest herself in assisting them to
+become acquainted in school; if they are friendless and alone, to find
+companions for them, and to endeavor in every way to make their time
+pass pleasantly and happily.
+
+4. To watch the characters of the members of her section. To inquire of
+their several teachers as to the progress they make in study, and the
+faithfulness and punctuality with which they prepare their lessons. She
+ought to ascertain whether they are punctual at school and regular in
+their habits--whether their desks are neat and well arranged, and their
+exercises carefully executed. She ought to correct, through her own
+influence, any evils of this kind she may find, or else immediately to
+refer the cases where this can not be done to me.
+
+The better and the more pleasantly to accomplish the object of exerting
+a favorable influence upon the characters of the members of their
+section, the superintendents ought often to bring up subjects connected
+with moral and religious duty in section meetings. This may be done in
+the form of subjects assigned for composition, or proposed for free
+discussion in writing or conversation, or the superintendents may write
+themselves, and read to the section the instructions they wish to give.
+
+When subjects for written composition are thus assigned, they should be
+so presented to the pupils as to lead their minds to a very practical
+mode of regarding them. For example, instead of simply assigning the
+subject _Truth_ as the theme of an abstract moral essay, bring up
+definite points of a practical character, such especially as are
+connected with the trials and temptations of early life. "I wish you
+would all give me your opinions," the teacher might say in such a case,
+"on the question, What is the most frequent inducement that leads
+children to tell falsehoods? Also, do you think it is right to tell
+untruths to very little children, as many persons do, or to people who
+are sick? Also, whether it would be right to tell a falsehood to an
+insane man in order to manage him?"
+
+Sometimes, instead of assigning a subject of composition _verbally_, the
+superintendent exhibits an engraving, and the several members of the
+class then write any thing they please which is suggested to them by
+the engraving. For example, suppose the picture thus exhibited were to
+represent a girl sewing in an attic. The compositions to which it would
+give rise might be very various. One pupil would perhaps simply give an
+account of the picture itself, describing the arrangements of the room,
+and specifying the particular articles of furniture contained in it.
+Another would give a soliloquy supposed to be spoken by the sewing-girl
+as she sits at her work. Another would narrate the history of her life,
+of course an imaginary one. Another would write an essay on the
+advantages of industry and independence.
+
+This is a very good way of assigning subjects of composition, and, if
+well managed, it may be the means of awakening a great interest in
+writing among almost all the pupils of a school.
+
+5. Though the superintendents, as such, have, necessarily speaking, no
+_teaching_ to do, still they ought particularly to secure the progress
+of every pupil in what may be called the _essential_ studies, such as
+reading, writing, and spelling. For this purpose, they either see that
+their pupils are going on successfully in classes in school in these
+branches, or they may attend to them in the section, provided that they
+never allow such instruction to interfere with their more appropriate
+and important duties.
+
+In a word, the superintendents are to consider the members of their
+sections as pupils confided to their care, and they are not merely to
+discharge mechanically any mere routine of duty, such as can be here
+pointed out, but to exert all their powers, their ingenuity, their
+knowledge of human character, their judgment and discretion, in every
+way, to secure for each of those committed to their care the highest
+benefits which the institution to which they belong can afford. They are
+to keep a careful and faithful record of their plans and of the history
+of their respective sections, and to endeavor as faithfully and as
+diligently to advance the interests of the members of them as if the
+sections were separate and independent schools of their own.
+
+A great responsibility is thus evidently intrusted to them, but not a great
+deal of _power_. They ought not to make changes, except in very plain
+cases, without referring the subject to me. They ought not to make rash
+experiments, or even to try many new plans, without first obtaining my
+approval of them. They ought to refer all cases which they can not easily
+manage to my care. They ought to understand the distinction between _seeing
+that a thing is done_ and _doing it_. For example, if a superintendent
+thinks that one of her section is in too high a class in Arithmetic, her
+duty is not to undertake, by her own authority, to remove her to a lower
+one, for, as superintendent, she has no authority over Arithmetic classes,
+nor should she go to the opposite extreme of saying, "I have no authority
+over Arithmetic classes, and therefore I have nothing to do with this
+case." She ought to go to the teacher of the class to which her pupil
+had been unwisely assigned, converse with her, obtain her opinion, then
+find some other class more suited to her attainments, and after fully
+ascertaining all the facts in the case, bring them to me, that I may
+make the change. This is _superintendence--looking over_ the condition
+and progress of the scholar. The superintendents have thus great
+responsibility, and yet, comparatively, little power. They accomplish a
+great deal of good, and, in its ordinary course, it is by their direct
+personal efforts; but in making changes, and remedying defects and
+evils, they act generally in a different way.
+
+The last hour of school is devoted to the sections. No classes recite
+then, but the sections meet, if the superintendents wish, and attend to
+such exercises as they provide. Each section has its own organization,
+its own officers and plans. These arrangements of course vary in their
+character according to the ingenuity and enterprise of the
+superintendents, and more especially according to the talents and
+intellectual ardor of the members of the section.
+
+The two upper sections are called senior, the next two middle, and the
+two younger junior. The senior sections are distinguished by using paper
+for section purposes with a light blue tinge. To the middle sections is
+assigned a light straw color; and to the junior, pink. These colors are
+used for the schedules of the members, and for the records and other
+documents of the section.
+
+This account, though it is brief, will be sufficient to explain to you
+the general principles of the plan. You will soon become acquainted with
+the exercises and arrangements of the particular section to which you
+will be assigned, and by taking an active interest in them, and
+endeavoring to cooperate with the superintendent in all her measures and
+to comply with her wishes, you will very materially add to her
+happiness, and do your part toward elevating the character of the
+circle to which you will belong.
+
+
+
+IV. OFFICERS.
+
+In consequence of the disposition early manifested by the scholars to
+render me every assistance in their power in carrying into effect the
+plans of the school and promoting its prosperity, I gradually adopted
+the plan of assigning to various officers and committees, a number of
+specific duties relating to the general business of the school. These
+officers have gradually multiplied as the school has increased and as
+business has accumulated. The system has, from time to time, been
+revised, condensed, and simplified, and at the present time it is thus
+arranged. The particular duties of each officer are minutely described
+to the individuals themselves at the time of their election; all I
+intend here is to give a general view of the plan, such as is necessary
+for the scholars at large.
+
+There are, then, _five departments_ of business intrusted to officers of
+the school. The names of the officers, and a brief exposition of their
+duties, are as follows:
+
+[I omit the particular explanation of the duties of the officers, as the
+arrangement must vary in different schools, and the details of any one
+plan can only be useful in the school-room to which it belongs. It will
+be sufficient to name the officers of each department, with their
+duties, in general terms.]
+
+1. REGULATORS.--To assist in the ordinary routine of business in school:
+ringing the bells; managing the Study Card; distributing and collecting
+papers; counting votes, &c.
+
+2. SECRETARIES.--Keeping the records, and executing writing of various
+kinds.
+
+3. ACCOUNTANTS.--Keeping a register of the scholars, and various other
+duties connected with the accounts.
+
+4. LIBRARIANS.--To take charge of books and stationery.
+
+5. CURATORS.--To secure neatness and good order in the apartments.
+
+The secretaries and accountants are appointed by the principal, and
+will generally be chosen from the teachers. The first in each of the
+other departments are chosen by ballot, by the scholars. Each one thus
+chosen nominates the second in her department, and they two the
+assistants. These nominations must be approved at a teachers' meeting;
+for, if a scholar is inattentive to her studies, disorderly in her desk,
+or careless and troublesome in her manners, she evidently ought not to
+be appointed to public office. No person can hold an office in two of
+these departments. She can, if she pleases, however, resign one to
+accept another. Each of these departments ought often to assemble and
+consult together, and form plans for carrying into effect with greater
+efficiency the objects intrusted to them. They are to keep a record of
+all their proceedings, the head of the department acting as secretary
+for this purpose.
+
+The following may be given as an example of the manner in which business
+is transacted by means of these officers. On the day that the above
+description of their duties was written, I wished for a sort of
+directory to assist the collector employed to receive payments for the
+bills, and, to obtain it, I took the following steps:
+
+At the business quarter hour I issued the following order:
+
+"Before the close of school, I wish the distributors to leave upon each
+of the desks a piece of paper" (the size I described). "It is for a
+purpose which I shall then explain."
+
+Accordingly, at some leisure moment before the close of school, each one
+of the regulators went with her box to the stationery shelves, which you
+will see in the corners of the room, where a supply of paper of all the
+various sizes used in school is kept, and, taking out a sufficient
+number, they supplied all the desks in their respective divisions.
+
+When the time for closing school arrived, I requested each young lady to
+write the name of her parent or guardian upon the paper, and opposite
+to it his place of business. This was done in a minute or two.
+
+"All those whose parent's or guardian's name begins with a letter above
+_m_ may rise."
+
+They rose.
+
+"The distributors may collect the papers."
+
+The officers then passed round in regular order, each through her own
+division, and collected the papers.
+
+"Deliver them at the accountants' desk."
+
+They were accordingly carried there, and received by the accountants.
+
+In the same manner, the others were collected and received by the
+accountants, but kept separate.
+
+"I wish now the second accountant would copy these in a little book I
+have prepared for the purpose, arranging them alphabetically, referring
+all doubtful cases again to me."
+
+The second accountant then arranged the papers, and prepared them to go
+into the book, and the writer who belongs to the department copied them
+fairly.
+
+I describe this case, because it was one which occurred at the time I
+was writing the above description, and not because there is any thing
+otherwise peculiar in it. Such cases are continually taking place, and
+by the division of labor above illustrated, I am very much assisted in a
+great many of the duties which would otherwise consume a great portion
+of my time.
+
+Any of the scholars may at any time make suggestions in writing to any
+of these officers or to the whole school; and if an officer should be
+partial, or unfaithful, or negligent in her duty, any scholar may
+propose her impeachment. After hearing what she chooses to write in her
+defense, a vote is taken on sustaining the impeachment. If it is
+sustained, she is deprived of the office, and another appointed to fill
+her place.
+
+
+
+
+V. THE COURT.
+
+I have already described how all serious cases of doing wrong or neglect
+of duty are managed in the school. I manage them myself, by coming as
+directly and as openly as I can to the heart and conscience of the
+offender. There are, however, a number of little transgressions, too
+small to be individually worthy of serious attention, but which are yet
+troublesome to the community when frequently repeated. These relate
+chiefly to _order in the school-rooms_. These misdemeanors are tried,
+half in jest and half in earnest, by a sort of _court_, whose forms of
+process might make a legal gentleman smile. They, however, fully answer
+our purpose. I can best give you an idea of the court by describing an
+actual trial. I ought, however, first to say that any young lady who
+chooses to be free from the jurisdiction of the court can signify that
+wish to me, and she is safe from it. This, however, is never done. They
+all see the useful influence of it, and wish to sustain it.
+
+Near the close of school, I find, perhaps, on my desk a paper, of which
+the following may be considered a copy. It is called the indictment.
+
+We accuse Miss A.B. of having waste papers in the aisle opposite her desk,
+at 11 o'clock, on Friday, Oct. 12.
+  C.D.}
+  E.F.} Witnesses.
+
+I give notice after school that a case is to be tried. Those interested,
+twenty or thirty perhaps, gather around my desk, while the sheriff goes
+to summon the accused and the witnesses. A certain space is marked off
+as the precincts of the court, within which no one must enter in the
+slightest degree, on pain of imprisonment, that is, confinement to her
+seat until court adjourns.
+
+"Miss A.B., you are accused of having an untidy floor about your desk.
+Have you any objection to the indictment?"
+
+While she is looking over the indictment to discover a misspelled word,
+or an error in the date, or some other latent flaw, I appoint any two of
+the by-standers jury. The jury come forward to listen to the cause.
+
+The accused returns the indictment, saying she has no objection, and the
+witnesses are called upon to present their testimony.
+
+Perhaps the prisoner alleges in defense that the papers were out _in the
+aisle_, not _under her desk_, or that she did not put them there, or
+that they were too few or too small to deserve attention.
+
+My charge to the jury would be somewhat as follows:
+
+"You are to consider and decide whether she was guilty of disorder,
+taking into view the testimony of the witnesses and also her defense. It
+is considered here that each young lady is responsible not only for the
+appearance of the carpet _under her desk_, but also for _the aisle
+opposite to it_, so that her first ground of defense must be abandoned.
+So, also, with the second, that she did not put them there. She ought
+not to _have_ them there. Each scholar must keep her own place in a
+proper condition; so that if disorder is found there, no matter who made
+it, she is responsible if she only had time to remove it. As to the
+third, you must judge whether enough has been proved by the witnesses to
+make out real disorder." The jury write _guilty_ or _not guilty_ upon
+the paper, and it is returned to me. If sentence is pronounced, it is
+usually confinement to the seat during a recess, or part of a recess, or
+something that requires a slight effort or sacrifice for the public
+good. The sentence is always something _real_, though always _slight_,
+and the court has a great deal of influence in a double way--making
+amusement and preserving order.
+
+The cases tried are very various, but none of the serious business of
+the school is intrusted to it. Its sessions are always held out of
+school hours, and, in fact, it is hardly considered by the scholars as a
+constituent part of the arrangements of the school; so much so, that I
+hesitated much about inserting an account of it in this description.
+
+
+
+
+VI. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION.
+
+In giving you this account, brief as it is, I ought not to omit to speak
+of one feature of our plan, which we have always intended should be one
+of the most prominent and distinctive characteristics of the school. The
+gentlemen who originally interested themselves in its establishment had
+mainly in view the exertion, by the principal, of a decided moral and
+religious influence over the hearts of the pupils. Knowing, as they did,
+how much more dutiful and affectionate at home you would be, how much
+more successful in your studies at school, how much happier in your
+intercourse with each other, and in your prospects for the future both
+here and hereafter, if your hearts could be brought under the influence
+of Christian principle, they were strongly desirous that the school
+should be so conducted that its religious influence, though gentle and
+alluring in its character, should be frank, and open, and decided. I
+need not say that I myself entered very cordially into these views. It
+has been my constant effort, and one of the greatest sources of my
+enjoyment, to try to win my pupils to piety, and to create such an
+atmosphere in school that conscience, and moral principle, and affection
+for the unseen Jehovah should reign here. You can easily see how much
+pleasanter it is for me to have the school controlled by such influence,
+than if it were necessary for me to hire you to diligence in duty by
+prizes or rewards, or to deter you from neglect or from transgression by
+reproaches, and threatenings, and punishments.
+
+The influence which the school has thus exerted has always been
+cordially welcomed by my pupils, and approved, so far as I have known,
+by their parents, though four or five denominations, and fifteen or
+twenty different congregations, have been from time to time represented
+in the school. There are few parents who would not like to have their
+children _Christians_--sincerely and practically so; for everything
+which a parent can desire in a child is promoted just in proportion as
+she opens her heart to the influence of the spirit of piety. But that
+you may understand what course is taken, I shall describe, first, what I
+wish to effect in the hearts of my pupils, and then what means I take to
+accomplish the object.
+
+1. A large number of young persons of your age, and in circumstances
+similar to those in which you are placed, perform with some fidelity
+their various outward duties, _but maintain no habitual and daily
+communion with God_. It is very wrong for them to live thus without God,
+but they do not see, or, rather, do not feel the guilt of it. They only
+think of their accountability to _human beings_ like themselves; for
+example, their parents, teachers, brothers and sisters, and friends.
+Consequently, they think most of their _external_ conduct, which is all
+that human beings can see. Their i>hearts_ are neglected, and become
+very impure, full of evil thoughts, and desires, and passions, which are
+not repented of, and consequently not forgiven. Now what I wish to
+accomplish in regard to all my pupils is, that they should begin to
+_feel their accountability to God_, and to act according to it; that
+they should explore their _hearts_, and ask God's forgiveness for all
+their past sins, through Jesus Christ, who died for them that they might
+be forgiven; and that they should from this time try to live _near to
+God_, feel his presence, and enjoy that solid peace and happiness which
+flows from a sense of his protection. When such a change takes place, it
+relieves the mind from that constant and irritating uneasiness which the
+great mass of mankind feel as a constant burden; the ceaseless
+forebodings of a troubled conscience reproaching them for their past
+accumulated guilt, and warning them of a judgment to come. The change
+which I endeavor to promote relieves the heart both of the present
+suffering and of the future danger.
+
+After endeavoring to induce you to begin to act from Christian
+principle, I wish to explain to you your various duties to yourselves,
+your parents, and to God.
+
+2. The measures to which I resort to accomplish these objects are three:
+
+First, _Religious Exercises in School_.--We open and close the school
+with a very short prayer and one or two verses of a hymn. Sometimes I
+occupy ten or fifteen minutes at one of the general exercises, or at the
+close of the school, in giving instruction upon practical religious
+duty. The subjects are sometimes suggested by a passage of Scripture
+read for the purpose, but more commonly in another way.
+
+You will observe often, at the close of the school or at an appointed
+general exercise, that a scholar will bring to my desk a dark-colored
+morocco wrapper containing several small strips of paper, upon which
+questions relating to moral or religious duty, or subjects for remarks
+from me, or anecdotes, or short statements of facts, giving rise to
+inquiries of various kinds, are written. This wrapper is deposited in a
+place accessible to all the scholars, and any one who pleases deposits
+in it any question or suggestion on religious subjects which may occur
+to her. You can at any time do this yourself, thus presenting any doubt,
+or difficulty, or inquiry which may at any time occur to you.
+
+Secondly, _Religious Exercise on Saturday afternoon_.--In order to bring
+up more distinctly and systematically the subject of religious duty, I
+established, a long time ago, a religious meeting on Saturday afternoon.
+It is intended for those who feel interested in receiving such
+instruction, and who can conveniently attend at that time. If you have
+no other engagements, and if your parents approve of it, I should be
+happy to have you attend. There will be very little to interest you
+except the subject itself, for I make all the instructions which I give
+there as plain, direct, and practical as is in my power. A considerable
+number of the scholars usually attend, and frequently bring with them
+many of their female friends. You can at any time invite any one whom
+you please to come to the meeting. It commences at half past three, and
+continues about half an hour.
+
+Thirdly, _Personal Religious Instruction._--In consequence of the large
+number of my pupils, and the constant occupation of my time in school, I
+have scarcely any opportunity of religious conversation with them, even
+with those who particularly desire it. The practice has therefore
+arisen, and gradually extended itself almost universally in school, of
+writing to me on the subject. These communications are usually brief
+notes, expressing the writer's interest in the duties of piety, or
+bringing forward her own peculiar practical difficulties, or making
+specific inquiries, or asking particular instruction in regard to some
+branch of religious duty. I answer in a similar way, very briefly and
+concisely, however, for the number of notes of this kind which I receive
+is very large, and the time which I can devote to such a correspondence
+necessarily limited. I should like to receive such communications from
+all my pupils; for advice or instruction communicated in reply, being
+directly personal, is far more likely to produce effect. Besides, my
+remarks, being in writing, can be read a second time, and be more
+attentively considered and reconsidered than when words are merely
+spoken. These communications must always be begun by the pupil. I never
+(unless there may be occasional exceptions in some few very peculiar
+cases) commence. I am prevented from doing this both by my unwillingness
+to obtrude such a subject personally upon those who might not welcome
+it, and by want of time. I have scarcely time to write to all those who
+are willing first to write to me. Many cases have occurred where
+individuals have strongly desired some private communication with me,
+but have hesitated long, and shrunk reluctantly from the first step. I
+hope it will not be so with you. Should you ever wish to receive from
+me any direct religious instruction, I hope you will write immediately
+and freely. I shall very probably not even notice that it is the first
+time I have received such a communication from you. So numerous and so
+frequent are these communications, that I seldom observe, when I receive
+one from any individual for the first time, that it comes from one who
+has not written me before.
+
+Such are the means to which I resort in endeavoring to lead my pupils to
+God and to duty, and you will observe that the whole design of them is
+to win and to allure, not to compel. The regular devotional exercises of
+school are all which you will _necessarily_ witness. These are very
+short, occupying much less time than many of the pupils think desirable.
+The rest is all private and voluntary. I never make any effort to urge
+any one to attend the Saturday meeting, nor do I, except in a few rare
+and peculiar cases, ever address any one personally, unless she desires
+to be so addressed. You will be left, therefore, in this school,
+unmolested, to choose your own way. If you should choose to neglect
+religious duty, and to wander away from God, I shall still do all in my
+power to make you happy in school, and to secure for you in future life
+such a measure of enjoyment as can fall to the share of one over whose
+prospects in another world there hangs so gloomy a cloud. I shall never
+reproach you, and perhaps may not even know what your choice is. Should
+you, on the other hand, prefer the peace and happiness of piety, and be
+willing to begin to walk in its paths, you will find many, both among
+the teachers and pupils of the Mount Vernon School, to sympathize with
+you, and to encourage and help you on your way.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+
+SCHEMING.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Some of the best teachers in our country, or, rather, of those who might
+be the best, lose a great deal of their time, and endanger, or perhaps
+entirely destroy, their hopes of success by a scheming spirit, which is
+always reaching forward to something new. One has in his mind some new
+school-book by which Arithmetic, Grammar, or Geography are to be taught
+with unexampled rapidity, and his own purse to be filled in a much more
+easy way than by waiting for the rewards of patient industry. Another
+has the plan of a school, bringing into operation new principles of
+management or instruction, which he is to establish on some favored
+spot, and which is to become, in a few years, a second Hofwyl. Another
+has some royal road to learning, and, though he is trammeled and held
+down by what he calls the ignorance and stupidity of his trustees or his
+school committee, yet, if he could fairly put his principles and methods
+to the test, he is certain of advancing the science of education half a
+century at least at a single leap.
+
+Ingenuity in devising new ways, and enterprise in following them, are
+among the happiest characteristics of a new country rapidly filling with
+a thriving population. Without these qualities there could be no
+advance; society must be stationary; and from a stationary to a
+retrograde condition, the progress is inevitable. The disposition to
+make improvements and changes may, however, be too great. If so, it must
+be checked. On the other hand, a slavish attachment to old established
+practices may prevail. Then the spirit of enterprise and experiment must
+be awakened and encouraged. Which of these two is to be the duty of a
+writer at any time will of course depend upon the situation of the
+community at the time when he writes, and of the class of readers for
+which he takes his pen. Now, at the present time, it is undoubtedly
+true, that while among the great mass of teachers there may be too
+little originality and enterprise, there is still among many a spirit of
+innovation and change to which a caution ought to be addressed. But,
+before I proceed, let me protect myself from misconception by one or two
+remarks.
