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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:16:43 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:16:43 -0700 |
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diff --git a/1227-h/1227-h.htm b/1227-h/1227-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d77ff05 --- /dev/null +++ b/1227-h/1227-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,14499 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals, by Charles Darwin</title> + +<style type="text/css"> + +body { margin-left: 20%; + margin-right: 20%; + text-align: justify } + +h1, h2, h3, h4, h5 {text-align: center; font-style: normal; font-weight: +normal; line-height: 1.5; margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em;} + +h1 {font-size: 300%; + margin-top: 0.6em; + margin-bottom: 0.6em; + letter-spacing: 0.12em; + word-spacing: 0.2em; + text-indent: 0em;} +h2 {font-size: 150%; } +h3 {font-size: 130%; } +h4 {font-size: 120%;} +h5 {font-size: 110%;} + +hr {width: 80%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always; margin-top: 4em;} + +p {text-indent: 1em; + margin-top: 0.25em; + margin-bottom: 0.25em; } + +.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} + +p.poem {text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10%; + font-size: 90%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +p.letter {text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +p.noindent {text-indent: 0% } + +p.center {text-align: center; + text-indent: 0em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +p.right {text-align: right; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +p.footnote {font-size: 90%; + text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +div.fig { display:block; + margin:0 auto; + text-align:center; } + +a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:hover {color:red} + +</style> + +</head> + +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1227 ***</div> + +<h1> +THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS +</h1> + +<h2> +By Charles Darwin +</h2> + +<h3> +<i>With Photographic And Other Illustrations</i> +<br/><br/> +New York +<br/> +D. Appleton And Company +<br/><br/> +1899 +</h3> + +<hr /> + +<p class="toc"> +<big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> +</p> + +<p> +<br/> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2H_4_0001"> DETAILED CONTENTS. </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2H_4_0003"> <big><b>ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN +AND ANIMALS.</b></big> </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2H_INTR"> INTRODUCTION. </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF +EXPRESSION. </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF +EXPRESSION—<i>continued</i>. </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF +EXPRESSION—<i>concluded</i>. </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. — MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN +ANIMALS. </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. — SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF +ANIMALS. </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. — SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: +SUFFERING AND WEEPING. </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. — LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, +DEJECTION, DESPAIR. </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. — JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, +TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION. </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. — REFLECTION—MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER—SULKINESS—DETERMINATION. +</a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. — HATRED AND ANGER. </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. — DISDAIN—CONTEMPT—DISGUST-GUILT—PRIDE, +ETC. </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. — SURPRISE—ASTONISHMENT—FEAR—HORROR. +</a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. — SELF-ATTENTION—SHAME—SHYNESS—MODESTY: +BLUSHING. </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV. — CONCLUDING REMARKS AND +SUMMARY. </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#link2H_FOOT"> FOOTNOTES </a> +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="toc"> +<big><b>ILLUSTRATIONS</b></big> +</p> + +<p> +<br/> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0001"> Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 1-2 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0002"> Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 3 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0003"> Small Dog Watching a Cat on A Table. Figure 4 +</a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0004"> Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind. Fig. 5 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0005"> Dog in a humble and Affectionate Frame of Mind. +Fig. 6 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0006"> Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind. Fig. 7 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0007"> Dog Carressing his Master. Fig. 8 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0008"> Cat, Savage, and Prepared to Fight. Fig. 9 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0009"> Cat in an Affectionate Frame of Mind. Fig. 10 +</a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0010"> Sound Producing Quills from Tail of a +Porcupine. Fig. 11 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0011"> Hen Driving Away a Dog from Her Chickens. Fig. +12 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0012"> Swan Driving Away an Intruder. Fig 13 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0013"> Head of Snarling Dog. Fig 14 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0014"> Cat Terrified at a Dog. Fig.15 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0016"> Cynopithecus Niger, Pleased by Being Caressed. +Fig.17 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0017"> Chimpanzee Disappointed and Sulky. Fig. 18 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0018"> Screaming Infants. Plate I. </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0019"> Obliquity of the Eyebrows. Plate II </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0020"> Moderate Laughter and Smiling. Plate III </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0021"> Ill-temper. Plate IV </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0022"> Anger and Indignation. Plate VI </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0023"> Scorn and Disdain. Plate V </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0024"> Gestures of the Body. Plate VII </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0025"> Photograph of an Insane Woman. Fig. 19 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0026"> Terror. Fig. 20 </a> +</p> +<p class="toc"> +<a href="#linkimage-0027"> Horror and Agony. Fig. 21 </a> +</p> +<blockquote> + +<p> +<i>N.B</i>.—Several of the figures in these seven Heliotype +Plates have been reproduced from photographs, instead of from the +original negatives; and they are in consequence somewhat indistinct. +Nevertheless they are faithful copies, and are much superior for my +purpose to any drawing, however carefully executed. +</p> +</blockquote> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"></a>DETAILED CONTENTS.</h2> + +<p> +<a href="#link2H_INTR">INTRODUCTION</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2HCH0001">CHAP. I—GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.</a><br/> +The three chief principles stated—The first principle—Serviceable +actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind, and are +performed whether or not of service in each particular case—The force of +habit—Inheritance—Associated habitual movements in man—Reflex +actions—Passage of habits into reflex actions—Associated habitual +movements in the lower animals—Concluding remarks +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2HCH0002">CHAP. II—GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.</a>—<i>continued</i>.<br/> +The Principle of Antithesis—Instances in the dog and cat—Origin of +the principle—Conventional signs—The principle of antithesis has +not arisen from opposite actions being consciously performed under opposite +impulses +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2HCH0003">CHAP. III—GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.</a>—<i>concluded</i>.<br/> +The principle of the direct action of the excited nervous system on the +body, independently of the will and in part of habit—Change of +colour in the hair—Trembling of the muscles—Modified +secretions—Perspiration—Expression of extreme pain—Of +rage, great joy, and terror—Contrast between the emotions which +cause and do not cause expressive movements—Exciting and depressing +states of the mind—Summary +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2HCH0004">CHAP. IV—MEANS OF EXPRESSION. IN ANIMALS.</a><br/> +The emission of sounds—Vocal sounds—Sounds otherwise +produced—Erection of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &c., +under the emotions of anger and terror—The drawing back of the ears as a +preparation for fighting, and as an expression of anger—Erection of the +ears and raising the head, a sign of attention +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2HCH0005">CHAP. V.—SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.</a><br/> +The Dog, various expressive movements +of—Cats—Horses—Ruminants—Monkeys, their expression of +joy and affection—Of pain—Anger Astonishment and Terror +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2HCH0006">CHAP. VI.—SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.</a><br/> +The screaming and weeping of infants—Form of features—Age at which +weeping commences—The effects of habitual restraint on +weeping—Sobbing—Cause of the contraction of the muscles round the +eyes during screaming—Cause of the secretion of tears +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2HCH0007">CHAP. VII.—LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.</a><br/> +General effect of grief on the system—Obliquity of the eyebrows under +suffering—On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows—On the +depression of the corners of the mouth +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2HCH0008">CHAP. VIII.—JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.</a><br/> +Laughter primarily the expression of joy—Ludicrous ideas—Movements +of the features during laughter—Nature of the sound produced—The +secretion of tears during loud laughter—Gradation from loud laughter +to gentle smiling—High spirits—The expression of love—Tender +feelings—Devotion +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2HCH0009">CHAP. IX.—REFLECTION—MEDITATION—ILL—TEMPER—SULKINESS +DETERMINATION.</a><br/> +The act of frowning—Reflection with an effort or with the perception of +something difficult or disagreeable—Abstracted +meditation—Ill-temper—Moroseness—Obstinacy—Sulkiness +and pouting—Decision or determination—The firm closure of the mouth +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2HCH0010">CHAP. X.—HATRED AND ANGER.</a><br/> +Hatred—Rage, effects of on the system—Uncovering of the +teeth—Rage in the insane—Anger and indignation—As expressed +by the various races of man—Sneering and defiance—The uncovering of +the canine teeth on one side of the face +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2HCH0011">CHAP. XI.—DISDAIN—CONTEMPT—DISGUST—GUILT—PRIDE, +ETC.—HELPLESSNESS—PATIENCE—AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.</a><br/> +Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed—Derisive Smile—Gestures +expressive of contempt—Disgust—Guilt, deceit, pride, etc.—Helplessness +or impotence—Patience—Obstinacy—Shrugging the shoulders +common to most of the races of man—Signs of affirmation and negation +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2HCH0012">CHAP. XII.—SURPRISE—ASTONISHMENT—FEAR—HORROR.</a><br/> +Surprise, astonishment—Elevation of the eyebrows—Opening the +mouth—Protrusion of the lips—Gestures accompanying +surprise—Admiration Fear—Terror—Erection of the +hair—Contraction of the platysma muscle—Dilatation of the +pupils—horror—Conclusion. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2HCH0013">CHAP. XIII.—SELF-ATTENTION—SHAME—SHYNESS—MODESTY: +BLUSHING.</a><br/> +Nature of a blush—Inheritance—The parts of the body most +affected—Blushing in the various races of man—Accompanying +gestures—Confusion of mind—Causes of blushing—Self-attention, +the fundamental element—Shyness—Shame, from broken moral laws and +conventional rules—Modesty—Theory of blushing—Recapitulation +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2HCH0014">CHAP. XIV.—CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.</a><br/> +The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements of +expression—Their inheritance—On the part which the will and +intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions—The +instinctive recognition of expression—The bearing of our subject on the +specific unity of the races of man—On the successive acquirement of +various expressions by the progenitors of man—The importance of +expression—Conclusion +</p> + +<hr /> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"></a> +ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS. +</h2> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2H_INTR" id="link2H_INTR"></a> +INTRODUCTION. +</h2> + +<p> +Many works have been written on Expression, but a greater number on +Physiognomy,—that is, on the recognition of character through the +study of the permanent form of the features. With this latter subject I am +not here concerned. The older treatises,<a href="#linknote-1" +name="linknoteref-1" id="linknoteref-1">[1]</a> which I have consulted, +have been of little or no service to me. The famous ‘Conférences’<a +href="#linknote-2" name="linknoteref-2" id="linknoteref-2">[2]</a> of the +painter Le Brun, published in 1667, is the best known ancient work, and +contains some good remarks. Another somewhat old essay, namely, the +‘Discours,’ delivered 1774-1782, by the well-known Dutch anatomist Camper,<a +href="#linknote-3" name="linknoteref-3" id="linknoteref-3">[3]</a> can +hardly be considered as having made any marked advance in the subject. The +following works, on the contrary, deserve the fullest consideration. +</p> + +<p> +Sir Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in physiology, +published in 1806 the first edition, and in the third edition of his +‘Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression.’<a href="#linknote-4" +name="linknoteref-4" id="linknoteref-4">[4]</a> He may with justice be +said, not only to have laid the foundations of the subject as a branch of +science, but to have built up a noble structure. His work is in every way +deeply interesting; it includes graphic descriptions of the various +emotions, and is admirably illustrated. It is generally admitted that his +service consists chiefly in having shown the intimate relation which +exists between the movements of expression and those of respiration. One +of the most important points, small as it may at first appear, is that the +muscles round the eyes are involuntarily contracted during violent +expiratory efforts, in order to protect these delicate organs from the +pressure of the blood. This fact, which has been fully investigated for me +with the greatest kindness by Professors Donders of Utrecht, throws, as we +shall hereafter see, a flood of light on several of the most important +expressions of the human countenance. The merits of Sir C. Bell’s work +have been undervalued or quite ignored by several foreign writers, but +have been fully admitted by some, for instance by M. Lemoine,<a +href="#linknote-5" name="linknoteref-5" id="linknoteref-5">[5]</a> who +with great justice says:—“Le livre de Ch. Bell devrait être médité +par quiconque essaye de faire parler le visage de l’homme, par les +philosophes aussi bien que par les artistes, car, sous une apparence plus +légère et sous le prétexte de l’esthétique, c’est un des plus beaux +monuments de la science des rapports du physique et du moral.” +</p> + +<p> +From reasons which will presently be assigned, Sir C. Bell did not attempt +to follow out his views as far as they might have been carried. He does +not try to explain why different muscles are brought into action under +different emotions; why, for instance, the inner ends of the eyebrows are +raised, and the corners of the mouth depressed, by a person suffering from +grief or anxiety. +</p> + +<p> +In 1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater on Physiognomy,<a +href="#linknote-6" name="linknoteref-6" id="linknoteref-6">[6]</a> in +which he incorporated several of his own essays, containing excellent +descriptions of the movements of the facial muscles, together with many +valuable remarks. He throws, however, very little light on the philosophy +of the subject. For instance, M. Moreau, in speaking of the act of +frowning, that is, of the contraction of the muscle called by French +writers the <i>soucilier</i> (<i>corrigator supercilii</i>), remarks with +truth:—“Cette action des sourciliers est un des symptômes les plus +tranchés de l’expression des affections pénibles ou concentrées.” He then +adds that these muscles, from their attachment and position, are fitted “à +resserrer, à concentrer les principaux traits de la <i>face</i>, comme il +convient dans toutes ces passions vraiment oppressives ou profondes, dans +ces affections dont le sentiment semble porter l’organisation à revenir +sur elle-même, à se contracter et à <i>s’amoindrir</i>, comme pour offrir +moins de prise et de surface à des impressions redoutables ou importunes.” +He who thinks that remarks of this kind throw any light on the meaning or +origin of the different expressions, takes a very different view of the +subject to what I do. +</p> + +<p> +In the above passage there is but a slight, if any, advance in the philosophy +of the subject, beyond that reached by the painter Le Brun, who, in 1667, in +describing the expression of fright, says:—“Le sourcil qui est +abaissé d’un côté et élevé de l’autre, fait voir que la partie +élevée semble le vouloir joindre au cerveau pour le garantir du mal que +l’âme aperçoit, et le côté qui est abaissé et qui paraît +enflé,—nous fait trouver dans cet état par les esprits qui viennent du +cerveau en abondance, comme polir couvrir l’âme et la défendre du mal +qu’elle craint; la bouche fort ouverte fait voir le saisissement du +cœur, par le sang qui se retire vers lui, ce qui l’oblige, voulant +respirer, à faire un effort qui est cause que la bouche s’ouvre +extrêmement, et qui, lorsqu’il passe par les organes de la voix, forme un +son qui n’est point articulé; que si les muscles et les veines paraissent +enflés, ce n’est que par les esprits que le cerveau envoie en ces +parties-là.” I have thought the foregoing sentences worth quoting, as +specimens of the surprising nonsense which has been written on the subject. +</p> + +<p> +‘The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,’ by Dr. Burgess, appeared in +1839, and to this work I shall frequently refer in my thirteenth Chapter. +</p> + +<p> +In 1862 Dr. Duchenne published two editions, in folio and octavo, of his +‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ in which he analyses by means of +electricity, and illustrates by magnificent photographs, the movements of +the facial muscles. He has generously permitted me to copy as many of his +photographs as I desired. His works have been spoken lightly of, or quite +passed over, by some of his countrymen. It is possible that Dr. Duchenne +may have exaggerated the importance of the contraction of single muscles +in giving expression; for, owing to the intimate manner in which the +muscles are connected, as may be seen in Henle’s anatomical drawings<a +href="#linknote-7" name="linknoteref-7" id="linknoteref-7">[7]</a>—the +best I believe ever published it is difficult to believe in their separate +action. Nevertheless, it is manifest that Dr. Duchenne clearly apprehended +this and other sources of error, and as it is known that he was eminently +successful in elucidating the physiology of the muscles of the hand by the +aid of electricity, it is probable that he is generally in the right about +the muscles of the face. In my opinion, Dr. Duchenne has greatly advanced +the subject by his treatment of it. No one has more carefully studied the +contraction of each separate muscle, and the consequent furrows produced +on the skin. He has also, and this is a very important service, shown +which muscles are least under the separate control of the will. He enters +very little into theoretical considerations, and seldom attempts to +explain why certain muscles and not others contract under the influence of +certain emotions. +</p> + +<p> +A distinguished French anatomist, Pierre Gratiolet, gave a course of lectures +on Expression at the Sorbonne, and his notes were published (1865) after his +death, under the title of ‘De la Physionomie et des Mouvements +d’Expression.’ This is a very interesting work, full of valuable +observations. His theory is rather complex, and, as far as it can be given in a +single sentence (p. 65), is as follows:—“Il résulte, de tous les +faits que j’ai rappelés, que les sens, l’imagination et la pensée +elle-même, si élevée, si abstraite qu’on la suppose, ne peuvent +s’exercer sans éveiller un sentiment corrélatif, et que ce sentiment se +traduit directement, sympathiquement, symboliquement ou métaphoriquement, dans +toutes les sphères des organs extérieurs, qui la racontent tous, suivant leur +mode d’action propre, comme si chacun d’eux avait été directement +affecté.” +</p> + +<p> +Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit, and even to some extent +habit in the individual; and therefore he fails, as it seems to me, to +give the right explanation, or any explanation at all, of many gestures +and expressions. As an illustration of what he calls symbolic movements, I +will quote his remarks (p. 37), taken from M. Chevreul, on a man playing +at billiards. “Si une bille dévie légèrement de la direction que le joueur +prétend lui imprimer, ne l’avez-vous pas vu cent fois la pousser du +regard, de la tête et même des épaules, comme si ces mouvements, purement +symboliques, pouvaient rectifier son trajet? Des mouvements non moins +significatifs se produisent quand la bille manque d’une impulsion +suffisante. Et cliez les joueurs novices, ils sont quelquefois accusés au +point d’éveiller le sourire sur les lèvres des spectateurs.” Such +movements, as it appeirs to me, may be attributed simply to habit. As +often as a man has wished to move an object to one side, he has always +pushed it to that side when forwards, he has pushed it forwards; and if he +has wished to arrest it, he has pulled backwards. Therefore, when a man +sees his ball travelling in a wrong direction, and he intensely wishes it +to go in another direction, he cannot avoid, from long habit, +unconsciously performing movements which in other cases he has found +effectual. +</p> + +<p> +As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet gives (p. 212) the +following case:—“un jeune chien à oreilles droites, auquel son +maître présente de loin quelque viande appétissante, fixe avec ardeur ses +yeux sur cet objet dont il suit tous les mouvements, et pendant que les +yeux regardent, les deux oreilles se portent en avant comme si cet objet +pouvait être entendu.” Here, instead of speaking of sympathy between the +ears and eyes, it appears to me more simple to believe, that as dogs +during many generations have, whilst intently looking at any object, +pricked their ears in order to perceive any sound; and conversely have +looked intently in the direction of a sound to which they may have +listened, the movements of these organs have become firmly associated +together through long-continued habit. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, which I have not +seen, but in which, as he states, he forestalled Gratiolet in many of his +views. In 1867 he published his ‘Wissenschaftliches System der Mimik und +Physiognomik.’ It is hardly possible to give in a few sentences a fair +notion of his views; perhaps the two following sentences will tell as much +as can be briefly told: “the muscular movements of expression are in part +related to imaginary objects, and in part to imaginary sensorial +impressions. In this proposition lies the key to the comprehension of all +expressive muscular movements.” (s. 25) Again, “Expressive movements +manifest themselves chiefly in the numerous and mobile muscles of the +face, partly because the nerves by which they are set into motion +originate in the most immediate vicinity of the mind-organ, but partly +also because these muscles serve to support the organs of sense.” (s. 26.) +If Dr. Piderit had studied Sir C. Bell’s work, he would probably not have +said (s. 101) that violent laughter causes a frown from partaking of the +nature of pain; or that with infants (s. 103) the tears irritate the eyes, +and thus excite the contraction of the surrounding in muscles. Many good +remarks are scattered throughout this volume, to which I shall hereafter +refer. +</p> + +<p> +Short discussions on Expression may be found in various works, which need +not here be particularised. Mr. Bain, however, in two of his works has +treated the subject at some length. He says,<a href="#linknote-8" +name="linknoteref-8" id="linknoteref-8">[8]</a> “I look upon the +expression so-called as part and parcel of the feeling. I believe it to be +a general law of the mind that along with the fact of inward feeling or +consciousness, there is a diffusive action or excitement over the bodily +members.” In another place he adds, “A very considerable number of the +facts may be brought under the following principle: namely, that states of +pleasure are connected with an increase, and states of pain with an +abatement, of some, or all, of the vital functions.” But the above law of +the diffusive action of feelings seems too general to throw much light on +special expressions. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in his ‘Principles of +Psychology’ (1855), makes the following remarks:—“Fear, when strong, +expresses itself in cries, in efforts to hide or escape, in palpitations +and tremblings; and these are just the manifestations that would accompany +an actual experience of the evil feared. The destructive passions are +shown in a general tension of the muscular system, in gnashing of the +teeth and protrusion of the claws, in dilated eyes and nostrils in growls; +and these are weaker forms of the actions that accompany the killing of +prey.” Here we have, as I believe, the true theory of a large number of +expressions; but the chief interest and difficulty of the subject lies in +following out the wonderfully complex results. I infer that some one (but +who he is I have not been able to ascertain) formerly advanced a nearly +similar view, for Sir C. Bell says,<a href="#linknote-9" +name="linknoteref-9" id="linknoteref-9">[9]</a> “It has been maintained +that what are called the external signs of passion, are only the +concomitants of those voluntary movements which the structure renders +necessary.” Mr. Spencer has also published<a href="#linknote-10" +name="linknoteref-10" id="linknoteref-10">[10]</a> a valuable essay on the +physiology of Laughter, in which he insists on “the general law that +feeling passing a certain pitch, habitually vents itself in bodily +action,” and that “an overflow of nerve-force undirected by any motive, +will manifestly take first the most habitual routes; and if these do not +suffice, will next overflow into the less habitual ones.” This law I +believe to be of the highest importance in throwing light on our subject.’<a +href="#linknote-11" name="linknoteref-11" id="linknoteref-11">[11]</a> +</p> + +<p> +All the authors who have written on Expression, with the exception of Mr. +Spencer—the great expounder of the principle of Evolution—appear +to have been firmly convinced that species, man of course included, came +into existence in their present condition. Sir C. Bell, being thus +convinced, maintains that many of our facial muscles are “purely +instrumental in expression;” or are “a special provision” for this sole +object.<a href="#linknote-12" name="linknoteref-12" id="linknoteref-12">[12]</a> +But the simple fact that the anthropoid apes possess the same facial +muscles as we do,<a href="#linknote-13" name="linknoteref-13" +id="linknoteref-13">[13]</a> renders it very improbable that these muscles +in our case serve exclusively for expression; for no one, I presume, would +be inclined to admit that monkeys have been endowed with special muscles +solely for exhibiting their hideous grimaces. Distinct uses, independently +of expression, can indeed be assigned with much probability for almost all +the facial muscles. +</p> + +<p> +Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a distinction as possible +between man and the lower animals; and he consequently asserts that with +“the lower creatures there is no expression but what may be referred, more +or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary instincts.” He +further maintains that their faces “seem chiefly capable of expressing +rage and fear.”<a href="#linknote-14" name="linknoteref-14" +id="linknoteref-14">[14]</a> But man himself cannot express love and +humility by external signs, so plainly as does a dog, when with drooping +ears, hanging lips, flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets his beloved +master. Nor can these movements in the dog be explained by acts of +volition or necessary instincts, any more than the beaming eyes and +smiling cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir C. Bell had +been questioned about the expression of affection in the dog, he would no +doubt have answered that this animal had been created with special +instincts, adapting him for association with man, and that all further +enquiry on the subject was superfluous. +</p> + +<p> +Although Gratiolet emphatically denies<a href="#linknote-15" +name="linknoteref-15" id="linknoteref-15">[15]</a> that any muscle has +been developed solely for the sake of expression, he seems never to have +reflected on the principle of evolution. He apparently looks at each +species as a separate creation. So it is with the other writers on +Expression. For instance, Dr. Duchenne, after speaking of the movements of +the limbs, refers to those which give expression to the face, and remarks:<a +href="#linknote-16" name="linknoteref-16" id="linknoteref-16">[16]</a> “Le +créateur n’a donc pas eu à se préoccuper ici des besoins de la mécanique; +il a pu, selon sa sagesse, ou—que l’on me pardonne cette manière de +parler—par une divine fantaisie, mettre en action tel ou tel muscle, +un seul ou plusieurs muscles à la fois, lorsqu’il a voulu que les signes +caractéristiques des passions, même les plus fugaces, fussent écrits +passagèrement sur la face de l’homme. Ce langage de la physionomie une +fois créé, il lui a suffi, pour le rendre universel et immuable, de donner +à tout être humain la faculté instinctive d’exprimer toujours ses +sendments par la contraction des mêmes muscles.” +</p> + +<p> +Many writers consider the whole subject of Expression as inexplicable. +Thus the illustrious physiologist Müller, says,<a href="#linknote-17" +name="linknoteref-17" id="linknoteref-17">[17]</a> “The completely +different expression of the features in different passions shows that, +according to the kind of feeling excited, entirely different groups of the +fibres of the facial nerve are acted on. Of the cause of this we are quite +ignorant.” +</p> + +<p> +No doubt as long as man and all other animals are viewed as independent +creations, an effectual stop is put to our natural desire to investigate +as far as possible the causes of Expression. By this doctrine, anything +and everything can be equally well explained; and it has proved as +pernicious with respect to Expression as to every other branch of natural +history. With mankind some expressions, such as the bristling of the hair +under the influence of extreme terror, or the uncovering of the teeth +under that of furious rage, can hardly be understood, except on the belief +that man once existed in a much lower and animal-like condition. The +community of certain expressions in distinct though allied species, as in +the movements of the same facial muscles during laughter by man and by +various monkeys, is rendered somewhat more intelligible, if we believe in +their descent from a common progenitor. He who admits on general grounds +that the structure and habits of all animals have been gradually evolved, +will look at the whole subject of Expression in a new and interesting +light. +</p> + +<p> +The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements being often +extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature. A difference may be clearly +perceived, and yet it may be impossible, at least I have found it so, to +state in what the difference consists. When we witness any deep emotion, +our sympathy is so strongly excited, that close observation is forgotten +or rendered almost impossible; of which fact I have had many curious +proofs. Our imagination is another and still more serious source of error; +for if from the nature of the circumstances we expect to see any +expression, we readily imagine its presence. Notwithstanding Dr. +Duchenne’s great experience, he for a long time fancied, as he states, +that several muscles contracted under certain emotions, whereas he +ultimately convinced himself that the movement was confined to a single +muscle. +</p> + +<p> +In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to ascertain, +independently of common opinion, how far particular movements of the +features and gestures are really expressive of certain states of the mind, +I have found the following means the most serviceable. In the first place, +to observe infants; for they exhibit many emotions, as Sir C. Bell +remarks, “with extraordinary force;” whereas, in after life, some of our +expressions “cease to have the pure and simple source from which they +spring in infancy.”<a href="#linknote-18" name="linknoteref-18" +id="linknoteref-18">[18]</a> +</p> + +<p> +In the second place, it occurred to me that the insane ought to be +studied, as they are liable to the strongest passions, and give +uncontrolled vent to them. I had, myself, no opportunity of doing this, so +I applied to Dr. Maudsley and received from him an introduction to Dr. J. +Crichton Browne, who has charge of an immense asylum near Wakefield, and +who, as I found, had already attended to the subject. This excellent +observer has with unwearied kindness sent me copious notes and +descriptions, with valuable suggestions on many points; and I can hardly +over-estimate the value of his assistance. I owe also, to the kindness of +Mr. Patrick Nicol, of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, interesting statements on +two or three points. +</p> + +<p> +Thirdly Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already seen, certain muscles +in the face of an old man, whose skin was little sensitive, and thus +produced various expressions which were photographed on a large scale. It +fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best plates, without a +word of explanation, to above twenty educated persons of various ages and +both sexes, asking them, in each case, by what emotion or feeling the old +man was supposed to be agitated; and I recorded their answers in the words +which they used. Several of the expressions were instantly recognised by +almost everyone, though described in not exactly the same terms; and these +may, I think, be relied on as truthful, and will hereafter be specified. +On the other hand, the most widely different judgments were pronounced in +regard to some of them. This exhibition was of use in another way, by +convincing me how easily we may be misguided by our imagination; for when +I first looked through Dr. Duchenne’s photographs, reading at the same +time the text, and thus learning what was intended, I was struck with +admiration at the truthfulness of all, with only a few exceptions. +Nevertheless, if I had examined them without any explanation, no doubt I +should have been as much perplexed, in some cases, as other persons have +been. +</p> + +<p> +Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters in +painting and sculpture, who are such close observers. Accordingly, I have +looked at photographs and engravings of many well-known works; but, with a +few exceptions, have not thus profited. The reason no doubt is, that in +works of art, beauty is the chief object; and strongly contracted facial +muscles destroy beauty.<a href="#linknote-19" name="linknoteref-19" +id="linknoteref-19">[19]</a> The story of the composition is generally +told with wonderful force and truth by skilfully given accessories. +</p> + +<p> +Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascertain whether the same +expressions and gestures prevail, as has often been asserted without much +evidence, with all the races of mankind, especially with those who have +associated but little with Europeans. Whenever the same movements of the +features or body express the same emotions in several distinct races of +man, we may infer with much probability, that such expressions are true +ones,—that is, are innate or instinctive. Conventional expressions +or gestures, acquired by the individual during early life, would probably +have differed in the different races, in the same manner as do their +languages. Accordingly I circulated, early in the year 1867, the following +printed queries with a request, which has been fully responded to, that +actual observations, and not memory, might be trusted. These queries were +written after a considerable interval of time, during which my attention +had been otherwise directed, and I can now see that they might have been +greatly improved. To some of the later copies, I appended, in manuscript, +a few additional remarks:— +</p> + +<p> +(1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide, +and by the eyebrows being raised? +</p> + +<p> +(2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows it to be +visible? and especially how low down the body does the blush extend? +</p> + +<p> +(3.) When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his body and +head erect, square his shoulders and clench his fists? +</p> + +<p> +(4) When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to understand any +puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids? +</p> + +<p> +(5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed, and the +inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which the French call +the “Grief muscle”? The eyebrow in this state becomes slightly oblique, +with a little swelling at the Inner end; and the forehead is transversely +wrinkled in the middle part, but not across the whole breadth, as when the +eyebrows are raised in surprise. +</p> + +<p> +(6.) When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little wrinkled +round and under them, and with the mouth a little drawn back at the corners? +</p> + +<p> +(7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the upper +lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side facing the man whom he +addresses? +</p> + +<p> +(8) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized, which is chiefly +shown by the mouth being firmly closed, a lowering brow and a slight +frown? +</p> + +<p> +(9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips and by +turning up the nose, and with a slight expiration? +</p> + +<p> +(10) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down, the upper lip +slightly raised, with a sudden expiration, something like incipient +vomiting, or like something spit out of the mouth? +</p> + +<p> +(11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as with +Europeans? +</p> + +<p> +(12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears into +the eyes? +</p> + +<p> +(13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something being +done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his shoulders, turn +inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands and open the palms; with the +eyebrows raised? +</p> + +<p> +(14) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the lips? +</p> + +<p> +(15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized? though I +know not how these can be defined. +</p> + +<p> +(16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken laterally +in negation? +</p> + +<p> +Observations on natives who have had little communication with Europeans +would be of course the most valuable, though those made on any natives +would be of much interest to me. General remarks on expression are of +comparatively little value; and memory is so deceptive that I earnestly +beg it may not be trusted. A definite description of the countenance under +any emotion or frame of mind, with a statement of the circumstances under +which it occurred, would possess much value. +</p> + +<p> +To these queries I have received thirty-six answers from different +observers, several of them missionaries or protectors of the aborigines, +to all of whom I am deeply indebted for the great trouble which they have +taken, and for the valuable aid thus received. I will specify their names, +&c., towards the close of this chapter, so as not to interrupt my +present remarks. The answers relate to several of the most distinct and +savage races of man. In many instances, the circumstances have been +recorded under which each expression was observed, and the expression +itself described. In such cases, much confidence may be placed in the +answers. When the answers have been simply yes or no, I have always +received them with caution. It follows, from the information thus +acquired, that the same state of mind is expressed throughout the world +with remarkable uniformity; and this fact is in itself interesting as +evidence of the close similarity in bodily structure and mental +disposition of all the races, of mankind. +</p> + +<p> +Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended as closely as I could, to the +expression of the several passions in some of the commoner animals; and +this I believe to be of paramount importance, not of course for deciding +how far in man certain expressions are characteristic of certain states of +mind, but as affording the safest basis for generalisation on the causes, +or origin, of the various movements of Expression. In observing animals, +we are not so likely to be biassed by our imagination; and we may feel +safe that their expressions are not conventional. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting nature of some +expressions (the changes in the features being often extremely slight); +our sympathy being easily aroused when we behold any strong emotion, and +our attention thus distracted; our imagination deceiving us, from knowing +in a vague manner what to expect, though certainly few of us know what the +exact changes in the countenance are; and lastly, even our long +familiarity with the subject,—from all these causes combined, the +observation of Expression is by no means easy, as many persons, whom I +have asked to observe certain points, have soon discovered. Hence it is +difficult to determine, with certainty, what are the movements of the +features and of the body, which commonly characterize certain states of +the mind. Nevertheless, some of the doubts and difficulties have, as I +hope, been cleared away by the observation of infants,—of the +insane,—of the different races of man,—of works of art,—and +lastly, of the facial muscles under the action of galvanism, as effected +by Dr. Duchenne. +</p> + +<p> +But there remains the much greater difficulty of understanding the cause +or origin of the several expressions, and of judging whether any +theoretical explanation is trustworthy. Besides, judging as well as we can +by our reason, without the aid of any rules, which of two or more +explanations is the most satisfactory, or are quite unsatisfactory, I see +only one way of testing our conclusions. This is to observe whether the +same principle by which one expression can, as it appears, be explained, +is applicable in other allied cases; and especially, whether the same +general principles can be applied with satisfactory results, both to man +and the lower animals. This latter method, I am inclined to think, is the +most serviceable of all. The difficulty of judging of the truth of any +theoretical explanation, and of testing it by some distinct line of +investigation, is the great drawback to that interest which the study +seems well fitted to excite. +</p> + +<p> +Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may state that they were +commenced in the year 1838; and from that time to the present day, I have +occasionally attended to the subject. At the above date, I was already +inclined to believe in the principle of evolution, or of the derivation of +species from other and lower forms. Consequently, when I read Sir C. +Bell’s great work, his view, that man had been created with certain +muscles specially adapted for the expression of his feelings, struck me as +unsatisfactory. It seemed probable that the habit of expressing our +feelings by certain movements, though now rendered innate, had been in +some manner gradually acquired. But to discover how such habits had been +acquired was perplexing in no small degree. The whole subject had to be +viewed under a new aspect, and each expression demanded a rational +explanation. This belief led me to attempt the present work, however +imperfectly it may have been executed. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p> +I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, as I have said, I am +deeply indebted for information in regard to the expressions exhibited by +various races of man, and I will specify some of the circumstances under +which the observations were in each case made. Owing to the great kindness +and powerful influence of Mr. Wilson, of Hayes Place, Kent, I have +received from Australia no less than thirteen sets of answers to my +queries. This has been particularly fortunate, as the Australian +aborigines rank amongst the most distinct of all the races of man. It will +be seen that the observations have been chiefly made in the south, in the +outlying parts of the colony of Victoria; but some excellent answers have +been received from the north. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valuable observations, made +several hundred miles in the interior of Queensland. To Mr. R. Brough +Smyth, of Melbourne, I am much indebted for observations made by himself, +and for sending me several of the following letters, namely:—From +the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer, of Lake Wellington, a missionary in Gippsland, +Victoria, who has had much experience with the natives. From Mr. Samuel +Wilson, a landowner, residing at Langerenong, Wimmera, Victoria. From the +Rev. George Taplin, superintendent of the native Industrial Settlement at +Port Macleay. From Mr. Archibald G. Lang, of Coranderik, Victoria, a +teacher at a school where aborigines, old and young, are collected from +all parts of the colony. From Mr. H. B. Lane, of Belfast, Victoria, a +police magistrate and warden, whose observations, as I am assured, are +highly trustworthy. From Mr. Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose station +is on the borders of the colony of Victoria, and who has thus been able to +observe many aborigines who have had little intercourse with white men. He +compared his observations with those made by two other gentlemen long +resident in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr. J. Bulmer, a missionary in a +remote part of Gippsland, Victoria. +</p> + +<p> +I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr. Ferdinand Müller, of +Victoria, for some observations made by himself, and for sending me others +made by Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing letters. +</p> + +<p> +In regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Rev. J. W. Stack has answered +only a few of my queries; but the answers have been remarkably full, +clear, and distinct, with the circumstances recorded under which the +observations were made. +</p> + +<p> +The Rajah Brooke has given me some information with respect to the Dyaks +of Borneo. +</p> + +<p> +Respecting the Malays, I have been highly successful; for Mr. F. Geach (to +whom I was introduced by Mr. Wallace), during his residence as a mining +engineer in the interior of Malacca, observed many natives, who had never +before associated with white men. He wrote me two long letters with +admirable and detailed observations on their expression. He likewise +observed the Chinese immigrants in the Malay archipelago. +</p> + +<p> +The well-known naturalist, H. M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, also observed for me +the Chinese in their native country; and he made inquiries from others +whom he could trust. +</p> + +<p> +In India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official capacity in the +Admednugur District in the Bombay Presidency, attended to the expression +of the inhabitants, but found much difficulty in arriving at any safe +conclusions, owing to their habitual concealment of all emotions in the +presence of Europeans. He also obtained information for me from Mr. West, +the Judge in Canara, and he consulted some intelligent native gentlemen on +certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J. Scott, curator of the Botanic Gardens, +carefully observed the various tribes of men therein employed during a +considerable period, and no one has sent me such full and valuable +details. The habit of accurate observation, gained by his botanical +studies, has been brought to bear on our present subject. For Ceylon I am +much indebted to the Rev. S. O. Glenie for answers to some of my queries. +</p> + +<p> +Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with respect to the negroes, +though Mr. Winwood Reade aided me as far as lay in his power. It would +have been comparatively easy to have obtained information in regard to the +negro slaves in America; but as they have long associated with white men, +such observations would have possessed little value. In the southern parts +of the continent Mrs. Barber observed the Kafirs and Fingoes, and sent me +many distinct answers. Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale also made some observations +on the natives, and procured for me a curious document, namely, the +opinion, written in English, of Christian Gaika, brother of the Chief +Sandilli, on the expressions of his fellow-countrymen. In the northern +regions of Africa Captain Speedy, who long resided with the Abyssinians, +answered my queries partly from memory and partly from observations made +on the son of King Theodore, who was then under his charge. Professor and +Mrs. Asa Gray attended to some points in the expressions of the natives, +as observed by them whilst ascending the Nile. +</p> + +<p> +On the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a catechist residing with the +Fuegians, answered some few questions about their expression, addressed to +him many years ago. In the northern half of the continent Dr. Rothrock +attended to the expressions of the wild Atnah and Espyox tribes on the +Nasse River, in North-Western America. Mr. Washington Matthews +Assistant-Surgeon in the United States Army, also observed with special +care (after having seen my queries, as printed in the ‘Smithsonian +Report’) some of the wildest tribes in the Western parts of the United +States, namely, the Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans, and Assinaboines; and +his answers have proved of the highest value. +</p> + +<p> +Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I have collected +some few facts incidentally given in books of travels.—— +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig1-2.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 1-2 " /> +</div> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig3.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 3 " /> +</div> + +<p> +As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the latter part of this +volume, to the muscles of the human face, I have had a diagram (fig. 1) +copied and reduced from Sir C. Bell’s work, and two others, with more +accurate details (figs. 2 and 3), from Herde’s well-known ‘Handbuch der +Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.’ The same letters refer to the same +muscles in all three figures, but the names are given of only the more +important ones to which I shall have to allude. The facial muscles blend +much together, and, as I am informed, hardly appear on a dissected face so +distinct as they are here represented. Some writers consider that these +muscles consist of nineteen pairs, with one unpaired;<a href="#linknote-20" +name="linknoteref-20" id="linknoteref-20">[20]</a> but others make the +number much larger, amounting even to fifty-five, according to Moreau. +They are, as is admitted by everyone who has written on the subject, very +variable in structure; and Moreau remarks that they are hardly alike in +half-a-dozen subjects.<a href="#linknote-21" name="linknoteref-21" +id="linknoteref-21">[21]</a> They are also variable in function. Thus the +power of uncovering the canine tooth on one side differs much in different +persons. The power of raising the wings of the nostrils is also, according +to Dr. Piderit,<a href="#linknote-22" name="linknoteref-22" +id="linknoteref-22">[22]</a> variable in a remarkable degree; and other +such cases could be given. +</p> + +<p> +Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing my obligations to Mr. +Rejlander for the trouble which he has taken in photographing for me +various expressions and gestures. I am also indebted to Herr Kindermann, +of Hamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of crying infants; +and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one of a smiling girl. I have already +expressed my obligations to Dr. Duchenne for generously permitting me to +have some of his large photographs copied and reduced. All these +photographs have been printed by the Heliotype process, and the accuracy +of the copy is thus guaranteed. These plates are referred to by Roman +numerals. +</p> + +<p> +I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme pains which +he has taken in drawing from life the expressions of various animals. A +distinguished artist, Mr. Riviere, has had the kindness to give me two +drawings of dogs—one in a hostile and the other in a humble and +caressing frame of mind. Mr. A. May has also given me two similar sketches +of dogs. Mr. Cooper has taken much care in cutting the blocks. Some of the +photographs and drawings, namely, those by Mr. May, and those by Mr. Wolf +of the Cynopithecus, were first reproduced by Mr. Cooper on wood by means +of photography, and then engraved: by this means almost complete fidelity +is ensured. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"></a> +CHAPTER I.<br/>GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION. +</h2> + +<p> +The three chief principles stated—The first principle—Serviceable +actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind, +and are performed whether or not of service in each particular case—The +force of habit—Inheritance—Associated habitual movements in +man—Reflex actions—Passage of habits into reflex actions—Associated +habitual movements in the lower animals—Concluding remarks. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +I will begin by giving the three Principles, which appear to me to account +for most of the expressions and gestures involuntarily used by man and the +lower animals, under the influence of various emotions and sensations.<a +href="#linknote-101" name="linknoteref-101" id="linknoteref-101">[101]</a> +I arrived, however, at these three Principles only at the close of my +observations. They will be discussed in the present and two following +chapters in a general manner. Facts observed both with man and the lower +animals will here be made use of; but the latter facts are preferable, as +less likely to deceive us. In the fourth and fifth chapters, I will +describe the special expressions of some of the lower animals; and in the +succeeding chapters those of man. Everyone will thus be able to judge for +himself, how far my three principles throw light on the theory of the +subject. It appears to me that so many expressions are thus explained in a +fairly satisfactory manner, that probably all will hereafter be found to +come under the same or closely analogous heads. I need hardly premise that +movements or changes in any part of the body,—as the wagging of a +dog’s tail, the drawing back of a horse’s ears, the shrugging of a man’s +shoulders, or the dilatation of the capillary vessels of the skin,—may +all equally well serve for expression. The three Principles are as +follows. +</p> + +<p> +I. <i>The principle of serviceable associated Habits</i>.—Certain +complex actions are of direct or indirect service under certain states of +the mind, in order to relieve or gratify certain sensations, desires, +&c.; and whenever the same state of mind is induced, however feebly, +there is a tendency through the force of habit and association for the +same movements to be performed, though they may not then be of the least +use. Some actions ordinarily associated through habit with certain states +of the mind may be partially repressed through the will, and in such cases +the muscles which are least under the separate control of the will are the +most liable still to act, causing movements which we recognize as +expressive. In certain other cases the checking of one habitual movement +requires other slight movements; and these are likewise expressive. +</p> + +<p> +II. <i>The principle of Antithesis</i>.—Certain states of the mind +lead to certain habitual actions, which are of service, as under our first +principle. Now when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, there is +a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements of a +directly opposite nature, though these are of no use; and such movements +are in some cases highly expressive. +</p> + +<p> +III. <i>The principle of actions due to the constitution of the Nervous +System, independently from the first of the Will, and independently to a +certain extent of Habit</i>.—When the sensorium is strongly excited, +nerve-force is generated in excess, and is transmitted in certain definite +directions, depending on the connection of the nerve-cells, and partly on +habit: or the supply of nerve-force may, as it appears, be interrupted. +Effects are thus produced which we recognize as expressive. This third +principle may, for the sake of brevity, be called that of the direct +action of the nervous system. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +With respect to our <i>first Principle</i>, it is notorious how powerful +is the force of habit. The most complex and difficult movements can in +time be performed without the least effort or consciousness. It is not +positively known how it comes that habit is so efficient in facilitating +complex movements; but physiologists admit<a href="#linknote-102" +name="linknoteref-102" id="linknoteref-102">[102]</a> “that the conducting +power of the nervous fibres increases with the frequency of their +excitement.” This applies to the nerves of motion and sensation, as well +as to those connected with the act of thinking. That some physical change +is produced in the nerve-cells or nerves which are habitually used can +hardly be doubted, for otherwise it is impossible to understand how the +tendency to certain acquired movements is inherited. That they are +inherited we see with horses in certain transmitted paces, such as +cantering and ambling, which are not natural to them,—in the +pointing of young pointers and the setting of young setters—in the +peculiar manner of flight of certain breeds of the pigeon, &c. We have +analogous cases with mankind in the inheritance of tricks or unusual +gestures, to which we shall presently recur. To those who admit the +gradual evolution of species, a most striking instance of the perfection +with which the most difficult consensual movements can be transmitted, is +afforded by the humming-bird Sphinx-moth (<i>Macroglossa</i>); for this +moth, shortly after its emergence from the cocoon, as shown by the bloom +on its unruffled scales, may be seen poised stationary in the air, with +its long hair-like proboscis uncurled and inserted into the minute +orifices of flowers; and no one, I believe, has ever seen this moth +learning to perform its difficult task, which requires such unerring aim. +</p> + +<p> +When there exists an inherited or instinctive tendency to the performance +of an action, or an inherited taste for certain kinds of food, some degree +of habit in the individual is often or generally requisite. We find this +in the paces of the horse, and to a certain extent in the pointing of +dogs; although some young dogs point excellently the first time they are +taken out, yet they often associate the proper inherited attitude with a +wrong odour, and even with eyesight. I have heard it asserted that if a +calf be allowed to suck its mother only once, it is much more difficult +afterwards to rear it by hand.<a href="#linknote-103" +name="linknoteref-103" id="linknoteref-103">[103]</a> Caterpillars which +have been fed on the leaves of one kind of tree, have been known to perish +from hunger rather than to eat the leaves of another tree, although this +afforded them their proper food, under a state of nature;<a +href="#linknote-104" name="linknoteref-104" id="linknoteref-104">[104]</a> +and so it is in many other cases. +</p> + +<p> +The power of Association is admitted by everyone. Mr. Bain remarks, that +“actions, sensations and states of feeling, occurring together or in close +succession, tend to grow together, or cohere, in such a way that when any +one of them is afterwards presented to the mind, the others are apt to be +brought up in idea.”<a href="#linknote-105" name="linknoteref-105" +id="linknoteref-105">[105]</a> It is so important for our purpose fully to +recognize that actions readily become associated with other actions and +with various states of the mind, that I will give a good many instances, +in the first place relating to man, and afterwards to the lower animals. +Some of the instances are of a very trifling nature, but they are as good +for our purpose as more important habits. It is known to everyone how +difficult, or even impossible it is, without repeated trials, to move the +limbs in certain opposed directions which have never been practised. +Analogous cases occur with sensations, as in the common experiment of +rolling a marble beneath the tips of two crossed fingers, when it feels +exactly like two marbles. Everyone protects himself when falling to the +ground by extending his arms, and as Professor Alison has remarked, few +can resist acting thus, when voluntarily falling on a soft bed. A man when +going out of doors puts on his gloves quite unconsciously; and this may +seem an extremely simple operation, but he who has taught a child to put +on gloves, knows that this is by no means the case. +</p> + +<p> +When our minds are much affected, so are the movements of our bodies; but +here another principle besides habit, namely the undirected overflow of +nerve-force, partially comes into play. Norfolk, in speaking of Cardinal +Wolsey, says— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“Some strange commotion<br/> +Is in his brain; he bites his lip and starts;<br/> +Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground,<br/> +Then, lays his finger on his temple: straight,<br/> +Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again,<br/> +Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he casts<br/> +His eye against the moon: in most strange postures<br/> +We have seen him set himself.”—<i>Hen. VIII</i>., act iii, sc. 2. +</p> + +<p> +A vulgar man often scratches his head when perplexed in mind; and I +believe that he acts thus from habit, as if he experienced a slightly +uncomfortable bodily sensation, namely, the itching of his head, to which +he is particularly liable, and which he thus relieves. Another man rubs +his eyes when perplexed, or gives a little cough when embarrassed, acting +in either case as if he felt a slightly uncomfortable sensation in his +eyes or windpipe.<a href="#linknote-106" name="linknoteref-106" +id="linknoteref-106">[106]</a> +</p> + +<p> +From the continued use of the eyes, these organs are especially liable to +be acted on through association under various states of the mind, although +there is manifestly nothing to be seen. A man, as Gratiolet remarks, who +vehemently rejects a proposition, will almost certainly shut his eyes or +turn away his face; but if he accepts the proposition, he will nod his +head in affirmation and open his eyes widely. The man acts in this latter +case as if he clearly saw the thing, and in the former case as if he did +not or would not see it. I have noticed that persons in describing a +horrid sight often shut their eyes momentarily and firmly, or shake their +heads, as if not to see or to drive away something disagreeable; and I +have caught myself, when thinking in the dark of a horrid spectacle, +closing my eyes firmly. In looking suddenly at any object, or in looking +all around, everyone raises his eyebrows, so that the eyes may be quickly +and widely opened; and Duchenne remarks that<a href="#linknote-107" +name="linknoteref-107" id="linknoteref-107">[107]</a> a person in trying +to remember something often raises his eyebrows, as if to see it. A Hindoo +gentleman made exactly the same remark to Mr. Erskine in regard to his +countrymen. I noticed a young lady earnestly trying to recollect a +painter’s name, and she first looked to one corner of the ceiling and then +to the opposite corner, arching the one eyebrow on that side; although, of +course, there was nothing to be seen there. +</p> + +<p> +In most of the foregoing cases, we can understand how the associated movements +were acquired through habit; but with some individuals, certain strange +gestures or tricks have arisen in association with certain states of the mind, +owing to wholly inexplicable causes, and are undoubtedly inherited. I have +elsewhere given one instance from my own observation of an extraordinary and +complex gesture, associated with pleasurable feelings, which was transmitted +from a father to his daughter, as well as some other analogous facts.<a +href="#linknote-108" name="linknoteref-108" id="linknoteref-108">[108]</a> +Another curious instance of an odd inherited movement, associated with the wish +to obtain an object, will be given in the course of this volume. +</p> + +<p> +There are other actions which are commonly performed under certain +circumstances, independently of habit, and which seem to be due to +imitation or some sort of sympathy. Thus persons cutting anything with a +pair of scissors may be seen to move their jaws simultaneously with the +blades of the scissors. Children learning to write often twist about their +tongues as their fingers move, in a ridiculous fashion. When a public +singer suddenly becomes a little hoarse, many of those present may be +heard, as I have been assured by a gentleman on whom I can rely, to clear +their throats; but here habit probably comes into play, as we clear our +own throats under similar circumstances. I have also been told that at +leaping matches, as the performer makes his spring, many of the +spectators, generally men and boys, move their feet; but here again habit +probably comes into play, for it is very doubtful whether women would thus +act. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Reflex actions</i>—Reflex actions, in the strict sense of the +term, are due to the excitement of a peripheral nerve, which transmits its +influence to certain nerve-cells, and these in their turn excite certain +muscles or glands into action; and all this may take place without any +sensation or consciousness on our part, though often thus accompanied. As +many reflex actions are highly expressive, the subject must here be +noticed at some little length. We shall also see that some of them +graduate into, and can hardly be distinguished from actions which have +arisen through habit?<a href="#linknote-109" name="linknoteref-109" id="linknoteref-109">[109]</a> Coughing and sneezing are familiar instances of +reflex actions. With infants the first act of respiration is often a +sneeze, although this requires the co-ordinated movement of numerous +muscles. Respiration is partly voluntary, but mainly reflex, and is +performed in the most natural and best manner without the interference of +the will. A vast number of complex movements are reflex. As good an +instance as can be given is the often-quoted one of a decapitated frog, +which cannot of course feel, and cannot consciously perform, any movement. +Yet if a drop of acid be placed on the lower surface of the thigh of a +frog in this state, it will rub off the drop with the upper surface of the +foot of the same leg. If this foot be cut off, it cannot thus act. “After +some fruitless efforts, therefore, it gives up trying in that way, seems +restless, as though, says Pflüger, it was seeking some other way, and at +last it makes use of the foot of the other leg and succeeds in rubbing off +the acid. Notably we have here not merely contractions of muscles, but +combined and harmonized contractions in due sequence for a special +purpose. These are actions that have all the appearance of being guided by +intelligence and instigated by will in an animal, the recognized organ of +whose intelligence and will has been removed.”<a href="#linknote-110" +name="linknoteref-110" id="linknoteref-110">[110]</a> +</p> + +<p> +We see the difference between reflex and voluntary movements in very young +children not being able to perform, as I am informed by Sir Henry Holland, +certain acts somewhat analogous to those of sneezing and coughing, namely, +in their not being able to blow their noses (<i>i.e.</i> to compress the nose +and blow violently through the passage), and in their not being able to +clear their throats of phlegm. They have to learn to perform these acts, +yet they are performed by us, when a little older, almost as easily as +reflex actions. Sneezing and coughing, however, can be controlled by the +will only partially or not at all; whilst the clearing the throat and +blowing the nose are completely under our command. +</p> + +<p> +When we are conscious of the presence of an irritating particle in our +nostrils or windpipe—that is, when the same sensory nerve-cells are +excited, as in the case of sneezing and coughing—we can voluntarily +expel the particle by forcibly driving air through these passages; but we +cannot do this with nearly the same force, rapidity, and precision, as by +a reflex action. In this latter case the sensory nerve-cells apparently +excite the motor nerve-cells without any waste of power by first +communicating with the cerebral hemispheres—the seat of our +consciousness and volition. In all cases there seems to exist a profound +antagonism between the same movements, as directed by the will and by a +reflex stimulant, in the force with which they are performed and in the +facility with which they are excited. As Claude Bernard asserts, +“L’influence du cerveau tend donc à entraver les mouvements réflexes, à +limiter leur force et leur étendue.”<a href="#linknote-111" +name="linknoteref-111" id="linknoteref-111">[111]</a> +</p> + +<p> +The conscious wish to perform a reflex action sometimes stops or +interrupts its performance, though the proper sensory nerves may be +stimulated. For instance, many years ago I laid a small wager with a dozen +young men that they would not sneeze if they took snuff, although they all +declared that they invariably did so; accordingly they all took a pinch, +but from wishing much to succeed, not one sneezed, though their eyes +watered, and all, without exception, had to pay me the wager. Sir H. +Holland remarks<a href="#linknote-112" name="linknoteref-112" +id="linknoteref-112">[112]</a> that attention paid to the act of +swallowing interferes with the proper movements; from which it probably +follows, at least in part, that some persons find it so difficult to +swallow a pill. +</p> + +<p> +Another familiar instance of a reflex action is the involuntary closing of +the eyelids when the surface of the eye is touched. A similar winking +movement is caused when a blow is directed towards the face; but this is +an habitual and not a strictly reflex action, as the stimulus is conveyed +through the mind and not by the excitement of a peripheral nerve. The +whole body and head are generally at the same time drawn suddenly +backwards. These latter movements, however, can be prevented, if the +danger does not appear to the imagination imminent; but our reason telling +us that there is no danger does not suffice. I may mention a trifling +fact, illustrating this point, and which at the time amused me. I put my +face close to the thick glass-plate in front of a puff-adder in the +Zoological Gardens, with the firm determination of not starting back if +the snake struck at me; but, as soon as the blow was struck, my resolution +went for nothing, and I jumped a yard or two backwards with astonishing +rapidity. My will and reason were powerless against the imagination of a +danger which had never been experienced. +</p> + +<p> +The violence of a start seems to depend partly on the vividness of the +imagination, and partly on the condition, either habitual or temporary, of +the nervous system. He who will attend to the starting of his horse, when +tired and fresh, will perceive how perfect is the gradation from a mere +glance at some unexpected object, with a momentary doubt whether it is +dangerous, to a jump so rapid and violent, that the animal probably could +not voluntarily whirl round in so rapid a manner. The nervous system of a +fresh and highly-fed horse sends its order to the motory system so +quickly, that no time is allowed for him to consider whether or not the +danger is real. After one violent start, when he is excited and the blood +flows freely through his brain, he is very apt to start again; and so it +is, as I have noticed, with young infants. +</p> + +<p> +A start from a sudden noise, when the stimulus is conveyed through the +auditory nerves, is always accompanied in grown-up persons by the winking +of the eyelids.<a href="#linknote-113" name="linknoteref-113" +id="linknoteref-113">[113]</a> I observed, however, that though my infants +started at sudden sounds, when under a fortnight old, they certainly did +not always wink their eyes, and I believe never did so. The start of an +older infant apparently represents a vague catching hold of something to +prevent falling. I shook a pasteboard box close before the eyes of one of +my infants, when 114 days old, and it did not in the least wink; but when +I put a few comfits into the box, holding it in the same position as +before, and rattled them, the child blinked its eyes violently every time, +and started a little. It was obviously impossible that a carefully-guarded +infant could have learnt by experience that a rattling sound near its eyes +indicated danger to them. But such experience will have been slowly gained +at a later age during a long series of generations; and from what we know +of inheritance, there is nothing improbable in the transmission of a habit +to the offspring at an earlier age than that at which it was first +acquired by the parents. +</p> + +<p> +From the foregoing remarks it seems probable that some actions, which were +at first performed consciously, have become through habit and association +converted into reflex actions, and are now so firmly fixed and inherited, +that they are performed, even when not of the least use,<a +href="#linknote-114" name="linknoteref-114" id="linknoteref-114">[114]</a> +as often as the same causes arise, which originally excited them in us +through the volition. In such cases the sensory nerve-cells excite the +motor cells, without first communicating with those cells on which our +consciousness and volition depend. It is probable that sneezing and +coughing were originally acquired by the habit of expelling, as violently +as possible, any irritating particle from the sensitive air-passages. As +far as time is concerned, there has been more than enough for these habits +to have become innate or converted into reflex actions; for they are +common to most or all of the higher quadrupeds, and must therefore have +been first acquired at a very remote period. Why the act of clearing the +throat is not a reflex action, and has to be learnt by our children, I +cannot pretend to say; but we can see why blowing the nose on a +handkerchief has to be learnt. +</p> + +<p> +It is scarcely credible that the movements of a headless frog, when it +wipes off a drop of acid or other object from its thigh, and which +movements are so well coordinated for a special purpose, were not at first +performed voluntarily, being afterwards rendered easy through +long-continued habit so as at last to be performed unconsciously, or +independently of the cerebral hemispheres. +</p> + +<p> +So again it appears probable that starting was originally acquired by the +habit of jumping away as quickly as possible from danger, whenever any of +our senses gave us warning. Starting, as we have seen, is accompanied by +the blinking of the eyelids so as to protect the eyes, the most tender and +sensitive organs of the body; and it is, I believe, always accompanied by +a sudden and forcible inspiration, which is the natural preparation for +any violent effort. But when a man or horse starts, his heart beats wildly +against his ribs, and here it may be truly said we have an organ which has +never been under the control of the will, partaking in the general reflex +movements of the body. To this point, however, I shall return in a future +chapter. +</p> + +<p> +The contraction of the iris, when the retina is stimulated by a bright +light, is another instance of a movement, which it appears cannot possibly +have been at first voluntarily performed and then fixed by habit; for the +iris is not known to be under the conscious control of the will in any +animal. In such cases some explanation, quite distinct from habit, will +have to be discovered. The radiation of nerve-force from strongly-excited +nerve-cells to other connected cells, as in the case of a bright light on +the retina causing a sneeze, may perhaps aid us in understanding how some +reflex actions originated. A radiation of nerve-force of this kind, if it +caused a movement tending to lessen the primary irritation, as in the case +of the contraction of the iris preventing too much light from falling on +the retina, might afterwards have been taken advantage of and modified for +this special purpose. +</p> + +<p> +It further deserves notice that reflex actions are in all probability +liable to slight variations, as are all corporeal structures and +instincts; and any variations which were beneficial and of sufficient +importance, would tend to be preserved and inherited. Thus reflex actions, +when once gained for one purpose, might afterwards be modified +independently of the will or habit, so as to serve for some distinct +purpose. Such cases would be parallel with those which, as we have every +reason to believe, have occurred with many instincts; for although some +instincts have been developed simply through long-continued and inherited +habit, other highly complex ones have been developed through the +preservation of variations of pre-existing instincts—that is, +through natural selection. +</p> + +<p> +I have discussed at some little length, though as I am well aware, in a +very imperfect manner, the acquirement of reflex actions, because they are +often brought into play in connection with movements expressive of our +emotions; and it was necessary to show that at least some of them might +have been first acquired through the will in order to satisfy a desire, or +to relieve a disagreeable sensation. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Associated habitual movements in the lower animals</i>.—I have +already given in the case of Man several instances of movements associated +with various states of the mind or body, which are now purposeless, but +which were originally of use, and are still of use under certain +circumstances. As this subject is very important for us, I will here give +a considerable number of analogous facts, with reference to animals; +although many of them are of a very trifling nature. My object is to show +that certain movements were originally performed for a definite end, and +that, under nearly the same circumstances, they are still pertinaciously +performed through habit when not of the least use. That the tendency in +most of the following cases is inherited, we may infer from such actions +being performed in the same manner by all the individuals, young and old, +of the same species. We shall also see that they are excited by the most +diversified, often circuitous, and sometimes mistaken associations. +</p> + +<p> +Dogs, when they wish to go to sleep on a carpet or other hard surface, +generally turn round and round and scratch the ground with their fore-paws +in a senseless manner, as if they intended to trample down the grass and +scoop out a hollow, as no doubt their wild parents did, when they lived on +open grassy plains or in the woods. Jackals, fennecs, and other allied +animals in the Zoological Gardens, treat their straw in this manner; but +it is a rather odd circumstance that the keepers, after observing for some +months, have never seen the wolves thus behave. A semi-idiotic dog—and +an animal in this condition would be particularly liable to follow a +senseless habit—was observed by a friend to turn completely round on +a carpet thirteen times before going to sleep. +</p> + +<p> +Many carnivorous animals, as they crawl towards their prey and prepare to +rush or spring on it, lower their heads and crouch, partly, as it would +appear, to hide themselves, and partly to get ready for their rush; and +this habit in an exaggerated form has become hereditary in our pointers +and setters. Now I have noticed scores of times that when two strange dogs +meet on an open road, the one which first sees the other, though at the +distance of one or two hundred yards, after the first glance always lowers +its bead, generally crouches a little, or even lies down; that is, he +takes the proper attitude for concealing himself and for making a rush or +spring although the road is quite open and the distance great. Again, dogs +of all kinds when intently watching and slowly approaching their prey, +frequently keep one of their fore-legs doubled up for a long time, ready +for the next cautious step; and this is eminently characteristic of the +pointer. But from habit they behave in exactly the same manner whenever +their attention is aroused (fig. 4). I have seen a dog at the foot of a +high wall, listening attentively to a sound on the opposite side, with one +leg doubled up; and in this case there could have been no intention of +making a cautious approach. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig4.