+
+1. There are a few individuals in various parts of our country who, by
+ingenuity and enterprise, have made real and important improvements in
+many departments of our science, and are still making them. The science
+is to be carried forward by such men. Let them not, therefore,
+understand that any thing which I shall say applies at all to those real
+improvements which are from time to time brought before the public. As
+examples of this, there might easily be mentioned, were it necessary,
+several new modes of study, and new text-books, and literary
+institutions on new plans, which have been brought forward within a few
+years, and have proved, on actual trial, to be of real and permanent
+value.
+
+These are, or rather they were, when first conceived by the original
+projectors, new schemes, and the result has proved that they were good
+ones. Every teacher, too, must hope that such improvements will continue
+to be made. Let nothing, therefore, which shall be said on the subject
+of scheming in this chapter be interpreted as intended to condemn real
+improvements of this kind, or to check those which may now be in
+progress by men of age or experience, or of sound judgment, who are
+capable of distinguishing between a real improvement and a whimsical
+innovation which can never live any longer than it is sustained by the
+enthusiasm of the original inventor.
+
+2. There are a great many teachers in our country who make their
+business a mere dull and formal routine, through which they plod on,
+month after month, and year after year, without variety or change, and
+who are inclined to stigmatize with the appellation of idle scheming all
+plans, of whatever kind, to give variety or interest to the exercises of
+the school. Now whatever may be said in this chapter against unnecessary
+innovation and change does not apply to efforts to secure variety in the
+details of daily study, while the great leading objects are steadily
+pursued. This subject has already been discussed in the chapter on
+Instruction, where it has been shown that every wise teacher, while he
+pursues the same great object, and adopts in substance the same leading
+measures at all times, will exercise all the ingenuity he possesses, and
+bring all his inventive powers into requisition to give variety and
+interest to the minute details.
+
+
+To explain now what is meant by such scheming as is to be condemned, let
+us suppose a case which is riot very uncommon. A young man, while
+preparing for college, takes a school. When he first enters upon the
+duties of his office, he is diffident and timid, and walks cautiously in
+the steps which precedent has marked out for him. Distrusting himself,
+he seeks guidance in the example which others have set for him, and,
+very probably, he imitates precisely, though it may be insensibly and
+involuntarily, the manners and the plans of his own last teacher. This
+servitude soon, however, if he is a man of natural abilities, passes
+away; he learns to try one experiment after another, until he insensibly
+finds that a plan may succeed, even if it was not pursued by his former
+teacher. So far it is well. He throws greater interest into his school,
+and into all its exercises, by the spirit with which he conducts them.
+He is successful. After the period of his services has expired, he
+returns to the pursuit of his studies, encouraged by his success, and
+anticipating farther triumphs in his subsequent attempts.
+
+He goes on through college, we will suppose, teaching from time to time
+in the vacations, as opportunity occurs, taking more and more interest
+in the employment, and meeting with greater and greater success. This
+success is owing in a very great degree to the _freedom_ of his
+practice, that is, to his escape from the thraldom of imitation. So long
+as he leaves the great objects of the school untouched, and the great
+features of its organization unchanged, his many plans for accomplishing
+these objects in new and various ways awaken interest and spirit both in
+himself and in his scholars, and all goes on well.
+
+Now in such a case as this, a young teacher, philosophizing upon his
+success and the causes of it, will almost invariably make this mistake,
+namely, he will attribute to something essentially excellent in his
+plans the success which, in fact, results from the novelty of them.
+
+
+When he proposes something new to a class, they all take an interest in
+it because it is _new_. He takes, too, a special interest in it because
+it is an experiment which he is trying, and he feels a sort of pride and
+pleasure in securing its success. The new method which he adopts may not
+be, _in itself,_ in the least degree better than old methods, yet it may
+succeed vastly better in his hands than any old method he had tried
+before. And why? Why, because it is new. It awakens interest in his
+class, because it offers them variety; and it awakens interest in him,
+because it is a plan which he has devised, and for whose success,
+therefore, he feels that his credit is at stake. Either of these
+circumstances is abundantly sufficient to account for its success.
+Either of these would secure success, unless the plan was a very bad one
+indeed.
+
+This may easily be illustrated by supposing a particular case. The
+teacher has, we will imagine, been accustomed to teach spelling in the
+usual way, by assigning a lesson in the spelling-book, which the
+scholars, after studying it in their seats, recite by having the words
+put to them individually in the class. After some time, he finds that
+one class has lost its interest in this study. He can compel them to
+study the lesson, it is true, but he perceives, perhaps, that it is a
+weary task to them. Of course, they proceed with less alacrity, and
+consequently with less rapidity and success. He thinks, very justly,
+that it is highly desirable to secure cheerful, not forced, reluctant
+efforts from his pupils, and he thinks of trying some new plan.
+Accordingly, he says to them,
+
+"Boys, I am going to try a new plan for this class."
+
+The mere annunciation of a new plan awakens universal attention. The
+boys all look up, wondering what it is to be.
+
+"Instead of having you study your lessons in your seats, as heretofore,
+I am going to let you all go together into one corner of the room, and
+choose some one to read the lesson to you, spelling all the words aloud.
+You will all listen, and endeavor to remember how the difficult ones are
+spelled.
+Do you think you can remember?"
+
+"Yes, sir," say the boys. Children always think they _can_ do every
+thing which is proposed to them as a new plan or experiment, though they
+are very often inclined to think they _can not_ do what is required of
+them as a task.
+
+"You may have," continues the teacher, "the words read to you once or
+twice, just as you please. Only, if you have them read but once, you
+must take a shorter lesson."
+
+He pauses and looks round upon the class. Some say "Once," some "Twice."
+
+"I am willing that you should decide this question. How many are in
+favor of having shorter lessons, and having them read but once? How many
+prefer longer lessons, and having them read twice?"
+
+After comparing the numbers, it is decided according to the majority,
+and the teacher assigns or allows them to assign a lesson.
+
+"Now," he proceeds, "I am not only going to have you study in a
+different way, but recite in a different way too. You may take your
+slates with you, and after you have had time to hear the lesson read
+slowly and carefully twice, I shall come and dictate to you the words
+aloud, and you will all write them from my dictation. Then I shall
+examine your slates, and see how many mistakes are made."
+
+Any class of boys, now, would be exceedingly interested in such a
+proposal as this, especially if the master's ordinary principles of
+government and instruction had been such as to interest the pupils in
+the welfare of the school and in their own progress in study. They will
+come together in the place assigned, and listen to the one who is
+appointed to read the words to them, with every faculty aroused, and
+their whole souls engrossed in the new duties assigned them. The
+teacher, too, feels a special interest in his experiment. Whatever else
+he may be employed about, his eye turns instinctively to this group with
+an intensity of interest which an experienced teacher who has long been
+in the field, and who has tried experiments of this sort a hundred
+times, can scarcely conceive; for let it be remembered that I am
+describing the acts and feelings of a new beginner, of one who is
+commencing his work with a feeble and trembling step, and perhaps this
+is his first step away from the beaten path in which he has been
+accustomed to walk.
+
+This new plan is continued, we will suppose, for a week, during which
+time the interest of the pupils continues. They get longer lessons and
+make fewer mistakes than they did by the old method. Now, in
+speculating on this subject, the teacher reasons very justly that it is
+of no consequence whether the pupil receives his knowledge through the
+eye or through the ear; whether they study in solitude or in company.
+The point is to secure their progress in learning to spell the words of
+the English language, and as this point is secured far more rapidly and
+effectually by his new method, the inference is to his mind very
+obvious, that he has made a great improvement--one of real and permanent
+value. Perhaps he will consider it an extraordinary discovery.
+
+But the truth is, that in almost all such cases as this, the secret of
+the success is not that the teacher has discovered a _better_ method
+than the ordinary ones, but that he has discovered a _new_ one. The
+experiment will succeed in producing more successful results just as
+long as the novelty of it continues to excite unusual interest and
+attention in the class, or the thought that it is a plan of the
+teacher's own invention leads him to take a peculiar interest in it. And
+this may be a month, or perhaps a quarter; and precisely the same
+effects would have been produced if the whole had been reversed, that
+is, if the plan of dictation had been the old one, which in process of
+time had, in this supposed school, lost its interest, and the teacher,
+by his ingenuity and enterprise, had discovered and introduced what is
+now the common mode.
+
+"Very well," perhaps my reader will reply, "it is surely something
+gained to awaken and continue interest in a dull study for a quarter, or
+even a month. The experiment is worth something as a pleasant and useful
+change, even if it is not permanently superior to the other."
+
+It is indeed worth something. It is worth a great deal; and the teacher
+who can devise and execute such plans, _understanding their real place
+and value, and adhering steadily through them all to the great object
+which ought to engage his attention,_ is in the almost certain road to
+success as an instructor. What I wish is not to discourage such efforts;
+they ought to be encouraged to the utmost; but to have their real
+nature and design, and the real secret of their success fully
+understood, and to have the teacher, above all, take good care that all
+his new plans are made, not the substitutes for the great objects which
+he ought to keep steadily in view, but only the means by which he may
+carry them into more full and complete effect.
+
+In the case we are supposing, however, we will imagine that the teacher
+does not do this. He fancies that he has made an important discovery,
+and begins to inquire whether _the principle,_ as he calls it, can not
+be applied to some other studies. He goes to philosophizing upon it, and
+can find many reasons why knowledge received through the ear makes a
+more ready and lasting impression than when it comes through the eye. He
+attempts to apply the method to Arithmetic and Geography, and in a short
+time is forming plans for the complete metamorphosis of his school. When
+engaged in hearing a recitation, his mind is distracted with his schemes
+and plans, and instead of devoting his attention fully to the work he
+may have in hand, his thoughts are wandering continually to new schemes
+and fancied improvements, which agitate and perplex him, and which elude
+his efforts to give them a distinct and definite form. He thinks he
+must, however, carry out his _principle_. He thinks of its applicability
+to a thousand other cases. He revolves over and over again in his mind
+plans for changing the whole arrangement of his school. He is again and
+again lost in perplexity, his mind is engrossed and distracted, and his
+present duties are performed with no interest, and consequently with
+little spirit or success.
+
+Now his error is in allowing a new idea, which ought only to have
+suggested to him an agreeable change for a time in one of his classes,
+to swell itself into undue and exaggerated importance, and to draw off
+his mind from what ought to be the objects of his steady pursuit.
+
+Perhaps some teacher of steady intellectual habits and a well-balanced
+mind may think that this picture is fanciful, and that there is little
+danger that such consequences will ever actually result from such a
+cause. But, far from having exasperated the results. I am of opinion
+that I might have gone much farther. There is no doubt that a great many
+instances have occurred in which some simple idea like the one I have
+alluded to has led the unlucky conceiver of it, in his eager pursuit,
+far deeper into the difficulty than I have here supposed. He gets into a
+contention with the school committee, that formidable foe to the
+projects of all scheming teachers; and it would not be very difficult to
+find many actual cases where the individual has, in consequence of some
+such idea, quietly planned and taken measures to establish some new
+institution, where he can carry on unmolested his plans, and let the
+world see the full results of his wonderful discoveries.
+
+We have in our country a very complete system of literary institutions,
+so far as external organization will go, and the prospect of success is
+far more favorable in efforts to carry these institutions into more
+complete and prosperous operation, than in plans for changing them, or
+substituting others in their stead. Were it not that such a course would
+be unjust to individuals, a long and melancholy catalogue might easily
+be made out of abortive plans which have sprung up in the minds of young
+men in the manner I have described, and which, after perhaps temporary
+success, have resulted in partial or total failure. These failures are
+of every kind. Some are school-books on a new plan, which succeeds in
+the inventor's hand chiefly on account of the spirit which carried it
+into effect, but which in ordinary hands, and under ordinary
+circumstances, and especially after long-continued use, have failed of
+exhibiting any superiority. Others are institutions, commenced with
+great zeal by the projectors, and which prosper just as long as that
+zeal continues. Zeal will make any thing succeed for a time. Others are
+new plans of instruction or government, generally founded on some good
+principle carried to an extreme, or made to grow into exaggerated and
+disproportionate importance. Examples almost innumerable of these things
+might be particularized, if it were proper, and it would be found, upon
+examination, that the amount of ingenuity and labor wasted upon such
+attempts would have been sufficient, if properly expended, to have
+elevated very considerably the standard of education, and to have placed
+existing institutions in a far more prosperous and thriving state than
+they now exhibit.
+
+The reader will perhaps ask, Shall we make no efforts at improvement?
+Must every thing in education go on in a uniform and monotonous manner,
+and, while all else is advancing, shall our cause alone stand still? By
+no means. It must advance; but let it advance mainly by the industry and
+fidelity of those who are employed in it; by changes slowly and
+cautiously made; not by great efforts to reach forward to brilliant
+discoveries, which will draw off the attention from essential duties,
+and, after leading the projector through perplexities and difficulties
+without number, end in mortification and failure.
+
+Were I to give a few concise and summary directions in regard to this
+subject to a young teacher, they would be the following:
+
+1. Examine thoroughly the system of public and private schools as now
+constituted in most of the states of this Union, until you fully
+understand it and appreciate its excellences and its completeness; see
+how fully it provides for the wants of the various classes of our
+population.
+
+By this I mean to refer only to the completeness of the _system_ as a
+system of organization. I do not refer at all to the internal management
+of these institutions; this last is, of course, a field for immediate
+and universal effort at progress and improvement.
+
+2. If, after fully understanding this system as it now exists, you are
+of opinion that something more is necessary; if you think some classes
+of the community are not fully provided for, or that some of our
+institutions may be advantageously exchanged for others, the plan of
+which you have in mind, consider whether your age, and experience, and
+standing as an instructor are such as to enable you to place confidence
+in your opinion.
+
+I do not mean by this that a young man may not make a useful discovery,
+but only that he may be led away by the ardor of early life to fancy
+that essential and important which is really not so. It is important
+that each one should determine whether this is not the case with
+himself, if his mind is revolving some new plan.
+
+3. Perhaps you are contemplating only a single new institution, which is
+to depend for its success on yourself and some coadjutors whom you have
+in mind and whom you well know. If this is the case, consider whether
+the establishment you are contemplating can be carried on, after you
+shall have left it, by such men as can ordinarily be obtained. If the
+plan is founded on some peculiar notions of your own, which would enable
+you to succeed in it when others, who might also be interested in such a
+scheme, would probably fail, consider whether there may not be danger
+that your plan may be imitated by others who can not carry it into
+successful operation, so that it may be the indirect means of doing
+injury. A man is, in some degree, responsible for his example and for
+the consequences which may indirectly flow from his course, as well as
+for the immediate results which he produces. The Fellenberg school at
+Hofwyl was perhaps, by its direct results, as successful for a time as
+any other institution in the world; but there is a great offset to the
+good which it has thus done to be found in the history of the thousand
+wretched imitations of it which have been started only to linger a
+little while and die, and in which a vast amount of time, and talent,
+and money have been wasted.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+4. Consider the influence you may have upon the other institutions of
+our country, by attaching yourself to some one under the existing
+organization. If you take an academy or a private school, constituted
+and organized like other similar institutions, success in your own will
+give you influence over others. A successful teacher of an academy
+raises the general standard of academic instruction. A college
+professor, if he brings extraordinary talents to bear upon the regular
+duties of that office, throws light, universally, upon the whole science
+of college discipline and instruction, and thus aids in infusing a
+continually renewed life and vigor into those venerable seats of
+learning that might otherwise sink into decrepitude and decay. By going,
+however, to some new field, establishing some new and fanciful
+institution, you take yourself from such a sphere; you exert no
+influence over others, except upon feeble imitators, who fail in their
+attempts, and bring discredit upon your plans by the awkwardness with
+which they attempt to adopt them. How much more service, then, to the
+cause of education will a man of genius render, by falling in with the
+regularly organized institutions of the country and elevating them, than
+if in early life he were to devote his powers to some magnificent
+project of an establishment to which his talents would unquestionably
+have given temporary success, but which would have taken him away from
+the community of teachers, and confined the results of his labors to the
+more immediate effects which his daily duties might produce.
+
+5. Perhaps, however, your plan is not the establishment of some new
+institution, but the introduction of some new study or pursuit into the
+one with which you are connected. Before, however, you interrupt the
+regular arrangements of your school to make such a change, consider
+carefully what is the real and appropriate object of your institution.
+Every thing is not to be done in school. The principles of division of
+labor apply with peculiar force to this employment; so that you must not
+only consider whether the branch which you are now disposed to introduce
+is important, but whether it is really such an one as it is on the whole
+best to include among the objects to be pursued in such an institution.
+Many teachers seem to imagine that if any thing is in itself important,
+and especially if it is an important branch of education, the question
+is settled of its being a proper object of attention in school. But this
+is very far from being the case. The whole work of education can never
+be intrusted to the teacher. Much must of course remain in the hands of
+the parent; it ought so to remain. The object of a school is not to take
+children out of the parental hands, substituting the watch and
+guardianship of a stranger for the natural care of father and mother.
+Far from it. It is only the association of the children for those
+purposes which can be more successfully accomplished by association. It
+is a union for few, specific, and limited objects, for the
+accomplishment of that part (and it is comparatively a small part of
+the general objects of education) which can be most successfully
+effected by public institutions and in assemblies of the young.
+
+6. If the branch which you are desiring to introduce appears to you to
+be an important part of education, and if it seems to you that it can be
+most successfully attended to in schools, then consider whether the
+introduction of it, _and of all the other branches having equal claims_,
+will or will not give to the common schools too great a complexity.
+Consider whether it will succeed in the hands of ordinary teachers.
+Consider whether it will require so much time and effort as will draw
+off in any considerable degree, the attention of the teacher from the
+more essential parts of his duty. All will admit that it is highly
+important that every school should be simple in its plan--as simple as
+its size and general circumstances will permit, and especially that the
+public schools in every town and village of our country should never
+lose sight of what is and must be, after all, their great
+design--_teaching the whole population to ready write, and calculate._
+
+7. If it is a school-book which you are wishing to introduce, consider
+well before you waste your time in preparing it, and your spirits in the
+vexatious work of getting it through the press; whether it is, _for
+general use_, so superior to those already published as to induce
+teachers to make a change in favor of yours. I have italicized the words
+_for general use_, for no delusion is more common than for a teacher to
+suppose that because a text-book which he has prepared and uses in
+manuscript is better for _him_ than any other work which he can obtain,
+it will therefore be better for _general circulation_. Every man, if he
+has any originality of mind, has of course some peculiar method of his
+own, and he can of course prepare a text-book which will be better
+adapted to this method than those ordinarily in use. The history of a
+vast number of text-books, Arithmetics, Geographies, and Grammars, is
+this: A man of somewhat ingenious mind, adopts some peculiar mode of
+instruction in one of these branches, and is quite successful, not
+because the method has any very peculiar excellence, but simply because
+he takes a greater interest in it, both on account of its novelty and
+also from the fact that it is his own invention. He conceives the plan
+of writing a text-book to develop and illustrate this method. He hurries
+through the work. By some means or other he gets it printed. In due time
+it is regularly advertised. The journals of education give notice of it;
+the author sends a few copies to his friends, and that is the end of it.
+Perhaps a few schools may make a trial of it, and if, for any reason,
+the teachers who try it are interested in the work, probably in their
+hands it succeeds. But it does not succeed so well as to attract general
+attention, and consequently does not get into general circulation. The
+author loses his time and his patience. The publisher, unless,
+unfortunately, it was published on the author's account, loses his
+paper, and in a few months scarcely any body knows that such a book ever
+saw the light.
+
+It is in this way that the great multitude of school-books which are now
+constantly issuing from the press take their origin. Far be it from me
+to discourage the preparation of good school-books. This department of
+our literature offers a fine field for the efforts of learning and
+genius. What I contend against is the endless multiplicity of useless
+works, hastily conceived and carelessly executed, and which serve no
+purpose but to employ uselessly talents which, if properly applied,
+might greatly benefit both the community and the possessor.
+
+8. If, however, after mature deliberation, you conclude that you have
+the plan of a school-book which you ought to try to mature and execute,
+be slow and cautious about it. Remember that so great is now the
+competition in this branch, nothing but superior excellence or very
+extraordinary exertions will secure the favorable reception of a work.
+Examine all that your predecessors have done before you. Obtain,
+whatever may be the trouble and expense, all other text-books on the
+subject, and examine them thoroughly. If you see that you can make a
+very decided advance on all that has been done, and that the public will
+probably submit to the inconvenience and expense of a change to secure
+the result of your labors, go forward slowly and carefully in your work,
+no matter how much investigation, how much time and labor it may
+require. The more difficulty you may find in gaining the eminence, the
+less likely will you be to be followed by successful competitors.
+
+9. Consider, in forming your text-book, not merely the whole subject on
+which you are to write, but also look extensively and thoroughly at the
+institutions throughout the country, and consider carefully the
+character of the teachers by whom you expect it to be used. Sometimes a
+man publishes a text-book, and when it fails on trial, he says "it is
+because they did not know how to use it. The book in itself was good.
+The whole fault was in the awkwardness and ignorance of the teacher."
+How absurd! As if, to make a good text-book, it was not as necessary to
+adapt it to teachers as to scholars. A _good text-book, which the
+teachers for whom it was intended did not know how to use!!_ In other
+words, a good contrivance, but entirely unfit for the purpose for which
+it was intended.
+
+10. Lastly, in every new plan, consider carefully whether its success in
+your hands, after you have tried it and found it successful, be owing to
+its novelty and to your own special interest in it, or to its own innate
+and intrinsic superiority. If the former, use it so long as it will
+last, simply to give variety and interest to your plans. Recommend it in
+conversation or in other ways to teachers with whom you are acquainted,
+not as a wonderful discovery, which is going to change the whole science
+of education, but as one method among others which may be introduced
+from time to time to relieve the monotony of the teacher's labors.
+
+In a word, do not go away from the established institutions of our
+country, or deviate from the great objects which are at present, and
+ought continually to be pursued by them, without great caution,
+circumspection, and deliberate inquiry. But, within these limits,
+exercise ingenuity and invention as much as you will. Pursue steadily
+the great objects which demand the teacher's attention. They are simple
+and few. Never lose sight of them, nor turn to the right or to the left
+to follow any ignis fatuus which may arise to allure you away, but
+exercise as much ingenuity and enterprise as you please in giving
+variety and interest to the modes by which these objects are pursued.
+
+If planning and scheming are confined within these limits, and conducted
+on these principles, the teacher will save all the agitating perplexity
+and care which will otherwise be his continual portion. He can go
+forward peaceably and quietly, and while his own success is greatly
+increased, he may be of essential service to the cause in which he is
+engaged, by making known his various experiments and plans to others.
+For this purpose, it seems to me highly desirable that every teacher
+should KEEP A JOURNAL of all his plans. In these should be carefully
+entered all his experiments; the new methods he adopts; the course he
+takes in regard to difficulties which may arise, and any interesting
+incidents which may occur which it would be useful for him to refer to
+at some future time. These, or the most interesting of them, should be
+made known to other teachers. This may be done in several ways:
+
+(1.) By publishing them in periodicals devoted to education. Such
+contributions, furnished by judicious men, would be among the most
+valuable articles in such a work. They would be far more valuable than
+any general speculations, however well conceived or expressed.
+
+(2.) In newspapers intended for general circulation. There are very few
+editors whose papers circulate in families who would not gladly receive
+articles of this kind to fill a teacher's department in their columns.
+If properly written, they would be read with interest and profit by
+multitudes of parents, and would throw much light on family government
+and instruction.
+
+(3.) By reading them in teachers' meetings. If half a dozen teachers who
+are associated in the same vicinity would meet once a fortnight, simply
+to hear each other's journals, they would be amply repaid for their time
+and labor. Teachers' meetings will be interesting and useful, when those
+who come forward in them will give up the prevailing practice of
+delivering orations, and come down at once to the scenes and to the
+business of the school-room.
+
+There is one topic connected with the subject of this chapter which
+deserves a few paragraphs. I refer to the rights of the committee, or
+the trustees, or patrons in the control of the school. The right to such
+control, when claimed at all, is usually claimed in reference to the
+teacher's new plans, which renders it proper to allude to the subject
+here; and it ought not to be omitted, for a great many cases occur in
+which teachers have difficulties with the trustees or committee of their
+school. Sometimes these difficulties result at last in an open rupture;
+at other times in only a slight and temporary misunderstanding, arising
+from what the teacher calls an unwise and unwarrantable interference on
+the part of the committee or the trustees in the arrangements of the
+school. Difficulties of some sort very often arise. In fact, a right
+understanding of this subject is, in most cases, absolutely essential to
+the harmony and co-operation of the teacher and the representatives of
+his patrons.
+
+There are then, it must be recollected, three different parties
+connected with every establishment for education: the parents of the
+scholars, the teacher, and the pupils themselves. Sometimes, as, for
+example, in a common private school, the parents are not organized, and
+whatever influence they exert they must exert in their individual
+capacity. At other times, as in a common district or town school, they
+are by law organized, and the school committee chosen for this purpose
+are their legal representatives. In other instances, a board of trustees
+are constituted by the appointment of the founders of the institution,
+or by the Legislature of a state, to whom is committed the oversight of
+its concerns, and who are consequently the representatives of the
+founders and patrons of the school.
+
+There are differences between these various modes of organization which
+I shall not now stop to examine, as it will be sufficiently correct for
+my purpose to consider them all as only various ways of organizing the
+_employers_ in the contract by which the teacher is employed. The
+teacher is the agent; the patrons represented in these several ways are
+the principals. When, therefore, in the following paragraphs I use the
+word _employers_, I mean to be understood to speak of the committee, or
+the trustees, or the visitors, or the parents themselves, as the case in
+each particular institution may be; that is, the persons for whose
+purpose and at whose expense the institution is maintained, or their
+representatives.
+
+Now there is a very reasonable and almost universally established rule,
+which teachers are very frequently prone to forget, namely, _the
+employed ought always to be responsible to the employers, and to be
+under their direction._ So obviously reasonable is this rule, and, in
+fact, so absolutely indispensable in the transaction of all the business
+of life, that it would be idle to attempt to establish and illustrate it
+here. It has, however, limitations, and it is applicable to a much
+greater extent, in some departments of human labor than in others. It is
+_applicable_ to the business of teaching, and though I confess that it
+is somewhat less absolute and imperious here, still it is obligatory, I
+believe, to a far greater extent than teachers have been generally
+willing to admit.
+
+A young lady, I will imagine, wishes to introduce the study of Botany
+into her school. The parents or the committee object; they say that they
+wish the children to confine their attention exclusively to the
+elementary branches of education. "It will do them no good," says the
+chairman of the committee, "to learn by heart some dozen or two of
+learned names. We want them to read well, to write well, and to
+calculate well, and not to waste their time in studying about pistils,
+and stamens, and nonsense."
+
+Now what is the duty of the teacher in such a case? Why, very plainly
+her duty is the same as that of the governor of a state, where the
+people, through their representatives, regularly chosen, negative a
+proposal which he considers calculated to promote the public good. It is
+his duty to submit to the public will; and, though he may properly do
+all in his power to present the subject to his employers in such a light
+as to lead them to regard it as he does, he must still, until they do so
+regard it, bow to their authority; and every magistrate who takes an
+enlarged and comprehensive view of his duties as the executive of a
+republican community, will do this without any humiliating feelings of
+submission to unauthorized interference with his plans. He will, on the
+other hand, enjoy the satisfaction of feeling that he confines himself
+to his proper sphere, and leave to others the full possession of rights
+which properly pertain to them.
+
+It is so with every case where the relation of employer and employed
+subsists. You engage a carpenter to erect a house for you, and you
+present your plan; instead of going to work and executing your orders
+according to your wishes, he falls to criticising and condemning it; he
+finds fault with this, and ridicules that, and tells you you ought to
+make such and such an alteration in it. It is perfectly right for him to
+give his opinion, in the tone and spirit of _recommendation or
+suggestion_, with a distinct understanding that with his employer rests
+the power and the right to decide. But how many teachers take
+possession of their school-room as though it was an empire in which they
+are supreme, who resist every interference of their employers as they
+would an attack upon their personal freedom, and who feel that in regard
+to every thing connected with school they have really no actual
+responsibility.
+
+In most cases, the employers, knowing how sensitive teachers very
+frequently are on this point, acquiesce in it, and leave them to
+themselves. Whenever, in any case, they think that the state of the
+school requires their interference, they come cautiously and fearfully
+to the teacher, as if they were encroaching upon his rights, instead of
+advancing with the confidence and directness with which employers have
+always a right to approach the employed; and the teacher, with the view
+he has insensibly taken of the subject, being perhaps confirmed by the
+tone and manner which his employers use, makes the conversation quite as
+often an occasion of resentment and offense as of improvement. He is
+silent, perhaps, but in his heart he accuses his committee or his
+trustees of improper interference in _his_ concerns, as though it was no
+part of _their_ business to look after work which is going forward for
+their advantage, and for which they pay.
+
+Perhaps some individuals who have had some collision with their trustees
+or committee will ask me if I mean that a teacher ought to be entirely
+and immediately under the supervision and control of the trustees, just
+as a mechanic is when employed by another man. By no means. There are
+various circumstances connected with the nature of this employment, such
+as the impossibility of the employers fully understanding it in all its
+details, and the character and the standing of the teacher himself,
+which always will, in matter of fact, prevent this. The employers always
+will, in a great many respects, place more confidence in the teacher and
+in his views than they will in their own. But still, the ultimate power
+is theirs. Even if they err, if they wish to have a course pursued
+which is manifestly inexpedient and wrong, _they still have a right to
+decide._ It is their work; it is going on at their instance and at their
+expense, and the power of ultimate decision on all disputed questions
+must, from the very nature of the case, rest with them. The teacher may,
+it is true, have his option either to comply with their wishes or to
+seek employment in another sphere; but while he remains in the employ of
+any persons, whether in teaching or in any other service, he is bound to
+yield to the wishes of his employers when they insist upon it, and to
+submit good-humoredly to their direction when they shall claim their
+undoubted right to direct.
+
+This is to be done, it must be remembered, when they are wrong as well
+as when they are right. The obligation of the teacher is not founded
+upon _the superior wisdom_ of his employers in reference to the business
+for which they have engaged him, for they are very probably his
+inferiors in this respect, but _upon their right as employers_ to
+determine _how their own work shall be done._ A gardener, we will
+suppose, is engaged by a gentleman to lay out his grounds. The gardener
+goes to work, and, after a few hours, the gentleman comes out to see how
+he goes on and to give directions. He proposes something which the
+gardener, who, to make the case stronger, we will suppose knows better
+than the proprietor of the grounds, considers ridiculous and absurd;
+nay, we will suppose _it is_ ridiculous and absurd. Now what can the
+gardener do? There are obviously two courses. He can say to the
+proprietor, after a vain attempt to convince him he is wrong, "Well,
+sir, I will do just as you say. The grounds are yours: I have no
+interest in it or responsibility, except to accomplish your wishes."
+This would be right. Or he might say, "Sir, you have a right to direct
+upon your own grounds, and I do not wish to interfere with your plans;
+but I must ask you to obtain another gardener. I have a reputation at
+stake, and this work, if I do it even at your direction, will be
+considered as a specimen of my taste and of my planning, so that I must,
+in justice to myself, decline remaining in your employment." This, too,
+would be right, though probably, both in the business of gardening and
+of teaching, the case ought to be a strong one to render it expedient.
+
+But it would not be right for him, after his employer should have gone
+away, to say to himself, with a feeling of resentment at the imaginary
+_interference_, "I shall not follow any such directions; I understand my
+own trade, and shall receive no instructions in it from him," and then,
+disobeying all directions, go on and do the work contrary to the orders
+of his employer, who alone has a right to decide.
+
+And yet a great many teachers take a course as absurd and unjustifiable
+as this would be. Whenever the parents, or the committee, or the
+trustees express, however mildly and properly, their wishes in regard to
+the manner in which they desire to have their own work performed, their
+pride is at once aroused. They seem to feel it an indignity to act in
+any other way than just in accordance with their own will and pleasure;
+and they absolutely refuse to comply, resenting the interference as an
+insult; or else, if they apparently yield, it is with mere cold
+civility, and entirely without any honest desire to carry the wishes
+thus expressed into actual effect.
+
+Parents may, indeed, often misjudge. A good teacher will, however, soon
+secure their confidence, and they may acquiesce in his opinion. But they
+ought to be watchful, and the teacher ought to feel and acknowledge
+their authority on all questions connected with the education of their
+children. They have originally entire power in regard to the course
+which is to be pursued with them. Providence has made the parents
+responsible, and wholly responsible, for the manner in which their
+children are prepared for the duties of this life, and it is interesting
+to observe how very cautious the laws of society are about interfering
+with the parent's wishes in regard to the education of the child. There
+are many cases in which enlightened governments might make arrangements
+which would be better than those made by the parents if they are left to
+themselves. But they will not do it; they ought not to do it. God has
+placed the responsibility in the hands of the father and mother, and
+unless the manner in which it is exercised is calculated to endanger or
+to injure the community, there can rightfully be no interference except
+that of argument and persuasion.
+
+It ought also to be considered that upon the parents will come the
+consequences of the good or bad education of their children, and not
+upon the teacher, and consequently it is right that they should direct.
+The teacher remains, perhaps, a few months with his charge, and then
+goes to other places, and perhaps hears of them no more. He has thus
+very little at stake. The parent has every thing at stake; and it is
+manifestly unjust to give one man the power of deciding, while he
+escapes all the consequences of his mistakes, if he makes any, and to
+take away all the _power_ from those upon whose heads all the suffering
+which will follow an abuse of the power must descend.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+REPORTS OF CASES.
+
+There is, perhaps, no way by which a writer can more effectually explain
+his views on the subject of education than by presenting a great variety
+of actual cases, whether real or imaginary, and describing particularly
+the course of treatment which he would recommend in each. This method of
+communicating knowledge is very extensively resorted to in the medical
+profession, where writers detail particular cases, and report the
+symptoms and the treatment for each succeeding day, so that the reader
+may almost fancy himself actually a visitor at the sick-bed, and the
+nature and effects of the various prescriptions become fixed in the mind
+with almost as much distinctness and permanency as actual experience
+would give.
+
+This principle has been kept in view, the reader may perhaps think, too
+closely in all the chapters of this volume, almost every point brought
+up having been illustrated by anecdotes and narratives. I propose,
+however, devoting one chapter now to presenting a number of
+miscellaneous cases, without any attempt to arrange them. Sometimes the
+case will be merely stated, the reader being left to draw the inference;
+at others, such remarks will be added as the case suggests. All will,
+however, be intended to answer some useful purpose, either to exhibit
+good or bad management and its consequences, or to bring to view some
+trait of human nature, as it exhibits itself in children, which it may
+be desirable for the teacher to know. Let it be understood, however,
+that these cases are not selected with reference to their being strange
+or extraordinary. They are rather chosen because they are common; that
+is, they, or cases similar, will be constantly occurring to the teacher,
+and reading such a chapter will be the best substitute for experience
+which the teacher can have. Some are descriptions of literary exercises
+or plans which the reader can adopt in classes or with a whole school;
+others are cases of discipline, good or bad management, which the
+teacher can imitate or avoid. The stories are from various sources, and
+are the results of the experience of several individuals.
+
+1. HATS AND BONNETS.--The master of a district school was accidentally
+looking out of the window one day, and he saw one of the boys throwing
+stones at a hat, which was put up for that purpose upon the fence. He
+said nothing about it at the time, but made a memorandum of the
+occurrence, that he might bring it before the school at the proper time.
+When the hour set apart for attending to the general business of the
+school had arrived, and all were still, he said,
+
+"I saw one of the boys throwing stones at a hat to-day: did he do right
+or wrong?"
+
+There were one or two faint murmurs which sounded like "_Wrong_" but the
+boys generally made no answer.
+
+"Perhaps it depends a little upon the question whose hat it was. Do you
+think it does depend upon that?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"Well, suppose then it was not his own hat, and he was throwing stones
+at it without the owner's consent, would it be plain in that case
+whether he was doing right or wrong?"
+
+"Yes, sir; wrong," was the universal reply.
+
+"Suppose it was his own hat, would he have been right? Has a boy a right
+to do what he pleases with his own hat?"
+
+"Yes, sir," "Yes, sir;" "No, sir," "No, sir," answered the boys,
+confusedly.
+
+"I do not know whose hat it was. If the boy who did it is willing to
+rise and tell me, it will help us to decide this question."
+
+The boy, knowing that a severe punishment was not in such a case to be
+anticipated, and, in fact, apparently pleased with the idea of
+exonerating himself from the blame of willfully injuring the property of
+another, rose and said,
+
+"I suppose it was I, sir, who did it, and it was my own hat."
+
+"Well," said the master, "I am glad that you are willing to tell frankly
+how it was; but let us look at this case. There are two senses in which
+a hat may be said to belong to any person. It may belong to him because
+he bought it and paid for it, or it may belong to him because it fits
+him and he wears it. In other words, a person may have a hat as his
+property, or he may have it only as a part of his dress. Now you see
+that, according to the first of these senses, all the hats in this
+school belong to your fathers. There is not, in fact, a single boy in
+this school who has a hat of his own."
+
+The boys laughed.
+
+"Is not this the fact?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+It certainly is so, though I suppose James did not consider it. Your
+fathers bought your hats. They worked for them and paid for them. You
+are only the wearers, and consequently every generous boy, and, in fact,
+every honest boy, will be careful of the property which is intrusted to
+him, but which, strictly speaking, is not his own.
+
+
+2. MISTAKES.--A wide difference must always be made between mistakes
+arising from carelessness, and those resulting from circumstances beyond
+control, such as want of sufficient data, and the like. The former are
+always censurable; the latter never; for they may be the result of
+correct reasoning from insufficient data, and it is the reasoning only
+for which the child is responsible.
+
+"What do you suppose a prophet is?" said a teacher to a class of little
+boys. The word occurred in their reading lesson.
+
+The scholars all hesitated; at last one ventured to reply:
+
+"If a man should sell a yoke of oxen, and get more for them than they
+are worth, he would be a prophet."
+
+"Yes," said the instructor, "that is right; that is one kind of
+_profit_, but this is another and a little different," and he proceeded
+to explain the word, and the difference of the spelling.
+
+This child had, without doubt, heard of some transaction of the kind
+which he described, and had observed that the word _profit_ was applied
+to it. Now the care which he had exercised in attending to it at the
+time, and remembering it when the same word (for the difference in the
+spelling he of course knew nothing about) occurred again, was really
+commendable. The fact, which is a mere accident, that we affix very
+different significations to the same sound, was unknown to him. The
+fault, if any where, was in the language and not in him, for he reasoned
+correctly from the data he possessed, and he deserved credit for it.
+
+The teacher should always discriminate carefully between errors of this
+kind, and those that result from culpable carelessness.
+
+3. TARDINESS.--"My duty to this school," said a teacher to his pupils,
+"demands, as I suppose you all admit, that I should require you all to
+be here punctually at the time appointed for the commencement of the
+school. I have done nothing on this subject yet, for I wished to see
+whether you would not come early on principle. I wish now, however, to
+inquire in regard to this subject, and to ascertain how many have been
+tardy, and to consider what must be done hereafter."
+
+He made the inquiries, and ascertained pretty nearly how many had been
+tardy, and how often within a week.
+
+The number was found to be so great that the scholars admitted that
+something ought to be done.
+
+"What shall I do?" asked he. "Can any one propose a plan which will
+remedy the difficulty?"
+
+There was no answer.
+
+"The easiest and pleasantest way to secure punctuality is for the
+scholars to come early of their own accord, upon principle. It is
+evident, from the reports, that many of you do so, but some do not. Now
+there is no other plan which will not be attended with very serious
+difficulty, but I am willing to adopt the one which will be most
+agreeable to yourselves, if it will be likely to accomplish the object.
+Has any one any plan to propose?"
+
+There was a pause.
+
+"It would evidently," continued the teacher, "be the easiest for me to
+leave this subject, and do nothing about it. It is of no personal
+consequence to me whether you come early or not, but as long as I hold
+this office I must be faithful, and I have no doubt the school
+committee, if they knew how many of you were tardy, would think I ought
+to do something to diminish the evil.
+
+"The best plan that I can think of is that all who are tardy should lose
+their recess."
+
+The boys looked rather anxiously at one another, but continued silent.
+
+"There is a great objection to this plan from the fact that a boy is
+sometimes necessarily absent, and by this rule he will lose his recess
+with the rest, so that the innocent will be punished with the guilty."
+
+"I should think, sir," said William, "that those who are _necessarily_
+tardy might be excused."
+
+"Yes, I should be very glad to excuse them, if I could find out who they
+are."
+
+The boys seemed to be surprised at this remark, as if they thought it
+would not be a difficult matter to decide.
+
+"How can I tell?" asked the master.
+
+"You can hear their excuses, and then decide."
+
+"Yes," said the teacher: "but here are fifteen or twenty boys tardy this
+morning; now how long would it take me to hear their excuses, and
+understand each case thoroughly, so that I could really tell whether
+they were tardy from good reasons or not?"
+
+No answer.
+
+"Should you not think it would take a minute apiece?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"It would, undoubtedly, and even then I could not in many cases tell. It
+would take fifteen minutes, at least. I can not do this in school hours,
+for I have not time, and if I do it in recess it will consume the whole
+of every recess. Now I need the _rest_ of a recess as well as you, and
+it does not seem to me to be just that I should lose the whole of mine
+every day, and spend it in a most unpleasant business, when I take pains
+myself to come punctually every morning. Would it be just?"
+
+"No, sir."
+
+"I think it would be less unjust to deprive all those of their recess
+who are tardy; for then the loss of a recess by a boy who had not been
+to blame would not be very common, and the evil would be divided among
+the whole; but in the plan of my hearing the excuses it would all come
+upon one."
+
+After a short pause one of the boys said that they might be required to
+bring written excuses.
+
+"Yes, that is another plan," said the teacher; "but there are objections
+to it. Can any of you think what they are? I suppose you have all been,
+either at this school or at some other, required to bring written
+excuses, so that you have seen the plan tried. Now have you never
+noticed any objection to it?"
+
+One boy said that it gave the parents a great deal of trouble at home.
+
+"Yes," said the teacher, "this is a great objection; it is often very
+inconvenient to write. But that is not the greatest difficulty; can any
+of you think of any other?"
+
+There was a pause.
+
+"Do you think that these written excuses are, after all, a fair test of
+the real reasons for tardiness? I understand that sometimes boys will
+tease their fathers or mothers for an excuse when they do not deserve
+it, 'Yes, sir,' and sometimes they will loiter about when sent of an
+errand before school, knowing that they can get a written excuse, when
+they might easily have been punctual."
+
+"Yes, sir," "Yes, sir," said the boys.
+
+"Well, now, if we adopt this plan, some unprincipled boy would always
+contrive to have an excuse, whether necessarily tardy or not; and,
+besides, each parent would have a different principle and a different
+opinion as to what was a reasonable excuse, so that there would be no
+uniformity, and, consequently, no justice in the operation of the
+system."
+
+The boys admitted the truth of this, and, as no other plan was
+presented, the rule was adopted of requiring all those who were tardy to
+remain in their seats during the recess, whether they were necessarily
+tardy or not. The plan very soon diminished the number of loiterers.
+
+4. HELEN'S LESSON.--The possibility of being inflexibly firm in
+measures, and, at the same time, gentle and mild in manners and
+language, is happily illustrated in the following description, which is
+based on an incident narrated by Mrs. Sherwood:
+
+"Mrs. M. had observed, even during the few days that Helen had been
+under her care, that she was totally unaccustomed to habits of diligence
+and application. After making all due allowance for long-indulged habits
+of indolence and inattention, she one morning assigned an easy lesson to
+her pupil, informing her at the same time that she should hear it
+immediately before dinner. Helen made no objections to the plan, but she
+silently resolved not to perform the required task. Being in some
+measure a stranger, she thought her aunt would not insist upon perfect
+obedience, and besides, in her estimation, she was too old to be treated
+like a child.
+
+"During the whole morning Helen exerted herself to be mild and obliging;
+her conduct toward her aunt was uncommonly affectionate. By these and
+various other artifices she endeavored to gain her first victory.
+Meanwhile Mrs. M. quietly pursued her various avocations, without
+apparently noticing Helen's conduct. At length dinner-hour arrived; the
+lesson was called for, but Helen was unprepared. Mrs. M. told Helen she
+was sorry that she had not learned the lesson, and concluded by saying
+that she hoped she would be prepared before tea-time.
+
+"Helen, finding she was not to come to the table, began to be a little
+alarmed. She was acquainted in some measure with the character of her
+aunt, still she hoped to be allowed to partake of the dessert, as she
+had been accustomed to on similar occasions at home, and soon regained
+her wonted composure. But the dinner-cloth was removed, and there sat
+Helen, suffering not a little from hunger; still she would not complain;
+she meant to convince her aunt that she was not moved by trifles.