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Small Dog Watching a Cat on A Table. Figure 4 " /> +</div> + +<p> +{illust. caption = for making a rush or FIG. 4.—Small dog watching a +cat on a table. From a photograph taken by Mr. Rejlander.} +</p> + +<p> +Dogs after voiding their excrement often make with all four feet a few +scratches backwards, even on a bare stone pavement, as if for the purpose +of covering up their excrement with earth, in nearly the same manner as do +cats. Wolves and jackals behave in the Zoological Gardens in exactly the +same manner, yet, as I am assured by the keepers, neither wolves, jackals, +nor foxes, when they have the means of doing so, ever cover up their +excrement, any more than do dogs. All these animals, however, bury +superfluous food. Hence, if we rightly understand the meaning of the above +cat-like habit, of which there can be little doubt, we have a purposeless +remnant of an habitual movement, which was originally followed by some +remote progenitor of the dog-genus for a definite purpose, and which has +been retained for a prodigious length of time. +</p> + +<p> +Dogs and jackals<a href="#linknote-115" name="linknoteref-115" +id="linknoteref-115">[115]</a> take much pleasure in rolling and rubbing +their necks and backs on carrion. The odour seems delightful to them, +though dogs at least do not eat carrion. Mr. Bartlett has observed wolves +for me, and has given them carrion, but has never seen them roll on it. I +have heard it remarked, and I believe it to be true, that the larger dogs, +which are probably descended from wolves, do not so often roll in carrion +as do smaller dogs, which are probably descended from jackals. When a +piece of brown biscuit is offered to a terrier of mine and she is not +hungry (and I have heard of similar instances), she first tosses it about +and worries it, as if it were a rat or other prey; she then repeatedly +rolls on it precisely as if it were a piece of carrion, and at last eats +it. It would appear that an imaginary relish has to be given to the +distasteful morsel; and to effect this the dog acts in his habitual +manner, as if the biscuit was a live animal or smelt like carrion, though +he knows better than we do that this is not the case. I have seen this +same terrier act in the same manner after killing a little bird or mouse. +</p> + +<p> +Dogs scratch themselves by a rapid movement of one of their hind-feet; and +when their backs are rubbed with a stick, so strong is the habit, that +they cannot help rapidly scratching the air or the ground in a useless and +ludicrous manner. The terrier just alluded to, when thus scratched with a +stick, will sometimes show her delight by another habitual movement, +namely, by licking the air as if it were my hand. +</p> + +<p> +Horses scratch themselves by nibbling those parts of their bodies which +they can reach with their teeth; but more commonly one horse shows another +where he wants to be scratched, and they then nibble each other. A friend +whose attention I had called to the subject, observed that when he rubbed +his horse’s neck, the animal protruded his head, uncovered his teeth, and +moved his jaws, exactly as if nibbling another horse’s neck, for he could +never have nibbled his own neck. If a horse is much tickled, as when +curry-combed, his wish to bite something becomes so intolerably strong, +that he will clatter his teeth together, and though not vicious, bite his +groom. At the same time from habit he closely depresses his ears, so as to +protect them from being bitten, as if he were fighting with another horse. +</p> + +<p> +A horse when eager to start on a journey makes the nearest approach which +he can to the habitual movement of progression by pawing the ground. Now +when horses in their stalls are about to be fed and are eager for their +corn, they paw the pavement or the straw. Two of my horses thus behave +when they see or hear the corn given to their neighbours. But here we have +what may almost be called a true expression, as pawing the ground is +universally recognized as a sign of eagerness. +</p> + +<p> +Cats cover up their excrements of both kinds with earth; and my grandfather<a +href="#linknote-116" name="linknoteref-116" id="linknoteref-116">[116]</a> saw +a kitten scraping ashes over a spoonful of pure water spilt on the hearth; so +that here an habitual or instinctive action was falsely excited, not by a +previous act or by odour, but by eyesight. It is well known that cats dislike +wetting their feet, owing, it is probable, to their having aboriginally +inhabited the dry country of Egypt; and when they wet their feet they shake +them violently. My daughter poured some water into a glass close to the head of +a kitten; and it immediately shook its feet in the usual manner; so that here +we have an habitual movement falsely excited by an associated sound instead of +by the sense of touch. +</p> + +<p> +Kittens, puppies, young pigs and probably many other young animals, +alternately push with their forefeet against the mammary glands of their +mothers, to excite a freer secretion of milk, or to make it flow. Now it +is very common with young cats, and not at all rare with old cats of the +common and Persian breeds (believed by some naturalists to be specifically +extinct), when comfortably lying on a warm shawl or other soft substance, +to pound it quietly and alternately with their fore-feet; their toes being +spread out and claws slightly protruded, precisely as when sucking their +mother. That it is the same movement is clearly shown by their often at +the same time taking a bit of the shawl into their mouths and sucking it; +generally closing their eyes and purring from delight. This curious +movement is commonly excited only in association with the sensation of a +warm soft surface; but I have seen an old cat, when pleased by having its +back scratched, pounding the air with its feet in the same manner; so that +this action has almost become the expression of a pleasurable sensation. +</p> + +<p> +Having referred to the act of sucking, I may add that this complex +movement, as well as the alternate protrusion of the fore-feet, are reflex +actions; for they are performed if a finger moistened with milk is placed +in the mouth of a puppy, the front part of whose brain has been removed.<a +href="#linknote-117" name="linknoteref-117" id="linknoteref-117">[117]</a> +It has recently been stated in France, that the action of sucking is +excited solely through the sense of smell, so that if the olfactory nerves +of a puppy are destroyed, it never sucks. In like manner the wonderful +power which a chicken possesses only a few hours after being hatched, of +picking up small particles of food, seems to be started into action +through the sense of hearing; for with chickens hatched by artificial +heat, a good observer found that “making a noise with the finger-nail +against a board, in imitation of the hen-mother, first taught them to peck +at their meat.”<a href="#linknote-118" name="linknoteref-118" +id="linknoteref-118">[118]</a> +</p> + +<p> +I will give only one other instance of an habitual and purposeless +movement. The Sheldrake (<i>Tadorna</i>) feeds on the sands left uncovered +by the tide, and when a worm-cast is discovered, “it begins patting the +ground with its feet, dancing as it were, over the hole;” and this makes +the worm come to the surface. Now Mr. St. John says, that when his tame +Sheldrakes “came to ask for food, they patted the ground in an impatient +and rapid manner.”<a href="#linknote-119" name="linknoteref-119" +id="linknoteref-119">[119]</a> This therefore may almost be considered as +their expression of hunger. Mr. Bartlett informs me that the Flamingo and +the Kagu (<i>Rhinochetus jubatus</i>) when anxious to be fed, beat the +ground with their feet in the same odd manner. So again Kingfishers, when +they catch a fish, always beat it until it is killed; and in the +Zoological Gardens they always beat the raw meat, with which they are +sometimes fed, before devouring it. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +We have now, I think, sufficiently shown the truth of our first Principle, +namely, that when any sensation, desire, dislike, &c., has led during +a long series of generations to some voluntary movement, then a tendency +to the performance of a similar movement will almost certainly be excited, +whenever the same, or any analogous or associated sensation &c., +although very weak, is experienced; notwithstanding that the movement in +this case may not be of the least use. Such habitual movements are often, +or generally inherited; and they then differ but little from reflex +actions. When we treat of the special expressions of man, the latter part +of our first Principle, as given at the commencement of this chapter, will +be seen to hold good; namely, that when movements, associated through +habit with certain states of the mind, are partially repressed by the +will, the strictly involuntary muscles, as well as those which are least +under the separate control of the will, are liable still to act; and their +action is often highly expressive. Conversely, when the will is +temporarily or permanently weakened, the voluntary muscles fail before the +involuntary. It is a fact familiar to pathologists, as Sir C. Bell +remarks,<a href="#linknote-120" name="linknoteref-120" id="linknoteref-120">[120]</a> +“that when debility arises from affection of the brain, the influence is +greatest on those muscles which are, in their natural condition, most +under the command of the will.” We shall, also, in our future chapters, +consider another proposition included in our first Principle; namely, that +the checking of one habitual movement sometimes requires other slight +movements; these latter serving as a means of expression. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"></a> +CHAPTER II.<br/>GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—<i>continued</i>. +</h2> + +<p> +The Principle of Antithesis—Instances in the dog and cat—Origin +of the principle—Conventional signs—The principle of +antithesis has not arisen from opposite actions being consciously +performed under opposite impulses. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +We will now consider our second Principle, that of Antithesis. Certain +states of the mind lead, as we have seen in the last chapter, to certain +habitual movements which were primarily, or may still be, of service; and +we shall find that when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, +there is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements +of a directly opposite nature, though these have never been of any +service. A few striking instances of antithesis will be given, when we +treat of the special expressions of man; but as, in these cases, we are +particularly liable to confound conventional or artificial gestures and +expressions with those which are innate or universal, and which alone +deserve to rank as true expressions, I will in the present chapter almost +confine myself to the lower animals. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig5.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind. Fig. 5 " /> +</div> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig6.jpg" width="100%" alt=" Fig. 6 " /> +</div> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig7.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind. Fig. 7 " /> +</div> + +<p> +When a dog approaches a strange dog or man in a savage or hostile frame of +mind be walks upright and very stiffly; his head is slightly raised, or +not much lowered; the tail is held erect, and quite rigid; the hairs +bristle, especially along the neck and back; the pricked ears are directed +forwards, and the eyes have a fixed stare: (see figs. 5 and 7). These +actions, as will hereafter be explained, follow from the dog’s intention +to attack his enemy, and are thus to a large extent intelligible. As he +prepares to spring with a savage growl on his enemy, the canine teeth are +uncovered, and the ears are pressed close backwards on the head; but with +these latter actions, we are not here concerned. Let us now suppose that +the dog suddenly discovers that the man he is approaching, is not a +stranger, but his master; and let it be observed how completely and +instantaneously his whole bearing is reversed. Instead of walking upright, +the body sinks downwards or even crouches, and is thrown into flexuous +movements; his tail, instead of being held stiff and upright, is lowered +and wagged from side to side; his hair instantly becomes smooth; his ears +are depressed and drawn backwards, but not closely to the head; and his +lips hang loosely. From the drawing back of the ears, the eyelids become +elongated, and the eyes no longer appear round and staring. It should be +added that the animal is at such times in an excited condition from joy; +and nerve-force will be generated in excess, which naturally leads to +action of some kind. Not one of the above movements, so clearly expressive +of affection, are of the least direct service to the animal. They are +explicable, as far as I can see, solely from being in complete opposition +or antithesis to the attitude and movements which, from intelligible +causes, are assumed when a dog intends to fight, and which consequently +are expressive of anger. I request the reader to look at the four +accompanying sketches, which have been given in order to recall vividly +the appearance of a dog under these two states of mind. It is, however, +not a little difficult to represent affection in a dog, whilst caressing +his master and wagging his tail, as the essence of the expression lies in +the continuous flexuous movements. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig8.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Dog Carressing his Master. Fig. 8 " /> +</div> + +<p> +We will now turn to the cat. When this animal is threatened by a dog, it +arches its back in a surprising manner, erects its hair, opens its mouth +and spits. But we are not here concerned with this well-known attitude, +expressive of terror combined with anger; we are concerned only with that +of rage or anger. This is not often seen, but may be observed when two +cats are fighting together; and I have seen it well exhibited by a savage +cat whilst plagued by a boy. The attitude is almost exactly the same as +that of a tiger disturbed and growling over its food, which every one must +have beheld in menageries. The animal assumes a crouching position, with +the body extended; and the whole tail, or the tip alone, is lashed or +curled from side to side. The hair is not in the least erect. Thus far, +the attitude and movements are nearly the same as when the animal is +prepared to spring on its prey, and when, no doubt, it feels savage. But +when preparing to fight, there is this difference, that the ears are +closely pressed backwards; the mouth is partially opened, showing the +teeth; the fore feet are occasionally struck out with protruded claws; and +the animal occasionally utters a fierce growl. (See figs. 9 and 10.) All, +or almost all these actions naturally follow (as hereafter to be +explained), from the cat’s manner and intention of attacking its enemy. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig9.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Cat, Savage, and Prepared to Fight. Fig. 9 " /> +</div> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig10.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Cat in an Affectionate Frame of Mind. Fig. 10 " /> +</div> + +<p> +Let us now look at a cat in a directly opposite frame of mind, whilst +feeling affectionate and caressing her master; and mark how opposite is +her attitude in every respect. She now stands upright with her back +slightly arched, which makes the hair appear rather rough, but it does not +bristle; her tail, instead of being extended and lashed from side to side, +is held quite still and perpendicularly upwards; her ears are erect and +pointed; her mouth is closed; and she rubs against her master with a purr +instead of a growl. Let it further be observed how widely different is the +whole bearing of an affectionate cat from that of a dog, when with his +body crouching and flexuous, his tail lowered and wagging, and ears +depressed, he caresses his master. This contrast in the attitudes and +movements of these two carnivorous animals, under the same pleased and +affectionate frame of mind, can be explained, as it appears to me, solely +by their movements standing in complete antithesis to those which are +naturally assumed, when these animals feel savage and are prepared either +to fight or to seize their prey. +</p> + +<p> +In these cases of the dog and cat, there is every reason to believe that +the gestures both of hostility and affection are innate or inherited; for +they are almost identically the same in the different races of the +species, and in all the individuals of the same race, both young and old. +</p> + +<p> +I will here give one other instance of antithesis in expression. I +formerly possessed a large dog, who, like every other dog, was much +pleased to go out walking. He showed his pleasure by trotting gravely +before me with high steps, head much raised, moderately erected ears, and +tail carried aloft but not stiffly. Not far from my house a path branches +off to the right, leading to the hot-house, which I used often to visit +for a few moments, to look at my experimental plants. This was always a +great disappointment to the dog, as he did not know whether I should +continue my walk; and the instantaneous and complete change of expression +which came over him as soon as my body swerved in the least towards the +path (and I sometimes tried this as an experiment) was laughable. His look +of dejection was known to every member of the family, and was called his +<i>hot-house face</i>. This consisted in the head drooping much, the whole +body sinking a little and remaining motionless; the ears and tail falling +suddenly down, but the tail was by no means wagged. With the falling of +the ears and of his great chaps, the eyes became much changed in +appearance, and I fancied that they looked less bright. His aspect was +that of piteous, hopeless dejection; and it was, as I have said, +laughable, as the cause was so slight. Every detail in his attitude was in +complete opposition to his former joyful yet dignified bearing; and can be +explained, as it appears to me, in no other way, except through the +principle of antithesis. Had not the change been so instantaneous, I +should have attributed it to his lowered spirits affecting, as in the case +of man, the nervous system and circulation, and consequently the tone of +his whole muscular frame; and this may have been in part the cause. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +We will now consider how the principle of antithesis in expression has +arisen. With social animals, the power of intercommunication between the +members of the same community,—and with other species, between the +opposite sexes, as well as between the young and the old,—is of the +highest importance to them. This is generally effected by means of the +voice, but it is certain that gestures and expressions are to a certain +extent mutually intelligible. Man not only uses inarticulate cries, +gestures, and expressions, but has invented articulate language; if, +indeed, the word INVENTED can be applied to a process, completed by +innumerable steps, half-consciously made. Any one who has watched monkeys +will not doubt that they perfectly understand each other’s gestures and +expression, and to a large extent, as Rengger asserts,<a +href="#linknote-201" name="linknoteref-201" id="linknoteref-201">[201]</a> +those of man. An animal when going to attack another, or when afraid of +another, often makes itself appear terrible, by erecting its hair, thus +increasing the apparent bulk of its body, by showing its teeth, or +brandishing its horns, or by uttering fierce sounds. +</p> + +<p> +As the power of intercommunication is certainly of high service to many +animals, there is no <i>à priori</i> improbability in the supposition, +that gestures manifestly of an opposite nature to those by which certain +feelings are already expressed, should at first have been voluntarily +employed under the influence of an opposite state of feeling. The fact of +the gestures being now innate, would be no valid objection to the belief +that they were at first intentional; for if practised during many +generations, they would probably at last be inherited. Nevertheless it is +more than doubtful, as we shall immediately see, whether any of the cases +which come under our present head of antithesis, have thus originated. +</p> + +<p> +With conventional signs which are not innate, such as those used by the +deaf and dumb and by savages, the principle of opposition or antithesis +has been partially brought into play. The Cistercian monks thought it +sinful to speak, and as they could not avoid holding some communication, +they invented a gesture language, in which the principle of opposition +seems to have been employed.<a href="#linknote-202" name="linknoteref-202" +id="linknoteref-202">[202]</a> Dr. Scott, of the Exeter Deaf and Dumb +Institution, writes to me that “opposites are greatly used in teaching the +deaf and dumb, who have a lively sense of them.” Nevertheless I have been +surprised how few unequivocal instances can be adduced. This depends +partly on all the signs having commonly had some natural origin; and +partly on the practice of the deaf and dumb and of savages to contract +their signs as much as possible for the sake of rapidity.<a +href="#linknote-203" name="linknoteref-203" id="linknoteref-203">[203]</a> +Hence their natural source or origin often becomes doubtful or is +completely lost; as is likewise the case with articulate language. +</p> + +<p> +Many signs, moreover, which plainly stand in opposition to each other, +appear to have had on both sides a significant origin. This seems to hold +good with the signs used by the deal and dumb for light and darkness, for +strength and weakness, &c. In a future chapter I shall endeavour to +show that the opposite gestures of affirmation and negation, namely, +vertically nodding and laterally shaking the head, have both probably had +a natural beginning. The waving of the hand from right to left, which is +used as a negative by some savages, may have been invented in imitation of +shaking the head; but whether the opposite movement of waving the hand in +a straight line from the face, which is used in affirmation, has arisen +through antithesis or in some quite distinct manner, is doubtful. +</p> + +<p> +If we now turn to the gestures which are innate or common to all the +individuals of the same species, and which come under the present head of +antithesis, it is extremely doubtful, whether any of them were at first +deliberately invented and consciously performed. With mankind the best +instance of a gesture standing in direct opposition to other movements, +naturally assumed under an opposite frame of mind, is that of shrugging +the shoulders. This expresses impotence or an apology,—something +which cannot be done, or cannot be avoided. The gesture is sometimes used +consciously and voluntarily, but it is extremely improbable that it was at +first deliberately invented, and afterwards fixed by habit; for not only +do young children sometimes shrug their shoulders under the above states +of mind, but the movement is accompanied, as will be shown in a future +chapter, by various subordinate movements, which not one man in a thousand +is aware of, unless he has specially attended to the subject. +</p> + +<p> +Dogs when approaching a strange dog, may find it useful to show by their +movements that they are friendly, and do not wish to fight. When two young +dogs in play are growling and biting each other’s faces and legs, it is +obvious that they mutually understand each other’s gestures and manners. +There seems, indeed, some degree of instinctive knowledge in puppies and +kittens, that they must not use their sharp little teeth or claws too +freely in their play, though this sometimes happens and a squeal is the +result; otherwise they would often injure each other’s eyes. When my +terrier bites my hand in play, often snarling at the same time, if he +bites too hard and I say GENTLY, GENTLY, he goes on biting, but answers me +by a few wags of the tail, which seems to say “Never mind, it is all fun.” +Although dogs do thus express, and may wish to express, to other dogs and +to man, that they are in a friendly state of mind, it is incredible that +they could ever have deliberately thought of drawing back and depressing +their ears, instead of holding them erect,—of lowering and wagging +their tails, instead of keeping them stiff and upright, &c., because +they knew that these movements stood in direct opposition to those assumed +under an opposite and savage frame of mind. +</p> + +<p> +Again, when a cat, or rather when some early progenitor of the species, +from feeling affectionate first slightly arched its back, held its tail +perpendicularly upwards and pricked its ears, can it be believed that the +animal consciously wished thus to show that its frame of mind was directly +the reverse of that, when from being ready to fight or to spring on its +prey, it assumed a crouching attitude, curled its tail from side to side +and depressed its ears? Even still less can I believe that my dog +voluntarily put on his dejected attitude and “<i>hot-house face</i>,” +which formed so complete a contrast to his previous cheerful attitude and +whole bearing. It cannot be supposed that he knew that I should understand +his expression, and that he could thus soften my heart and make me give up +visiting the hot-house. +</p> + +<p> +Hence for the development of the movements which come under the present +head, some other principle, distinct from the will and consciousness, must +have intervened. This principle appears to be that every movement which we +have voluntarily performed throughout our lives has required the action of +certain muscles; and when we have performed a directly opposite movement, +an opposite set of muscles has been habitually brought into play,—as +in turning to the right or to the left, in pushing away or pulling an +object towards us, and in lifting or lowering a weight. So strongly are +our intentions and movements associated together, that if we eagerly wish +an object to move in any direction, we can hardly avoid moving our bodies +in the same direction, although we may be perfectly aware that this can +have no influence. A good illustration of this fact has already been given +in the Introduction, namely, in the grotesque movements of a young and +eager billiard-player, whilst watching the course of his ball. A man or +child in a passion, if he tells any one in a loud voice to begone, +generally moves his arm as if to push him away, although the offender may +not be standing near, and although there may be not the least need to +explain by a gesture what is meant. On the other hand, if we eagerly +desire some one to approach us closely, we act as if pulling him towards +us; and so in innumerable other instances. +</p> + +<p> +As the performance of ordinary movements of an opposite kind, under +opposite impulses of the will, has become habitual in us and in the lower +animals, so when actions of one kind have become firmly associated with +any sensation or emotion, it appears natural that actions of a directly +opposite kind, though of no use, should be unconsciously performed through +habit and association, under the influence of a directly opposite +sensation or emotion. On this principle alone can I understand how the +gestures and expressions which come under the present head of antithesis +have originated. If indeed they are serviceable to man or to any other +animal, in aid of inarticulate cries or language, they will likewise be +voluntarily employed, and the habit will thus be strengthened. But whether +or not of service as a means of communication, the tendency to perform +opposite movements under opposite sensations or emotions would, if we may +judge by analogy, become hereditary through long practice; and there +cannot be a doubt that several expressive movements due to the principle +of antithesis are inherited. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"></a> +CHAPTER III.<br/>GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—<i>concluded</i>. +</h2> + +<p> +The principle of direct action of the excited nervous system on the body, +independently of the will and in part of habit—Change of colour in +the hair—Trembling of the muscles—Modified secretions—Perspiration—Expression +of extreme pain—Of rage, great joy, and terror—Contrast +between the emotions which cause and do not cause expressive movements—Exciting +and depressing states of the mind—Summary. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +We now come to our third Principle, namely, that certain actions which we +recognize as expressive of certain states of the mind, are the direct +result of the constitution of the nervous system, and have been from the +first independent of the will, and, to a large extent, of habit. When the +sensorium is strongly excited nerve-force is generated in excess, and is +transmitted in certain directions, dependent on the connection of the +nerve-cells, and, as far as the muscular system is concerned, on the +nature of the movements which have been habitually practised. Or the +supply of nerve-force may, as it appears, be interrupted. Of course every +movement which we make is determined by the constitution of the nervous +system; but actions performed in obedience to the will, or through habit, +or through the principle of antithesis, are here as far as possible +excluded. Our present subject is very obscure, but, from its importance, +must be discussed at some little length; and it is always advisable to +perceive clearly our ignorance. +</p> + +<p> +The most striking case, though a rare and abnormal one, which can be +adduced of the direct influence of the nervous system, when strongly +affected, on the body, is the loss of colour in the hair, which has +occasionally been observed after extreme terror or grief. One authentic +instance has been recorded, in the case of a man brought out for execution +in India, in which the change of colour was so rapid that it was +perceptible to the eye.<a href="#linknote-301" name="linknoteref-301" +id="linknoteref-301">[301]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Another good case is that of the trembling of the muscles, which is common +to man and to many, or most, of the lower animals. Trembling is of no +service, often of much disservice, and cannot have been at first acquired +through the will, and then rendered habitual in association with any +emotion. I am assured by an eminent authority that young children do not +tremble, but go into convulsions under the circumstances which would +induce excessive trembling in adults. Trembling is excited in different +individuals in very different degrees and by the most diversified causes,—by +cold to the surface, before fever-fits, although the temperature of the +body is then above the normal standard; in blood-poisoning, delirium +tremens, and other diseases; by general failure of power in old age; by +exhaustion after excessive fatigue; locally from severe injuries, such as +burns; and, in an especial manner, by the passage of a catheter. Of all +emotions, fear notoriously is the most apt to induce trembling; but so do +occasionally great anger and joy. I remember once seeing a boy who had +just shot his first snipe on the wing, and his hands trembled to such a +degree from delight, that he could not for some time reload his gun; and I +have heard of an exactly similar case with an Australian savage, to whom a +gun had been lent. Fine music, from the vague emotions thus excited, +causes a shiver to run down the backs of some persons. There seems to be +very little in common in the above several physical causes and emotions to +account for trembling; and Sir J. Paget, to whom I am indebted for several +of the above statements, informs me that the subject is a very obscure +one. As trembling is sometimes caused by rage, long before exhaustion can +have set in, and as it sometimes accompanies great joy, it would appear +that any strong excitement of the nervous system interrupts the steady +flow of nerve-force to the muscles.<a href="#linknote-302" +name="linknoteref-302" id="linknoteref-302">[302]</a> +</p> + +<p> +The manner in which the secretions of the alimentary canal and of certain +glands—as the liver, kidneys, or mammæ are affected by strong +emotions, is another excellent instance of the direct action of the +sensorium on these organs, independently of the will or of any serviceable +associated habit. There is the greatest difference in different persons in +the parts which are thus affected, and in the degree of their affection. +</p> + +<p> +The heart, which goes on uninterruptedly beating night and day in so wonderful +a manner, is extremely sensitive to external stimulants. The great +physiologist, Claude Bernard,<a href="#linknote-303" name="linknoteref-303" +id="linknoteref-303">[303]</a> has shown how the least excitement of a +sensitive nerve reacts on the heart; even when a nerve is touched so slightly +that no pain can possibly be felt by the animal under experiment. Hence when +the mind is strongly excited, we might expect that it would instantly affect in +a direct manner the heart; and this is universally acknowledged and felt to be +the case. Claude Bernard also repeatedly insists, and this deserves especial +notice, that when the heart is affected it reacts on the brain; and the state +of the brain again reacts through the pneumo-gastric nerve on the heart; so +that under any excitement there will be much mutual action and reaction between +these, the two most important organs of the body. +</p> + +<p> +The vaso-motor system, which regulates the diameter of the small arteries, +is directly acted on by the sensorium, as we see when a man blushes from +shame; but in this latter case the checked transmission of nerve-force to +the vessels of the face can, I think, be partly explained in a curious +manner through habit. We shall also be able to throw some light, though +very little, on the involuntary erection of the hair under the emotions of +terror and rage. The secretion of tears depends, no doubt, on the +connection of certain nerve-cells; but here again we can trace some few of +the steps by which the flow of nerve-force through the requisite channels +has become habitual under certain emotions. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +A brief consideration of the outward signs of some of the stronger +sensations and emotions will best serve to show us, although vaguely, in +how complex a manner the principle under consideration of the direct +action of the excited nervous system of the body, is combined with the +principle of habitually associated, serviceable movements. +</p> + +<p> +When animals suffer from an agony of pain, they generally writhe about +with frightful contortions; and those which habitually use their voices +utter piercing cries or groans. Almost every muscle of the body is brought +into strong action. With man the mouth may be closely compressed, or more +commonly the lips are retracted, with the teeth clenched or ground +together. There is said to be “gnashing of teeth” in hell; and I have +plainly heard the grinding of the molar teeth of a cow which was suffering +acutely from inflammation of the bowels. The female hippopotamus in the +Zoological Gardens, when she produced her young, suffered greatly; she +incessantly walked about, or rolled on her sides, opening and closing her +jaws, and clattering her teeth together.<a href="#linknote-304" +name="linknoteref-304" id="linknoteref-304">[304]</a> With man the eyes +stare wildly as in horrified astonishment, or the brows are heavily +contracted. Perspiration bathes the body, and drops trickle down the face. +The circulation and respiration are much affected. Hence the nostrils are +generally dilated and often quiver; or the breath may be held until the +blood stagnates in the purple face. If the agony be severe and prolonged, +these signs all change; utter prostration follows, with fainting or +convulsions. +</p> + +<p> +A sensitive nerve when irritated transmits some influence to the +nerve-cell, whence it proceeds; and this transmits its influence, first to +the corresponding nerve-cell on the opposite side of the body, and then +upwards and downwards along the cerebro-spinal column to other +nerve-cells, to a greater or less extent, according to the strength of the +excitement; so that, ultimately, the whole nervous system maybe affected.<a +href="#linknote-305" name="linknoteref-305" id="linknoteref-305">[305]</a> +This involuntary transmission of nerve-force may or may not be accompanied +by consciousness. Why the irritation of a nerve-cell should generate or +liberate nerve-force is not known; but that this is the case seems to be +the conclusion arrived at by all the greatest physiologists, such as +Müller, Virchow, Bernard, &c.<a href="#linknote-306" +name="linknoteref-306" id="linknoteref-306">[306]</a> As Mr. Herbert +Spencer remarks, it may be received as an “unquestionable truth that, at +any moment, the existing quantity of liberated nerve-force, which in an +inscrutable way produces in us the state we call feeling, MUST expend +itself in some direction—MUST generate an equivalent manifestation +of force somewhere;” so that, when the cerebro-spinal system is highly +excited and nerve-force is liberated in excess, it may be expended in +intense sensations, active thought, violent movements, or increased +activity of the glands.<a href="#linknote-307" name="linknoteref-307" +id="linknoteref-307">[307]</a> Mr. Spencer further maintains that an +“overflow of nerve-force, undirected by any motive, will manifestly take +the most habitual routes; and, if these do not suffice, will next overflow +into the less habitual ones.” Consequently the facial and respiratory +muscles, which are the most used, will be apt to be first brought into +action; then those of the upper extremities, next those of the lower, and +finally those of the whole body.<a href="#linknote-308" +name="linknoteref-308" id="linknoteref-308">[308]</a> +</p> + +<p> +An emotion may be very strong, but it will have little tendency to induce +movements of any kind, if it has not commonly led to voluntary action for +its relief or gratification; and when movements are excited, their nature +is, to a large extent, determined by those which have often and +voluntarily been performed for some definite end under the same emotion. +Great pain urges all animals, and has urged them during endless +generations, to make the most violent and diversified efforts to escape +from the cause of suffering. Even when a limb or other separate part of +the body is hurt, we often see a tendency to shake it, as if to shake off +the cause, though this may obviously be impossible. Thus a habit of +exerting with the utmost force all the muscles will have been established, +whenever great suffering is experienced. As the muscles of the chest and +vocal organs are habitually used, these will be particularly liable to be +acted on, and loud, harsh screams or cries will be uttered. But the +advantage derived from outcries has here probably come into play in an +important manner; for the young of most animals, when in distress or +danger, call loudly to their parents for aid, as do the members of the +same community for mutual aid. +</p> + +<p> +Another principle, namely, the internal consciousness that the power or +capacity of the nervous system is limited, will have strengthened, though +in a subordinate degree, the tendency to violent action under extreme +suffering. A man cannot think deeply and exert his utmost muscular force. +As Hippocrates long ago observed, if two pains are felt at the same time, +the severer one dulls the other. Martyrs, in the ecstasy of their +religious fervour have often, as it would appear, been insensible to the +most horrid tortures. Sailors who are going to be flogged sometimes take a +piece of lead into their mouths, in order to bite it with their utmost +force, and thus to bear the pain. Parturient women prepare to exert their +muscles to the utmost in order to relieve their sufferings. +</p> + +<p> +We thus see that the undirected radiation of nerve-force from the +nerve-cells which are first affected—the long-continued habit of +attempting by struggling to escape from the cause of suffering—and +the consciousness that voluntary muscular exertion relieves pain, have all +probably concurred in giving a tendency to the most violent, almost +convulsive, movements under extreme suffering; and such movements, +including those of the vocal organs, are universally recognized as highly +expressive of this condition. +</p> + +<p> +As the mere touching of a sensitive nerve reacts in a direct manner on the +heart, severe pain will obviously react on it in like manner, but far more +energetically. Nevertheless, even in this case, we must not overlook the +indirect effects of habit on the heart, as we shall see when we consider +the signs of rage. +</p> + +<p> +When a man suffers from an agony of pain, the perspiration often trickles +down his face; and I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon that he has +frequently seen drops falling from the belly and running down the inside +of the thighs of horses, and from the bodies of cattle, when thus +suffering. He has observed this, when there has been no struggling which +would account for the perspiration. The whole body of the female +hippopotamus, before alluded to, was covered with red-coloured +perspiration whilst giving birth to her young. So it is with extreme fear; +the same veterinary has often seen horses sweating from this cause; as has +Mr. Bartlett with the rhinoceros; and with man it is a well-known symptom. +The cause of perspiration bursting forth in these cases is quite obscure; +but it is thought by some physiologists to be connected with the failing +power of the capillary circulation; and we know that the vasomotor system, +which regulates the capillary circulation, is much influenced by the mind. +With respect to the movements of certain muscles of the face under great +suffering, as well as from other emotions, these will be best considered +when we treat of the special expressions of man and of the lower animals. +</p> + +<p> +We will now turn to the characteristic symptoms of Rage. Under this +powerful emotion the action of the heart is much accelerated,<a +href="#linknote-309" name="linknoteref-309" id="linknoteref-309">[309]</a> +or it may be much disturbed. The face reddens, or it becomes purple from +the impeded return of the blood, or may turn deadly pale. The respiration +is laboured, the chest heaves, and the dilated nostrils quiver. The whole +body often trembles. The voice is affected. The teeth are clenched or +ground together, and the muscular system is commonly stimulated to +violent, almost frantic action. But the gestures of a man in this state +usually differ from the purposeless writhings and struggles of one +suffering from an agony of pain; for they represent more or less plainly +the act of striking or fighting with an enemy. +</p> + +<p> +All these signs of rage are probably in large part, and some of them +appear to be wholly, due to the direct action of the excited sensorium. +But animals of all kinds, and their progenitors before them, when attacked +or threatened by an enemy, have exerted their utmost powers in fighting +and in defending themselves. Unless an animal does thus act, or has the +intention, or at least the desire, to attack its enemy, it cannot properly +be said to be enraged. An inherited habit of muscular exertion will thus +have been gained in association with rage; and this will directly or +indirectly affect various organs, in nearly the same manner as does great +bodily suffering. +</p> + +<p> +The heart no doubt will likewise be affected in a direct manner; but it +will also in all probability be affected through habit; and all the more +so from not being under the control of the will. We know that any great +exertion which we voluntarily make, affects the heart, through mechanical +and other principles which need not here be considered; and it was shown +in the first chapter that nerve-force flows readily through habitually +used channels,—through the nerves of voluntary or involuntary +movement, and through those of sensation. Thus even a moderate amount of +exertion will tend to act on the heart; and on the principle of +association, of which so many instances have been given, we may feel +nearly sure that any sensation or emotion, as great pain or rage, which +has habitually led to much muscular action, will immediately influence the +flow of nerve-force to the heart, although there may not be at the time +any muscular exertion. +</p> + +<p> +The heart, as I have said, will be all the more readily affected through +habitual associations, as it is not under the control of the will. A man +when moderately angry, or even when enraged, may command the movements of +his body, but he cannot prevent his heart from beating rapidly. His chest +will perhaps give a few heaves, and his nostrils just quiver, for the +movements of respiration are only in part voluntary. In like manner those +muscles of the face which are least obedient to the will, will sometimes +alone betray a slight and passing emotion. The glands again are wholly +independent of the will, and a man suffering from grief may command his +features, but cannot always prevent the tears from coming into his eyes. A +hungry man, if tempting food is placed before him, may not show his hunger +by any outward gesture, but he cannot check the secretion of saliva. +</p> + +<p> +Under a transport of Joy or of vivid Pleasure, there is a strong tendency +to various purposeless movements, and to the utterance of various sounds. +We see this in our young children, in their loud laughter, clapping of +hands, and jumping for joy; in the bounding and barking of a dog when +going out to walk with his master; and in the frisking of a horse when +turned out into an open field. Joy quickens the circulation, and this +stimulates the brain, which again reacts on the whole body. The above +purposeless movements and increased heart-action may be attributed in +chief part to the excited state of the sensorium,<a href="#linknote-310" +name="linknoteref-310" id="linknoteref-310">[310]</a> and to the +consequent undirected overflow, as Mr. Herbert Spencer insists, of +nerve-force. It deserves notice, that it is chiefly the anticipation of a +pleasure, and not its actual enjoyment, which leads to purposeless and +extravagant movements of the body, and to the utterance of various sounds. +We see this in our children when they expect any great pleasure or treat; +and dogs, which have been bounding about at the sight of a plate of food, +when they get it do not show their delight by any outward sign, not even +by wagging their tails. Now with animals of all kinds, the acquirement of +almost all their pleasures, with the exception of those of warmth and +rest, are associated, and have long been associated with active movements, +as in the hunting or search for food, and in their courtship. Moreover, +the mere exertion of the muscles after long rest or confinement is in +itself a pleasure, as we ourselves feel, and as we see in the play of +young animals. Therefore on this latter principle alone we might perhaps +expect, that vivid pleasure would be apt to show itself conversely in +muscular movements. +</p> + +<p> +With all or almost all animals, even with birds, Terror causes the body to +tremble. The skin becomes pale, sweat breaks out, and the hair bristles. +The secretions of the alimentary canal and of the kidneys are increased, +and they are involuntarily voided, owing to the relaxation of the +sphincter muscles, as is known to be the case with man, and as I have seen +with cattle, dogs, cats, and monkeys. The breathing is hurried. The heart +beats quickly, wildly, and violently; but whether it pumps the blood more +efficiently through the body may be doubted, for the surface seems +bloodless and the strength of the muscles soon fails. In a frightened +horse I have felt through the saddle the beating of the heart so plainly +that I could have counted the beats. The mental faculties are much +disturbed. Utter prostration soon follows, and even fainting. A terrified +canary-bird has been seen not only to tremble and to turn white about the +base of the bill, but to faint;<a href="#linknote-311" +name="linknoteref-311" id="linknoteref-311">[311]</a> and I once caught a +robin in a room, which fainted so completely, that for a time I thought it +dead. +</p> + +<p> +Most of these symptoms are probably the direct result, independently of +habit, of the disturbed state of the sensorium; but it is doubtful whether +they ought to be wholly thus accounted for. When an animal is alarmed it +almost always stands motionless for a moment, in order to collect its +senses and to ascertain the source of danger, and sometimes for the sake +of escaping detection. But headlong flight soon follows, with no +husbanding of the strength as in fighting, and the animal continues to fly +as long as the danger lasts, until utter prostration, with failing +respiration and circulation, with all the muscles quivering and profuse +sweating, renders further flight impossible. Hence it does not seem +improbable that the principle of associated habit may in part account for, +or at least augment, some of the above-named characteristic symptoms of +extreme terror. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +That the principle of associated habit has played an important part in +causing the movements expressive of the foregoing several strong emotions +and sensations, we may, I think, conclude from considering firstly, some +other strong emotions which do not ordinarily require for their relief or +gratification any voluntary movement; and secondly the contrast in nature +between the so-called exciting and depressing states of the mind. No +emotion is stronger than maternal love; but a mother may feel the deepest +love for her helpless infant, and yet not show it by any outward sign; or +only by slight caressing movements, with a gentle smile and tender eyes. +But let any one intentionally injure her infant, and see what a change! +how she starts up with threatening aspect, how her eyes sparkle and her +face reddens, how her bosom heaves, nostrils dilate, and heart beats; for +anger, and not maternal love, has habitually led to action. The love +between the opposite sexes is widely different from maternal love; and +when lovers meet, we know that their hearts beat quickly, their breathing +is hurried, and their faces flush; for this love is not inactive like that +of a mother for her infant. +</p> + +<p> +A man may have his mind filled with the blackest hatred or suspicion, or +be corroded with envy or jealousy, but as these feelings do not at once +lead to action, and as they commonly last for some time, they are not +shown by any outward sign, excepting that a man in this state assuredly +does not appear cheerful or good-tempered. If indeed these feelings break +out into overt acts, rage takes their place, and will be plainly +exhibited. Painters can hardly portray suspicion, jealousy, envy, &c., +except by the aid of accessories which tell the tale; and poets use such +vague and fanciful expressions as “green-eyed jealousy.” Spenser describes +suspicion as “Foul, ill-favoured, and grim, under his eyebrows looking +still askance,” &c.; Shakespeare speaks of envy “as lean-faced in her +loathsome case;” and in another place he says, “no black envy shall make +my grave;” and again as “above pale envy’s threatening reach.” +</p> + +<p> +Emotions and sensations have often been classed as exciting or depressing. +When all the organs of the body and mind,—those of voluntary and +involuntary movement, of perception, sensation, thought, &c.,—perform +their functions more energetically and rapidly than usual, a man or animal +may be said to be excited, and, under an opposite state, to be depressed. +Anger and joy are from the first exciting emotions, and they naturally +lead, more especially the former, to energetic movements, which react on +the heart and this again on the brain. A physician once remarked to me as +a proof of the exciting nature of anger, that a man when excessively jaded +will sometimes invent imaginary offences and put himself into a passion, +unconsciously for the sake of reinvigorating himself; and since hearing +this remark, I have occasionally recognized its full truth. +</p> + +<p> +Several other states of mind appear to be at first exciting, but soon +become depressing to an extreme degree. When a mother suddenly loses her +child, sometimes she is frantic with grief, and must be considered to be +in an excited state; she walks wildly about, tears her hair or clothes, +and wrings her hands. This latter action is perhaps due to the principle +of antithesis, betraying an inward sense of helplessness and that nothing +can be done. The other wild and violent movements may be in part explained +by the relief experienced through muscular exertion, and in part by the +undirected overflow of nerve-force from the excited sensorium. But under +the sudden loss of a beloved person, one of the first and commonest +thoughts which occurs, is that something more might have been done to save +the lost one. An excellent observer,<a href="#linknote-312" +name="linknoteref-312" id="linknoteref-312">[312]</a> in describing the +behaviour of a girl at the sudden death of her father, says she “went +about the house wringing her hands like a creature demented, saying ‘It +was her fault;’ ‘I should never have left him;’ ‘If I had only sat up with +him,’” &c. With such ideas vividly present before the mind, there +would arise, through the principle of associated habit, the strongest +tendency to energetic action of some kind. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as the sufferer is fully conscious that nothing can be done, despair or +deep sorrow takes the place of frantic grief. The sufferer sits motionless, or +gently rocks to and fro; the circulation becomes languid; respiration is almost +forgotten, and deep sighs are drawn. All this reacts on the brain, and +prostration soon follows with collapsed muscles and dulled eyes. As associated +habit no longer prompts the sufferer to action, he is urged by his friends to +voluntary exertion, and not to give way to silent, motionless grief. Exertion +stimulates the hear, and this reacts on the brain, and aids the mind to bear +its heavy load. + +</p> + +<p> +Pain, if severe, soon induces extreme depression or prostration; but it is +at first a stimulant and excites to action, as we see when we whip a +horse, and as is shown by the horrid tortures inflicted in foreign lands +on exhausted dray-bullocks, to rouse them to renewed exertion. Fear again +is the most depressing of all the emotions; and it soon induces utter, +helpless prostration, as if in consequence of, or in association with, the +most violent and prolonged attempts to escape from the danger, though no +such attempts have actually been made. Nevertheless, even extreme fear +often acts at first as a powerful stimulant. A man or animal driven +through terror to desperation, is endowed with wonderful strength, and is +notoriously dangerous in the highest degree. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +On the whole we may conclude that the principle of the direct action of +the sensorium on the body, due to the constitution of the nervous system, +and from the first independent of the will, has been highly influential in +determining many expressions. Good instances are afforded by the trembling +of the muscles, the sweating of the skin, the modified secretions of the +alimentary canal and glands, under various emotions and sensations. But +actions of this kind are often combined with others, which follow from our +first principle, namely, that actions which have often been of direct or +indirect service, under certain states of the mind, in order to gratify or +relieve certain sensations, desires, &c., are still performed under +analogous circumstances through mere habit although of no service. We have +combinations of this kind, at least in part, in the frantic gestures of +rage and in the writhings of extreme pain; and, perhaps, in the increased +action of the heart and of the respiratory organs. Even when these and +other emotions or sensations are aroused in a very feeble manner, there +will still be a tendency to similar actions, owing to the force of +long-associated habit; and those actions which are least under voluntary +control will generally be longest retained. Our second principle of +antithesis has likewise occasionally come into play. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +Finally, so many expressive movements can be explained, as I trust will be +seen in the course of this volume, through the three principles which have +now been discussed, that we may hope hereafter to see all thus explained, +or by closely analogous principles. It is, however, often impossible to +decide how much weight ought to be attributed, in each particular case, to +one of our principles, and how much to another; and very many points in +the theory of Expression remain inexplicable. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"></a> +CHAPTER IV.<br/>MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN ANIMALS. +</h2> + +<p> +The emission of Sounds—Vocal sounds—Sounds otherwise produced—Erection +of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &c., under the emotions of +anger and terror—The drawing back of the ears as a preparation for +fighting, and as an expression of anger—Erection of the ears and +raising the head, a sign of attention. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +In this and the following chapter I will describe, but only in sufficient +detail to illustrate my subject, the expressive movements, under different +states of the mind, of some few well-known animals. But before considering +them in due succession, it will save much useless repetition to discuss +certain means of expression common to most of them. +</p> + +<p> +<i>The emission of Sounds</i>.—With many kinds of animals, man +included, the vocal organs are efficient in the highest degree as a means +of expression. We have seen, in the last chapter, that when the sensorium +is strongly excited, the muscles of the body are generally thrown into +violent action; and as a consequence, loud sounds are uttered, however +silent the animal may generally be, and although the sounds may be of no +use. Hares and rabbits for instance, never, I believe, use their vocal +organs except in the extremity of suffering; as, when a wounded hare is +killed by the sportsman, or when a young rabbit is caught by a stoat. +Cattle and horses suffer great pain in silence; but when this is +excessive, and especially when associated with terror, they utter fearful +sounds. I have often recognized, from a distance on the Pampas, the +agonized death-bellow of the cattle, when caught by the lasso and +hamstrung. It is said that horses, when attacked by wolves, utter loud and +peculiar screams of distress. +</p> + +<p> +Involuntary and purposeless contractions of the muscles of the chest and +glottis, excited in the above manner, may have first given rise to the +emission of vocal sounds. But the voice is now largely used by many +animals for various purposes; and habit seems to have played an important +part in its employment under other circumstances. Naturalists have +remarked, I believe with truth, that social animals, from habitually using +their vocal organs as a means of intercommunication, use them on other +occasions much more freely than other animals. But there are marked +exceptions to this rule, for instance, with the rabbit. The principle, +also, of association, which is so widely extended in its power, has +likewise played its part. Hence it follows that the voice, from having +been habitually employed as a serviceable aid under certain conditions, +inducing pleasure, pain, rage, &c., is commonly used whenever the same +sensations or emotions are excited, under quite different conditions, or +in a lesser degree. +</p> + +<p> +The sexes of many animals incessantly call for each other during the +breeding-season; and in not a few cases, the male endeavours thus to charm +or excite the female. This, indeed, seems to have been the primeval use +and means of development of the voice, as I have attempted to show in my +‘Descent of Man.’ Thus the use of the vocal organs will have become +associated with the anticipation of the strongest pleasure which animals +are capable of feeling. Animals which live in society often call to each +other when separated, and evidently feel much joy at meeting; as we see +with a horse, on the return of his companion, for whom he has been +neighing. The mother calls incessantly for her lost young ones; for +instance, a cow for her calf; and the young of many animals call for their +mothers. When a flock of sheep is scattered, the ewes bleat incessantly +for their lambs, and their mutual pleasure at coming together is manifest. +Woe betide the man who meddles with the young of the larger and fiercer +quadrupeds, if they hear the cry of distress from their young. Rage leads +to the violent exertion of all the muscles, including those of the voice; +and some animals, when enraged, endeavour to strike terror into their +enemies by its power and harshness, as the lion does by roaring, and the +dog by growling. I infer that their object is to strike terror, because +the lion at the same time erects the hair of its mane, and the dog the +hair along its back, and thus they make themselves appear as large and +terrible as possible. Rival males try to excel and challenge each other by +their voices, and this leads to deadly contests. Thus the use of the voice +will have become associated with the emotion of anger, however it may be +aroused. We have also seen that intense pain, like rage, leads to violent +outcries, and the exertion of screaming by itself gives some relief; and +thus the use of the voice will have become associated with suffering of +any kind. +</p> + +<p> +The cause of widely different sounds being uttered under different +emotions and sensations is a very obscure subject. Nor does the rule +always hold good that there is any marked difference. For instance with +the dog, the bark of anger and that of joy do not differ much, though they +can be distinguished. It is not probable that any precise explanation of +the cause or source of each particular sound, under different states of +the mind, will ever be given. We know that some animals, after being +domesticated, have acquired the habit of uttering sounds which were not +natural to them.<a href="#linknote-401" name="linknoteref-401" +id="linknoteref-401">[401]</a> Thus domestic dogs, and even tamed jackals, +have learnt to bark, which is a noise not proper to any species of the +genus, with the exception of the <i>Canis latrans</i> of North America, +which is said to bark. Some breeds, also, of the domestic pigeon have +learnt to coo in a new and quite peculiar manner. +</p> + +<p> +The character of the human voice, under the influence of various emotions, +has been discussed by Mr. Herbert Spencer<a href="#linknote-402" +name="linknoteref-402" id="linknoteref-402">[402]</a> in his interesting +essay on Music. He clearly shows that the voice alters much under +different conditions, in loudness and in quality, that is, in resonance +and <i>timbre</i>, in pitch and intervals. No one can listen to an +eloquent orator or preacher, or to a man calling angrily to another, or to +one expressing astonishment, without being struck with the truth of Mr. +Spencer’s remarks. It is curious how early in life the modulation of the +voice becomes expressive. With one of my children, under the age of two +years, I clearly perceived that his humph of assent was rendered by a +slight modulation strongly emphatic; and that by a peculiar whine his +negative expressed obstinate determination. Mr. Spencer further shows that +emotional speech, in all the above respects is intimately related to vocal +music, and consequently to instrumental music; and he attempts to explain +the characteristic qualities of both on physiological grounds—namely, +on “the general law that a feeling is a stimulus to muscular action.” It +may be admitted that the voice is affected through this law; but the +explanation appears to me too general and vague to throw much light on the +various differences, with the exception of that of loudness, between +ordinary speech and emotional speech, or singing. +</p> + +<p> +This remark holds good, whether we believe that the various qualities of +the voice originated in speaking under the excitement of strong feelings, +and that these qualities have subsequently been transferred to vocal +music; or whether we believe, as I maintain, that the habit of uttering +musical sounds was first developed, as a means of courtship, in the early +progenitors of man, and thus became associated with the strongest emotions +of which they were capable,—namely, ardent love, rivalry and +triumph. That animals utter musical notes is familiar to every one, as we +may daily hear in the singing of birds. It is a more remarkable fact that +an ape, one of the Gibbons, produces an exact octave of musical sounds, +ascending and descending the scale by halftones; so that this monkey +“alone of brute mammals may be said to sing.”<a href="#linknote-403" +name="linknoteref-403" id="linknoteref-403">[403]</a> From this fact, and +from the analogy of other animals, I have been led to infer that the +progenitors of man probably uttered musical tones, before they had +acquired the power of articulate speech; and that consequently, when the +voice is used under any strong emotion, it tends to assume, through the +principle of association, a musical character. We can plainly perceive, +with some of the lower animals, that the males employ their voices to +please the females, and that they themselves take pleasure in their own +vocal utterances; but why particular sounds are uttered, and why these +give pleasure cannot at present be explained. +</p> + +<p> +That the pitch of the voice bears some relation to certain states of +feeling is tolerably clear. A person gently complaining of ill-treatment, +or slightly suffering, almost always speaks in a high-pitched voice. Dogs, +when a little impatient, often make a high piping note through their +noses, which at once strikes us as plaintive;<a href="#linknote-404" +name="linknoteref-404" id="linknoteref-404">[404]</a> but how difficult it +is to know whether the sound is essentially plaintive, or only appears so +in this particular case, from our having learnt by experience what it +means! Rengger, states<a href="#linknote-405" name="linknoteref-405" +id="linknoteref-405">[405]</a> that the monkeys (<i>Cebus azaræ</i>), +which he kept in Paraguay, expressed astonishment by a half-piping, +half-snarling noise; anger or impatience, by repeating the sound <i>hu hu</i> +in a deeper, grunting voice; and fright or pain, by shrill screams. On the +other hand, with mankind, deep groans and high piercing screams equally +express an agony of pain. Laughter maybe either high or low; so that, with +adult men, as Haller long ago remarked,<a href="#linknote-406" +name="linknoteref-406" id="linknoteref-406">[406]</a> the sound partakes +of the character of the vowels (as pronounced in German) <i>O</i> and <i>A</i>; +whilst with children and women, it has more of the character of <i>E</i> +and <i>I</i>; and these latter vowel-sounds naturally have, as Helmholtz +has shown, a higher pitch than the former; yet both tones of laughter +equally express enjoyment or amusement. +</p> + +<p> +In considering the mode in which vocal utterances express emotion, we are +naturally led to inquire into the cause of what is called “expression” in +music. Upon this point Mr. Litchfield, who has long attended to the +subject of music, has been so kind as to give me the following remarks:—“The +question, what is the essence of musical ‘expression’ involves a number of +obscure points, which, so far as I am aware, are as yet unsolved enigmas. +Up to a certain point, however, any law which is found to hold as to the +expression of the emotions by simple sounds must apply to the more +developed mode of expression in song, which may be taken as the primary +type of all music. A great part of the emotional effect of a song depends +on the character of the action by which the sounds are produced. In songs, +for instance, which express great vehemence of passion, the effect often +chiefly depends on the forcible utterance of some one or two +characteristic passages which demand great exertion of vocal force; and it +will be frequently noticed that a song of this character fails of its +proper effect when sung by a voice of sufficient power and range to give +the characteristic passages without much exertion. This is, no doubt, the +secret of the loss of effect so often produced by the transposition of a +song from one key to another. The effect is thus seen to depend not merely +on the actual sounds, but also in part on the nature of the action which +produces the sounds. Indeed it is obvious that whenever we feel the +‘expression’ of a song to be due to its quickness or slowness of movement—to +smoothness of flow, loudness of utterance, and so on—we are, in +fact, interpreting the muscular actions which produce sound, in the same +way in which we interpret muscular action generally. But this leaves +unexplained the more subtle and more specific effect which we call the +<i>musical</i> expression of the song—the delight given by its melody, or +even by the separate sounds which make up the melody. This is an effect +indefinable in language—one which, so far as I am aware, no one has +been able to analyse, and which the ingenious speculation of Mr. Herbert +Spencer as to the origin of music leaves quite unexplained. For it is +certain that the <i>melodic</i> effect of a series of sounds does not depend in +the least on their loudness or softness, or on their <i>absolute</i> pitch. A +tune is always the same tune, whether it is sung loudly or softly, by a +child or a man; whether it is played on a flute or on a trombone. The +purely musical effect of any sound depends on its place in what is +technically called a ‘scale;’ the same sound producing absolutely +different effects on the ear, according as it is heard in connection with +one or another series of sounds. +</p> + +<p> +“It is on this <i>relative</i> association of the sounds that all the essentially +characteristic effects which are summed up in the phrase ‘musical +expression,’ depend. But why certain associations of sounds have +such-and-such effects, is a problem which yet remains to be solved. These +effects must indeed, in some way or other, be connected with the +well-known arithmetical relations between the rates of vibration of the +sounds which form a musical scale. And it is possible—but this is +merely a suggestion—that the greater or less mechanical facility +with which the vibrating apparatus of the human larynx passes from one +state of vibration to another, may have been a primary cause of the +greater or less pleasure produced by various sequences of sounds.” +</p> + +<p> +But leaving aside these complex questions and confining ourselves to the +simpler sounds, we can, at least, see some reasons for the association of +certain kinds of sounds with certain states of mind. A scream, for +instance, uttered by a young animal, or by one of the members of a +community, as a call for assistance, will naturally be loud, prolonged, +and high, so as to penetrate to a distance. For Helmholtz has shown<a +href="#linknote-407" name="linknoteref-407" id="linknoteref-407">[407]</a> +that, owing to the shape of the internal cavity of the human ear and its +consequent power of resonance, high notes produce a particularly strong +impression. When male animals utter sounds in order to please the females, +they would naturally employ those which are sweet to the ears of the +species; and it appears that the same sounds are often pleasing to widely +different animals, owing to the similarity of their nervous systems, as we +ourselves perceive in the singing of birds and even in the chirping of +certain tree-frogs giving us pleasure. On the other hand, sounds produced +in order to strike terror into an enemy, would naturally be harsh or +displeasing. +</p> + +<p> +Whether the principle of antithesis has come into play with sounds, as +might perhaps have been expected, is doubtful. The interrupted, laughing +or tittering sounds made by man and by various kinds of monkeys when +pleased, are as different as possible from the prolonged screams of these +animals when distressed. The deep grunt of satisfaction uttered by a pig, +when pleased with its food, is widely different from its harsh scream of +pain or terror. But with the dog, as lately remarked, the bark of anger +and that of joy are sounds which by no means stand in opposition to each +other; and so it is in some other cases. +</p> + +<p> +There is another obscure point, namely, whether the sounds which are +produced under various states of the mind determine the shape of the +mouth, or whether its shape is not determined by independent causes, and +the sound thus modified. When young infants cry they open their mouths +widely, and this, no doubt, is necessary for pouring forth a full volume +of sound; but the mouth then assumes, from a quite distinct cause, an +almost quadrangular shape, depending, as will hereafter be explained, on +the firm closing of the eyelids, and consequent drawing up of the upper +lip. How far this square shape of the mouth modifies the wailing or crying +sound, I am not prepared to say; but we know from the researches of +Helmholtz and others that the form of the cavity of the mouth and lips +determines the nature and pitch of the vowel sounds which are produced. +</p> + +<p> +It will also be shown in a future chapter that, under the feeling of +contempt or disgust, there is a tendency, from intelligible causes, to +blow out of the mouth or nostrils, and this produces sounds like pooh or +pish. When any one is startled or suddenly astonished, there is an +instantaneous tendency, likewise from an intelligible cause, namely, to be +ready for prolonged exertion, to open the mouth widely, so as to draw a +deep and rapid inspiration. When the next full expiration follows, the +mouth is slightly closed, and the lips, from causes hereafter to be +discussed, are somewhat protruded; and this form of the mouth, if the +voice be at all exerted, produces, according to Helmholtz, the sound of +the vowel <i>O</i>. Certainly a deep sound of a prolonged <i>Oh!</i> may +be heard from a whole crowd of people immediately after witnessing any +astonishing spectacle. If, together with surprise, pain be felt, there is +a tendency to contract all the muscles of the body, including those of the +face, and the lips will then be drawn back; and this will perhaps account +for the sound becoming higher and assuming the character of <i>Ah!</i> or +<i>Ach!</i> As fear causes all the muscles of the body to tremble, the +voice naturally becomes tremulous, and at the same time husky from the +dryness of the mouth, owing to the salivary glands failing to act. Why the +laughter of man and the tittering of monkeys should be a rapidly +reiterated sound, cannot be explained. During the utterance of these +sounds, the mouth is transversely elongated by the corners being drawn +backwards and upwards; and of this fact an explanation will be attempted +in a future chapter. But the whole subject of the differences of the +sounds produced under different states of the mind is so obscure, that I +have succeeded in throwing hardly any light on it; and the remarks which I +have made, have but little significance. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig11.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Sound Producing Quills from Tail of a Porcupine. Fig. 11 " /> +</div> + +<p> +All the sounds hitherto noticed depend on the respiratory organs; but +sounds produced by wholly different means are likewise expressive. Rabbits +stamp loudly on the ground as a signal to their comrades; and if a man +knows how to do so properly, he may on a quiet evening hear the rabbits +answering him all around. These animals, as well as some others, also +stamp on the ground when made angry. Porcupines rattle their quills and +vibrate their tails when angered; and one behaved in this manner when a +live snake was placed in its compartment. The quills on the +tail are very different from those on the body: they are short, hollow, +thin like a goose-quill, with their ends transversely truncated, so that +they are open; they are supported on long, thin, elastic foot-stalks. Now, +when the tail is rapidly shaken, these hollow quills strike against each +other and produce, as I heard in the presence of Mr. Bartlett, a peculiar +continuous sound. We can, I think, understand why porcupines have been +provided, through the modification of their protective spines, with this +special sound-producing instrument. They are nocturnal animals, and if +they scented or heard a prowling beast of prey, it would be a great +advantage to them in the dark to give warning to their enemy what they +were, and that they were furnished with dangerous spines. They would thus +escape being attacked. They are, as I may add, so fully conscious of the +power of their weapons, that when enraged they will charge backwards with +their spines erected, yet still inclined backwards. +</p> + +<p> +Many birds during their courtship produce diversified sounds by means of +specially adapted feathers. Storks, when excited, make a loud clattering +noise with their beaks. Some snakes produce a grating or rattling noise. +Many insects stridulate by rubbing together specially modified parts of +their hard integuments. This stridulation generally serves as a sexual +charm or call; but it is likewise used to express different emotions.<a +href="#linknote-408" name="linknoteref-408" id="linknoteref-408">[408]</a> +Every one who has attended to bees knows that their humming changes when +they are angry; and this serves as a warning that there is danger of being +stung. I have made these few remarks because some writers have laid so +much stress on the vocal and respiratory organs as having been specially +adapted for expression, that it was advisable to show that sounds +otherwise produced serve equally well for the same purpose. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Erection of the dermal appendages</i>.—Hardly any expressive +movement is so general as the involuntary erection of the hairs, feathers +and other dermal appendages; for it is common throughout three of the +great vertebrate classes. These appendages are erected under the +excitement of anger or terror; more especially when these emotions are +combined, or quickly succeed each other. The action serves to make the +animal appear larger and more frightful to its enemies or rivals, and is +generally accompanied by various voluntary movements adapted for the same +purpose, and by the utterance of savage sounds. Mr. Bartlett, who has had +such wide experience with animals of all kinds, does not doubt that this +is the case; but it is a different question whether the power of erection +was primarily acquired for this special purpose. +</p> + +<p> +I will first give a considerable body of facts showing how general this +action is with mammals, birds and reptiles; retaining what I have to say +in regard to man for a future chapter. Mr. Sutton, the intelligent keeper +in the Zoological Gardens, carefully observed for me the Chimpanzee and +Orang; and he states that when they are suddenly frightened, as by a +thunderstorm, or when they are made angry, as by being teased, their hair +becomes erect. I saw a chimpanzee who was alarmed at the sight of a black +coalheaver, and the hair rose all over his body; he made little starts +forward as if to attack the man, without any real intention of doing so, +but with the hope, as the keeper remarked, of frightening him. The +Gorilla, when enraged, is described by Mr. Ford<a href="#linknote-409" +name="linknoteref-409" id="linknoteref-409">[409]</a> as having his crest +of hair “erect and projecting forward, his nostrils dilated, and his under +lip thrown down; at the same time uttering his characteristic yell, +designed, it would seem, to terrify his antagonists.” I saw the hair on +the Anubis baboon, when angered bristling along the back, from the neck to +the loins, but not on the rump or other parts of the body. I took a +stuffed snake into the monkey-house, and the hair on several of the +species instantly became erect; especially on their tails, as I +particularly noticed with the <i>Cereopithecus nictitans</i>. Brehm states<a +href="#linknote-410" name="linknoteref-410" id="linknoteref-410">[410]</a> +that the <i>Midas œdipus</i> (belonging to the American division) when +excited erects its mane, in order, as he adds, to make itself as frightful +as possible. +</p> + +<p> +With the Carnivora the erection of the hair seems to be almost universal, +often accompanied by threatening movements, the uncovering of the teeth +and the utterance of savage growls. In the Herpestes, I have seen the hair +on end over nearly the whole body, including the tail; and the dorsal +crest is erected in a conspicuous manner by the Hyaena and Proteles. The +enraged lion erects his mane. The bristling of the hair along the neck and +back of the dog, and over the whole body of the cat, especially on the +tail, is familiar to every one. With the cat it apparently occurs only +under fear; with the dog, under anger and fear; but not, as far as I have +observed, under abject fear, as when a dog is going to be flogged by a +severe gamekeeper. If, however, the dog shows fight, as sometimes happens, +up goes his hair. I have often noticed that the hair of a dog is +particularly liable to rise, if he is half angry and half afraid, as on +beholding some object only indistinctly seen in the dusk. +</p> + +<p> +I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon that he has often seen the +hair erected on horses and cattle, on which he had operated and was again +going to operate. When I showed a stuffed snake to a Peccary, the hair +rose in a wonderful manner along its back; and so it does with the boar +when enraged. An Elk which gored a man to death in the United States, is +described as first brandishing his antlers, squealing with rage and +stamping on the ground; “at length his hair was seen to rise and stand on +end,” and then he plunged forward to the attack.