+
+"A walk had been proposed for the afternoon, and as the hour drew near,
+Helen made preparations to accompany the party. Mrs. M. reminded her of
+her lesson, but she just noticed the remark by a toss of the head, and
+was soon in the green fields, apparently the gayest of the gay. After
+her return from the excursion she complained of a head-ache, which in
+fact she had. She threw herself languidly on the sofa, sighed deeply,
+and took up her History.
+
+"Tea was now on the table, and most tempting looked the white loaf. Mrs.
+M. again heard the pupil recite, but was sorry to find the lesson still
+imperfectly prepared. She left her, saying she thought half an hour's
+additional study would conquer all the difficulties she found in the
+lesson.
+
+"During all this time Mrs. M. appeared so perfectly calm, composed, and
+even kind, and so regardless of sighs and doleful exclamations, that
+Helen entirely lost her equanimity, and let her tears flow freely and
+abundantly. Her mother was always moved by her tears, and would not her
+aunt relent? No. Mrs. M. quietly performed the duties of the table, and
+ordered the tea-equipage to be removed. This latter movement brought
+Helen to reflection. It is useless to resist, thought she; indeed, why
+should I wish to? Nothing too much has been required of me. How
+ridiculous I have made myself appear in the eyes of my aunt, and even of
+the domestics!
+
+"In less than an hour she had the satisfaction of reciting her lesson
+perfectly; her aunt made no comments on the occasion, but assigned her
+the next lesson, and went on sewing. Helen did not expect this; she had
+anticipated a refreshing cup of tea after the long siege. She had
+expected that even something nicer than usual would be necessary to
+compensate her for her past sufferings. At length, worn out by
+long-continued watching and fasting, she went to the closet, provided
+herself with a cracker, and retired to bed to muse deliberately on the
+strange character of her aunt.
+
+"Teachers not unfrequently threaten their pupils with some proper
+punishment, but, when obliged to put the threat into execution, contrive
+in some indirect way to abate its rigor, and thus destroy all its
+effects. For example, a mother was in the habit, when her little boy ran
+beyond his prescribed play-ground, of putting him into solitary
+confinement. On such occasions, she was very careful to have some
+amusing book or diverting plaything in a conspicuous part of the room,
+and not unfrequently a piece of gingerbread was given to solace the
+runaway. The mother thought it very strange her little boy should so
+often transgress, when he knew what to expect from such a course of
+conduct. The boy was wiser than the mother; he knew perfectly well how
+to manage the business. He could play with the boys beyond the garden
+gate, and if detected, to be sure he was obliged to spend a quiet hour
+in the pleasant parlor. But this was not intolerable as long as he could
+expect a paper of sugar-plums, a cake, or at least something amply to
+compensate him for the loss of a game at marbles."
+
+5. COMPLAINTS or LONG LESSONS.--A college officer assigned lessons which
+the idle and ignorant members of the class thought too long. They
+murmured for a time, and at last openly complained. The other members of
+the class could say nothing in behalf of the professor, awed by the
+greatest of all fears to a collegian, the fear of being called a
+"_fisher_" or a "_blueskin_" The professor paid no attention to the
+petitions and complaints which were poured in upon him, and which,
+though originated by the idle, all were compelled to vote for. He
+coldly, and with uncompromising dignity, went on; the excitement in the
+class increased, and what is called a college rebellion, with all its
+disastrous consequences to the infatuated rebels, ensued.
+
+Another professor had the dexterity to manage the case in a different
+way. After hearing that there was dissatisfaction, he brought up the
+subject as follows:
+
+"I understand, gentlemen, that you consider your lessons too long.
+Perhaps I have overrated the abilities of the class, but I have not
+intended to assign you more than you can accomplish. I feel no other
+interest in the subject than the pride and pleasure it would give me to
+have my class stand high, in respect to the amount of ground it has gone
+over, when you come to examination. I propose, therefore, that you
+appoint a committee, in whose abilities and judgment you can confide,
+and let them examine this subject and report. They might ascertain how
+much other classes have done, and how much is expedient for this class
+to attempt; and then, by estimating the number of recitations assigned
+to this study, they can easily determine what should be the length of
+the lessons."
+
+The plan was adopted, and the report put an end to the difficulty.
+
+6. ENGLISH COMPOSITION.--The great prevailing fault of writers in this
+country is an affectation of eloquence. It is almost universally the
+fashion to aim, not at striking thoughts, simply and clearly expressed,
+but at splendid language, glowing imagery, and magnificent periods. It
+arises, perhaps, from the fact that public speaking is the almost
+universal object of ambition, and, consequently, both at school and at
+college, nothing is thought of but oratory. Vain attempts at oratory
+result, in nine cases out of ten, in grandiloquence and empty
+verbiage--common thoughts expressed in pompous periods.
+
+The teacher should guard against this, and assign to children such
+subjects as are within the field of childish observation. A little skill
+on his part will soon determine the question which kind of writing shall
+prevail in his school. The following specimens, both written with some
+skill, will illustrate the two kinds of writing alluded to. Both were
+written by pupils of the same age, twelve; one a boy, the other a girl.
+The subjects were assigned by the teacher. I need not say that the
+following was the writer's first attempt at composition, and that it is
+printed without alteration.
+
+THE PAINS OF A SAILOR'S LIFE.
+
+The joyful sailor embarks on board of his ship, the sails are spread to
+catch the playful gale, swift as an arrow he cuts the rolling wave. A
+few days thus sporting on the briny wave, when suddenly the sky is
+overspread with clouds, the rain descends in torrents, the sails are
+lowered, the gale begins, the vessel is carried with great velocity, and
+the shrouds, unable to support the tottering mast, gives way to the
+furious tempest; the vessel is drove among the rocks, is sprung aleak;
+the sailor works at the pumps till, faint and weary, is heard from
+below, six feet of water in the hold; the boats are got ready, but,
+before they are into them, the vessel is dashed against a reef of rocks;
+some, in despair, throw themselves into the sea; others get on the rocks
+without any clothes or provisions, and linger a few days, perhaps weeks
+or months, living on shell fish, or perhaps taken up by some ship;
+others get on pieces of the wreck, and perhaps be cast on some foreign
+country, where perhaps he may be taken by the natives, and sold into
+slavery where he never more returns.
+
+In regard to the following specimen, it should be stated that when the
+subject was assigned, the pupil was directed to see how precisely she
+could imitate the language and conversation which two little children
+really lost in the woods would use. While writing, therefore, her mind
+was in pursuit of the natural and the simple, not of the eloquent.
+
+TWO CHILDREN LOST IN THE WOODS.
+
+_Emily_. Look here! see how many berries I've got. I don't believe
+you've got so many.
+
+_Charles_. Yes, I'm sure I have. My basket's almost full; and if we
+hurry, we shall get ever so many before we go home. So pick away as fast
+as you can, Emily.
+
+_Emily_. There, mine is full. Now we'll go and find some flowers for
+mother. You know somebody told us there were some red ones close to that
+rock.
+
+_Charles_. Well, so we will. We'll leave our baskets here, and come back
+and get them.
+
+_Emily_. But if we can't find our way back, what shall we do?
+
+_Charles_. Poh! I can find the way back. I only want a quarter to seven
+years old, and I sha'n't lose myself, I know.
+
+_Emily_. Well, we've got flowers enough, and now I'm tired and want to
+go home.
+
+_Charles. I_ don't; but, if you are tired, we'll go and find our
+baskets.
+
+_Emily_. Where do you think they are? We've been looking a great while
+for them. I know we are lost, for when we went after the flowers we
+only turned once, and coming back we have turned three times.
+
+_Charles_. Have we? Well, never mind, I guess we shall find them.
+
+_Emily_. I'm afraid we sha'n't. Do let's run.
+
+_Charles_. Well, so do. Oh, Emily! here's a brook, and I am sure we
+didn't pass any brook going.
+
+_Emily_. Oh dear! we must be lost. Hark! Charles, didn't you hear that
+dreadful noise just now? Wasn't it a bear?
+
+_Charles_. Poh! I should love to see a bear here. I guess, if he should
+come near me, I would give him one good slap that would make him feel
+pretty bad. I could kill him at the first hit.
+
+_Emily_. I should like to see you taking hold of a bear. Why, didn't you
+know bears were stronger than men? But only see how dark it grows; we
+sha'n't see ma to-night, I'm afraid.
+
+_Charles_. So am I: do let's run some more.
+
+_Emily_. Oh, Charles, do you believe we shall ever find the way out of
+this dreadful long wood?
+
+_Charles_. Let's scream, and see if somebody won't come.
+
+_Emily_. Well (screaming), ma! ma!
+
+_Charles_ (screaming also). Pa! pa!
+
+_Emily_. Oh dear! there's the sun setting. It will be dreadfully dark
+by-and-by, won't it?
+
+We have given enough for a specimen. The composition, though faulty in
+many respects, illustrates the point we had in view.
+
+7. Insincere Confession.--An assistant in a school informed the
+principal that she had some difficulty in preserving order in a certain
+class composed of small children. The principal accordingly went into
+the class, and something like the following dialogue ensued:
+
+"Your teacher informs me," said the principal, "that there is not
+perfect order in the class. Now if you are satisfied that there has not
+been order, and wish to help me discover and correct the fault, we can
+do it very easily. If, on the other hand, you do not wish to co-operate
+with me, it will be a little more difficult for me to correct it, and I
+must take a different course. Now I wish to know, at the outset, whether
+you do or do not wish to help me?"
+
+A faint "Yes, sir," was murmured through the class.
+
+"I do not wish you to assist me unless you really and honestly desire it
+yourselves; and if you undertake to do it, you must do it honestly. The
+first thing which will be necessary will be an open and thorough
+exposure of all which has been wrong, and this, you know, will be
+unpleasant. But I will put the question to vote by asking how many are
+willing that I should know, entirely and fully, all that they have done
+in this class that has been wrong?"
+
+Very nearly all the hands were raised at once, promptly, and the others
+were gradually brought up, though with more or less of hesitation.
+
+"Are you willing not only to tell me yourselves what you have done, but
+also, in case any one has forgotten something which she has done, that
+others should tell me of it?"
+
+The hands were all raised.
+
+After obtaining thus from the class a distinct and universal expression
+of willingness that all the facts should be made known, the principal
+called upon all those who had any thing to state to raise their hands,
+and those who raised them had opportunity to say what they wished. A
+great number of very trifling incidents were mentioned, such as could
+not have produced any difficulty in the class, and, consequently, could
+not have been the real instances of disorder alluded to. Or at least it
+was evident, if they were, that in the statement they must have been so
+palliated and softened that a really honest confession had not been
+made. This result might, in such a case, have been expected. Such is
+human nature, that in nine cases out of ten, unless such a result had
+been particularly guarded against, it would have inevitably followed.
+
+Not only will such a result follow in individual cases like this, but,
+unless the teacher watches and guards against it, it will grow into a
+habit. I mean, boys will get a sort of an idea that it is a fine thing
+to confess their faults, and by a show of humility and frankness will
+deceive their teacher, and perhaps themselves, by a sort of
+acknowledgment, which in fact exposes nothing of the guilt which the
+transgressor professes to expose. A great many cases occur where
+teachers are pleased with the confession of faults, and scholars
+perceive it, and the latter get into the habit of coming to the teacher
+when they have done something which they think may get them into
+difficulty, and make a sort of half confession, which, by bringing
+forward every palliating circumstance, and suppressing every thing of
+different character, keeps entirely out of view all the real guilt of
+the transgression. The criminal is praised by the teacher for the
+frankness and honesty of the confession, and his fault is freely
+forgiven. He goes away, therefore, well satisfied with himself, when, in
+fact, he has been only submitting to a little mortification,
+voluntarily, to avoid the danger of a greater; much in the same spirit
+with that which leads a man to receive the small-pox by inoculation, to
+avoid the danger of taking it in the natural way.
+
+The teacher who accustoms his pupils to confess their faults voluntarily
+ought to guard carefully against this danger. When such a case as the
+one just described occurs, it will afford a favorable opportunity of
+showing distinctly to pupils the difference between an honest and a
+hypocritical confession. In this instance the teacher proceeded thus:
+
+"Now there is one more question which I wish you all to answer by your
+votes honestly. It is this. Do you think that the real disorder which
+has been in this class--that is, the real cases which you referred to
+when you stated to me that you thought that the class was not in good
+order--have been now really exposed, so that I honestly and fully
+understand the case? How many suppose so?"
+
+Not a single hand was raised.
+
+"How many of you think, and are willing to avow your opinion, that I
+have _not_ been fully informed of the case?"
+
+A large proportion held up their hands.
+
+"Now it seems the class pretended to be willing that I should know all
+the affair. You pretended to be willing to tell me the whole, but when I
+call upon you for the information, instead of telling me honestly, you
+attempt to amuse me by little trifles, which in reality made no
+disturbance, and you omit the things which you know were the real
+objects of my inquiries. Am I right in my supposition?"
+
+They were silent. After a moment's pause, one perhaps raised her hand,
+and began now to confess something which she had before concealed.
+
+The teacher, however, interrupted her by saying,
+
+"I do not wish to have the confession made now. I gave you all time to
+do that, and now I should rather not hear any more about the disorder. I
+gave an opportunity to have it acknowledged, but it was not honestly
+improved, and now I should rather not hear. I shall probably never know.
+
+"I wished to see whether this class would be honest--really honest, or
+whether they would have the insincerity to pretend to be confessing when
+they were not doing so honestly, so as to get the credit of being frank
+and sincere, when in reality they are not so. Now am I not compelled to
+conclude that this latter is the case?"
+
+Such an example will make a deep and lasting impression. It will show
+that the teacher is upon his guard; and there are very few so hardened
+in deception that they would not wish that they had been really sincere
+rather than rest under such an imputation.
+
+8. Court.--A pupil, quite young (says a teacher), came to me one day
+with a complaint that one of her companions had got her seat. There had
+been some changes in the seats by my permission, and probably, from some
+inconsistency in the promises which I had made, there were two claimants
+for the same desk. The complainant came to me, and appealed to my
+recollection of the circumstance.
+
+"I do not recollect any thing about it," said I.
+
+"Why, Mr. B.!" replied she, with astonishment.
+
+"No," said I; "you forget that I have, every day, arrangements, almost
+without number, of such a kind to make, and as soon as I have made one I
+immediately forget all about it."
+
+"Why, don't you remember that you got me a new baize?"
+
+"No; I ordered a dozen new baizes at that time, but I do not remember
+who they were for."
+
+There was a pause; the disappointed complainant seemed not to know what
+to do.
+
+"I will tell you what to do. Bring the case into court, and I will try
+it regularly."
+
+"Why, Mr. B., I do not like to do any thing like that about it; besides,
+I do not know how to write an indictment."
+
+"Oh," I answered, "the scholars will like to have a good trial, and this
+will make a new sort of case. All our cases thus far have been for
+_offenses_--that is what they call criminal cases--and this will be only
+an examination of the conflicting claims of two individuals to the same
+property, and it will excite a good deal of interest. I think you had
+better bring it into court."
+
+She went slowly and thoughtfully to her seat, and presently returned
+with an indictment.
+
+"Mr. B., is this right?"
+
+It was as follows:
+
+I accuse Miss A.B. of coming to take away my seat--the one Mr. B. gave
+me.
+
+  Witnesses, { C.D.
+             { E.T.
+
+"Why--yes--that will do; and yet it is not exactly right. You see this
+is what they call a _civil_ case."
+
+"I don't think it is very _civil_."
+
+"No, I don't mean it was civil to take your seat, but this is not a case
+where a person is prosecuted for having done any thing wrong."
+
+The plaintiff looked a little perplexed, as if she could not understand
+how it could be otherwise than wrong for a girl to usurp her seat.
+
+"I mean, you do not bring it into court as a case of wrong. You do not
+want her to be punished, do you?"
+
+"No, I only want her to give me up my seat; I don't want her to be
+punished."
+
+"Well, then, you see that, although she may have done wrong to take your
+seat, it is not in that point of view that you bring it into court. It
+is a question about the right of property, and the lawyers call such
+cases _civil_ cases, to distinguish them from cases where persons are
+tried for the purpose of being punished for doing wrong. These last are
+called criminal cases."
+
+The aggrieved party still looked perplexed. "Well, Mr. B.," she
+continued, "what shall I do? How shall I write it? I can not say any
+thing about _civil_ in it, can I?"
+
+A form was given her which would be proper for the purpose, and the case
+was brought forward, and the evidence on both sides examined. The
+irritation of the quarrel was soon dissipated in the amusement of a
+semi-serious trial, and both parties good-humoredly acquiesced in the
+decision.
+
+9. TEACHERS' PERSONAL CHARACTER.--Much has been said within a few years,
+by writers on the subject of education in this country, on the
+desirableness of raising the business of teaching to the rank of a
+learned profession. There is but one way of doing this, and that is
+raising the personal characters and attainments of the teachers
+themselves. Whether an employment is elevated or otherwise in public
+estimation, depends altogether on the associations, connected with it in
+the public mind, and these depend altogether on the characters of the
+individuals who are engaged in it. Franklin, by the simple fact that he
+was a printer himself, has done more toward giving dignity and
+respectability to the employment of printing, than a hundred orations
+on the intrinsic excellence of the art. In fact, all mechanical
+employments have, within a few years, risen in rank in this country, not
+through the influence of efforts to impress the community directly with
+a sense of their importance, but simply because mechanics themselves
+have risen in intellectual and moral character. In the same manner, the
+employment of the teacher will be raised most effectually in the
+estimation of the public, not by the individual who writes the most
+eloquent oration on the intrinsic dignity of the art, but by the one who
+goes forward most successfully in the exercise of it, and who, by his
+general attainments and public character, stands out most fully to the
+view of the public as a well-informed, liberal-minded, and useful man.
+
+If this is so--and it can not well be denied--it furnishes to every
+teacher a strong motive to exertion for the improvement of his own
+personal character. But there is a stronger motive still in the results
+which flow directly to himself from such efforts. No man ought to engage
+in any business which, as mere business, will engross all his time and
+attention. The Creator has bestowed upon every one a mind, upon the
+cultivation of which our rank among intelligent beings, our happiness,
+our moral and intellectual power, every thing valuable to us, depend;
+and after all the cultivation which we can bestow, in this life, upon
+this mysterious principle, it will still be in embryo. The progress
+which it is capable of making is entirely indefinite. If by ten years of
+cultivation we can secure a certain degree of knowledge and power, by
+ten more we can double, or more than double it, and every succeeding
+year of effort is attended with equal success. There is no point of
+attainment where we must stop, or beyond which effort will bring in a
+less valuable return.
+
+Look at that teacher, and consider for a moment his condition. He began
+to teach when he was twenty years of age, and now he is forty. Between
+the ages of fifteen and twenty he made a vigorous effort to acquire
+such an education as would fit him for these duties. He succeeded, and
+by these efforts he raised himself from being a mere laborer, receiving
+for his daily toil a mere daily subsistence, to the respectability and
+the comforts of an intellectual pursuit. But this change once produced,
+he stops short in his progress. Once seated in his desk, he is
+satisfied, and for twenty years he has been going through the same
+routine, without any effort to advance or to improve. He does not
+reflect that the same efforts, which so essentially altered his
+condition and prospects at twenty, would have carried him forward to
+higher and higher sources of influence and enjoyment as long as he
+should continue them. His efforts ceased when he obtained a situation as
+teacher at fifty dollars a month, and, though twenty years have glided
+away, he is now exactly what he was then.
+
+There is probably no employment whatever which affords so favorable an
+opportunity for personal improvement--for steady intellectual and moral
+progress, as that of teaching. There are two reasons for this:
+
+First, there is time for it. With an ordinary degree of health and
+strength, the mind can be vigorously employed at least ten hours a day.
+As much as this is required of students in many literary institutions.
+In fact, ten hours to study, seven to sleep, and seven to food,
+exercise, and recreation, is perhaps as good an arrangement as can be
+made; at any rate, very few persons will suppose that such a plan allows
+too little under the latter head. Now six hours is as much as is
+expected of a teacher under ordinary circumstances, and it is as much as
+ought ever to be bestowed; for, though he may labor four hours out of
+school in some new field, his health and spirits will soon sink under
+the burden, if, after his weary labors during the day in school, he
+gives up his evenings to the same perplexities and cares. And it is not
+necessary. No one who knows any thing of the nature of the human mind,
+and who will reflect a moment on the subject, can doubt that a man can
+make a better school by expending six hours labor upon it with alacrity
+and ardor, than he can by driving himself on to ten. Every teacher,
+therefore, who is commencing his work, should begin with the firm
+determination of devoting only six hours daily to the pursuit. Make as
+good a school, and accomplish as much for it as you can in six hours,
+and let the rest go. When you come from your school-room at night, leave
+all your perplexities and cares behind you. No matter what unfinished
+business or unsettled difficulties remain, dismiss them till another sun
+shall rise, and the hour of duty for another day shall come. Carry no
+school-work home with you, and do not even talk of your school-work at
+home. You will then get refreshment and rest. Your mind, during the
+evening, will be in a different world from that in which you have moved
+during the day. At first this will be difficult. It will be hard for
+you, unless your mind is uncommonly well disciplined, to dismiss all
+your cares; and you will think, each evening, that some peculiar
+emergency demands your attention _just at that time,_ and that as soon
+as you have passed the crisis you will confine yourself to what you
+admit are generally reasonable limits; but if you once allow school,
+with its perplexities and cares, to get possession of the rest of the
+day, it will keep possession. It will intrude itself into all your
+waking thoughts, and trouble you in your dreams. You will lose all
+command of your powers, and, besides cutting off from yourself all hope
+of general intellectual progress, you will, in fact, destroy your
+success as a teacher. Exhaustion, weariness, and anxiety will be your
+continual portion, and in such a state no business can be successfully
+prosecuted.
+
+There need be no fear that employers will be dissatisfied if the teacher
+acts upon this principle. If he is faithful, and enters with all his
+heart into the discharge of his duties during six hours, there will be
+something in the ardor, and alacrity, and spirit with which his duties
+will be performed which parents and scholars will both be very glad to
+receive in exchange for the languid, and dull, and heartless toil in
+which the other method must sooner or later result.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+If the teacher, then, will confine himself to such a portion of time as
+is, in fact, all he can advantageously employ, there will be much left
+which can be devoted to his own private employment--more than is usual
+in the other avocations of life. In most of these other avocations there
+is not the same necessity for limiting the hours which a man may devote
+to his business. A merchant, for example, may be employed nearly all the
+day at his counting-room, and so may a mechanic. A physician may spend
+all his waking hours in visiting patients, and feel little more than
+healthy fatigue. The reason is, that in all these employments, and, in
+fact, in most of the employments of life, there is so much to diversify,
+so many little incidents constantly occurring to animate and relieve,
+and so much bodily exercise, which alternates with and suspends the
+fatigues of the mind, that the labors may be much longer continued, and
+with less cessation, and yet the health not suffer. But the teacher,
+while engaged in his work, has his mind continually on the stretch.