<a href="#linknote-411" +name="linknoteref-411" id="linknoteref-411">[411]</a> The hair likewise +becomes erect on goats, and, as I hear from Mr. Blyth, on some Indian +antelopes. I have seen it erected on the hairy Ant-eater; and on the +Agouti, one of the Rodents. A female Bat,<a href="#linknote-412" +name="linknoteref-412" id="linknoteref-412">[412]</a> which reared her +young under confinement, when any one looked into the cage “erected the +fur on her back, and bit viciously at intruding fingers.” +</p> + +<p> +Birds belonging to all the chief Orders ruffle their feathers when angry +or frightened. Every one must have seen two cocks, even quite young birds, +preparing to fight with erected neck-hackles; nor can these feathers when +erected serve as a means of defence, for cock-fighters have found by +experience that it is advantageous to trim them. The male Ruff (<i>Machetes +pugnæ</i>) likewise erects its collar of feathers when fighting. When a +dog approaches a common hen with her chickens, she spreads out her wings, +raises her tail, ruffles all her feathers, and looking as ferocious as +possible, dashes at the intruder. The tail is not always held in exactly +the same position; it is sometimes so much erected, that the central +feathers, as in the accompanying drawing, almost touch the back. Swans, +when angered, likewise raise their wings and tail, and erect their +feathers. They open their beaks, and make by paddling little rapid starts +forwards, against any one who approaches the water’s edge too closely. +Tropic birds<a href="#linknote-413" name="linknoteref-413" +id="linknoteref-413">[413]</a> when disturbed on their nests are said not +to fly away, but “merely to stick out their feathers and scream.” The +Barn-owl, when approached “instantly swells out its plumage, extends its +wings and tail, hisses and clacks its mandibles with force and rapidity.”<a +href="#linknote-414" name="linknoteref-414" id="linknoteref-414">[414]</a> +So do other kinds of owls. Hawks, as I am informed by Mr. Jenner Weir, +likewise ruffle their feathers, and spread out their wings and tail under +similar circumstances. Some kinds of parrots erect their feathers; and I +have seen this action in the Cassowary, when angered at the sight of an +Ant-eater. Young cuckoos in the nest, raise their feathers, open their +mouths widely, and make themselves as frightful as possible. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0011" id="linkimage-0011"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Hen Driving Away a Dog from Her Chickens. Fig. 12 " /> +</div> + +<p> +{illust. caption = FIG. 12—Hen driving away a dog from her chickens. +Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.} +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0012" id="linkimage-0012"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig13.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Swan Driving Away an Intruder. Fig 13 " /> +</div> + +<p> +{illust. caption = FIG. 13.—Swan driving away an intruder. Drawn +from life by Mr. Wood.} +</p> + +<p> +Small birds, also, as I hear from Mr. Weir, such as various finches, +buntings and warblers, when angry, ruffle all their feathers, or only +those round the neck; or they spread out their wings and tail-feathers. +With their plumage in this state, they rush at each other with open beaks +and threatening gestures. Mr. Weir concludes from his large experience +that the erection of the feathers is caused much more by anger than by +fear. He gives as an instance a hybrid goldfinch of a most irascible +disposition, which when approached too closely by a servant, instantly +assumes the appearance of a ball of ruffled feathers. He believes that +birds when frightened, as a general rule, closely adpress all their +feathers, and their consequently diminished size is often astonishing. As +soon as they recover from their fear or surprise, the first thing which +they do is to shake out their feathers. The best instances of this +adpression of the feathers and apparent shrinking of the body from fear, +which Mr. Weir has noticed, has been in the quail and grass-parrakeet.<a +href="#linknote-415" name="linknoteref-415" id="linknoteref-415">[415]</a> +The habit is intelligible in these birds from their being accustomed, when +in danger, either to squat on the ground or to sit motionless on a branch, +so as to escape detection. Though, with birds, anger may be the chief and +commonest cause of the erection of the feathers, it is probable that young +cuckoos when looked at in the nest, and a hen with her chickens when +approached by a dog, feel at least some terror. Mr. Tegetmeier informs me +that with game-cocks, the erection of the feathers on the head has long +been recognized in the cock-pit as a sign of cowardice. +</p> + +<p> +The males of some lizards, when fighting together during their courtship, +expand their throat pouches or frills, and erect their dorsal crests.<a +href="#linknote-416" name="linknoteref-416" id="linknoteref-416">[416]</a> +But Dr. Günther does not believe that they can erect their separate spines +or scales. +</p> + +<p> +We thus see how generally throughout the two higher vertebrate classes, +and with some reptiles, the dermal appendages are erected under the +influence of anger and fear. The movement is effected, as we know from +Kolliker’s interesting discovery, by the contraction of minute, unstriped, +involuntary muscles,<a href="#linknote-417" name="linknoteref-417" +id="linknoteref-417">[417]</a> often called <i>arrectores pili</i>, which +are attached to the capsules of the separate hairs, feathers, &c. By +the contraction of these muscles the hairs can be instantly erected, as we +see in a dog, being at the same time drawn a little out of their sockets; +they are afterwards quickly depressed. The vast number of these minute +muscles over the whole body of a hairy quadruped is astonishing. The +erection of the hair is, however, aided in some cases, as with that on the +head of a man, by the striped and voluntary muscles of the underlying <i>panniculus +carnosus</i>. It is by the action of these latter muscles, that the +hedgehog erects its spines. It appears, also, from the researches of +Leydig<a href="#linknote-418" name="linknoteref-418" id="linknoteref-418">[418]</a> +and others, that striped fibres extend from the panniculus to some of the +larger hairs, such as the vibrissae of certain quadrupeds. The <i>arrectores +pili</i> contract not only under the above emotions, but from the +application of cold to the surface. I remember that my mules and dogs, +brought from a lower and warmer country, after spending a night on the +bleak Cordillera, had the hair all over their bodies as erect as under the +greatest terror. We see the same action in our own <i>goose-skin</i> +during the chill before a fever-fit. Mr. Lister has also found,<a +href="#linknote-419" name="linknoteref-419" id="linknoteref-419">[419]</a> +that tickling a neighbouring part of the skin causes the erection and +protrusion of the hairs. +</p> + +<p> +From these facts it is manifest that the erection of the dermal appendages +is a reflex action, independent of the will; and this action must be +looked at, when, occurring under the influence of anger or fear, not as a +power acquired for the sake of some advantage, but as an incidental +result, at least to a large extent, of the sensorium being affected. The +result, in as far as it is incidental, may be compared with the profuse +sweating from an agony of pain or terror. Nevertheless, it is remarkable +how slight an excitement often suffices to cause the hair to become erect; +as when two dogs pretend to fight together in play. We have, also, seen in +a large number of animals, belonging to widely distinct classes, that the +erection of the hair or feathers is almost always accompanied by various +voluntary movements—by threatening gestures, opening the mouth, +uncovering the teeth, spreading out of the wings and tail by birds, and by +the utterance of harsh sounds; and the purpose of these voluntary +movements is unmistakable. Therefore it seems hardly credible that the +co-ordinated erection of the dermal appendages, by which the animal is +made to appear larger and more terrible to its enemies or rivals, should +be altogether an incidental and purposeless result of the disturbance of +the sensorium. This seems almost as incredible as that the erection by the +hedgehog of its spines, or of the quills by the porcupine, or of the +ornamental plumes by many birds during their courtship, should all be +purposeless actions. +</p> + +<p> +We here encounter a great difficulty. How can the contraction of the +unstriped and involuntary <i>arrectores pili</i> have been co-ordinated +with that of various voluntary muscles for the same special purpose? If we +could believe that the arrectores primordially had been voluntary muscles, +and had since lost their stripes and become involuntary, the case would be +comparatively simple. I am not, however, aware that there is any evidence +in favour of this view; although the reversed transition would not have +presented any great difficulty, as the voluntary muscles are in an +unstriped condition in the embryos of the higher animals, and in the +larvae of some crustaceans. Moreover in the deeper layers of the skin of +adult birds, the muscular network is, according to Leydig,<a +href="#linknote-420" name="linknoteref-420" id="linknoteref-420">[420]</a> +in a transitional condition; the fibres exhibiting only indications of +transverse striation. +</p> + +<p> +Another explanation seems possible. We may admit that originally the <i>arrectores +pili</i> were slightly acted on in a direct manner, under the influence of +rage and terror, by the disturbance of the nervous system; as is +undoubtedly the case with our so-called <i>goose-skin</i> before a +fever-fit. Animals have been repeatedly excited by rage and terror during +many generations; and consequently the direct effects of the disturbed +nervous system on the dermal appendages will almost certainly have been +increased through habit and through the tendency of nerve-force to pass +readily along accustomed channels. We shall find this view of the force of +habit strikingly confirmed in a future chapter, where it will be shown +that the hair of the insane is affected in an extraordinary manner, owing +to their repeated accesses of fury and terror. As soon as with animals the +power of erection had thus been strengthened or increased, they must often +have seen the hairs or feathers erected in rival and enraged males, and +the bulk of their bodies thus increased. In this case it appears possible +that they might have wished to make themselves appear larger and more +terrible to their enemies, by voluntarily assuming a threatening attitude +and uttering harsh cries; such attitudes and utterances after a time +becoming through habit instinctive. In this manner actions performed by +the contraction of voluntary muscles might have been combined for the same +special purpose with those effected by involuntary muscles. It is even +possible that animals, when excited and dimly conscious of some change in +the state of their hair, might act on it by repeated exertions of their +attention and will; for we have reason to believe that the will is able to +influence in an obscure manner the action of some unstriped or involuntary +muscles, as in the period of the peristaltic movements of the intestines, +and in the contraction of the bladder. Nor must we overlook the part which +variation and natural selection may have played; for the males which +succeeded in making themselves appear the most terrible to their rivals, +or to their other enemies, if not of overwhelming power, will on an +average have left more offspring to inherit their characteristic +qualities, whatever these may be and however first acquired, than have +other males. +</p> + +<p> +<i>The inflation of the body, and other means of exciting fear in an enemy</i>.—Certain +Amphibians and Reptiles, which either have no spines to erect, or no +muscles by which they can be erected, enlarge themselves when alarmed or +angry by inhaling air. This is well known to be the case with toads and +frogs. The latter animal is made, in AEsop’s fable of the ‘Ox and the +Frog,’ to blow itself up from vanity and envy until it burst. This action +must have been observed during the most ancient times, as, according to +Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood,<a href="#linknote-421" name="linknoteref-421" +id="linknoteref-421">[421]</a> the word <i>toad</i> expresses in all the +languages of Europe the habit of swelling. It has been observed with some +of the exotic species in the Zoological Gardens; and Dr. Günther believes +that it is general throughout the group. Judging from analogy, the primary +purpose probably was to make the body appear as large and frightful as +possible to an enemy; but another, and perhaps more important secondary +advantage is thus gained. When frogs are seized by snakes, which are their +chief enemies, they enlarge themselves wonderfully; so that if the snake +be of small size, as Dr. Günther informs me, it cannot swallow the frog, +which thus escapes being devoured. +</p> + +<p> +Chameleons and some other lizards inflate themselves when angry. Thus a +species inhabiting Oregon, the <i>Tapaya Douglasii</i>, is slow in its +movements and does not bite, but has a ferocious aspect; “when irritated +it springs in a most threatening manner at anything pointed at it, at the +same time opening its mouth wide and hissing audibly, after which it +inflates its body, and shows other marks of anger.”<a href="#linknote-422" +name="linknoteref-422" id="linknoteref-422">[422]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Several kinds of snakes likewise inflate themselves when irritated. The +puff-adder (<i>Clotho arietans</i>) is remarkable in this respect; but I +believe, after carefully watching these animals, that they do not act thus for +the sake of increasing their apparent bulk, but simply for inhaling a large +supply of air, so as to produce their surprisingly loud, harsh, and prolonged +hissing sound. The Cobras-de-capello, when irritated, enlarge themselves a +little, and hiss moderately; but, at the same time they lift their heads aloft, +and dilate by means of their elongated anterior ribs, the skin on each side of +the neck into a large flat disk,—the so-called hood. With their widely +opened mouths, they then assume a terrific aspect. The benefit thus derived +ought to be considerable, in order to compensate for the somewhat lessened +rapidity (though this is still great) with which, when dilated, they can strike +at their enemies or prey; on the same principle that a broad, thin piece of +wood cannot be moved through the air so quickly as a small round stick. An +innocuous snake, the <i>Trovidonotus macrophthalmus</i>, an inhabitant of +India, likewise dilates its neck when irritated; and consequently is often +mistaken for its compatriot, the deadly Cobra.<a href="#linknote-423" +name="linknoteref-423" id="linknoteref-423">[423]</a> This resemblance perhaps +serves as some protection to the Tropidonotus. Another innocuous species, the +Dasypeltis of South Africa, blows itself out, distends its neck, hisses and +darts at an intruder.<a href="#linknote-424" name="linknoteref-424" +id="linknoteref-424">[424]</a> Many other snakes hiss under similar +circumstances. They also rapidly vibrate their protruded tongues; and this may +aid in increasing their terrific appearance. +</p> + +<p> +Snakes possess other means of producing sounds besides hissing. Many years +ago I observed in South America that a venomous Trigonocephalus, when +disturbed, rapidly vibrated the end of its tail, which striking against +the dry grass and twigs produced a rattling noise that could be distinctly +heard at the distance of six feet.<a href="#linknote-425" +name="linknoteref-425" id="linknoteref-425">[425]</a> The deadly and +fierce <i>Echis carinata</i> of India produces “a curious prolonged, +almost hissing sound in a very different manner, namely by rubbing the +sides of the folds of its body against each other,” whilst the head +remains in almost the same position. The scales on the sides, and not on +other parts of the body, are strongly keeled, with the keels toothed like +a saw; and as the coiled-up animal rubs its sides together, these grate +against each other.<a href="#linknote-426" name="linknoteref-426" +id="linknoteref-426">[426]</a> Lastly, we have the well-known case of the +Rattle-snake. He who has merely shaken the rattle of a dead snake, can +form no just idea of the sound produced by the living animal. Professor +Shaler states that it is indistinguishable from that made by the male of a +large Cicada (an Homopterous insect), which inhabits the same district.<a +href="#linknote-427" name="linknoteref-427" id="linknoteref-427">[427]</a> +In the Zoological Gardens, when the rattle-snakes and puff-adders were +greatly excited at the same time, I was much struck at the similarity of +the sound produced by them; and although that made by the rattle-snake is +louder and shriller than the hissing of the puff-adder, yet when standing +at some yards distance I could scarcely distinguish the two. For whatever +purpose the sound is produced by the one species, I can hardly doubt that +it serves for the same purpose in the other species; and I conclude from +the threatening gestures made at the same time by many snakes, that their +hissing,—the rattling of the rattle-snake and of the tail of the +Trigonocephalus,—the grating of the scales of the Echis,—and +the dilatation of the hood of the Cobra,—all subserve the same end, +namely, to make them appear terrible to their enemies.<a +href="#linknote-428" name="linknoteref-428" id="linknoteref-428">[428]</a> +</p> + +<p> +It seems at first a probable conclusion that venomous snakes, such as the +foregoing, from being already so well defended by their poison-fangs, +would never be attacked by any enemy; and consequently would have no need +to excite additional terror. But this is far from being the case, for they +are largely preyed on in all quarters of the world by many animals. It is +well known that pigs are employed in the United States to clear districts +infested with rattle-snakes, which they do most effectually.<a +href="#linknote-429" name="linknoteref-429" id="linknoteref-429">[429]</a> +In England the hedgehog attacks and devours the viper. In India, as I hear +from Dr. Jerdon, several kinds of hawks, and at least one mammal, the +Herpestes, kill cobras and other venomous species;<a href="#linknote-430" +name="linknoteref-430" id="linknoteref-430">[430]</a> and so it is in +South Africa. Therefore it is by no means improbable that any sounds or +signs by which the venomous species could instantly make themselves +recognized as dangerous, would be of more service to them than to the +innocuous species which would not be able, if attacked, to inflict any +real injury. +</p> + +<p> +Having said thus much about snakes, I am tempted to add a few remarks on +the means by which the rattle of the rattle-snake was probably developed. +Various animals, including some lizards, either curl or vibrate their +tails when excited. This is the case with many kinds of snakes.<a +href="#linknote-431" name="linknoteref-431" id="linknoteref-431">[431]</a> +In the Zoological Gardens, an innocuous species, the <i>Coronella Sayi</i>, +vibrates its tail so rapidly that it becomes almost invisible. The +Trigonocephalus, before alluded to, has the same habit; and the extremity +of its tail is a little enlarged, or ends in a bead. In the Lachesis, +which is so closely allied to the rattle-snake that it was placed by +Linnaeus in the same genus, the tail ends in a single, large, +lancet-shaped point or scale. With some snakes the skin, as Professor +Shaler remarks, “is more imperfectly detached from the region about the +tail than at other parts of the body.” Now if we suppose that the end of +the tail of some ancient American species was enlarged, and was covered by +a single large scale, this could hardly have been cast off at the +successive moults. In this case it would have been permanently retained, +and at each period of growth, as the snake grew larger, a new scale, +larger than the last, would have been formed above it, and would likewise +have been retained. The foundation for the development of a rattle would +thus have been laid; and it would have been habitually used, if the +species, like so many others, vibrated its tail whenever it was irritated. +That the rattle has since been specially developed to serve as an +efficient sound-producing instrument, there can hardly be a doubt; for +even the vertebrae included within the extremity of the tail have been +altered in shape and cohere. But there is no greater improbability in +various structures, such as the rattle of the rattle-snake,—the +lateral scales of the Echis,—the neck with the included ribs of the +Cobra,—and the whole body of the puff-adder,—having been +modified for the sake of warning and frightening away their enemies, than +in a bird, namely, the wonderful Secretary-hawk (<i>Gypogeranus</i>) +having had its whole frame modified for the sake of killing snakes with +impunity. It is highly probable, judging from what we have before seen, +that this bird would ruffle its feathers whenever it attacked a snake; and +it is certain that the Herpestes, when it eagerly rushes to attack a +snake, erects the hair all over its body, and especially that on its tail.<a +href="#linknote-432" name="linknoteref-432" id="linknoteref-432">[432]</a> +We have also seen that some porcupines, when angered or alarmed at the +sight of a snake, rapidly vibrate their tails, thus producing a peculiar +sound by the striking together of the hollow quills. So that here both the +attackers and the attacked endeavour to make themselves as dreadful as +possible to each other; and both possess for this purpose specialised +means, which, oddly enough, are nearly the same in some of these cases. +Finally we can see that if, on the one hand, those individual snakes, +which were best able to frighten away their enemies, escaped best from +being devoured; and if, on the other hand, those individuals of the +attacking enemy survived in larger numbers which were the best fitted for +the dangerous task of killing and devouring venomous snakes;—then in +the one case as in the other, beneficial variations, supposing the +characters in question to vary, would commonly have been preserved through +the survival of the fittest. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>The Drawing back and pressure of the Ears to the Head</i>.—The +ears through their movements are highly expressive in many animals; but in +some, such as man, the higher apes, and many ruminants, they fail in this +respect. A slight difference in position serves to express in the plainest +manner a different state of mind, as we may daily see in the dog; but we +are here concerned only with the ears being drawn closely backwards and +pressed to the head. A savage frame of mind is thus shown, but only in the +case of those animals which fight with their teeth; and the care which +they take to prevent their ears being seized by their antagonists, +accounts for this position. Consequently, through habit and association, +whenever they feel slightly savage, or pretend in their play to be savage, +their ears are drawn back. That this is the true explanation may be +inferred from the relation which exists in very many animals between their +manner of fighting and the retraction of their ears. +</p> + +<p> +All the Carnivora fight with their canine teeth, and all, as far as I have +observed, draw their ears back when feeling savage. This may be +continually seen with dogs when fighting in earnest, and with puppies +fighting in play. The movement is different from the falling down and +slight drawing back of the ears, when a dog feels pleased and is caressed +by his master. The retraction of the ears may likewise be seen in kittens +fighting together in their play, and in full-grown cats when really +savage, as before illustrated in fig. 9 (p. 58). Although their ears are +thus to a large extent protected, yet they often get much torn in old male +cats during their mutual battles. The same movement is very striking in +tigers, leopards, &c., whilst growling over their food in menageries. +The lynx has remarkably long ears; and their retraction, when one of these +animals is approached in its cage, is very conspicuous, and is eminently +expressive of its savage disposition. Even one of the Eared Seals, the <i>Otariapusilla</i>, +which has very small ears, draws them backwards, when it makes a savage +rush at the legs of its keeper. +</p> + +<p> +When horses fight together they use their incisors for biting, and their +fore-legs for striking, much more than they do their hind-legs for kicking +backwards. This has been observed when stallions have broken loose and +have fought together, and may likewise be inferred from the kind of wounds +which they inflict on each other. Every one recognizes the vicious +appearance which the drawing back of the ears gives to a horse. This +movement is very different from that of listening to a sound behind. If an +ill-tempered horse in a stall is inclined to kick backwards, his ears are +retracted from habit, though he has no intention or power to bite. But +when a horse throws up both hind-legs in play, as when entering an open +field, or when just touched by the whip, he does not generally depress his +ears, for he does not then feel vicious. Guanacoes fight savagely with +their teeth; and they must do so frequently, for I found the hides of +several which I shot in Patagonia deeply scored. So do camels; and both +these animals, when savage, draw their ears closely backwards. Guanacoes, +as I have noticed, when not intending to bite, but merely to spit their +offensive saliva from a distance at an intruder, retract their ears. Even +the hippopotamus, when threatening with its widely-open enormous mouth a +comrade, draws back its small ears, just like a horse. +</p> + +<p> +Now what a contrast is presented between the foregoing animals and cattle, +sheep, or goats, which never use their teeth in fighting, and never draw +back their ears when enraged! Although sheep and goats appear such placid +animals, the males often join in furious contests. As deer form a closely +related family, and as I did not know that they ever fought with their +teeth, I was much surprised at the account given by Major Ross King of the +Moose-deer in Canada. He says, when“two males chance to meet, laying back +their ears and gnashing their teeth together, they rush at each other with +appalling fury.”<a href="#linknote-433" name="linknoteref-433" +id="linknoteref-433">[433]</a> But Mr. Bartlett informs me that some +species of deer fight savagely with their teeth, so that the drawing back +of the ears by the moose accords with our rule. Several kinds of +kangaroos, kept in the Zoological Gardens, fight by scratching with their +fore-feet and by kicking with their hind-legs; but they never bite each +other, and the keepers have never seen them draw back their ears when +angered. Rabbits fight chiefly by kicking and scratching, but they +likewise bite each other; and I have known one to bite off half the tail +of its antagonist. At the commencement of their battles they lay back +their ears, but afterwards, as they bound over and kick each other, they +keep their ears erect, or move them much about. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Bartlett watched a wild boar quarrelling rather savagely with his sow; +and both had their mouths open and their ears drawn backwards. But this +does not appear to be a common action with domestic pigs when quarrelling. +Boars fight together by striking upwards with their tusks; and Mr. +Bartlett doubts whether they then draw back their ears. Elephants, which +in like manner fight with their tusks, do not retract their ears, but, on +the contrary, erect them when rushing at each other or at an enemy. +</p> + +<p> +The rhinoceroses in the Zoological Gardens fight with their nasal horns, +and have never been seen to attempt biting each other except in play; and +the keepers are convinced that they do not draw back their ears, like +horses and dogs, when feeling savage. The following statement, therefore, +by Sir S. Baker<a href="#linknote-434" name="linknoteref-434" +id="linknoteref-434">[434]</a> is inexplicable, namely, that a rhinoceros, +which he shot in North Africa, “had no ears; they had been bitten off +close to the head by another of the same species while fighting; and this +mutilation is by no means uncommon.” +</p> + +<p> +Lastly, with respect to monkeys. Some kinds, which have moveable ears, and +which fight with their teeth—for instance the <i>Cereopithecus ruber</i>—draw +back their ears when irritated just like dogs; and they then have a very +spiteful appearance. Other kinds, as the <i>Inuus ecaudatus</i>, +apparently do not thus act. Again, other kinds—and this is a great +anomaly in comparison with most other animals—retract their ears, +show their teeth, and jabber, when they are pleased by being caressed. I +observed this in two or three species of Macacus, and in the <i>Cynopithecus +niger</i>. This expression, owing to our familiarity with dogs, would +never be recognized as one of joy or pleasure by those unacquainted with +monkeys. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Erection of the Ears</i>.—This movement requires hardly any +notice. All animals which have the power of freely moving their ears, when +they are startled, or when they closely observe any object, direct their +ears to the point towards which they are looking, in order to hear any +sound from this quarter. At the same time they generally raise their +heads, as all their organs of sense are there situated, and some of the +smaller animals rise on their hind-legs. Even those kinds which squat on +the ground or instantly flee away to avoid danger, generally act +momentarily in this manner, in order to ascertain the source and nature of +the danger. The head being raised, with erected ears and eyes directed +forwards, gives an unmistakable expression of close attention to any +animal. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"></a> +CHAPTER V.<br/>SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS. +</h2> + +<p> +The Dog, various expressive movements of—Cats—Horses—Ruminants—Monkeys, +their expression of joy and affection—Of pain—Anger—Astonishment +and Terror. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>The Dog</i>.—I have already described (figs. 5 and 7) the +appearance of a dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions, +namely, with erected ears, eyes intently directed forwards, hair on the +neck and back bristling, gait remarkably stiff, with the tail upright and +rigid. So familiar is this appearance to us, that an angry man is +sometimes said “to have his back up.” Of the above points, the stiff gait +and upright tail alone require further discussion. Sir C. Bell remarks<a +href="#linknote-501" name="linknoteref-501" id="linknoteref-501">[501]</a> +that, when a tiger or wolf is struck by its keeper and is suddenly roused +to ferocity, every muscle is in tension, and the limbs are in an attitude +of strained exertion, prepared to spring. This tension of the muscles and +consequent stiff gait may be accounted for on the principle of associated +habit, for anger has continually led to fierce struggles, and consequently +to all the muscles of the body having been violently exerted. There is +also reason to suspect that the muscular system requires some short +preparation, or some degree of innervation, before being brought into +strong action. My own sensations lead me to this inference; but I cannot +discover that it is a conclusion admitted by physiologists. Sir J. Paget, +however, informs me that when muscles are suddenly contracted with the +greatest force, without any preparation, they are liable to be ruptured, +as when a man slips unexpectedly; but that this rarely occurs when an +action, however violent, is deliberately performed. +</p> + +<p> +With respect to the upright position of the tail, it seems to depend (but +whether this is really the case I know not) on the elevator muscles being +more powerful than the depressors, so that when all the muscles of the +hinder part of the body are in a state of tension, the tail is raised. A +dog in cheerful spirits, and trotting before his master with high, elastic +steps, generally carries his tail aloft, though it is not held nearly so +stiffly as when he is angered. A horse when first turned out into an open +field, may be seen to trot with long elastic strides, the head and tail +being held high aloft. Even cows when they frisk about from pleasure, +throw up their tails in a ridiculous fashion. So it is with various +animals in the Zoological Gardens. The position of the tail, however, in +certain cases, is determined by special circumstances; thus as soon as a +horse breaks into a gallop, at full speed, he always lowers his tail, so +that as little resistance as possible may be offered to the air. +</p> + +<p> +When a dog is on the point of springing on his antagonist, he utters a +savage growl; the ears are pressed closely backwards, and the upper lip +(fig. 14) is retracted out of the way of his teeth, especially of his +canines. These movements may be observed with dogs and puppies in their +play. But if a dog gets really savage in his play, his expression +immediately changes. This, however, is simply due to the lips and ears +being drawn back with much greater energy. If a dog only snarls at +another, the lip is generally retracted on one side alone, namely towards +his enemy. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0013" id="linkimage-0013"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Head of Snarling Dog. Fig 14 " /> +</div> + +<p> +{illust. caption = FIG. 14.—Head of snarling Dog. From life, by Mr. +Wood. +</p> + +<p> +The movements of a dog whilst exhibiting affection towards his master were +described (figs. 6 and 8) in our second chapter. These consist in the head +and whole body being lowered and thrown into flexuous movements, with the +tail extended and wagged from side to side. The ears fall down and are +drawn somewhat backwards, which causes the eyelids to be elongated, and +alters the whole appearance of the face. The lips hang loosely, and the +hair remains smooth. All these movements or gestures are explicable, as I +believe, from their standing in complete antithesis to those naturally +assumed by a savage dog under a directly opposite state of mind. When a +man merely speaks to, or just notices, his dog, we see the last vestige of +these movements in a slight wag of the tail, without any other movement of +the body, and without even the ears being lowered. Dogs also exhibit their +affection by desiring to rub against their masters, and to be rubbed or +patted by them. +</p> + +<p> +Gratiolet explains the above gestures of affection in the following manner: and +the reader can judge whether the explanation appears satisfactory. Speaking of +animals in general, including the dog, he says,<a href="#linknote-502" +name="linknoteref-502" id="linknoteref-502">[502]</a> “C’est +toujours la partie la plus sensible de leurs corps qui recherche les caresses +ou les donne. Lorsque toute la longueur des flancs et du corps est sensible, +l’animal serpente et rampe sous les caresses; et ces ondulations se +propageant le long des muscles analogues des segments jusqu’aux +extrémités de la colonne vertébrale, la queue se ploie et s’agite.” +Further on, he adds, that dogs, when feeling affectionate, lower their ears in +order to exclude all sounds, so that their whole attention may be concentrated +on the caresses of their master! +</p> + +<p> +Dogs have another and striking way of exhibiting their affection, namely, by +licking the hands or faces of their masters. They sometimes lick other dogs, +and then it is always their chops. I have also seen dogs licking cats with whom +they were friends. This habit probably originated in the females carefully +licking their puppies—the dearest object of their love—for the sake +of cleansing them. They also often give their puppies, after a short absence, a +few cursory licks, apparently from affection. Thus the habit will have become +associated with the emotion of love, however it may afterwards be aroused. It +is now so firmly inherited or innate, that it is transmitted equally to both +sexes. A female terrier of mine lately had her puppies destroyed, and though at +all times a very affectionate creature, I was much struck with the manner in +which she then tried to satisfy her instinctive maternal love by expending it +on me; and her desire to lick my hands rose to an insatiable passion. +</p> + +<p> +The same principle probably explains why dogs, when feeling affectionate, +like rubbing against their masters and being rubbed or patted by them, for +from the nursing of their puppies, contact with a beloved object has +become firmly associated in their minds with the emotion of love. +</p> + +<p> +The feeling of affection of a dog towards his master is combined with a strong +sense of submission, which is akin to fear. Hence dogs not only lower their +bodies and crouch a little as they approach their masters, but sometimes throw +themselves on the ground with their bellies upwards. This is a movement as +completely opposite as is possible to any show of resistance. I formerly +possessed a large dog who was not at all afraid to fight with other dogs; but a +wolf-like shepherd-dog in the neighbourhood, though not ferocious and not so +powerful as my dog, had a strange influence over him. When they met on the +road, my dog used to run to meet him, with his tail partly tucked in between +his legs and hair not erected; and then he would throw himself on the ground, +belly upwards. By this action he seemed to say more plainly than by words, +“Behold, I am your slave.” +</p> + +<p> +A pleasurable and excited state of mind, associated with affection, is +exhibited by some dogs in a very peculiar manner, namely, by grinning. This was +noticed long ago by Somerville, who says, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“And with a courtly grin, the fawning hound<br/> +Salutes thee cow’ring, his wide op’ning nose<br/> +Upward he curls, and his large sloe-back eyes<br/> +Melt in soft blandishments, and humble joy.”<br/> +<i>The Chase</i>, book i. +</p> + +<p> +Sir W. Scott’s famous Scotch greyhound, Maida, had this habit, and it is +common with terriers. I have also seen it in a Spitz and in a sheep-dog. Mr. +Riviere, who has particularly attended to this expression, informs me that it +is rarely displayed in a perfect manner, but is quite common in a lesser +degree. The upper lip during the act of grinning is retracted, as in snarling, +so that the canines are exposed, and the ears are drawn backwards; but the +general appearance of the animal clearly shows that anger is not felt. Sir C. +Bell<a href="#linknote-503" name="linknoteref-503" +id="linknoteref-503">[503]</a> remarks “Dogs, in their expression of +fondness, have a slight eversion of the lips, and grin and sniff amidst their +gambols, in a way that resembles laughter.” Some persons speak of the +grin as a smile, but if it had been really a smile, we should see a similar, +though more pronounced, movement of the lips and ears, when dogs utter their +bark of joy; but this is not the case, although a bark of joy often follows a +grin. On the other hand, dogs, when playing with their comrades or masters, +almost always pretend to bite each other; and they then retract, though not +energetically, their lips and ears. Hence I suspect that there is a tendency in +some dogs, whenever they feel lively pleasure combined with affection, to act +through habit and association on the same muscles, as in playfully biting each +other, or their masters’ hands. +</p> + +<p> +I have described, in the second chapter, the gait and appearance of a dog when +cheerful, and the marked antithesis presented by the same animal when dejected +and disappointed, with his head, ears, body, tail, and chops drooping, and eyes +dull. Under the expectation of any great pleasure, dogs bound and jump about in +an extravagant manner, and bark for joy. The tendency to bark under this state +of mind is inherited, or runs in the breed: greyhounds rarely bark, whilst the +Spitz-dog barks so incessantly on starting for a walk with his master that he +becomes a nuisance. +</p> + +<p> +An agony of pain is expressed by dogs in nearly the same way as by many +other animals, namely, by howling writhing, and contortions of the whole +body. +</p> + +<p> +Attention is shown by the head being raised, with the ears erected, and eyes +intently directed towards the object or quarter under observation. If it be a +sound and the source is not known, the head is often turned obliquely from side +to side in a most significant manner, apparently in order to judge with more +exactness from what point the sound proceeds. But I have seen a dog greatly +surprised at a new noise, turning, his head to one side through habit, though +he clearly perceived the source of the noise. Dogs, as formerly remarked, when +their attention is in any way aroused, whilst watching some object, or +attending to some sound, often lift up one paw (fig. 4) and keep it doubled up, +as if to make a slow and stealthy approach. +</p> + +<p> +A dog under extreme terror will throw himself down, howl, and void his +excretions; but the hair, I believe, does not become erect unless some anger is +felt. I have seen a dog much terrified at a band of musicians who were playing +loudly outside the house, with every muscle of his body trembling, with his +heart palpitating so quickly that the beats could hardly be counted, and +panting for breath with widely open mouth, in the same manner as a terrified +man does. Yet this dog had not exerted himself; he had only wandered slowly and +restlessly about the room, and the day was cold. +</p> + +<p> +Even a very slight degree of fear is invariably shown by the tail being tucked +in between the legs. This tucking in of the fail is accompanied by the ears +being drawn backwards; but they are not pressed closely to the head, as in +snarling, and they are not lowered, as when a dog is pleased or affectionate. +When two young dogs chase each other in play, the one that runs away always +keeps his tail tucked inwards. So it is when a dog, in the highest spirits, +careers like a mad creature round and round his master in circles, or in +figures of eight. He then acts as if another dog were chasing him. This curious +kind of play, which must be familiar to every one who has attended to dogs, is +particularly apt to be excited, after the animal has been a little startled or +frightened, as by his master suddenly jumping out on him in the dusk. In this +case, as well as when two young dogs are chasing each other in play, it appears +as if the one that runs away was afraid of the other catching him by the tail; +but as far as I can find out, dogs very rarely catch each other in this manner. +I asked a gentleman, who had kept foxhounds all his life, and he applied to +other experienced sportsmen, whether they had ever seen hounds thus seize a +fox; but they never had. It appears that when a dog is chased, or when in +danger of being struck behind, or of anything falling on him, in all these +cases he wishes to withdraw as quickly as possible his whole hind-quarters, and +that from some sympathy or connection between the muscles, the tail is then +drawn closely inwards. +</p> + +<p> +A similarly connected movement between the hind-quarters and the tail may be +observed in the hyaena. Mr. Bartlett informs me that when two of these animals +fight together, they are mutually conscious of the wonderful power of each +other’s jaws, and are extremely cautious. They well know that if one of +their legs were seized, the bone would instantly be crushed into atoms; hence +they approach each other kneeling, with their legs turned as much as possible +inwards, and with their whole bodies bowed, so as not to present any salient +point; the tail at the same time being closely tucked in between the legs. In +this attitude they approach each other sideways, or even partly backwards. So +again with deer, several of the species, when savage and fighting, tuck in +their tails. When one horse in a field tries to bite the hind-quarters of +another in play, or when a rough boy strikes a donkey from behind, the +hind-quarters and the tail are drawn in, though it does not appear as if this +were done merely to save the tail from being injured. We have also seen the +reverse of these movements; for when an animal trots with high elastic steps, +the tail is almost always carried aloft. +</p> + +<p> +As I have said, when a dog is chased and runs away, he keeps his ears directed +backwards but still open; and this is clearly done for the sake of hearing the +footsteps of his pursuer. From habit the ears are often held in this same +position, and the tail tucked in, when the danger is obviously in front. I have +repeatedly noticed, with a timid terrier of mine, that when she is afraid of +some object in front, the nature of which she perfectly knows and does not need +to reconnoitre, yet she will for a long time hold her ears and tail in this +position, looking the image of discomfort. Discomfort, without any fear, is +similarly expressed: thus, one day I went out of doors, just at the time when +this same dog knew that her dinner would be brought. I did not call her, but +she wished much to accompany me, and at the same time she wished much for her +dinner; and there she stood, first looking one way and then the other, with her +tail tucked in and ears drawn back, presenting an unmistakable appearance of +perplexed discomfort. +</p> + +<p> +Almost all the expressive movements now described, with the exception of the +grinning from joy, are innate or instinctive, for they are common to all the +individuals, young and old, of all the breeds. Most of them are likewise common +to the aboriginal parents of the dog, namely the wolf and jackal; and some of +them to other species of the same group. Tamed wolves and jackals, when +caressed by their masters, jump about for joy, wag their tails, lower their +ears, lick their master’s hands, crouch down, and even throw themselves +on the ground belly upwards.<a href="#linknote-504" name="linknoteref-504" +id="linknoteref-504">[504]</a> I have seen a rather fox-like African jackal, +from the Gaboon, depress its ears when caressed. Wolves and jackals, when +frightened, certainly tuck in their tails; and a tamed jackal has been +described as careering round his master in circles and figures of eight, like a +dog, with his tail between his legs. +</p> + +<p> +It has been stated<a href="#linknote-505" name="linknoteref-505" +id="linknoteref-505">[505]</a> that foxes, however tame, never display any of +the above expressive movements; but this is not strictly accurate. Many years +ago I observed in the Zoological Gardens, and recorded the fact at the time, +that a very tame English fox, When caressed by the keeper, wagged its tail, +depressed its ears, and then threw itself on the ground, belly upwards. The +black fox of North America likewise depressed its ears in a slight degree. But +I believe that foxes never lick the hands of their masters, and I have been +assured that when frightened they never tuck in their tails. If the explanation +which I have given of the expression of affection in dogs be admitted, then it +would appear that animals which have never been domesticated—namely +wolves, jackals, and even foxes—have nevertheless acquired, through the +principle of antithesis, certain expressive gestures; for it is not probable +that these animals, confined in cages, should have learnt them by imitating +dogs. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Cats</i>.—I have already described the actions of a cat (fig. 9), +when feeling savage and not terrified. She assumes a crouching attitude +and occasionally protrudes her fore-feet, with the claws exserted ready +for striking. The tail is extended, being curled or lashed from side to +side. The hair is not erected—at least it was not so in the few +cases observed by me. The ears are drawn closely backwards and the teeth +are shown. Low savage growls are uttered. We can understand why the +attitude assumed by a cat when preparing to fight with another cat, or in +any way greatly irritated, is so widely different from that of a dog +approaching another dog with hostile intentions; for the cat uses her +fore-feet for striking, and this renders a crouching position convenient +or necessary. She is also much more accustomed than a dog to lie concealed +and suddenly spring on her prey. No cause can be assigned with certainty +for the tail being lashed or curled from side to side. This habit is +common to many other animals—for instance, to the puma, when +prepared to spring;<a href="#linknote-506" name="linknoteref-506" +id="linknoteref-506">[506]</a> but it is not common to dogs, or to foxes, +as I infer from Mr. St. John’s account of a fox lying in wait and seizing +a hare. We have already seen that some kinds of lizards and various +snakes, when excited, rapidly vibrate the tips of their tails. It would +appear as if, under strong excitement, there existed an uncontrollable +desire for movement of some kind, owing to nerve-force being freely +liberated from the excited sensorium; and that as the tail is left free, +and as its movement does not disturb the general position of the body, it +is curled or lashed about. +</p> + +<p> +All the movements of a cat, when feeling affectionate, are in complete +antithesis to those just described. She now stands upright, with slightly +arched back, tail perpendicularly raised, and ears erected; and she rubs +her cheeks and flanks against her master or mistress. The desire to rub +something is so strong in cats under this state of mind, that they may +often be seen rubbing themselves against the legs of chairs or tables, or +against door-posts. This manner of expressing affection probably +originated through association, as in the case of dogs, from the mother +nursing and fondling her young; and perhaps from the young themselves +loving each other and playing together. Another and very different +gesture, expressive of pleasure, has already been described, namely, the +curious manner in which young and even old cats, when pleased, alternately +protrude their fore-feet, with separated toes, as if pushing against and +sucking their mother’s teats. This habit is so far analogous to that of +rubbing against something, that both apparently are derived from actions +performed during the nursing period. Why cats should show affection by +rubbing so much more than do dogs, though the latter delight in contact +with their masters, and why cats only occasionally lick the hands of their +friends, whilst dogs always do so, I cannot say. Cats cleanse themselves +by licking their own coats more regularly than do dogs. On the other hand, +their tongues seem less well fitted for the work than the longer and more +flexible tongues of dogs. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0014" id="linkimage-0014"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Cat Terrified at a Dog. Fig.15 " /> +</div> + +<p> +Cats, when terrified, stand at full height, and arch their backs in a +well-known and ridiculous fashion. They spit, hiss, or growl. The hair +over the whole body, and especially on the tail, becomes erect. In the +instances observed by me the basal part of the tail was held upright, the +terminal part being thrown on one side; but sometimes the tail (see fig. +15) is only a little raised, and is bent almost from the base to one side. +The ears are drawn back, and the teeth exposed. When two kittens are +playing together, the one often thus tries to frighten the other. From +what we have seen in former chapters, all the above points of expression +are intelligible, except the extreme arching of the back. I am inclined to +believe that, in the same manner as many birds, whilst they ruffle their +feathers, spread out their wings and tail, to make themselves look as big +as possible, so cats stand upright at their full height, arch their backs, +often raise the basal part of the tail, and erect their hair, for the same +purpose. The lynx, when attacked, is said to arch its back, and is thus +figured by Brehm. But the keepers in the Zoological Gardens have never +seen any tendency to this action in the larger feline animals, such as +tigers, lions, &c.; and these have little cause to be afraid of any +other animal. +</p> + +<p> +Cats use their voices much as a means of expression, and they utter, under +various emotions and desires, at least six or seven different sounds. The +purr of satisfaction, which is made during both inspiration and +expiration, is one of the most curious. The puma, cheetah, and ocelot +likewise purr; but the tiger, when pleased, “emits a peculiar short +snuffle, accompanied by the closure of the eyelids.”<a href="#linknote-507" +name="linknoteref-507" id="linknoteref-507">[507]</a> It is said that the +lion, jaguar, and leopard, do not purr. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Horses</i>.—Horses when savage draw their ears closely back, +protrude their heads, and partially uncover their incisor teeth, ready for +biting. When inclined to kick behind, they generally, through habit, draw +back their ears; and their eyes are turned backwards in a peculiar manner.<a +href="#linknote-508" name="linknoteref-508" id="linknoteref-508">[508]</a> +When pleased, as when some coveted food is brought to them in the stable, +they raise and draw in their heads, prick their ears, and looking intently +towards their friend, often whinny. Impatience is expressed by pawing the +ground. +</p> + +<p> +The actions of a horse when much startled are highly expressive. One day +my horse was much frightened at a drilling machine, covered by a +tarpaulin, and lying on an open field. He raised his head so high, that +his neck became almost perpendicular; and this he did from habit, for the +machine lay on a slope below, and could not have been seen with more +distinctness through the raising of the head; nor if any sound had +proceeded from it, could the sound have been more distinctly heard. His +eyes and ears were directed intently forwards; and I could feel through +the saddle the palpitations of his heart. With red dilated nostrils he +snorted violently, and whirling round, would have dashed off at full +speed, had I not prevented him. The distension of the nostrils is not for +the sake of scenting the source of danger, for when a horse smells +carefully at any object and is not alarmed, he does not dilate his +nostrils. Owing to the presence of a valve in the throat, a horse when +panting does not breathe through his open mouth, but through his nostrils; +and these consequently have become endowed with great powers of expansion. +This expansion of the nostrils, as well as the snorting, and the +palpitations of the heart, are actions which have become firmly associated +during a long series of generations with the emotion of terror; for terror +has habitually led the horse to the most violent exertion in dashing away +at full speed from the cause of danger. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Ruminants</i>.—Cattle and sheep are remarkable from displaying in +so slight a degree their emotions or sensations, excepting that of extreme +pain. A bull when enraged exhibits his rage only by the manner in which he +holds his lowered head, with distended nostrils, and by bellowing. He also +often paws the ground; but this pawing seems quite different from that of +an impatient horse, for when the soil is loose, he throws up clouds of +dust. I believe that bulls act in this manner when irritated by flies, for +the sake of driving them away. The wilder breeds of sheep and the chamois +when startled stamp on the ground, and whistle through their noses; and +this serves as a danger-signal to their comrades. The musk-ox of the +Arctic regions, when encountered, likewise stamps on the ground.<a +href="#linknote-509" name="linknoteref-509" id="linknoteref-509">[509]</a> +How this stamping action arose I cannot conjecture; for from inquiries +which I have made it does not appear that any of these animals fight with +their fore-legs. +</p> + +<p> +Some species of deer, when savage, display far more expression than do +cattle, sheep, or goats, for, as has already been stated, they draw back +their ears, grind their teeth, erect their hair, squeal, stamp on the +ground, and brandish their horns. One day in the Zoological Gardens, the +Formosan deer (<i>Cervus pseudaxis</i>) approached me in a curious +attitude, with his muzzle raised high up, so that the horns were pressed +back on his neck; the head being held rather obliquely. From the +expression of his eye I felt sure that he was savage; he approached +slowly, and as soon as he came close to the iron bars, he did not lower +his head to butt at me, but suddenly bent it inwards, and struck his horns +with great force against the railings. Mr. Bartlett informs me that some +other species of deer place themselves in the same attitude when enraged. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Monkeys</i>.—The various species and genera of monkeys express +their feelings in many different ways; and this fact is interesting, as in +some degree bearing on the question, whether the so-called races of man +should be ranked as distinct species or varieties; for, as we shall see in +the following chapters, the different races of man express their emotions +and sensations with remarkable uniformity throughout the world. Some of +the expressive actions of monkeys are interesting in another way, namely +from being closely analogous to those of man. As I have had no opportunity +of observing any one species of the group under all circumstances, my +miscellaneous remarks will be best arranged under different states of the +mind. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Pleasure, joy, affection</i>—It is not possible to distinguish in +monkeys, at least without more experience than I have had, the expression +of pleasure or joy from that of affection. Young chimpanzees make a kind +of barking noise, when pleased by the return of any one to whom they are +attached. When this noise, which the keepers call a laugh, is uttered, the +lips are protruded; but so they are under various other emotions. +Nevertheless I could perceive that when they were pleased the form of the +lips differed a little from that assumed when they were angered. If a +young chimpanzee be tickled—and the armpits are particularly +sensitive to tickling, as in the case of our children,—a more +decided chuckling or laughing sound is uttered; though the laughter is +sometimes noiseless. The corners of the mouth are then drawn backwards; +and this sometimes causes the lower eyelids to be slightly wrinkled. But +this wrinkling, which is so characteristic of our own laughter, is more +plainly seen in some other monkeys. The teeth in the upper jaw in the +chimpanzee are not exposed when they utter their laughing noise, in which +respect they differ from us. But their eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as +Mr. W. L. Martin,<a href="#linknote-510" name="linknoteref-510" +id="linknoteref-510">[510]</a> who has particularly attended to their +expression, states. +</p> + +<p> +Young Orangs, when tickled, likewise grin and make a chuckling sound; and +Mr. Martin says that their eyes grow brighter. As soon as their laughter +ceases, an expression may be detected passing over their faces, which, as +Mr. Wallace remarked to me, may be called a smile. I have also noticed +something of the same kind with the chimpanzee. Dr. Duchenne—and I +cannot quote a better authority—informs me that he kept a very tame +monkey in his house for a year; and when he gave it during meal-times some +choice delicacy, he observed that the corners of its mouth were slightly +raised; thus an expression of satisfaction, partaking of the nature of an +incipient smile, and resembling that often seen on the face of main, could +be plainly perceived in this animal. +</p> + +<p> +The <i>Cebus azaræ</i>,<a href="#linknote-511" name="linknoteref-511" +id="linknoteref-511">[511]</a> when rejoiced at again seeing a beloved +person, utters a peculiar tittering (<i>kichernden</i>) sound. It also +expresses agreeable sensations, by drawing back the corners of its mouth, +without producing any sound. Rengger calls this movement laughter, but it +would be more appropriately called a smile. The form of the mouth is +different when either pain or terror is expressed, and high shrieks are +uttered. Another species of <i>Cebus</i> in the Zoological Gardens (<i>C. +hypoleucus</i>) when pleased, makes a reiterated shrill note, and likewise +draws back the corners of its mouth, apparently through the contraction of +the same muscles as with us. So does the Barbary ape (<i>Inuus ecaudatus</i>) +to an extraordinary degree; and I observed in this monkey that the skin of +the lower eyelids then became much wrinkled. At the same time it rapidly +moved its lower jaw or lips in a spasmodic manner, the teeth being +exposed; but the noise produced was hardly more distinct than that which +we sometimes call silent laughter. Two of the keepers affirmed that this +slight sound was the animal’s laughter, and when I expressed some doubt on +this head (being at the time quite inexperienced), they made it attack or +rather threaten a hated Entellus monkey, living in the same compartment. +Instantly the whole expression of the face of the Inuus changed; the mouth +was opened much more widely, the canine teeth were more fully exposed, and +a hoarse barking noise was uttered. +</p> + +<p> +The Anubis baboon (<i>Cynocephalus anubis</i>) was first insulted and put +into a furious rage, as was easily done, by his keeper, who then made +friends with him and shook hands. As the reconciliation was effected the +baboon rapidly moved up and down his jaws and lips, and looked pleased. +When we laugh heartily, a similar movement, or quiver, may be observed +more or less distinctly in our jaws; but with man the muscles of the chest +are more particularly acted on, whilst with this baboon, and with some +other monkeys, it is the muscles of the jaws and lips which are +spasmodically affected. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0016" id="linkimage-0016"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig16-17.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Cynopithecus Niger, in a Placid Condition. Fig.16-17 " /> +</div> + +<p> +I have already had occasion to remark on the curious manner in which two +or three species of Alacacus and the <i>Cynopithecus niger</i> draw back +their ears and utter a slight jabbering noise, when they are pleased by +being caressed. With the Cynopithecus (fig. 17), the corners of the mouth +are at the same time drawn backwards and upwards, so that the teeth are +exposed. Hence this expression would never be recognized by a stranger as +one of pleasure. The crest of long hairs on the forehead is depressed, and +apparently the whole skin of the head drawn backwards. The eyebrows are +thus raised a little, and the eyes assume a staring appearance. The lower +eyelids also become slightly wrinkled; but this wrinkling is not +conspicuous, owing to the permanent transverse furrows on the face. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Painful emotions and sensations</i>.—With monkeys the expression +of slight pain, or of any painful emotion, such as grief, vexation, +jealousy, &c., is not easily distinguished from that of moderate +anger; and these states of mind readily and quickly pass into each other. +Grief, however, with some species is certainly exhibited by weeping. A +woman, who sold a monkey to the Zoological Society, believed to have come +from Borneo (<i>Macacus maurus</i> or <i>M. inornatus</i> of Gray), said +that it often cried; and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the keeper Mr. Sutton, +have repeatedly seen it, when grieved, or even when much pitied, weeping +so copiously that the tears rolled down its cheeks. There is, however, +something strange about this case, for two specimens subsequently kept in +the Gardens, and believed to be the same species, have never been seen to +weep, though they were carefully observed by the keeper and myself when +much distressed and loudly screaming. Rengger states<a href="#linknote-512" +name="linknoteref-512" id="linknoteref-512">[512]</a> that the eyes of the +<i>Cebus azaræ</i> fill with tears, but not sufficiently to overflow, +when it is prevented getting some much desired object, or is much +frightened. Humboldt also asserts that the eyes of the <i>Callithrix +sciureus</i> “instantly fill with tears when it is seized with fear;” but +when this pretty little monkey in the Zoological Gardens was teased, so as +to cry out loudly, this did not occur. I do not, however, wish to throw +the least doubt on the accuracy of Humboldt’s statement. +</p> + +<p> +The appearance of dejection in young orangs and chimpanzees, when out of +health, is as plain and almost as pathetic as in the case of our children. +This state of mind and body is shown by their listless movements, fallen +countenances, dull eyes, and changed complexion. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Anger</i>.—This emotion is often exhibited by many kinds of +monkeys, and is expressed, as Mr. Martin remarks,<a href="#linknote-513" +name="linknoteref-513" id="linknoteref-513">[513]</a> in many different +ways. “Some species, when irritated, pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and +savage glare on their foe, and make repeated short starts as if about to +spring forward, uttering at the same time inward guttural sounds. Many +display their anger by suddenly advancing, making abrupt starts, at the +same time opening the mouth and pursing up the lips, so as to conceal the +teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed on the enemy, as if in savage +defiance. Some again, and principally the long-tailed monkeys, or Guenons, +display their teeth, and accompany their malicious grins with a sharp, +abrupt, reiterated cry.” Mr. Sutton confirms the statement that some +species uncover their teeth when enraged, whilst others conceal them by +the protrusion of their lips; and some kinds draw back their ears. The <i>Cynopithecus +niger</i>, lately referred to, acts in this manner, at the same time +depressing the crest of hair on its forehead, and showing its teeth; so +that the movements of the features from anger are nearly the same as those +from pleasure; and the two expressions can be distinguished only by those +familiar with the animal. +</p> + +<p> +Baboons often show their passion and threaten their enemies in a very odd +manner, namely, by opening their mouths widely as in the act of yawning. +Mr. Bartlett has often seen two baboons, when first placed in the same +compartment, sitting opposite to each other and thus alternately opening +their mouths; and this action seems frequently to end in a real yawn. Mr. +Bartlett believes that both animals wish to show to each other that they +are provided with a formidable set of teeth, as is undoubtedly the case. +As I could hardly credit the reality of this yawning gesture, Mr. Bartlett +insulted an old baboon and put him into a violent passion; and he almost +immediately thus acted. Some species of Macacus and of Cereopithecus<a +href="#linknote-514" name="linknoteref-514" id="linknoteref-514">[514]</a> +behave in the same manner. Baboons likewise show their anger, as was +observed by Brehin with those which he kept alive in Abyssinia, in another +manner, namely, by striking the ground with one hand, “like an angry man +striking the table with his fist.” I have seen this movement with the +baboons in the Zoological Gardens; but sometimes the action seems rather +to represent the searching for a stone or other object in their beds of +straw. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Sutton has often observed the face of the <i>Macacus rhesus</i>, when +much enraged, growing red. As he was mentioning this to me, another monkey +attacked a <i>rhesus</i>, and I saw its face redden as plainly as that of +a man in a violent passion. In the course of a few minutes, after the +battle, the face of this monkey recovered its natural tint. At the same +time that the face reddened, the naked posterior part of the body, which +is always red, seemed to grow still redder; but I cannot positively assert +that this was the case. When the Mandrill is in any way excited, the +brilliantly coloured, naked parts of the skin are said to become still +more vividly coloured. +</p> + +<p> +With several species of baboons the ridge of the forehead projects much +over the eyes, and is studded with a few long hairs, representing our +eyebrows. These animals are always looking about them, and in order to +look upwards they raise their eyebrows. They have thus, as it would +appear, acquired the habit of frequently moving their eyebrows. However +this may be, many kinds of monkeys, especially the baboons, when angered +or in any way excited, rapidly and incessantly move their eyebrows up and +down, as well as the hairy skin of their foreheads.<a href="#linknote-515" +name="linknoteref-515" id="linknoteref-515">[515]</a> As we associate in +the case of man the raising and lowering of the eyebrows with definite +states of the mind, the almost incessant movement of the eyebrows by +monkeys gives them a senseless expression. I once observed a man who had a +trick of continually raising his eyebrows without any corresponding +emotion, and this gave to him a foolish appearance; so it is with some +persons who keep the corners of their mouths a little drawn backwards and +upwards, as if by an incipient smile, though at the time they are not +amused or pleased. +</p> + +<p> +A young orang, made jealous by her keeper attending to another monkey, +slightly uncovered her teeth, and, uttering a peevish noise like <i>tish-shist</i>, +turned her back on him. Both orangs and chimpanzees, when a little more +angered, protrude their lips greatly, and make a harsh barking noise. A +young female chimpanzee, in a violent passion, presented a curious +resemblance to a child in the same state. She screamed loudly with widely +open mouth, the lips being retracted so that the teeth were fully exposed. +She threw her arms wildly about, sometimes clasping them over her head. +She rolled on the ground, sometimes on her back, sometimes on her belly, +and bit everything within reach. A young gibbon (<i>Hylobates syndactylus</i>) +in a passion has been described<a href="#linknote-516" +name="linknoteref-516" id="linknoteref-516">[516]</a> as behaving in +almost exactly the same manner. +</p> + +<p> +The lips of young orangs and chimpanzees are protruded, sometimes to a +wonderful degree, under various circumstances. They act thus, not only +when slightly angered, sulky, or disappointed, but when alarmed at +anything—in one instance, at the sight of a turtle,<a +href="#linknote-517" name="linknoteref-517" id="linknoteref-517">[517]</a>—and +likewise when pleased. But neither the degree of protrusion nor the shape +of the mouth is exactly the same, as I believe, in all cases; and the +sounds which are then uttered are different. The accompanying drawing +represents a chimpanzee made sulky by an orange having been offered him, +and then taken away. A similar protrusion or pouting of the lips, though +to a much slighter degree, may be seen in sulky children. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0017" id="linkimage-0017"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig18.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Chimpanzee Disappointed and Sulky. Fig. 18 " /> +</div> + +<p> +Many years ago, in the Zoological Gardens, I placed a looking-glass on the +floor before two young orangs, who, as far as it was known, had never +before seen one. At first they gazed at their own images with the most +steady surprise, and often changed their point of view. They then +approached close and protruded their lips towards the image, as if to kiss +it, in exactly the same manner as they had previously done towards each +other, when first placed, a few days before, in the same room. They next +made all sorts of grimaces, and put themselves in various attitudes before +the mirror; they pressed and rubbed the surface; they placed their hands +at different distances behind it; looked behind it; and finally seemed +almost frightened, started a little, became cross, and refused to look any +longer. +</p> + +<p> +When we try to perform some little action which is difficult and requires +precision, for instance, to thread a needle, we generally close our lips +firmly, for the sake, I presume, of not disturbing our movements by +breathing; and I noticed the same action in a young Orang. The poor little +creature was sick, and was amusing itself by trying to kill the flies on +the window-panes with its knuckles; this was difficult as the flies buzzed +about, and at each attempt the lips were firmly compressed, and at the +same time slightly protruded. +</p> + +<p> +Although the countenances, and more especially the gestures, of orangs and +chimpanzees are in some respects highly expressive, I doubt whether on the +whole they are so expressive as those of some other kinds of monkeys. This +may be attributed in part to their ears being immovable, and in part to +the nakedness of their eyebrows, of which the movements are thus rendered +less conspicuous. When, however, they raise their eyebrows their foreheads +become, as with us, transversely wrinkled. In comparison with man, their +faces are inexpressive, chiefly owing to their not frowning under any +emotion of the mind—that is, as far as I have been able to observe, +and I carefully attended to this point. Frowning, which is one of the most +important of all the expressions in man, is due to the contraction of the +corrugators by which the eyebrows are lowered and brought together, so +that vertical furrows are formed on the forehead. Both the orang and +chimpanzee are said<a href="#linknote-518" name="linknoteref-518" +id="linknoteref-518">[518]</a> to possess this muscle, but it seems rarely +brought into action, at least in a conspicuous manner. I made my hands +into a sort of cage, and placing some tempting fruit within, allowed both +a young orang and chimpanzee to try their utmost to get it out; but +although they grew rather cross, they showed not a trace of a frown. Nor +was there any frown when they were enraged. Twice I took two chimpanzees +from their rather dark room suddenly into bright sunshine, which would +certainly have caused us to frown; they blinked and winked their eyes, but +only once did I see a very slight frown. On another occasion, I tickled +the nose of a chimpanzee with a straw, and as it crumpled up its face, +slight vertical furrows appeared between the eyebrows. I have never seen a +frown on the forehead of the orang. +</p> + +<p> +The gorilla, when enraged, is described as erecting its crest of hair, +throwing down its under lip, dilating its nostrils, and uttering terrific +yells. Messrs. Savage and Wyman<a href="#linknote-519" +name="linknoteref-519" id="linknoteref-519">[519]</a> state that the scalp +can be freely moved backwards and forwards, and that when the animal is +excited it is strongly contracted; but I presume that they mean by this +latter expression that the scalp is lowered; for they likewise speak of +the young chimpanzee, when crying out, as having the eyebrows strongly +contracted. The great power of movement in the scalp of the gorilla, of +many baboons and other monkeys, deserves notice in relation to the power +possessed by some few men, either through reversion or persistence, of +voluntarily moving their scalps.<a href="#linknote-520" +name="linknoteref-520" id="linknoteref-520">[520]</a> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Astonishment, Terror</i>—A living fresh-water turtle was placed +at my request in the same compartment in the Zoological Gardens with many +monkeys; and they showed unbounded astonishment, as well as some fear. +This was displayed by their remaining motionless, staring intently with +widely opened eyes, their eyebrows being often moved up and down. Their +faces seemed somewhat lengthened. They occasionally raised themselves on +their hind-legs to get abetter view. They often retreated a few feet, and +then turning their heads over one shoulder, again stared intently. It was +curious to observe how much less afraid they were of the turtle than of a +living snake which I had formerly placed in their compartment;<a +href="#linknote-521" name="linknoteref-521" id="linknoteref-521">[521]</a> +for in the course of a few minutes some of the monkeys ventured to +approach and touch the turtle. On the other hand, some of the larger +baboons were greatly terrified, and grinned as if on the point of +screaming out. When I showed a little dressed-up doll to the <i>Cynopithecus +niger</i>, it stood motionless, stared intently with widely opened eyes, +and advanced its ears a little forwards. But when the turtle was placed in +its compartment, this monkey also moved its lips in an odd, rapid, +jabbering manner, which the keeper declared was meant to conciliate or +please the turtle. +</p> + +<p> +I was never able clearly to perceive that the eyebrows of astonished +monkeys were kept permanently raised, though they were frequently moved up +and down. Attention, which precedes astonishment, is expressed by man by a +slight raising of the eyebrows; and Dr. Duchenne informs me that when he +gave to the monkey formerly mentioned some quite new article of food, it +elevated its eyebrows a little, thus assuming an appearance of close +attention. It then took the food in its fingers, and, with lowered or +rectilinear eyebrows, scratched, smelt, and examined it,—an +expression of reflection being thus exhibited. Sometimes it would throw +back its head a little, and again with suddenly raised eyebrows re-examine +and finally taste the food. +</p> + +<p> +In no case did any monkey keep its mouth open when it was astonished. Mr. +Sutton observed for me a young orang and chimpanzee during a considerable +length of time; and however much they were astonished, or whilst listening +intently to some strange sound, they did not keep their mouths open. This +fact is surprising, as with mankind hardly any expression is more general +than a widely open mouth under the sense of astonishment. As far as I have +been able to observe, monkeys breathe more freely through their nostrils +than men do; and this may account for their not opening their mouths when +they are astonished; for, as we shall see in a future chapter, man +apparently acts in this manner when startled, at first for the sake of +quickly drawing a full inspiration, and afterwards for the sake of +breathing as quietly as possible. +</p> + +<p> +Terror is expressed by many kinds of monkeys by the utterance of shrill +screams; the lips being drawn back, so that the teeth are exposed. The +hair becomes erect, especially when some anger is likewise felt. Mr. +Sutton has distinctly seen the face of the <i>Macacus rhesus</i> grow pale +from fear. Monkeys also tremble from fear; and sometimes they void their +excretions. I have seen one which, when caught, almost fainted from an +excess of terror. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +Sufficient facts have now been given with respect to the expressions of +various animals. It is impossible to agree with Sir C. Bell when he says<a +href="#linknote-522" name="linknoteref-522" id="linknoteref-522">[522]</a> +that “the faces of animals seem chiefly capable of expressing rage and +fear;” and again, when he says that all their expressions “may be +referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary +instincts.” He who will look at a dog preparing to attack another dog or a +man, and at the same animal when caressing his master, or will watch the +countenance of a monkey when insulted, and when fondled by his keeper, +will be forced to admit that the movements of their features and their +gestures are almost as expressive as those of man. Although no explanation +can be given of some of the expressions in the lower animals, the greater +number are explicable in accordance with the three principles given at the +commencement of the first chapter. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"></a> +CHAPTER VI.<br/>SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING. +</h2> + +<p> +The screaming and weeping of infants—Forms of features—Age at +which weeping commences—The effects of habitual restraint on weeping—Sobbing—Cause +of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during screaming—Cause +of the secretion of tears. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +In this and the following chapters the expressions exhibited by Man under +various states of the mind will be described and explained, as far as lies +in my power. My observations will be arranged according to the order which +I have found the most convenient; and this will generally lead to opposite +emotions and sensations succeeding each other. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Suffering of the body and mind: weeping</i>.—I have already +described in sufficient detail, in the third chapter, the signs of extreme +pain, as shown by screams or groans, with the writhing of the whole body +and the teeth clenched or ground together. These signs are often +accompanied or followed by profuse sweating, pallor, trembling, utter +prostration, or faintness. No suffering is greater than that from extreme +fear or horror, but here a distinct emotion comes into play, and will be +elsewhere considered. Prolonged suffering, especially of the mind, passes +into low spirits, grief, dejection, and despair, and these states will be +the subject of the following chapter. Here I shall almost confine myself +to weeping or crying, more especially in children. +</p> + +<p> +Infants, when suffering even slight pain, moderate hunger, or discomfort, +utter violent and prolonged screams. Whilst thus screaming their eyes are +firmly closed, so that the skin round them is wrinkled, and the forehead +contracted into a frown. The mouth is widely opened with the lips +retracted in a peculiar manner, which causes it to assume a squarish form; +the gums or teeth being more or less exposed. The breath is inhaled almost +spasmodically. It is easy to observe infants whilst screaming; but I have +found photographs made by the instantaneous process the best means for +observation, as allowing more deliberation. I have collected twelve, most +of them made purposely for me; and they all exhibit the same general +characteristics. I have, therefore, had six of them<a href="#linknote-601" +name="linknoteref-601" id="linknoteref-601">[601]</a> (Plate I.) +reproduced by the heliotype process. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0018" id="linkimage-0018"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/plate-1.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Screaming Infants. Plate I. " /> +</div> + +<p> +The firm closing of the eyelids and consequent compression of the eyeball,—and +this is a most important element in various expressions,—serves to +protect the eyes from becoming too much gorged with blood, as will +presently be explained in detail. With respect to the order in which the +several muscles contract in firmly compressing the eyes, I am indebted to +Dr. Langstaff, of Southampton, for some observations, which I have since +repeated. The best plan for observing the order is to make a person first +raise his eyebrows, and this produces transverse wrinkles across the +forehead; and then very gradually to contract all the muscles round the +elves with as much force as possible. The reader who is unacquainted with +the anatomy of the face, ought to refer to p. 24, and look at the woodcuts +1 to 3. The corrugators of the brow (<i>corrugator supercilii</i>) seem to +be the first muscles to contract; and these draw the eyebrows downwards +and inwards towards the base of the nose, causing vertical furrows, that +is a frown, to appear between the eyebrows; at the same time they cause +the disappearance of the transverse wrinkles across the forehead. The +orbicular muscles contract almost simultaneously with the corrugators, and +produce wrinkles all round the eyes; they appear, however, to be enabled +to contract with greater force, as soon as the contraction of the +corrugators has given them some support. Lastly, the pyramidal muscles of +the nose contract; and these draw the eyebrows and the skin of the +forehead still lower down, producing short transverse wrinkles across the +base of the nose.<a href="#linknote-602" name="linknoteref-602" +id="linknoteref-602">[602]</a> For the sake of brevity these muscles will +generally be spoken of as the orbiculars, or as those surrounding the +eyes. +</p> + +<p> +When these muscles are strongly contracted, those running to the upper lip<a +href="#linknote-603" name="linknoteref-603" id="linknoteref-603">[603]</a> +likewise contract and raise the upper lip. This might have been expected +from the manner in which at least one of them, the <i>malaris</i>, is +connected with the orbiculars. Any one who will gradually contract the +muscles round his eyes, will feel, as he increases the force, that his +upper lip and the wings of his nose (which are partly acted on by one of +the same muscles) are almost always a little drawn up. If he keeps his +mouth firmly shut whilst contracting the muscles round the eyes, and then +suddenly relaxes his lips, he will feel that the pressure on his eyes +immediately increases. So again when a person on a bright, glaring day +wishes to look at a distant object, but is compelled partially to close +his eyelids, the upper lip may almost always be observed to be somewhat +raised. The mouths of some very short-sighted persons, who are forced +habitually to reduce the aperture of their eyes, wear from this same +reason a grinning expression. +</p> + +<p> +The raising of the upper lip draws upwards the flesh of the upper parts of +the cheeks, and produces a strongly marked fold on each cheek,—the +naso-labial fold,—which runs from near the wings of the nostrils to +the corners of the mouth and below them. This fold or furrow may be seen +in all the photographs, and is very characteristic of the expression of a +crying child; though a nearly similar fold is produced in the act of +laughing or smiling.<a href="#linknote-604" name="linknoteref-604" +id="linknoteref-604">[604]</a> +</p> + +<p> +As the upper lip is much drawn up during the act of screaming, in the +manner just explained, the depressor muscles of the angles of the mouth +(see K in woodcuts 1 and 2) are strongly contracted in order to keep the +mouth widely open, so that a full volume of sound may be poured forth. The +action of these opposed muscles, above and below, tends to give to the +mouth an oblong, almost squarish outline, as may be seen in the +accompanying photographs. An excellent observer,<a href="#linknote-605" +name="linknoteref-605" id="linknoteref-605">[605]</a> in describing a baby +crying whilst being fed, says, “it made its mouth like a square, and let +the porridge run out at all four corners.” I believe, but we shall return +to this point in a future chapter, that the depressor muscles of the +angles of the mouth are less under the separate control of the will than +the adjoining muscles; so that if a young child is only doubtfully +inclined to cry, this muscle is generally the first to contract, and is +the last to cease contracting. When older children commence crying, the +muscles which run to the upper lip are often the first to contract; and +this may perhaps be due to older children not having so strong a tendency +to scream loudly, and consequently to keep their mouths widely open; so +that the above-named depressor muscles are not brought into such strong +action. +</p> + +<p> +With one of my own infants, from his eighth day and for some time +afterwards, I often observed that the first sign of a screaming-fit, when +it could be observed coming on gradually, was a little frown, owing to the +contraction of the corrugators of the brows; the capillaries of the naked +head and face becoming at the same time reddened with blood. As soon as +the screaming-fit actually began, all the muscles round the eyes were +strongly contracted, and the mouth widely opened in the manner above +described; so that at this early period the features assumed the same form +as at a more advanced age. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Piderit<a href="#linknote-606" name="linknoteref-606" +id="linknoteref-606">[606]</a> lays great stress on the contraction of +certain muscles which draw down the nose and narrow the nostrils, as +eminently characteristic of a crying expression. The <i>depressores anguli +oris</i>, as we have just seen, are usually contracted at the same time, +and they indirectly tend, according to Dr. Duchenne, to act in this same +manner on the nose. With children having bad colds a similar pinched +appearance of the nose may be noticed, which is at least partly due, as +remarked to me by Dr. Langstaff, to their constant snuffling, and the +consequent pressure of the atmosphere on the two sides. The purpose of +this contraction of the nostrils by children having bad colds, or whilst +crying, seems to be to check the downward flow of the mucus and tears, and +to prevent these fluids spreading over the upper lip. +</p> + +<p> +After a prolonged and severe screaming-fit, the scalp, face, and eyes are +reddened, owing to the return of the blood from the head having been +impeded by the violent expiratory efforts; but the redness of the +stimulated eyes is chiefly due to the copious effusion of tears. The +various muscles of the face which have been strongly contracted, still +twitch a little, and the upper lip is still slightly drawn up or everted,<a +href="#linknote-607" name="linknoteref-607" id="linknoteref-607">[607]</a> +with the corners of the mouth still a little drawn downwards. I have +myself felt, and have observed in other grown-up persons, that when tears +are restrained with difficulty, as in reading a pathetic story, it is +almost impossible to prevent the various muscles. which with young +children are brought into strong action during their screaming-fits, from +slightly twitching or trembling. +</p> + +<p> +Infants whilst young do not shed tears or weep, as is well known to nurses +and medical men. This circumstance is not exclusively due to the lacrymal +glands being as yet incapable of secreting tears. I first noticed this +fact from having accidentally brushed with the cuff of my coat the open +eye of one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old, causing this eye to +water freely; and though the child screamed violently, the other eye +remained dry, or was only slightly suffused with tears. A similar slight +effusion occurred ten days previously in both eyes during a screaming-fit. +The tears did not run over the eyelids and roll down the cheeks of this +child, whilst screaming badly, when 122 days old. This first happened 17 +days later, at the age of 139 days. A few other children have been +observed for me, and the period of free weeping appears to be very +variable. In one case, the eyes became slightly suffused at the age of +only 20 days; in another, at 62 days. With two other children, the tears +did NOT run down the face at the ages of 84 and 110 days; but in a third +child they did run down at the age of 104 days. In one instance, as I was +positively assured, tears ran down at the unusually early age of 42 days. +It would appear as if the lacrymal glands required some practice in the +individual before they are easily excited into action, in somewhat the +same manner as various inherited consensual movements and tastes require +some exercise before they are fixed and perfected. This is all the more +likely with a habit like weeping, which must have been acquired since the +period when man branched off from the common progenitor of the genus Homo +and of the non-weeping anthropomorphous apes. +</p> + +<p> +The fact of tears not being shed at a very early age from pain or any +mental emotion is remarkable, as, later in life, no expression is more +general or more strongly marked than weeping. When the habit has once been +acquired by an infant, it expresses in the clearest manner suffering of +all kinds, both bodily pain and mental distress, even though accompanied +by other emotions, such as fear or rage. The character of the crying, +however, changes at a very early age, as I noticed in my own infants,—the +passionate cry differing from that of grief. A lady informs me that her +child, nine months old, when in a passion screams loudly, but does not +weep; tears, however, are shed when she is punished by her chair being +turned with its back to the table. This difference may perhaps be +attributed to weeping being restrained, as we shall immediately see, at a +more advanced age, under most circumstances excepting grief; and to the +influence of such restraint being transmitted to an earlier period of +life, than that at which it was first practised. +</p> + +<p> +With adults, especially of the male sex, weeping soon ceases to be caused +by, or to express, bodily pain. This may be accounted for by its being +thought weak and unmanly by men, both of civilized and barbarous races, to +exhibit bodily pain by any outward sign. With this exception, savages weep +copiously from very slight causes, of which fact Sir J. Lubbock<a +href="#linknote-608" name="linknoteref-608" id="linknoteref-608">[608]</a> +has collected instances. A New Zealand chief “cried like a child because +the sailors spoilt his favourite cloak by powdering it with flour.” I saw +in Tierra del Fuego a native who had lately lost a brother, and who +alternately cried with hysterical violence, and laughed heartily at +anything which amused him. With the civilized nations of Europe there is +also much difference in the frequency of weeping. Englishmen rarely cry, +except under the pressure of the acutest grief; whereas in some parts of +the Continent the men shed tears much more readily and freely. +</p> + +<p> +The insane notoriously give way to all their emotions with little or no +restraint; and I am informed by Dr. J. Crichton Browne, that nothing is +more characteristic of simple melancholia, even in the male sex, than a +tendency to weep on the slightest occasions, or from no cause. They also +weep disproportionately on the occurrence of any real cause of grief. The +length of time during which some patients weep is astonishing, as well as +the amount of tears which they shed. One melancholic girl wept for a whole +day, and afterwards confessed to Dr. Browne, that it was because she +remembered that she had once shaved off her eyebrows to promote their +growth. Many patients in the asylum sit for a long time rocking themselves +backwards and forwards; “and if spoken to, they stop their movements, +purse up their eyes, depress the corners of the mouth, and burst out +crying.” In some of these cases, the being spoken to or kindly greeted +appears to suggest some fanciful and sorrowful notion; but in other cases +an effort of any kind excites weeping, independently of any sorrowful +idea. Patients suffering from acute mania likewise have paroxysms of +violent crying or blubbering, in the midst of their incoherent ravings. We +must not, however, lay too much stress on the copious shedding of tears by +the insane, as being due to the lack of all restraint; for certain +brain-diseases, as hemiplegia, brain-wasting, and senile decay, have a +special tendency to induce weeping. Weeping is common in the insane, even +after a complete state of fatuity has been reached and the power of speech +lost. Persons born idiotic likewise weep;<a href="#linknote-609" +name="linknoteref-609" id="linknoteref-609">[609]</a> but it is said that +this is not the case with cretins. +</p> + +<p> +Weeping seems to be the primary and natural expression, as we see in +children, of suffering of any kind, whether bodily pain short of extreme +agony, or mental distress. But the foregoing facts and common experience +show us that a frequently repeated effort to restrain weeping, in +association with certain states of the mind, does much in checking the +habit. On the other hand, it appears that the power of weeping can be +increased through habit; thus the Rev. R. Taylor,<a href="#linknote-610" +name="linknoteref-610" id="linknoteref-610">[610]</a> who long resided in +New Zealand, asserts that the women can voluntarily shed tears in +abundance; they meet for this purpose to mourn for the dead, and they take +pride in crying “in the most affecting manner.” +</p> + +<p> +A single effort of repression brought to bear on the lacrymal glands does +little, and indeed seems often to lead to an opposite result. An old and +experienced physician told me that he had always found that the only means +to check the occasional bitter weeping of ladies who consulted him, and +who themselves wished to desist, was earnestly to beg them not to try, and +to assure them that nothing would relieve them so much as prolonged and +copious crying. +</p> + +<p> +The screaming of infants consists of prolonged expirations, with short and +rapid, almost spasmodic inspirations, followed at a somewhat more advanced +age by sobbing. According to Gratiolet,<a href="#linknote-611" +name="linknoteref-611" id="linknoteref-611">[611]</a> the glottis is +chiefly affected during the act of sobbing. This sound is heard “at the +moment when the inspiration conquers the resistance of the glottis, and +the air rushes into the chest.” But the whole act of respiration is +likewise spasmodic and violent. The shoulders are at the same time +generally raised, as by this movement respiration is rendered easier. With +one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old, the inspirations were so +rapid and strong that they approached in character to sobbing; when 138 +days old I first noticed distinct sobbing, which subsequently followed +every bad crying-fit. The respiratory movements are partly voluntary and +partly involuntary, and I apprehend that sobbing is at least in part due +to children having some power to command after early infancy their vocal +organs and to stop their screams, but from having less power over their +respiratory muscles, these continue for a time to act in an involuntary or +spasmodic manner, after having been brought into violent action. Sobbing +seems to be peculiar to the human species; for the keepers in the +Zoological Gardens assure me that they have never heard a sob from any +kind of monkey; though monkeys often scream loudly whilst being chased and +caught, and then pant for a long time. We thus see that there is a close +analogy between sobbing and the free shedding of tears; for with children, +sobbing does not commence during early infancy, but afterwards comes on +rather suddenly and then follows every bad crying-fit, until the habit is +checked with advancing years. +</p> + +<p> +<i>On the cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during +screaming</i>.—We have seen that infants and young children, whilst +screaming, invariably close their eyes firmly, by the contraction of the +surrounding muscles, so that the skin becomes wrinkled all around. With +older children, and even with adults, whenever there is violent and +unrestrained crying, a tendency to the contraction of these same muscles +may be observed; though this is often checked in order not to interfere +with vision. +</p> + +<p> +Sir C. Bell explains<a href="#linknote-612" name="linknoteref-612" +id="linknoteref-612">[612]</a> this action in the following manner:—“During +every violent act of expiration, whether in hearty laughter, weeping, +coughing, or sneezing, the eyeball is firmly compressed by the fibres of +the orbicularis; and this is a provision for supporting and defending the +vascular system of the interior of the eye from a retrograde impulse +communicated to the blood in the veins at that time. When we contract the +chest and expel the air, there is a retardation of the blood in the veins +of the neck and head; and in the more powerful acts of expulsion, the +blood not only distends the vessels, but is even regurgitated into the +minute branches. Were the eye not properly compressed at that time, and a +resistance given to the shock, irreparable injury might be inflicted on +the delicate textures of the interior of the eye.” He further adds, “If we +separate the eyelids of a child to examine the eye, while it cries and +struggles with passion, by taking off the natural support to the vascular +system of the eye, and means of guarding it against the rush of blood then +occurring, the conjunctiva becomes suddenly filled with blood, and the +eyelids everted.” +</p> + +<p> +Not only are the muscles round the eyes strongly contracted, as Sir C. +Bell states and as I have often observed, during screaming, loud laughter, +coughing, and sneezing, but during several other analogous actions. A man +contracts these muscles when he violently blows his nose. I asked one of +my boys to shout as loudly as he possibly could, and as soon as he began, +he firmly contracted his orbicular muscles; I observed this repeatedly, +and on asking him why he had every time so firmly closed his eyes, I found +that he was quite unaware of the fact: he had acted instinctively or +unconsciously. +</p> + +<p> +It is not necessary, in order to lead to the contraction of these muscles, +that air should actually be expelled from the chest; it suffices that the +muscles of the chest and abdomen should contract with great force, whilst +by the closure of the glottis no air escapes. In violent vomiting or +retching the diaphragm is made to descend by the chest being filled with +air; it is then held in this position by the closure of the glottis, “as +well as by the contraction of its own fibres.”<a href="#linknote-613" +name="linknoteref-613" id="linknoteref-613">[613]</a> The abdominal +muscles now contract strongly upon the stomach, its proper muscles +likewise contracting, and the contents are thus ejected. During each +effort of vomiting “the head becomes greatly congested, so that the +features are red and swollen, and the large veins of the face and temples +visibly dilated.” At the same time, as I know from observation, the +muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted. This is likewise the case +when the abdominal muscles act downwards with unusual force in expelling +the contents of the intestinal canal. +</p> + +<p> +The greatest exertion of the muscles of the body, if those of the chest +are not brought into strong action in expelling or compressing the air +within the lungs, does not lead to the contraction of the muscles round +the eyes. I have observed my sons using great force in gymnastic +exercises, as in repeatedly raising their suspended bodies by their arms +alone, and in lifting heavy weights from the ground, but there was hardly +any trace of contraction in the muscles round the eyes. +</p> + +<p> +As the contraction of these muscles for the protection of the eyes during +violent expiration is indirectly, as we shall hereafter see, a fundamental +element in several of our most important expressions, I was extremely +anxious to ascertain how far Sir C. Bell’s view could be substantiated. +Professor Donders, of Utrecht,<a href="#linknote-614" +name="linknoteref-614" id="linknoteref-614">[614]</a> well known as one of +the highest authorities in Europe on vision and on the structure of the +eye, has most kindly undertaken for me this investigation with the aid of +the many ingenious mechanisms of modern science, and has published the +results.<a href="#linknote-615" name="linknoteref-615" id="linknoteref-615">[615]</a> +He shows that during violent expiration the external, the intra-ocular, +and the retro-ocular vessels of the eye are all affected in two ways, +namely by the increased pressure of the blood in the arteries, and by the +return of the blood in the veins being impeded. It is, therefore, certain +that both the arteries and the veins of the eye are more or less distended +during violent expiration. The evidence in detail may be found in +Professor Donders’ valuable memoir. We see the effects on the veins of the +head, in their prominence, and in the purple colour of the face of a man +who coughs violently from being half choked. I may mention, on the same +authority, that the whole eye certainly advances a little during each +violent expiration. This is due to the dilatation of the retro-ocular +vessels, and might have been expected from the intimate connection of the +eye and brain; the brain being known to rise and fall with each +respiration, when a portion of the skull has been removed; and as may be +seen along the unclosed sutures of infants’ heads. This also, I presume, +is the reason that the eyes of a strangled man appear as if they were +starting from their sockets. +</p> + +<p> +With respect to the protection of the eye during violent expiratory +efforts by the pressure of the eyelids, Professor Donders concludes from +his various observations that this action certainly limits or entirely +removes the dilatation of the vessels.<a href="#linknote-616" +name="linknoteref-616" id="linknoteref-616">[616]</a> At such times, he +adds, we not unfrequently see the hand involuntarily laid upon the +eyelids, as if the better to support and defend the eyeball. +</p> + +<p> +Nevertheless much evidence cannot at present be advanced to prove that the +eye actually suffers injury from the want of support during violent +expiration; but there is some. It is “a fact that forcible expiratory +efforts in violent coughing or vomiting, and especially in sneezing, +sometimes give rise to ruptures of the little (external) vessels” of the +eye.<a href="#linknote-617" name="linknoteref-617" id="linknoteref-617">[617]</a> +With respect to the internal vessels, Dr. Gunning has lately recorded a +case of exophthalmos in consequence of whooping-cough, which in his +opinion depended on the rupture of the deeper vessels; and another +analogous case has been recorded. But a mere sense of discomfort would +probably suffice to lead to the associated habit of protecting the eyeball +by the contraction of the surrounding muscles. Even the expectation or +chance of injury would probably be sufficient, in the same manner as an +object moving too near the eye induces involuntary winking of the eyelids. +We may, therefore, safely conclude from Sir C. Bell’s observations, and +more especially from the more careful investigations by Professor Donders, +that the firm closure of the eyelids during the screaming of children is +an action full of meaning and of real service. +</p> + +<p> +We have already seen that the contraction of the orbicular muscles leads +to the drawing up of the upper lip, and consequently, if the mouth is kept +widely open, to the drawing down of the corners by the contraction of the +depressor muscles. The formation of the naso-labial fold on the cheeks +likewise follows from the drawing up of the upper lip. Thus all the chief +expressive movements of the face during crying apparently result from the +contraction of the muscles round the eyes. We shall also find that the +shedding of tears depends on, or at least stands in some connection with, +the contraction of these same muscles. +</p> + +<p> +In some of the foregoing cases, especially in those of sneezing and +coughing, it is possible that the contraction of the orbicular muscles may +serve in addition to protect the eyes from too severe a jar or vibration. +I think so, because dogs and cats, in crunching hard bones, always close +their eyelids, and at least sometimes in sneezing; though dogs do not do +so whilst barking loudly. Mr. Sutton carefully observed for me a young +orang and chimpanzee, and he found that both always closed their eyes in +sneezing and coughing, but not whilst screaming violently. I gave a small +pinch of snuff to a monkey of the American division, namely, a Cebus, and +it closed its eyelids whilst sneezing; but not on a subsequent occasion +whilst uttering loud cries. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Cause of the secretion of tears</i>.—It is an important fact +which must be considered in any theory of the secretion of tears from the +mind being affected, that whenever the muscles round the eyes are strongly +and involuntarily contracted in order to compress the blood-vessels and +thus to protect the eyes, tears are secreted, often in sufficient +abundance to roll down the cheeks. This occurs under the most opposite +emotions, and under no emotion at all. The sole exception, and this is +only a partial one, to the existence of a relation between the involuntary +and strong contraction of these muscles and the secretion of tears is that +of young infants, who, whilst screaming violently with their eyelids +firmly closed, do not commonly weep until they have attained the age of +from two to three or four months. Their eyes, however, become suffused +with tears at a much earlier age. It would appear, as already remarked, +that the lacrymal glands do not, from the want of practice or some other +cause, come to full functional activity at a very early period of life. +With children at a somewhat later age, crying out or wailing from any +distress is so regularly accompanied by the shedding of tears, that +weeping and crying are synonymous terms.<a href="#linknote-618" +name="linknoteref-618" id="linknoteref-618">[618]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Under the opposite emotion of great joy or amusement, as long as laughter +is moderate there is hardly any contraction of the muscles round the eyes, +so that there is no frowning; but when peals of loud laughter are uttered, +with rapid and violent spasmodic expirations, tears stream down the face. +I have more than once noticed the face of a person, after a paroxysm of +violent laughter, and I could see that the orbicular muscles and those +running to the upper lip were still partially contracted, which together +with the tear-stained cheeks gave to the upper half of the face an +expression not to be distinguished from that of a child still blubbering +from grief. The fact of tears streaming down the face during violent +laughter is common to all the races of mankind, as we shall see in a +future chapter. +</p> + +<p> +In violent coughing especially when a person is half-choked, the face +becomes purple, the veins distended, the orbicular muscles strongly +contracted, and tears run down the cheeks. Even after a fit of ordinary +coughing, almost every one has to wipe his eyes. In violent vomiting or +retching, as I have myself experienced and seen in others, the orbicular +muscles are strongly contracted, and tears sometimes flow freely down the +cheeks. It has been suggested to me that this may be due to irritating +matter being injected into the nostrils, and causing by reflex action the +secretion of tears. Accordingly I asked one of my informants, a surgeon, +to attend to the effects of retching when nothing was thrown up from the +stomach; and, by an odd coincidence, he himself suffered the next morning +from an attack of retching, and three days subsequently observed a lady +under a similar attack; and he is certain that in neither case an atom of +matter was ejected from the stomach; yet the orbicular muscles were +strongly contracted, and tears freely secreted. I can also speak +positively to the energetic contraction of these same muscles round the +eyes, and to the coincident free secretion of tears, when the abdominal +muscles act with unusual force in a downward direction on the intestinal +canal. +</p> + +<p> +Yawning commences with a deep inspiration, followed by a long and forcible +expiration; and at the same time almost all the muscles of the body are +strongly contracted, including those round the eyes. During this act tears +are often secreted, and I have seen them even rolling down the cheeks. +</p> + +<p> +I have frequently observed that when persons scratch some point which +itches intolerably, they forcibly close their eyelids; but they do not, as +I believe, first draw a deep breath and then expel it with force; and I +have never noticed that the eyes then become filled with tears; but I am +not prepared to assert that this does not occur. The forcible closure of +the eyelids is, perhaps, merely a part of that general action by which +almost all the muscles of the body are at the same time rendered rigid. It +is quite different from the gentle closure of the eyes which often +accompanies, as Gratiolet remarks,<a href="#linknote-619" +name="linknoteref-619" id="linknoteref-619">[619]</a> the smelling a +delicious odour, or the tasting a delicious morsel, and which probably +originates in the desire to shut out any disturbing impression through the +eyes. +</p> + +<p> +Professor Donders writes to me to the following effect: “I have observed +some cases of a very curious affection when, after a slight rub (<i>attouchement</i>), +for example, from the friction of a coat, which caused neither a wound nor +a contusion, spasms of the orbicular muscles occurred, with a very profuse +flow of tears, lasting about one hour. Subsequently, sometimes after an +interval of several weeks, violent spasms of the same muscles re-occurred, +accompanied by the secretion of tears, together with primary or secondary +redness of the eye.” Mr. Bowman informs me that he has occasionally +observed closely analogous cases, and that, in some of these, there was no +redness or inflammation of the eyes. +</p> + +<p> +I was anxious to ascertain whether there existed in any of the lower +animals a similar relation between the contraction of the orbicular +muscles during violent expiration and the secretion of tears; but there +are very few animals which contract these muscles in a prolonged manner, +or which shed tears. <i>The Macacus maurus</i>, which formerly wept so +copiously in the Zoological Gardens, would have been a fine case for +observation; but the two monkeys now there, and which are believed to +belong to the same species, do not weep. Nevertheless they were carefully +observed by Mr. Bartlett and myself, whilst screaming loudly, and they +seemed to contract these muscles; but they moved about their cages so +rapidly, that it was difficult to observe with certainty. No other monkey, +as far as I have been able to ascertain, contracts its orbicular muscles +whilst screaming. +</p> + +<p> +The Indian elephant is known sometimes to weep. Sir E. Tennent, in +describing these which he saw captured and bound in Ceylon, says, some +“lay motionless on the ground, with no other indication of suffering than +the tears which suffused their eyes and flowed incessantly.” Speaking of +another elephant he says, “When overpowered and made fast, his grief was +most affecting; his violence sank to utter prostration, and he lay on the +ground, uttering choking cries, with tears trickling down his cheeks.”<a +href="#linknote-620" name="linknoteref-620" id="linknoteref-620">[620]</a> +In the Zoological Gardens the keeper of the Indian elephants positively +asserts that he has several times seen tears rolling down the face of the +old female, when distressed by the removal of the young one. Hence I was +extremely anxious to ascertain, as an extension of the relation between +the contraction of the orbicular muscles and the shedding of tears in man, +whether elephants when screaming or trumpeting loudly contract these +muscles. At Mr. Bartlett’s desire the keeper ordered the old and the young +elephant to trumpet; and we repeatedly saw in both animals that, just as +the trumpeting began, the orbicular muscles, especially the lower ones, +were distinctly contracted. On a subsequent occasion the keeper made the +old elephant trumpet much more loudly, and invariably both the upper and +lower orbicular muscles were strongly contracted, and now in an equal +degree. It is a singular fact that the African elephant, which, however, +is so different from the Indian species that it is placed by some +naturalists in a distinct sub-genus, when made on two occasions to trumpet +loudly, exhibited no trace of the contraction of the orbicular muscles. +</p> + +<p> +From the several foregoing cases with respect to Man, there can, I think, +be no doubt that the contraction of the muscles round the eyes, during +violent expiration or when the expanded chest is forcibly compressed, is, +in some manner, intimately connected with the secretion of tears. This +holds good under widely different emotions, and independently of any +emotion. It is not, of course, meant that tears cannot be secreted without +the contraction of these muscles; for it is notorious that they are often +freely shed with the eyelids not closed, and with the brows unwrinkled. +The contraction must be both involuntary and prolonged, as during a +choking fit, or energetic, as during a sneeze. The mere involuntary +winking of the eyelids, though often repeated, does not bring tears into +the eyes. Nor does the voluntary and prolonged contraction of the several +surrounding muscles suffice. As the lacrymal glands of children are easily +excited, I persuaded my own and several other children of different ages +to contract these muscles repeatedly with their utmost force, and to +continue doing so as long as they possibly could; but this produced hardly +any effect. There was sometimes a little moisture in the eyes, but not +more than apparently could be accounted for by the squeezing out of the +already secreted tears within the glands. +</p> + +<p> +The nature of the relation between the involuntary and energetic +contraction of the muscles round the eyes, and the secretion of tears, +cannot be positively ascertained, but a probable view may be suggested. +The primary function of the secretion of tears, together with some mucus, +is to lubricate the surface of the eye; and a secondary one, as some +believe, is to keep the nostrils damp, so that the inhaled air may be +moist,<a href="#linknote-621" name="linknoteref-621" id="linknoteref-621">[621]</a> +and likewise to favour the power of smelling. But another, and at least +equally important function of tears, is to wash out particles of dust or +other minute objects which may get into the eyes. That this is of great +importance is clear from the cases in which the cornea has been rendered +opaque through inflammation, caused by particles of dust not being +removed, in consequence of the eye and eyelid becoming immovable.<a +href="#linknote-622" name="linknoteref-622" id="linknoteref-622">[622]</a> +The secretion of tears from the irritation of any foreign body in the eye +is a reflex action;—that is, the body irritates a peripheral nerve +which sends an impression to certain sensory nerve-cells; these transmit +an influence to other cells, and these again to the lacrymal glands. The +influence transmitted to these glands causes, as there is good reason to +believe, the relaxation of the muscular coats of the smaller arteries; +this allows more blood to permeate the glandular tissue, and this induces +a free secretion of tears. When the small arteries of the face, including +those of the retina, are relaxed under very different circumstances, +namely, during an intense blush, the lacrymal glands are sometimes +affected in a like manner, for the eyes become suffused with tears. +</p> + +<p> +It is difficult to conjecture how many reflex actions have originated, +but, in relation to the present case of the affection of the lacrymal +glands through irritation of the surface of the eye, it may be worth +remarking that, as soon as some primordial form became semi-terrestrial in +its habits, and was liable to get particles of dust into its eyes, if +these were not washed out they would cause much irritation; and on the +principle of the radiation of nerve-force to adjoining nerve-cells, the +lacrymal glands would be stimulated to secretion. As this would often +recur, and as nerve-force readily passes along accustomed channels, a +slight irritation would ultimately suffice to cause a free secretion of +tears. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as by this, or by some other means, a reflex action of this nature +had been established and rendered easy, other stimulants applied to the +surface of the eye—such as a cold wind, slow inflammatory action, or +a blow on the eyelids—would cause a copious secretion of tears, as +we know to be the case. The glands are also excited into action through +the irritation of adjoining parts. Thus when the nostrils are irritated by +pungent vapours, though the eyelids may be kept firmly closed, tears are +copiously secreted; and this likewise follows from a blow on the nose, for +instance from a boxing-glove. A stinging switch on the face produces, as I +have seen, the same effect. In these latter cases the secretion of tears +is an incidental result, and of no direct service. As all these parts of +the face, including the lacrymal glands, are supplied with branches of the +same nerve, namely, the fifth, it is in some degree intelligible that the +effects of the excitement of any one branch should spread to the +nerve-cells or roots of the other branches. +</p> + +<p> +The internal parts of the eye likewise act, under certain conditions, in a +reflex manner on the lacrymal glands. The following statements have been +kindly communicated to me by Mr. Bowman; but the subject is a very +intricate one, as all the parts of the eye are so intimately related +together, and are so sensitive to various stimulants. A strong light +acting on the retina, when in a normal condition, has very little tendency +to cause lacrymation; but with unhealthy children having small, +old-standing ulcers on the cornea, the retina becomes excessively +sensitive to light, and exposure even to common daylight causes forcible +and sustained closure of the lids, and a profuse flow of tears. When +persons who ought to begin the use of convex glasses habitually strain the +waning power of accommodation, an undue secretion of tears very often +follows, and the retina is liable to become unduly sensitive to light. In +general, morbid affections of the surface of the eye, and of the ciliary +structures concerned in the accommodative act, are prone to be accompanied +with excessive secretion of tears. Hardness of the eyeball, not rising to +inflammation, but implying a want of balance between the fluids poured out +and again taken up by the intra-ocular vessels, is not usually attended +with any lacrymation. When the balance is on the other side, and the eye +becomes too soft, there is a greater tendency to lacrymation. Finally, +there are numerous morbid states and structural alterations of the eyes, +and even terrible inflammations, which may be attended with little or no +secretion of tears. +</p> + +<p> +It also deserves notice, as indirectly bearing on our subject, that the +eye and adjoining parts are subject to an extraordinary number of reflex +and associated movements, sensations, and actions, besides those relating +to the lacrymal glands. When a bright light strikes the retina of one eye +alone, the iris contracts, but the iris of the other eye moves after a +measurable interval of time. The iris likewise moves in accommodation to +near or distant vision, and when the two eyes are made to converge.<a +href="#linknote-623" name="linknoteref-623" id="linknoteref-623">[623]</a> +Every one knows how irresistibly the eyebrows are drawn down under an +intensely bright light. The eyelids also involuntarily wink when an object +is moved near the eyes, or a sound is suddenly heard. The well-known case +of a bright light causing some persons to sneeze is even more curious; for +nerve-force here radiates from certain nerve-cells in connection with the +retina, to the sensory nerve-cells of the nose, causing it to tickle; and +from these, to the cells which command the various respiratory muscles +(the orbiculars included) which expel the air in so peculiar a manner that +it rushes through the nostrils alone. +</p> + +<p> +To return to our point: why are tears secreted during a screaming-fit or +other violent expiratory efforts? As a slight blow on the eyelids causes a +copious secretion of tears, it is at least possible that the spasmodic +contraction of the eyelids, by pressing strongly on the eyeball, should in +a similar manner cause some secretion. This seems possible, although the +voluntary contraction of the same muscles does not produce any such +effect. We know that a man cannot voluntarily sneeze or cough with nearly +the same force as he does automatically; and so it is with the contraction +of the orbicular muscles: Sir C. Bell experimented on them, and found that +by suddenly and forcibly closing the eyelids in the dark, sparks of light +are seen, like those caused by tapping the eyelids with the fingers; “but +in sneezing the compression is both more rapid and more forcible, and the +sparks are more brilliant.” That these sparks are due to the contraction +of the eyelids is clear, because if they “are held open during the act of +sneezing, no sensation of light will be experienced.” In the peculiar +cases referred to by Professor Donders and Mr. Bowman, we have seen that +some weeks after the eye has been very slightly injured, spasmodic +contractions of the eyelids ensue, and these are accompanied by a profuse +flow of tears. In the act of yawning, the tears are apparently due solely +to the spasmodic contraction of the muscles round the eyes. +Notwithstanding these latter cases, it seems hardly credible that the +pressure of the eyelids on the surface of the eye, although effected +spasmodically and therefore with much greater force than can be done +voluntarily, should be sufficient to cause by reflex action the secretion +of tears in the many cases in which this occurs during violent expiratory +efforts. +</p> + +<p> +Another cause may come conjointly into play. We have seen that the +internal parts of the eye, under certain conditions act in a reflex manner +on the lacrymal glands. We know that during violent expiratory efforts the +pressure of the arterial blood within the vessels of the eye is increased, +and that the return of the venous blood is impeded. It seems, therefore, +not improbable that the distension of the ocular vessels, thus induced, +might act by reflection on the lacrymal glands—the effects due to +the spasmodic pressure of the eyelids on the surface of the eye being thus +increased. +</p> + +<p> +In considering how far this view is probable, we should bear in mind that +the eyes of infants have been acted on in this double manner during +numberless generations, whenever they have screamed; and on the principle +of nerve-force readily passing along accustomed channels, even a moderate +compression of the eyeballs and a moderate distension of the ocular +vessels would ultimately come, through habit, to act on the glands. We +have an analogous case in the orbicular muscles being almost always +contracted in some slight degree, even during a gentle crying-fit, when +there can be no distension of the vessels and no uncomfortable sensation +excited within the eyes. +</p> + +<p> +Moreover, when complex actions or movements have long been performed in +strict association together, and these are from any cause at first +voluntarily and afterwards habitually checked, then if the proper exciting +conditions occur, any part of the action or movement which is least under +the control of the will, will often still be involuntarily performed. The +secretion by a gland is remarkably free from the influence of the will; +therefore, when with the advancing age of the individual, or with the +advancing culture of the race, the habit of crying out or screaming is +restrained, and there is consequently no distension of the blood-vessels +of the eye, it may nevertheless well happen that tears should still be +secreted. We may see, as lately remarked, the muscles round the eyes of a +person who reads a pathetic story, twitching or trembling in so slight a +degree as hardly to be detected. In this case there has been no screaming +and no distension of the blood-vessels, yet through habit certain +nerve-cells send a small amount of nerve-force to the cells commanding the +muscles round the eyes; and they likewise send some to the cells +commanding the lacrymal glands, for the eyes often become at the same time +just moistened with tears. If the twitching of the muscles round the eyes +and the secretion of tears had been completely prevented, nevertheless it +is almost certain that there would have been some tendency to transmit +nerve-force in these same directions; and as the lacrymal glands are +remarkably free from the control of the will, they would be eminently +liable still to act, thus betraying, though there were no other outward +signs, the pathetic thoughts which were passing through the person’s mind. +</p> + +<p> +As a further illustration of the view here advanced, I may remark that if, +during an early period of life, when habits of all kinds are readily +established, our infants, when pleased, had been accustomed to utter loud +peals of laughter (during which the vessels of their eyes are distended) +as often and as continuously as they have yielded when distressed to +screaming-fits, then it is probable that in after life tears would have +been as copiously and as regularly secreted under the one state of mind as +under the other. Gentle laughter, or a smile, or even a pleasing thought, +would have sufficed to cause a moderate secretion of tears. There does +indeed exist an evident tendency in this direction, as will be seen in a +future chapter, when we treat of the tender feelings. With the Sandwich +Islanders, according to Freycinet,<a href="#linknote-624" +name="linknoteref-624" id="linknoteref-624">[624]</a> tears are actually +recognized as a sign of happiness; but we should require better evidence +on this head than that of a passing voyager. So again if our infants, +during many generations, and each of them during several years, had almost +daily suffered from prolonged choking-fits, during which the vessels of +the eye are distended and tears copiously secreted, then it is probable, +such is the force of associated habit, that during after life the mere +thought of a choke, without any distress of mind, would have sufficed to +bring tears into our eyes. +</p> + +<p> +To sum up this chapter, weeping is probably the result of some such chain +of events as follows. Children, when wanting food or suffering in any way, +cry out loudly, like the young of most other animals, partly as a call to +their parents for aid, and partly from any great exertion serving relief. +Prolonged screaming inevitably leads to the gorging of the blood-vessels +of the eye; and this will have led, at first consciously and at last +habitually, to the contraction of the muscles round the eyes in order to +protect them. At the same time the spasmodic pressure on the surface of +the eye, and the distension of the vessels within the eye, without +necessarily entailing any conscious sensation, will have affected, through +reflex action, the lacrymal glands. Finally, through the three principles +of nerve-force readily passing along accustomed channels—of +association, which is so widely extended in its power—and of certain +actions, being more under the control of the will than others—it has +come to pass that suffering readily causes the secretion of tears, without +being necessarily accompanied by any other action. +</p> + +<p> +Although in accordance with this view we must look at weeping as an +incidental result, as purposeless as the secretion of tears from a blow +outside the eye, or as a sneeze from the retina being affected by a bright +light, yet this does not present any difficulty in our understanding how +the secretion of tears serves as a relief to suffering. And by as much as +the weeping is more violent or hysterical, by so much will the relief be +greater,—on the same principle that the writhing of the whole body, +the grinding of the teeth, and the uttering of piercing shrieks, all give +relief under an agony of pain. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"></a> +CHAPTER VII.<br/>LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR. +</h2> + +<p> +General effect of grief on the system—Obliquity of the eyebrows +under suffering—On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows—On +the depression of the corners of the mouth. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +After the mind has suffered from an acute paroxysm of grief, and the cause +still continues, we fall into a state of low spirits; or we may be utterly +cast down and dejected. Prolonged bodily pain, if not amounting to an +agony, generally leads to the same state of mind. If we expect to suffer, +we are anxious; if we have no hope of relief, we despair. +</p> + +<p> +Persons suffering from excessive grief often seek relief by violent and +almost frantic movements, as described in a former chapter; but when their +suffering is somewhat mitigated, yet prolonged, they no longer wish for +action, but remain motionless and passive, or may occasionally rock +themselves to and fro. The circulation becomes languid; the face pale; the +muscles flaccid; the eyelids droop; the head hangs on the contracted +chest; the lips, cheeks, and lower jaw all sink downwards from their own +weight. Hence all the features are lengthened; and the face of a person +who hears bad news is said to fall. A party of natives in Tierra del Fuego +endeavoured to explain to us that their friend, the captain of a sealing +vessel, was out of spirits, by pulling down their cheeks with both hands, +so as to make their faces as long as possible. Mr. Bunnet informs me that +the Australian aborigines when out of spirits have a chop-fallen +appearance. After prolonged suffering the eyes become dull and lack +expression, and are often slightly suffused with tears. The eyebrows not +rarely are rendered oblique, which is due to their inner ends being +raised. This produces peculiarly-formed wrinkles on the forehead, which +are very different from those of a simple frown; though in some cases a +frown alone may be present. The comers of the mouth are drawn downwards, +which is so universally recognized as a sign of being out of spirits, that +it is almost proverbial. +</p> + +<p> +The breathing becomes slow and feeble, and is often interrupted by deep +sighs. As Gratiolet remarks, whenever our attention is long concentrated +on any subject, we forget to breathe, and then relieve ourselves by a deep +inspiration; but the sighs of a sorrowful person, owing to his slow +respiration and languid circulation, are eminently characteristic.<a +href="#linknote-701" name="linknoteref-701" id="linknoteref-701">[701]</a> +As the grief of a person in this state occasionally recurs and increases +into a paroxysm, spasms affect the respiratory muscles, and he feels as if +something, the so-called <i>globus hystericus</i>, was rising in his +throat. These spasmodic movements are clearly allied to the sobbing of +children, and are remnants of those severer spasms which occur when a +person is said to choke from excessive grief.<a href="#linknote-702" +name="linknoteref-702" id="linknoteref-702">[702]</a> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Obliquity of the eyebrows</i>.—Two points alone in the above +description require further elucidation, and these are very curious ones; +namely, the raising of the inner ends of the eyebrows, and the drawing +down of the corners of the mouth. With respect to the eyebrows, they may +occasionally be seen to assume an oblique position in persons suffering +from deep dejection or anxiety; for instance, I have observed this +movement in a mother whilst speaking about her sick son; and it is +sometimes excited by quite trifling or momentary causes of real or +pretended distress. The eyebrows assume this position owing to the +contraction of certain muscles (namely, the orbiculars, corrugators, and +pyramidals of the nose, which together tend to lower and contract the +eyebrows) being partially cheeked by the more powerful action of the +central fasciæ of the frontal muscle. These latter fasciæ by their +contraction raise the inner ends alone of the eyebrows; and as the +corrugators at the same time draw the eyebrows together, their inner ends +become puckered into a fold or lump. This fold is a highly characteristic +point in the appearance of the eyebrows when rendered oblique, as may be +seen in figs. 2 and 5, Plate II. The eyebrows are at the same time +somewhat roughened, owing to the hairs being made to project. Dr. J. +Crichton Browne has also often noticed in melancholic patients who keep +their eyebrows persistently oblique, “a peculiar acute arching of the +upper eyelid.” A trace of this may be observed by comparing the right and +left eyelids of the young man in the photograph (fig. 2, Plate II.); for +he was not able to act equally on both eyebrows. This is also shown by the +unequal furrows on the two sides of his forehead. The acute arching of the +eyelids depends, I believe, on the inner end alone of the eyebrows being +raised; for when the whole eyebrow is elevated and arched, the upper +eyelid follows in a slight degree the same movement. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0019" id="linkimage-0019"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/plate-2.jpg" width="100%" +alt=" Obliquity of the Eyebrows. Plate II " /> +</div> + +<p> +But the most conspicuous result of the opposed contraction of the +above-named muscles, is exhibited by the peculiar furrows formed on the +forehead. These muscles, when thus in conjoint yet opposed action, may be +called, for the sake of brevity, the grief-muscles. When a person elevates +his eyebrows by the contraction of the whole frontal muscle, transverse +wrinkles extend across the whole breadth of the forehead; but in the +present case the middle fasciae alone are contracted; consequently, +transverse furrows are formed across the middle part alone of the +forehead. The skin over the exterior parts of both eyebrows is at the same +time drawn downwards and smooth, by the contraction of the outer portions +of the orbicular muscles. The eyebrows are likewise brought together +through the simultaneous contraction of the corrugators;<a +href="#linknote-703" name="linknoteref-703" id="linknoteref-703">[703]</a> +and this latter action generates vertical furrows, separating the exterior +and lowered part of the skin of the forehead from the central and raised +part. The union of these vertical furrows with the central and transverse +furrows (see figs. 2 and 3) produces a mark on the forehead which has been +compared to a horse-shoe; but the furrows more strictly form three sides +of a quadrangle. They are often conspicuous on the foreheads of adult or +nearly adult persons, when their eyebrows are made oblique; but with young +children, owing to their skin not easily wrinkling, they are rarely seen, +or mere traces of them can be detected. +</p> + +<p> +These peculiar furrows are best represented in fig. 3, Plate II., on the +forehead of a young lady who has the power in an unusual degree of +voluntarily acting on the requisite muscles. As she was absorbed in the +attempt, whilst being photographed, her expression was not at all one of +grief; I have therefore given the forehead alone. Fig. 1 on the same +plate, copied from Dr. Duchenne’s work,<a href="#linknote-704" +name="linknoteref-704" id="linknoteref-704">[704]</a> represents, on a +reduced scale, the face, in its natural state, of a young man who was a +good actor. In fig. 2 he is shown simulating grief, but the two eyebrows, +as before remarked, are not equally acted on. That the expression is true, +may be inferred from the fact that out of fifteen persons, to whom the +original photograph was shown, without any clue to what was intended being +given them, fourteen immediately answered, “despairing sorrow,” “suffering +endurance,” “melancholy,” and so forth. The history of fig. 5 is rather +curious: I saw the photograph in a shop-window, and took it to Mr. +Rejlander for the sake of finding out by whom it had been made; remarking +to him how pathetic the expression was. He answered, “I made it, and it +was likely to be pathetic, for the boy in a few minutes burst out crying.” +He then showed me a photograph of the same boy in a placid state, which I +have had (fig. 4) reproduced. In fig. 6, a trace of obliquity in the +eyebrows may be detected; but this figure, as well as fig. 7, is given to +show the depression of the corners of the mouth, to which subject I shall +presently refer. +</p> + +<p> +Few persons, without some practice, can voluntarily act on their +grief-muscles; but after repeated trials a considerable number succeed, +whilst others never can. The degree of obliquity in the eyebrows, whether +assumed voluntarily or unconsciously, differs much in different persons. +With some who apparently have unusually strong pyramidal muscles, the +contraction of the central fasciae of the frontal muscle, although it may +be energetic, as shown by the quadrangular furrows on the forehead, does +not raise the inner ends of the eyebrows, but only prevents their being so +much lowered as they otherwise would have been. As far as I have been able +to observe, the grief-muscles are brought into action much more frequently +by children and women than by men. They are rarely acted on, at least with +grown-up persons, from bodily pain, but almost exclusively from mental +distress. Two persons who, after some practice, succeeded in acting on +their grief-muscles, found by looking at a mirror that when they made +their eyebrows oblique, they unintentionally at the same time depressed +the corners of their mouths; and this is often the case when the +expression is naturally assumed. +</p> + +<p> +The power to bring the grief-muscles freely into play appears to be +hereditary, like almost every other human faculty. A lady belonging to a +family famous for having produced an extraordinary number of great actors +and actresses, and who can herself give this expression “with singular +precision,” told Dr. Crichton Browne that all her family had possessed the +power in a remarkable degree. The same hereditary tendency is said to have +extended, as I likewise hear from Dr. Browne, to the last descendant of +the family, which gave rise to Sir Walter Scott’s novel of ‘Red Gauntlet;’ +but the hero is described as contracting his forehead into a horseshoe +mark from any strong emotion. I have also seen a young woman whose +forehead seemed almost habitually thus contracted, independently of any +emotion being at the time felt. +</p> + +<p> +The grief-muscles are not very frequently brought into play; and as the +action is often momentary, it easily escapes observation. Although the +expression, when observed, is universally and instantly recognized as that +of grief or anxiety, yet not one person out of a thousand who has never +studied the subject, is able to say precisely what change passes over the +sufferer’s face. Hence probably it is that this expression is not even +alluded to, as far as I have noticed, in any work of fiction, with the +exception of ‘Red Gauntlet’ and of one other novel; and the authoress of +the latter, as I am informed, belongs to the famous family of actors just +alluded to; so that her attention may have been specially called to the +subject. +</p> + +<p> +The ancient Greek sculptors were familiar with the expression, as shown in +the statues of the Laocoon and Arretino; but, as Duchenne remarks, they +carried the transverse furrows across the whole breadth of the forehead, +and thus committed a great anatomical mistake: this is likewise the case +in some modern statues. It is, however, more probable that these +wonderfully accurate observers intentionally sacrificed truth for the sake +of beauty, than that they made a mistake; for rectangular furrows on the +forehead would not have had a grand appearance on the marble. The +expression, in its fully developed condition, is, as far as I can +discover, not often represented in pictures by the old masters, no doubt +owing to the same cause; but a lady who is perfectly familiar with this +expression, informs me that in Fra Angelico’s ‘Descent from the Cross’ in +Florence, it is clearly exhibited in one of the figures on the right-hand; +and I could add a few other instances. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Crichton Browne, at my request, closely attended to this expression in +the numerous insane patients under his care in the West Riding Asylum; and +he is familiar with Duchenne’s photographs of the action of the +grief-muscles. He informs me that they may constantly be seen in energetic +action in cases of melancholia, and especially of hypochondria; and that +the persistent lines or furrows, due to their habitual contraction, are +characteristic of the physiognomy of the insane belonging to these two +classes. Dr. Browne carefully observed for me during a considerable period +three cases of hypochondria, in which the grief-muscles were persistently +contracted. In one of these, a widow, aged 51, fancied that she had lost +all her viscera, and that her whole body was empty. She wore an expression +of great distress, and beat her semi-closed hands rhythmically together +for hours. The grief-muscles were permanently contracted, and the upper +eyelids arched. This condition lasted for months; she then recovered, and +her countenance resumed its natural expression. A second case presented +nearly the same peculiarities, with the addition that the comers of the +mouth were depressed. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Patrick Nicol has also kindly observed for me several cases in the +Sussex Lunatic Asylum, and has communicated to me full details with +respect to three of them; but they need not here be given. From his +observations on melancholic patients, Mr. Nicol concludes that the inner +ends of the eyebrows are almost always more or less raised, with the +wrinkles on the forehead more or less plainly marked. In the case of one +young woman, these wrinkles were observed to be in constant slight play or +movement. In some cases the comers of the mouth are depressed, but often +only in a slight degree. Some amount of difference in the expression of +the several melancholic patients could almost always be observed. The +eyelids generally droop; and the skin near their outer comers and beneath +them is wrinkled. The naso-labial fold, which runs from the wings of the +nostrils to the comers of the mouth, and which is so conspicuous in +blubbering children, is often plainly marked in these patients. +</p> + +<p> +Although with the insane the grief-muscles often act persistently; yet in +ordinary cases they are sometimes brought unconsciously into momentary +action by ludicrously slight causes. A gentleman rewarded a young lady by +an absurdly small present; she pretended to be offended, and as she +upbraided him, her eyebrows became extremely oblique, with the forehead +properly wrinkled. Another young lady and a youth, both in the highest +spirits, were eagerly talking together with extraordinary rapidity; and I +noticed that, as often as the young lady was beaten, and could not get out +her words fast enough, her eyebrows went obliquely upwards, and +rectangular furrows were formed on her forehead. She thus each time +hoisted a flag of distress; and this she did half-a-dozen times in the +course of a few minutes. I made no remark on the subject, but on a +subsequent occasion I asked her to act on her grief-muscles; another girl +who was present, and who could do so voluntarily, showing her what was +intended. She tried repeatedly, but utterly failed; yet so slight a cause +of distress as not being able to talk quickly enough, sufficed to bring +these muscles over and over again into energetic action. +</p> + +<p> +The expression of grief, due to the contraction of the grief-muscles, is +by no means confined to Europeans, but appears to be common to all the +races of mankind. I have, at least, received trustworthy accounts in +regard to Hindoos, Dhangars (one of the aboriginal hill-tribes of India, +and therefore belonging to a quite distinct race from the Hindoos), +Malays, Negroes and Australians. With respect to the latter, two observers +answer my query in the affirmative, but enter into no details. Mr. Taplin, +however, appends to my descriptive remarks the words “this is exact.” With +respect to negroes, the lady who told me of Fra Angelico’s picture, saw a +negro towing a boat on the Nile, and as he encountered an obstruction, she +observed his grief-muscles in strong action, with the middle of the +forehead well wrinkled. Mr. Geach watched a Malay man in Malacca, with the +comers of his mouth much depressed, the eyebrows oblique, with deep short +grooves on the forehead. This expression lasted for a very short time; and +Mr. Geach remarks it “was a strange one, very much like a person about to +cry at some great loss.” +</p> + +<p> +In India Mr. H. Erskine found that the natives were familiar with this +expression; and Mr. J. Scott, of the Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, has +obligingly sent me a full description of two cases. He observed during +some time, himself unseen, a very young Dhangar woman from Nagpore, the +wife of one of the gardeners, nursing her baby who was at the point of +death; and he distinctly saw the eyebrows raised at the inner comers, the +eyelids drooping, the forehead wrinkled in the middle, the mouth slightly +open, with the comers much depressed. He then came from behind a screen of +plants and spoke to the poor woman, who started, burst into a bitter flood +of tears, and besought him to cure her baby. The second case was that of a +Hindustani man, who from illness and poverty was compelled to sell his +favourite goat. After receiving the money, he repeatedly looked at the +money in his hand and then at the goat, as if doubting whether he would +not return it. He went to the goat, which was tied up ready to be led +away, and the animal reared up and licked his hands. His eyes then wavered +from side to side; his “mouth was partially closed, with the corners very +decidedly depressed.” At last the poor man seemed to make up his mind that +he must part with his goat, and then, as Mr. Scott saw, the eyebrows +became slightly oblique, with the characteristic puckering or swelling at +the inner ends, but the wrinkles on the forehead were not present. The man +stood thus for a minute, then heaving a deep sigh, burst into tears, +raised up his two hands, blessed the goat, turned round, and without +looking again, went away. +</p> + +<p> +<i>On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows under suffering</i>.—During +several years no expression seemed to me so utterly perplexing as this +which we are here considering. Why should grief or anxiety cause the +central fasciae alone of the frontal muscle together with those round the +eyes, to contract? Here we seem to have a complex movement for the sole +purpose of expressing grief; and yet it is a comparatively rare +expression, and often overlooked. I believe the explanation is not so +difficult as it at first appears. Dr. Duchenne gives a photograph of the +young man before referred to, who, when looking upwards at a strongly +illuminated surface, involuntarily contracted his grief-muscles in an +exaggerated manner. I had entirely forgotten this photograph, when on a +very bright day with the sun behind me, I met, whilst on horseback, a girl +whose eyebrows, as she looked up at me, became extremely oblique, with the +proper furrows on her forehead. I have observed the same movement under +similar circumstances on several subsequent occasions. On my return home I +made three of my children, without giving them any clue to my object, look +as long and as attentively as they could, at the summit of a tall tree +standing against an extremely bright sky. With all three, the orbicular, +corrugator, and pyramidal muscles were energetically contracted, through +reflex action, from the excitement of the retina, so that their eyes might +be protected from the bright light. But they tried their utmost to look +upwards; and now a curious struggle, with spasmodic twitchings, could be +observed between the whole or only the central portion of the frontal +muscle, and the several muscles which serve to lower the eyebrows and +close the eyelids. The involuntary contraction of the pyramidal caused the +basal part of their noses to be transversely and deeply wrinkled. In one +of the three children, the whole eyebrows were momentarily raised and +lowered by the alternate contraction of the whole frontal muscle and of +the muscles surrounding the eyes, so that the whole breadth of the +forehead was alternately wrinkled and smoothed. In the other two children +the forehead became wrinkled in the middle part alone, rectangular furrows +being thus produced; and the eyebrows were rendered oblique, with their +inner extremities puckered and swollen,—in the one child in a slight +degree, in the other in a strongly marked manner. This difference in the +obliquity of the eyebrows apparently depended on a difference in their +general mobility, and in the strength of the pyramidal muscles. In both +these cases the eyebrows and forehead were acted on under the influence of +a strong light, in precisely the same manner, in every characteristic +detail, as under the influence of grief or anxiety. +</p> + +<p> +Duchenne states that the pyramidal muscle of the nose is less under the +control of the will than are the other muscles round the eyes. He remarks +that the young man who could so well act on his grief-muscles, as well as +on most of his other facial muscles, could not contract the pyramidals.<a +href="#linknote-705" name="linknoteref-705" id="linknoteref-705">[705]</a> +This power, however, no doubt differs in different persons. The pyramidal +muscle serves to draw down the skin of the forehead between the eyebrows, +together with their inner extremities. The central fasciae of the frontal +are the antagonists of the pyramidal; and if the action of the latter is +to be specially checked, these central fasciae must be contracted. So that +with persons having powerful pyramidal muscles, if there is under the +influence of a bright light an unconscious desire to prevent the lowering +of the eyebrows, the central fasciae of the frontal muscle must be brought +into play; and their contraction, if sufficiently strong to overmaster the +pyramidals, together with the contraction of the corrugator and orbicular +muscles, will act in the manner just described on the eyebrows and +forehead. +</p> + +<p> +When children scream or cry out, they contract, as we know, the orbicular, +corrugator, and pyramidal muscles, primarily for the sake of compressing +their eyes, and thus protecting them from being gorged with blood, and +secondarily through habit. I therefore expected to find with children, +that when they endeavoured either to prevent a crying-fit from coming on, +or to stop crying, they would cheek the contraction of the above-named +muscles, in the same manner as when looking upwards at a bright light; and +consequently that the central fasciae of the frontal muscle would often be +brought into play. Accordingly, I began myself to observe children at such +times, and asked others, including some medical men, to do the same. It is +necessary to observe carefully, as the peculiar opposed action of these +muscles is not nearly so plain in children, owing to their foreheads not +easily wrinkling, as in adults. But I soon found that the grief-muscles +were very frequently brought into distinct action on these occasions. It +would be superfluous to give all the cases which have been observed; and I +will specify only a few. A little girl, a year and a half old, was teased +by some other children, and before bursting into tears her eyebrows became +decidedly oblique. With an older girl the same obliquity was observed, +with the inner ends of the eyebrows plainly puckered; and at the same time +the corners of the mouth were drawn downwards. As soon as she burst into +tears, the features all changed and this peculiar expression vanished. +Again, after a little boy had been vaccinated, which made him scream and +cry violently, the surgeon gave him an orange brought for the purpose, and +this pleased the child much; as he stopped crying all the characteristic +movements were observed, including the formation of rectangular wrinkles +in the middle of the forehead. Lastly, I met on the road a little girl +three or four years old, who had been frightened by a dog, and when I +asked her what was the matter, she stopped whimpering, and her eyebrows +instantly became oblique to an extraordinary degree. +</p> + +<p> +Here then, as I cannot doubt, we have the key to the problem why the +central fasciae of the frontal muscle and the muscles round the eyes +contract in opposition to each other under the influence of grief;—whether +their contraction be prolonged, as with the melancholic insane, or +momentary, from some trifling cause of distress. We have all of us, as +infants, repeatedly contracted our orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal +muscles, in order to protect our eyes whilst screaming; our progenitors +before us have done the same during many generations; and though with +advancing years we easily prevent, when feeling distressed, the utterance +of screams, we cannot from long habit always prevent a slight contraction +of the above-named muscles; nor indeed do we observe their contraction in +ourselves, or attempt to stop it, if slight. But the pyramidal muscles +seem to be less under the command of the will than the other related +muscles; and if they be well developed, their contraction can be checked +only by the antagonistic contraction of the central fasciae of the frontal +muscle. The result which necessarily follows, if these fasciae contract +energetically, is the oblique drawing up of the eyebrows, the puckering of +their inner ends, and the formation of rectangular furrows on the middle +of the forehead. As children and women cry much more freely than men, and +as grown-up persons of both sexes rarely weep except from mental distress, +we can understand why the grief-muscles are more frequently seen in +action, as I believe to be the case, with children and women than with +men; and with adults of both sexes from mental distress alone. In some of +the cases before recorded, as in that of the poor Dhangar woman and of the +Hindustani man, the action of the grief-muscles was quickly followed by +bitter weeping. In all cases of distress, whether great or small, our +brains tend through long habit to send an order to certain muscles to +contract, as if we were still infants on the point of screaming out; but +this order we, by the wondrous power of the will, and through habit, are +able partially to counteract; although this is effected unconsciously, as +far as the means of counteraction are concerned. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>On the depression of the corners of the mouth</i>.—This action is +effected by the <i>depressores anguili oris</i> (see letter K in figs. 1 +and 2). The fibres of this muscle diverge downwards, with the upper +convergent ends attached round the angles of the mouth, and to the lower +lip a little way within the angles.<a href="#linknote-706" +name="linknoteref-706" id="linknoteref-706">[706]</a> Some of the fibres +appear to be antagonistic to the great zygomatic muscle, and others to the +several muscles running to the outer part of the upper lip. The +contraction of this muscle draws downwards and outwards the corners of the +mouth, including the outer part of the upper lip, and even in a slight +degree the wings of the nostrils. When the mouth is closed and this muscle +acts, the commissure or line of junction of the two lips forms a curved +line with the concavity downwards,<a href="#linknote-707" +name="linknoteref-707" id="linknoteref-707">[707]</a> and the lips +themselves are generally somewhat protruded, especially the lower one. The +mouth in this state is well represented in the two photographs (Plate II., +figs. 6 and 7) by Mr. Rejlander. The upper boy (fig. 6) had just stopped +crying, after receiving a slap on the face from another boy; and the right +moment was seized for photographing him. +</p> + +<p> +The expression of low spirits, grief or dejection, due to the contraction +of this muscle has been noticed by every one who has written on the +subject. To say that a person “is down in the mouth,” is synonymous with +saying that he is out of spirits. The depression of the corners may often +be seen, as already stated on the authority of Dr. Crichton Browne and Mr. +Nicol, with the melancholic insane, and was well exhibited in some +photographs sent to me by the former gentleman, of patients with a strong +tendency to suicide. It has been observed with men belonging to various +races, namely with Hindoos, the dark hill-tribes of India, Malays, and, as +the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer informs me, with the aborigines of Australia. +</p> + +<p> +When infants scream they firmly contract the muscles round their eyes, and +this draws up the upper lip; and as they have to keep their mouths widely +open, the depressor muscles running to the corners are likewise brought +into strong action. This generally, but not invariably, causes a slight +angular bend in the lower lip on both sides, near the corners of the +mouth. The result of the upper and lower lip being thus acted on is that +the mouth assumes a squarish outline. The contraction of the depressor +muscle is best seen in infants when not screaming violently, and +especially just before they begin, or when they cease to scream. Their +little faces then acquire an extremely piteous expression, as I +continually observed with my own infants between the ages of about six +weeks and two or three months. Sometimes, when they are struggling against +a crying-fit, the outline of the mouth is curved in so exaggerated a +manner as to be like a horseshoe; and the expression of misery then +becomes a ludicrous caricature. +</p> + +<p> +The explanation of the contraction of this muscle, under the influence of +low spirits or dejection, apparently follows from the same general +principles as in the case of the obliquity of the eyebrows. Dr. Duchenne +informs me that he concludes from his observations, now prolonged during +many years, that this is one of the facial muscles which is least under +the control of the will. This fact may indeed be inferred from what has +just been stated with respect to infants when doubtfully beginning to cry, +or endeavouring to stop crying; for they then generally command all the +other facial muscles more effectually than they do the depressors of the +corners of the mouth. Two excellent observers who had no theory on the +subject, one of them a surgeon, carefully watched for me some older +children and women as with some opposed struggling they very gradually +approached the point of bursting out into tears; and both observers felt +sure that the depressors began to act before any of the other muscles. Now +as the depressors have been repeatedly brought into strong action during +infancy in many generations, nerve-force will tend to flow, on the +principle of long associated habit, to these muscles as well as to various +other facial muscles, whenever in after life even a slight feeling of +distress is experienced. But as the depressors are somewhat less under the +control of the will than most of the other muscles, we might expect that +they would often slightly contract, whilst the others remained passive. It +is remarkable how small a depression of the corners of the mouth gives to +the countenance an expression of low spirits or dejection, so that an +extremely slight contraction of these muscles would be sufficient to +betray this state of mind. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +I may here mention a trifling observation, as it will serve to sum up our +present subject. An old lady with a comfortable but absorbed expression +sat nearly opposite to me in a railway carriage. Whilst I was looking at +her, I saw that her <i>depressores anguli oris</i> became very slightly, +yet decidedly, contracted; but as her countenance remained as placid as +ever, I reflected how meaningless was this contraction, and how easily one +might be deceived. The thought had hardly occurred to me when I saw that +her eyes suddenly became suffused with tears almost to overflowing, and +her whole countenance fell. There could now be no doubt that some painful +recollection, perhaps that of a long-lost child, was passing through her +mind. As soon as her sensorium was thus affected, certain nerve-cells from +long habit instantly transmitted an order to all the respiratory muscles, +and to those round the mouth, to prepare for a fit of crying. But the +order was countermanded by the will, or rather by a later acquired habit, +and all the muscles were obedient, excepting in a slight degree the <i>depressores +anguli oris</i>. The mouth was not even opened; the respiration was not +hurried; and no muscle was affected except those which draw down the +corners of the mouth. +</p> + +<p> +As soon as the mouth of this lady began, involuntarily and unconsciously +on her part, to assume the proper form for a crying-fit, we may feel +almost sure that some nerve-influence would have been transmitted through +the long accustomed channels to the various respiratory muscles, as well +as to those round the eyes, and to the vaso-motor centre which governs the +supply of blood sent to the lacrymal glands. Of this latter fact we have +indeed clear evidence in her eyes becoming slightly suffused with tears; +and we can understand this, as the lacrymal glands are less under the +control of the will than the facial muscles. No doubt there existed at the +same time some tendency in the muscles round the eyes at contract, as if +for the sake of protecting them from being gorged with blood, but this +contraction was completely overmastered, and her brow remained unruffled. +Had the pyramidal, corrugator, and orbicular muscles been as little +obedient to the will, as they are in many persons, they would have been +slightly acted on; and then the central fasciae of the frontal muscle +would have contracted in antagonism, and her eyebrows would have become +oblique, with rectangular furrows on her forehead. Her countenance would +then have expressed still more plainly than it did a state of dejection, +or rather one of grief. +</p> + +<p> +Through steps such as these we can understand how it is, that as soon as +some melancholy thought passes through the brain, there occurs a just +perceptible drawing down of the corners of the mouth, or a slight raising +up of the inner ends of the eyebrows, or both movements combined, and +immediately afterwards a slight suffusion of tears. A thrill of +nerve-force is transmitted along several habitual channels, and produces +an effect on any point where the will has not acquired through long habit +much power of interference. The above actions may be considered as +rudimental vestiges of the screaming-fits, which are so frequent and +prolonged during infancy. In this case, as well as in many others, the +links are indeed wonderful which connect cause and effect in giving rise +to various expressions on the human countenance; and they explain to us +the meaning of certain movements, which we involuntarily and unconsciously +perform, whenever certain transitory emotions pass through our minds. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"></a> +CHAPTER VIII.<br/>JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION. +</h2> + +<p> +Laughter primarily the expression of joy—Ludicrous ideas—Movements +of the features during laughter—Nature of the sound produced—The +secretion of tears during loud laughter—Gradation from loud laughter +to gentle smiling—High spirits—The expression of love—Tender +feelings—Devotion. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +Joy, when intense, leads to various purposeless movements—to dancing +about, clapping the hands, stamping, &c., and to loud laughter. +Laughter seems primarily to be the expression of mere joy or happiness. We +clearly see this in children at play, who are almost incessantly laughing. +With young persons past childhood, when they are in high spirits, there is +always much meaningless laughter. The laughter of the gods is described by +Homer as “the exuberance of their celestial joy after their daily +banquet.” A man smiles—and smiling, as we shall see, graduates into +laughter—at meeting an old friend in the street, as he does at any +trifling pleasure, such as smelling a sweet perfume.<a href="#linknote-801" +name="linknoteref-801" id="linknoteref-801">[801]</a> Laura Bridgman, from +her blindness and deafness, could not have acquired any expression through +imitation, yet when a letter from a beloved friend was communicated to her +by gesture-language, she “laughed and clapped her hands, and the colour +mounted to her cheeks.” On other occasions she has been seen to stamp for +joy.<a href="#linknote-802" name="linknoteref-802" id="linknoteref-802">[802]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Idiots and imbecile persons likewise afford good evidence that laughter or +smiling primarily expresses mere happiness or joy. Dr. Crichton Browne, to +whom, as on so many other occasions, I am indebted for the results of his +wide experience, informs me that with idiots laughter is the most +prevalent and frequent of all the emotional expressions. Many idiots are +morose, passionate, restless, in a painful state of mind, or utterly +stolid, and these never laugh. Others frequently laugh in a quite +senseless manner. Thus an idiot boy, incapable of speech, complained to +Dr. Browne, by the aid of signs, that another boy in the asylum had given +him a black eye; and this was accompanied by “explosions of laughter and +with his face covered with the broadest smiles.” There is another large +class of idiots who are persistently joyous and benign, and who are +constantly laughing or smiling.<a href="#linknote-803" +name="linknoteref-803" id="linknoteref-803">[803]</a> Their countenances +often exhibit a stereotyped smile; their joyousness is increased, and they +grin, chuckle, or giggle, whenever food is placed before them, or when +they are caressed, are shown bright colours, or hear music. Some of them +laugh more than usual when they walk about, or attempt any muscular +exertion. The joyousness of most of these idiots cannot possibly be +associated, as Dr. Browne remarks, with any distinct ideas: they simply +feel pleasure, and express it by laughter or smiles. With imbeciles rather +higher in the scale, personal vanity seems to be the commonest cause of +laughter, and next to this, pleasure arising from the approbation of their +conduct. +</p> + +<p> +With grown-up persons laughter is excited by causes considerably different +from those which suffice during childhood; but this remark hardly applies +to smiling. Laughter in this respect is analogous with weeping, which with +adults is almost confined to mental distress, whilst with children it is +excited by bodily pain or any suffering, as well as by fear or rage. Many +curious discussions have been written on the causes of laughter with +grown-up persons. The subject is extremely complex. Something incongruous +or unaccountable, exciting surprise and some sense of superiority in the +laugher, who must be in a happy frame of mind, seems to be the commonest +cause.<a href="#linknote-804" name="linknoteref-804" id="linknoteref-804">[804]</a> +The circumstances must not be of a momentous nature: no poor man would +laugh or smile on suddenly hearing that a large fortune had been +bequeathed to him. If the mind is strongly excited by pleasurable +feelings, and any little unexpected event or thought occurs, then, as Mr. +Herbert Spencer remarks,<a href="#linknote-805" name="linknoteref-805" +id="linknoteref-805">[805]</a> “a large amount of nervous energy, instead +of being allowed to expend itself in producing an equivalent amount of the +new thoughts and emotion which were nascent, is suddenly checked in its +flow.”... “The excess must discharge itself in some other direction, and +there results an efflux through the motor nerves to various classes of the +muscles, producing the half-convulsive actions we term laughter.” An +observation, bearing on this point, was made by a correspondent during the +recent siege of Paris, namely, that the German soldiers, after strong +excitement from exposure to extreme danger, were particularly apt to burst +out into loud laughter at the smallest joke. So again when young children +are just beginning to cry, an unexpected event will sometimes suddenly +turn their crying into laughter, which apparently serves equally well to +expend their superfluous nervous energy. +</p> + +<p> +The imagination is sometimes said to be tickled by a ludicrous idea; and +this so-called tickling of the mind is curiously analogous with that of +the body. Every one knows how immoderately children laugh, and how their +whole bodies are convulsed when they are tickled. The anthropoid apes, as +we have seen, likewise utter a reiterated sound, corresponding with our +laughter, when they are tickled, especially under the armpits. I touched +with a bit of paper the sole of the foot of one of my infants, when only +seven days old, and it was suddenly jerked away and the toes curled about, +as in an older child. Such movements, as well as laughter from being +tickled, are manifestly reflex actions; and this is likewise shown by the +minute unstriped muscles, which serve to erect the separate hairs on the +body, contracting near a tickled surface.<a href="#linknote-806" +name="linknoteref-806" id="linknoteref-806">[806]</a> Yet laughter from a +ludicrous idea, though involuntary, cannot be called a strictly reflex +action. In this case, and in that of laughter from being tickled, the mind +must be in a pleasurable condition; a young child, if tickled by a strange +man, would scream from fear. The touch must be light, and an idea or +event, to be ludicrous, must not be of grave import. The parts of the body +which are most easily tickled are those which are not commonly touched, +such as the armpits or between the toes, or parts such as the soles of the +feet, which are habitually touched by a broad surface; but the surface on +which we sit offers a marked exception to this rule. According to +Gratiolet,<a href="#linknote-807" name="linknoteref-807" +id="linknoteref-807">[807]</a> certain nerves are much more sensitive to +tickling than others. From the fact that a child can hardly tickle itself, +or in a much less degree than when tickled by another person, it seems +that the precise point to be touched must not be known; so with the mind, +something unexpected—a novel or incongruous idea which breaks +through an habitual train of thought—appears to be a strong element +in the ludicrous. +</p> + +<p> +The sound of laughter is produced by a deep inspiration followed by short, +interrupted, spasmodic contractions of the chest, and especially of the +diaphragm.<a href="#linknote-808" name="linknoteref-808" +id="linknoteref-808">[808]</a> Hence we hear of “laughter holding both his +sides.” From the shaking of the body, the head nods to and fro. The lower +jaw often quivers up and down, as is likewise the case with some species +of baboons, when they are much pleased. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0020" id="linkimage-0020"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/plate-3.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Moderate Laughter and Smiling. Plate III " /> +</div> + +<p> +During laughter the mouth is opened more or less widely, with the corners +drawn much backwards, as well as a little upwards; and the upper lip is +somewhat raised. The drawing back of the corners is best seen in moderate +laughter, and especially in a broad smile—the latter epithet showing +how the mouth is widened. In the accompanying figs. 1-3, Plate III., +different degrees of moderate laughter and smiling have been photographed. +The figure of the little girl, with the hat is by Dr. Wallich, and the +expression was a genuine one; the other two are by Mr. Rejlander. Dr. +Duchenne repeatedly insists<a href="#linknote-809" name="linknoteref-809" +id="linknoteref-809">[809]</a> that, under the emotion of joy, the mouth +is acted on exclusively by the great zygomatic muscles, which serve to +draw the corners backwards and upwards; but judging from the manner in +which the upper teeth are always exposed during laughter and broad +smiling, as well as from my own sensations, I cannot doubt that some of +the muscles running to the upper lip are likewise brought into moderate +action. The upper and lower orbicular muscles of the eyes are at the same +time more or less contracted; and there is an intimate connection, as +explained in the chapter on weeping, between the orbiculars, especially +the lower ones and some of the muscles running to the upper lip. Henle +remarks<a href="#linknote-810" name="linknoteref-810" id="linknoteref-810">[810]</a> +on this head, that when a man closely shuts one eye he cannot avoid +retracting the upper lip on the same side; conversely, if any one will +place his finger on his lower eyelid, and then uncover his upper incisors +as much as possible, he will feel, as his upper lip is drawn strongly +upwards, that the muscles of the lower eyelid contract. In Henle’s +drawing, given in woodcut, fig. 2, the <i>musculus malaris</i> (H) which +runs to the upper lip may be seen to form an almost integral part of the +lower orbicular muscle. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Duchenne has given a large photograph of an old man (reduced on Plate +III. fig 4), in his usual passive condition, and another of the same man +(fig. 5), naturally smiling. The latter was instantly recognized by every +one to whom it was shown as true to nature. He has also given, as an +example of an unnatural or false smile, another photograph (fig. 6) of the +same old man, with the corners of his mouth strongly retracted by the +galvanization of the great zygomatic muscles. That the expression is not +natural is clear, for I showed this photograph to twenty-four persons, of +whom three could not in the least tell what was meant, whilst the others, +though they perceived that the expression was of the nature of a smile, +answered in such words as “a wicked joke,” “trying to laugh,” “grinning +laughter.... half-amazed laughter,” &c. Dr. Duchenne attributes the +falseness of the expression altogether to the orbicular muscles of the +lower eyelids not being sufficiently contracted; for he justly lays great +stress on their contraction in the expression of joy. No doubt there is +much truth in this view, but not, as it appears to me, the whole truth. +The contraction of the lower orbiculars is always accompanied, as we have +seen, by the drawing up of the upper lip. Had the upper lip, in fig. 6, +been thus acted on to a slight extent, its curvature would have been less +rigid, the naso-labial farrow would have been slightly different, and the +whole expression would, as I believe, have been more natural, +independently of the more conspicuous effect from the stronger contraction +of the lower eyelids. The corrugator muscle, moreover, in fig. 6, is too +much contracted, causing a frown; and this muscle never acts under the +influence of joy except during strongly pronounced or violent laughter. +</p> + +<p> +By the drawing backwards and upwards of the corners of the mouth, through +the contraction of the great zygomatic muscles, and by the raising of the +upper lip, the cheeks are drawn upwards. Wrinkles are thus formed under +the eyes, and, with old people, at their outer ends; and these are highly +characteristic of laughter or smiling. As a gentle smile increases into a +strong one, or into a laugh, every one may feel and see, if he will attend +to his own sensations and look at himself in a mirror, that as the upper +lip is drawn up and the lower orbiculars contract, the wrinkles in the +lower eyelids and those beneath the eyes are much strengthened or +increased. At the same time, as I have repeatedly observed, the eyebrows +are slightly lowered, which shows that the upper as well as the lower +orbiculars contract at least to some degree, though this passes +unperecived, as far as our sensations are concerned. If the original +photograph of the old man, with his countenance in its usual placid state +(fig. 4), be compared with that (fig. 5) in which he is naturally smiling, +it may be seen that the eyebrows in the latter are a little lowered. I +presume that this is owing to the upper orbiculars being impelled, through +the force of long-associated habit, to act to a certain extent in concert +with the lower orbiculars, which themselves contract in connection with +the drawing up of the upper lip. +</p> + +<p> +The tendency in the zygomatic muscles to contract under pleasurable +emotions is shown by a curious fact, communicated to me by Dr. Browne, +with respect to patients suffering from GENERAL PARALYSIS OF THE INSANE.<a +href="#linknote-811" name="linknoteref-811" id="linknoteref-811">[811]</a> +“In this malady there is almost invariably optimism—delusions as to +wealth, rank, grandeur—insane joyousness, benevolence, and +profusion, while its very earliest physical symptom is trembling at the +corners of the mouth and at the outer corners of the eyes. This is a +well-recognized fact. Constant tremulous agitation of the inferior +palpebral and great zygomatic muscles is pathognomic of the earlier stages +of general paralysis. The countenance has a pleased and benevolent +expression. As the disease advances other muscles become involved, but +until complete fatuity is reached, the prevailing expression is that of +feeble benevolence.” +</p> + +<p> +As in laughing and broadly smiling the cheeks and upper lip are much +raised, the nose appears to be shortened, and the skin on the bridge +becomes finely wrinkled in transverse lines, with other oblique +longitudinal lines on the sides. The upper front teeth are commonly +exposed. A well-marked naso-labial fold is formed, which runs from the +wing of each nostril to the corner of the mouth; and this fold is often +double in old persons. +</p> + +<p> +A bright and sparkling eye is as characteristic of a pleased or amused +state of mind, as is the retraction of the corners of the mouth and upper +lip with the wrinkles thus produced. Even the eyes of microcephalous +idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn to speak, brighten +slightly when they are pleased.<a href="#linknote-812" +name="linknoteref-812" id="linknoteref-812">[812]</a> Under extreme +laughter the eyes are too much suffused with tears to sparkle; but the +moisture squeezed out of the glands during moderate laughter or smiling +may aid in giving them lustre; though this must be of altogether +subordinate importance, as they become dull from grief, though they are +then often moist. Their brightness seems to be chiefly due to their +tenseness,<a href="#linknote-813" name="linknoteref-813" +id="linknoteref-813">[813]</a> owing to the contraction of the orbicular +muscles and to the pressure of the raised cheeks. But, according to Dr. +Piderit, who has discussed this point more fully than any other writer,<a +href="#linknote-814" name="linknoteref-814" id="linknoteref-814">[814]</a> +the tenseness may be largely attributed to the eyeballs becoming filled +with blood and other fluids, from the acceleration of the circulation, +consequent on the excitement of pleasure. He remarks on the contrast in +the appearance of the eyes of a hectic patient with a rapid circulation, +and of a man suffering from cholera with almost all the fluids of his body +drained from him. Any cause which lowers the circulation deadens the eye. +I remember seeing a man utterly prostrated by prolonged and severe +exertion during a very hot day, and a bystander compared his eyes to those +of a boiled codfish. +</p> + +<p> +To return to the sounds produced during laughter. We can see in a vague +manner how the utterance of sounds of some kind would naturally become +associated with a pleasurable state of mind; for throughout a large part +of the animal kingdom vocal or instrumental sounds are employed either as +a call or as a charm by one sex for the other. They are also employed as +the means for a joyful meeting between the parents and their offspring, +and between the attached members of the same social community. But why the +sounds which man utters when he is pleased have the peculiar reiterated +character of laughter we do not know. Nevertheless we can see that they +would naturally be as different as possible from the screams or cries of +distress; and as in the production of the latter, the expirations are +prolonged and continuous, with the inspirations short and interrupted, so +it might perhaps have been expected with the sounds uttered from joy, that +the expirations would have been short and broken with the inspirations +prolonged; and this is the case. +</p> + +<p> +It is an equally obscure point why the corners of the mouth are retracted +and the upper lip raised during ordinary laughter. The mouth must not be +opened to its utmost extent, for when this occurs during a paroxysm of +excessive laughter hardly any sound is emitted; or it changes its tone and +seems to come from deep down in the throat. The respiratory muscles, and +even those of the limbs, are at the same time thrown into rapid vibratory +movements. The lower jaw often partakes of this movement, and this would +tend to prevent the mouth from being widely opened. But as a full volume +of sound has to be poured forth, the orifice of the mouth must be large; +and it is perhaps to gain this end that the corners are retracted and the +upper lip raised. Although we can hardly account for the shape of the +mouth during laughter, which leads to wrinkles being formed beneath the +eyes, nor for the peculiar reiterated sound of laughter, nor for the +quivering of the jaws, nevertheless we may infer that all these effects +are due to some common cause. For they are all characteristic and +expressive of a pleased state of mind in various kinds of monkeys. +</p> + +<p> +A graduated series can be followed from violent to moderate laughter, to a +broad smile, to a gentle smile, and to the expression of mere +cheerfulness. During excessive laughter the whole body is often thrown +backward and shakes, or is almost convulsed; the respiration is much +disturbed; the head and face become gorged with blood, with the veins +distended; and the orbicular muscles are spasmodically contracted in order +to protect the eyes. Tears are freely shed. Hence, as formerly remarked, +it is scarcely possible to point out any difference between the +tear-stained face of a person after a paroxysm of excessive laughter and +after a bitter crying-fit.<a href="#linknote-815" name="linknoteref-815" +id="linknoteref-815">[815]</a> It is probably due to the close similarity +of the spasmodic movements caused by these widely different emotions that +hysteric patients alternately cry and laugh with violence, and that young +children sometimes pass suddenly from the one to the other state. Mr. +Swinhoe informs me that he has often seen the Chinese, when suffering from +deep grief, burst out into hysterical fits of laughter. +</p> + +<p> +I was anxious to know whether tears are freely shed during excessive +laughter by most of the races of men, and I hear from my correspondents +that this is the case. One instance was observed with the Hindoos, and +they themselves said that it often occurred. So it is with the Chinese. +The women of a wild tribe of Malays in the Malacca peninsula, sometimes +shed tears when they laugh heartily, though this seldom occurs. With the +Dyaks of Borneo it must frequently be the case, at least with the women, +for I hear from the Rajah C. Brooke that it is a common expression with +them to say “we nearly made tears from laughter.” The aborigines of +Australia express their emotions freely, and they are described by my +correspondents as jumping about and clapping their hands for joy, and as +often roaring with laughter. No less than four observers have seen their +eyes freely watering on such occasions; and in one instance the tears +rolled down their cheeks. Mr. Bulmer, a missionary in a remote part of +Victoria, remarks, “that they have a keen sense of the ridiculous; they +are excellent mimics, and when one of them is able to imitate the +peculiarities of some absent member of the tribe, it is very common to +hear all in the camp convulsed with laughter.” With Europeans hardly +anything excites laughter so easily as mimicry; and it is rather curious +to find the same fact with the savages of Australia, who constitute one of +the most distinct races in the world. +</p> + +<p> +In Southern Africa with two tribes of Kafirs, especially with the women, +their eyes often fill with tears during laughter. Gaika, the brother of +the chief Sandilli, answers my query on this head, with the words, “Yes, +that is their common practice.” Sir Andrew Smith has seen the painted face +of a Hottentot woman all furrowed with tears after a fit of laughter. In +Northern Africa, with the Abyssinians, tears are secreted under the same +circumstances. Lastly, in North America, the same fact has been observed +in a remarkably savage and isolated tribe, but chiefly with the women; in +another tribe it was observed only on a single occasion. +</p> + +<p> +Excessive laughter, as before remarked, graduates into moderate laughter. +In this latter case the muscles round the eyes are much less contracted, +and there is little or no frowning. Between a gentle laugh and a broad +smile there is hardly any difference, excepting that in smiling no +reiterated sound is uttered, though a single rather strong expiration, or +slight noise—a rudiment of a laugh—may often be heard at the +commencement of a smile. On a moderately smiling countenance the +contraction of the upper orbicular muscles can still just be traced by a +slight lowering of the eyebrows. The contraction of the lower orbicular +and palpebral muscles is much plainer, and is shown by the wrinkling of +the lower eyelids and of the skin beneath them, together with a slight +drawing up of the upper lip. From the broadest smile we pass by the finest +steps into the gentlest one. In this latter case the features are moved in +a much less degree, and much more slowly, and the mouth is kept closed. +The curvature of the naso-labial furrow is also slightly different in the +two cases. We thus see that no abrupt line of demarcation can be drawn +between the movement of the features during the most violent laughter and +a very faint smile.<a href="#linknote-816" name="linknoteref-816" +id="linknoteref-816">[816]</a> +</p> + +<p> +A smile, therefore, may be said to be the first stage in the development +of a laugh. But a different and more probable view may be suggested; +namely, that the habit of uttering load reiterated sounds from a sense of +pleasure, first led to the retraction of the corners of the mouth and of +the upper lip, and to the contraction of the orbicular muscles; and that +now, through association and long-continued habit, the same muscles are +brought into slight play whenever any cause excites in us a feeling which, +if stronger, would have led to laughter; and the result is a smile. +</p> + +<p> +Whether we look at laughter as the full development of a smile, or, as is +more probable, at a gentle smile as the last trace of a habit, firmly +fixed during many generations, of laughing whenever we are joyful, we can +follow in our infants the gradual passage of the one into the other. It is +well known to those who have the charge of young infants, that it is +difficult to feel sure when certain movements about their mouths are +really expressive; that is, when they really smile. Hence I carefully +watched my own infants. One of them at the age of forty-five days, and +being at the time in a happy frame of mind, smiled; that is, the corners +of the mouth were retracted, and simultaneously the eyes became decidedly +bright. I observed the same thing on the following day; but on the third +day the child was not quite well and there was no trace of a smile, and +this renders it probable that the previous smiles were real. Eight days +subsequently and during the next succeeding week, it was remarkable how +his eyes brightened whenever he smiled, and his nose became at the same +time transversely wrinkled. This was now accompanied by a little bleating +noise, which perhaps represented a laugh. At the age of 113 days these +little noises, which were always made during expiration, assumed a +slightly different character, and were more broken or interrupted, as in +sobbing; and this was certainly incipient laughter. The change in tone +seemed to me at the time to be connected with the greater lateral +extension of the mouth as the smiles became broader. +</p> + +<p> +In a second infant the first real smile was observed at about the same +age, viz. forty-five days; and in a third, at a somewhat earlier age. The +second infant, when sixty-five days old, smiled much more broadly and +plainly than did the one first mentioned at the same age; and even at this +early age uttered noises very like laughter. In this gradual acquirement, +by infants, of the habit of laughing, we have a case in some degree +analogous to that of weeping. As practice is requisite with the ordinary +movements of the body, such as walking, so it seems to be with laughing +and weeping. The art of screaming, on the other hand, from being of +service to infants, has become finely developed from the earliest days. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>High spirits, cheerfulness</i>.—A man in high spirits, though he +may not actually smile, commonly exhibits some tendency to the retraction +of the corners of his mouth. From the excitement of pleasure, the +circulation becomes more rapid; the eyes are bright, and the colour of the +face rises. The brain, being stimulated by the increased flow of blood, +reacts on the mental powers; lively ideas pass still more rapidly through +the mind, and the affections are warmed. I heard a child, a little under +four years old, when asked what was meant by being in good spirits, +answer, “It is laughing, talking, and kissing.” It would be difficult to +give a truer and more practical definition. A man in this state holds his +body erect, his head upright, and his eyes open. There is no drooping of +the features, and no contraction of the eyebrows. On the contrary, the +frontal muscle, as Moreau observes,<a href="#linknote-817" +name="linknoteref-817" id="linknoteref-817">[817]</a> tends to contract +slightly; and this smooths the brow, removes every trace of a frown, +arches the eyebrows a little, and raises the eyelids. Hence the Latin +phrase, <i>exporrigere frontem</i>—to unwrinkle the brow—means, +to be cheerful or merry. The whole expression of a man in good spirits is +exactly the opposite of that of one suffering from sorrow. According to +Sir C. Bell, “In all the exhilarating emotions the eyebrows, eyelids, the +nostrils, and the angles of the mouth are raised. In the depressing +passions it is the reverse.” Under the influence of the latter the brow is +heavy, the eyelids, cheeks, mouth, and whole head droop; the eyes are +dull; the countenance pallid, and the respiration slow. In joy the face +expands, in grief it lengthens. Whether the principle of antithesis has +here come into play in producing these opposite expressions, in aid of the +direct causes which have been specified and which are sufficiently plain, +I will not pretend to say. +</p> + +<p> +With all the races of man the expression of good spirit appears to be the +same, and is easily recognized. My informants, from various parts of the +Old and New Worlds, answer in the affirmative to my queries on this head, +and they give some particulars with respect to Hindoos, Malays, and New +Zealanders. The brightness of the eyes of the Australians has struck four +observers, and the same fact has been noticed with Hindoos, New +Zealanders, and the Dyaks of Borneo. +</p> + +<p> +Savages sometimes express their satisfaction not only by smiling, but by +gestures derived from the pleasure of eating. Thus Mr. Wedgwood<a +href="#linknote-818" name="linknoteref-818" id="linknoteref-818">[818]</a> +quotes Petherick that the negroes on the Upper Nile began a general +rubbing of their bellies when he displayed his beads; and Leichhardt says +that the Australians smacked and clacked their mouths at the sight of his +horses and bullocks, and more especially of his kangaroo dogs. The +Greenlanders, “when they affirm anything with pleasure, suck down air with +a certain sound;”<a href="#linknote-819" name="linknoteref-819" +id="linknoteref-819">[819]</a> and this may be an imitation of the act of +swallowing savoury food. +</p> + +<p> +Laughter is suppressed by the firm contraction of the orbicular muscles of +the mouth, which prevents the great zygomatic and other muscles from +drawing the lips backwards and upwards. The lower lip is also sometimes +held by the teeth, and this gives a roguish expression to the face, as was +observed with the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman.<a href="#linknote-820" +name="linknoteref-820" id="linknoteref-820">[820]</a> The great zygomatic +muscle is sometimes variable in its course, and I have seen a young woman +in whom the <i>depressores anguli oris</i> were brought into strong action +in suppressing a smile; but this by no means gave to her countenance a +melancholy expression, owing to the brightness of her eyes. +</p> + +<p> +Laughter is frequently employed in a forced manner to conceal or mask some +other state of mind, even anger. We often see persons laughing in order to +conceal their shame or shyness. When a person purses up his mouth, as if +to prevent the possibility of a smile, though there is nothing to excite +one, or nothing to prevent its free indulgence, an affected, solemn, or +pedantic expression is given; but of such hybrid expressions nothing more +need here be said. In the case of derision, a real or pretended smile or +laugh is often blended with the expression proper to contempt, and this +may pass into angry contempt or scorn. In such cases the meaning of the +laugh or smile is to show the offending person that he excites only +amusement. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Love, tender feelings, &c</i>.—Although the emotion of love, +for instance that of a mother for her infant, is one of the strongest of +which the mind is capable, it can hardly be said to have any proper or +peculiar means of expression; and this is intelligible, as it has not +habitually led to any special line of action. No doubt, as affection is a +pleasurable sensation, it generally causes a gentle smile and some +brightening of the eyes. A strong desire to touch the beloved person is +commonly felt; and love is expressed by this means more plainly than by +any other.<a href="#linknote-821" name="linknoteref-821" +id="linknoteref-821">[821]</a> Hence we long to clasp in our arms those +whom we tenderly love. We probably owe this desire to inherited habit, in +association with the nursing and tending of our children, and with the +mutual caresses of lovers. +</p> + +<p> +With the lower animals we see the same principle of pleasure derived from +contact in association with love. Dogs and cats manifestly take pleasure +in rubbing against their masters and mistresses, and in being rubbed or +patted by them. Many kinds of monkeys, as I am assured by the keepers in +the Zoological Gardens, delight in fondling and being fondled by each +other, and by persons to whom they are attached. Mr. Bartlett has +described to me the behaviour of two chimpanzees, rather older animals +than those generally imported into this country, when they were first +brought together. They sat opposite, touching each other with their much +protruded lips; and the one put his hand on the shoulder of the other. +They then mutually folded each other in their arms. Afterwards they stood +up, each with one arm on the shoulder of the other, lifted up their heads, +opened their mouths, and yelled with delight.<a href="#linknote-822" +name="linknoteref-822" id="linknoteref-822">[822]</a> +</p> + +<p> +We Europeans are so accustomed to kissing as a mark of affection, that it +might be thought to be innate in mankind; but this is not the case. Steele +was mistaken when he said “Nature was its author, and it began with the +first courtship.” Jemmy Button, the Fuegian, told me that this practice +was unknown in his land. It is equally unknown with the New Zealanders, +Tahitians, Papuans, Australians, Somals of Africa, and the Esquimaux. But +it is so far innate or natural that it apparently depends on pleasure from +close contact with a beloved person; and it is replaced in various parts +of the world, by the rubbing of noses, as with the New Zealanders and +Laplanders, by the rubbing or patting of the arms, breasts, or stomachs, +or by one man striking his own face with the hands or feet of another. +Perhaps the practice of blowing, as a mark of affection, on various parts +of the body may depend on the same principle.<a href="#linknote-823" +name="linknoteref-823" id="linknoteref-823">[823]</a> +</p> + +<p> +The feelings which are called tender are difficult to analyse; they seem +to be compounded of affection, joy, and especially of sympathy. These +feelings are in themselves of a pleasurable nature, excepting when pity is +too deep, or horror is aroused, as in hearing of a tortured man or animal. +They are remarkable under our present point of view from so readily +exciting the secretion of tears. Many a father and son have wept on +meeting after a long separation, especially if the meeting has been +unexpected. No doubt extreme joy by itself tends to act on the lacrymal +glands; but on such occasions as the foregoing vague thoughts of the grief +which would have been felt had the father and son never met, will probably +have passed through their minds; and grief naturally leads to the +secretion of tears. Thus on the return of Ulysses:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“Telemachus Rose, and clung weeping round his father’s breast.<br/> +There the pent grief rained o’er them, yearning thus.<br/> +* * * * * *<br/> +Thus piteously they wailed in sore unrest,<br/> +And on their weepings had gone down the day,<br/> +But that at last Telemachus found words to say.”<br/> +<i>Worsley’s Translation of the Odyssey</i>, Book xvi. st. 27. +</p> + +<p> +So again when Penelope at last recognized her husband:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“Then from her eyelids the quick tears did start<br/> +And she ran to him from her place, and threw<br/> +Her arms about his neck, and a warm dew<br/> +Of kisses poured upon him, and thus spake:”<br/> +—Book xxiii. st. 27. +</p> + +<p> +The vivid recollection of our former home, or of long-past happy days, +readily causes the eyes to be suffused with tears; but here, again, the +thought naturally occurs that these days will never return. In such cases +we may be said to sympathize with ourselves in our present, in comparison +with our former, state. Sympathy with the distresses of others, even with +the imaginary distresses of a heroine in a pathetic story, for whom we +feel no affection, readily excites tears. So does sympathy with the +happiness of others, as with that of a lover, at last successful after +many hard trials in a well-told tale. +</p> + +<p> +Sympathy appears to constitute a separate or distinct emotion; and it is +especially apt to excite the lacrymal glands. This holds good whether we +give or receive sympathy. Every one must have noticed how readily children +burst out crying if we pity them for some small hurt. With the melancholic +insane, as Dr. Crichton Browne informs me, a kind word will often plunge +them into unrestrained weeping. As soon as we express our pity for the +grief of a friend, tears often come into our own eyes. The feeling of +sympathy is commonly explained by assuming that, when we see or hear of +suffering in another, the idea of suffering is called up so vividly in our +own minds that we ourselves suffer. But this explanation is hardly +sufficient, for it does not account for the intimate alliance between +sympathy and affection. We undoubtedly sympathize far more deeply with a +beloved than with an indifferent person; and the sympathy of the one gives +us far more relief than that of the other. Yet assuredly we can sympathize +with those for whom we feel no affection. +</p> + +<p> +Why suffering, when actually experienced by ourselves, excites weeping, +has been discussed in a former chapter. With respect to joy, its natural +and universal expression is laughter; and with all the races of man loud +laughter leads to the secretion of tears more freely than does any other +cause excepting distress. The suffusion of the eyes with tears, which +undoubtedly occurs under great joy, though there is no laughter, can, as +it seems to me, be explained through habit and association on the same +principles as the effusion of tears from grief, although there is no +screaming. Nevertheless it is not a little remarkable that sympathy with +the distresses of others should excite tears more freely than our own +distress; and this certainly is the case. Many a man, from whose eyes no +suffering of his own could wring a tear, has shed tears at the sufferings +of a beloved friend. It is still more remarkable that sympathy with the +happiness or good fortune of those whom we tenderly love should lead to +the same result, whilst a similar happiness felt by ourselves would leave +our eyes dry. We should, however, bear in mind that the long-continued +habit of restraint which is so powerful in checking the free flow of tears +from bodily pain, has not been brought into play in preventing a moderate +effusion of tears in sympathy with the sufferings or happiness of others. +</p> + +<p> +Music has a wonderful power, as I have elsewhere attempted to show,<a +href="#linknote-824" name="linknoteref-824" id="linknoteref-824">[824]</a> +of recalling in a vague and indefinite manner, those strong emotions which +were felt during long-past ages, when, as is probable, our early +progenitors courted each other by the aid of vocal tones. And as several +of our strongest emotions—grief, great joy, love, and sympathy—lead +to the free secretion of tears, it is not surprising that music should be +apt to cause our eyes to become suffused with tears, especially when we +are already softened by any of the tenderer feelings. Music often produces +another peculiar effect. We know that every strong sensation, emotion, or +excitement—extreme pain, rage, terror, joy, or the passion of love—all +have a special tendency to cause the muscles to tremble; and the thrill or +slight shiver which runs down the backbone and limbs of many persons when +they are powerfully affected by music, seems to bear the same relation to +the above trembling of the body, as a slight suffusion of tears from the +power of music does to weeping from any strong and real emotion. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Devotion</i>.—As devotion is, in some degree, related to +affection, though mainly consisting of reverence, often combined with +fear, the expression of this state of mind may here be briefly noticed. +With some sects, both past and present, religion and love have been +strangely combined; and it has even been maintained, lamentable as the +fact may be, that the holy kiss of love differs but little from that which +a man bestows on a woman, or a woman on a man.<a href="#linknote-825" +name="linknoteref-825" id="linknoteref-825">[825]</a> Devotion is chiefly +expressed by the face being directed towards the heavens, with the +eyeballs upturned. Sir C. Bell remarks that, at the approach of sleep, or +of a fainting-fit, or of death, the pupils are drawn upwards and inwards; +and he believes that “when we are wrapt in devotional feelings, and +outward impressions are unheeded, the eyes are raised by an action neither +taught nor acquired.” and that this is due to the same cause as in the +above cases.<a href="#linknote-826" name="linknoteref-826" +id="linknoteref-826">[826]</a> That the eyes are upturned during sleep is, +as I hear from Professor Donders, certain. With babies, whilst sucking +their mother’s breast, this movement of the eyeballs often gives to them +an absurd appearance of ecstatic delight; and here it may be clearly +perceived that a struggle is going on against the position naturally +assumed during sleep. But Sir C. Bell’s explanation of the fact, which +rests on the assumption that certain muscles are more under the control of +the will than others is, as I hear from Professor Donders, incorrect. As +the eyes are often turned up in prayer, without the mind being so much +absorbed in thought as to approach to the unconsciousness of sleep, the +movement is probably a conventional one—the result of the common +belief that Heaven, the source of Divine power to which we pray, is seated +above us. +</p> + +<p> +A humble kneeling posture, with the hands upturned and palms joined, +appears to us, from long habit, a gesture so appropriate to devotion, that +it might be thought to be innate; but I have not met with any evidence to +this effect with the various extra-European races of mankind. During the +classical period of Roman history it does not appear, as I hear from an +excellent classic, that the hands were thus joined during prayer. Mr. +Rensleigh Wedgwood has apparently given<a href="#linknote-827" +name="linknoteref-827" id="linknoteref-827">[827]</a> the true +explanation, though this implies that the attitude is one of slavish +subjection. “When the suppliant kneels and holds up his hands with the +palms joined, he represents a captive who proves the completeness of his +submission by offering up his hands to be bound by the victor. It is the +pictorial representation of the Latin <i>dare manus</i>, to signify +submission.” Hence it is not probable that either the uplifting of the +eyes or the joining of the open hands, under the influence of devotional +feelings, are innate or truly expressive actions; and this could hardly +have been expected, for it is very doubtful whether feelings, such as we +should now rank as devotional, affected the hearts of men, whilst they +remained during past ages in an uncivilized condition. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"></a> +CHAPTER IX.<br/>REFLECTION—MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER—SULKINESS—DETERMINATION. +</h2> + +<p> +The act of frowning—Reflection with an effort, or with the +perception of something difficult or disagreeable—Abstracted +meditation—Ill-temper—Moroseness—Obstinacy Sulkiness and +pouting—Decision or determination—The firm closure of the +mouth. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The corrugators, by their contraction, lower the eyebrows and bring them +together, producing vertical furrows on the forehead—that is, a +frown. Sir C. Bell, who erroneously thought that the corrugator was +peculiar to man, ranks it as “the most remarkable muscle of the human +face. It knits the eyebrows with an energetic effort, which unaccountably, +but irresistibly, conveys the idea of mind.” Or, as he elsewhere says, +“when the eyebrows are knit, energy of mind is apparent, and there is the +mingling of thought and emotion with the savage and brutal rage of the +mere animal.”<a href="#linknote-901" name="linknoteref-901" +id="linknoteref-901">[901]</a> There is much truth in these remarks, but +hardly the whole truth. Dr. Duchenne has called the corrugator the muscle +of reflection;<a href="#linknote-902" name="linknoteref-902" +id="linknoteref-902">[902]</a> but this name, without some limitation, +cannot be considered as quite correct. +</p> + +<p> +A man may be absorbed in the deepest thought, and his brow will remain +smooth until he encounters some obstacle in his train of reasoning, or is +interrupted by some disturbance, and then a frown passes like a shadow +over his brow. A half-starved man may think intently how to obtain food, +but he probably will not frown unless he encounters either in thought or +action some difficulty, or finds the food when obtained nauseous. I have +noticed that almost everyone instantly frowns if he perceives a strange or +bad taste in what he is eating. I asked several persons, without +explaining my object, to listen intently to a very gentle tapping sound, +the nature and source of which they all perfectly knew, and not one +frowned; but a man who joined us, and who could not conceive what we were +all doing in profound silence, when asked to listen, frowned much, though +not in an ill-temper, and said he could not in the least understand what +we all wanted. Dr. Piderit<a href="#linknote-903" name="linknoteref-903" +id="linknoteref-903">[903]</a> who has published remarks to the same +effect, adds that stammerers generally frown in speaking, and that a man +in doing even so trifling a thing as pulling on a boot, frowns if he finds +it too tight. Some persons are such habitual frowners, that the mere +effort of speaking almost always causes their brows to contract. +</p> + +<p> +Men of all races frown when they are in any way perplexed in thought, as I +infer from the answers which I have received to my queries; but I framed +them badly, confounding absorbed meditation with perplexed reflection. +Nevertheless, it is clear that the Australians, Malays, Hindoos, and +Kafirs of South Africa frown, when they are puzzled. Dobritzhoffer remarks +that the Guaranies of South America on like occasions knit their brows.<a +href="#linknote-904" name="linknoteref-904" id="linknoteref-904">[904]</a> +</p> + +<p> +From these considerations, we may conclude that frowning is not the +expression of simple reflection, however profound, or of attention, +however close, but of something difficult or displeasing encountered in a +train of thought or in action. Deep reflection can, however, seldom be +long carried on without some difficulty, so that it will generally be +accompanied by a frown. Hence it is that frowning commonly gives to the +countenance, as Sir C. Bell remarks, an aspect of intellectual energy. But +in order that this effect may be produced, the eyes must be clear and +steady, or they may be cast downwards, as often occurs in deep thought. +The countenance must not be otherwise disturbed, as in the case of an +ill-tempered or peevish man, or of one who shows the effects of prolonged +suffering, with dulled eyes and drooping jaw, or who perceives a bad taste +in his food, or who finds it difficult to perform some trifling act, such +as threading a needle. In these cases a frown may often be seen, but it +will be accompanied by some other expression, which will entirely prevent +the countenance having an appearance of intellectual energy or of profound +thought. +</p> + +<p> +We may now inquire how it is that a frown should express the perception of +something difficult or disagreeable, either in thought or action. In the +same way as naturalists find it advisable to trace the embryological +development of an organ in order fully to understand its structure, so +with the movements of expression it is advisable to follow as nearly as +possible the same plan. The earliest and almost sole expression seen +during the first days of infancy, and then often exhibited is that +displayed during the act of screaming; and screaming is excited, both at +first and for some time afterwards, by every distressing or displeasing +sensation and emotion,—by hunger, pain, anger, jealousy, fear, &c. +At such times the muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted; and +this, as I believe, explains to a large extent the act of frowning during +the remainder of our lives. I repeatedly observed my own infants, from +under the age of one week to that of two or three months, and found that +when a screaming-fit came on gradually, the first sign was the contraction +of the corrugators, which produced a slight frown, quickly followed by the +contraction of the other muscles round the eyes. When an infant is +uncomfortable or unwell, little frowns—as I record in my notes—may +be seen incessantly passing like shadows over its face; these being +generally, but not always, followed sooner or later by a crying-fit. For +instance, I watched for some time a baby, between seven and eight weeks +old, sucking some milk which was cold, and therefore displeasing to him; +and a steady little frown was maintained all the time. This was never +developed into an actual crying-fit, though occasionally every stage of +close approach could be observed. +</p> + +<p> +As the habit of contracting the brows has been followed by infants during +innumerable generations, at the commencement of every crying or screaming +fit, it has become firmly associated with the incipient sense of something +distressing or disagreeable. Hence under similar circumstances it would be +apt to be continued during maturity, although never then developed into a +crying-fit. Screaming or weeping begins to be voluntarily restrained at an +early period of life, whereas frowning is hardly ever restrained at any +age. It is perhaps worth notice that with children much given to weeping, +anything which perplexes their minds, and which would cause most other +children merely to frown, readily makes them weep. So with certain classes +of the insane, any effort of mind, however slight, which with an habitual +frowner would cause a slight frown, leads to their weeping in an +unrestrained manner. It is not more surprising that the habit of +contracting the brows at the first perception of something distressing, +although gained during infancy, should be retained during the rest of our +lives, than that many other associated habits acquired at an early age +should be permanently retained both by man and the lower animals. For +instance, full-grown cats, when feeling warm and comfortable, often retain +the habit of alternately protruding their fore-feet with extended toes, +which habit they practised for a definite purpose whilst sucking their +mothers. +</p> + +<p> +Another and distinct cause has probably strengthened the habit of +frowning, whenever the mind is intent on any subject and encounters some +difficulty. Vision is the most important of all the senses, and during +primeval times the closest attention must have been incessantly: directed +towards distant objects for the sake of obtaining prey and avoiding +danger. I remember being struck, whilst travelling in parts of South +America, which were dangerous from the presence of Indians, how +incessantly, yet as it appeared unconsciously, the half-wild Gauchos +closely scanned the whole horizon. Now, when any one with no covering on +his head (as must have been aboriginally the case with mankind), strives +to the utmost to distinguish in broad daylight, and especially if the sky +is bright, a distant object, he almost invariably contracts his brows to +prevent the entrance of too much light; the lower eyelids, cheeks, and +upper lip being at the same time raised, so as to lessen the orifice of +the eyes. I have purposely asked several persons, young and old, to look, +under the above circumstances, at distant objects, making them believe +that I only wished to test the power of their vision; and they all behaved +in the manner just described. Some of them, also, put their open, flat +hands over their eyes to keep out the excess of light. Gratiolet, after +making some remarks to nearly the same effect,<a href="#linknote-905" +name="linknoteref-905" id="linknoteref-905">[905]</a> says, “Ce sont là +des attitudes de vision difficile.” He concludes that the muscles round +the eyes contract partly for the sake of excluding too much light (which +appears to me the more important end), and partly to prevent all rays +striking the retina, except those which come direct from the object that +is scrutinized. Mr. Bowman, whom I consulted on this point, thinks that +the contraction of the surrounding muscles may, in addition, “partly +sustain the consensual movements of the two eyes, by giving a firmer +support while the globes are brought to binocular vision by their own +proper muscles.” +</p> + +<p> +As the effort of viewing with care under a bright light a distant object +is both difficult and irksome, and as this effort has been habitually +accompanied, during numberless generations, by the contraction of the +eyebrows, the habit of frowning will thus have been much strengthened; +although it was originally practised during infancy from a quite +independent cause, namely as the first step in the protection of the eyes +during screaming. There is, indeed, much analogy, as far as the state of +the mind is concerned, between intently scrutinizing a distant object, and +following out an obscure train of thought, or performing some little and +troublesome mechanical work. The belief that the habit of contracting the +brows is continued when there is no need whatever to exclude too much +light, receives support from the cases formerly alluded to, in which the +eyebrows or eyelids are acted on under certain circumstances in a useless +manner, from having been similarly used, under analogous circumstances, +for a serviceable purpose. For instance, we voluntarily close our eyes +when we do not wish to see any object, and we are apt to close them, when +we reject a proposition, as if we could not or would not see it; or when +we think about something horrible. We raise our eyebrows when we wish to +see quickly all round us, and we often do the same, when we earnestly +desire to remember something; acting as if we endeavoured to see it. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Abstraction. Meditation</i>.—When a person is lost in thought +with his mind absent, or, as it is sometimes said, “when he is in a brown +study,” he does not frown, but his eyes appear vacant. The lower eyelids +are generally raised and wrinkled, in the same manner as when a +short-sighted person tries to distinguish a distant object; and the upper +orbicular muscles are at the same time slightly contracted. The wrinkling +of the lower eyelids under these circumstances has been observed with some +savages, as by Mr. Dyson Lacy with the Australians of Queensland, and +several times by Mr. Geach with the Malays of the interior of Malacca. +What the meaning or cause of this action may be, cannot at present be +explained; but here we have another instance of movement round the eyes in +relation to the state of the mind. +</p> + +<p> +The vacant expression of the eyes is very peculiar, and at once shows when +a man is completely lost in thought. Professor Donders has, with his usual +kindness, investigated this subject for me. He has observed others in this +condition, and has been himself observed by Professor Engelmann. The eyes +are not then fixed on any object, and therefore not, as I had imagined, on +some distant object. The lines of vision of the two eyes even often become +slightly divergent; the divergence, if the head be held vertically, with +the plane of vision horizontal, amounting to an angle of 2° as a maximum. +This was ascertained by observing the crossed double image of a distant +object. When the head droops forward, as often occurs with a man absorbed +in thought, owing to the general relaxation of his muscles, if the plane +of vision be still horizontal, the eyes are necessarily a little turned +upwards, and then the divergence is as much as 3°, or 3° 5’: if the eyes +are turned still more upwards, it amounts to between 6° and 7°. +Professor Donders attributes this divergence to the almost complete +relaxation of certain muscles of the eyes, which would be apt to follow +from the mind being wholly absorbed.<a href="#linknote-906" +name="linknoteref-906" id="linknoteref-906">[906]</a> The active condition +of the muscles of the eyes is that of convergence; and Professor Donders +remarks, as bearing on their divergence during a period of complete +abstraction, that when one eye becomes blind, it almost always, after a +short lapse of time, deviates outwards; for its muscles are no longer used +in moving the eyeball inwards for the sake of binocular vision. +</p> + +<p> +Perplexed reflection is often accompanied by certain movements or +gestures. At such times we commonly raise our hands to our foreheads, +mouths, or chins; but we do not act thus, as far as I have seen, when we +are quite lost in meditation, and no difficulty is encountered. Plautus, +describing in one of his plays<a href="#linknote-907" +name="linknoteref-907" id="linknoteref-907">[907]</a> a puzzled man, says, +“Now look, he has pillared his chin upon his hand.” Even so trifling and +apparently unmeaning a gesture as the raising of the hand to the face has +been observed with some savages. Mr. J. Mansel Weale has seen it with the +Kafirs of South Africa; and the native chief Gaika adds, that men then +“sometimes pull their beards.” Mr. Washington Matthews, who attended to +some of the wildest tribes of Indians in the western regions of the United +States, remarks that he has seen them when concentrating their thoughts, +bring their “hands, usually the thumb and index finger, in contact with +some part of the face, commonly the upper lip.” We can understand why the +forehead should be pressed or rubbed, as deep thought tries the brain; but +why the hand should be raised to the mouth or face is far from clear. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Ill-temper</i>.—We have seen that frowning is the natural +expression of some difficulty encountered, or of something disagreeable +experienced either in thought or action, and he whose mind is often and +readily affected in this way, will be apt to be ill-tempered, or slightly +angry, or peevish, and will commonly show it by frowning. But a cross +expression, due to a frown, may be counteracted, if the mouth appears +sweet, from being habitually drawn into a smile, and the eyes are bright +and cheerful. So it will be if the eye is clear and steady, and there is +the appearance of earnest reflection. Frowning, with some depression of +the corners of the mouth, which is a sign of grief, gives an air of +peevishness. If a child (see Plate IV., fig. 2)<a href="#linknote-908" +name="linknoteref-908" id="linknoteref-908">[908]</a> frowns much whilst +crying, but does not strongly contract in the usual manner the orbicular +muscles, a well-marked expression of anger or even of rage, together with +misery, is displayed. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0021" id="linkimage-0021"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/plate-4.jpg" width="100%" alt="Ill-temper. Plate IV " /> +</div> + +<p> +If the whole frowning brow be drawn much downward by the contraction of +the pyramidal muscles of the nose, which produces transverse wrinkles or +folds across the base of the nose, the expression becomes one of +moroseness. Duchenne believes that the contraction of this muscle, without +any frowning, gives the appearance of extreme and aggressive hardness.<a +href="#linknote-909" name="linknoteref-909" id="linknoteref-909">[909]</a> +But I much doubt whether this is a true or natural expression. I have +shown Duchenne’s photograph of a young man, with this muscle strongly +contracted by means of galvanism, to eleven persons, including some +artists, and none of them could form an idea what was intended, except +one, a girl, who answered correctly, “surely reserve.” When I first looked +at this photograph, knowing what was intended, my imagination added, as I +believe, what was necessary, namely, a frowning brow; and consequently the +expression appeared to me true and extremely morose. +</p> + +<p> +A firmly closed mouth, in addition to a lowered and frowning brow, gives +determination to the expression, or may make it obstinate and sullen. How +it comes that the firm closure of the mouth gives the appearance of +determination will presently be discussed. An expression of sullen +obstinacy has been clearly recognized by my informants, in the natives of +six different regions of Australia. It is well marked, according to Mr. +Scott, with the Hindoos. It has been recognized with the Malays, Chinese, +Kafirs, Abyssinians, and in a conspicuous degree, according to Dr. +Rothrock, with the wild Indians of North America, and according to Mr. D. +Forbes, with the Aymaras of Bolivia. I have also observed it with the +Araucanos of southern Chili. Mr. Dyson Lacy remarks that the natives of +Australia, when in this frame of mind, sometimes fold their arms across +their breasts, an attitude which may be seen with us. A firm +determination, amounting to obstinacy, is, also, sometimes expressed by +both shoulders being kept raised, the meaning of which gesture will be +explained in the following chapter. +</p> + +<p> +With young children sulkiness is shown by pouting, or, as it is sometimes +called, “making a snout.”<a href="#linknote-910" name="linknoteref-910" +id="linknoteref-910">[910]</a> When the corners of the mouth are much +depressed, the lower lip is a little everted and protruded; and this is +likewise called a pout. But the pouting here referred to, consists of the +protrusion of both lips into a tubular form, sometimes to such an extent +as to project as far as the end of the nose, if this be short. Pouting is +generally accompanied by frowning, and sometimes by the utterance of a +booing or whooing noise. This expression is remarkable, as almost the sole +one, as far as I know, which is exhibited much more plainly during +childhood, at least with Europeans, than during maturity. There is, +however, some tendency to the protrusion of the lips with the adults of +all races under the influence of great rage. Some children pout when they +are shy, and they can then hardly be called sulky. +</p> + +<p> +From inquiries which I have made in several large families, pouting does +not seem very common with European children; but it prevails throughout +the world, and must be both common and strongly marked with most savage +races, as it has caught the attention of many observers. It has been +noticed in eight different districts of Australia; and one of my +informants remarks how greatly the lips of the children are then +protruded. Two observers have seen pouting with the children of Hindoos; +three, with those of the Kafirs and Fingoes of South Africa, and with the +Hottentots; and two, with the children of the wild Indians of North +America. Pouting has also been observed with the Chinese, Abyssinians, +Malays of Malacca, Dyaks of Borneo, and often with the New Zealanders. Mr. +Mansel Weale informs me that he has seen the lips much protruded, not only +with the children of the Kafirs, but with the adults of both sexes when +sulky; and Mr. Stack has sometimes observed the same thing with the men, +and very frequently with the women of New Zealand. A trace of the same +expression may occasionally be detected even with adult Europeans. +</p> + +<p> +We thus see that the protrusion of the lips, especially with young +children, is characteristic of sulkiness throughout the greater part of +the world. This movement apparently results from the retention, chiefly +during youth, of a primordial habit, or from an occasional reversion to +it. Young orangs and chimpanzees protrude their lips to an extraordinary +degree, as described in a former chapter, when they are discontented, +somewhat angry, or sulky; also when they are surprised, a little +frightened, and even when slightly pleased. Their mouths are protruded +apparently for the sake of making the various noises proper to these +several states of mind; and its shape, as I observed with the chimpanzee, +differed slightly when the cry of pleasure and that of anger were uttered. +As soon as these animals become enraged, the shape of the month wholly +changes, and the teeth are exposed. The adult orang when wounded is said +to emit “a singular cry, consisting at first of high notes, which at +length deepen into a low roar. While giving out the high notes he thrusts +out his lips into a funnel shape, but in uttering the low notes he holds +his mouth wide open.”<a href="#linknote-911" name="linknoteref-911" +id="linknoteref-911">[911]</a> With the gorilla, the lower lip is said to +be capable of great elongation. If then our semi-human progenitors +protruded their lips when sulky or a little angered, in the same manner as +do the existing anthropoid apes, it is not an anomalous, though a curious +fact, that our children should exhibit, when similarly affected, a trace +of the same expression, together with some tendency to utter a noise. For +it is not at all unusual for animals to retain, more or less perfectly, +during early youth, and subsequently to lose, characters which were +aboriginally possessed by their adult progenitors, and which are still +retained by distinct species, their near relations. +</p> + +<p> +Nor is it an anomalous fact that the children of savages should exhibit a +stronger tendency to protrude their lips, when sulky, than the children of +civilized Europeans; for the essence of savagery seems to consist in the +retention of a primordial condition, and this occasionally holds good even +with bodily peculiarities.<a href="#linknote-912" name="linknoteref-912" +id="linknoteref-912">[912]</a> It may be objected to this view of the +origin of pouting, that the anthropoid apes likewise protrude their lips +when astonished and even when a little pleased; whilst with us this +expression is generally confined to a sulky frame of mind. But we shall +see in a future chapter that with men of various races surprise does +sometimes lead to a slight protrusion of the lips, though great surprise +or astonishment is more commonly shown by the mouth being widely opened. +As when we smile or laugh we draw back the corners of the mouth, we have +lost any tendency to protrude the lips, when pleased, if indeed our early +progenitors thus expressed pleasure. +</p> + +<p> +A little gesture made by sulky children may here be noticed, namely, their +“showing a cold shoulder.” This has a different meaning, as, I believe, +from the keeping both shoulders raised. A cross child, sitting on its +parent’s knee, will lift up the near shoulder, then jerk it away, as if +from a caress, and afterwards give a backward push with it, as if to push +away the offender. I have seen a child, standing at some distance from any +one, clearly express its feelings by raising one shoulder, giving it a +little backward movement, and then turning away its whole body. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Decision or determination</i>.—The firm closure of the mouth +tends to give an expression of determination or decision to the +countenance. No determined man probably ever had an habitually gaping +mouth. Hence, also, a small and weak lower jaw, which seems to indicate +that the mouth is not habitually and firmly closed, is commonly thought to +be characteristic of feebleness of character. A prolonged effort of any +kind, whether of body or mind, implies previous determination; and if it +can be shown that the mouth is generally closed with firmness before and +during a great and continued exertion of the muscular system, then, +through the principle of association, the mouth would almost certainly be +closed as soon as any determined resolution was taken. Now several +observers have noticed that a man, in commencing any violent muscular +effort, invariably first distends his lungs with air, and then compresses +it by the strong contraction of the muscles of the chest; and to effect +this the mouth must be firmly closed. Moreover, as soon as the man is +compelled to draw breath, he still keeps his chest as much distended as +possible. +</p> + +<p> +Various causes have been assigned for this manner of acting. Sir C. Bell +maintains<a href="#linknote-913" name="linknoteref-913" +id="linknoteref-913">[913]</a> that the chest is distended with air, and +is kept distended at such times, in order to give a fixed support to the +muscles which are thereto attached. Hence, as he remarks, when two men are +engaged in a deadly contest, a terrible silence prevails, broken only by +hard stifled breathing. There is silence, because to expel the air in the +utterance of any sound would be to relax the support for the muscles of +the arms. If an outcry is heard, supposing the struggle to take place in +the dark, we at once know that one of the two has given up in despair. +</p> + +<p> +Gratiolet admits<a href="#linknote-914" name="linknoteref-914" +id="linknoteref-914">[914]</a> that when a man has to struggle with +another to his utmost, or has to support a great weight, or to keep for a +long time the same forced attitude, it is necessary for him first to make +a deep inspiration, and then to cease breathing; but he thinks that Sir C. +Bell’s explanation is erroneous. He maintains that arrested respiration +retards the circulation of the blood, of which I believe there is no +doubt, and he adduces some curious evidence from the structure of the +lower animals, showing, on the one hand, that a retarded circulation is +necessary for prolonged muscular exertion, and, on the other hand, that a +rapid circulation is necessary for rapid movements. According to this +view, when we commence any great exertion, we close our mouths and stop +breathing, in order to retard the circulation of the blood. Gratiolet sums +up the subject by saying, “C’est là la vraie théorie de l’effort continu;” +but how far this theory is admitted by other physiologists I do not know. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Piderit accounts<a href="#linknote-915" name="linknoteref-915" +id="linknoteref-915">[915]</a> for the firm closure of the mouth during +strong muscular exertion, on the principle that the influence of the will +spreads to other muscles besides those necessarily brought into action in +making any particular exertion; and it is natural that the muscles of +respiration and of the mouth, from being so habitually used, should be +especially liable to be thus acted on. It appears to me that there +probably is some truth in this view, for we are apt to press the teeth +hard together during violent exertion, and this is not requisite to +prevent expiration, whilst the muscles of the chest are strongly +contracted. +</p> + +<p> +Lastly, when a man has to perform some delicate and difficult operation, +not requiring the exertion of any strength, he nevertheless generally +closes his mouth and ceases for a time to breathe; but he acts thus in +order that the movements of his chest may not disturb, those of his arms. +A person, for instance, whilst threading a needle, may be seen to compress +his lips and either to stop breathing, or to breathe as quietly as +possible. So it was, as formerly stated, with a young and sick chimpanzee, +whilst it amused itself by killing flies with its knuckles, as they buzzed +about on the window-panes. To perform an action, however trifling, if +difficult, implies some amount of previous determination. +</p> + +<p> +There appears nothing improbable in all the above assigned causes having +come into play in different degrees, either conjointly or separately, on +various occasions. The result would be a well-established habit, now +perhaps inherited, of firmly closing the mouth at the commencement of and +during any violent and prolonged exertion, or any delicate operation. +Through the principle of association there would also be a strong tendency +towards this same habit, as soon as the mind had resolved on any +particular action or line of conduct, even before there was any bodily +exertion, or if none were requisite. The habitual and firm closure of the +mouth would thus come to show decision of character; and decision readily +passes into obstinacy. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"></a> +CHAPTER X.<br/>HATRED AND ANGER. +</h2> + +<p> +Hatred—Rage, effects of on the system—Uncovering of the teeth—Rage +in the insane—Anger and indignation—As expressed by the +various races of man—Sneering and defiance—The uncovering of +the canine tooth on one side of the face. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +If we have suffered or expect to suffer some wilful injury from a man, or +if he is in any way offensive to us, we dislike him; and dislike easily +rises into hatred. Such feelings, if experienced in a moderate degree, are +not clearly expressed by any movement of the body or features, excepting +perhaps by a certain gravity of behaviour, or by some ill-temper. Few +individuals, however, can long reflect about a hated person, without +feeling and exhibiting signs of indignation or rage. But if the offending +person be quite insignificant, we experience merely disdain or contempt. +If, on the other hand, he is all-powerful, then hatred passes into terror, +as when a slave thinks about a cruel master, or a savage about a +bloodthirsty malignant deity.<a href="#linknote-1001" +name="linknoteref-1001" id="linknoteref-1001">[1001]</a> Most of our +emotions are so closely connected with their expression, that they hardly +exist if the body remains passive—the nature of the expression +depending in chief part on the nature of the actions which have been +habitually performed under this particular state of the mind. A man, for +instance, may know that his life is in the extremest peril, and may +strongly desire to save if; yet, as Louis XVI. said, when surrounded by a +fierce mob, “Am I afraid? feel my pulse.” So a man may intensely hate +another, but until his bodily frame is affected, he cannot be said to be +enraged. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Rage</i>.—I have already had occasion to treat of this emotion in +the third chapter, when discussing the direct influence of the excited +sensorium on the body, in combination with the effects of habitually +associated actions. Rage exhibits itself in the most diversified manner. +The heart and circulation are always affected; the face reddens or becomes +purple, with the veins on the forehead and neck distended. The reddening +of the skin has been observed with the copper-coloured Indians of South +America,<a href="#linknote-1002" name="linknoteref-1002" +id="linknoteref-1002">[1002]</a> and even, as it is said, on the white +cicatrices left by old wounds on negroes.<a href="#linknote-1003" +name="linknoteref-1003" id="linknoteref-1003">[1003]</a> Monkeys also +redden from passion. With one of my own infants, under four months old, I +repeatedly observed that the first symptom of an approaching passion was +the rushing of the blood into his bare scalp. On the other hand, the +action of the heart is sometimes so much impeded by great rage, that the +countenance becomes pallid or livid,<a href="#linknote-1004" +name="linknoteref-1004" id="linknoteref-1004">[1004]</a> and not a few men +with heart-disease have dropped down dead under this powerful emotion. +</p> + +<p> +The respiration is likewise affected; the chest heaves, and the dilated +nostrils quiver.<a href="#linknote-1005" name="linknoteref-1005" +id="linknoteref-1005">[1005]</a> As Tennyson writes, “sharp breaths of +anger puffed her fairy nostrils out.” Hence we have such expressions as +“breathing out vengeance,” and “fuming with anger.”<a href="#linknote-1006" +name="linknoteref-1006" id="linknoteref-1006">[1006]</a> +</p> + +<p> +The excited brain gives strength to the muscles, and at the same time +energy to the will. The body is commonly held erect ready for instant +action, but sometimes it is bent forward towards the offending person, +with the limbs more or less rigid. The mouth is generally closed with +firmness, showing fixed determination, and the teeth are clenched or +ground together. Such gestures as the raising of the arms, with the fists +clenched, as if to strike the offender, are common. Few men in a great +passion, and telling some one to begone, can resist acting as if they +intended to strike or push the man violently away. The desire, indeed, to +strike often becomes so intolerably strong, that inanimate objects are +struck or dashed to the ground; but the gestures frequently become +altogether purposeless or frantic. Young children, when in a violent rage +roll on the ground on their backs or bellies, screaming, kicking, +scratching, or biting everything within reach. So it is, as I hear from +Mr. Scott, with Hindoo children; and, as we have seen, with the young of +the anthropomorphous apes. +</p> + +<p> +But the muscular system is often affected in a wholly different way; for +trembling is a frequent consequence of extreme rage. The paralysed lips +then refuse to obey the will, “and the voice sticks in the throat;”<a +href="#linknote-1007" name="linknoteref-1007" id="linknoteref-1007">[1007]</a> +or it is rendered loud, harsh, and discordant. If there be much and rapid +speaking, the mouth froths. The hair sometimes bristles; but I shall +return to this subject in another chapter, when I treat of the mingled +emotions of rage and terror. There is in most cases a strongly-marked +frown on the forehead; for this follows from the sense of anything +displeasing or difficult, together with concentration of mind. But +sometimes the brow, instead of being much contracted and lowered, remains +smooth, with the glaring eyes kept widely open. The eyes are always +bright, or may, as Homer expresses it, glisten with fire. They are +sometimes bloodshot, and are said to protrude from their sockets—the +result, no doubt, of the head being gorged with blood, as shown by the +veins being distended. According to Gratiolet, “the pupils are always +contracted in rage,” and I hear from Dr. Crichton Browne that this is the +case in the fierce delirium of meningitis; but the movements of the iris +under the influence of the different emotions is a very obscure subject.<a +href="#linknote-1008" name="linknoteref-1008" id="linknoteref-1008">[1008]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Shakspeare sums up the chief characteristics of rage as follows:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“In peace there’s nothing so becomes a man,<br/> +As modest stillness and humility;<br/> +But when the blast of war blows in our ears,<br/> +Then imitate the action of the tiger:<br/> +Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood,<br/> +Then lend the eye a terrible aspect;<br/> +Now set the teeth, and stretch the nostril wide,<br/> +Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit<br/> +To his full height! On, on, you noblest English.”<br/> +<i>Henry V</i>., act iii. sc. 1. +</p> + +<p> +The lips are sometimes protruded during rage in a manner, the meaning of +which I do not understand, unless it depends on our descent from some +ape-like animal. Instances have been observed, not only with Europeans, +but with the Australians and Hindoos. The lips, however, are much more +commonly retracted, the grinning or clenched teeth being thus exposed. +This has been noticed by almost every one who has written on expression.<a +href="#linknote-1009" name="linknoteref-1009" id="linknoteref-1009">[1009]</a> +The appearance is as if the teeth were uncovered, ready for seizing or +tearing an enemy, though there may be no intention of acting in this +manner. Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen this grinning expression with the +Australians, when quarrelling, and so has Gaika with the Kafirs of South +America. Dickens,<a href="#linknote-1010" name="linknoteref-1010" +id="linknoteref-1010">[1010]</a> in speaking of an atrocious murderer who +had just been caught, and was surrounded by a furious mob, describes “the +people as jumping up one behind another, snarling with their teeth, and +making at him like wild beasts.” Every one who has had much to do with +young children must have seen how naturally they take to biting, when in a +passion. It seems as instinctive in them as in young crocodiles, who snap +their little jaws as soon as they emerge from the egg. +</p> + +<p> +A grinning expression and the protrusion of the lips appear sometimes to +go together. A close observer says that he has seen many instances of +intense hatred (which can hardly be distinguished from rage, more or less +suppressed) in Orientals, and once in an elderly English woman. In all +these cases there “was a grin, not a scowl—the lips lengthening, the +cheeks settling downwards, the eyes half-closed, whilst the brow remained +perfectly calm.”<a href="#linknote-1011" name="linknoteref-1011" +id="linknoteref-1011">[1011]</a> +</p> + +<p> +This retraction of the lips and uncovering of the teeth during paroxysms +of rage, as if to bite the offender, is so remarkable, considering how +seldom the teeth are used by men in fighting, that I inquired from Dr. J. +Crichton Browne whether the habit was common in the insane whose passions +are unbridled. He informs me that he has repeatedly observed it both with +the insane and idiotic, and has given me the following illustrations:— +</p> + +<p> +Shortly before receiving my letter, he witnessed an uncontrollable +outbreak of anger and delusive jealousy in an insane lady. At first she +vituperated her husband, and whilst doing so foamed at the mouth. Next she +approached close to him with compressed lips, and a virulent set frown. +Then she drew back her lips, especially the corners of the upper lip, and +showed her teeth, at the same time aiming a vicious blow at him. A second +case is that of an old soldier, who, when he is requested to conform to +the rules of the establishment, gives way to discontent, terminating in +fury. He commonly begins by asking Dr. Browne whether he is not ashamed to +treat him in such a manner. He then swears and blasphemes, paces tip and +down, tosses his arms wildly about, and menaces any one near him. At last, +as his exasperation culminates, he rushes up towards Dr. Browne with a +peculiar sidelong movement, shaking his doubled fist, and threatening +destruction. Then his upper lip may be seen to be raised, especially at +the corners, so that his huge canine teeth are exhibited. He hisses forth +his curses through his set teeth, and his whole expression assumes the +character of extreme ferocity. A similar description is applicable to +another man, excepting that he generally foams at the mouth and spits, +dancing and jumping about in a strange rapid manner, shrieking out his +maledictions in a shrill falsetto voice. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Browne also informs me of the case of an epileptic idiot, incapable of +independent movements, and who spends the whole day in playing with some +toys; but his temper is morose and easily roused into fierceness. When any +one touches his toys, he slowly raises his head from its habitual downward +position, and fixes his eyes on the offender, with a tardy yet angry +scowl. If the annoyance be repeated, he draws back his thick lips and +reveals a prominent row of hideous fangs (large canines being especially +noticeable), and then makes a quick and cruel clutch with his open hand at +the offending person. The rapidity of this clutch, as Dr. Browne remarks, +is marvellous in a being ordinarily so torpid that he takes about fifteen +seconds, when attracted by any noise, to turn his head from one side to +the other. If, when thus incensed, a handkerchief, book, or other article, +be placed into his hands, he drags it to his mouth and bites it. Mr. Nicol +has likewise described to me two cases of insane patients, whose lips are +retracted during paroxysms of rage. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Maudsley, after detailing various strange animal-like traits in +idiots, asks whether these are not due to the reappearance of primitive +instincts—“a faint echo from a far-distant past, testifying to a +kinship which man has almost outgrown.” He adds, that as every human brain +passes, in the course of its development, through the same stages as those +occurring in the lower vertebrate animals, and as the brain of an idiot is +in an arrested condition, we may presume that it “will manifest its most +primitive functions, and no higher functions.” Dr. Maudsley thinks that +the same view may be extended to the brain in its degenerated condition in +some insane patients; and asks, whence come “the savage snarl, the +destructive disposition, the obscene language, the wild howl, the +offensive habits, displayed by some of the insane? Why should a human +being, deprived of his reason, ever become so brutal in character, as some +do, unless he has the brute nature within him?”<a href="#linknote-1012" +name="linknoteref-1012" id="linknoteref-1012">[1012]</a> This question +must, as it would appear, he answered in the affirmative. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Anger, Indignation</i>.—These states of the mind differ from rage +only in degree, and there is no marked distinction in their characteristic +signs. Under moderate anger the action of the heart is a little increased, +the colour heightened, and the eyes become bright. The respiration is +likewise a little hurried; and as all the muscles serving for this +function act in association, the wings of the nostrils are somewhat raised +to allow of a free indraught of air; and this is a highly characteristic +sign of indignation. The mouth is commonly compressed, and there is almost +always a frown on the brow. Instead of the frantic gestures of extreme +rage, an indignant man unconsciously throws himself into an attitude ready +for attacking or striking his enemy, whom he will perhaps scan from head +to foot in defiance. He carries his head erect, with his chest well +expanded, and the feet planted firmly on the ground. He holds his arms in +various positions, with one or both elbows squared, or with the arms +rigidly suspended by his sides. With Europeans the fists are commonly +clenched.<a href="#linknote-1013" name="linknoteref-1013" +id="linknoteref-1013">[1013]</a> The figures 1 and 2 in Plate VI. are +fairly good representations of men simulating indignation. Any one may see +in a mirror, if he will vividly imagine that he has been insulted and +demands an explanation in an angry tone of voice, that he suddenly and +unconsciously throws himself into some such attitude. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0022" id="linkimage-0022"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/plate-6.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Anger and Indignation. Plate VI " /> +</div> + +<p> +Rage, anger, and indignation are exhibited in nearly the same manner +throughout the world; and the following descriptions may be worth giving +as evidence of this, and as illustrations of some of the foregoing +remarks. There is, however, an exception with respect to clenching the +fists, which seems confined chiefly to the men who fight with their fists. +With the Australians only one of my informants has seen the fists +clenched. All agree about the body being held erect; and all, with two +exceptions, state that the brows are heavily contracted. Some of them +allude to the firmly-compressed mouth, the distended nostrils, and +flashing eyes. According to the Rev. Mr. Taplin, rage, with the +Australians, is expressed by the lips being protruded, the eyes being +widely open; and in the case of the women by their dancing about and +casting dust into the air. Another observer speaks of the native men, when +enraged, throwing their arms wildly about. +</p> + +<p> +I have received similar accounts, except as to the clenching of the fists, +in regard to the Malays of the Malacca peninsula, the Abyssinians, and the +natives of South Africa. So it is with the Dakota Indians of North +America; and, according to Mr. Matthews, they then hold their heads erect, +frown, and often stalk away with long strides. Mr. Bridges states that the +Fuegians, when enraged, frequently stamp on the ground, walk distractedly +about, sometimes cry and grow pale. The Rev. Mr. Stack watched a New +Zealand man and woman quarrelling, and made the following entry in his +note-book: “Eyes dilated, body swayed violently backwards and forwards, +head inclined forwards, fists clenched, now thrown behind the body, now +directed towards each other’s faces.” Mr. Swinhoe says that my description +agrees with what he has seen of the Chinese, excepting that an angry man +generally inclines his body towards his antagonist, and pointing at him, +pours forth a volley of abuse. +</p> + +<p> +Lastly, with respect to the natives of India, Mr. J. Scott has sent me a +full description of their gestures and expression when enraged. Two +low-caste Bengalees disputed about a loan. At first they were calm, but +soon grew furious and poured forth the grossest abuse on each other’s +relations and progenitors for many generations past. Their gestures were +very different from those of Europeans; for though their chests were +expanded and shoulders squared, their arms remained rigidly suspended, +with the elbows turned inwards and the hands alternately clenched and +opened. Their shoulders were often raised high, and then again lowered. +They looked fiercely at each other from under their lowered and strongly +wrinkled brows, and their protruded lips were firmly closed. They +approached each other, with heads and necks stretched forwards, and +pushed, scratched, and grasped at each other. This protrusion of the head +and body seems a common gesture with the enraged; and I have noticed it +with degraded English women whilst quarrelling violently in the streets. +In such cases it may be presumed that neither party expects to receive a +blow from the other. +</p> + +<p> +A Bengalee employed in the Botanic Gardens was accused, in the presence of +Mr. Scott, by the native overseer of having stolen a valuable plant. He +listened silently and scornfully to the accusation; his attitude erect, +chest expanded, mouth closed, lips protruding, eyes firmly set and +penetrating. He then defiantly maintained his innocence, with upraised and +clenched hands, his head being now pushed forwards, with the eyes widely +open and eyebrows raised. Mr. Scott also watched two Mechis, in Sikhim, +quarrelling about their share of payment. They soon got into a furious +passion, and then their bodies became less erect, with their heads pushed +forwards; they made grimaces at each other; their shoulders were raised; +their arms rigidly bent inwards at the elbows, and their hands +spasmodically closed, but not properly clenched. They continually +approached and retreated from each other, and often raised their arms as +if to strike, but their hands were open, and no blow was given. Mr. Scott +made similar observations on the Lepchas whom he often saw quarrelling, +and he noticed that they kept their arms rigid and almost parallel to +their bodies, with the hands pushed somewhat backwards and partially +closed, but not clenched. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Sneering, Defiance: Uncovering the canine tooth on one side</i>.—The +expression which I wish here to consider differs but little from that +already described, when the lips are retracted and the grinning teeth +exposed. The difference consists solely in the upper lip being retracted +in such a manner that the canine tooth on one side of the face alone is +shown; the face itself being generally a little upturned and half averted +from the person causing offence. The other signs of rage are not +necessarily present. This expression may occasionally be observed in a +person who sneers at or defies another, though there may be no real anger; +as when any one is playfully accused of some fault, and answers, “I scorn +the imputation.” The expression is not a common one, but I have seen it +exhibited with perfect distinctness by a lady who was being quizzed by +another person. It was described by Parsons as long ago as 1746, with an +engraving, showing the uncovered canine on one side.<a +href="#linknote-1014" name="linknoteref-1014" id="linknoteref-1014">[1014]</a> +Mr. Rejlander, without my having made any allusion to the subject, asked +me whether I had ever noticed this expression, as he had been much struck +by it. He has photographed for me (Plate IV. fig 1) a lady, who sometimes +unintentionally displays the canine on one side, and who can do so +voluntarily with unusual distinctness. +</p> + +<p> +The expression of a half-playful sneer graduates into one of great +ferocity when, together with a heavily frowning brow and fierce eye, the +canine tooth is exposed. A Bengalee boy was accused before Mr. Scott of +some misdeed. The delinquent did not dare to give vent to his wrath in +words, but it was plainly shown on his countenance, sometimes by a defiant +frown, and sometimes “by a thoroughly canine snarl.” When this was +exhibited, “the corner of the lip over the eye-tooth, which happened in +this case to be large and projecting, was raised on the side of his +accuser, a strong frown being still retained on the brow.” Sir C. Bell +states<a href="#linknote-1015" name="linknoteref-1015" +id="linknoteref-1015">[1015]</a> that the actor Cooke could express the +most determined hate “when with the oblique cast of his eyes he drew up +the outer part of the upper lip, and discovered a sharp angular tooth.” +</p> + +<p> +The uncovering of the canine tooth is the result of a double movement. The +angle or corner of the mouth is drawn a little backwards, and at the same +time a muscle which runs parallel to and near the nose draws up the outer +part of the upper lip, and exposes the canine on this side of the face. +The contraction of this muscle makes a distinct furrow on the cheek, and +produces strong wrinkles under the eye, especially at its inner corner. +The action is the same as that of a snarling dog; and a dog when +pretending to fight often draws up the lip on one side alone, namely that +facing his antagonist. Our word <i>sneer</i> is in fact the same as <i>snarl</i>, +which was originally <i>snar</i>, the <i>l</i> “being merely an element +implying continuance of action.”<a href="#linknote-1016" +name="linknoteref-1016" id="linknoteref-1016">[1016]</a> +</p> + +<p> +I suspect that we see a trace of this same expression in what is called a +derisive or sardonic smile. The lips are then kept joined or almost +joined, but one corner of the mouth is retracted on the side towards the +derided person; and this drawing back of the corner is part of a true +sneer. Although some persons smile more on one side of their face than on +the other, it is not easy to understand why in cases of derision the +smile, if a real one, should so commonly be confined to one side. I have +also on these occasions noticed a slight twitching of the muscle which +draws up the outer part of the upper lip; and this movement, if fully +carried out, would have uncovered the canine, and would have produced a +true sneer. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Bulmer, an Australian missionary in a remote part of Gipps’ Land, +says, in answer to my query about the uncovering of the canine on one +side, “I find that the natives in snarling at each other speak with the +teeth closed, the upper lip drawn to one side, and a general angry +expression of face; but they look direct at the person addressed.” Three +other observers in Australia, one in Abyssinia, and one in China, answer +my query on this head in the affirmative; but as the expression is rare, +and as they enter into no details, I am afraid of implicitly trusting +them. It is, however, by no means improbable that this animal-like +expression may be more common with savages than with civilized races. Mr. +Geach is an observer who may be fully trusted, and he has observed it on +one occasion in a Malay in the interior of Malacca. The Rev. S. O. Glenie +answers, “We have observed this expression with the natives of Ceylon, but +not often.” Lastly, in North America, Dr. Rothrock has seen it with some +wild Indians, and often in a tribe adjoining the Atnahs. +</p> + +<p> +Although the upper lip is certainly sometimes raised on one side alone in +sneering at or defying any one, I do not know that this is always the +case, for the face is commonly half averted, and the expression is often +momentary. The movement being confined to one side may not be an essential +part of the expression, but may depend on the proper muscles being +incapable of movement excepting on one side. I asked four persons to +endeavour to act voluntarily in this manner; two could expose the canine +only on the left side, one only on the right side, and the fourth on +neither side. Nevertheless it is by no means certain that these same +persons, if defying any one in earnest, would not unconsciously have +uncovered their canine tooth on the side, whichever it might be, towards +the offender. For we have seen that some persons cannot voluntarily make +their eyebrows oblique, yet instantly act in this manner when affected by +any real, although most trifling, cause of distress. The power of +voluntarily uncovering the canine on one side of the face being thus often +wholly lost, indicates that it is a rarely used and almost abortive +action. It is indeed a surprising fact that man should possess the power, +or should exhibit any tendency to its use; for Mr. Sutton has never +noticed a snarling action in our nearest allies, namely, the monkeys in +the Zoological Gardens, and he is positive that the baboons, though +furnished with great canines, never act thus, but uncover all their teeth +when feeling savage and ready for an attack. Whether the adult +anthropomorphous apes, in the males of whom the canines are much larger +than in the females, uncover them when prepared to fight, is not known. +</p> + +<p> +The expression here considered, whether that of a playful sneer or +ferocious snarl, is one of the most curious which occurs in man. It +reveals his animal descent; for no one, even if rolling on the ground in a +deadly grapple with an enemy, and attempting to bite him, would try to use +his canine teeth more than his other teeth. We may readily believe from +our affinity to the anthropomorphous apes that our male semi-human +progenitors possessed great canine teeth, and men are now occasionally +born having them of unusually large size, with interspaces in the opposite +jaw for their reception.<a href="#linknote-1017" name="linknoteref-1017" +id="linknoteref-1017">[1017]</a> We may further suspect, notwithstanding +that we have no support from analogy, that our semi-human progenitors +uncovered their canine teeth when prepared for battle, as we still do when +feeling ferocious, or when merely sneering at or defying some one, without +any intention of making a real attack with our teeth. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"></a> +CHAPTER XI.<br/>DISDAIN—CONTEMPT—DISGUST-GUILT—PRIDE, +ETC.—HELPLESSNESS—PATIENCE—AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. +</h2> + +<p> +Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed—Derisive smile—Gestures +expressive of contempt—Disgust—Guilt, deceit, pride, &c.—Helplessness +or impotence—Patience—Obstinacy—Shrugging the shoulders +common to most of the races of man—Signs of affirmation and +negation. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +Scorn and disdain can hardly be distinguished from contempt, excepting +that they imply a rather more angry frame of mind. Nor can they be clearly +distinguished from the feelings discussed in the last chapter under the +terms of sneering and defiance. Disgust is a sensation rather more +distinct in its nature and refers to something revolting, primarily in +relation to the sense of taste, as actually perceived or vividly imagined; +and secondarily to anything which causes a similar feeling, through the +sense of smell, touch, and even of eyesight. Nevertheless, extreme +contempt, or as it is often called loathing contempt, hardly differs from +disgust. These several conditions of the mind are, therefore, nearly +related; and each of them may be exhibited in many different ways. Some +writers have insisted chiefly on one mode of expression, and others on a +different mode. From this circumstance M. Lemoine has argued<a +href="#linknote-1101" name="linknoteref-1101" id="linknoteref-1101">[1101]</a> +that their descriptions are not trustworthy. But we shall immediately see +that it is natural that the feelings which we have here to consider should +be expressed in many different ways, inasmuch as various habitual actions +serve equally well, through the principle of association, for their +expression. +</p> + +<p> +Scorn and disdain, as well as sneering and defiance, may be displayed by a +slight uncovering of the canine tooth on one side of the face; and this +movement appears to graduate into one closely like a smile. Or the smile +or laugh may be real, although one of derision; and this implies that the +offender is so insignificant that he excites only amusement; but the +amusement is generally a pretence. Gaika in his answers to my queries +remarks, that contempt is commonly shown by his countrymen, the Kafirs, by +smiling; and the Rajah Brooke makes the same observation with respect to +the Dyaks of Borneo. As laughter is primarily the expression of simple +joy, very young children do not, I believe, ever laugh in derision. +</p> + +<p> +The partial closure of the eyelids, as Duchenne<a href="#linknote-1102" +name="linknoteref-1102" id="linknoteref-1102">[1102]</a> insists, or the +turning away of the eyes or of the whole body, are likewise highly +expressive of disdain. These actions seem to declare that the despised +person is not worth looking at or is disagreeable to behold. The +accompanying photograph (Plate V. fig. 1) by Mr. Rejlander, shows this +form of disdain. It represents a young lady, who is supposed to be tearing +up the photograph of a despised lover. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0023" id="linkimage-0023"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/plate-5.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Scorn and Disdain. Plate V " /> +</div> + +<p> +The most common method of expressing contempt is by movements about the +nose, or round the mouth; but the latter movements, when strongly +pronounced, indicate disgust. The nose may be slightly turned up, which +apparently follows from the turning up of the upper lip; or the movement +may be abbreviated into the mere wrinkling of the nose. The nose is often +slightly contracted, so as partly to close the passage;<a +href="#linknote-1103" name="linknoteref-1103" id="linknoteref-1103">[1103]</a> +and this is commonly accompanied by a slight snort or expiration. All +these actions are the same with those which we employ when we perceive an +offensive odour, and wish to exclude or expel it. In extreme cases, as Dr. +Piderit remarks,<a href="#linknote-1104" name="linknoteref-1104" +id="linknoteref-1104">[1104]</a> we protrude and raise both lips, or the +upper lip alone, so as to close the nostrils as by a valve, the nose being +thus turned up. We seem thus to say to the despised person that he smells +offensively,<a href="#linknote-1105" name="linknoteref-1105" +id="linknoteref-1105">[1105]</a> in nearly the same manner as we express +to him by half-closing our eyelids, or turning away our faces, that he is +not worth looking at. It must not, however, be supposed that such ideas +actually pass through the mind when we exhibit our contempt; but as +whenever we have perceived a disagreeable odour or seen a disagreeable +sight, actions of this kind have been performed, they have become habitual +or fixed, and are now employed under any analogous state of mind. +</p> + +<p> +Various odd little gestures likewise indicate contempt; for instance, <i>snapping +one’s fingers</i>. This, as Mr. Taylor remarks,<a href="#linknote-1106" +name="linknoteref-1106" id="linknoteref-1106">[1106]</a> “is not very +intelligible as we generally see it; but when we notice that the same sign +made quite gently, as if rolling some tiny object away between the finger +and thumb, or the sign of flipping it away with the thumb-nail and +forefinger, are usual and well-understood deaf-and-dumb gestures, denoting +anything tiny, insignificant, contemptible, it seems as though we had +exaggerated and conventionalized a perfectly natural action, so as to lose +sight of its original meaning. There is a curious mention of this gesture +by Strabo.” Mr. Washington Matthews informs me that, with the Dakota +Indians of North America, contempt is shown not only by movements of the +face, such as those above described, but “conventionally, by the hand +being closed and held near the breast, then, as the forearm is suddenly +extended, the hand is opened and the fingers separated from each other. If +the person at whose expense the sign is made is present, the hand is moved +towards him, and the head sometimes averted from him.” This sudden +extension and opening of the hand perhaps indicates the dropping or +throwing away a valueless object. +</p> + +<p> +The term ‘disgust,’ in its simplest sense, means something offensive to +the taste. It is curious how readily this feeling is excited by anything +unusual in the appearance, odour, or nature of our food. In Tierra del +Fuego a native touched with his finger some cold preserved meat which I +was eating at our bivouac, and plainly showed utter disgust at its +softness; whilst I felt utter disgust at my food being touched by a naked +savage, though his hands did not appear dirty. A smear of soup on a man’s +beard looks disgusting, though there is of course nothing disgusting in +the soup itself. I presume that this follows from the strong association +in our minds between the sight of food, however circumstanced, and the +idea of eating it. +</p> + +<p> +As the sensation of disgust primarily arises in connection with the act of +eating or tasting, it is natural that its expression should consist +chiefly in movements round the mouth. But as disgust also causes +annoyance, it is generally accompanied by a frown, and often by gestures +as if to push away or to guard oneself against the offensive object. In +the two photographs (figs. 2 and 3, on Plate V.) Mr. Rejlander has +simulated this expression with some success. With respect to the face, +moderate disgust is exhibited in various ways; by the mouth being widely +opened, as if to let an offensive morsel drop out; by spitting; by blowing +out of the protruded lips; or by a sound as of clearing the throat. Such +guttural sounds are written <i>ach</i> or <i>ugh</i>; and their utterance +is sometimes accompanied by a shudder, the arms being pressed close to the +sides and the shoulders raised in the same manner as when horror is +experienced.<a href="#linknote-1107" name="linknoteref-1107" +id="linknoteref-1107">[1107]</a> Extreme disgust is expressed by movements +round the month identical with those preparatory to the act of vomiting. +The mouth is opened widely, with the upper lip strongly retracted, which +wrinkles the sides of the nose, and with the lower lip protruded and +everted as much as possible. This latter movement requires the contraction +of the muscles which draw downwards the corners of the mouth.<a +href="#linknote-1108" name="linknoteref-1108" id="linknoteref-1108">[1108]</a> +</p> + +<p> +It is remarkable how readily and instantly retching or actual vomiting is +induced in some persons by the mere idea of having partaken of any unusual +food, as of an animal which is not commonly eaten; although there is +nothing in such food to cause the stomach to reject it. When vomiting +results, as a reflex action, from some real cause—as from too rich +food, or tainted meat, or from an emetic—it does not ensue +immediately, but generally after a considerable interval of time. +Therefore, to account for retching or vomiting being so quickly and easily +excited by a mere idea, the suspicion arises that our progenitors must +formerly have had the power (like that possessed by ruminants and some +other animals) of voluntarily rejecting food which disagreed with them, or +which they thought would disagree with them; and now, though this power +has been lost, as far as the will is concerned, it is called into +involuntary action, through the force of a formerly well-established +habit, whenever the mind revolts at the idea of having partaken of any +kind of food, or at anything disgusting. This suspicion receives support +from the fact, of which I am assured by Mr. Sutton, that the monkeys in +the Zoological Gardens often vomit whilst in perfect health, which looks +as if the act were voluntary. We can see that as man is able to +communicate by language to his children and others, the knowledge of the +kinds of food to be avoided, he would have little occasion to use the +faculty of voluntary rejection; so that this power would tend to be lost +through disuse. +</p> + +<p> +As the sense of smell is so intimately connected with that of taste, it is +not surprising that an excessively bad odour should excite retching or +vomiting in some persons, quite as readily as the thought of revolting +food does; and that, as a further consequence, a moderately offensive +odour should cause the various expressive movements of disgust. The +tendency to retch from a fetid odour is immediately strengthened in a +curious manner by some degree of habit, though soon lost by longer +familiarity with the cause of offence and by voluntary restraint. For +instance, I wished to clean the skeleton of a bird, which had not been +sufficiently macerated, and the smell made my servant and myself (we not +having had much experience in such work) retch so violently, that we were +compelled to desist. During the previous days I had examined some other +skeletons, which smelt slightly; yet the odour did not in the least affect +me, but, subsequently for several days, whenever I handled these same +skeletons, they made me retch. +</p> + +<p> +From the answers received from my correspondents it appears that the +various movements, which have now been described as expressing contempt +and disgust, prevail throughout a large part of the world. Dr. Rothrock, +for instance, answers with a decided affirmative with respect to certain +wild Indian tribes of North America. Crantz says that when a Greenlander +denies anything with contempt or horror he turns up his nose, and gives a +slight sound through it.<a href="#linknote-1109" name="linknoteref-1109" +id="linknoteref-1109">[1109]</a> Mr. Scott has sent me a graphic +description of the face of a young Hindoo at the sight of castor-oil, +which he was compelled occasionally to take. Mr. Scott has also seen the +same expression on the faces of high-caste natives who have approached +close to some defiling object. Mr. Bridges says that the Fuegians “express +contempt by shooting out the lips and hissing through them, and by turning +up the nose.” The tendency either to snort through the nose, or to make a +noise expressed by <i>ugh</i> or <i>ach</i>, is noticed by several of my +correspondents. +</p> + +<p> +Spitting seems an almost universal sign of contempt or disgust; and +spitting obviously represents the rejection of anything offensive from the +mouth. Shakspeare makes the Duke of Norfolk say, “I spit at him—call +him a slanderous coward and a villain.” So, again, Falstaff says, “Tell +thee what, Hal,—if I tell thee a lie, spit in my face.” Leichhardt +remarks that the Australians “interrupted their speeches by spitting, and +uttering a noise like pooh! pooh! apparently expressive of their disgust.” +And Captain Burton speaks of certain negroes “spitting with disgust upon +the ground.” Captain Speedy informs me that this is likewise the case with +the Abyssinians. Mr. Geach says that with the Malays of Malacca the +expression of disgust “answers to spitting from the mouth;” and with the +Fuegians, according to Mr. Bridges “to spit at one is the highest mark of +contempt.”<a href="#linknote-1110" name="linknoteref-1110" +id="linknoteref-1110">[1110]</a> +</p> + +<p> +I never saw disgust more plainly expressed than on the face of one of my +infants at the age of five months, when, for the first time, some cold +water, and again a month afterwards, when a piece of ripe cherry was put +into his mouth. This was shown by the lips and whole mouth assuming a +shape which allowed the contents to run or fall quickly out; the tongue +being likewise protruded. These movements were accompanied by a little +shudder. It was all the more comical, as I doubt whether the child felt +real disgust—the eyes and forehead expressing much surprise and +consideration. The protrusion of the tongue in letting a nasty object fall +out of the mouth, may explain how it is that lolling out the tongue +universally serves as a sign of contempt and hatred.<a +href="#linknote-1111" name="linknoteref-1111" id="linknoteref-1111">[1111]</a> +</p> + +<p> +We have now seen that scorn, disdain, contempt, and disgust are expressed +in many different ways, by movements of the features, and by various +gestures; and that these are the same throughout the world. They all +consist of actions representing the rejection or exclusion of some real +object which we dislike or abhor, but which does not excite in us certain +other strong emotions, such as rage or terror; and through the force of +habit and association similar actions are performed, whenever any +analogous sensation arises in our minds. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Jealousy, Envy, Avarice, Revenge, Suspicion, Deceit, Slyness, Guilt, +Vanity, Conceit, Ambition, Pride, Humility, &c</i>.—It is +doubtful whether the greater number of the above complex states of mind +are revealed by any fixed expression, sufficiently distinct to be +described or delineated. When Shakspeare speaks of Envy as <i>lean-faced</i>, +or <i>black</i>, or <i>pale</i>, and Jealousy as “<i>the green-eyed +monster</i>;” and when Spenser describes Suspicion as “<i>foul, +ill-favoured, and grim</i>,” they must have felt this difficulty. +Nevertheless, the above feelings—at least many of them—can be +detected by the eye; for instance, conceit; but we are often guided in a +much greater degree than we suppose by our previous knowledge of the +persons or circumstances. +</p> + +<p> +My correspondents almost unanimously answer in the affirmative to my +query, whether the expression of guilt and deceit can be recognized +amongst the various races of man; and I have confidence in their answers, +as they generally deny that jealousy can thus be recognized. In the cases +in which details are given, the eyes are almost always referred to. The +guilty man is said to avoid looking at his accuser, or to give him stolen +looks. The eyes are said “to be turned askant,” or “to waver from side to +side,” or “the eyelids to be lowered and partly closed.” This latter +remark is made by Mr. Hagenauer with respect to the Australians, and by +Gaika with respect to the Kafirs. The restless movements of the eyes +apparently follow, as will be explained when we treat of blushing, from +the guilty man not enduring to meet the gaze of his accuser. I may add, +that I have observed a guilty expression, without a shade of fear, in some +of my own children at a very early age. In one instance the expression was +unmistakably clear in a child two years and seven months old, and led to +the detection of his little crime. It was shown, as I record in my notes +made at the time, by an unnatural brightness in the eyes, and by an odd, +affected manner, impossible to describe. +</p> + +<p> +Slyness is also, I believe, exhibited chiefly by movements about the eyes; +for these are less under the control of the will, owing to the force of +long-continued habit, than are the movements of the body. Mr. Herbert +Spencer remarks,<a href="#linknote-1112" name="linknoteref-1112" +id="linknoteref-1112">[1112]</a> “When there is a desire to see something +on one side of the visual field without being supposed to see it, the +tendency is to check the conspicuous movement of the head, and to make the +required adjustment entirely with the eyes; which are, therefore, drawn +very much to one side. Hence, when the eyes are turned to one side, while +the face is not turned to the same side, we get the natural language of +what is called slyness.” +</p> + +<p> +Of all the above-named complex emotions, Pride, perhaps, is the most +plainly expressed. A proud man exhibits his sense of superiority over +others by holding his head and body erect. He is haughty (<i>haut</i>), or +high, and makes himself appear as large as possible; so that +metaphorically he is said to be swollen or puffed up with pride. A peacock +or a turkey-cock strutting about with puffed-up feathers, is sometimes +said to be an emblem of pride.<a href="#linknote-1113" +name="linknoteref-1113" id="linknoteref-1113">[1113]</a> The arrogant man +looks down on others, and with lowered eyelids hardly condescends to see +them; or he may show his contempt by slight movements, such as those +before described, about the nostrils or lips. Hence the muscle which +everts the lower lip has been called the <i>musculus superbus</i>. In some +photographs of patients affected by a monomania of pride, sent me by Dr. +Crichton Browne, the head and body were held erect, and the mouth firmly +closed. This latter action, expressive of decision, follows, I presume, +from the proud man feeling perfect self-confidence in himself. The whole +expression of pride stands in direct antithesis to that of humility; so +that nothing need here be said of the latter state of mind. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Helplessness, Impotence: Shrugging the shoulders</i>.—When a man +wishes to show that he cannot do something, or prevent something being +done, he often raises with a quick movement both shoulders. At the same +time, if the whole gesture is completed, he bends his elbows closely +inwards, raises his open hands, turning them outwards, with the fingers +separated. The head is often thrown a little on one side; the eyebrows are +elevated, and this causes wrinkles across the forehead. The mouth is +generally opened. I may mention, in order to show how unconsciously the +features are thus acted on, that though I had often intentionally shrugged +my shoulders to observe how my arms were placed, I was not at all aware +that my eyebrows were raised and mouth opened, until I looked at myself in +a glass; and since then I have noticed the same movements in the faces of +others. In the accompanying Plate VI., figs. 3 and 4, Mr. Rejlander has +successfully acted the gesture of shrugging the shoulders. +</p> + +<p> +Englishmen are much less demonstrative than the men of most other European +nations, and they shrug their shoulders far less frequently and +energetically than Frenchmen or Italians do. The gesture varies in all +degrees from the complex movement, just described, to only a momentary and +scarcely perceptible raising of both shoulders; or, as I have noticed in a +lady sitting in an arm-chair, to the mere turning slightly outwards of the +open hands with separated fingers. I have never seen very young English +children shrug their shoulders, but the following case was observed with +care by a medical professor and excellent observer, and has been +communicated to me by him. The father of this gentleman was a Parisian, +and his mother a Scotch lady. His wife is of British extraction on both +sides, and my informant does not believe that she ever shrugged her +shoulders in her life. His children have been reared in England, and the +nursemaid is a thorough Englishwoman, who has never been seen to shrug her +shoulders. Now, his eldest daughter was observed to shrug her shoulders at +the age of between sixteen and eighteen months; her mother exclaiming at +the time, “Look at the little French girl shrugging her shoulders!” At +first she often acted thus, sometimes throwing her head a little backwards +and on one side, but she did not, as far as was observed, move her elbows +and hands in the usual manner. The habit gradually wore away, and now, +when she is a little over four years old, she is never seen to act thus. +The father is told that he sometimes shrugs his shoulders, especially when +arguing with any one; but it is extremely improbable that his daughter +should have imitated him at so early an age; for, as he remarks, she could +not possibly have often seen this gesture in him. Moreover, if the habit +had been acquired through imitation, it is not probable that it would so +soon have been spontaneously discontinued by this child, and, as we shall +immediately see, by a second child, though the father still lived with his +family. This little girl, it may be added, resembles her Parisian +grandfather in countenance to an almost absurd degree. She also presents +another and very curious resemblance to him, namely, by practising a +singular trick. When she impatiently wants something, she holds out her +little hand, and rapidly rubs the thumb against the index and middle +finger: now this same trick was frequently performed under the same +circumstances by her grandfather. +</p> + +<p> +This gentleman’s second daughter also shrugged her shoulders before the +age of eighteen months, and afterwards discontinued the habit. It is of +course possible that she may have imitated her elder sister; but she +continued it after her sister had lost the habit. She at first resembled +her Parisian grandfather in a less degree than did her sister at the same +age, but now in a greater degree. She likewise practises to the present +time the peculiar habit of rubbing together, when impatient, her thumb and +two of her fore-fingers. +</p> + +<p> +In this latter case we have a good instance, like those given in a former +chapter, of the inheritance of a trick or gesture; for no one, I presume, +will attribute to mere coincidence so peculiar a habit as this, which was +common to the grandfather and his two grandchildren who had never seen +him. +</p> + +<p> +Considering all the circumstances with reference to these children +shrugging their shoulders, it can hardly be doubted that they have +inherited the habit from their French progenitors, although they have only +one quarter French blood in their veins, and although their grandfather +did not often shrug his shoulders. There is nothing very unusual, though +the fact is interesting, in these children having gained by inheritance a +habit during early youth, and then discontinuing it; for it is of frequent +occurrence with many kinds of animals that certain characters are retained +for a period by the young, and are then lost. +</p> + +<p> +As it appeared to me at one time improbable in a high degree that so +complex a gesture as shrugging the shoulders, together with the +accompanying movements, should be innate, I was anxious to ascertain +whether the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman, who could not have learnt the +habit by imitation, practised it. And I have heard, through Dr. Innes, +from a lady who has lately had charge of her, that she does shrug her +shoulders, turn in her elbows, and raise her eyebrows in the same manner +as other people, and under the same circumstances. I was also anxious to +learn whether this gesture was practised by the various races of man, +especially by those who never have had much intercourse with Europeans. We +shall see that they act in this manner; but it appears that the gesture is +sometimes confined to merely raising or shrugging the shoulders, without +the other movements. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Scott has frequently seen this gesture in the Bengalees and Dhangars +(the latter constituting a distinct race) who are employed in the Botanic +Garden at Calcutta; when, for instance, they have declared that they could +not do some work, such as lifting a heavy weight. He ordered a Bengalee to +climb a lofty tree; but the man, with a shrug of his shoulders and a +lateral shake of his head, said he could not. Mr. Scott knowing that the +man was lazy, thought he could, and insisted on his trying. His face now +became pale, his arms dropped to his sides, his mouth and eyes were widely +opened, and again surveying the tree, he looked askant at Mr. Scott, +shrugged his shoulders, inverted his elbows, extended his open hands, and +with a few quick lateral shakes of the head declared his inability. Mr. H. +Erskine has likewise seen the natives of India shrugging their shoulders; +but he has never seen the elbows turned so much inwards as with us; and +whilst shrugging their shoulders they sometimes lay their uncrossed hands +on their breasts. +</p> + +<p> +With the wild Malays of the interior of Malacca, and with the Bugis (true +Malays, though speaking a different language), Mr. Geach has often seen +this gesture. I presume that it is complete, as, in answer to my query +descriptive of the movements of the shoulders, arms, hands, and face, Mr. +Geach remarks, “it is performed in a beautiful style.” I have lost an +extract from a scientific voyage, in which shrugging the shoulders by some +natives (Micronesians) of the Caroline Archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, +was well described. Capt. Speedy informs me that the Abyssinians shrug +their shoulders but enters into no details. Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab +dragoman in Alexandria acting exactly as described in my query, when an +old gentleman, on whom he attended, would not go in the proper direction +which had been pointed out to him. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Washington Matthews says, in reference to the wild Indian tribes of +the western parts of the United States, “I have on a few occasions +detected men using a slight apologetic shrug, but the rest of the +demonstration which you describe I have not witnessed.” Fritz Müller +informs me that he has seen the negroes in Brazil shrugging their +shoulders; but it is of course possible that they may have learnt to do so +by imitating the Portuguese. Mrs. Barber has never seen this gesture with +the Kafirs of South Africa; and Gaika, judging from his answer, did not +even understand what was meant by my description. Mr. Swinhoe is also +doubtful about the Chinese; but he has seen them, under the circumstances +which would make us shrug our shoulders, press their right elbow against +their side, raise their eyebrows, lift up their hand with the palm +directed towards the person addressed, and shake it from right to left. +Lastly, with respect to the Australians, four of my informants answer by a +simple negative, and one by a simple affirmative. Mr. Bunnett, who has had +excellent opportunities for observation on the borders of the Colony of +Victory, also answers by a “yes,” adding that the gesture is performed “in +a more subdued and less demonstrative manner than is the case with civilized +nations.” This circumstance may account for its not having been noticed by +four of my informants. +</p> + +<p> +These statements, relating to Europeans, Hindoos, the hill-tribes of +India, Malays, Micronesians, Abyssinians, Arabs, Negroes, Indians of North +America, and apparently to the Australians—many of these natives +having had scarcely any intercourse with Europeans—are sufficient to +show that shrugging the shoulders, accompanied in some cases by the other +proper movements, is a gesture natural to mankind. +</p> + +<p> +This gesture implies an unintentional or unavoidable action on our own +part, or one that we cannot perform; or an action performed by another +person which we cannot prevent. It accompanies such speeches as, “It was +not my fault;” “It is impossible for me to grant this favour;” “He must +follow his own course, I cannot stop him.” Shrugging the shoulders +likewise expresses patience, or the absence of any intention to resist. +Hence the muscles which raise the shoulders are sometimes called, as I +have been informed by an artist, the patience muscles. Shylock the Jew, +says, +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“Signor Antonio, many a time and oft<br/> +In the Rialto have you rated me<br/> +About my monies and usances;<br/> +Still have I borne it with a patient shrug.”<br/> +<i>Merchant of Venice</i>, act i. sc. 3. +</p> + +<p> +Sir C. Bell has given<a href="#linknote-1114" name="linknoteref-1114" +id="linknoteref-1114">[1114]</a> a life-like figure of a man, who is +shrinking back from some terrible danger, and is on the point of screaming +out in abject terror. He is represented with his shoulders lifted up +almost to his ears; and this at once declares that there is no thought of +resistance. +</p> + +<p> +As shrugging the shoulders generally implies “I cannot do this or that,” +so by a slight change, it sometimes implies “I won’t do it.” The movement +then expresses a dogged determination not to act. Olmsted describes<a +href="#linknote-1115" name="linknoteref-1115" id="linknoteref-1115">[1115]</a> +an Indian in Texas as giving a great shrug to his shoulders, when he was +informed that a party of men were Germans and not Americans, thus +expressing that he would have nothing to do with them. Sulky and obstinate +children may be seen with both their shoulders raised high up; but this +movement is not associated with the others which generally accompany a +true shrug. An excellent observer<a href="#linknote-1116" +name="linknoteref-1116" id="linknoteref-1116">[1116]</a> in describing a +young man who was determined not to yield to his father’s desire, says, +“He thrust his hands deep down into his pockets, and set up his shoulders +to his ears, which was a good warning that, come right or wrong, this rock +should fly from its firm base as soon as Jack would; and that any +remonstrance on the subject was purely futile.” As soon as the son got his +own way, he “put his shoulders into their natural position.” +</p> + +<p> +Resignation is sometimes shown by the open hands being placed, one over +the other, on the lower part of the body. I should not have thought this +little gesture worth even a passing notice, had not Dr. W. Ogle remarked +to me that he had two or three times observed it in patients who were +preparing for operations under chloroform. They exhibited no great fear, +but seemed to declare by this posture of their hands, that they had made +up their minds, and were resigned to the inevitable. +</p> + +<p> +We may now inquire why men in all parts of the world when they feel,—whether +or not they wish to show this feeling,—that they cannot or will not +do something, or will not resist something if done by another, shrug their +shoulders, at the same time often bending in their elbows, showing the +palms of their hands with extended fingers, often throwing their heads a +little on one side, raising their eyebrows, and opening their mouths. +These states of the mind are either simply passive, or show a +determination not to act. None of the above movements are of the least +service. The explanation lies, I cannot doubt, in the principle of +unconscious antithesis. This principle here seems to come into play as +clearly as in the case of a dog, who, when feeling savage, puts himself in +the proper attitude for attacking and for making himself appear terrible +to his enemy; but as soon as he feels affectionate, throws his whole body +into a directly opposite attitude, though this is of no direct use to him. +</p> + +<p> +Let it be observed how an indignant man, who resents, and will not submit +to some injury, holds his head erect, squares his shoulders, and expands +his chest. He often clenches his fists, and puts one or both arms in the +proper position for attack or defence, with the muscles of his limbs +rigid. He frowns,—that is, he contracts and lowers his brows,—and, +being determined, closes his mouth. The actions and attitude of a helpless +man are, in every one of these respects, exactly the reverse. In Plate VI. +we may imagine one of the figures on the left side to have just said, +“What do you mean by insulting me?” and one of the figures on the right +side to answer, “I really could not help it.” The helpless man +unconsciously contracts the muscles of his forehead which are antagonistic +to those that cause a frown, and thus raises his eyebrows; at the same +time he relaxes the muscles about the mouth, so that the lower jaw drops. +The antithesis is complete in every detail, not only in the movements of +the features, but in the position of the limbs and in the attitude of the +whole body, as may be seen in the accompanying plate. As the helpless or +apologetic man often wishes to show his state of mind, he then acts in a +conspicuous or demonstrative manner. +</p> + +<p> +In accordance with the fact that squaring the elbows and clenching the +fists are gestures by no means universal with the men of all races, when +they feel indignant and are prepared to attack their enemy, so it appears +that a helpless or apologetic frame of mind is expressed in many parts of +the world by merely shrugging the shoulders, without turning inwards the +elbows and opening the hands. The man or child who is obstinate, or one +who is resigned to some great misfortune, has in neither case any idea of +resistance by active means; and he expresses this state of mind, by simply +keeping his shoulders raised; or he may possibly fold his arms across his +breast. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Signs of affirmation or approval, and of negation or disapproval: +nodding and shaking the head</i>.—I was curious to ascertain how far +the common signs used by us in affirmation and negation were general +throughout the world. These signs are indeed to a certain extent +expressive of our feelings, as we give a vertical nod of approval with a +smile to our children, when we approve of their conduct; and shake our +heads laterally with a frown, when we disapprove. With infants, the first +act of denial consists in refusing food; and I repeatedly noticed with my +own infants, that they did so by withdrawing their heads laterally from +the breast, or from anything offered them in a spoon. In accepting food +and taking it into their mouths, they incline their heads forwards. Since +making these observations I have been informed that the same idea had +occurred to Charma.<a href="#linknote-1117" name="linknoteref-1117" +id="linknoteref-1117">[1117]</a> It deserves notice that in accepting or +taking food, there is only a single movement forward, and a single nod +implies an affirmation. On the other hand, in refusing food, especially if +it be pressed on them, children frequently move their heads several times +from side to side, as we do in shaking our heads in negation. Moreover, in +the case of refusal, the head is not rarely thrown backwards, or the mouth +is closed, so that these movements might likewise come to serve as signs +of negation. Mr. Wedgwood remarks on this subject,<a href="#linknote-1118" +name="linknoteref-1118" id="linknoteref-1118">[1118]</a> that “when the +voice is exerted with closed teeth or lips, it produces the sound of the +letter <i>n</i> or <i>m</i>. Hence we may account for the use of the +particle <i>ne</i> to signify negation, and possibly also of the Greek mh +in the same sense.” +</p> + +<p> +That these signs are innate or instinctive, at least with Anglo-Saxons, is +rendered highly probable by the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman “constantly +accompanying her <i>yes</i> with the common affirmative nod, and her <i>no</i> +with our negative shake of the head.” Had not Mr. Lieber stated to the +contrary,<a href="#linknote-1119" name="linknoteref-1119" +id="linknoteref-1119">[1119]</a> I should have imagined that these +gestures might have been acquired or learnt by her, considering her +wonderful sense of touch and appreciation of the movements of others. With +microcephalous idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn to speak, +one of them is described by Vogt,<a href="#linknote-1120" +name="linknoteref-1120" id="linknoteref-1120">[1120]</a> as answering, +when asked whether he wished for more food or drink, by inclining or +shaking his head. Schmalz, in his remarkable dissertation on the education +of the deaf and dumb, as well as of children raised only one degree above +idiotcy, assumes that they can always both make and understand the common +signs of affirmation and negation.<a href="#linknote-1121" +name="linknoteref-1121" id="linknoteref-1121">[1121]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Nevertheless if we look to the various races of man, these signs are not +so universally employed as I should have expected; yet they seem too +general to be ranked as altogether conventional or artificial. My +informants assert that both signs are used by the Malays, by the natives +of Ceylon, the Chinese, the negroes of the Guinea coast, and, according to +Gaika, by the Kafirs of South Africa, though with these latter people Mrs. +Barber has never seen a lateral shake used as a negative. With respect to +the Australians, seven observers agree that a nod is given in affirmation; +five agree about a lateral shake in negation, accompanied or not by some +word; but Mr. Dyson Lacy has never seen this latter sign in Queensland, +and Mr. Bulmer says that in Gipps’ Land a negative is expressed by +throwing the head a little backwards and putting out the tongue. At the +northern extremity of the continent, near Torres Straits, the natives when +uttering a negative “don’t shake the head with it, but holding up the +right hand, shake it by turning it half round and back again two or three +times.”<a href="#linknote-1122" name="linknoteref-1122" +id="linknoteref-1122">[1122]</a> The throwing back of the head with a +cluck of the tongue is said to be used as a negative by the modern Greeks +and Turks, the latter people expressing <i>yes</i> by a movement like that +made by us when we shake our heads.<a href="#linknote-1123" +name="linknoteref-1123" id="linknoteref-1123">[1123]</a> The Abyssinians, +as I am informed by Captain Speedy, express a negative by jerking the head +to the right shoulder, together with a slight cluck, the mouth being +closed; an affirmation is expressed by the head being thrown backwards and +the eyebrows raised for an instant. The Tagals of Luzon, in the Philippine +Archipelago, as I hear from Dr. Adolf Meyer, when they say “yes,” also +throw the head backwards. According to the Rajah Brooke, the Dyaks of +Borneo express an affirmation by raising the eyebrows, and a negation by +slightly contracting them, together with a peculiar look from the eyes. +With the Arabs on the Nile, Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray concluded that +nodding in affirmation was rare, whilst shaking the head in negation was +never used, and was not even understood by them. With the Esquimaux<a +href="#linknote-1124" name="linknoteref-1124" id="linknoteref-1124">[1124]</a> +a nod means <i>yes</i> and a wink <i>no</i>. The New Zealanders “elevate +the head and chin in place of nodding acquiescence.”<a +href="#linknote-1125" name="linknoteref-1125" id="linknoteref-1125">[1125]</a> +</p> + +<p> +With the Hindoos Mr. H. Erskine concludes from inquiries made from +experienced Europeans, and from native gentlemen, that the signs of +affirmation and negation vary—a nod and a lateral shake being +sometimes used as we do; but a negative is more commonly expressed by the +head being thrown suddenly backwards and a little to one side, with a +cluck of the tongue. What the meaning may be of this cluck of the tongue, +which has been observed with various people, I cannot imagine. A native +gentleman stated that affirmation is frequently shown by the head being +thrown to the left. I asked Mr. Scott to attend particularly to this +point, and, after repeated observations, he believes that a vertical nod +is not commonly used by the natives in affirmation, but that the head is +first thrown backwards either to the left or right, and then jerked +obliquely forwards only once. This movement would perhaps have been +described by a less careful observer as a lateral shake. He also states +that in negation the head is usually held nearly upright, and shaken +several times. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Bridges informs me that the Fuegians nod their heads vertically in +affirmation, and shake them laterally in denial. With the wild Indians of +North America, according to Mr. Washington Matthews, nodding and shaking +the head have been learnt from Europeans, and are not naturally employed. +They express affirmation by describing with the hand (all the fingers +except the index being flexed) a curve downwards and outwards from the +body, whilst negation is expressed by moving the open hand outwards, with +the palm facing inwards. Other observers state that the sign of +affirmation with these Indians is the forefinger being raised, and then +lowered and pointed to the ground, or the hand is waved straight forward +from the face; and that the sign of negation is the finger or whole hand +shaken from side to side.<a href="#linknote-1126" name="linknoteref-1126" +id="linknoteref-1126">[1126]</a> This latter movement probably represents +in all cases the lateral shaking of the head. The Italians are said in +like manner to move the lifted finger from right to left in negation, as +indeed we English sometimes do. +</p> + +<p> +On the whole we find considerable diversity in the signs of affirmation +and negation in the different races of man. With respect to negation, if +we admit that the shaking of the finger or hand from side to side is +symbolic of the lateral movement of the head; and if we admit that the +sudden backward movement of the head represents one of the actions often +practised by young children in refusing food, then there is much +uniformity throughout the world in the signs of negation, and we can see +how they originated. The most marked exceptions are presented by the +Arabs, Esquimaux, some Australian tribes, and Dyaks. With the latter a +frown is the sign of negation, and with us frowning often accompanies a +lateral shake of the head. +</p> + +<p> +With respect to nodding in affirmation, the exceptions are rather more +numerous, namely with some of the Hindoos, with the Turks, Abyssinians, +Dyaks, Tagals, and New Zealanders. The eyebrows are sometimes raised in +affirmation, and as a person in bending his head forwards and downwards +naturally looks up to the person whom he addresses, he will be apt to +raise his eyebrows, and this sign may thus have arisen as an abbreviation. +So again with the New Zealanders, the lifting up the chin and head in +affirmation may perhaps represent in an abbreviated form the upward +movement of the head after it has been nodded forwards and downwards. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"></a> +CHAPTER XII.<br/>SURPRISE—ASTONISHMENT—FEAR—HORROR. +</h2> + +<p> +Surprise, astonishment—Elevation of the eyebrows—Opening the +mouth—Protrusion of the lips—Gestures accompanying surprise—Admiration—Fear—Terror—Erection +of the hair—Contraction of the platysma muscle—Dilatation of +the pupils—Horror—Conclusion. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +Attention, if sudden and close, graduates into surprise; and this into +astonishment; and this into stupefied amazement. The latter frame of mind +is closely akin to terror. Attention is shown by the eyebrows being +slightly raised; and as this state increases into surprise, they are +raised to a much greater extent, with the eyes and mouth widely open. The +raising of the eyebrows is necessary in order that the eyes should be +opened quickly and widely; and this movement produces transverse wrinkles +across the forehead. The degree to which the eyes and mouth are opened +corresponds with the degree of surprise felt; but these movements must be +coordinated; for a widely opened mouth with eyebrows only slightly raised +results in a meaningless grimace, as Dr. Duchenne has shown in one of his +photographs.<a href="#linknote-1201" name="linknoteref-1201" +id="linknoteref-1201">[1201]</a> On the other hand, a person may often be +seen to pretend surprise by merely raising his eyebrows. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Duchenne has given a photograph of an old man with his eyebrows well +elevated and arched by the galvanization of the frontal muscle; and with +his mouth voluntarily opened. This figure expresses surprise with much +truth. I showed it to twenty-four persons without a word of explanation, +and one alone did not at all understand what was intended. A second person +answered terror, which is not far wrong; some of the others, however, +added to the words surprise or astonishment, the epithets horrified, +woful, painful, or disgusted. +</p> + +<p> +The eyes and mouth being widely open is an expression universally +recognized as one of surprise or astonishment. Thus Shakespeare says, “I +saw a smith stand with open mouth swallowing a tailor’s news.” (‘King +John,’ act iv. scene ii.) And again, “They seemed almost, with staring on +one another, to tear the cases of their eyes; there was speech in the +dumbness, language in their very gesture; they looked as they had heard of +a world destroyed.” (‘Winter’s Tale,’ act v. scene ii.) +</p> + +<p> +My informants answer with remarkable uniformity to the same effect, with +respect to the various races of man; the above movements of the features +being often accompanied by certain gestures and sounds, presently to be +described. Twelve observers in different parts of Australia agree on this +head. Mr. Winwood Reade has observed this expression with the negroes on +the Guinea coast. The chief Gaika and others answer <i>yes</i> to my query +with respect to the Kafirs of South Africa; and so do others emphatically +with reference to the Abyssinians, Ceylonese, Chinese, Fuegians, various +tribes of North America, and New Zealanders. With the latter, Mr. Stack +states that the expression is more plainly shown by certain individuals +than by others, though all endeavour as much as possible to conceal their +feelings. The Dyaks of Borneo are said by the Rajah Brooke to open their +eyes widely, when astonished, often swinging their heads to and fro, and +beating their breasts. Mr. Scott informs me that the workmen in the +Botanic Gardens at Calcutta are strictly ordered not to smoke; but they +often disobey this order, and when suddenly surprised in the act, they +first open their eyes and mouths widely. They then often slightly shrug +their shoulders, as they perceive that discovery is inevitable, or frown +and stamp on the ground from vexation. Soon they recover from their +surprise, and abject fear is exhibited by the relaxation of all their +muscles; their heads seem to sink between their shoulders; their fallen +eyes wander to and fro; and they supplicate forgiveness. +</p> + +<p> +The well-known Australian explorer, Mr. Stuart, has given<a +href="#linknote-1202" name="linknoteref-1202" id="linknoteref-1202">[1202]</a> +a striking account of stupefied amazement together with terror in a native +who had never before seen a man on horseback. Mr. Stuart approached unseen +and called to him from a little distance. “He turned round and saw me. +What he imagined I was I do not know; but a finer picture of fear and +astonishment I never saw. He stood incapable of moving a limb, riveted to +the spot, mouth open and eyes staring.... He remained motionless until our +black got within a few yards of him, when suddenly throwing down his +waddies, he jumped into a mulga bush as high as he could get.” He could +not speak, and answered not a word to the inquiries made by the black, +but, trembling from head to foot, “waved with his hand for us to be off.” +</p> + +<p> +That the eyebrows are raised by an innate or instinctive impulse may be +inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman invariably acts thus when +astonished, as I have been assured by the lady who has lately had charge +of her. As surprise is excited by something unexpected or unknown, we +naturally desire, when startled, to perceive the cause as quickly as +possible; and we consequently open our eyes fully, so that the field of +vision may be increased, and the eyeballs moved easily in any direction. +But this hardly accounts for the eyebrows being so greatly raised as is +the case, and for the wild staring of the open eyes. The explanation lies, +I believe, in the impossibility of opening the eyes with great rapidity by +merely raising the upper lids. To effect this the eyebrows must be lifted +energetically. Any one who will try to open his eyes as quickly as +possible before a mirror will find that he acts thus; and the energetic +lifting up of the eyebrows opens the eyes so widely that they stare, the +white being exposed all round the iris. Moreover, the elevation of the +eyebrows is an advantage in looking upwards; for as long as they are +lowered they impede our vision in this direction. Sir C. Bell gives<a +href="#linknote-1203" name="linknoteref-1203" id="linknoteref-1203">[1203]</a> +a curious little proof of the part which the eyebrows play in opening the +eyelids. In a stupidly drunken man all the muscles are relaxed, and the +eyelids consequently droop, in the same manner as when we are falling +asleep. To counteract this tendency the drunkard raises his eyebrows; and +this gives to him a puzzled, foolish look, as is well represented in one +of Hogarth’s drawings. The habit of raising the eyebrows having once been +gained in order to see as quickly as possible all around us, the movement +would follow from the force of association whenever astonishment was felt +from any cause, even from a sudden sound or an idea. +</p> + +<p> +With adult persons, when the eyebrows are raised, the whole forehead +becomes much wrinkled in transverse lines; but with children this occurs +only to a slight degree. The wrinkles run in lines concentric with each +eyebrow, and are partially confluent in the middle. They are highly +characteristic of the expression of surprise or astonishment. Each +eyebrow, when raised, becomes also, as Duchenne remarks,<a +href="#linknote-1204" name="linknoteref-1204" id="linknoteref-1204">[1204]</a> +more arched than it was before. +</p> + +<p> +The cause of the mouth being opened when astonishment is felt, is a much +more complex affair; and several causes apparently concur in leading to +this movement. It has often been supposed<a href="#linknote-1205" +name="linknoteref-1205" id="linknoteref-1205">[1205]</a> that the sense of +hearing is thus rendered more acute; but I have watched persons listening +intently to a slight noise, the nature and source of which they knew +perfectly, and they did not open their mouths. Therefore I at one time +imagined that the open mouth might aid in distinguishing the direction +whence a sound proceeded, by giving another channel for its entrance into +the ear through the eustachian tube, But Dr. W. Ogle<a +href="#linknote-1206" name="linknoteref-1206" id="linknoteref-1206">[1206]</a> +has been so kind as to search the best recent authorities on the functions +of the eustachian tube, and he informs me that it is almost conclusively +proved that it remains closed except during the act of deglutition; and +that in persons in whom the tube remains abnormally open, the sense of +hearing, as far as external sounds are concerned, is by no means improved; +on the contrary, it is impaired by the respiratory sounds being rendered +more distinct. If a watch be placed within the mouth, but not allowed to +touch the sides, the ticking is heard much less plainly than when held +outside. In persons in whom from disease or a cold the eustachian tube is +permanently or temporarily closed, the sense of hearing is injured; but +this may be accounted for by mucus accumulating within the tube, and the +consequent exclusion of air. We may therefore infer that the mouth is not +kept open under the sense of astonishment for the sake of hearing sounds +more distinctly; notwithstanding that most deaf people keep their mouths +open. +</p> + +<p> +Every sudden emotion, including astonishment, quickens the action of the +heart, and with it the respiration. Now we can breathe, as Gratiolet +remarks<a href="#linknote-1207" name="linknoteref-1207" +id="linknoteref-1207">[1207]</a> and as appears to me to be the case, much +more quietly through the open mouth than through the nostrils. Therefore, +when we wish to listen intently to any sound, we either stop breathing, or +breathe as quietly as possible, by opening our mouths, at the same time +keeping our bodies motionless. One of my sons was awakened in the night by +a noise under circumstances which naturally led to great care, and after a +few minutes he perceived that his mouth was widely open. He then became +conscious that he had opened it for the sake of breathing as quietly as +possible. This view receives support from the reversed case which occurs +with dogs. A dog when panting after exercise, or on a hot day, breathes +loudly; but if his attention be suddenly aroused, he instantly pricks his +ears to listen, shuts his mouth, and breathes quietly, as he is enabled to +do, through his nostrils. +</p> + +<p> +When the attention is concentrated for a length of time with fixed +earnestness on any object or subject, all the organs of the body are +forgotten and neglected;<a href="#linknote-1208" name="linknoteref-1208" +id="linknoteref-1208">[1208]</a> and as the nervous energy of each +individual is limited in amount, little is transmitted to any part of the +system, excepting that which is at the time brought into energetic action. +Therefore many of the muscles tend to become relaxed, and the jaw drops +from its own weight. This will account for the dropping of the jaw and +open mouth of a man stupefied with amazement, and perhaps when less +strongly affected. I have noticed this appearance, as I find recorded in +my notes, in very young children when they were only moderately surprised. +</p> + +<p> +There is still another and highly effective cause, leading to the mouth +being opened, when we are astonished, and more especially when we are +suddenly startled. We can draw a full and deep inspiration much more +easily through the widely open mouth than through the nostrils. Now when +we start at any sudden sound or sight, almost all the muscles of the body +are involuntarily and momentarily thrown into strong action, for the sake +of guarding ourselves against or jumping away from the danger, which we +habitually associate with anything unexpected. But we always unconsciously +prepare ourselves for any great exertion, as formerly explained, by first +taking a deep and full inspiration, and we consequently open our mouths. +If no exertion follows, and we still remain astonished, we cease for a +time to breathe, or breathe as quietly as possible, in order that every +sound may be distinctly heard. Or again, if our attention continues long +and earnestly absorbed, all our muscles become relaxed, and the jaw, which +was at first suddenly opened, remains dropped. Thus several causes concur +towards this same movement, whenever surprise, astonishment, or amazement +is felt. +</p> + +<p> +Although when thus affected, our mouths are generally opened, yet the lips +are often a little protruded. This fact reminds us of the same movement, +though in a much more strongly marked degree, in the chimpanzee and orang +when astonished. As a strong expiration naturally follows the deep +inspiration which accompanies the first sense of startled surprise, and as +the lips are often protruded, the various sounds which are then commonly +uttered can apparently be accounted for. But sometimes a strong expiration +alone is heard; thus Laura Bridgman, when amazed, rounds and protrudes her +lips, opens them, and breathes strongly.<a href="#linknote-1209" +name="linknoteref-1209" id="linknoteref-1209">[1209]</a> One of the +commonest sounds is a deep <i>Oh</i>; and this would naturally follow, as +explained by Helmholtz, from the mouth being moderately opened and the +lips protruded. On a quiet night some rockets were fired from the +‘Beagle,’ in a little creek at Tahiti, to amuse the natives; and as each +rocket, was let off there was absolute silence, but this was invariably +followed by a deep groaning <i>Oh</i>, resounding all round the bay. Mr. +Washington Matthews says that the North American Indians express +astonishment by a groan; and the negroes on the West Coast of Africa, +according to Mr. Winwood Reade, protrude their lips, and make a sound like +<i>heigh, heigh</i>. If the mouth is not much opened, whilst the lips are +considerably protruded, a blowing, hissing, or whistling noise is +produced. Mr. R. Brough Smith informs me that an Australian from the +interior was taken to the theatre to see an acrobat rapidly turning head +over heels: “he was greatly astonished, and protruded his lips, making a +noise with his mouth as if blowing out a match.” According to Mr. Bulmer +the Australians, when surprised, utter the exclamation <i>korki</i>, “and +to do this the mouth is drawn out as if going to whistle.” We Europeans +often whistle as a sign of surprise; thus, in a recent novel<a +href="#linknote-1210" name="linknoteref-1210" id="linknoteref-1210">[1210]</a> +it is said, “here the man expressed his astonishment and disapprobation by +a prolonged whistle.” A Kafir girl, as Mr. J. Mansel Weale informs me, “on +hearing of the high price of an article, raised her eyebrows and whistled +just as a European would.” Mr. Wedgwood remarks that such sounds are +written down as <i>whew</i>, and they serve as interjections for surprise. +</p> + +<p> +According to three other observers, the Australians often evince +astonishment by a clucking noise. Europeans also sometimes express gentle +surprise by a little clicking noise of nearly the same kind. We have seen +that when we are startled, the mouth is suddenly opened; and if the tongue +happens to be then pressed closely against the palate, its sudden +withdrawal will produce a sound of this kind, which might thus come to +express surprise. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0024" id="linkimage-0024"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/plate-7.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Gestures of the Body. Plate VII " /> +</div> + +<p> +Turning to gestures of the body. A surprised person often raises his +opened hands high above his head, or by bending his arms only to the level +of his face. The flat palms are directed towards the person who causes +this feeling, and the straightened fingers are separated. This gesture is +represented by Mr. Rejlander in Plate VII. fig. 1. In the ‘Last Supper,’ +by Leonardo da Vinci, two of the Apostles have their hands half uplifted, +clearly expressive of their astonishment. A trustworthy observer told me +that he had lately met his wife under most unexpected circumstances: “She +started, opened her mouth and eyes very widely, and threw up both her arms +above her head.” Several years ago I was surprised by seeing several of my +young children earnestly doing something together on the ground; but the +distance was too great for me to ask what they were about. Therefore I +threw up my open hands with extended fingers above my head; and as soon as +I had done this, I became conscious of the action. I then waited, without +saying a word, to see if my children had understood this gesture; and as +they came running to me they cried out, “We saw that you were astonished +at us.” I do not know whether this gesture is common to the various races +of man, as I neglected to make inquiries on this head. That it is innate +or natural may be inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman, when amazed, +“spreads her arms and turns her hands with extended fingers upwards;”<a +href="#linknote-1211" name="linknoteref-1211" id="linknoteref-1211">[1211]</a> +nor is it likely, considering that the feeling of surprise is generally a +brief one, that she should have learnt this gesture through her keen sense +of touch. +</p> + +<p> +Huschke describes<a href="#linknote-1212" name="linknoteref-1212" +id="linknoteref-1212">[1212]</a> a somewhat different yet allied gesture, +which he says is exhibited by persons when astonished. They hold +themselves erect, with the features as before described, but with the +straightened arms extended backwards—the stretched fingers being +separated from each other. I have never myself seen this gesture; but +Huschke is probably correct; for a friend asked another man how he would +express great astonishment, and he at once threw himself into this +attitude. +</p> + +<p> +These gestures are, I believe, explicable on the principle of antithesis. +We have seen that an indignant man holds his head erect, squares his +shoulders, turns out his elbows, often clenches his fist, frowns, and +closes his mouth; whilst the attitude of a helpless man is in every one of +these details the reverse. Now, a man in an ordinary frame of mind, doing +nothing and thinking of nothing in particular, usually keeps his two arms +suspended laxly by his sides, with his hands somewhat flexed, and the +fingers near together. Therefore, to raise the arms suddenly, either the +whole arms or the fore-arms, to open the palms flat, and to separate the +fingers,—or, again, to straighten the arms, extending them backwards +with separated fingers,—are movements in complete antithesis to +those preserved under an indifferent frame of mind, and they are, in +consequence, unconsciously assumed by an astonished man. There is, also, +often a desire to display surprise in a conspicuous manner, and the above +attitudes are well fitted for this purpose. It may be asked why should +surprise, and only a few other states of the mind, be exhibited by +movements in antithesis to others. But this principle will not be brought +into play in the case of those emotions, such as terror, great joy, +suffering, or rage, which naturally lead to certain lines of action and +produce certain effects on the body, for the whole system is thus +preoccupied; and these emotions are already thus expressed with the +greatest plainness. +</p> + +<p> +There is another little gesture, expressive of astonishment of which I can +offer no explanation; namely, the hand being placed over the mouth or on +some part of the head. This has been observed with so many races of man, +that it must have some natural origin. A wild Australian was taken into a +large room full of official papers, which surprised him greatly, and he +cried out, <i>cluck, cluck, cluck</i>, putting the back of his hand +towards his lips. Mrs. Barber says that the Kafirs and Fingoes express +astonishment by a serious look and by placing the right hand upon the +mouth, uttering the word <i>mawo</i>, which means ‘wonderful.’ The +Bushmen are said<a href="#linknote-1213" name="linknoteref-1213" +id="linknoteref-1213">[1213]</a> to put their right hands to their necks, +bending their heads backwards. Mr. Winwood Reade has observed that the +negroes on the West Coast of Africa, when surprised, clap their hands to +their mouths, saying at the same time, “My mouth cleaves to me,” i. e. to +my hands; and he has heard that this is their usual gesture on such +occasions. Captain Speedy informs me that the Abyssinians place their +right hand to the forehead, with the palm outside. Lastly, Mr. Washington +Matthews states that the conventional sign of astonishment with the wild +tribes of the western parts of the United States “is made by placing the +half-closed hand over the mouth; in doing this, the head is often bent +forwards, and words or low groans are sometimes uttered.” Catlin<a +href="#linknote-1214" name="linknoteref-1214" id="linknoteref-1214">[1214]</a> +makes the same remark about the hand being pressed over the mouth by the +Mandans and other Indian tribes. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Admiration</i>.—Little need be said on this head. Admiration +apparently consists of surprise associated with some pleasure and a sense +of approval. When vividly felt, the eyes are opened and the eyebrows +raised; the eyes become bright, instead of remaining blank, as under +simple astonishment; and the mouth, instead of gaping open, expands into a +smile. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Fear, Terror</i>.—The word ‘fear’ seems to be derived from what +is sudden and dangerous;<a href="#linknote-1215" name="linknoteref-1215" +id="linknoteref-1215">[1215]</a> and that of terror from the trembling of +the vocal organs and body. I use the word ‘terror’ for extreme fear; but +some writers think it ought to be confined to cases in which the +imagination is more particularly concerned. Fear is often preceded by +astonishment, and is so far akin to it, that both lead to the senses of +sight and hearing being instantly aroused. In both cases the eyes and +mouth are widely opened, and the eyebrows raised. The frightened man at +first stands like a statue motionless and breathless, or crouches down as +if instinctively to escape observation. +</p> + +<p> +The heart beats quickly and violently, so that it palpitates or knocks +against the ribs; but it is very doubtful whether it then works more +efficiently than usual, so as to send a greater supply of blood to all +parts of the body; for the skin instantly becomes pale, as during +incipient faintness. This paleness of the surface, however, is probably in +large part, or exclusively, due to the vasomotor centre being affected in +such a manner as to cause the contraction of the small arteries of the +skin. That the skin is much affected under the sense of great fear, we see +in the marvellous and inexplicable manner in which perspiration +immediately exudes from it. This exudation is all the more remarkable, as +the surface is then cold, and hence the term a cold sweat; whereas, the +sudorific glands are properly excited into action when the surface is +heated. The hairs also on the skin stand erect; and the superficial +muscles shiver. In connection with the disturbed action of the heart, the +breathing is hurried. The salivary glands act imperfectly; the mouth +becomes dry,<a href="#linknote-1216" name="linknoteref-1216" +id="linknoteref-1216">[1216]</a> and is often opened and shut. I have also +noticed that under slight fear there is a strong tendency to yawn. One of +the best-marked symptoms is the trembling of all the muscles of the body; +and this is often first seen in the lips. From this cause, and from the +dryness of the mouth, the voice becomes husky or indistinct, or may +altogether fail. “Obstupui, steteruntque comae, et vox faucibus haesit.” +</p> + +<p> +Of vague fear there is a well-known and grand description in Job:—“In +thoughts from the visions of the night, when deep sleep falleth on men, +fear came upon me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake. Then a +spirit passed before my face; the hair of my flesh stood up. It stood +still, but I could not discern the form thereof: an image was before my +eyes, there was silence, and I heard a voice, saying, Shall mortal man be +more just than God? Shall a man be more pure than his Maker?” (Job iv. 13) +</p> + +<p> +As fear increases into an agony of terror, we behold, as under all violent +emotions, diversified results. The heart beats wildly, or may fail to act +and faintness ensue; there is a death-like pallor; the breathing is +laboured; the wings of the nostrils are wildly dilated; “there is a +gasping and convulsive motion of the lips, a tremor on the hollow cheek, a +gulping and catching of the throat;”<a href="#linknote-1217" +name="linknoteref-1217" id="linknoteref-1217">[1217]</a> the uncovered and +protruding eyeballs are fixed on the object of terror; or they may roll +restlessly from side to side, <i>huc illuc volvens oculos totumque +pererrat</i>.