+There is little relief, little respite, and he is almost entirely
+deprived of bodily exercise. He must, consequently, limit his hours of
+attending to his business, or his health will soon sink under labors
+which Providence never intended the human mind to bear.
+
+There is another circumstance which facilitates the progress of the
+teacher. It is a fact that all this general progress has a direct and
+immediate bearing upon his pursuits. A lawyer may read in an evening an
+interesting book of travels, and find nothing to help him with his case,
+the next day, in court; but almost every fact which the teacher thus
+learns will come _at once into use_ in some of his recitations at
+school. We do not mean to imply by this that the members of the legal
+profession have not need of a great variety and extent of knowledge;
+they doubtless have. It is simply in the _directness_ and _certainty_
+with which the teacher's knowledge may be applied to his purpose that
+the business of teaching has the advantage over every other pursuit.
+
+This fact, now, has a very important influence in encouraging and
+leading forward the teacher to make constant intellectual progress, for
+every step brings at once a direct reward.
+
+10. THE CHESTNUT BURR.--_A story for school-boys._--One fine Saturday
+afternoon, in the fall of the year, the master was taking a walk in the
+woods, and he came to a place where a number of boys were gathering
+chestnuts.
+
+One of the boys was sitting upon a bank trying to open some chestnut
+burrs which he had knocked off from the tree. The burrs were green, and
+he was attempting to open them by pounding them with a stone.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+He was a very impatient boy, and was scolding in a loud, angry, tone
+against the burrs. He did not see, he said, what in the world chestnuts
+were made to grow so for. They ought to grow right out in the open air,
+like apples, and not have such vile porcupine skins on them, just to
+plague the boys. So saying, he struck with all his might a fine large
+burr, crushed it to pieces, and then jumped up, using at the same time
+profane and wicked words. As soon as he turned round he saw the master
+standing very near him. He felt very much ashamed and afraid, and hung
+down his head.
+
+"Roger," said the master (for this boy's name was Roger), "can you get
+me a chestnut burr?"
+
+Roger looked up for a moment to see whether the master was in earnest,
+and then began to look around for a burr.
+
+A boy who was standing near the tree, with a red cap full of burrs in
+his hand, held out one of them. Roger took the burr and handed it to the
+master, who quietly put it into his pocket, and walked away without
+saying a word.
+
+As soon as he was gone, the boy with the red cap said to Roger, "I
+expected that the master would have given you a good scolding for
+talking so."
+
+"The master never scolds," said another boy, who was sitting on a log
+pretty near, with a green satchel in his hand, "but you see if he does
+not remember it." Roger looked as if he did not know what to think about
+it.
+
+"I wish," said he, "I knew what he is going to do with that burr."
+
+That afternoon, when the lessons had been all recited, and it was about
+time to dismiss the school, the boys put away their books, and the
+master read a few verses in the Bible, and then offered a prayer, in
+which he asked God to forgive all the sins which any of them had
+committed that day, and to take care of them during the night. After
+this he asked the boys all to sit down. He then took his handkerchief
+out of his pocket and laid it on the desk, and afterward he put his
+hand into his pocket again, and took out the chestnut burr, and all the
+boys looked at it.
+
+"Boys," said he, "do you know what this is?"
+
+One of the boys in the back seat said, in a half whisper, "It is nothing
+but a chestnut burr."
+
+"Lucy," said the master to a bright-eyed little girl near him, "what is
+this?"
+
+"It is a chestnut burr, sir," said she.
+
+"Do you know what it is for?"
+
+"I suppose there are chestnuts in it."
+
+"But what is this rough, prickly covering for?"
+
+Lucy did not know.
+
+"Does any body here know?" said the master.
+
+One of the boys said that he supposed it was to hold the chestnuts
+together, and keep them up on the tree.
+
+"But I heard a boy say," replied the master, "that they ought not to be
+made to grow so. The nut itself, he thought, ought to hang alone on the
+branches, without any prickly covering, just as apples do."
+
+"But the nuts themselves have no stems to be fastened by," answered the
+same boy.
+
+"That is true; but I suppose this boy thought that God could have made
+them grow with stems, and that this would have been better than to have
+them in burrs."
+
+After a little pause the master said that he would explain TO them what
+the chestnut burr was for, and wished them all to listen attentively.
+
+"How much of the chestnut is good to eat, William?" asked he, looking at
+a boy before him.
+
+"Only the meat."
+
+"How long does it take the meat to grow?"
+
+"All summer, I suppose, it is growing."
+
+"Yes; it begins early in the summer, and gradually swells and grows
+until it has become of full size, and is ripe, in the fall. Now suppose
+there was a tree out here near the school-house, and the chestnut meats
+should grow upon it without any shell or covering; suppose, too, that
+they should taste like good ripe chestnuts at first, when they were very
+small. Do you think they would be safe?"
+
+William said "No; the boys would pick and eat them before they had time
+to grow."
+
+"Well, what harm would there be in that? Would it not be as well to have
+the chestnuts early in the summer as to have them in the fall?"
+
+William hesitated. Another boy who sat next to him said,
+
+"There would not be so much meat in the chestnuts if they were eaten
+before they had time to grow."
+
+"Right," said the master; "but would not the boys know this, and so all
+agree to let the little chestnuts stay, and not eat them while they were
+small?"
+
+William said he thought they would not. If the chestnuts were good, he
+was afraid they would pick them off and eat them if they were small.
+
+All the rest of the boys in the school thought so too.
+
+"Here, then," said the master, "is one reason for having prickles around
+the chestnuts when they are small. But then it is not necessary to have
+all chestnuts guarded from boys in this way; a great many of the trees
+are in the woods, which the boys do not see; what good do the burrs do
+in these trees?"
+
+The boys hesitated. Presently the boy who had the green satchel under
+the tree with Roger, who was sitting in one corner of the room, said,
+
+"I should think they would keep the squirrels from eating them.
+
+"And besides," continued he, after thinking a moment, "I should suppose,
+if the meat of the chestnut had no covering, the rain would wet it and
+make it rot, or the sun might dry and wither it."
+
+"Yes," said the master, "these are very good reasons why the nut should
+be carefully guarded. First the meats are packed away in a hard brown
+shell, which the water can not get through; this keeps it dry, and away
+from dust and other things which might injure it. Then several nuts thus
+protected grow closely together inside this green, prickly covering,
+which spreads over them and guards them from the larger animals and the
+boys. Where the chestnut gets its full growth and is ripe, this
+covering, you know, splits open, and the nuts drop out, and then any
+body can get them and eat them."
+
+The boys were then all satisfied that it was better that chestnuts
+should grow in burrs.
+
+"But why," asked one of the boys, "do not apples grow so?"
+
+"Can any body answer that question?" asked the master.
+
+The boy with the green satchel said that apples had a smooth, tight
+skin, which kept out the wet, but he did not see how they were guarded
+from animals.
+
+The master said it was by their taste. "They are hard and sour before
+they are full grown, and so the taste is not pleasant, and nobody wishes
+to eat them, except sometimes a few foolish boys, and these are punished
+by being made sick. When the apples are full grown, they change from
+sour to sweet, and become mellow--then they can be eaten. Can you tell
+me of any other fruits which are preserved in this way?"
+
+One boy answered, "Strawberries and blackberries;" and another said,
+"Peaches and pears."
+
+Another boy asked why the peach-stone was not outside the peach, so as
+to keep it from being eaten; but the master said that he would explain
+this another time. Then he dismissed the scholars, after asking Roger to
+wait until the rest had gone, as he wished to see him alone.
+
+Several of the articles which follow were communicated for this work by
+different teachers, at the request of the author.
+
+11. THE SERIES OF WRITING LESSONS.--Very many pupils soon become weary
+of the dull and monotonous business of writing, unless some plans are
+devised to give interest and variety to the exercise; and, on this
+account, this branch of education, in which improvement may be most
+rapid, is often the last and most tedious to be acquired.
+
+A teacher, by adopting the following plan, succeeded in awakening a
+great degree of interest on the subject, and, consequently, of promoting
+rapid improvement. The plan was this: he prepared, on a large sheet of
+paper, a series of lessons in coarse-hand, beginning with straight
+lines, and proceeding to the elementary parts of the various letters,
+and finally to the letters themselves. This paper was posted up in a
+part of the room accessible to all.
+
+The writing-books were made of three sheets of foolscap paper, folded
+into a convenient size, making twenty-four pages in the book. The books
+were to be ruled by the pupil, for it was thought important that each
+should learn this art. Every pupil in school, then, being furnished with
+one of these writing-books, was required to commence this series, and to
+practice each lesson until he could write it well; then, and not till
+then, he was permitted to pass to the next. A few brief directions were
+given under each lesson on the large sheet. For example, under the line
+of straight marks, which constituted the first lesson, was written as
+follows:
+
+_Straight, equidistant, parallel, smooth, well-terminated._
+
+These directions were to call the attention of the pupil to the
+excellences which he must aim at, and when he supposed he had secured
+them, his book was to be presented to the teacher for examination. If
+approved, the word _Passed_, or, afterward, simply _P_., was written
+under the line, and he could then proceed to the next lesson. Other
+requisites were necessary, besides the correct formation of the letters,
+to enable one to pass; for example, the page must not be soiled or
+blotted, no paper must be wasted, and, in no case, a leaf torn out. As
+soon as _one line_ was written in the manner required, the scholar was
+allowed to pass. In a majority of cases, however, not less than a page
+would be practiced, and in many instances a sheet would be covered,
+before one line could be produced which would be approved.
+
+One peculiar excellency of this method was, that although the whole
+school were working under a regular and systematic plan, individuals
+could go on independently; that is, the progress of no scholar was
+retarded by that of his companion; the one more advanced might easily
+pass the earlier lessons in a few days, while the others would require
+weeks of practice to acquire the same degree of skill.
+
+During the writing-hour the scholars would practice each at the lesson
+where he left off before, and at a particular time each day the books
+were brought from the regular place of deposit and laid before the
+teacher for examination. Without some arrangement for an examination of
+all the books together, the teacher would be liable to interruption at
+any time from individual questions and requests, which would consume
+much time, and benefit only a few.
+
+When a page of writing could not pass, a brief remark, calling the
+attention of the pupil to the faults which prevented it, was sometimes
+made in pencil at the bottom of the page. In other cases, the fault was
+of such a character as to require full and minute oral directions to the
+pupil. At last, to facilitate the criticism of the writing, a set of
+arbitrary marks, indicative of the various faults, was devised and
+applied, as occasion might require, to the writing-books, by means of
+red ink.
+
+These marks, which were very simple in their character, were easily
+remembered, for there was generally some connection between the sign
+and the thing signified. For example, the mark denoting that letters
+were too short was simply lengthening them in red ink; a faulty curve
+was denoted by making a new curve over the old one, &c. The following
+are the principal criticisms and directions for which marks were
+contrived:
+
+  Strokes rough.                    Too tall or too short.
+  Curve wrong.                      Stems not straight.
+  Bad termination                   Careless work.
+  Too slanting, and the reverse.    Paper wasted.
+  Too broad, and the reverse.       Almost well enough to pass.
+  Not parallel.                      Bring your book to the teacher.
+  Form of the letter bad.           Former fault not corrected.
+  Large stroke made too fine, and the reverse.
+
+A catalogue of these marks, with an explanation, was made out and placed
+where it was accessible to all, and by means of them the books could be
+very easily and rapidly, but thoroughly criticised.
+
+After the plan had gone on for some time, and its operation was fully
+understood, the teacher gave up the business of examining the books into
+the hands of a committee, appointed by him from among the older and more
+advanced pupils. That the committee might be unbiased in their judgment,
+they were required to examine and decide upon the books without knowing
+the names of the writers. Each scholar was, indeed, required to place
+her name on the right hand upper corner of every page of her
+writing-book, for the convenience of the distributors; but this corner
+was turned down when the book was brought in, that it might not be seen
+by the committee.
+
+This committee was invested with plenary powers, and there was no appeal
+from their decision. In case they exercised their authority in an
+improper way, or failed on any account to give satisfaction, they were
+liable to impeachment, but while they continued in office they were to
+be strictly obeyed.
+
+This plan went on successfully for three months, and with very little
+diminution of interest. The whole school went regularly through the
+lessons in coarse-hand, and afterward through a similar series in
+fine-hand, and improvement in this branch was thought to be greater than
+at any former period in the same length of time.
+
+The same principle of arranging the several steps of an art or a study
+into a series of lessons, and requiring the pupil to pass regularly from
+one to the other, might easily be applied to other studies, and would
+afford an agreeable variety.
+
+12. THE CORRESPONDENCE.--A master of a district school was walking
+through the room with a large rule in his hands, and as he came up
+behind two small boys, he observed that they were playing with some
+papers. He struck them once or twice, though not very severely, on the
+head with the rule which he had in his hand. Tears started from the eyes
+of one. They were called forth by a mingled feeling of grief,
+mortification, and pain. The other, who was of "sterner stuff," looked
+steadily into the master's face, and when his back was turned, shook his
+fist at him and laughed in defiance.
+
+Another teacher, seeing a similar case, did nothing. The boys, when they
+saw him, hastily gathered up their playthings and put them away. An hour
+or two after, a little boy, who sat near the master, brought them a note
+addressed to them both. They opened it, and read as follows:
+
+"To EDWARD AND JOHN,--I observed, when I passed you to-day, from your
+concerned looks, and your hurried manner of putting something into your
+desk, that you were doing something that you knew was wrong. When you
+attempt to do any thing whatever which conscience tells you is wrong,
+you only make yourself uneasy and anxious while you do it, and then you
+are forced to resort to concealment and deception when you see me
+coming. You would be a great deal happier if you would always be doing
+your duty, and then you would never be afraid. Your affectionate
+teacher,----."
+
+As the teacher was arranging his papers in his desk at the close of
+school, he found a small piece of paper neatly folded up in the form of
+a note, and addressed to him. He read as follows:
+
+"DEAR TEACHER,--We are very much obliged to you for writing us a note.
+We were making a paper box. We know it was wrong, and are determined not
+to do so any more. We hope you will forgive us.
+
+"Your pupils, EDWARD, JOHN."
+
+Which of these teachers understood human nature best?
+
+13. WEEKLY REPORTS.--The plan described by the following article, which
+was furnished by a teacher for insertion here, was originally adopted,
+so far as I know, in a school on the Kennebec. I have adopted it with
+great advantage.
+
+A teacher had one day been speaking to her scholars of certain cases of
+slight disorder in the school, which, she remarked, had been gradually
+creeping in, and which, as she thought, it devolved upon the scholars,
+by systematic efforts, to repress. She enumerated instances of disorder
+in the arrangement of the rooms, leaving the benches out of their
+places, throwing waste papers upon the floor, having the desk in
+disorder inside, spilling water upon the entry floor, irregular
+deportment, such as too loud talking or laughing in recess, or in the
+intermission at noon, or when coming to school, and making unnecessary
+noise in going to or returning from recitations.
+
+"I have a plan to propose," said the teacher, "which I think may be the
+pleasantest way of promoting a reform in things of this kind. It is
+this. Let several of your number be chosen a committee to prepare
+statedly--perhaps as often as once a week--a written report of the state
+of the school. The report might be read before the school at the close
+of each week. The committee might consist, in the whole, of seven or
+eight, or even of eleven or twelve individuals, who should take the
+whole business into their hands. This committee might appoint
+individuals of their number to write in turn each week. By this
+arrangement, it would not be known to the school generally who are the
+writers of any particular report, if the individuals wish to be
+anonymous. Two individuals might be appointed at the beginning of the
+week, who should feel it their business to observe particularly the
+course of things from day to day with reference to the report.
+Individuals not members of the committee can render assistance by any
+suggestions they may present to this committee. These should, however,
+generally be made in writing.
+
+"Subjects for such a report will be found to suggest themselves very
+abundantly, though you may not perhaps think so at first. The committee
+may be empowered not only to state the particulars in which things are
+going wrong, but the methods by which they may be made right. Let them
+present us with any suggestions they please. If we do not like them, we
+are not obliged to adopt them. For instance, it is generally the case,
+whenever a recitation is attended in the corner yonder, that an end of
+one of the benches is put against the door, so as to occasion a serious
+interruption to the exercises when a person wishes to come in or go out.
+It would come within the province of the committee to attend to such a
+case as this, that is, to bring it up in the report. The remedy in such
+a case is a very simple one. Suppose, however, that instead of the
+_simple_ remedy, our committee should propose that the classes reciting
+in the said corner should be dissolved and the studies abolished? We
+should know the proposal was an absurd one, but then it would do no
+hurt; we should have only to reject it.
+
+"Again, besides our faults, let our committee notice the respects in
+which we are doing particularly well, that we may be encouraged to go on
+doing well, or even to do better. If they think, for example, that we
+are deserving of credit for the neatness with which books are kept--for
+their freedom from blots, or scribblings, or dog's-ears, by which
+school-books are so commonly defaced, let them tell us so. And the same
+of any other excellence."
+
+With the plan as thus presented, the scholars were very much pleased. It
+was proposed by one individual that such a committee should be appointed
+immediately, and a report prepared for the ensuing week. This was done.
+The committee were chosen by ballot. The following may be taken as a
+specimen of their reports:
+
+WEEKLY REPORT.
+
+"The Committee appointed to write the weekly report have noticed several
+things which they think wrong. In the first place, there have been a
+greater number of tardy scholars during the past week than usual. Much
+of this tardiness, we suppose, is owing to the interest felt in building
+the bower; but we think this business ought to be attended to only in
+play-hours. If only one or two come in late when we are reading in the
+morning, or after we have composed ourselves to study at the close of
+the recess, every scholar must look up from her book--we do not say they
+ought to do so, but only that they will do so. However, we anticipate an
+improvement in this respect, as we know 'a word to the wise is
+sufficient.'
+
+"In the two back rows we are sorry to say that we have noticed
+whispering. We know that this fact will very much distress our teacher,
+as she expects assistance, and not trouble, from our older scholars. It
+is not our business to reprove any one's misconduct, but it is our duty
+to mention it, however disagreeable it may be. We think the younger
+scholars, during the past week, have much improved in this respect. Only
+three cases of whispering among them have occurred to our knowledge.
+
+"We remember some remarks made a few weeks ago by our teacher on the
+practice of prompting each other in the classes. We wish she would
+repeat them, for we fear that, by some, they are forgotten. In the class
+in Geography, particularly in the questions on the map, we have noticed
+sly whispers, which, we suppose, were the hints of some kind friend
+designed to refresh the memory of her less attentive companion. We
+propose that the following question be now put to vote. Shall the
+practice of prompting in the classes be any longer continued?
+
+"We would propose that we have a composition exercise _this_ week
+similar to the one on Thursday last. It was very interesting, and we
+think all would be willing to try their thinking powers once more. We
+would propose, also, that the readers of the compositions should sit
+near the centre of the room, as last week many fine sentences escaped
+the ears of those seated in the remote corners.
+
+"We were requested by a very public-spirited individual to mention once
+more the want of three nails, for bonnets, in the entry. Also, to say
+that the air from the broken pane of glass on the east side of the room
+is very unpleasant to those who sit near.
+
+"Proposed that the girls who exhibited so much taste and ingenuity in
+the arrangement of the festoons of evergreen, and tumblers of flowers
+around the teacher's desk, be now requested to remove the faded roses
+and drooping violets. We have gazed on these sad emblems long enough.
+
+"Finally, proposed that greater care be taken by those who stay at noon
+to place their dinner-baskets in proper places. The contents of more
+than one were partly strewed upon the entry floor this morning."
+
+If such a measure as this is adopted, it should not be continued
+uninterrupted for a very long time. Every thing of this sort should be
+occasionally changed, or it sooner or later becomes only a form.
+
+14. THE SHOPPING EXERCISE.--I have often, when going a shopping, found
+difficulty and trouble in making change. I could never calculate very
+readily, and in the hurry and perplexity of the moment I was always
+making mistakes. I have heard others often make the same complaint, and
+I resolved to try the experiment of regularly teaching children to make
+change. I had a bright little class in Arithmetic, the members of which
+were always ready to engage with interest in any thing new, and to them
+I proposed my plan. It was to be called the Shopping Exercise. I first
+requested each individual to write something upon her slate which she
+would like to buy, if she was going a shopping, stating the quantity she
+wished and the price of it. To make the first lesson as simple as
+possible, I requested no one to go above ten, either in the quantity or
+price. When all were ready, I called upon some to read what she had
+written. Her next neighbor was then requested to tell us how much the
+purchase would amount to. Then the first one named a bill, which she
+supposed to be offered in payment, and the second showed what change was
+needed. A short specimen of the exercise will probably make it clearer
+than mere description.
+
+_Mary_. Eight ounces of candy at seven cents.
+
+_Susan_. Fifty-six cents.
+
+_Mary_. One dollar.
+
+_Susan_. Forty-four cents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Susan_. Nine yards of lace at eight cents.
+
+_Anna_. Seventy-two cents.
+
+_Susan_. Two dollars.
+
+_Anna_. One dollar and twenty-eight cents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Anna_. Three pieces of tape at five cents.
+
+_Jane_. Fifteen cents.
+
+_Anna_. Three dollars.
+
+_Jane_. Eighty-five cents.
+
+_Several voices_. Wrong.
+
+_Jane_. Two dollars and eighty-five cents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Jane_. Six pictures at eight cents.
+
+_Sarah_. Forty-two cents.
+
+_Several voices_. Wrong.
+
+_Sarah_. Forty-eight cents.
+
+_Jane_. One dollar.
+
+_Sarah_. Sixty-two cents.
+
+_Several voices_. Wrong.
+
+_Sarah_. Fifty-two cents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It will be perceived that the same individual who names the article and
+the price names also the bill which she would give in payment; and the
+one who sits next her, who calculated the amount, calculated also the
+change to be returned. She then proposed _her_ example to the one next
+in the line, with whom the same course was pursued, and thus it passed
+down the class.
+
+The exercise went on for some time in this way, till the pupils had
+become so familiar with it that I thought it best to allow them to take
+higher numbers. They were always interested in it, and made great
+improvement in a short time, and I myself derived great advantage from
+listening to them.