<a href="#linknote-1218" name="linknoteref-1218" +id="linknoteref-1218">[1218]</a> The pupils are said to be enormously +dilated. All the muscles of the body may become rigid, or may be thrown +into convulsive movements. The hands are alternately clenched and opened, +often with a twitching movement. The arms may be protruded, as if to avert +some dreadful danger, or may be thrown wildly over the head. The Rev. Mr. +Hagenauer has seen this latter action in a terrified Australian. In other +cases there is a sudden and uncontrollable tendency to headlong flight; +and so strong is this, that the boldest soldiers may be seized with a +sudden panic. +</p> + +<p> +As fear rises to an extreme pitch, the dreadful scream of terror is heard. +Great beads of sweat stand on the skin. All the muscles of the body are +relaxed. Utter prostration soon follows, and the mental powers fail. The +intestines are affected. The sphincter muscles cease to act, and no longer +retain the contents of the body. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0025" id="linkimage-0025"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig19.jpg" width="100%" +alt="Photograph of an Insane Woman. Fig. 19 " /> +</div> + +<p> +Dr. J. Crichton Browne has given me so striking an account of intense fear +in an insane woman, aged thirty-five, that the description though painful +ought not to be omitted. When a paroxysm seizes her, she screams out, +“This is hell!” “There is a black woman!” “I can’t get out!”—and +other such exclamations. When thus screaming, her movements are those of +alternate tension and tremor. For one instant she clenches her hands, +holds her arms out before her in a stiff semi-flexed position; then +suddenly bends her body forwards, sways rapidly to and fro, draws her +fingers through her hair, clutches at her neck, and tries to tear off her +clothes. The sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles (which serve to bend the head +on the chest) stand out prominently, as if swollen, and the skin in front +of them is much wrinkled. Her hair, which is cut short at the back of her +head, and is smooth when she is calm, now stands on end; that in front +being dishevelled by the movements of her hands. The countenance expresses +great mental agony. The skin is flushed over the face and neck, down to +the clavicles, and the veins of the forehead and neck stand out like thick +cords. The lower lip drops, and is somewhat everted. The mouth is kept +half open, with the lower jaw projecting. The cheeks are hollow and deeply +furrowed in curved lines running from the wings of the nostrils to the +corners of the mouth. The nostrils themselves are raised and extended. The +eyes are widely opened, and beneath them the skin appears swollen; the +pupils are large. The forehead is wrinkled transversely in many folds, and +at the inner extremities of the eyebrows it is strongly furrowed in +diverging lines, produced by the powerful and persistent contraction of +the corrugators. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0026" id="linkimage-0026"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig20.jpg" width="100%" alt="Terror. Fig. 20 " /> +</div> + +<p> +Mr. Bell has also described<a href="#linknote-1219" name="linknoteref-1219" +id="linknoteref-1219">[1219]</a> an agony of terror and of despair, which +he witnessed in a murderer, whilst carried to the place of execution in +Turin. “On each side of the car the officiating priests were seated; and +in the centre sat the criminal himself. It was impossible to witness the +condition of this unhappy wretch without terror; and yet, as if impelled +by some strange infatuation, it was equally impossible not to gaze upon an +object so wild, so full of horror. He seemed about thirty-five years of +age; of large and muscular form; his countenance marked by strong and +savage features; half naked, pale as death, agonized with terror, every +limb strained in anguish, his hands clenched convulsively, the sweat +breaking out on his bent and contracted brow, he kissed incessantly the +figure of our Saviour, painted on the flag which was suspended before him; +but with an agony of wildness and despair, of which nothing ever exhibited +on the stage can give the slightest conception.” +</p> + +<p> +I will add only one other case, illustrative of a man utterly prostrated +by terror. An atrocious murderer of two persons was brought into a +hospital, under the mistaken impression that he had poisoned himself; and +Dr. W. Ogle carefully watched him the next morning, while he was being +handcuffed and taken away by the police. His pallor was extreme, and his +prostration so great that he was hardly able to dress himself. His skin +perspired; and his eyelids and head drooped so much that it was impossible +to catch even a glimpse of his eyes. His lower jaw hung down. There was no +contraction of any facial muscle, and Dr. Ogle is almost certain that the +hair did not stand on end, for he observed it narrowly, as it had been +dyed for the sake of concealment. +</p> + +<p> +With respect to fear, as exhibited by the various races of man, my +informants agree that the signs are the same as with Europeans. They are +displayed in an exaggerated degree with the Hindoos and natives of Ceylon. +Mr. Geach has seen Malays when terrified turn pale and shake; and Mr. +Brough Smyth states that a native Australian “being on one occasion much +frightened, showed a complexion as nearly approaching to what we call +paleness, as can well be conceived in the case of a very black man.” Mr. +Dyson Lacy has seen extreme fear shown in an Australian, by a nervous +twitching of the hands, feet, and lips; and by the perspiration standing +on the skin. Many savages do not repress the signs of fear so much as +Europeans; and they often tremble greatly. With the Kafir, Gaika says, in +his rather quaint English, the shaking “of the body is much experienced, +and the eyes are widely open.” With savages, the sphincter muscles are +often relaxed, just as may be observed in much frightened dogs, and as I +have seen with monkeys when terrified by being caught. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>The erection of the hair</i>.—Some of the signs of fear deserve a +little further consideration. Poets continually speak of the hair standing +on end; Brutus says to the ghost of Caesar, “that mak’st my blood cold, +and my hair to stare.” And Cardinal Beaufort, after the murder of +Gloucester exclaims, “Comb down his hair; look, look, it stands upright.” +As I did not feel sure whether writers of fiction might not have applied +to man what they had often observed in animals, I begged for information +from Dr. Crichton Browne with respect to the insane. He states in answer +that he has repeatedly seen their hair erected under the influence of +sudden and extreme terror. For instance, it is occasionally necessary to +inject morphia, under the skin of an insane woman, who dreads the +operation extremely, though it causes very little pain; for she believes +that poison is being introduced into her system, and that her bones will +be softened, and her flesh turned into dust. She becomes deadly pale; her +limbs are stiffened by a sort of tetanic spasm, and her hair is partially +erected on the front of the head. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Browne further remarks that the bristling of the hair which is so +common in the insane, is not always associated with terror. It is perhaps +most frequently seen in chronic maniacs, who rave incoherently and have +destructive impulses; but it is during their paroxysms of violence that +the bristling is most observable. The fact of the hair becoming erect +under the influence both of rage and fear agrees perfectly with what we +have seen in the lower animals. Dr. Browne adduces several cases in +evidence. Thus with a man now in the Asylum, before the recurrence of each +maniacal paroxysm, “the hair rises up from his forehead like the mane of a +Shetland pony.” He has sent me photographs of two women, taken in the +intervals between their paroxysms, and he adds with respect to one of +these women, “that the state of her hair is a sure and convenient +criterion of her mental condition.” I have had one of these photographs +copied, and the engraving gives, if viewed from a little distance, a +faithful representation of the original, with the exception that the hair +appears rather too coarse and too much curled. The extraordinary condition +of the hair in the insane is due, not only to its erection, but to its +dryness and harshness, consequent on the subcutaneous glands failing to +act. Dr. Bucknill has said<a href="#linknote-1220" name="linknoteref-1220" +id="linknoteref-1220">[1220]</a> that a lunatic “is a lunatic to his +finger’s ends;” he might have added, and often to the extremity of each +particular hair. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Browne mentions as an empirical confirmation of the relation which +exists in the insane between the state of their hair and minds, that the +wife of a medical man, who has charge of a lady suffering from acute +melancholia, with a strong fear of death, for herself, her husband and +children, reported verbally to him the day before receiving my letter as +follows, “I think Mrs. —— will soon improve, for her hair is +getting smooth; and I always notice that our patients get better whenever +their hair ceases to be rough and unmanageable.” +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Browne attributes the persistently rough condition of the hair in many +insane patients, in part to their minds being always somewhat disturbed, +and in part to the effects of habit,—that is, to the hair being +frequently and strongly erected during their many recurrent paroxysms. In +patients in whom the bristling of the hair is extreme, the disease is +generally permanent and mortal; but in others, in whom the bristling is +moderate, as soon as they recover their health of mind the hair recovers +its smoothness. +</p> + +<p> +In a previous chapter we have seen that with animals the hairs are erected +by the contraction of minute, unstriped, and involuntary muscles, which +run to each separate follicle. In addition to this action, Mr. J. Wood has +clearly ascertained by experiment, as he informs me, that with man the +hairs on the front of the head which slope forwards, and those on the back +which slope backwards, are raised in opposite directions by the +contraction of the occipito-frontalis or scalp muscle. So that this muscle +seems to aid in the erection of the hairs on the head of man in the same +manner as the homologous <i>panniculus carnosus</i> aids, or takes the +greater part, in the erection of the spines on the backs of some of the +lower animals. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Contraction of the platysma myoides muscle</i>.—This muscle is +spread over the sides of the neck, extending downwards to a little beneath +the collar-bones, and upwards to the lower part of the cheeks. A portion, +called the risorius, is represented in the woodcut (M) fig. 2. The +contraction of this muscle draws the corners of the mouth and the lower +parts of the checks downwards and backwards. It produces at the same time +divergent, longitudinal, prominent ridges on the sides of the neck in the +young; and, in old thin persons, fine transverse wrinkles. This muscle is +sometimes said not to be under the control of the will; but almost every +one, if told to draw the corners of his mouth backwards and downwards with +great force, brings it into action. I have, however, heard of a man who +can voluntarily act on it only on one side of his neck. +</p> + +<p> +Sir C. Bell<a href="#linknote-1221" name="linknoteref-1221" +id="linknoteref-1221">[1221]</a> and others have stated that this muscle +is strongly contracted under the influence of fear; and Duchenne insists +so strongly on its importance in the expression of this emotion, that he +calls it the <i>muscle of fright</i>.<a href="#linknote-1222" +name="linknoteref-1222" id="linknoteref-1222">[1222]</a> He admits, +however, that its contraction is quite inexpressive unless associated with +widely open eyes and mouth. He has given a photograph (copied and reduced +in the accompanying woodcut) of the same old man as on former occasions, +with his eyebrows strongly raised, his mouth opened, and the platysma +contracted, all by means of galvanism. The original photograph was shown +to twenty-four persons, and they were separately asked, without any +explanation being given, what expression was intended: twenty instantly +answered, “intense fright” or “horror”; three said pain, and one extreme +discomfort. Dr. Duchenne has given another photograph of the same old man, +with the platysma contracted, the eyes and mouth opened, and the eyebrows +rendered oblique, by means of galvanism. The expression thus induced is +very striking (see Plate VII. fig. 2); the obliquity of the eyebrows +adding the appearance of great mental distress. The original was shown to +fifteen persons; twelve answered terror or horror, and three agony or +great suffering. From these cases, and from an examination of the other +photographs given by Dr. Duchenne, together with his remarks thereon, I +think there can be little doubt that the contraction of the platysma does +add greatly to the expression of fear. Nevertheless this muscle ought +hardly to be called that of fright, for its contraction is certainly not a +necessary concomitant of this state of mind. +</p> + +<p> +A man may exhibit extreme terror in the plainest manner by death-like +pallor, by drops of perspiration on his skin, and by utter prostration, +with all the muscles of his body, including the platysma, completely +relaxed. Although Dr. Browne has often seen this muscle quivering and +contracting in the insane, he has not been able to connect its action with +any emotional condition in them, though he carefully attended to patients +suffering from great fear. Mr. Nicol, on the other hand, has observed +three cases in which this muscle appeared to be more or less permanently +contracted under the influence of melancholia, associated with much dread; +but in one of these cases, various other muscles about the neck and head +were subject to spasmodic contractions. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. W. Ogle observed for me in one of the London hospitals about twenty +patients, just before they were put under the influence of chloroform for +operations. They exhibited some trepidation, but no great terror. In only +four of the cases was the platysma visibly contracted; and it did not +begin to contract until the patients began to cry. The muscle seemed to +contract at the moment of each deep-drawn inspiration; so that it is very +doubtful whether the contraction depended at all on the emotion of fear. +In a fifth case, the patient, who was not chloroformed, was much +terrified; and his platysma was more forcibly and persistently contracted +than in the other cases. But even here there is room for doubt, for the +muscle which appeared to be unusually developed, was seen by Dr. Ogle to +contract as the man moved his head from the pillow, after the operation +was over. +</p> + +<p> +As I felt much perplexed why, in any case, a superficial muscle on the +neck should be especially affected by fear, I applied to my many obliging +correspondents for information about the contraction of this muscle under +other circumstances. It would be superfluous to give all the answers which +I have received. They show that this muscle acts, often in a variable +manner and degree, under many different conditions. It is violently +contracted in hydrophobia, and in a somewhat less degree in lockjaw; +sometimes in a marked manner during the insensibility from chloroform. Dr. +W. Ogle observed two male patients, suffering from such difficulty in +breathing, that the trachea had to be opened, and in both the platysma was +strongly contracted. One of these men overheard the conversation of the +surgeons surrounding him, and when he was able to speak, declared that he +had not been frightened. In some other cases of extreme difficulty of +respiration, though not requiring tracheotomy, observed by Drs. Ogle and +Langstaff, the platysma was not contracted. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. J. Wood, who has studied with such care the muscles of the human body, +as shown by his various publications, has often seen the platysma +contracted in vomiting, nausea, and disgust; also in children and adults +under the influence of rage,—for instance, in Irishwomen, +quarrelling and brawling together with angry gesticulations. This may +possibly have been due to their high and angry tones; for I know a lady, +an excellent musician, who, in singing certain high notes, always +contracts her platysma. So does a young man, as I have observed, in +sounding certain notes on the flute. Mr. J. Wood informs me that he has +found the platysma best developed in persons with thick necks and broad +shoulders; and that in families inheriting these peculiarities, its +development is usually associated with much voluntary power over the +homologous occipito-frontalis muscle, by which the scalp can be moved. +</p> + +<p> +None of the foregoing cases appear to throw any light on the contraction +of the platysma from fear; but it is different, I think, with the +following cases. The gentleman before referred to, who can voluntarily act +on this muscle only on one side of his neck, is positive that it contracts +on both sides whenever he is startled. Evidence has already been given +showing that this muscle sometimes contracts, perhaps for the sake of +opening the mouth widely, when the breathing is rendered difficult by +disease, and during the deep inspirations of crying-fits before an +operation. Now, whenever a person starts at any sudden sight or sound, he +instantaneously draws a deep breath; and thus the contraction of the +platysma may possibly have become associated with the sense of fear. But +there is, I believe, a more efficient relation. The first sensation of +fear, or the imagination of something dreadful, commonly excites a +shudder. I have caught myself giving a little involuntary shudder at a +painful thought, and I distinctly perceived that my platysma contracted; +so it does if I simulate a shudder. I have asked others to act in this +manner; and in some the muscle contracted, but not in others. One of my +sons, whilst getting out of bed, shuddered from the cold, and, as he +happened to have his hand on his neck, he plainly felt that this muscle +strongly contracted. He then voluntarily shuddered, as he had done on +former occasions, but the platysma was not then affected. Mr. J. Wood has +also several times observed this muscle contracting in patients, when +stripped for examination, and who were not frightened, but shivered +slightly from the cold. Unfortunately I have not been able to ascertain +whether, when the whole body shakes, as in the cold stage of an ague fit, +the platysma contracts. But as it certainly often contracts during a +shudder; and as a shudder or shiver often accompanies the first sensation +of fear, we have, I think, a clue to its action in this latter case.<a +href="#linknote-1223" name="linknoteref-1223" id="linknoteref-1223">[1223]</a> +Its contraction, however, is not an invariable concomitant of fear; for it +probably never acts under the influence of extreme, prostrating terror. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Dilatation of the Pupils</i>.—Gratiolet repeatedly insists<a +href="#linknote-1224" name="linknoteref-1224" id="linknoteref-1224">[1224]</a> +that the pupils are enormously dilated whenever terror is felt. I have no +reason to doubt the accuracy of this statement, but have failed to obtain +confirmatory evidence, excepting in the one instance before given of an +insane woman suffering from great fear. When writers of fiction speak of +the eyes being widely dilated, I presume that they refer to the eyelids. +Munro’s statement, that with parrots the iris is affected by the passions, +independently of the amount of light, seems to bear on this question; but +Professor Donders informs me, that he has often seen movements in the +pupils of these birds which he thinks may be related to their power of +accommodation to distance, in nearly the same manner as our own pupils +contract when our eyes converge for near vision. Gratiolet remarks that +the dilated pupils appear as if they were gazing into profound darkness. +No doubt the fears of man have often been excited in the dark; but hardly +so often or so exclusively, as to account for a fixed and associated habit +having thus arisen. It seems more probable, assuming that Gratiolet’s +statement is correct, that the brain is directly affected by the powerful +emotion of fear and reacts on the pupils; but Professor Donders informs me +that this is an extremely complicated subject. I may add, as possibly +throwing light on the subject, that Dr. Fyffe, of Netley Hospital, has +observed in two patients that the pupils were distinctly dilated during +the cold stage of an ague fit. Professor Donders has also often seen +dilatation of the pupils in incipient faintness.<a href="#linknote-1225" +name="linknoteref-1225" id="linknoteref-1225">[1225]</a> +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Horror</i>.—The state of mind expressed by this term implies +terror, and is in some, cases almost synonymous with it. Many a man must +have felt, before the blessed discovery of chloroform, great horror at the +thought of an impending surgical operation. He who dreads, as well as +hates a man, will feel, as Milton uses the word, a horror of him. We feel +horror if we see any one, for instance a child, exposed to some instant +and crushing danger. Almost every one would experience the same feeling in +the highest degree in witnessing a man being tortured or going to be +tortured. In these cases there is no danger to ourselves; but from the +power of the imagination and of sympathy we put ourselves in the position +of the sufferer, and feel something akin to fear. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linkimage-0027" id="linkimage-0027"> +<!-- IMG --></a> +</p> +<div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> +<img src="images/fig21.jpg" width="100%" alt="Horror and Agony. Fig. 21 " /> +</div> + +<p> +Sir C. Bell remarks,<a href="#linknote-1226" name="linknoteref-1226" +id="linknoteref-1226">[1226]</a> that “horror is full of energy; the body +is in the utmost tension, not unnerved by fear.” It is, therefore, +probable that horror would generally be accompanied by the strong +contraction of the brows; but as fear is one of the elements, the eyes and +mouth would be opened, and the eyebrows would be raised, as far as the +antagonistic action of the corrugators permitted this movement. Duchenne +has given a photograph<a href="#linknote-1227" name="linknoteref-1227" +id="linknoteref-1227">[1227]</a> (fig. 21) of the same old man as before, +with his eyes somewhat staring, the eyebrows partially raised, and at the +same time strongly contracted, the mouth opened, and the platysma in +action, all effected by the means of galvanism. He considers that the +expression thus produced shows extreme terror with horrible pain or +torture. A tortured man, as long as his sufferings allowed him to feel any +dread for the future, would probably exhibit horror in an extreme degree. +I have shown the original of this photograph to twenty-three persons of +both sexes and various ages; and thirteen immediately answered horror, +great pain, torture, or agony; three answered extreme fright; so that +sixteen answered nearly in accordance with Duchenne’s belief. Six, +however, said anger, guided no doubt, by the strongly contracted brows, +and overlooking the peculiarly opened mouth. One said disgust. On the +whole, the evidence indicates that we have here a fairly good +representation of horror and agony. The photograph before referred to (Pl. +VII. fig. 2) likewise exhibits horror; but in this the oblique eyebrows +indicate great mental distress in place of energy. +</p> + +<p> +Horror is generally accompanied by various gestures, which differ in +different individuals. Judging from pictures, the whole body is often +turned away or shrinks; or the arms are violently protruded as if to push +away some dreadful object. The most frequent gesture, as far as can be +inferred from the action of persons who endeavour to express a +vividly-imagined scene of horror, is the raising of both shoulders, with +the bent arms pressed closely against the sides or chest. These movements +are nearly the same with those commonly made when we feel very cold; and +they are generally accompanied by a shudder, as well as by a deep +expiration or inspiration, according as the chest happens at the time to +be expanded or contracted. The sounds thus made are expressed by words +like <i>uh</i> or <i>ugh</i>.<a href="#linknote-1228" +name="linknoteref-1228" id="linknoteref-1228">[1228]</a> It is not, +however, obvious why, when we feel cold or express a sense of horror, we +press our bent arms against our bodies, raise our shoulders, and shudder. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Conclusion</i>.—I have now endeavoured to describe the +diversified expressions of fear, in its gradations from mere attention to +a start of surprise, into extreme terror and horror. Some of the signs may +be accounted for through the principles of habit, association, and +inheritance,—such as the wide opening of the mouth and eyes, with +upraised eyebrows, so as to see as quickly as possible all around us, and +to hear distinctly whatever sound may reach our ears. For we have thus +habitually prepared ourselves to discover and encounter any danger. Some +of the other signs of fear may likewise be accounted for, at least in +part, through these same principles. Men, during numberless generations, +have endeavoured to escape from their enemies or danger by headlong +flight, or by violently struggling with them; and such great exertions +will have caused the heart to beat rapidly, the breathing to be hurried, +the chest to heave, and the nostrils to be dilated. As these exertions +have often been prolonged to the last extremity, the final result will +have been utter prostration, pallor, perspiration, trembling of all the +muscles, or their complete relaxation. And now, whenever the emotion of +fear is strongly felt, though it may not lead to any exertion, the same +results tend to reappear, through the force of inheritance and +association. +</p> + +<p> +Nevertheless, it is probable that many or most of the above symptoms of +terror, such as the beating of the heart, the trembling of the muscles, +cold perspiration, &c., are in large part directly due to the +disturbed or interrupted transmission of nerve-force from the +cerebro-spinal system to various parts of the body, owing to the mind +being so powerfully affected. We may confidently look to this cause, +independently of habit and association, in such cases as the modified +secretions of the intestinal canal, and the failure of certain glands to +act. With respect to the involuntary bristling of the hair, we have good +reason to believe that in the case of animals this action, however it may +have originated, serves, together with certain voluntary movements, to +make them appear terrible to their enemies; and as the same involuntary +and voluntary actions are performed by animals nearly related to man, we +are led to believe that man has retained through inheritance a relic of +them, now become useless. It is certainly a remarkable fact, that the +minute unstriped muscles, by which the hairs thinly scattered over man’s +almost naked body are erected, should have been preserved to the present +day; and that they should still contract under the same emotions, namely, +terror and rage, which cause the hairs to stand on end in the lower +members of the Order to which man belongs. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"></a> +CHAPTER XIII.<br/>SELF-ATTENTION—SHAME—SHYNESS—MODESTY: +BLUSHING. +</h2> + +<p> +Nature of a blush—Inheritance—The parts of the body most +affected—Blushing in the various races of man—Accompanying +gestures—Confusion of mind—Causes of blushing—Self-attention, +the fundamental element—Shyness—Shame, from broken moral laws +and conventional rules—Modesty—Theory of blushing—Recapitulation. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +Blushing is the most peculiar and the most human of all expressions. +Monkeys redden from passion, but it would require an overwhelming amount +of evidence to make us believe that any animal could blush. The reddening +of the face from a blush is due to the relaxation of the muscular coats of +the small arteries, by which the capillaries become filled with blood; and +this depends on the proper vaso-motor centre being affected. No doubt if +there be at the same time much mental agitation, the general circulation +will be affected; but it is not due to the action of the heart that the +network of minute vessels covering the face becomes under a sense of shame +gorged with blood. We can cause laughing by tickling the skin, weeping or +frowning by a blow, trembling from the fear of pain, and so forth; but we +cannot cause a blush, as Dr. Burgess remarks,<a href="#linknote-1301" +name="linknoteref-1301" id="linknoteref-1301">[1301]</a> by any physical +means,—that is by any action on the body. It is the mind which must +be affected. Blushing is not only involuntary; but the wish to restrain +it, by leading to self-attention actually increases the tendency. +</p> + +<p> +The young blush much more freely than the old, but not during infancy,<a +href="#linknote-1302" name="linknoteref-1302" id="linknoteref-1302">[1302]</a> +which is remarkable, as we know that infants at a very early age redden +from passion. I have received authentic accounts of two little girls +blushing at the ages of between two and three years; and of another +sensitive child, a year older, blushing, when reproved for a fault. Many +children, at a somewhat more advanced age blush in a strongly marked +manner. It appears that the mental powers of infants are not as yet +sufficiently developed to allow of their blushing. Hence, also, it is that +idiots rarely blush. Dr. Crichton Browne observed for me those under his +care, but never saw a genuine blush, though he has seen their faces flush, +apparently from joy, when food was placed before them, and from anger. +Nevertheless some, if not utterly degraded, are capable of blushing. A +microcephalous idiot, for instance, thirteen years old, whose eyes +brightened a little when he was pleased or amused, has been described by +Dr. Behn,<a href="#linknote-1303" name="linknoteref-1303" +id="linknoteref-1303">[1303]</a> as blushing and turning to one side, when +undressed for medical examination. +</p> + +<p> +Women blush much more than men. It is rare to see an old man, but not +nearly so rare to see an old woman blushing. The blind do not escape. +Laura Bridgman, born in this condition, as well as completely deaf, +blushes.<a href="#linknote-1304" name="linknoteref-1304" +id="linknoteref-1304">[1304]</a> The Rev. R. H. Blair, Principal of the +Worcester College, informs me that three children born blind, out of seven +or eight then in the Asylum, are great blushers. The blind are not at +first conscious that they are observed, and it is a most important part of +their education, as Mr. Blair informs me, to impress this knowledge on +their minds; and the impression thus gained would greatly strengthen the +tendency to blush, by increasing the habit of self-attention. +</p> + +<p> +The tendency to blush is inherited. Dr. Burgess gives the case<a +href="#linknote-1305" name="linknoteref-1305" id="linknoteref-1305">[1305]</a> +of a family consisting of a father, mother, and ten children, all of whom, +without exception, were prone to blush to a most painful degree. The +children were grown up; “and some of them were sent to travel in order to +wear away this diseased sensibility, but nothing was of the slightest +avail.” Even peculiarities in blushing seem to be inherited. Sir James +Paget, whilst examining the spine of a girl, was struck at her singular +manner of blushing; a big splash of red appeared first on one cheek, and +then other splashes, variously scattered over the face and neck. He +subsequently asked the mother whether her daughter always blushed in this +peculiar manner; and was answered, “Yes, she takes after me.” Sir J. Paget +then perceived that by asking this question he had caused the mother to +blush; and she exhibited the same peculiarity as her daughter. +</p> + +<p> +In most cases the face, ears and neck are the sole parts which redden; but +many persons, whilst blushing intensely, feel that their whole bodies grow +hot and tingle; and this shows that the entire surface must be in some +manner affected. Blushes are said sometimes to commence on the forehead, +but more commonly on the cheeks, afterwards spreading to the ears and +neck.<a href="#linknote-1306" name="linknoteref-1306" id="linknoteref-1306">[1306]</a> +In two Albinos examined by Dr. Burgess, the blushes commenced by a small +circumscribed spot on the cheeks, over the parotidean plexus of nerves, +and then increased into a circle; between this blushing circle and the +blush on the neck there was an evident line of demarcation; although both +arose simultaneously. The retina, which is naturally red in the Albino, +invariably increased at the same time in redness.<a href="#linknote-1307" +name="linknoteref-1307" id="linknoteref-1307">[1307]</a> Every one must +have noticed how easily after one blush fresh blushes chase each other +over the face. Blushing is preceded by a peculiar sensation in the skin. +According to Dr. Burgess the reddening of the skin is generally succeeded +by a slight pallor, which shows that the capillary vessels contract after +dilating. In some rare cases paleness instead of redness is caused under +conditions which would naturally induce a blush. For instance, a young +lady told me that in a large and crowded party she caught her hair so +firmly on the button of a passing servant, that it took some time before +she could be extricated; from her sensations she imagined that she had +blushed crimson; but was assured by a friend that she had turned extremely +pale. +</p> + +<p> +I was desirous to learn how far down the body blushes extend; and Sir J. +Paget, who necessarily has frequent opportunities for observation, has +kindly attended to this point for me during two or three years. He finds +that with women who blush intensely on the face, ears, and nape of neck, +the blush does not commonly extend any lower down the body. It is rare to +see it as low down as the collar-bones and shoulder-blades; and he has +never himself seen a single instance in which it extended below the upper +part of the chest. He has also noticed that blushes sometimes die away +downwards, not gradually and insensibly, but by irregular ruddy blotches. +Dr. Langstaff has likewise observed for me several women whose bodies did +not in the least redden while their faces were crimsoned with blushes. +With the insane, some of whom appear to be particularly liable to +blushing, Dr. J. Crichton Browne has several times seen the blush extend +as far down as the collar-bones, and in two instances to the breasts. He +gives me the case of a married woman, aged twenty-seven, who suffered from +epilepsy. On the morning after her arrival in the Asylum, Dr. Browne, +together with his assistants, visited her whilst she was in bed. The +moment that he approached, she blushed deeply over her cheeks and temples; +and the blush spread quickly to her ears. She was much agitated and +tremulous. He unfastened the collar of her chemise in order to examine the +state of her lungs; and then a brilliant blush rushed over her chest, in +an arched line over the upper third of each breast, and extended downwards +between the breasts nearly to the ensiform cartilage of the sternum. This +case is interesting, as the blush did not thus extend downwards until it +became intense by her attention being drawn to this part of her person. As +the examination proceeded she became composed, and the blush disappeared; +but on several subsequent occasions the same phenomena were observed. +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing facts show that, as a general rule, with English women, +blushing does not extend beneath the neck and upper part of the chest. +Nevertheless Sir J. Paget informs me that he has lately heard of a case, +on which he can fully rely, in which a little girl, shocked by what she +imagined to be an act of indelicacy, blushed all over her abdomen and the +upper parts of her legs. Moreau also<a href="#linknote-1308" +name="linknoteref-1308" id="linknoteref-1308">[1308]</a> relates, on the +authority of a celebrated painter, that the chest, shoulders, arms, and +whole body of a girl, who unwillingly consented to serve as a model, +reddened when she was first divested of her clothes. +</p> + +<p> +It is a rather curious question why, in most cases the face, ears, and +neck alone redden, inasmuch as the whole surface of the body often tingles +and grows hot. This seems to depend, chiefly, on the face and adjoining +parts of the skin having been habitually exposed to the air, light, and +alternations of temperature, by which the small arteries not only have +acquired the habit of readily dilating and contracting, but appear to have +become unusually developed in comparison with other parts of the surface.<a +href="#linknote-1309" name="linknoteref-1309" id="linknoteref-1309">[1309]</a> +It is probably owing to this same cause, as M. Moreau and Dr. Burgess have +remarked, that the face is so liable to redden under various +circumstances, such as a fever-fit, ordinary heat, violent exertion, +anger, a slight blow, &c.; and on the other hand that it is liable to +grow pale from cold and fear, and to be discoloured during pregnancy. The +face is also particularly liable to be affected by cutaneous complaints, +by small-pox, erysipelas, &c. This view is likewise supported by the +fact that the men of certain races, who habitually go nearly naked, often +blush over their arms and chests and even down to their waists. A lady, +who is a great blusher, informs Dr. Crichton Browne, that when she feels +ashamed or is agitated, she blushes over her face, neck, wrists, and +hands,—that is, over all the exposed portions of her skin. +Nevertheless it may be doubted whether the habitual exposure of the skin +of the face and neck, and its consequent power of reaction under +stimulants of all kinds, is by itself sufficient to account for the much +greater tendency in English women of these parts than of others to blush; +for the hands are well supplied with nerves and small vessels, and have +been as much exposed to the air as the face or neck, and yet the hands +rarely blush. We shall presently see that the attention of the mind having +been directed much more frequently and earnestly to the face than to any +other part of the body, probably affords a sufficient explanation. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Blushing in the various races of man</i>.—The small vessels of +the face become filled with blood, from the emotion of shame, in almost +all the races of man, though in the very dark races no distinct change of +colour can be perceived. Blushing is evident in all the Aryan nations of +Europe, and to a certain extent with those of India. But Mr. Erskine has +never noticed that the necks of the Hindoos are decidedly affected. With +the Lepchas of Sikhim, Mr. Scott has often observed a faint blush on the +cheeks, base of the ears, and sides of the neck, accompanied by sunken +eyes and lowered head. This has occurred when he has detected them in a +falsehood, or has accused them of ingratitude. The pale, sallow +complexions of these men render a blush much more conspicuous than in most +of the other natives of India. With the latter, shame, or it may be in +part fear, is expressed, according to Mr. Scott, much more plainly by the +head being averted or bent down, with the eyes wavering or turned askant, +than by any change of colour in the skin. +</p> + +<p> +The Semitic races blush freely, as might have been expected, from their +general similitude to the Aryans. Thus with the Jews, it is said in the +Book of Jeremiah (chap. vi. 15), “Nay, they were not at all ashamed, +neither could they blush.” Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab managing his boat +clumsily on the Nile, and when laughed at by his companions, “he blushed +quite to the back of his neck.” Lady Duff Gordon remarks that a young Arab +blushed on coming into her presence.<a href="#linknote-1310" +name="linknoteref-1310" id="linknoteref-1310">[1310]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Swinhoe has seen the Chinese blushing, but he thinks it is rare; yet +they have the expression “to redden with shame.” Mr. Geach informs me that +the Chinese settled in Malacca and the native Malays of the interior both +blush. Some of these people go nearly naked, and he particularly attended +to the downward extension of the blush. Omitting the cases in which the +face alone was seen to blush, Mr. Geach observed that the face, arms, and +breast of a Chinaman, aged 24 years, reddened from shame; and with another +Chinese, when asked why he had not done his work in better style, the +whole body was similarly affected. In two Malays<a href="#linknote-1311" +name="linknoteref-1311" id="linknoteref-1311">[1311]</a> he saw the face, +neck, breast, and arms blushing; and in a third Malay (a Bugis) the blush +extended down to the waist. +</p> + +<p> +The Polynesians blush freely. The Rev. Mr. Stack has seen hundreds of +instances with the New Zealanders. The following case is worth giving, as +it relates to an old man who was unusually dark-coloured and partly +tattooed. After having let his land to an Englishman for a small yearly +rental, a strong passion seized him to buy a gig, which had lately become +the fashion with the Maoris. He consequently wished to draw all the rent +for four years from his tenant, and consulted Mr. Stack whether he could +do so. The man was old, clumsy, poor, and ragged, and the idea of his +driving himself about in his carriage for display amused Mr. Stack so much +that he could not help bursting out into a laugh; and then “the old man +blushed up to the roots of his hair.” Forster says that “you may easily +distinguish a spreading blush” on the cheeks of the fairest women in +Tahiti.<a href="#linknote-1312" name="linknoteref-1312" +id="linknoteref-1312">[1312]</a> The natives also of several of the other +archipelagoes in the Pacific have been seen to blush. +</p> + +<p> +Mr. Washington Matthews has often seen a blush on the faces of the young +squaws belonging to various wild Indian tribes of North America. At the +opposite extremity of the continent in Tierra del Fuego, the natives, +according to Mr. Bridges, “blush much, but chiefly in regard to women; but +they certainly blush also at their own personal appearance.” This latter +statement agrees with what I remember of the Fuegian, Jemmy Button, who +blushed when he was quizzed about the care which he took in polishing his +shoes, and in otherwise adorning himself. With respect to the Aymara +Indians on the lofty plateaus of Bolivia, Mr. Forbes says,<a +href="#linknote-1313" name="linknoteref-1313" id="linknoteref-1313">[1313]</a> +that from the colour of their skins it is impossible that their blushes +should be as clearly visible as in the white races; still under such +circumstances as would raise a blush in us, “there can always be seen the +same expression of modesty or confusion; and even in the dark, a rise of +temperature of the skin of the face can be felt, exactly as occurs in the +European.” With the Indians who inhabit the hot, equable, and damp parts +of South America, the skin apparently does not answer to mental excitement +so readily as with the natives of the northern and southern parts of the +continent, who have long been exposed to great vicissitudes of climate; +for Humboldt quotes without a protest the sneer of the Spaniard, “How can +those be trusted, who know not how to blush?”<a href="#linknote-1314" +name="linknoteref-1314" id="linknoteref-1314">[1314]</a> Von Spix and +Martius, in speaking of the aborigines of Brazil, assert that they cannot +properly be said to blush; “it was only after long intercourse with the +whites, and after receiving some education, that we perceived in the +Indians a change of colour expressive of the emotions of their minds.”<a +href="#linknote-1315" name="linknoteref-1315" id="linknoteref-1315">[1315]</a> +It is, however, incredible that the power of blushing could have thus +originated; but the habit of self-attention, consequent on their education +and new course of life, would have much increased any innate tendency to +blush. +</p> + +<p> +Several trustworthy observers have assured me that they have seen on the +faces of negroes an appearance resembling a blush, under circumstances +which would have excited one in us, though their skins were of an +ebony-black tint. Some describe it as blushing brown, but most say that +the blackness becomes more intense. An increased supply of blood in the +skin seems in some manner to increase its blackness; thus certain +exanthematous diseases cause the affected places in the negro to appear +blacker, instead of, as with us, redder.<a href="#linknote-1316" +name="linknoteref-1316" id="linknoteref-1316">[1316]</a> The skin, +perhaps, from being rendered more tense by the filling of the capillaries, +would reflect a somewhat different tint to what it did before. That the +capillaries of the face in the negro become filled with blood, under the +emotion of shame, we may feel confident; because a perfectly characterized +albino negress, described by Buffon,<a href="#linknote-1317" +name="linknoteref-1317" id="linknoteref-1317">[1317]</a> showed a faint +tinge of crimson on her cheeks when she exhibited herself naked. +Cicatrices of the skin remain for a long time white in the negro, and Dr. +Burgess, who had frequent opportunities of observing a scar of this kind +on the face of a negress, distinctly saw that it “invariably became red +whenever she was abruptly spoken to, or charged with any trivial offence.”<a +href="#linknote-1318" name="linknoteref-1318" id="linknoteref-1318">[1318]</a> +The blush could be seen proceeding from the circumference of the scar +towards the middle, but it did not reach the centre. Mulattoes are often +great blushers, blush succeeding blush over their faces. From these facts +there can be no doubt that negroes blush, although no redness is visible +on the skin. +</p> + +<p> +I am assured by Gaika and by Mrs. Barber that the Kafirs of South Africa +never blush; but this may only mean that no change of colour is +distinguishable. Gaika adds that under the circumstances which would make +a European blush, his countrymen “look ashamed to keep their heads up.” +</p> + +<p> +It is asserted by four of my informants that the Australians, who are +almost as black as negroes, never blush. A fifth answers doubtfully, +remarking that only a very strong blush could be seen, on account of the +dirty state of their skins. Three observers state that they do blush;<a +href="#linknote-1319" name="linknoteref-1319" id="linknoteref-1319">[1319]</a> +Mr. S. Wilson adding that this is noticeable only under a strong emotion, +and when the skin is not too dark from long exposure and want of +cleanliness. Mr. Lang answers, “I have noticed that shame almost always +excites a blush, which frequently extends as low as the neck.” Shame is +also shown, as he adds, “by the eyes being turned from side to side.” As +Mr. Lang was a teacher in a native school, it is probable that he chiefly +observed children; and we know that they blush more than adults. Mr. G. +Taplin has seen half-castes blushing, and he says that the aborigines have +a word expressive of shame. Mr. Hagenauer, who is one of those who has +never observed the Australians to blush, says that he has “seen them +looking down to the ground on account of shame;” and the missionary, Mr. +Bulmer, remarks that though “I have not been able to detect anything like +shame in the adult aborigines, I have noticed that the eyes of the +children, when ashamed, present a restless, watery appearance, as if they +did not know where to look.” +</p> + +<p> +The facts now given are sufficient to show that blushing, whether or not +there is any change of colour, is common to most, probably to all, of the +races of man. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Movements and gestures which accompany Blushing</i>.—Under a keen +sense of shame there is a strong desire for concealment.<a +href="#linknote-1320" name="linknoteref-1320" id="linknoteref-1320">[1320]</a> +We turn away the whole body, more especially the face, which we endeavour +in some manner to hide. An ashamed person can hardly endure to meet the +gaze of those present, so that he almost invariably casts down his eyes or +looks askant. As there generally exists at the same time a strong wish to +avoid the appearance of shame, a vain attempt is made to look direct at +the person who causes this feeling; and the antagonism between these +opposite tendencies leads to various restless movements in the eyes. I +have noticed two ladies who, whilst blushing, to which they are very +liable, have thus acquired, as it appears, the oddest trick of incessantly +blinking their eyelids with extraordinary rapidity. An intense blush is +sometimes accompanied by a slight effusion of tears;<a +href="#linknote-1321" name="linknoteref-1321" id="linknoteref-1321">[1321]</a> +and this, I presume, is due to the lacrymal glands partaking of the +increased supply of blood, which we know rushes into the capillaries of +the adjoining parts, including the retina. +</p> + +<p> +Many writers, ancient and modern, have noticed the foregoing movements; +and it has already been shown that the aborigines in various parts of the +world often exhibit their shame by looking downwards or askant, or by +restless movements of their eyes. Ezra cries out (ch. ix. 6), “O, my God! +I am ashamed, and blush to lift up my head to thee, my God.” In Isaiah +(ch. I. 6) we meet with the words, “I hid not my face from shame.” Seneca +remarks (Epist. xi. 5) “that the Roman players hang down their heads, fix +their eyes on the ground and keep them lowered, but are unable to blush in +acting shame.” According to Macrobius, who lived in the filth century +(‘Saturnalia,’ B. vii. C. 11), “Natural philosophers assert that nature +being moved by shame spreads the blood before herself as a veil, as we see +any one blushing often puts his hands before his face.” Shakspeare makes +Marcus (‘Titus Andronicus,’ act ii, sc. 5) say to his niece, “Ah! now thou +turn’st away thy face for shame.” A lady informs me that she found in the +Lock Hospital a girl whom she had formerly known, and who had become a +wretched castaway, and the poor creature, when approached, hid her face +under the bed-clothes, and could not be persuaded to uncover it. We often +see little children, when shy or ashamed, turn away, and still standing +up, bury their faces in their mother’s gown; or they throw themselves face +downwards on her lap. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Confusion of mind</i>.—Most persons, whilst blushing intensely, +have their mental powers confused. This is recognized in such common +expressions as “she was covered with confusion.” Persons in this condition +lose their presence of mind, and utter singularly inappropriate remarks. +They are often much distressed, stammer, and make awkward movements or +strange grimaces. In certain cases involuntary twitchings of some of the +facial muscles may be observed. I have been informed by a young lady, who +blushes excessively, that at such times she does not even know what she is +saying. When it was suggested to her that this might be due to her +distress from the consciousness that her blushing was noticed, she +answered that this could not be the case, “as she had sometimes felt quite +as stupid when blushing at a thought in her own room.” +</p> + +<p> +I will give an instance of the extreme disturbance of mind to which some +sensitive men are liable. A gentleman, on whom I can rely, assured me that +he had been an eye-witness of the following scene:—A small +dinner-party was given in honour of an extremely shy man, who, when he +rose to return thanks, rehearsed the speech, which he had evidently learnt +by heart, in absolute silence, and did not utter a single word; but he +acted as if he were speaking with much emphasis. His friends, perceiving +how the case stood, loudly applauded the imaginary bursts of eloquence, +whenever his gestures indicated a pause, and the man never discovered that +he had remained the whole time completely silent. On the contrary, he +afterwards remarked to my friend, with much satisfaction, that he thought +he had succeeded uncommonly well. +</p> + +<p> +When a person is much ashamed or very shy, and blushes intensely, his +heart beats rapidly and his breathing is disturbed. This can hardly fail +to affect the circulation of the blood within the brain, and perhaps the +mental powers. It seems however doubtful, judging from the still more +powerful influence of anger and fear on the circulation, whether we can +thus satisfactorily account for the confused state of mind in persons +whilst blushing intensely. +</p> + +<p> +The true explanation apparently lies in the intimate sympathy which exists +between the capillary circulation of the surface of the head and face, and +that of the brain. On applying to Dr. J. Crichton Browne for information, +he has given me various facts bearing on this subject. When the +sympathetic nerve is divided on one side of the head, the capillaries on +this side are relaxed and become filled with blood, causing the skin to +redden and to grow hot, and at the same time the temperature within the +cranium on the same side rises. Inflammation of the membranes of the brain +leads to the engorgement of the face, ears, and eyes with blood. The first +stage of an epileptic fit appears to be the contraction of the vessels of +the brain, and the first outward manifestation is, an extreme pallor of +countenance. Erysipelas of the head commonly induces delirium. Even the +relief given to a severe headache by burning the skin with strong lotion, +depends, I presume, on the same principle. +</p> + +<p> +Dr. Browne has often administered to his patients the vapour of the +nitrite of amyl,<a href="#linknote-1322" name="linknoteref-1322" +id="linknoteref-1322">[1322]</a> which has the singular property of +causing vivid redness of the face in from thirty to sixty seconds. This +flushing resembles blushing in almost every detail: it begins at several +distinct points on the face, and spreads till it involves the whole +surface of the head, neck, and front of the chest; but has been observed +to extend only in one case to the abdomen. The arteries in the retina +become enlarged; the eyes glisten, and in one instance there was a slight +effusion of tears. The patients are at first pleasantly stimulated, but, +as the flushing increases, they become confused and bewildered. One woman +to whom the vapour had often been administered asserted that, as soon as +she grew hot, she grew MUDDLED. With persons just commencing to blush it +appears, judging from their bright eyes and lively behaviour, that their +mental powers are somewhat stimulated. It is only when the blushing is +excessive that the mind grows confused. Therefore it would seem that the +capillaries of the face are affected, both during the inhalation of the +nitrite of amyl and during blushing, before that part of the brain is +affected on which the mental powers depend. +</p> + +<p> +Conversely when the brain is primarily affected; the circulation of the +skin is so in a secondary manner. Dr. Browne has frequently observed, as +he informs me, scattered red blotches and mottlings on the chests of +epileptic patients. In these cases, when the skin on the thorax or abdomen +is gently rubbed with a pencil or other object, or, in strongly-marked +cases, is merely touched by the finger, the surface becomes suffused in +less than half a minute with bright red marks, which spread to some +distance on each side of the touched point, and persist for several +minutes. These are the <i>cerebral maculae</i> of Trousseau; and they +indicate, as Dr. Browne remarks, a highly modified condition of the +cutaneous vascular system. If, then, there exists, as cannot be doubted, +an intimate sympathy between the capillary circulation in that part of the +brain on which our mental powers depend, and in the skin of the face, it +is not surprising that the moral causes which induce intense blushing +should likewise induce, independently of their own disturbing influence, +much confusion of mind. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>The Nature of the Mental States which induce Blushing</i>.—These +consist of shyness, shame, and modesty; the essential element in all being +self-attention. Many reasons can be assigned for believing that originally +self-attention directed to personal appearance, in relation to the opinion +of others, was the exciting cause; the same effect being subsequently +produced, through the force of association, by self-attention in relation +to moral conduct. It is not the simple act of reflecting on our own +appearance, but the thinking what others think of us, which excites a +blush. In absolute solitude the most sensitive person would be quite +indifferent about his appearance. We feel blame or disapprobation more +acutely than approbation; and consequently depreciatory remarks or +ridicule, whether of our appearance or conduct, causes us to blush much +more readily than does praise. But undoubtedly praise and admiration are +highly efficient: a pretty girl blushes when a man gazes intently at her, +though she may know perfectly well that he is not depreciating her. Many +children, as well as old and sensitive persons blush, when they are much +praised. Hereafter the question will be discussed, how it has arisen that +the consciousness that others are attending to our personal appearance +should have led to the capillaries, especially those of the face, +instantly becoming filled with blood. +</p> + +<p> +My reasons for believing that attention directed to personal appearance, +and not to moral conduct, has been the fundamental element in the +acquirement of the habit of blushing, will now be given. They are +separately light, but combined possess, as it appears to me, considerable +weight. It is notorious that nothing makes a shy person blush so much as +any remark, however slight, on his personal appearance. One cannot notice +even the dress of a woman much given to blushing, without causing her face +to crimson. It is sufficient to stare hard at some persons to make them, +as Coleridge remarks, blush,—“account for that he who can.”<a +href="#linknote-1323" name="linknoteref-1323" id="linknoteref-1323">[1323]</a> +</p> + +<p> +With the two albinos observed by Dr. Burgess,<a href="#linknote-1324" +name="linknoteref-1324" id="linknoteref-1324">[1324]</a> “the slightest +attempt to examine their peculiarities invariably caused them to blush +deeply.” Women are much more sensitive about their personal appearance +than men are, especially elderly women in comparison with elderly men, and +they blush much more freely. The young of both sexes are much more +sensitive on this same head than the old, and they also blush much more +freely than the old. Children at a very early age do not blush; nor do +they show those other signs of self-consciousness which generally +accompany blushing; and it is one of their chief charms that they think +nothing about what others think of them. At this early age they will stare +at a stranger with a fixed gaze and un-blinking eyes, as on an inanimate +object, in a manner which we elders cannot imitate. +</p> + +<p> +It is plain to every one that young men and women are highly sensitive to +the opinion of each other with reference to their personal appearance; and +they blush incomparably more in the presence of the opposite sex than in +that of their own.<a href="#linknote-1325" name="linknoteref-1325" +id="linknoteref-1325">[1325]</a> A young man, not very liable to blush, +will blush intensely at any slight ridicule of his appearance from a girl +whose judgment on any important subject he would disregard. No happy pair +of young lovers, valuing each other’s admiration and love more than +anything else in the world, probably ever courted each other without many +a blush. Even the barbarians of Tierra del Fuego, according to Mr. +Bridges, blush “chiefly in regard to women, but certainly also at their +own personal appearance.” +</p> + +<p> +Of all parts of the body, the face is most considered and regarded, as is +natural from its being the chief seat of expression and the source of the +voice. It is also the chief seat of beauty and of ugliness, and throughout +the world is the most ornamented.<a href="#linknote-1326" +name="linknoteref-1326" id="linknoteref-1326">[1326]</a> The face, +therefore, will have been subjected during many generations to much closer +and more earnest self-attention than any other part of the body; and in +accordance with the principle here advanced we can understand why it +should be the most liable to blush. Although exposure to alternations of +temperature, &c., has probably much increased the power of dilatation +and contraction in the capillaries of the face and adjoining parts, yet +this by itself will hardly account for these parts blushing much more than +the rest of the body; for it does not explain the fact of the hands rarely +blushing. With Europeans the whole body tingles slightly when the face +blushes intensely; and with the races of men who habitually go nearly +naked, the blushes extend over a much larger surface than with us. These +facts are, to a certain extent, intelligible, as the self-attention of +primeval man, as well as of the existing races which still go naked, will +not have been so exclusively confined to their faces, as is the case with +the people who now go clothed. +</p> + +<p> +We have seen that in all parts of the world persons who feel shame for +some moral delinquency, are apt to avert, bend down, or hide their faces, +independently of any thought about their personal appearance. The object +can hardly be to conceal their blushes, for the face is thus averted or +hidden under circumstances which exclude any desire to conceal shame, as +when guilt is fully confessed and repented of. It is, however, probable +that primeval man before he had acquired much moral sensitiveness would +have been highly sensitive about his personal appearance, at least in +reference to the other sex, and he would consequently have felt distress +at any depreciatory remarks about his appearance; and this is one form of +shame. And as the face is the part of the body which is most regarded, it +is intelligible that any one ashamed of his personal appearance would +desire to conceal this part of his body. The habit having been thus +acquired, would naturally be carried on when shame from strictly moral +causes was felt; and it is not easy otherwise to see why under these +circumstances there should be a desire to hide the face more than any +other part of the body. +</p> + +<p> +The habit, so general with every one who feels ashamed, of turning away, +or lowering his eyes, or restlessly moving them from side to side, +probably follows from each glance directed towards those present, bringing +home the conviction that he is intently regarded; and he endeavours, by +not looking at those present, and especially not at their eyes, +momentarily to escape from this painful conviction. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Shyness</i>.—This odd state of mind, often called shamefacedness, +or false shame, or <i>mauvaise honte</i>, appears to be one of the most +efficient of all the causes of blushing. Shyness is, indeed, chiefly +recognized by the face reddening, by the eyes being averted or cast down, +and by awkward, nervous movements of the body. Many a woman blushes from +this cause, a hundred, perhaps a thousand times, to once that she blushes +from having done anything deserving blame, and of which she is truly +ashamed. Shyness seems to depend on sensitiveness to the opinion, whether +good or bad, of others, more especially with respect to external +appearance. Strangers neither know nor care anything about our conduct or +character, but they may, and often do, criticize our appearance: hence shy +persons are particularly apt to be shy and to blush in the presence of +strangers. The consciousness of anything peculiar, or even new, in the +dress, or any slight blemish on the person, and more especially, on the +face—points which are likely to attract the attention of strangers—makes +the shy intolerably shy. On the other hand, in those cases in which +conduct and not personal appearance is concerned, we are much more apt to +be shy in the presence of acquaintances, whose judgment we in some degree +value, than in that of strangers. A physician told me that a young man, a +wealthy duke, with whom he had travelled as medical attendant, blushed +like a girl, when he paid him his fee; yet this young man probably would +not have blushed and been shy, had he been paying a bill to a tradesman. +Some persons, however, are so sensitive, that the mere act of speaking to +almost any one is sufficient to rouse their self-consciousness, and a +slight blush is the result. +</p> + +<p> +Disapprobation or ridicule, from our sensitiveness on this head, causes +shyness and blushing much more readily than does approbation; though the +latter with some persons is highly efficient. The conceited are rarely +shy; for they value themselves much too highly to expect depreciation. Why +a proud man is often shy, as appears to be the case, is not so obvious, +unless it be that, with all his self-reliance, he really thinks much about +the opinion of others although in a disdainful spirit. Persons who are +exceedingly shy are rarely shy in the presence of those with whom they are +quite familiar, and of whose good opinion and sympathy they are perfectly +assured;—for instance, a girl in the presence of her mother. I +neglected to inquire in my printed paper whether shyness can be detected +in the different races of man; but a Hindoo gentleman assured Mr. Erskine +that it is recognizable in his countrymen. +</p> + +<p> +Shyness, as the derivation of the word indicates in several languages,<a +href="#linknote-1327" name="linknoteref-1327" id="linknoteref-1327">[1327]</a> +is closely related to fear; yet it is distinct from fear in the ordinary +sense. A shy man no doubt dreads the notice of strangers, but can hardly +be said to be afraid of them, he may be as bold as a hero in battle, and +yet have no self-confidence about trifles in the presence of strangers. +Almost every one is extremely nervous when first addressing a public +assembly, and most men remain so throughout their lives; but this appears +to depend on the consciousness of a great coming exertion, with its +associated effects on the system, rather than on shyness;<a +href="#linknote-1328" name="linknoteref-1328" id="linknoteref-1328">[1328]</a> +although a timid or shy man no doubt suffers on such occasions infinitely +more than another. With very young children it is difficult to distinguish +between fear and shyness; but this latter feeling with them has often +seemed to me to partake of the character of the wildness of an untamed +animal. Shyness comes on at a very early age. In one of my own children, +when two years and three months old, I saw a trace of what certainly +appeared to be shyness, directed towards myself after an absence from home +of only a week. This was shown not by a blush, but by the eyes being for a +few minutes slightly averted from me. I have noticed on other occasions +that shyness or shamefacedness and real shame are exhibited in the eyes of +young children before they have acquired the power of blushing. +</p> + +<p> +As shyness apparently depends on self-attention, we can perceive how right +are those who maintain that reprehending children for shyness, instead of +doing them any good, does much harm, as it calls their attention still +more closely to themselves. It has been well urged that “nothing hurts +young people more than to be watched continually about their feelings, to +have their countenances scrutinized, and the degrees of their sensibility +measured by the surveying eye of the unmerciful spectator. Under the +constraint of such examinations they can think of nothing but that they +are looked at, and feel nothing but shame or apprehension.”<a +href="#linknote-1329" name="linknoteref-1329" id="linknoteref-1329">[1329]</a> +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Moral causes: guilt</i>.—With respect to blushing from strictly +moral causes, we meet with the same fundamental principle as before, +namely, regard for the opinion of others. It is not the conscience which +raises a blush, for a man may sincerely regret some slight fault committed +in solitude, or he may suffer the deepest remorse for an undetected crime, +but he will not blush. “I blush,” says Dr. Burgess,<a href="#linknote-1330" +name="linknoteref-1330" id="linknoteref-1330">[1330]</a> “in the presence +of my accusers.” It is not the sense of guilt, but the thought that others +think or know us to be guilty which crimsons the face. A man may feel +thoroughly ashamed at having told a small falsehood, without blushing; but +if he even suspects that he is detected he will instantly blush, +especially if detected by one whom he reveres. +</p> + +<p> +On the other hand, a man may be convinced that God witnesses all his +actions, and he may feel deeply conscious of some fault and pray for +forgiveness; but this will not, as a lady who is a great blusher believes, +ever excite a blush. The explanation of this difference between the +knowledge by God and man of our actions lies, I presume, in man’s +disapprobation of immoral conduct being somewhat akin in nature to his +depreciation of our personal appearance, so that through association both +lead to similar results; whereas the disapprobation of God brings up no +such association. +</p> + +<p> +Many a person has blushed intensely when accused of some crime, though +completely innocent of it. Even the thought, as the lady before referred +to has observed to me, that others think that we have made an unkind or +stupid remark, is amply sufficient to cause a blush, although we know all +the time that we have been completely misunderstood. An action may be +meritorious or of an indifferent nature, but a sensitive person, if he +suspects that others take a different view of it, will blush. For +instance, a lady by herself may give money to a beggar without a trace of +a blush, but if others are present, and she doubts whether they approve, +or suspects that they think her influenced by display, she will blush. So +it will be, if she offers to relieve the distress of a decayed +gentlewoman, more particularly of one whom she had previously known under +better circumstances, as she cannot then feel sure how her conduct will be +viewed. But such cases as these blend into shyness. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Breaches of etiquette</i>.—The rules of <i>etiquette</i> always +refer to conduct in the presence of, or towards others. They have no +necessary connection with the moral sense, and are often meaningless. +Nevertheless as they depend on the fixed custom of our equals and +superiors, whose opinion we highly regard, they are considered almost as +binding as are the laws of honour to a gentleman. Consequently the breach +of the laws of etiquette, that is, any impoliteness or <i>gaucherie</i>, +any impropriety, or an inappropriate remark, though quite accidental, will +cause the most intense blushing of which a man is capable. Even the +recollection of such an act, after an interval of many years, will make +the whole body to tingle. So strong, also, is the power of sympathy that a +sensitive person, as a lady has assured me, will sometimes blush at a +flagrant breach of etiquette by a perfect stranger, though the act may in +no way concern her. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Modesty</i>.—This is another powerful agent in exciting blushes; +but the word modesty includes very different states of the mind. It +implies humility, and we often judge of this by persons being greatly +pleased and blushing at slight praise, or by being annoyed at praise which +seems to them too high according to their own humble standard of +themselves. Blushing here has the usual signification of regard for the +opinion of others. But modesty frequently relates to acts of indelicacy; +and indelicacy is an affair of etiquette, as we clearly see with the +nations that go altogether or nearly naked. He who is modest, and blushes +easily at acts of this nature, does so because they are breaches of a +firmly and wisely established etiquette. This is indeed shown by the +derivation of the word <i>modest</i> from <i>modus</i>, a measure or +standard of behaviour. A blush due to this form of modesty is, moreover, +apt to be intense, because it generally relates to the opposite sex; and +we have seen how in all cases our liability to blush is thus increased. We +apply the term ‘modest,’ as it would appear, to those who have an humble +opinion of themselves, and to those who are extremely sensitive about an +indelicate word or deed, simply because in both cases blushes are readily +excited, for these two frames of mind have nothing else in common. Shyness +also, from this same cause, is often mistaken for modesty in the sense of +humility. +</p> + +<p> +Some persons flush up, as I have observed and have been assured, at any +sudden and disagreeable recollection. The commonest cause seems to be the +sudden remembrance of not having done something for another person which +had been promised. In this case it may be that the thought passes half +unconsciously through the mind, “What will he think of me?” and then the +flush would partake of the nature of a true blush. But whether such +flushes are in most cases due to the capillary circulation being affected, +is very doubtful; for we must remember that almost every strong emotion, +such as anger or great joy, acts on the heart, and causes the face to +redden. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The fact that blushes may be excited in absolute solitude seems opposed to +the view here taken, namely that the habit originally arose from thinking +about what others think of us. Several ladies, who are great blushers, are +unanimous in regard to solitude; and some of them believe that they have +blushed in the dark. From what Mr. Forbes has stated with respect to the +Aymaras, and from my own sensations, I have no doubt that this latter +statement is correct. Shakspeare, therefore, erred when he made Juliet, +who was not even by herself, say to Romeo (act ii. sc. 2):— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“Thou know’st the mask of night is on my face;<br/> +Else would a maiden blush bepaint my cheek,<br/> +For that which thou hast heard me speak to-night.” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +But when a blush is excited in solitude, the cause almost always relates +to the thoughts of others about us—to acts done in their presence, +or suspected by them; or again when we reflect what others would have +thought of us had they known of the act. Nevertheless one or two of my +informants believe that they have blushed from shame at acts in no way +relating to others. If this be so, we must attribute the result to the +force of inveterate habit and association, under a state of mind closely +analogous to that which ordinarily excites a blush; nor need we feel +surprise at this, as even sympathy with another person who commits a +flagrant breach of etiquette is believed, as we have just seen, sometimes +to cause a blush. +</p> + +<p> +Finally, then, I conclude that blushing,—whether due to shyness—to +shame for a real crime—to shame from a breach of the laws of +etiquette—to modesty from humility—to modesty from an +indelicacy—depends in all cases on the same principle; this +principle being a sensitive regard for the opinion, more particularly for +the depreciation of others, primarily in relation to our personal +appearance, especially of our faces; and secondarily, through the force of +association and habit, in relation to the opinion of others on our +conduct. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Theory of Blushing</i>.—We have now to consider, why should the +thought that others are thinking about us affect our capillary +circulation? Sir C. Bell insists<a href="#linknote-1331" +name="linknoteref-1331" id="linknoteref-1331">[1331]</a> that blushing “is +a provision for expression, as may be inferred from the colour extending +only to the surface of the face, neck, and breast, the parts most exposed. +It is not acquired; it is from the beginning.” Dr. Burgess believes that +it was designed by the Creator in “order that the soul might have +sovereign power of displaying in the cheeks the various internal emotions +of the moral feelings;” so as to serve as a check on ourselves, and as a +sign to others, that we were violating rules which ought to be held +sacred. Gratiolet merely remarks,—“Or, comme il est dans l’ordre de +la nature que l’être social le plus intelligent soit aussi le plus +intelligible, cette faculté de rougeur et de pâleur qui distingue l’homme, +est un signe naturel de sa haute perfection.” +</p> + +<p> +The belief that blushing was SPECIALLY designed by the Creator is opposed +to the general theory of evolution, which is now so largely accepted; but +it forms no part of my duty here to argue on the general question. Those +who believe in design, will find it difficult to account for shyness being +the most frequent and efficient of all the causes of blushing, as it makes +the blusher to suffer and the beholder uncomfortable, without being of the +least service to either of them. They will also find it difficult to +account for negroes and other dark-coloured races blushing, in whom a +change of colour in the skin is scarcely or not at all visible. +</p> + +<p> +No doubt a slight blush adds to the beauty of a maiden’s face; and the +Circassian women who are capable of blushing, invariably fetch a higher +price in the seraolio of the Sultan than less susceptible women.<a +href="#linknote-1332" name="linknoteref-1332" id="linknoteref-1332">[1332]</a> +But the firmest believer in the efficacy of sexual selection will hardly +suppose that blushing was acquired as a sexual ornament. This view would +also be opposed to what has just been said about the dark-coloured races +blushing in an invisible manner. +</p> + +<p> +The hypothesis which appears to me the most probable, though it may at +first seem rash, is that attention closely directed to any part of the +body tends to interfere with the ordinary and tonic contraction of the +small arteries of that part. These vessels, in consequence, become at such +times more or less relaxed, and are instantly filled with arterial blood. +This tendency will have been much strengthened, if frequent attention has +been paid during many generations to the same part, owing to nerve-force +readily flowing along accustomed channels, and by the power of +inheritance. Whenever we believe that others are depreciating or even +considering our personal appearance, our attention is vividly directed to +the outer and visible parts of our bodies; and of all such parts we are +most sensitive about our faces, as no doubt has been the case during many +past generations. Therefore, assuming for the moment that the capillary +vessels can be acted on by close attention, those of the face will have +become eminently susceptible. Through the force of association, the same +effects will tend to follow whenever we think that others are considering +or censuring our actions or character. +</p> + +<p> +As the basis of this theory rests on mental attention having some power to +influence the capillary circulation, it will be necessary to give a +considerable body of details, bearing more or less directly on this +subject. Several observers,<a href="#linknote-1333" name="linknoteref-1333" +id="linknoteref-1333">[1333]</a> who from their wide experience and +knowledge are eminently capable of forming a sound judgment, are convinced +that attention or consciousness (which latter term Sir H. Holland thinks +the more explicit) concentrated on almost any part of the body produces +some direct physical effect on it. This applies to the movements of the +involuntary muscles, and of the voluntary muscles when acting +involuntarily,—to the secretion of the glands,—to the activity +of the senses and sensations,—and even to the nutrition of parts. +</p> + +<p> +It is known that the involuntary movements of the heart are affected if +close attention be paid to them. Gratiolet<a href="#linknote-1334" +name="linknoteref-1334" id="linknoteref-1334">[1334]</a> gives the case of +a man, who by continually watching and counting his own pulse, at last +caused one beat out of every six to intermit. On the other hand, my father +told me of a careful observer, who certainly had heart-disease and died +from it, and who positively stated that his pulse was habitually irregular +to an extreme degree; yet to his great disappointment it invariably became +regular as soon as my father entered the room. Sir H. Holland remarks, +that “the effect upon the circulation of a part from the consciousness +suddenly directed and fixed upon it, is often obvious and immediate.” +Professor Laycock, who has particularly attended to phenomena of this +nature, insists that “when the attention is directed to any portion of the +body, innervation and circulation are excited locally, and the functional +activity of that portion developed.” +</p> + +<p> +It is generally believed that the peristaltic movements of the intestines +are influenced by attention being paid to them at fixed recurrent periods; +and these movements depend on the contraction of unstriped and involuntary +muscles. The abnormal action of the voluntary muscles in epilepsy, chorea, +and hysteria is known to be influenced by the expectation of an attack, +and by the sight of other patients similarly affected. So it is with the +involuntary acts of yawning and laughing. +</p> + +<p> +Certain glands are much influenced by thinking of them, or of the +conditions under which they have been habitually excited. This is familiar +to every one in the increased flow of saliva, when the thought, for +instance, of intensely acid fruit is kept before the mind. It was shown in +our sixth chapter, that an earnest and long-continued desire either to +repress, or to increase, the action of the lacrymal glands is effectual. +Some curious cases have been recorded in the case of women, of the power +of the mind on the mammary glands; and still more remarkable ones in +relation to the uterine functions. +</p> + +<p> +See Gratiolet on this subject, De la Phys. p. 287. Dr. J. Crichton Browne, +from his observations on the insane, is convinced that attention directed +for a prolonged period on any part or organ may ultimately influence its +capillary circulation and nutrition. He has given me some extraordinary +cases; one of these, which cannot here be related in full, refers to a +married woman fifty years of age, who laboured under the firm and +long-continued delusion that she was pregnant. When the expected period +arrived, she acted precisely as if she had been really delivered of a +child, and seemed to suffer extreme pain, so that the perspiration broke +out on her forehead. The result was that a state of things returned, +continuing for three days, which had ceased during the six previous years. +Mr. Braid gives, in his ‘Magic, Hypnotism,’ &c., 1852, p. 95, and in +his other works analogous cases, as well as other facts showing the great +influence of the will on the mammary glands, even on one breast alone. +</p> + +<p> +When we direct our whole attention to any one sense, its acuteness is +increased;<a href="#linknote-1340" name="linknoteref-1340" +id="linknoteref-1340">[1340]</a> and the continued habit of close +attention, as with blind people to that of hearing, and with the blind and +deaf to that of touch, appears to improve the sense in question +permanently. There is, also, some reason to believe, judging from the +capacities of different races of man, that the effects are inherited. +Turning to ordinary sensations, it is well known that pain is increased by +attending to it; and Sir B. Brodie goes so far as to believe that pain may +be felt in any part of the body to which attention is closely drawn.