+
+There is one more circumstance I will add which may contribute to the
+interest of this account. While the class were confined, in what they
+purchased, to the number ten, they were sometimes inclined to turn the
+exercise into a frolic. The variety of articles which they could find
+costing less than ten cents was so small, that, for the sake of getting
+something new, they would propose examples really ludicrous, such as
+these: three meeting-houses at two cents; four pianos at nine cents. But
+I soon found that if I allowed this at all, their attention was diverted
+from the main object, and occupied in seeking the most diverting and
+curious examples.
+
+15. ARTIFICES IN RECITATIONS.--The teacher of a small newly-established
+school had all of his scholars classed together in some of their
+studies. At recitations he usually sat in the middle of the room, while
+the scholars occupied the usual places at their desks, which were
+arranged around the sides. In the recitation in Rhetoric, the teacher,
+after a time, observed that one or two of the class seldom answered
+appropriately the questions which came to them, but yet were always
+ready with some kind of answer--generally an exact quotation of the
+words of the book. Upon noticing these individuals more particularly, he
+was convinced that their books were open before them in some concealed
+situation. Another practice not uncommon in the class was that of
+_prompting_ each other, either by whispers or writing. The teacher took
+no notice publicly of these practices for some time, until, at the close
+of an uncommonly good recitation, he remarked, "I think we have had a
+fine recitation to-day. It is one of the most agreeable things that I
+ever do to hear a lesson that is learned as well as this. Do you think
+it would be possible for us to have as good an exercise every day?"
+"Yes, sir," answered several, faintly. "Do you think it would be
+reasonable for me to expect of every member of the class that she should
+always be able to recite all her lessons without ever missing a single
+question?" "No, sir," answered all. "I do not expect it," said the
+teacher. "All I wish is that each of you should be faithful in your
+efforts to prepare your lessons. I wish you to study from a sense of
+duty, and for the sake of your own improvement. You know I do not punish
+you for failures. I have no going up or down, no system of marking. Your
+only reward, when you have made faithful preparation for a recitation,
+is the feeling of satisfaction which you will always experience; and
+when you have been negligent, your only punishment is a sort of uneasy
+feeling of self-reproach. I do not expect you all to be invariably
+prepared with every question of your lessons. Sometimes you will be
+unavoidably prevented from studying them, and at other times, when you
+have studied them very carefully, you may have forgotten, or you may
+fail from some misapprehension of the meaning in some cases. Do not, in
+such a case, feel troubled because you may not have appeared as well as
+some individual who has not been half as faithful as yourself. If you
+have done your duty, that is enough. On the other hand, you ought to
+feel no better satisfied with yourselves when your lesson has not been
+studied well, because you may have happened to know the parts which came
+to you. Have I _done_ well? should always be the question, not, Have I
+managed to _appear_ well?
+
+"I will say a word here," continued the teacher, "upon a practice which
+I have known to be very common in some schools, and which I have been
+sorry to notice occasionally in this. I mean that of prompting, or
+helping each other along in some way at recitations. Now where a severe
+punishment is the consequence of a failure, there might seem to be some
+reasonableness in helping your companions out of difficulty, though even
+then such tricks are departures from honorable dealing. But, especially
+where there is no purpose to be served but that of appearing to know
+more than you do, it certainly must be considered a very mean kind of
+artifice. I think I have sometimes observed an individual to be prompted
+where evidently the assistance was not desired, and even where it was
+not needed. To whisper to an individual the answer to a question is
+sometimes to pay her rather a poor compliment at least, for it is the
+same as saying 'I am a better scholar than you are; let me help you
+along a little.'
+
+"Let us then, hereafter, have only fair, open, honest dealings with each
+other; no attempts to appear to advantage by little artful manoeuvring;
+no prompting; no peeping into books. Be faithful and conscientious, and
+then banish anxiety for your success. Do you not think you will find
+this the best course?" "Yes, sir," answered every scholar. "Are you
+willing to pledge yourselves to adopt it?" "Yes, sir." "Those who are
+may raise their hands," said the teacher. Every hand was raised; and the
+pledge, there was evidence to believe, was honorably sustained.
+
+16. KEEPING RESOLUTIONS.--The following are notes of a familiar lecture
+on this subject, given by a teacher at some general exercise in the
+school. The practice of thus reducing to writing what the teacher may
+say on such subjects will be attended with excellent effects.
+
+This is a subject upon which young persons find much difficulty. The
+question is asked a thousand times, "How shall I ever learn to keep my
+resolutions?" Perhaps the great cause of your failures is this. You are
+not sufficiently _definite_ in forming your purposes. You will resolve
+to do a thing without knowing with certainty whether it is even possible
+to do it. Again, you make resolutions which are to run on indefinitely,
+so that, of course, they can never be fully kept. For instance, one of
+you will resolve to _rise earlier in the morning._ You fix upon no
+definite hour, on any definite number of mornings, only you are going
+to "_rise earlier_." Morning comes, and finds you sleepy and disinclined
+to rise. You remember your resolution of rising earlier. "But then it is
+_very_ early," you say. You resolved to rise earlier, but you didn't
+resolve to rise just then. And this, it may be, is the last of your
+resolution. Or perhaps you are, for a few mornings, a little earlier;
+but then, at the end of a week or fortnight, you do not know exactly
+whether your resolution has been broken or kept, for you had not decided
+whether to rise earlier for ten days or for ten years.
+
+In the same vague and general manner, a person will resolve to be _more
+studious_ or more diligent. In the case of an individual of a mature and
+well-disciplined mind, of acquired firmness of character, such a
+resolution might have effect. The individual will really devote more
+time and attention to his pursuits. But for one of you to make such a
+resolution would do no sort of good. It would only be a source of
+trouble and disquiet. You perceive there is nothing definite--nothing
+fixed about it. You have not decided what amount of additional time or
+attention to give to your studies, or when you will begin, or when you
+will end. There is no one time when you will feel that you are breaking
+your resolution, because there were no particular times when you were to
+study more. You waste one opportunity and another, and then, with a
+feeling of discouragement and self-reproach, conclude to abandon your
+resolution. "Oh! It does no good to make resolutions," you say; "I never
+shall keep them."
+
+Now, if you would have the business of making resolutions a pleasant and
+interesting instead of a discouraging, disquieting one, you must proceed
+in a different manner. Be definite and distinct in your plan; decide
+exactly what you will do, and how you will do it--when you will begin,
+and when you will end. Instead of resolving to "rise earlier," resolve
+to rise at the ringing of the sunrise bells, or at some other definite
+time. Resolve to try this, as an experiment, for one morning, or for one
+week, or fortnight. Decide positively, if you decide at all, and then
+rise when the time comes, sleepy or not sleepy. Do not stop to repent of
+your resolution, or to consider the wisdom or folly of it, when the time
+for acting under it has once arrived.
+
+In all cases, little and great, make this a principle--to consider well
+before you begin to act, but after you have begun to act, never stop to
+consider. Resolve as deliberately as you please, but be sure to keep
+your resolution, whether a wise one or an unwise one, after it is once
+made. Never allow yourself to reconsider the question of getting up,
+after the morning has come, except it be for some unforeseen
+circumstance. Get up for that time, and be more careful how you make
+resolutions again.
+
+17. TOPICS.--The plan of the Topic Exercise, as we called it, is this.
+Six or seven topics are given out, information upon which is to be
+obtained from any source, and communicated verbally before the whole
+school, or sometimes before a class formed for this purpose the next
+day. The subjects are proposed both by teacher and scholars, and if
+approved, adopted. The exercise is intended to be voluntary, but ought
+to be managed in a way sufficiently interesting to induce all to join.
+
+At the commencement of the exercise the teacher calls upon all who have
+any information in regard to the topic assigned--suppose, for example,
+it is _Alabaster_--to rise. Perhaps twenty individuals out of forty
+rise. The teacher may perhaps say to those in their seats,
+
+"Do you not know any thing of this subject? Have you neither seen nor
+heard of alabaster, and had no means of ascertaining any thing in regard
+to it? If you have, you ought to rise. It is not necessary that you
+should state a fact altogether new and unheard-of, but if you tell me
+its color, or some of the uses to which it is applied, you will be
+complying with my request."
+
+After these remarks, perhaps a few more rise, and possibly the whole
+school. Individuals are then called upon at random, each to state only
+one particular in regard to the topic in question. This arrangement is
+made so as to give all an opportunity to speak. If any scholar, after
+having mentioned one fact, has something still farther to communicate,
+she remains standing till called upon again. As soon as an individual
+has exhausted her stock of information, or if the facts that she
+intended to mention are stated by another, she takes her seat.
+
+The topics at first most usually selected are the common objects by
+which we are surrounded--for example, glass, iron, mahogany, and the
+like. The list will gradually extend itself, until it will embrace a
+large number of subjects.
+
+The object of this exercise is to induce pupils to seek for general
+information in an easy and pleasant manner, as by the perusal of books,
+newspapers, periodicals, and conversation with friends. It induces care
+and attention in reading, and discrimination in selecting the most
+useful and important facts from the mass of information. As individuals
+are called upon, also, to express their ideas _verbally_, they soon
+acquire by practice the power of expressing them with clearness and
+force, and communicating with ease and confidence the knowledge they
+possess.
+
+18. Music.--The girls of our school often amused themselves in recess by
+collecting into little groups for singing. As there seemed to be a
+sufficient power of voice, and a respectable number who were willing to
+join in the performance, it was proposed one day that singing should be
+introduced as a part of the devotional exercises of the school.
+
+The first attempt nearly resulted in a failure; only a few trembling
+voices succeeded in singing Old Hundred to the words "Be thou," etc. On
+the second day Peterborough was sung with much greater confidence on the
+part of the increased number of singers. The experiment was tried with
+greater and greater success for several days, when the teacher proposed
+that a systematic plan should be formed, by which there might be singing
+regularly at the close of school. It was then proposed that a number of
+singing-books be obtained, and one of the scholars, who was well
+acquainted with common tunes, be appointed as chorister. Her duty should
+be to decide what particular tune may be sung each day, inform the
+teacher of the metre of the hymn, and take the lead in the exercise.
+This plan, being approved of by the scholars, was adopted, and put into
+immediate execution. Several brought copies of the Sabbath School
+Hymn-Book, which they had in their possession, and the plan succeeded
+beyond all expectation. The greatest difficulty in the way was to get
+some one to lead. The chorister, however, was somewhat relieved from the
+embarrassment which she would naturally feel in making a beginning by
+the appointment of one or two individuals with herself, who were to act
+as her assistants. These constituted the _leading_ committee, or, as it
+was afterward termed, _Singing Committee_.
+
+Singing now became a regular and interesting exercise of the school, and
+the committee succeeded in managing the business themselves.
+
+19. TABU.--An article was one day read in a school relating to the
+"Tabu" of the Sandwich Islanders. Tabu is a term with them which
+signifies consecrated--not to be touched--to be let alone--not to be
+violated. Thus, according to their religious observances, a certain day
+will be proclaimed _Tabu_; that is, one upon which there is to be no
+work or no going out.
+
+A few days after this article was read, the scholars observed one
+morning a flower stuck up in a conspicuous place against the wall, with
+the word TABU in large characters above it. This excited considerable
+curiosity. The teacher informed them, in explanation, that the flower
+was a very rare and beautiful specimen, brought by one of the scholars,
+which he wished all to examine. "You would naturally feel a disposition
+to examine it by the touch," said he, "but you will all see that, by the
+time it was touched by sixty individuals, it would be likely to be
+injured, if not destroyed. So I concluded to label it _Tabu_. And it has
+occurred to me that this will be a convenient mode of apprising you
+generally that any article must not be handled. You know we sometimes
+have some apparatus exposed, which would be liable to injury from
+disturbance, where there are so many persons to touch it. I shall, in
+such a case, just mention that an article is Tabu, and you will
+understand that it is not only not to be _injured_, but not even
+_touched_."
+
+A little delicate management of this sort will often have more influence
+over young persons than the most vehement scolding, or the most watchful
+and jealous precautions. The Tabu was always most scrupulously regarded,
+after this, whenever employed.
+
+20. MENTAL ANALYSIS.--Scene, a class in Arithmetic at recitation. The
+teacher gives them an example in addition, requesting them, when they
+have performed it, to rise. Some finish it very soon, others are very
+slow in accomplishing the work.
+
+"I should like to ascertain," says the teacher, "how great is the
+difference of rapidity with which different members of the class work in
+addition. I will give you another example, and then notice by my watch
+the shortest and longest time required to do it."
+
+The result of the experiment was that some members of the class were two
+or three times as long in doing it as others.
+
+"Perhaps you think," said the teacher, "that this difference is
+altogether owing to difference of skill; but it is not. It is mainly
+owing to the different methods adopted by various individuals. I am
+going to describe some of these, and, as I describe them, I wish you
+would notice them carefully, and tell me which you practice."
+
+There are, then, three modes of adding up a column of figures, which I
+shall describe.
+
+1. I shall call the first _counting_. You take the first figure, and
+then add the next to it by counting up regularly. There are three
+distinct ways of doing this.
+
+(a.) "Counting by your fingers." ("Yes, sir.") "You take the first
+figure--suppose it is seven--and the one above it, eight. Now you
+recollect that to add eight, you must count all the fingers of one
+hand, and all but two again. So you say 'seven--eight, nine, ten,
+eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen.'"
+
+"Yes, sir, yes, sir," said the scholars.
+
+(b.) The next mode of counting is to do it mentally, without using your
+fingers at all; but, as it is necessary for you to have some plan to
+secure your adding the right number, you divide the units into sets of
+two each. Thus you remember that eight consists of four twos, and you
+accordingly say, when adding eight to seven, 'Seven; eight, nine; ten,
+eleven; twelve, thirteen,' &c.
+
+(c.) "The third mode is to add by threes in the same way. You recollect
+that eight consists of two threes and a two; so you say, 'Seven; eight,
+nine, ten; eleven, twelve, thirteen; fourteen, fifteen.'"
+
+The teacher here stops to ascertain how many of the class are accustomed
+to add in either of these modes. It is a majority.
+
+2. The next general method is _calculating_; that is, you do not unite
+one number to another by the dull and tedious method of applying the
+units, one by one, as in the ways described under the preceding head,
+but you come to a result more rapidly by some mode of calculating. These
+modes are several.
+
+(a.) "Doubling a number, and then adding or subtracting, as the case may
+require. For instance, in the example already specified, in order to add
+seven and eight, you say, 'Twice seven are fourteen, and one are
+fifteen'" ("Yes, sir, yes, sir"); "or, 'Twice eight are sixteen, and
+taking one off leaves fifteen." ("Yes, sir.")
+
+(b.) Another way of calculating is to skip about the column, adding
+those numbers which you can combine most easily, and then bringing in
+the rest as you best can. Thus, if you see three eights in one column,
+you say, 'Three times eight are twenty-four,' and then you try to bring
+in the other numbers. Often, in such cases, you forget what you have
+added and what you have not, and get confused ("Yes, sir"), or you omit
+something in your work, and consequently it is incorrect.
+
+(c.) If nines occur, you sometimes add ten, and then take off one, for
+it is very easy to add ten.
+
+(d.) Another method of calculating, which is, however, not very common,
+is this: to take our old case, adding eight to seven, you take as much
+from the eight to add to the seven as will be sufficient to make ten,
+and then it will be easy to add the rest. Thus you think in a minute
+that three from the eight will make the seven a ten, and then there will
+be five more to add, which will make fifteen. If the next number was
+seven, you would say five of it will make twenty, and then there will be
+two left, which will make twenty-two.' This mode, though it may seem
+more intricate than any of the others, is, in fact, more rapid than any
+of them, when one is a little accustomed to it.
+
+"These are the four principal modes of calculating which occur to me.
+Pupils do not generally practice any of them exclusively, but
+occasionally resort to each, according to the circumstances of the
+particular case."
+
+The teacher here stopped to inquire how many of the class were
+accustomed to add by calculating in either of these ways or in any
+simpler ways.
+
+3. "There is one more mode which I shall describe: it is by _memory_.
+Before I explain this mode, I wish to ask you some questions, which I
+should like to have you answer as quick as you can.
+
+"How much is four times five? Four _and_ five?
+
+"How much is seven times nine? Seven _and_ nine?
+
+"Eight times six? Eight _and_ six?
+
+"Nine times seven? Nine _and_ seven?"
+
+After asking a few questions of this kind, it was perceived that the
+pupils could tell much more readily what was the result when the
+numbers were to be multiplied than when they were to be added.
+
+"The reason is," said the teacher, "because you committed the
+multiplication table to memory, and have not committed the addition
+table. Now many persons have committed the addition table, so that it is
+perfectly familiar to them, and when they see any two numbers, the
+amount which is produced when they are added together comes to mind in
+an instant. Adding in this way is the last of the three modes I was to
+describe.
+
+"Now of these three methods the last is undoubtedly the best. If you
+once commit the addition table thoroughly, you have it fixed for life;
+whereas if you do not, you have to make the calculation over again every
+time, and thus lose a vast amount of labor. I have no doubt that there
+are some in this class who are in the habit of _counting_, who have
+ascertained that seven and eight, for instance, make fifteen, by
+counting up from seven to fifteen _hundreds of times_. Now how much
+better it would be to spend a little time in fixing the fact in the mind
+once for all, and then, when you come to the case, seven and eight
+are--say at once 'Fifteen,' instead of mumbling over and over again,
+hundreds of times, 'Seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen,
+fourteen, fifteen.'
+
+"The reason, then, that some of the class add so slowly, is not,
+probably, because they want skill and rapidity of execution, but because
+they work to a great disadvantage by working in the wrong way. I have
+often been surprised at the dexterity and speed with which some scholars
+can count with their fingers when adding, and yet they could not get
+through the sum very quick--at least they would have done it in half the
+time if the same effort had been made in traveling on a shorter road. We
+will therefore study the addition table now, in the class, before we go
+any farther."
+
+21. TARDINESS.--When only a few scholars in a school are tardy, it may
+be their fault; but if a great many are so, it is the fault of the
+teacher or of the school. If a school is prosperous, and the children
+are going on well and happily in their studies, they will like their
+work in it; but we all come reluctantly to work which we are conscious
+we are not successfully performing.
+
+There may be two boys in a school, both good boys; one, may be going on
+well in his classes, while the other, from the concurrence of some
+accidental train of circumstances, may be behindhand in his work, or
+wrongly classed, or so situated in other respects that his school duties
+perplex and harass him day by day. Now how different will be the
+feelings of these two boys in respect to coming to school. The one will
+be eager and prompt to reach his place and commence his duties, while
+the other will love much better to loiter in idleness and liberty in the
+open air. Nor is he, under the circumstances of the case, to blame for
+this preference. There is no one, old or young, who likes or can like to
+do what he himself and all around him think that he does not do well. It
+is true the teacher can not rely wholly on the interest which his
+scholars take in their studies to make them punctual at school; but if
+he finds among them any very general disposition to be tardy, he ought
+to seek for the fault mainly in himself and not in them.
+
+The foregoing narratives and examples, it is hoped, may induce some of
+the readers of this book to keep journals of their own experiments, and
+of the incidents which may, from time to time, come under their notice,
+illustrating the principles of education, or simply the characteristics
+and tendencies of the youthful mind. The business of teaching will
+excite interest and afford pleasure just in proportion to the degree in
+which it is conducted by operations of mind upon mind, and the means of
+making it most fully so are careful practice, based upon and regulated
+by the results of careful observation. Every teacher, then, should make
+observations and experiments upon mind a part of his daily duty, and
+nothing will more facilitate this than keeping a record of results.
+There can be no opportunity for studying human nature more favorable
+than the teacher enjoys. The materials are all before him; his very
+business, from day to day, brings him to act directly upon them; and the
+study of the powers and tendencies of the human mind is not only the
+most interesting and the noblest that can engage human attention, but
+every step of progress he makes in it imparts an interest and charm to
+what would otherwise be a weary toil. It at once relieves his labors,
+while it doubles their efficiency and success.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+
+THE TEACHER'S FIRST DAY.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The teacher enters upon the duties of his office by a much more sudden
+transition than is common in the other avocations and employments of
+life. In ordinary cases, business comes at first by slow degrees, and
+the beginner is introduced to the labors and responsibilities of his
+employment in a very gradual manner. The young teacher, however, enters
+by a single step into the very midst of his labors. Having, perhaps,
+never even heard a class recite before, he takes a short walk some
+winter morning, and suddenly finds himself instated at the desk, his
+fifty scholars around him, all looking him in the face, and waiting to
+be employed. Every thing comes upon him at once. He can do nothing until
+the day and the hour for opening the school arrives--then he has every
+thing to do.
+
+Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that the young teacher
+should look forward with unusual solicitude to his first day in school,
+and he desires, ordinarily, special instructions in respect to this
+occasion. Some such special instructions we propose to give in this
+chapter. The experienced teacher may think some of them too minute and
+trivial. But he must remember that they are intended for the youngest
+beginner in the humblest school; and if he recalls to mind his own
+feverish solicitude on the morning when he went to take his first
+command in the district school, he will pardon the seeming minuteness of
+detail.
+
+1. It will be well for the young teacher to take opportunity, between
+the time of his engaging his school and that of his commencing it, to
+acquire as much information in respect to it beforehand as possible, so
+as to be somewhat acquainted with the scene of his labors before
+entering upon it. Ascertain the names and the characters of the
+principal families in the district, their ideas and wishes in respect to
+the government of the school, the kind of management adopted by one or
+two of the last teachers, the difficulties they fell into, the nature of
+the complaints made against them, if any, and the families with whom
+difficulty has usually arisen. This information must, of course, be
+obtained in private conversation; a good deal of it must be, from its
+very nature, highly confidential; but it is very important that the
+teacher should be possessed of it. He will necessarily become possessed
+of it by degrees in the course of his administration, when, however, it
+may be too late to be of any service to him. But, by judicious and
+proper efforts to acquire it beforehand, he will enter upon the
+discharge of his duties with great advantage. It is like a navigator's
+becoming acquainted beforehand with the nature and the dangers of the
+sea over which he is about to sail.
+
+Such inquiries as these will, in ordinary cases, bring to the teacher's
+knowledge, in most districts in our country, some cases of peculiarly
+troublesome scholars, or unreasonable and complaining parents; and
+stories of their unjustifiable conduct on former occasions will come to
+him exaggerated by the jealousy of rival neighbors. There is danger that
+his resentment may be roused a little, and that his mind will assume a
+hostile attitude at once toward such individuals, so that he will enter
+upon his work rather with a desire to seek a collision with them, or, at
+least, with secret feelings of defiance toward them--feelings which will
+lead to that kind of unbending perpendicularity in his demeanor toward
+them which will almost inevitably lead to a collision. Now this is
+wrong. There is, indeed, a point where firm resistance to unreasonable
+demands becomes a duty; but, as a general principle, it is most
+unquestionably true that it is the teacher's duty _to accommodate
+himself to the character and expectations of his employers_, not to face
+and brave them. Those italicized words _may be_ understood to mean
+something which would be entirely wrong; but in the sense in which I
+mean to use them there can be no question that they indicate the proper
+path for one employed by others to do work _for them_ in all cases to
+pursue. If, therefore, the teacher finds by his inquiries into the state
+of his district that there are some peculiar difficulties and dangers
+there, let him not cherish a disposition to face and resist them, but to
+avoid them. Let him go with an intention to soothe rather than to
+irritate feelings which have been wounded before, to comply with the
+wishes of all so far as he can, even if they are not entirely
+reasonable, and, while he endeavors to elevate the standard and correct
+the opinions prevailing among his employers by any means in his power,
+to aim at doing it gently, and in a tone and manner suitable to the
+relation he sustains--in a word, let him skillfully _avoid_ the dangers
+of his navigation, not obstinately run his ship against a rock on
+purpose on the ground that the rock has no business to be there.
+
+This is the spirit, then, with which these preliminary inquiries in
+regard to the patrons of the school ought to be made. We come now to a
+second point.
+
+2. It will assist the young teacher very much in his first day's labors
+if he takes measures for seeing and conversing with some of the older or
+more intelligent scholars on the day or evening before he begins his
+school, with a view of obtaining from them some acquaintance with the
+internal arrangements and customs of the school. The object of this is
+to obtain the same kind of information with respect to the interior of
+the school that was recommended in respect to the district under the
+former head. He may call upon a few families, especially those which
+furnish a large number of scholars for the school, and make as many
+minute inquiries of them as he can respecting all the interior
+arrangements to which they have been accustomed, what reading-books and
+other text-books have been used, what are the principal classes in all
+the several departments of instruction, and what is the system of
+discipline, and of rewards and punishments, to which the school has been
+accustomed.
+
+If, in such conversations, the teacher should find a few intelligent and
+communicative scholars, he might learn a great deal about the past
+habits and condition of the school, which would be of great service to
+him. Not, by any means, that he will adopt and continue these methods as
+a matter of course, but only that a knowledge of them will render him
+very important aid in marking out his own course. The more minute and
+full the information of this sort is which he thus obtains, the better.
+If practicable, it would be well to make out a catalogue of all the
+principal classes, with the names of those individuals belonging to them
+who will probably attend the new school, and the order in which they
+were usually called upon to read or recite. The conversation which would
+be necessary to accomplish this would of itself be of great service. It
+would bring the teacher into an acquaintance with several important
+families and groups of children under the most favorable circumstances.
+The parents would see and be pleased with the kind of interest they
+would see the teacher taking in his new duties. The children would be
+pleased to be able to render their new instructor some service, and
+would go to the school-room on the next morning with a feeling of
+acquaintance with him, and a predisposition to be pleased. And if by
+chance any family should be thus called upon that had heretofore been
+captious or complaining, or disposed to be jealous of the higher
+importance or influence of other families, that spirit would be entirely
+softened and subdued by such an interview with their new instructor at
+their own fireside on the evening preceding the commencement of his
+labors. The great object, however, which the teacher would have in view
+in such inquiries should be the value of the information itself. As to
+the use which he will make of it, we shall speak hereafter.
+
+3. It is desirable that the young teacher should meet his scholars first
+in an unofficial capacity. For this purpose, repair to the school-room
+on the first day at an early hour, so as to see and become acquainted
+with the scholars as they come in one by one. The intercourse between
+teacher and pupil should be like that between parents and children,
+where the utmost freedom is united with the most perfect respect. The
+father who is most firm and decisive in his family government can mingle
+most freely in the conversation and sports of his children without any
+derogation of his authority, or diminution of the respect they owe.
+Young teachers, however, are prone to forget this, and to imagine that
+they must assume an appearance of stern authority always, when in the
+presence of their scholars, if they wish to be respected or obeyed. This
+they call keeping up their dignity. Accordingly, they wait, on the
+morning of their induction into office, until their new subjects are all
+assembled, and then walk in with an air of the highest dignity, and with
+the step of a king; and sometimes a formidable instrument of discipline
+is carried in the hand to heighten the impression. Now there is no
+question that it is of great importance that scholars should have a high
+idea of the teacher's firmness and inflexible decision in maintaining
+his authority and repressing all disorder of every kind, but this
+impression should be created by their seeing how he _acts_ in the
+various emergencies which will spontaneously occur, and not by assuming
+airs of importance or dignity, feigned for effect. In other words, their
+respect for him should be based on _real traits_ of character as they
+see them brought out into natural action, and not on appearances assumed
+for the occasion.
+
+It seems to me, therefore, that it is best for the teacher first to meet
+his scholars with the air and tone of free and familiar intercourse, and
+he will find his opportunity more favorable for doing this if he goes
+early on the first morning of his labors, and converses freely with
+those whom he finds there, and with others as they come in. He may take
+an interest with them in all the little arrangements connected with the
+opening of the school--the building of the fire, the paths through the
+snow, the arrangements of seats; calling upon them for information or
+aid, asking their names, and, in a word, entering fully and freely into
+conversation with them, just as a parent, under similar circumstances,
+would do with his children. All the children thus addressed will be
+pleased with the gentleness and affability of the teacher. Even a rough
+and ill-natured boy, who has perhaps come to the school with the express
+determination of attempting to make mischief, will be completely
+disarmed by being asked politely to help the teacher arrange the fire,
+or alter the position of his desk. Thus, by means of the half hour
+during which the scholars are coming together, and of the visits made in
+the preceding evening, as described under the last head, the teacher
+will find, when he calls upon the children to take their seats, that he
+has made a very large number of them his personal friends. Many of these
+will have communicated their first impressions to the others, so that he
+will find himself possessed, at the outset, of that which is of vital
+consequence in the opening of any administration--a strong party in his
+favor.
+
+4. The time for calling the school to order and commencing exercises of
+some sort will at length arrive, though if the work of making personal
+acquaintances is going on prosperously, it may perhaps be delayed a
+little beyond the usual hour. When, however, the time arrives, we would
+strongly recommend that the first service by which the regular duties of
+the school are commenced should be an act of religious worship. There
+are many reasons why the exercises of the school should every day be
+thus commenced, and there are special reasons for it on the first day.
+
+There are very few districts where parents would have any objection to
+this. They might, indeed, in some cases, if the subject were to be
+brought up formally before them as a matter of doubt, anticipate some
+difficulties, or create imaginary ones, growing out of the supposed
+sensitiveness of contending sects; but if the teacher were, of his own
+accord, to commence the plain, faithful, and honest discharge of this
+duty as a matter of course, very few would think of making any objection
+to it, and almost all would be satisfied and pleased with its actual
+operation. If, however, the teacher should, in any case, have reason to
+believe that such a practice would be contrary to the wishes of his
+employers, it would, according to views we have presented in another
+chapter, be wrong for him to attempt to introduce it. He might, if he
+should see fit, make such an objection a reason for declining to take
+the school; but he ought not, if he takes it, to act counter to the
+known wishes of his employers in so important a point. But if, on the
+other hand, no such objections are made known to him, he need not raise
+the question himself at all, but take it for granted that in a Christian
+land there will be no objection to imploring the Divine protection and
+blessing at the opening of a daily school.
+
+If this practice is adopted, it will have a most powerful influence upon
+the moral condition of the school. It must be so. Though many will be
+inattentive, and many utterly unconcerned, yet it is not possible to
+bring children, even in form, into the presence of God every day, and
+to utter in their hearing the petitions which they ought to present,
+without bringing a powerful element of moral influence to bear upon
+their hearts. The good will be made better; the conscientious more
+conscientious still; and the rude and savage will be subdued and
+softened by the daily attempt to lead them to the throne of their
+Creator. To secure this effect, the devotional service must be an honest
+one. There must be nothing feigned or hypocritical; no hackneyed phrases
+used without meaning, or intonations of assumed solemnity. It must be
+honest, heartfelt, simple prayer; the plain and direct expression of
+such sentiments as children ought to feel, and of such petitions as they
+ought to offer. We shall speak presently of the mode of avoiding some
+abuses to which this exercise is liable; but if these sources of abuse
+are avoided, and the duty is performed in that plain, simple, direct,
+and honest manner in which it certainly will be if it springs from the
+heart, it must have a great influence on the moral progress of the
+children, and, in fact, in all respects on the prosperity of the school.
+
+But, then, independently of the _advantages_ which may be expected to
+result from the practice of daily prayer in school, it would seem to be
+the imperious _duty_ of the teacher to adopt it. So many human minds
+committed thus to the guidance of one, at a period when the character
+receives so easily and so permanently its shape and direction, and in a
+world of probation like this, is an occasion which seems to demand the
+open recognition of the hand of God on the part of any individual to
+whom such a trust is committed. The duty springs so directly out of the
+attitude in which the teacher and pupil stand in respect to each other,
+and the relation they together bear to the Supreme, that it would seem
+impossible for any one to hesitate to admit the duty, without denying
+altogether the existence of a God.
+
+How vast the responsibility _of giving form and character to the human
+soul!_ How mighty the influence of which the unformed minds of a group
+of children are susceptible! How much their daily teacher must
+inevitably exert upon them! If we admit the existence of God at all, and
+that he exerts any agency whatever in the moral world which he has
+produced, here seems to be one of the strongest cases in which his
+intervention should be sought. And then, when we reflect upon the
+influence which would be exerted upon the future religious character of
+this nation by having the millions of children training up in the
+schools accustomed, through all the years of early life, to being
+brought daily into the presence of the Supreme, with thanksgiving,
+confession, and prayer, it can hardly seem possible that the teacher who
+wishes to be faithful in his duties should hesitate in regard to this.
+Some teacher may perhaps say that he can not perform it because he is
+not a religious man--he makes no pretensions to piety. But this can
+surely be no reason. He _ought to be_ a religious man, and his first
+prayer offered in school may be the first act by which he becomes so.
+Entering the service of Jehovah is a work which requires no preliminary
+steps. It is to be done at once by sincere confession, and an honest
+prayer for forgiveness for the past, and strength for time to come. A
+daily religious service in school may be, therefore, the outward act by
+which he, who has long lived without God, may return to his duty.
+
+If, from such considerations, the teacher purposes to have a daily
+religious service in his school, he should by all means begin on the
+first day, and when he first calls his school to order. He should
+mention to his pupils the great and obvious duty of imploring God's
+guidance and blessing in all their ways, and then read a short portion
+of Scripture, with an occasional word or two of simple explanation, and
+offer, himself, a short and simple prayer. In some cases, teachers are
+disposed to postpone this duty a day or two, from timidity or other
+causes, hoping that, after becoming acquainted a little with the
+school, and having completed their more important arrangements, they
+shall find it easier to begin. But this is a great mistake. The longer
+the duty is postponed, the more difficult and trying it will be. And
+then the moral impressions will be altogether more strong and salutary
+if an act of solemn religious worship is made the first opening act of
+the school.
+
+Where the teacher has not sufficient confidence that the general sense
+of propriety among his pupils will preserve good order and decorum
+during the exercise, it may be better for him to _read_ a prayer
+selected from books of devotion, or prepared by himself expressly for
+the occasion. By this plan his school will be, during the exercise,
+under his own observation, as at other times. It may, in some schools
+where the number is small, or the prevailing habits of seriousness and
+order are good, be well to allow the older scholars to read the prayer
+in rotation, taking especial care that it does not degenerate into a
+mere reading exercise, but that it is understood, both by readers and
+hearers, to be a solemn act of religious worship. In a word, if the
+teacher is really honest and sincere in his wish to lead his pupils to
+the worship of God, he will find no serious difficulty in preventing the
+abuses and avoiding the dangers which some might fear, and in
+accomplishing vast good, both in promoting the prosperity of the school,
+and in the formation of the highest and best traits of individual
+character.
+
+We have dwelt, perhaps, longer on this subject than we ought to have
+done in this place; but its importance, when viewed in its bearings on
+the thousands of children daily assembling in our district schools must
+be our apology. The embarrassments and difficulties arising from the
+extreme sensitiveness which exists among the various denominations of
+Christians in our land, threaten to interfere very seriously with giving
+a proper degree of religious instruction to the mass of the youthful
+population. But we must not, because we have no national _church_,
+cease to have a national _religion_. All our institutions ought to be so
+administered as openly to recognize the hand of God, and to seek his
+protection and blessing; and in regard to none is it more imperiously
+necessary than in respect to our common schools.
+
+5. After the school is thus opened, the teacher will find himself
+brought to the great difficulty which embarrasses the beginning of his
+labors, namely, that of finding immediate employment at once for the
+thirty or forty children who all look up to him waiting for their
+orders. I say thirty or forty, for the young teachers first school will
+usually be a small one. His object should be, in all ordinary cases, for
+the first few days, twofold: first, to revive and restore, in the main,
+the general routine of classes and exercises pursued by his predecessor
+in the same school; and, secondly, while doing this, to become as fully
+acquainted with his scholars as possible.
+
+It is best, then, _ordinarily_, for the teacher to begin the school as
+his predecessor closed it, and make the transition to his own perhaps
+more improved method a gradual one. In some cases a different course is
+wise undoubtedly, as, for example, where a teacher is commencing a
+private school, on a previously well-digested plan of his own, or where
+one who has had experience, and has confidence in his power to bring his
+new pupils promptly and at once into the system of classification and
+instruction which he prefers. It is difficult, however, to do this, and
+requires a good deal of address and decision. It is far easier and
+safer, and in almost all cases better, in every respect, for a young
+teacher to revive and restore the former arrangements in the main, and
+take his departure from them. He may afterward make changes, as he may
+find them necessary or desirable, and even bring the school soon into a
+very different state from that in which he finds it; but it will
+generally be more pleasant for himself, and better for the school, to
+avoid the shock of a sudden and entire revolution.
+
+The first thing, then, when the scholars are ready to be employed, is
+to set them at work in classes or upon lessons, as they would have been
+employed had the former teacher continued in charge of the school. To
+illustrate clearly how this may be done, we may give the following
+dialogue:
+
+_Teacher_. Can any one of the boys inform me what was the first lesson
+that the former master used to hear in the morning?
+
+The boys are silent, looking to one another.
+
+_Teacher_. Did he hear _any_ recitation immediately after school began?
+
+_Boys_ (faintly, and with hesitation). No, sir.
+
+_Teacher_. How long was it before he began to hear lessons?
+
+Several boys simultaneously. "About half an hour." "A little while."
+"Quarter of an hour."
+
+"What did he do at this time?"
+
+"Set copies," "Looked over sums," and various other answers are perhaps
+given.
+
+The teacher makes a memorandum of this, and then inquires,
+
+"And what lesson came after this?"
+
+"Geography."
+
+"All the boys in this school who studied Geography may rise."
+
+A considerable number rise.
+
+"Did you all recite together?"
+
+"No, sir."
+
+"There are two classes, then?"
+
+"Yes. sir." "Yes, sir." "More than two."
+
+"All who belong to the class that recites first in the morning may
+remain standing; the rest may sit."
+
+The boys obey, and eight or ten of them remain standing. The teacher
+calls upon one of them to produce his book, and assigns them a lesson in
+regular course. He then requests some one of the number to write out, in
+the course of the day, a list of the class, and to bring it with him to
+the recitation the next morning.
+
+"Are there any other scholars in the school who think it would be well
+for them to join this class?"
+
+In answer to this question probably some new scholars might rise, or
+some hitherto belonging to other classes, who might be of suitable age
+and qualifications to be transferred. If these individuals should appear
+to be of the proper standing and character, they might at once be joined
+to the class in question, and directed to take the same lesson.
+
+In the same manner, the other classes would pass in review before the
+teacher, and he would obtain a memorandum of the usual order of
+exercises, and in a short time set all his pupils at work preparing for
+the lessons of the next day. He would be much aided in this by the
+previous knowledge which he would have obtained by private conversation,
+as recommended under a former head. Some individual cases would require
+a little special attention, such as new scholars, small children, and
+others; but he would be able, before a great while, to look around him
+and see his whole school busy with the work he had assigned them, and
+his own time, for the rest of the morning, in a great degree at his own
+command.
+
+I ought to say, however, that it is not probable that he would long
+continue these arrangements unaltered. In hearing the different classes
+recite, he would watch for opportunities for combining them, or
+discontinuing those where the number was small; he would alter the times
+of recitation, and group individual scholars into classes, so as to
+bring the school, in a very short time, into a condition corresponding
+more nearly with his own views. All this can be done very easily and
+pleasantly when the wheels are once in motion; for a school is like a
+ship in one respect--most easily steered in the right direction when
+under sail.
+
+By this plan, also, the teacher obtains what is almost absolutely
+necessary at the commencement of his labors, time for _observation_. It
+is of the first importance that he should become acquainted, as early as
+possible, with the characters of the boys, especially to learn who those
+are which are most likely to be troublesome. There always will be a few
+who will require special watch and care, and generally there will be
+only a few. A great deal depends on finding these individuals out in
+good season, and bringing the pressure of a proper authority to bear
+upon them soon. By the plan I have recommended of not attempting to
+remodel the school wholly at once, the teacher obtains time for noticing
+the pupils, and learning something about their individual characters. In
+fact, so important is this, that it is the plan of some teachers,
+whenever they commence a new school, to let the boys have their own way,
+almost entirely, for a few days, in order to find out fully who the idle
+and mischievous are. This is, perhaps, going a little too far; but it is
+certainly desirable to enjoy as many opportunities for observation as
+can be secured on the first few days of the school.
+
+6. Make it, then, a special object of attention, during the first day or
+two, to discover who the idle and mischievous individuals are. They will
+have generally seated themselves together in little knots; for, as they
+are aware that the new teacher does not know them, they will imagine
+that, though perhaps separated before, they can now slip together again
+without any trouble. It is best to avoid, if possible, an open collision
+with any of them at once, in order that they may be the better observed.
+Whenever, therefore, you see idleness or play, endeavor to remedy the
+evil for the time by giving the individual something special to do, or
+by some other measure, without, however, seeming to notice the
+misconduct. Continue thus adroitly to stop every thing disorderly,
+while, at the same time, you notice and remember where the tendencies to
+disorder exist.
+
+By this means, the individuals who would cause most of the trouble and
+difficulty in the discipline of the school will soon betray themselves,
+and those whose fidelity and good behavior can be relied upon will also
+be known. The names of the former should be among the first that the
+teacher learns, and their characters should be among the first which he
+studies. The most prominent among them--those apparently most likely to
+make trouble--he should note particularly, and make inquiries out of
+school respecting them, their characters, and their education at home,
+so as to become acquainted with them as early and as fully as possible,
+for he must have this full acquaintance with them before he is prepared
+to commence any decided course of discipline with them. The teacher
+often does irreparable injury by rash action at the outset. He sees, for
+instance, a boy secretly eating an apple which he has concealed in his
+hand, and which he bites with his book before his mouth, or his head
+under the lid of his desk. It is perhaps the first day of the school,
+and the teacher thinks he had better make an example at the outset, and
+calls the boy out, knowing nothing about his general character, and
+inflicts some painful or degrading punishment before all the school. A
+little afterward, as he becomes gradually acquainted with the boy, he
+finds that he is of mild, gentle disposition, generally obedient and
+harmless, and that his offense was only an act of momentary
+thoughtlessness, arising from some circumstances of peculiar temptation
+at the time; a boy in the next seat, perhaps, had just before given him
+the apple. The teacher regrets, when too late, the hasty punishment. He
+perceives that instead of having the influence of salutary example upon
+the other boys, it must have shocked their sense of justice, and excited
+dislike toward a teacher so quick and severe, rather than of fear of
+doing wrong themselves. It would be safer to postpone such decided
+measures a little--to avoid all open collisions, if possible, for a few
+days. In such a case as the above, the boy might be kindly spoken to in
+an under tone, in such a way as to show both the teacher's sense of the
+impropriety of disorder, and also his desire to avoid giving pain to
+the boy. If it then turns out that the individual is ordinarily a
+well-disposed boy, all is right, and if he proves to be habitually
+disobedient and troublesome, the lenity and forbearance exercised at
+first will facilitate the effect aimed at by subsequent measures. Avoid,
+then, for the few first days, all open collision with any of your
+pupils, that you may have opportunity for minute and thorough
+observation.
+
+And here the young teacher ought to be cautioned against a fault which
+beginners are very prone to fall into, that of forming unfavorable
+opinions of some of their pupils from their air and manner before they
+see any thing in their conduct which ought to be disapproved. A boy or
+girl comes to the desk to ask a question or make a request, and the
+teacher sees in the cast of countenance, or in the bearing or tone of
+the individual, something indicating a proud, or a sullen, or an
+ill-humored disposition, and conceives a prejudice, often entirely
+without foundation, which weeks perhaps do not wear away. Every
+experienced teacher can recollect numerous cases of this sort, and he
+learns, after a time, to suspend his judgment. Be cautious, therefore,
+on this point, and in the survey of your pupils which you make during
+the first few days of your school, trust to nothing but the most sure
+and unequivocal evidences of character, for many of your most docile and
+faithful pupils will be found among those whose appearance at first
+prepossessed you strongly against them.
+
+One other caution ought also to be given. Do not judge too severely in
+respect to the ordinary cases of misconduct in school. The young teacher
+almost invariably does judge too severely. While engaged himself in
+hearing a recitation, or looking over a "sum," he hears a stifled laugh,
+and, looking up, sees the little offender struggling with the muscles of
+his countenance to restore their gravity. The teacher is vexed at the
+interruption, and severely rebukes or punishes the boy, when, after
+all, the offense, in a moral point of view, was an exceedingly light
+one--at least it might very probably have been so. In fact, a large
+proportion of the offenses against order committed in school are the
+mere momentary action of the natural buoyancy and life of childhood.
+This is no reason why they should be indulged, or why the order and
+regularity of the school should be sacrificed, but it should prevent
+their exciting feelings of anger or impatience, or very severe
+reprehension. While the teacher should take effectual measures for
+restraining all such irregularities, he should do it with the tone and
+manner which will show that he understands their true moral character,
+and deals with them, not as heinous sins, which deserve severe
+punishment, but as serious inconveniences, which he is compelled to
+repress.
+
+There are often cases of real moral turpitude in school, such as where
+there is intentional, willful mischief, or disturbance, or habitual
+disobedience, and there may even be, in some cases, open rebellion. Now
+the teacher should show that he distinguishes these cases from such
+momentary acts of thoughtlessness as we have described, and a broad
+distinction ought to be made in the treatment of them. In a word, then,
+what we have been recommending under this head is, that the teacher
+should make it his special study, for his first few days in school, to
+acquire a knowledge of the characters of his pupils, to learn who are
+the thoughtless ones, who the mischievous, and who the disobedient and
+rebellious, and to do this with candid, moral discrimination, and with
+as little open collision with individuals as possible.
+
+7. Another point to which the teacher ought to give his early attention
+is to separate the bad boys as soon as he can from one another. The
+idleness and irregularity of children in school often depends more on
+accidental circumstances than on character. Two boys may be individually
+harmless and well-disposed, and yet they may be of so mercurial a
+temperament that, together, the temptation to continual play will be
+irresistible. Another case that more often happens is where one is
+actively and even intentionally bad, and is seated next to an innocent,
+but perhaps thoughtless boy, and contrives to keep him always in
+difficulty. Now remove the former away, where there are no very frail
+materials for him to act upon, and place the latter where he is exposed
+to no special temptation, and all would be well.
+
+This is all very obvious, and known familiarly to all teachers who have
+had any experience. But beginners are not generally so aware of it at
+the outset as to make any direct and systematic efforts to examine the
+school with reference to its condition in this respect. It is usual to
+go on, leaving the boys to remain seated as chance or their own
+inclinations grouped them, and to endeavor to keep the peace among the
+various neighborhoods by close supervision, rebukes, and punishment. Now
+these difficulties may be very much diminished by looking a little into
+the arrangement of the boys at the outset, and so modifying it as to
+diminish the amount of temptation to which the individuals are exposed.
+
+This should be done, however, cautiously, deliberately, and with
+good-nature, keeping the object of it a good deal out of view. It must
+be done cautiously and deliberately, for the first appearances are
+exceedingly fallacious in respect to the characters of the different
+children. You see, perhaps, some indications of play between two boys
+upon the same seat, and hastily conclude that they are disorderly boys,
+and must be separated. Something in the air and manner of one or both of
+them confirms this impression, and you take the necessary measures at
+once. You then find, when you become more fully acquainted with them,
+that the appearances which you observed were only momentary and
+accidental, and that they would have been as safe together as any two
+boys in the school. And perhaps you will even find that, by their new
+position, you have brought one or the other into circumstances of
+peculiar temptation. Wait, therefore, before you make such changes,
+till you have ascertained _actual character_, doing this, however,
+without any unnecessary delay.
+
+In such removals, too, it is well, in many cases, to keep the motive and
+design of them as much as possible out of view; for by expressing
+suspicion of a boy, you injure his character in his own opinion and in
+that of others, and tend to make him reckless. Besides, if you remove a
+boy from a companion whom he likes, avowedly to prevent his playing, you
+offer him an inducement, if he is a bad boy, to continue to play in his
+new position for the purpose of thwarting you, or from the influence of
+resentment. It would be wrong, indeed, to use any subterfuge or
+duplicity of any kind to conceal your object, but you are not bound to
+explain it; and in the many changes which you will be compelled to make
+in the course of the first week for various purposes, you may include
+many of these without explaining particularly the design or intention of
+any of them.
+
+In some instances, however, you may frankly state the whole case without
+danger, provided it is done in such a manner as not to make the boy feel
+that his character is seriously injured in your estimation. It must
+depend upon the tact and judgment of the teacher to determine upon the
+particular course to be pursued in the several cases, though he ought to
+keep these general principles in view in all.
+
+In one instance, for example, he will see two boys together, James and
+Joseph we will call them, exhibiting a tendency to play, and after
+inquiring into their characters, he will find that they are
+good-natured, pleasant boys, and that he had better be frank with them
+on the subject. He calls one of them to his desk, and perhaps the
+following dialogue ensues:
+
+"James, I am making some changes in the seats, and thought of removing
+you to another place. Have you any particular preference for that seat?"
+
+The question is unexpected, and James hesitates. He wishes to sit next
+to Joseph, but doubts whether it is quite prudent to avow it; so he
+says, slowly and with hesitation,
+
+"No, sir, I do not know that I have."
+
+"If you have any reason, I wish you would tell me frankly, for I want
+you to have such a seat as will be pleasant to you."
+
+James does not know what to say. Encouraged, however, by the
+good-humored tone and look which the master assumes, he says, timidly,
+
+"Joseph and I thought we should like to sit together, if you are
+willing."
+
+"Oh! you and Joseph are particular friends, then, I suppose?"
+
+"Why, yes, sir."
+
+"I am not surprised, then, that you want to sit together, though, to
+tell the truth, that is rather a reason why I should separate you."
+
+"Why, sir?"
+
+"Because I have observed that when two great friends are seated
+together, they are always more apt to whisper and play. Have you not
+observed it?"
+
+"Why, yes, sir."
+
+"You may go and ask Joseph to come here."
+
+When the two boys make their appearance again, the teacher continues:
+
+"Joseph, James tells me that you and he would like to sit together, and
+says you are particular friends; but I tell him," he adds, smiling,
+"that that is rather a reason for separating you. Now if I should put
+you both into different parts of the school, next to boys that you are
+not acquainted with, it would be a great deal easier for you to be still
+and studious than it is now. Do you not think so yourselves?"
+
+The boys look at one another and smile.
+
+"However, there is one way you can do. You can guard against the extra
+temptation by extra care; and, on the whole, as I believe you are pretty
+good boys, I will let you have your choice. You may stay as you are,
+and make extra exertion to be perfectly regular and studious, or I will
+find seats for you where it will be a great deal easier for you to be
+so. Which do you think you should rather do?"
+
+The boys hesitate, look at one another, and presently say that they had
+rather sit together.
+
+"Well," said the teacher, "it is immaterial to me whether you sit
+together or apart, if you are only good boys, so you may take your seats
+and try it a little while. If you find it too hard work to be studious
+and orderly together, I can make a change hereafter. I shall soon see."
+
+Such a conversation will have many good effects. It will make the boys
+expect to be watched, without causing them to feel that their characters
+have suffered. It will stimulate them to greater exertion to avoid all
+misconduct, and it will prepare the way for separating them afterward
+without awakening feelings of resentment, if the experiment of their
+sitting together should fail.
+
+Another case would be managed, perhaps, in a little different way, where
+the tendency to play was more decided. After speaking to the individuals
+mildly two or three times, you see them again at play. You ask them to
+wait that day after school and come to your desk.
+
+They have, then, the rest of the day to think occasionally of the
+difficulty they have brought themselves into, and the anxiety and
+suspense which they will naturally feel will give you every advantage
+for speaking to them with effect; and if you should be engaged a few
+minutes with some other business after school, so that they should have
+to stand a little while in silent expectation, waiting for their turn,
+it would contribute to the permanence of the effect.
+
+"Well, boys," at length you say, with a serious but frank tone of voice,
+"I saw you playing in a disorderly manner to-day, and, in the first
+place, I wish you to tell me honestly all about it. I am not going to
+punish you, but I wish you to be open and honest about it. What were you
+doing?"
+
+The boys hesitate.
+
+"George, what did you have in your hand?"
+
+"A piece of paper."
+
+"And what were you doing with it?"
+
+_George_. William was trying to take it away from me.
+
+"Was there any thing on it?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"What?"
+
+George looks down, a little confused.
+
+_William_. George had been drawing some pictures on it.
+
+"I see each of you is ready to tell of the other's fault, but it would
+be much more honorable if each was open in acknowledging his own. Have I
+ever had to speak to you before for playing together in school?"
+
+"Yes, sir, I believe you have," says one, looking down.
+
+"More than once?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"More than twice?"
+
+"I do not recollect exactly; I believe you have."
+
+"Well, now, what do you think I ought to do next?"
+
+The boys have nothing to say.
+
+"Do you prefer sitting together, or are you willing to have me separate
+you?"
+
+"We should rather sit together, sir, if you are willing," says George.
+
+"I have no objection to your sitting together, if you could only resist
+the temptation to play. I want all the boys in the school to have
+pleasant seats."
+
+There is a pause, the teacher hesitating what to do.
+
+"Suppose, now, I were to make one more experiment, and let you try to be
+good boys in your present seat, would you really try?"
+
+"Yes, sir," "Yes, sir, we will," are the replies.
+
+"And if I should find that you still continue to play, and should have
+to separate you, will you move into your new seats pleasantly, and with
+good-humor, feeling that I have done right about if?"
+
+"Yes, sir, we will."
+
+Thus it will be seen that there may be cases where the teacher may make
+arrangements for separating his scholars, on an open and distinct
+understanding with them in respect to the cause of it. We have given
+these cases, not that exactly such ones will be very likely to occur, or
+that, when they do, the teacher is to manage them in exactly the way
+here described, but to exhibit more clearly to the reader than could be
+done by any general description, the spirit and tone which a teacher
+ought to assume toward his pupils. We wished to exhibit this in contrast
+with the harsh and impatient manner which teachers too often assume in
+such a case, as follows:
+
+"John Williams and Samuel Smith, come here to me!" exclaims the master,
+in a harsh, impatient tone, in the midst of the exercises of the
+afternoon.
+
+The scholars all look up from their work. The culprits slowly rise from
+their seats, and with a sullen air come down to the floor.
+
+"You are playing, boys, all the time, and I will not have it. John, do
+you take your books, and go and sit out there by the window; and,
+Samuel, you come and sit here on this front seat; and if I catch you
+playing again, I shall certainly punish you severely."
+
+The boys make the move with as much rattling and distention to make a
+noise; and when they get their new seats, and the teacher is again
+engaged upon his work, they exchange winks and nods, and in ten minutes
+are slyly cannonading each other with paper balls.
+
+In regard to all the directions that have been given under this head, I
+ought to say again, before concluding it, that they are mainly
+applicable to the case of beginners and of small schools. The general
+principles are, it is true, of universal application, but it is only
+where a school is of moderate size that the details of position, in
+respect to individual scholars, can be minutely studied. More summary
+processes are necessary, I am aware, when the school is very large, and
+the time of the teacher is incessantly engaged.
+
+8. In some districts in New England the young teacher will find one or
+more boys, generally among the larger ones, who will come to the school
+with the express determination to make a difficulty if they can. The
+best way is generally to face these individuals at once in the most
+direct and open manner, and, at the same time, with perfect good-humor
+and kindness of feeling and deportment toward them personally. An
+example or two will best illustrate what I mean.
+
+A teacher heard a rapping noise repeatedly one day, just after he had
+commenced his labors, under such circumstances as to lead him to suppose
+it was designed. He did not appear to notice it, but remained after
+school until the scholars had all gone, and then made a thorough
+examination. He found, at length, a broken place in the plastering,
+where a _lath_ was loose, and a string was tied to the end of it, and
+thence carried along the wall, under the benches, to the seat of a
+mischievous boy, and fastened to a nail. By pulling the string he could
+spring the lath, and then let it snap back to its place. He left every
+thing as it was, and the next day, while engaged in a lesson, he heard
+the noise again.
+
+He rose from his seat.
+
+The scholars all looked up from their books.
+
+"Did you hear that noise?" said he.
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"Do you know what it is?"
+
+"No, sir."
+
+"Very well; I only wished to call your attention to it. I may perhaps
+speak of it again by-and-by."
+
+He then resumed his exercise as if nothing had happened. The guilty boy
+was agitated and confused, and was utterly at a loss to know what to do.
+What could the teacher mean? Had he discovered the trick? and, if so,
+what was he going to do?
+
+He grew more and more uneasy, and resolved that, at all events, it was
+best for him to retreat. Accordingly, at the next recess, as the teacher
+had anticipated, he went slyly to the lath, cut the string, then
+returned to his seat, and drew the line in, rolled it up, and put it in
+his pocket. The teacher, who was secretly watching him, observed the
+whole manoeuvre.
+
+At the close of the school, when the books were laid aside, and all was
+silence, he treated the affair thus:
+
+"Do you remember the noise to which I called your attention early this
+afternoon"?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"I will explain it to you now. One of the boys tied a string to a loose
+lath in the side of the room, and then, having the end of it at his
+seat, he was pulling it to make a noise to disturb us."
+
+The scholars all looked astonished, and then began to turn round toward
+one another to see who the offender could be. The culprit began to
+tremble.
+
+"He did it several times yesterday, and would have gone on doing it had
+I not spoken about it to-day. Do you think this was wrong or not?"
+
+"Yes, sir;" "Wrong;" "Wrong," are the replies.
+
+"What harm does it do?"
+
+"It interrupts the school."
+
+"Yes. Is there any other harm?"
+
+The boys hesitate.
+
+"It gives me trouble and pain. Should you not suppose it would?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"Have I ever treated any boy or girl in this school unjustly or
+unkindly?"
+
+"No, sir;" "No, sir."
+
+"Then why should any boy or girl wish to give me trouble or pain?"
+
+There was a pause. The guilty individual expected that the next thing
+would be to call him out for punishment.
+
+"Now what do you think I ought to do with such a boy?"
+
+No answer.
+
+"Perhaps I ought to punish him, but I am very unwilling to do that. I
+concluded to try another plan--to treat him with kindness and
+forbearance. So I called your attention to it this afternoon, to let him
+know that I was observing it, and to give him an opportunity to remove
+the string. And he did. He went, in the recess, and cut off the string.
+I shall not tell you his name, for I do not wish to injure his
+character. All I want is to have him a good boy."
+
+A pause.
+
+"I think I shall try this plan, for he must have some feelings of honor
+and gratitude, and if he has, he certainly will not try to give me pain
+or trouble again after this. And now I shall say no more about it, nor
+think any more about it; only, to prove that it is all as I say, if you
+look there under that window after school, you will see the lath with
+the end of the string round it, and, by pulling it, you can make it
+snap."
+
+Another case, a little more serious in its character, is the following:
+
+A teacher, having had some trouble with a rude and savage-looking boy,
+made some inquiry respecting him out of school, and incidentally learned
+that he had once or twice before openly rebelled against the authority
+of the school, and that he was now, in the recesses, actually preparing
+a club, with which he was threatening to defend himself if the teacher
+should attempt to punish him.
+
+The next day, soon after the boys had gone out, he took his hat and
+followed them, and, turning round a corner of the school-house, found
+the boys standing around the young rebel, who was sitting upon a log,
+shaving the handle of the club smooth with his pocket-knife. He was
+startled at the unexpected appearance of the teacher, and the first
+impulse was to hide his club behind him; but it was too late, and,
+supposing that the teacher was ignorant of his designs, he went on
+sullenly with his work, feeling, however, greatly embarrassed.
+
+"Pleasant day, boys," said the teacher. "This is a fine sunny nook for
+you to talk in.
+
+"Seems to me, however, you ought to have a better seat than this old
+log," continued he, taking his seat at the same time by the side of the
+boy.
+
+"Not so bad a seat, however, after all. What are you making, Joseph?"
+
+Joseph mumbled out something inarticulate by way of reply. "I have got a
+sharper knife," said he, drawing his penknife out of his pocket. And
+then, "Let me try it," he continued, gently taking the club out of
+Joseph's hand.
+
+The boys looked surprised, some exchanged nods and winks, others turned
+away to conceal a laugh; but the teacher engaged in conversation with
+them, and soon put them all at their ease except poor Joseph, who could
+not tell how this strange interview was likely to end.
+
+In the mean time, the teacher went on shaving the handle smooth and
+rounding the ends. "You want," said he, "a rasp or coarse file for the
+ends, and then you could finish it finely. But what are you making this
+formidable club for?"
+
+Joseph was completely at a loss what to say. He began to show evident
+marks of embarrassment and confusion.
+
+"I know what it is for; it is to defend yourself against me with. Is it
+not, boys?" said he, appealing to the others.
+
+A faint "Yes, sir" or two was the reply.
+
+"Well, now, Joseph, it will be a great deal better for us both to be
+friends than to be enemies. You had better throw this club away, and
+save yourself from punishment by being a good boy. Come, now," said he,
+handing him back his club, "throw it over into the field as far as you
+can, and we will all forget that you ever made it."
+
+Joseph sat the picture of shame and confusion. Better feelings were
+struggling for admission, and the case was decided by a broad-faced,
+good-natured-looking boy, who stood by his side, saying almost
+involuntarily,
+
+"Better throw it, Joe."
+
+The club flew, end over end, into the field. Joseph returned to his
+allegiance, and never attempted to rise in rebellion again.
+
+The ways by which boys engage in open, intentional disobedience are, of
+course, greatly varied, and the exact treatment will depend upon the
+features of the individual case; but the frankness, the openness, the
+plain dealing, and the kind and friendly tone which it is the object of
+the foregoing illustrations to exhibit, should characterize all.
+
+9. We have already alluded to the importance of a delicate regard for
+the _characters_ of the boys in all the measures of discipline adopted
+at the commencement of a school. This is, in fact, of the highest
+importance at all times, and is peculiarly so at the outset. A wound to
+the feelings is sometimes inflicted by a single transaction which
+produces a lasting injury to the character. Children are very sensitive
+to ridicule or disgrace, and some are most acutely so. A cutting reproof
+administered in public, or a punishment which exposes the individual to
+the gaze of others, will often burn far more deeply into the heart than
+the teacher imagines.
+
+And it is often the cause of great and lasting injury, too. By
+destroying the character of a pupil, you make him feel that he has
+nothing more to lose or gain, and destroy that kind of interest in his
+own moral condition which alone will allure him to virtuous conduct. To
+expose children to public ridicule or contempt tends either to make them
+sullen and despondent, or else to arouse their resentment and to make
+them reckless and desperate. Most persons remember through life some
+instances in their early childhood in which they were disgraced or
+ridiculed at school, and the permanence of the recollection is a test of
+the violence of the effect.
+
+Be very careful, then, to avoid, especially at the commencement of the
+school, publicly exposing those who do wrong. Sometimes you may make the
+offense public, as in the case of the snapping of the lath, described
+under a former head, while you kindly conceal the name of the offender.
+Even if the school generally understand who he is, the injury of public
+exposure is almost altogether avoided, for the sense of disgrace does
+not come nearly so vividly home to the mind of a child from hearing
+occasional allusions to his offense by individuals among his playmates,
+as when he feels himself, at a particular time, the object of universal
+attention and dishonor. And then, besides, if the pupil perceives that
+the teacher is tender of his reputation, he will, by a feeling somewhere
+between imitation and sympathy, begin to feel a little tender of it too.
+Every exertion should be made, therefore, to lead children to value
+their character, and to help them to preserve it, and especially to
+avoid, at the beginning, every unnecessary sacrifice of it.
+
+And yet there are cases where shame is the very best possible remedy for
+juvenile faults. If a boy, for example, is self-conceited, bold, and
+mischievous, with feelings somewhat callous, and an influence extensive
+and bad, an opportunity will sometimes occur to hold up his conduct to
+the just reprobation of the school with great advantage. By this means,
+if it is done in such a way as to _secure_ the influence of the school
+on the right side, many good effects are sometimes attained. His pride
+and self-conceit are humbled, his bad influence receives a very decided
+check, and he is forced to draw back at once from the prominent stand he
+has occupied.
+
+Richard Jones, for example, is a rude, coarse, self-conceited boy, often
+doing wrong both in school and out, and yet possessed of that peculiar
+influence which a bad boy often contrives to exert in school. The
+teacher, after watching some time for an opportunity to humble him, one
+day overhears a difficulty among the boys, and, looking out of the
+window, observes that he is taking away a sled from one of the little
+boys to slide down hill upon, having none of his own. The little boy
+resists as well as he can, and complains bitterly, but it is of no
+avail.
+
+At the close of the school that day, the teacher commences conversation
+on the subject as follows:
+
+"Boys, do you know what the difference is between stealing and robbery?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"What!"
+
+The boys hesitate, and look at one another.
+
+"Suppose a thief were to go into a man's store in the daytime, and take
+away something secretly, would it be stealing or robbery?"
+
+"Stealing."
+
+"Suppose he should meet him in the road, and take it away by force?"
+
+"Then it would be robbery."
+
+"Yes; when that which belongs to another is taken secretly, it is called
+stealing; when it is taken openly or with violence, it is called
+robbery. Which, now, do you think is the worst?"
+
+"Robbery."
+
+"Yes, for it is more barefaced and determined--then it gives a great
+deal more pain to the one who is injured. To-day I saw one of the boys
+in this school taking away another boy's sled, openly and with
+violence."
+
+The boys all look round toward Richard.
+
+"Was that of the nature of stealing or robbery?
+
+"Robbery," say the boys.
+
+"Was it real robbery?"
+
+They hesitate.
+
+"If any of you think of any reason why it was not real robbery, you may
+name it."
+
+"He gave the sled back to him," says one of the boys.
+
+"Yes; and therefore, to describe the action correctly, we should not say
+Richard robbed a boy of his sled, but that he robbed him of his sled
+_for a time_, or he robbed him of the _use_ of his sled. Still, in
+respect to the nature and the guilt of it, it was robbery.
+
+"There is another thing which ought to be observed about it. Whose sled
+was it that Richard took away?"
+
+"James Thompson's."
+
+"James, you may stand up.
+
+"Notice his size, boys. I should like to have Richard Jones stand up
+too, so that you might compare them; but I presume he feels very much
+ashamed of what he has done, and it would be very unpleasant for him to
+stand up. You will remember, however, how large he is. Now when I was a
+boy, it used to be considered dishonorable and cowardly for a large,
+strong boy to abuse a little one who can not defend himself. Is it
+considered so now?"
+
+"Yes, sir."
+
+"It ought to be, certainly; though, were it not for such a case as this,
+we should not have thought of considering Richard Jones a coward. It
+seems he did not dare to try to take away a sled from a boy who was as
+big as himself, but attacked little James, for he knew he was not strong
+enough to defend himself."
+
+Now, in some such cases as this, great good may be done, both in
+respect to the individual and to the state of public sentiment in
+school, by openly exposing a boy's misconduct. The teacher must always
+take care, however, that the state of mind and character in the guilty
+individual is such that public exposure is adapted to work well as a
+remedy, and also that, in managing it, he carries the sympathies of the
+other boys with him. To secure this, he must avoid all harsh and
+exaggerated expressions or direct reproaches, and while he is mild, and
+gentle, and forbearing himself, lead the boys to understand and feel the
+nature of the sin which he exposes. The opportunities for doing this to
+advantage will, however, be rare. Generally it will be best to manage
+cases of discipline more privately, so as to protect the characters of
+those that offend.
+
+The teacher should thus, in accordance with the directions we have
+given, commence his labors with careful circumspection, patience,
+frankness, and honest good-will toward every individual of his charge.
+He will find less difficulty at the outset than he would have expected,
+and soon have the satisfaction of perceiving that a mild but most
+efficient government is quietly and firmly established in the little
+kingdom over which he is called to reign.
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Teacher, by Jacob Abbott
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12291 ***