<a +href="#linknote-1341" name="linknoteref-1341" id="linknoteref-1341">[1341]</a> +Sir H. Holland also remarks that we become not only conscious of the +existence of a part subjected to concentrated attention, but we experience +in it various odd sensations as of weight, heat, cold, tingling, or +itching.<a href="#linknote-1342" name="linknoteref-1342" +id="linknoteref-1342">[1342]</a> +</p> + +<p> +Lastly, some physiologists maintain that the mind can influence the +nutrition of parts. Sir J. Paget has given a curious instance of the +power, not indeed of the mind, but of the nervous system, on the hair. A +lady “who is subject to attacks of what is called nervous headache, always +finds in the morning after such an one, that some patches of her hair are +white, as if powdered with starch. The change is effected in a night, and +in a few days after, the hairs gradually regain their dark brownish +colour.”<a href="#linknote-1343" name="linknoteref-1343" +id="linknoteref-1343">[1343]</a> +</p> + +<p> +We thus see that close attention certainly affects various parts and +organs, which are not properly under the control of the will. By what +means attention—perhaps the most wonderful of all the wondrous +powers of the mind—is effected, is an extremely obscure subject. +According to Müller,<a href="#linknote-1344" name="linknoteref-1344" +id="linknoteref-1344">[1344]</a> the process by which the sensory cells of +the brain are rendered, through the will, susceptible of receiving more +intense and distinct impressions, is closely analogous to that by which +the motor cells are excited to send nerve-force to the voluntary muscles. +There are many points of analogy in the action of the sensory and motor +nerve-cells; for instance, the familiar fact that close attention to any +one sense causes fatigue, like the prolonged exertion of any one muscle.<a +href="#linknote-1345" name="linknoteref-1345" id="linknoteref-1345">[1345]</a> +When therefore we voluntarily concentrate our attention on any part of the +body, the cells of the brain which receive impressions or sensations from +that part are, it is probable, in some unknown manner stimulated into +activity. This may account, without any local change in the part to which +our attention is earnestly directed, for pain or odd sensations being +there felt or increased. +</p> + +<p> +If, however, the part is furnished with muscles, we cannot feel sure, as +Mr. Michael Foster has remarked to me, that some slight impulse may not be +unconsciously sent to such muscles; and this would probably cause an +obscure sensation in the part. +</p> + +<p> +In a large number of cases, as with the salivary and lacrymal glands, +intestinal canal, &c., the power of attention seems to rest, either +chiefly, or as some physiologists think, exclusively, on the vaso-motor +system being affected in such a manner that more blood is allowed to flow +into the capillaries of the part in question. This increased action of the +capillaries may in some cases be combined with the simultaneously +increased activity of the sensorium. +</p> + +<p> +The manner in which the mind affects the vasomotor system may be conceived +in the following manner. When we actually taste sour fruit, an impression +is sent through the gustatory nerves to a certain part of the sensorium; +this transmits nerve-force to the vasomotor centre, which consequently +allows the muscular coats of the small arteries that permeate the salivary +glands to relax. Hence more blood flows into these glands, and they +secrete a copious supply of saliva. Now it does not seem an improbable +assumption, that, when we reflect intently on a sensation, the same part +of the sensorium, or a closely connected part of it, is brought into a +state of activity, in the same manner as when we actually perceive the +sensation. If so, the same cells in the brain will be excited, though, +perhaps, in a less degree, by vividly thinking about a sour taste, as by +perceiving it; and they will transmit in the one case, as in the other, +nerve-force to the vaso-motor centre with the same results. +</p> + +<p> +To give another, and, in some respects, more appropriate illustration. If +a man stands before a hot fire, his face reddens. This appears to be due, +as Mr. Michael Foster informs me, in part to the local action of the heat, +and in part to a reflex action from the vaso-motor centres.<a +href="#linknote-1346" name="linknoteref-1346" id="linknoteref-1346">[1346]</a> +In this latter case, the heat affects the nerves of the face; these +transmit an impression to the sensory cells of the brain, which act on the +vaso-motor centre, and this reacts on the small arteries of the face, +relaxing them and allowing them to become filled with blood. Here, again, +it seems not improbable that if we were repeatedly to concentrate with +great earnestness our attention on the recollection of our heated faces, +the same part of the sensorium which gives us the consciousness of actual +heat would be in some slight degree stimulated, and would in consequence +tend to transmit some nerve-force to the vaso-motor centres, so as to +relax the capillaries of the face. Now as men during endless generations +have had their attention often and earnestly directed to their personal +appearance, and especially to their faces, any incipient tendency in the +facial capillaries to be thus affected will have become in the course of +time greatly strengthened through the principles just referred to, namely, +nerve-force passing readily along accustomed channels, and inherited +habit. Thus, as it appears to me, a plausible explanation is afforded of +the leading phenomena connected with the act of blushing. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +<i>Recapitulation</i>.—Men and women, and especially the young, have +always valued, in a high degree, their personal appearance; and have +likewise regarded the appearance of others. The face has been the chief +object of attention, though, when man aboriginally went naked, the whole +surface of his body would have been attended to. Our self-attention is +excited almost exclusively by the opinion of others, for no person living +in absolute solitude would care about his appearance. Every one feels +blame more acutely than praise. Now, whenever we know, or suppose, that +others are depreciating our personal appearance, our attention is strongly +drawn towards ourselves, more especially to our faces. The probable effect +of this will be, as has just been explained, to excite into activity that +part of the sensorium, which receives the sensory nerves of the face; and +this will react through the vaso-motor system on the facial capillaries. +By frequent reiteration during numberless generations, the process will +have become so habitual, in association with the belief that others are +thinking of us, that even a suspicion of their depreciation suffices to +relax the capillaries, without any conscious thought about our faces. With +some sensitive persons it is enough even to notice their dress to produce +the same effect. Through the force, also, of association and inheritance +our capillaries are relaxed, whenever we know, or imagine, that any one is +blaming, though in silence, our actions, thoughts, or character; and, +again, when we are highly praised. +</p> + +<p> +On this hypothesis we can understand how it is that the face blushes much +more than any other part of the body, though the whole surface is somewhat +affected, more especially with the races which still go nearly naked. It +is not at all surprising that the dark-coloured races should blush, though +no change of colour is visible in their skins. From the principle of +inheritance it is not surprising that persons born blind should blush. We +can understand why the young are much more affected than the old, and +women more than men; and why the opposite sexes especially excite each +other’s blushes. It becomes obvious why personal remarks should be +particularly liable to cause blushing, and why the most powerful of all +the causes is shyness; for shyness relates to the presence and opinion of +others, and the shy are always more or less self-conscious. With respect +to real shame from moral delinquencies, we can perceive why it is not +guilt, but the thought that others think us guilty, which raises a blush. +A man reflecting on a crime committed in solitude, and stung by his +conscience, does not blush; yet he will blush under the vivid recollection +of a detected fault, or of one committed in the presence of others, the +degree of blushing being closely related to the feeling of regard for +those who have detected, witnessed, or suspected his fault. Breaches of +conventional rules of conduct, if they are rigidly insisted on by our +equals or superiors, often cause more intense blushes even than a detected +crime, and an act which is really criminal, if not blamed by our equals, +hardly raises a tinge of colour on our cheeks. Modesty from humility, or +from an indelicacy, excites a vivid blush, as both relate to the judgment +or fixed customs of others. +</p> + +<p> +From the intimate sympathy which exists between the capillary circulation +of the surface of the head and of the brain, whenever there is intense +blushing, there will be some, and often great, confusion of mind. This is +frequently accompanied by awkward movements, and sometimes by the +involuntary twitching of certain muscles. +</p> + +<p> +As blushing, according to this hypothesis, is an indirect result of +attention, originally directed to our personal appearance, that is to the +surface of the body, and more especially to the face, we can understand +the meaning of the gestures which accompany blushing throughout the world. +These consist in hiding the face, or turning it towards the ground, or to +one side. The eyes are generally averted or are restless, for to look at +the man who causes us to feel shame or shyness, immediately brings home in +an intolerable manner the consciousness that his gaze is directed on us. +Through the principle of associated habit, the same movements of the face +and eyes are practised, and can, indeed, hardly be avoided, whenever we +know or believe that, others are blaming, or too strongly praising, our +moral conduct. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"></a> +CHAPTER XIV.<br/>CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY. +</h2> + +<p> +The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements of +expression—Their inheritance—On the part which the will and +intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions—The +instinctive recognition of expression—The bearing of our subject on +the specific unity of the races of man—On the successive acquirement +of various expressions by the progenitors of man—The importance of +expression—Conclusion. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +I have now described, to the best of my ability, the chief expressive +actions in man, and in some few of the lower animals. I have also +attempted to explain the origin or development of these actions through +the three principles given in the first chapter. The first of these +principles is, that movements which are serviceable in gratifying some +desire, or in relieving some sensation, if often repeated, become so +habitual that they are performed, whether or not of any service, whenever +the same desire or sensation is felt, even in a very weak degree. +</p> + +<p> +Our second principle is that of antithesis. The habit of voluntarily +performing opposite movements under opposite impulses has become firmly +established in us by the practice of our whole lives. Hence, if certain +actions have been regularly performed, in accordance with our first +principle, under a certain frame of mind, there will be a strong and +involuntary tendency to the performance of directly opposite actions, +whether or not these are of any use, under the excitement of an opposite +frame of mind. +</p> + +<p> +Our third principle is the direct action of the excited nervous system on +the body, independently of the will, and independently, in large part, of +habit. Experience shows that nerve-force is generated and set free +whenever the cerebro-spinal system is excited. The direction which this +nerve-force follows is necessarily determined by the lines of connection +between the nerve-cells, with each other and with various parts of the +body. But the direction is likewise much influenced by habit; inasmuch as +nerve-force passes readily along accustomed channels. +</p> + +<p> +The frantic and senseless actions of an enraged man may be attributed in +part to the undirected flow of nerve-force, and in part to the effects of +habit, for these actions often vaguely represent the act of striking. They +thus pass into gestures included under our first principle; as when an +indignant man unconsciously throws himself into a fitting attitude for +attacking his opponent, though without any intention of making an actual +attack. We see also the influence of habit in all the emotions and +sensations which are called exciting; for they have assumed this character +from having habitually led to energetic action; and action affects, in an +indirect manner, the respiratory and circulatory system; and the latter +reacts on the brain. Whenever these emotions or sensations are even +slightly felt by us, though they may not at the time lead to any exertion, +our whole system is nevertheless disturbed through the force of habit and +association. Other emotions and sensations are called depressing, because +they have not habitually led to energetic action, excepting just at first, +as in the case of extreme pain, fear, and grief, and they have ultimately +caused complete exhaustion; they are consequently expressed chiefly by +negative signs and by prostration. Again, there are other emotions, such +as that of affection, which do not commonly lead to action of any kind, +and consequently are not exhibited by any strongly marked outward signs. +Affection indeed, in as far as it is a pleasurable sensation, excites the +ordinary signs of pleasure. +</p> + +<p> +On the other hand, many of the effects due to the excitement of the +nervous system seem to be quite independent of the flow of nerve-force +along the channels which have been rendered habitual by former exertions +of the will. Such effects, which often reveal the state of mind of the +person thus affected, cannot at present be explained; for instance, the +change of colour in the hair from extreme terror or grief,—the cold +sweat and the trembling of the muscles from fear,—the modified +secretions of the intestinal canal,—and the failure of certain +glands to act. +</p> + +<p> +Notwithstanding that much remains unintelligible in our present subject, +so many expressive movements and actions can be explained to a certain +extent through the above three principles, that we may hope hereafter to +see all explained by these or by closely analogous principles. +</p> + +<p> +Actions of all kinds, if regularly accompanying any state of the mind, are +at once recognized as expressive. These may consist of movements of any +part of the body, as the wagging of a dog’s tail, the shrugging of a man’s +shoulders, the erection of the hair, the exudation of perspiration, the +state of the capillary circulation, laboured breathing, and the use of the +vocal or other sound-producing instruments. Even insects express anger, +terror, jealousy, and love by their stridulation. With man the respiratory +organs are of especial importance in expression, not only in a direct, but +in a still higher degree in an indirect manner. +</p> + +<p> +Few points are more interesting in our present subject than the +extraordinarily complex chain of events which lead to certain expressive +movements. Take, for instance, the oblique eyebrows of a man suffering +from grief or anxiety. When infants scream loudly from hunger or pain, the +circulation is affected, and the eyes tend to become gorged with blood: +consequently the muscles surrounding the eyes are strongly contracted as a +protection: this action, in the course of many generations, has become +firmly fixed and inherited: but when, with advancing years and culture, +the habit of screaming is partially repressed, the muscles round the eyes +still tend to contract, whenever even slight distress is felt: of these +muscles, the pyramidals of the nose are less under the control of the will +than are the others and their contraction can be checked only by that of +the central fasciae of the frontal muscle: these latter fasciae draw up +the inner ends of the eyebrows, and wrinkle the forehead in a peculiar +manner, which we instantly recognize as the expression of grief or +anxiety. Slight movements, such as these just described, or the scarcely +perceptible drawing down of the corners of the mouth, are the last +remnants or rudiments of strongly marked and intelligible movements. They +are as full of significance to us in regard to expression, as are ordinary +rudiments to the naturalist in the classification and genealogy of organic +beings. +</p> + +<p> +That the chief expressive actions, exhibited by man and by the lower +animals, are now innate or inherited,—that is, have not been learnt +by the individual,—is admitted by every one. So little has learning +or imitation to do with several of them that they are from the earliest +days and throughout life quite beyond our control; for instance, the +relaxation of the arteries of the skin in blushing, and the increased +action of the heart in anger. We may see children, only two or three years +old, and even those born blind, blushing from shame; and the naked scalp +of a very young infant reddens from passion. Infants scream from pain +directly after birth, and all their features then assume the same form as +during subsequent years. These facts alone suffice to show that many of +our most important expressions have not been learnt; but it is remarkable +that some, which are certainly innate, require practice in the individual, +before they are performed in a full and perfect manner; for instance, +weeping and laughing. The inheritance of most of our expressive actions +explains the fact that those born blind display them, as I hear from the +Rev. R. H. Blair, equally well with those gifted with eyesight. We can +thus also understand the fact that the young and the old of widely +different races, both with man and animals, express the same state of mind +by the same movements. +</p> + +<p> +We are so familiar with the fact of young and old animals displaying their +feelings in the same manner, that we hardly perceive how remarkable it is +that a young puppy should wag its tail when pleased, depress its ears and +uncover its canine teeth when pretending to be savage, just like an old +dog; or that a kitten should arch its little back and erect its hair when +frightened and angry, like an old cat. When, however, we turn to less +common gestures in ourselves, which we are accustomed to look at as +artificial or conventional,—such as shrugging the shoulders, as a +sign of impotence, or the raising the arms with open hands and extended +fingers, as a sign of wonder,—we feel perhaps too much surprise at +finding that they are innate. That these and some other gestures are +inherited, we may infer from their being performed by very young children, +by those born blind, and by the most widely distinct races of man. We +should also bear in mind that new and highly peculiar tricks, in +association with certain states of the mind, are known to have arisen in +certain individuals, and to have been afterwards transmitted to their +offspring, in some cases, for more than one generation. +</p> + +<p> +Certain other gestures, which seem to us so natural that we might easily +imagine that they were innate, apparently have been learnt like the words +of a language. This seems to be the case with the joining of the uplifted +hands, and the turning up of the eyes, in prayer. So it is with kissing as +a mark of affection; but this is innate, in so far as it depends on the +pleasure derived from contact with a beloved person. The evidence with +respect to the inheritance of nodding and shaking the head, as signs of +affirmation and negation, is doubtful; for they are not universal, yet +seem too general to have been independently acquired by all the +individuals of so many races. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +We will now consider how far the will and consciousness have come into +play in the development of the various movements of expression. As far as +we can judge, only a few expressive movements, such as those just referred +to, are learnt by each individual; that is, were consciously and +voluntarily performed during the early years of life for some definite +object, or in imitation of others, and then became habitual. The far +greater number of the movements of expression, and all the more important +ones, are, as we have seen, innate or inherited; and such cannot be said +to depend on the will of the individual. Nevertheless, all those included +under our first principle were at first voluntarily performed for a +definite object,—namely, to escape some danger, to relieve some +distress, or to gratify some desire. For instance, there can hardly be a +doubt that the animals which fight with their teeth, have acquired the +habit of drawing back their ears closely to their heads, when feeling +savage, from their progenitors having voluntarily acted in this manner in +order to protect their ears from being torn by their antagonists; for +those animals which do not fight with their teeth do not thus express a +savage state of mind. We may infer as highly probable that we ourselves +have acquired the habit of contracting the muscles round the eyes, whilst +crying gently, that is, without the utterance of any loud sound, from our +progenitors, especially during infancy, having experienced, during the act +of screaming, an uncomfortable sensation in their eyeballs. Again, some +highly expressive movements result from the endeavour to cheek or prevent +other expressive movements; thus the obliquity of the eyebrows and the +drawing down of the corners of the mouth follow from the endeavour to +prevent a screaming-fit from coming on, or to cheek it after it has come +on. Here it is obvious that the consciousness and will must at first have +come into play; not that we are conscious in these or in other such cases +what muscles are brought into action, any more than when we perform the +most ordinary voluntary movements. +</p> + +<p> +With respect to the expressive movements due to the principle of +antithesis, it is clear that the will has intervened, though in a remote +and indirect manner. So again with the movements coming under our third +principle; these, in as far as they are influenced by nerve-force readily +passing along habitual channels, have been determined by former and +repeated exertions of the will. The effects indirectly due to this latter +agency are often combined in a complex manner, through the force of habit +and association, with those directly resulting from the excitement of the +cerebro-spinal system. This seems to be the case with the increased action +of the heart under the influence of any strong emotion. When an animal +erects its hair, assumes a threatening attitude, and utters fierce sounds, +in order to terrify an enemy, we see a curious combination of movements +which were originally voluntary with those that are involuntary. It is, +however, possible that even strictly involuntary actions, such as the +erection of the hair, may have been affected by the mysterious power of +the will. +</p> + +<p> +Some expressive movements may have arisen spontaneously, in association +with certain states of the mind, like the tricks lately referred to, and +afterwards been inherited. But I know of no evidence rendering this view +probable. +</p> + +<p> +The power of communication between the members of the same tribe by means +of language has been of paramount importance in the development of man; +and the force of language is much aided by the expressive movements of the +face and body. We perceive this at once when we converse on an important +subject with any person whose face is concealed. Nevertheless there are no +grounds, as far as I can discover, for believing that any muscle has been +developed or even modified exclusively for the sake of expression. The +vocal and other sound-producing organs, by which various expressive noises +are produced, seem to form a partial exception; but I have elsewhere +attempted to show that these organs were first developed for sexual +purposes, in order that one sex might call or charm the other. Nor can I +discover grounds for believing that any inherited movement, which now +serves as a means of expression, was at first voluntarily and consciously +performed for this special purpose,—like some of the gestures and +the finger-language used by the deaf and dumb. On the contrary, every true +or inherited movement of expression seems to have had some natural and +independent origin. But when once acquired, such movements may be +voluntarily and consciously employed as a means of communication. Even +infants, if carefully attended to, find out at a very early age that their +screaming brings relief, and they soon voluntarily practise it. We may +frequently see a person voluntarily raising his eyebrows to express +surprise, or smiling to express pretended satisfaction and acquiescence. A +man often wishes to make certain gestures conspicuous or demonstrative, +and will raise his extended arms with widely opened fingers above his +head, to show astonishment, or lift his shoulders to his ears, to show +that he cannot or will not do something. The tendency to such movements +will be strengthened or increased by their being thus voluntarily and +repeatedly performed; and the effects may be inherited. +</p> + +<p> +It is perhaps worth consideration whether movements at first used only by +one or a few individuals to express a certain state of mind may not +sometimes have spread to others, and ultimately have become universal, +through the power of conscious and unconscious imitation. That there +exists in man a strong tendency to imitation, independently of the +conscious will, is certain. This is exhibited in the most extraordinary +manner in certain brain diseases, especially at the commencement of +inflammatory softening of the brain, and has been called the “echo sign.” +Patients thus affected imitate, without understanding every absurd gesture +which is made, and every word which is uttered near them, even in a +foreign language.<a href="#linknote-1401" name="linknoteref-1401" +id="linknoteref-1401">[1401]</a> In the case of animals, the jackal and +wolf have learnt under confinement to imitate the barking of the dog. How +the barking of the dog, which serves to express various emotions and +desires, and which is so remarkable from having been acquired since the +animal was domesticated, and from being inherited in different degrees by +different breeds, was first learnt we do not know; but may we not suspect +that imitation has had something to do with its acquisition, owing to dogs +having long lived in strict association with so loquacious an animal as +man? +</p> + +<p> +In the course of the foregoing remarks and throughout this volume, I have +often felt much difficulty about the proper application of the terms, +will, consciousness, and intention. Actions, which were at first +voluntary, soon became habitual, and at last hereditary, and may then be +performed even in opposition to the will. Although they often reveal the +state of the mind, this result was not at first either intended or +expected. Even such words as that “certain movements serve as a means of +expression,” are apt to mislead, as they imply that this was their primary +purpose or object. This, however, seems rarely or never to have been the +case; the movements having been at first either of some direct use, or the +indirect effect of the excited state of the sensorium. An infant may +scream either intentionally or instinctively to show that it wants food; +but it has no wish or intention to draw its features into the peculiar +form which so plainly indicates misery; yet some of the most +characteristic expressions exhibited by man are derived from the act of +screaming, as has been explained. +</p> + +<p> +Although most of our expressive actions are innate or instinctive, as is +admitted by everyone, it is a different question whether we have any +instinctive power of recognizing them. This has generally been assumed to +be the case; but the assumption has been strongly controverted by M. +Lemoine.<a href="#linknote-1402" name="linknoteref-1402" +id="linknoteref-1402">[1402]</a> Monkeys soon learn to distinguish, not +only the tones of voice of their masters, but the expression of their +faces, as is asserted by a careful observer.<a href="#linknote-1403" +name="linknoteref-1403" id="linknoteref-1403">[1403]</a> Dogs well know +the difference between caressing and threatening gestures or tones; and +they seem to recognize a compassionate tone. But as far as I can make out, +after repeated trials, they do not understand any movement confined to the +features, excepting a smile or laugh; and this they appear, at least in +some cases, to recognize. This limited amount of knowledge has probably +been gained, both by monkeys and dogs, through their associating harsh or +kind treatment with our actions; and the knowledge certainly is not +instinctive. Children, no doubt, would soon learn the movements of +expression in their elders in the same manner as animals learn those of +man. Moreover, when a child cries or laughs, he knows in a general manner +what he is doing and what he feels; so that a very small exertion of +reason would tell him what crying or laughing meant in others. But the +question is, do our children acquire their knowledge of expression solely +by experience through the power of association and reason? +</p> + +<p> +As most of the movements of expression must have been gradually acquired, +afterwards becoming instinctive, there seems to be some degree of <i>a +priori</i> probability that their recognition would likewise have become +instinctive. There is, at least, no greater difficulty in believing this +than in admitting that, when a female quadruped first bears young, she +knows the cry of distress of her offspring, or than in admitting that many +animals instinctively recognize and fear their enemies; and of both these +statements there can be no reasonable doubt. It is however extremely +difficult to prove that our children instinctively recognize any +expression. I attended to this point in my first-born infant, who could +not have learnt anything by associating with other children, and I was +convinced that he understood a smile and received pleasure from seeing +one, answering it by another, at much too early an age to have learnt +anything by experience. When this child was about four months old, I made +in his presence many odd noises and strange grimaces, and tried to look +savage; but the noises, if not too loud, as well as the grimaces, were all +taken as good jokes; and I attributed this at the time to their being +preceded or accompanied by smiles. When five months old, he seemed to +understand a compassionate, expression and tone of voice. When a few days +over six months old, his nurse pretended to cry, and I saw that his face +instantly assumed a melancholy expression, with the corners of the mouth +strongly depressed; now this child could rarely have seen any other child +crying, and never a grown-up person crying, and I should doubt whether at +so early an age he could have reasoned on the subject. Therefore it seems +to me that an innate feeling must have told him that the pretended crying +of his nurse expressed grief; and this through the instinct of sympathy +excited grief in him. +</p> + +<p> +M. Lemoine argues that, if man possessed an innate knowledge of +expression, authors and artists would not have found it so difficult, as +is notoriously the case, to describe and depict the characteristic signs +of each particular state of mind. But this does not seem to me a valid +argument. We may actually behold the expression changing in an +unmistakable manner in a man or animal, and yet be quite unable, as I know +from experience, to analyse the nature of the change. In the two +photographs given by Duchenne of the same old man (Plate III. figs. 5 and +6), almost every one recognized that the one represented a true, and the +other a false smile; but I have found it very difficult to decide in what +the whole amount of difference consists. It has often struck me as a +curious fact that so many shades of expression are instantly recognized +without any conscious process of analysis on our part. No one, I believe, +can clearly describe a sullen or sly expression; yet many observers are +unanimous that these expressions can be recognized in the various races of +man. Almost everyone to whom I showed Duchenne’s photograph of the young +man with oblique eyebrows (Plate II. fig. 2) at once declared that it +expressed grief or some such feeling; yet probably not one of these +persons, or one out of a thousand persons, could beforehand have told +anything precise about the obliquity of the eyebrows with their inner ends +puckered, or about the rectangular furrows on the forehead. So it is with +many other expressions, of which I have had practical experience in the +trouble requisite in instructing others what points to observe. If, then, +great ignorance of details does not prevent our recognizing with certainty +and promptitude various expressions, I do not see how this ignorance can +be advanced as an argument that our knowledge, though vague and general, +is not innate. +</p> + +<p> +I have endeavoured to show in considerable detail that all the chief +expressions exhibited by man are the same throughout the world. This fact +is interesting, as it affords a new argument in favour of the several +races being descended from a single parent-stock, which must have been +almost completely human in structure, and to a large extent in mind, +before the period at which the races diverged from each other. No doubt +similar structures, adapted for the same purpose, have often been +independently acquired through variation and natural selection by distinct +species; but this view will not explain close similarity between distinct +species in a multitude of unimportant details. Now if we bear in mind the +numerous points of structure having no relation to expression, in which +all the races of man closely agree, and then add to them the numerous +points, some of the highest importance and many of the most trifling +value, on which the movements of expression directly or indirectly depend, +it seems to me improbable in the highest degree that so much similarity, +or rather identity of structure, could have been acquired by independent +means. Yet this must have been the case if the races of man are descended +from several aboriginally distinct species. It is far more probable that +the many points of close similarity in the various races are due to +inheritance from a single parent-form, which had already assumed a human +character. +</p> + +<p> +It is a curious, though perhaps an idle speculation, how early in the long +line of our progenitors the various expressive movements, now exhibited by +man, were successively acquired. The following remarks will at least serve +to recall some of the chief points discussed in this volume. We may +confidently believe that laughter, as a sign of pleasure or enjoyment, was +practised by our progenitors long before they deserved to be called human; +for very many kinds of monkeys, when pleased, utter a reiterated sound, +clearly analogous to our laughter, often accompanied by vibratory +movements of their jaws or lips, with the corners of the mouth drawn +backwards and upwards, by the wrinkling of the cheeks, and even by the +brightening of the eyes. +</p> + +<p> +We may likewise infer that fear was expressed from an extremely remote +period, in almost the same manner as it now is by man; namely, by +trembling, the erection of the hair, cold perspiration, pallor, widely +opened eyes, the relaxation of most of the muscles, and by the whole body +cowering downwards or held motionless. +</p> + +<p> +Suffering, if great, will from the first have caused screams or groans to +be uttered, the body to be contorted, and the teeth to be ground together. +But our progenitors will not have exhibited those highly expressive +movements of the features which accompany screaming and crying until their +circulatory and respiratory organs, and the muscles surrounding the eyes, +had acquired their present structure. The shedding of tears appears to +have originated through reflex action from the spasmodic contraction of +the eyelids, together perhaps with the eyeballs becoming gorged with blood +during the act of screaming. Therefore weeping probably came on rather +late in the line of our descent; and this conclusion agrees with the fact +that our nearest allies, the anthropomorphous apes, do not weep. But we +must here exercise some caution, for as certain monkeys, which are not +closely related to man, weep, this habit might have been developed long +ago in a sub-branch of the group from which man is derived. Our early +progenitors, when suffering from grief or anxiety, would not have made +their eyebrows oblique, or have drawn down the corners of their mouth, +until they had acquired the habit of endeavouring to restrain their +screams. The expression, therefore, of grief and anxiety is eminently +human. +</p> + +<p> +Rage will have been expressed at a very early period by threatening or +frantic gestures, by the reddening of the skin, and by glaring eyes, but +not by frowning. For the habit of frowning seems to have been acquired +chiefly from the corrugators being the first muscles to contract round the +eyes, whenever during infancy pain, anger, or distress is felt, and there +consequently is a near approach to screaming; and partly from a frown +serving as a shade in difficult and intent vision. It seems probable that +this shading action would not have become habitual until man had assumed a +completely upright position, for monkeys do not frown when exposed to a +glaring light. Our early progenitors, when enraged, would probably have +exposed their teeth more freely than does man, even when giving full vent +to his rage, as with the insane. We may, also, feel almost certain that +they would have protruded their lips, when sulky or disappointed, in a +greater degree than is the case with our own children, or even with the +children of existing savage races. +</p> + +<p> +Our early progenitors, when indignant or moderately angry, would not have +held their heads erect, opened their chests, squared their shoulders, and +clenched their fists, until they had acquired the ordinary carriage and +upright attitude of man, and had learnt to fight with their fists or +clubs. Until this period had arrived the antithetical gesture of shrugging +the shoulders, as a sign of impotence or of patience, would not have been +developed. From the same reason astonishment would not then have been +expressed by raising the arms with open hands and extended fingers. Nor, +judging from the actions of monkeys, would astonishment have been +exhibited by a widely opened mouth; but the eyes would have been opened +and the eyebrows arched. Disgust would have been shown at a very early +period by movements round the mouth, like those of vomiting,—that +is, if the view which I have suggested respecting the source of the +expression is correct, namely, that our progenitors had the power, and +used it, of voluntarily and quickly rejecting any food from their stomachs +which they disliked. But the more refined manner of showing contempt or +disdain, by lowering the eyelids, or turning away the eyes and face, as if +the despised person were not worth looking at, would not probably have +been acquired until a much later period. +</p> + +<p> +Of all expressions, blushing seems to be the most strictly human; yet it +is common to all or nearly all the races of man, whether or not any change +of colour is visible in their skin. The relaxation of the small arteries +of the surface, on which blushing depends, seems to have primarily +resulted from earnest attention directed to the appearance of our own +persons, especially of our faces, aided by habit, inheritance, and the +ready flow of nerve-force along accustomed channels; and afterwards to +have been extended by the power of association to self-attention directed +to moral conduct. It can hardly be doubted that many animals are capable +of appreciating beautiful colours and even forms, as is shown by the pains +which the individuals of one sex take in displaying their beauty before +those of the opposite sex. But it does not seem possible that any animal, +until its mental powers had been developed to an equal or nearly equal +degree with those of man, would have closely considered and been sensitive +about its own personal appearance. Therefore we may conclude that blushing +originated at a very late period in the long line of our descent. +</p> + +<p> +From the various facts just alluded to, and given in the course of this +volume, it follows that, if the structure of our organs of respiration and +circulation had differed in only a slight degree from the state in which +they now exist, most of our expressions would have been wonderfully +different. A very slight change in the course of the arteries and veins +which run to the head, would probably have prevented the blood from +accumulating in our eyeballs during violent expiration; for this occurs in +extremely few quadrupeds. In this case we should not have displayed some +of our most characteristic expressions. If man had breathed water by the +aid of external branchiae (though the idea is hardly conceivable), instead +of air through his mouth and nostrils, his features would not have +expressed his feelings much more efficiently than now do his hands or +limbs. Rage and disgust, however, would still have been shown by movements +about the lips and mouth, and the eyes would have become brighter or +duller according to the state of the circulation. If our ears had remained +movable, their movements would have been highly expressive, as is the case +with all the animals which fight with their teeth; and we may infer that +our early progenitors thus fought, as we still uncover the canine tooth on +one side when we sneer at or defy any one, and we uncover all our teeth +when furiously enraged. +</p> + +<p class="p2"> +The movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin +may have been, are in themselves of much importance for our welfare. They +serve as the first means of communication between the mother and her +infant; she smiles approval, and thus encourages her child on the right +path, or frowns disapproval. We readily perceive sympathy in others by +their expression; our sufferings are thus mitigated and our pleasures +increased; and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened. The movements of +expression give vividness and energy to our spoken words. They reveal the +thoughts and intentions of others more truly than do words, which may be +falsified. Whatever amount of truth the so-called science of physiognomy +may contain, appears to depend, as Haller long ago remarked,<a +href="#linknote-1404" name="linknoteref-1404" id="linknoteref-1404">[1404]</a> +on different persons bringing into frequent use different facial muscles, +according to their dispositions; the development of these muscles being +perhaps thus increased, and the lines or furrows on the face, due to their +habitual contraction, being thus rendered deeper and more conspicuous. The +free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the +other hand, the repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward +signs softens our emotions.<a href="#linknote-1405" name="linknoteref-1405" +id="linknoteref-1405">[1405]</a> He who gives way to violent gestures will +increase his rage; he who does not control the signs of fear will +experience fear in a greater degree; and he who remains passive when +overwhelmed with grief loses his best chance of recovering elasticity of +mind. These results follow partly from the intimate relation which exists +between almost all the emotions and their outward manifestations; and +partly from the direct influence of exertion on the heart, and +consequently on the brain. Even the simulation of an emotion tends to +arouse it in our minds. Shakespeare, who from his wonderful knowledge of +the human mind ought to be an excellent judge, says:— +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Is it not monstrous that this player here,<br/> +But in a fiction, in a dream of passion,<br/> +Could force his soul so to his own conceit,<br/> +That, from her working, all his visage wann’d;<br/> +Tears in his eyes, distraction in ’s aspect,<br/> +A broken voice, and his whole function suiting<br/> +With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing!<br/> +<i>Hamlet</i>, act ii. sc. 2. +</p> + +<p> +We have seen that the study of the theory of expression confirms to a +certain limited extent the conclusion that man is derived from some lower +animal form, and supports the belief of the specific or sub-specific unity +of the several races; but as far as my judgment serves, such confirmation +was hardly needed. We have also seen that expression in itself, or the +language of the emotions, as it has sometimes been called, is certainly of +importance for the welfare of mankind. To understand, as far as possible, +the source or origin of the various expressions which may be hourly seen +on the faces of the men around us, not to mention our domesticated +animals, ought to possess much interest for us. From these several causes, +we may conclude that the philosophy of our subject has well deserved the +attention which it has already received from several excellent observers, +and that it deserves still further attention, especially from any able +physiologist. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="link2H_FOOT" id="link2H_FOOT"></a>FOOTNOTES:</h2> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1" id="linknote-1"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1 (<a href="#linknoteref-1">return</a>)<br/> [ J. Parsons, in his paper in +the Appendix to the ‘Philosophical Transactions’ for 1746, p. 41, gives a +list of forty-one old authors who have written on Expression.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-2" id="linknote-2"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +2 (<a href="#linknoteref-2">return</a>)<br/> [ Conférences sur +l’expression des différents Caractères des Passions.’ Paris, 4to, 1667. I +always quote from the republication of the ‘Conférences’ in the edition of +Lavater, by Moreau, which appeared in 1820, as given in vol. ix. p. 257.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-3" id="linknote-3"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +3 (<a href="#linknoteref-3">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Discours par Pierre Camper +sur le moyen de représenter les diverses passions,’ &c. 1792. 1844] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-4" id="linknote-4"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +4 (<a href="#linknoteref-4">return</a>)<br/> [ I always quote from the +third edition, 1844, which was published after the death of Sir C. Bell, +and contains his latest corrections. The first edition of 1806 is much +inferior in merit, and does not include some of his more important views.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-5" id="linknote-5"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +5 (<a href="#linknoteref-5">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘De la Physionomie et de la +Parole,’ par Albert Lemoine, 1865, p. 101.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-6" id="linknote-6"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +6 (<a href="#linknoteref-6">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘L’Art de connaître les +Hommes,’ &c., par G. Lavater. The earliest edition of this work, +referred to in the preface to the edition of 1820 in ten volumes, as containing +the observations of M. Moreau, is said to have been published in 1807; and I +have no doubt that this is correct, because the ‘Notice sur +Lavater’ at the commencement of volume i. is dated April 13, 1806. In +some bibliographical works, however, the date of 1805—1809 is given, but +it seems impossible that 1805 can be correct. Dr. Duchenne remarks +(‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’-8vo edit. 1862, p. 5, and +‘Archives Générales de Médecine,’ Jan. et Fév. 1862) that M. Moreau +“<i>a composé pour son ouvrage un article important</i>,” &c., +in the year 1805; and I find in volume i. of the edition of 1820 passages +bearing the dates of December 12, 1805, and another January 5, 1806, besides +that of April 13, 1806, above referred to. In consequence of some of these +passages having thus been <i>composed</i> in 1805, Dr. Duchenne assigns to M. +Moreau the priority over Sir C. Bell, whose work, as we have seen, was +published in 1806. This is a very unusual manner of determining the priority of +scientific works; but such questions are of extremely little importance in +comparison with their relative merits. The passages above quoted from M. Moreau +and from Le Brun are taken in this and all other cases from the edition of 1820 +of Lavater, tom. iv. p. 228, and tom. ix. p. 279.] +</p> + + +<p> +<a name="linknote-7" id="linknote-7"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +7 (<a href="#linknoteref-7">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Handbuch der +Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.’ Band I. Dritte Abtheilung, 1858.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-8" id="linknote-8"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +8 (<a href="#linknoteref-8">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Senses and the +Intellect,’ 2nd edit. 1864, pp. 96 and 288. The preface to the first +edition of this work is dated June, 1855. See also the 2nd edition of Mr. +Bain’s work on the ‘Emotions and Will.’] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-9" id="linknote-9"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +9 (<a href="#linknoteref-9">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Anatomy of +Expression,’ 3rd edit. p. 121.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-10" id="linknote-10"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +10 (<a href="#linknoteref-10">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Essays, Scientific, +Political, and Speculative,’ Second Series, 1863, p. 111. There is a +discussion on Laughter in the First Series of Essays, which discussion +seems to me of very inferior value.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-11" id="linknote-11"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +11 (<a href="#linknoteref-11">return</a>)<br/> [ Since the publication of +the essay just referred to, Mr. Spencer has written another, on “Morals +and Moral Sentiments,” in the ‘Fortnightly Review,’ April 1, 1871, p. 426. +He has, also, now published his final conclusions in vol. ii. of the +second edit. of the ‘Principles of Psychology,’ 1872, p. 539. I may state, +in order that I may not be accused of trespassing on Mr. Spencer’s domain, +that I announced in my ‘Descent of Man,’ that I had then written a part of +the present volume: my first MS. notes on the subject of expression bear +the date of the year 1838.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-12" id="linknote-12"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +12 (<a href="#linknoteref-12">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ +3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-13" id="linknote-13"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +13 (<a href="#linknoteref-13">return</a>)<br/> [ Professor Owen expressly +states (Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1830, p. 28) that this is the case with respect +to the Orang, and specifies all the more important muscles which are well +known to serve with man for the expression of his feelings. See, also, a +description of several of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof. +Macalister, in ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History,’ vol. vii. May, +1871, p. 342.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-14" id="linknote-14"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +14 (<a href="#linknoteref-14">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ +pp. 121, 138.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-15" id="linknote-15"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +15 (<a href="#linknoteref-15">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ pp. +12, 73.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-16" id="linknote-16"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +16 (<a href="#linknoteref-16">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Mécanisme de la +Physionomie Humaine,’ 8vo edit. p. 31.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-17" id="linknote-17"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +17 (<a href="#linknoteref-17">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Elements of Physiology,’ +English translation, vol. ii. p. 934.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-18" id="linknote-18"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +18 (<a href="#linknoteref-18">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ +3rd edit. p. 198.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-19" id="linknote-19"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +19 (<a href="#linknoteref-19">return</a>)<br/> [ See remarks to this +effect in Lessing’s ‘Lacooon,’ translated by W. Ross, 1836, p. 19.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-20" id="linknote-20"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +20 (<a href="#linknoteref-20">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Partridge in Todd’s +‘Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology,’ vol. ii. p. 227.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-21" id="linknote-21"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +21 (<a href="#linknoteref-21">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘La Physionomie,’ par G. +Lavater, tom. iv. 1820, p. 274. On the number of the facial muscles, see +vol. iv. pp. 209-211.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-22" id="linknote-22"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +22 (<a href="#linknoteref-22">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ +1867, s. 91.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-101" id="linknote-101"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +101 (<a href="#linknoteref-101">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Herbert Spencer +(‘Essays,’ Second Series, 1863, p. 138) has drawn a clear distinction +between emotions and sensations, the latter being “generated in our +corporeal framework.” He classes as Feelings both emotions +and-sensations.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-102" id="linknote-102"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +102 (<a href="#linknoteref-102">return</a>)<br/> [ Müller, ‘Elements of +Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 939. See also Mr. H. Spencer’s +interesting speculations on the same subject, and on the genesis of +nerves, in his ‘Principles of Biology,’ vol. ii. p. 346; and in his +‘Principles of Psychology,’ 2nd edit. pp. 511-557.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-103" id="linknote-103"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +103 (<a href="#linknoteref-103">return</a>)<br/> [ A remark to much the +same effect was made long ago by Hippocrates and by the illustrious +Harvey; for both assert that a young animal forgets in the course of a few +days the art of sucking, and cannot without some difficulty again acquire +it. I give these assertions on the authority of Dr. Darwin, ‘Zoonomia,’ +1794, vol. i. p. 140.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-104" id="linknote-104"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +104 (<a href="#linknoteref-104">return</a>)<br/> [ See for my authorities, +and for various analogous facts, ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants +under Domestication,’ 1868, vol. ii. p. 304.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-105" id="linknote-105"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +105 (<a href="#linknoteref-105">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Senses and the +Intellect,’ 2nd edit. 1864, p. 332. Prof. Huxley remarks (‘Elementary +Lessons in Physiology,’ 5th edit. 1872, p. 306), “It may be laid down as a +rule, that, if any two mental states be called up together, or in +succession, with due frequency and vividness, the subsequent production of +the one of them will suffice to call up the other, and that whether we +desire it or not.”] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-106" id="linknote-106"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +106 (<a href="#linknoteref-106">return</a>)<br/> [ Gratiolet (‘De la +Physionomie,’ p. 324), in his discussion on this subject, gives many +analogous instances. See p. 42, on the opening and shutting of the eyes. +Engel is quoted (p. 323) on the changed paces of a man, as his thoughts +change.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-107" id="linknote-107"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +107 (<a href="#linknoteref-107">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Mécanisme de la +Physionomie Humaine,’ 1862, p. 17.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-108" id="linknote-108"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +108 (<a href="#linknoteref-108">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Variation of +Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 6. The inheritance of +habitual gestures is so important for us, that I gladly avail myself of +Mr. F. Galton’s permission to give in his own words the following +remarkable case:—“The following account of a habit occurring in +individuals of three consecutive generations {footnote continues:} is of +peculiar interest, because it occurs only during sound sleep, and +therefore cannot be due to imitation, but must be altogether natural. The +particulars are perfectly trustworthy, for I have enquired fully into +them, and speak from abundant and independent evidence. A gentleman of +considerable position was found by his wife to have the curious trick, +when he lay fast asleep on his back in bed, of raising his right arm +slowly in front of his face, up to his forehead, and then dropping it with +a jerk, so that the wrist fell heavily on the bridge of his nose. The +trick did not occur every night, but occasionally, and was independent of +any ascertained cause. Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an hour +or more. The gentleman’s nose was prominent, and its bridge often became +sore from the blows which it received. At one time an awkward sore was +produced, that was long in healing, on account of the recurrence, night +after night, of the blows which first caused it. His wife had to remove +the button from the wrist of his night-gown as it made severe scratches, +and some means were attempted of tying his arm. +</p> +<p class="foot"> +“Many years after his death, his son married a lady who had never heard of +the family incident. She, however, observed precisely the same peculiarity +in her husband; but his nose, from not being particularly prominent, has +never as yet suffered from the blows. The trick does not occur when he is +half-asleep, as, for example, when dozing in his arm-chair, but the moment +he is fast asleep it is apt to begin. It is, as with his father, +intermittent; sometimes ceasing for many nights, and sometimes almost +incessant during a part of every night. It is performed, as it was by his +father, with his right hand. +</p> +<p class="foot"> +“One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick. She performs +it, likewise, with the right hand, but in a slightly modified form; for, +after raising the arm, she does not allow the wrist to drop upon the +bridge of the nose, but the palm of the half-closed hand falls over and +down the nose, striking it rather rapidly. It is also very intermittent +with this child, not occurring for periods of some months, but sometimes +occurring almost incessantly.”] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-109" id="linknote-109"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +109 (<a href="#linknoteref-109">return</a>)<br/> [ Prof. Huxley remarks +(‘Elementary Physiology,’ 5th edit. p. 305) that reflex actions proper to +the spinal cord are <i>natural</i>; but, by the help of the brain, that is +through habit, an infinity of <i>artificial</i> reflex actions may be acquired. +Virchow admits (‘Sammlung wissenschaft. Vorträge,’ &c., “Ueber das +Rückenmark,” 1871, ss. 24, 31) that some reflex actions can hardly be +distinguished from instincts; and, of the latter, it may be added, some +cannot be distinguished from inherited habits.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-110" id="linknote-110"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +110 (<a href="#linknoteref-110">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Maudsley, ‘Body and +Mind,’ 1870, p. 8.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-111" id="linknote-111"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +111 (<a href="#linknoteref-111">return</a>)<br/> [ See the very +interesting discussion on the whole subject by Claude Bernard, ‘Tissus +Vivants,’ 1866, p. 353-356.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-112" id="linknote-112"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +112 (<a href="#linknoteref-112">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Chapters on Mental +Physiology,’ 1858, p. 85.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-113" id="linknote-113"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +113 (<a href="#linknoteref-113">return</a>)<br/> [ Müller remarks +(‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. tr. vol. ii. p. 1311) on starting being +always accompanied by the closure of the eyelids.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-114" id="linknote-114"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +114 (<a href="#linknoteref-114">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Maudsley remarks +(‘Body and Mind,’ p. 10) that “reflex movements which commonly effect a +useful end may, under the changed circumstances of disease, do great +mischief, becoming even the occasion of violent suffering and of a most +painful death.”] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-115" id="linknote-115"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +115 (<a href="#linknoteref-115">return</a>)<br/> [ See Mr. F. H. Salvin’s +account of a tame jackal in ‘Land and Water,’ October, 1869.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-116" id="linknote-116"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +116 (<a href="#linknoteref-116">return</a>)<br/> [ “Dr. Darwin, +‘Zoonomia,’ 1794, vol. i. p. 160. I find that the fact of cats protruding +their feet when pleased is also noticed (p. 151) in this work.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-117" id="linknote-117"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +117 (<a href="#linknoteref-117">return</a>)<br/> [ Carpenter, ‘Principles +of Comparative Physiology,’ 1854, p. 690, and Müller’s ‘Elements of +Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 936.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-118" id="linknote-118"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +118 (<a href="#linknoteref-118">return</a>)<br/> [ Mowbray on ‘Poultry,’ +6th edit. 1830, p. 54.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-119" id="linknote-119"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +119 (<a href="#linknoteref-119">return</a>)<br/> [ See the account given +by this excellent observer in ‘Wild Sports of the Highlands,’ 1846, p. +142.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-120" id="linknote-120"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +120 (<a href="#linknoteref-120">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Philosophical +Translations,’ 1823, p. 182.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-201" id="linknote-201"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +201 (<a href="#linknoteref-201">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Naturgeschichte der +Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 55.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-202" id="linknote-202"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +202 (<a href="#linknoteref-202">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Tylor gives an +account of the Cistercian gesture-language in his ‘Early History of +Mankind’ (2nd edit. 1870, p. 40), and makes some remarks on the principle +of opposition in gestures.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-203" id="linknote-203"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +203 (<a href="#linknoteref-203">return</a>)<br/> [ See on this subject Dr. +W. R. Scott’s interesting work, ‘The Deaf and Dumb,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. +12. He says, “This contracting of natural gestures into much shorter +gestures than the natural expression requires, is very common amongst the +deaf and dumb. This contracted gesture is frequently so shortened as +nearly to lose all semblance of the natural one, but to the deaf and dumb +who use it, it still has the force of the original expression.”] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-301" id="linknote-301"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +301 (<a href="#linknoteref-301">return</a>)<br/> [ See the interesting +cases collected by M. G. Pouchet in the ‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’ January +1, 1872, p. 79. An instance was also brought some years ago before the +British Association at Belfast.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-302" id="linknote-302"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +302 (<a href="#linknoteref-302">return</a>)<br/> [ Müller remarks +(‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 934) that when the +feelings are very intense, “all the spinal nerves become affected to the +extent of imperfect paralysis, or the excitement of trembling of the whole +body.”] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-303" id="linknote-303"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +303 (<a href="#linknoteref-303">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Leçons sur les Prop. +des Tissus Vivants,’ 1866, pp. 457-466.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-304" id="linknote-304"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +304 (<a href="#linknoteref-304">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bartlett, “Notes on +the Birth of a Hippopotamus,” Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1871, p. 255.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-305" id="linknote-305"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +305 (<a href="#linknoteref-305">return</a>)<br/> [ See, on this subject, +Claude Bernard, ‘Tissus Vivants,’ 1866, pp. 316, 337, 358. Virchow +expresses himself to almost exactly the same effect in his essay “Ueber +das Rückenmark” (Sammlung wissenschaft. Vorträge, 1871, s. 28).] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-306" id="linknote-306"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +306 (<a href="#linknoteref-306">return</a>)<br/> [ Müller (‘Elements of +Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 932) in speaking of the nerves, +says, “any sudden change of condition of whatever kind sets the nervous +principle into action.” See Virchow and Bernard on the same subject in +passages in the two works referred to in my last foot-note.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-307" id="linknote-307"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +307 (<a href="#linknoteref-307">return</a>)<br/> [ H. Spencer, ‘Essays, +Scientific, Political,’ &c., Second Series, 1863, pp. 109, 111.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-308" id="linknote-308"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +308 (<a href="#linknoteref-308">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir H. Holland, in +speaking (‘Medical Notes and Reflexions,’ 1839, p. 328) of that curious +state of body called the <i>fidgets</i>, remarks that it seems due to “an +accumulation of some cause of irritation which requires muscular action +for its relief.”] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-309" id="linknote-309"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +309 (<a href="#linknoteref-309">return</a>)<br/> [ I am much indebted to +Mr. A. H. Garrod for having informed me of M. Lorain’s work on the pulse, +in which a sphygmogram of a woman in a rage is given; and this shows much +difference in the rate and other characters from that of the same woman in +her ordinary state.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-310" id="linknote-310"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +310 (<a href="#linknoteref-310">return</a>)<br/> [ How powerfully intense +joy excites the brain, and how the brain reacts on the body, is well shown +in the rare cases of Psychical Intoxication. Dr. J. Crichton Browne +(‘Medical Mirror,’ 1865) records the case of a young man of strongly +nervous temperament, who, on hearing by a telegram that a fortune had been +bequeathed him, first became pale, then exhilarated, and soon in the +highest spirits, but flushed and very restless. He then took a walk with a +friend for the sake of tranquillising himself, but returned staggering in +his gait, uproariously laughing, yet irritable in temper, incessantly +talking, and singing loudly in the public streets. It was positively +ascertained that he had not touched any spirituous liquor, though every +one thought that he was intoxicated. Vomiting after a time came on, and +the half-digested contents of his stomach were examined, but no odour of +alcohol could be detected. He then slept heavily, and on awaking was well, +except that he suffered from headache, nausea, and prostration of +strength.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-311" id="linknote-311"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +311 (<a href="#linknoteref-311">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Darwin, ‘Zoonomia,’ +1794, vol. i. p. 148.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-312" id="linknote-312"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +312 (<a href="#linknoteref-312">return</a>)<br/> [ Mrs. Oliphant, in her +novel of ‘Miss Majoribanks,’ p. 362. All this reacts on the brain, and +prostration soon follows with collapsed muscles and dulled eyes. As +associated habit no longer prompts the sufferer to action, he is urged by +his friends to voluntary exertion, and not to give way to silent, +motionless grief. Exertion stimulates the heart, and this reacts on the +brain, and aids the mind to bear its heavy load.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-401" id="linknote-401"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +401 (<a href="#linknoteref-401">return</a>)<br/> [ See the evidence on +this head in my ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ +vol. i. p. 27. On the cooing of pigeons, vol. i. pp. 154, 155.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-402" id="linknote-402"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +402 (<a href="#linknoteref-402">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Essays, Scientific, +Political, and Speculative,’ 1858. ‘The Origin and Function of Music,’ p. +359.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-403" id="linknote-403"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +403 (<a href="#linknoteref-403">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Descent of Man,’ +1870, vol. ii. p. 332. The words quoted are from Professor Owen. It has +lately been shown that some quadrupeds much lower in the scale than +monkeys, namely Rodents, are able to produce correct musical tones: see +the account of a singing Hesperomys, by the Rev. S. Lockwood, in the +‘American Naturalist,’ vol. v. December, 1871, p. 761.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-404" id="linknote-404"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +404 (<a href="#linknoteref-404">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Tylor (‘Primitive +Culture,’ 1871, vol. i. p. 166), in his discussion on this subject, +alludes to the whining of the dog.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-405" id="linknote-405"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +405 (<a href="#linknoteref-405">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Naturgeschichte der +Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 46.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-406" id="linknote-406"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +406 (<a href="#linknoteref-406">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Gratiolet, +‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 115.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-407" id="linknote-407"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +407 (<a href="#linknoteref-407">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Théorie Physiologique +de la Musique,’ Paris, 1868, P. 146. Helmholtz has also fully discussed in +this profound work the relation of the form of the cavity of the mouth to +the production of vowel-sounds.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-408" id="linknote-408"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +408 (<a href="#linknoteref-408">return</a>)<br/> [ I have given some +details on this subject in my ‘Descent of Man,’ vol. i. pp. 352, 384.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-409" id="linknote-409"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +409 (<a href="#linknoteref-409">return</a>)<br/> [ As quoted in Huxley’s +‘Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature,’ 1863, p. 52.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-410" id="linknote-410"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +410 (<a href="#linknoteref-410">return</a>)<br/> [ Illust. Thierleben, +1864, B. i. s. 130.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-411" id="linknote-411"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +411 (<a href="#linknoteref-411">return</a>)<br/> [ The Hon. J. Caton, +Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences, May, 1868, pp. 36, 40. For the <i>Capra, +Ægagrus</i>, ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p. 37.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-412" id="linknote-412"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +412 (<a href="#linknoteref-412">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Land and Water,’ July +20, 1867, p. 659.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-413" id="linknote-413"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +413 (<a href="#linknoteref-413">return</a>)<br/> [ <i>Phaeton rubricauda</i>: +‘Ibis,’ vol. iii. 1861, p. 180.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-414" id="linknote-414"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +414 (<a href="#linknoteref-414">return</a>)<br/> [ On the <i>Strix flammea</i>, +Audubon, ‘Ornithological Biography,’ 1864, vol. ii. p. 407. I have +observed other cases in the Zoological Gardens.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-415" id="linknote-415"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +415 (<a href="#linknoteref-415">return</a>)<br/> [ <i>Melopsittacus +undulatus</i>. See an account of its habits by Gould, ‘Handbook of Birds +of Australia,’ 1865, vol. ii. p. 82.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-416" id="linknote-416"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +416 (<a href="#linknoteref-416">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for instance, the +account which I have given (‘Descent of Man,’ vol. ii. p. 32) of an Anolis +and Draco.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-417" id="linknote-417"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +417 (<a href="#linknoteref-417">return</a>)<br/> [ These muscles are +described in his well-known works. I am greatly indebted to this +distinguished observer for having given me in a letter information on this +same subject.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-418" id="linknote-418"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +418 (<a href="#linknoteref-418">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Lehrbuch der +Histologie des Menschen,’ 1857, s. 82. I owe to Prof. W. Turner’s kindness +an extract from this work.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-419" id="linknote-419"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +419 (<a href="#linknoteref-419">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Quarterly Journal of +Microscopical Science,’ 1853, vol. i. p. 262.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-420" id="linknote-420"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +420 (<a href="#linknoteref-420">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Lehrbuch der +Histologie,’ 1857, s. 82.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-421" id="linknote-421"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +421 (<a href="#linknoteref-421">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Dictionary of English +Etymology,’ p. 403.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-422" id="linknote-422"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +422 (<a href="#linknoteref-422">return</a>)<br/> [ See the account of the +habits of this animal by Dr. Cooper, as quoted in ‘Nature,’ April 27, +1871, p. 512.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-423" id="linknote-423"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +423 (<a href="#linknoteref-423">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Günther, ‘Reptiles +of British India,’ p. 262.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-424" id="linknote-424"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +424 (<a href="#linknoteref-424">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. J. Mansel Weale, +‘Nature,’ April 27, 1871, p. 508.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-425" id="linknote-425"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +425 (<a href="#linknoteref-425">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Journal of Researches +during the Voyage of the “Beagle,”’ 1845, p. 96. I have compared the +rattling thus produced with that of the Rattle-snake.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-426" id="linknote-426"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +426 (<a href="#linknoteref-426">return</a>)<br/> [ See the account by Dr. +Anderson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 196.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-427" id="linknote-427"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +427 (<a href="#linknoteref-427">return</a>)<br/> [ The ‘American +Naturalist,’ Jan. 1872, p. 32. I regret that I cannot follow Prof. Shaler +in believing that the rattle has been developed, by the aid of natural +selection, for the sake of producing sounds which deceive and attract +birds, so that they may serve as prey to the snake. I do not, however, +wish to doubt that the sounds may occasionally subserve this end. But the +conclusion at which I have arrived, viz. that the rattling serves as a +warning to would-be devourers, appears to me much more probable, as it +connects together various classes of facts. If this snake had acquired its +rattle and the habit of rattling, for the sake of attracting prey, it does +not seem probable that it would have invariably used its instrument when +angered or disturbed. Prof. Shaler takes nearly the same view as I do of +the manner of development of the rattle; and I have always held this +opinion since observing the Trigonocephalus in South America.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-428" id="linknote-428"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +428 (<a href="#linknoteref-428">return</a>)<br/> [ From the accounts +lately collected, and given in the ‘Journal of the Linnean Society,’ by +Airs. Barber, on the habits of the snakes of South Africa; and from the +accounts published by several writers, for instance by Lawson, of the +rattle-snake in North America,—it does not seem improbable that the +terrific appearance of snakes and the sounds produced by them, may +likewise serve in procuring prey, by paralysing, or as it is sometimes +called fascinating, the smaller animals.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-429" id="linknote-429"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +429 (<a href="#linknoteref-429">return</a>)<br/> [ See the account by Dr. +R. Brown, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 39. He says that as soon as a pig +sees a snake it rushes upon it; and a snake makes off immediately on the +appearance of a pig.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-430" id="linknote-430"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +430 (<a href="#linknoteref-430">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Günther remarks +(‘Reptiles of British India,’ p. 340) on the destruction of cobras by the +ichneumon or herpestes, and whilst the cobras are young by the +jungle-fowl. It is well known that the peacock also eagerly kills snakes.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-431" id="linknote-431"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +431 (<a href="#linknoteref-431">return</a>)<br/> [ Prof. Cope enumerates a +number of kinds in his ‘Method of Creation of Organic Types,’ read before +the American Phil. Soc., December 15th, 1871, p. 20. Prof. Cope takes the +same view as I do of the use of the gestures and sounds made by snakes. I +briefly alluded to this subject in the last edition of my ‘Origin of +Species.’ Since the passages in the text above have been printed, I have +been pleased to find that Mr. Henderson (‘The American Naturalist,’ May, +1872, p. 260) also takes a similar view of the use of the rattle, namely +“in preventing an attack from being made.”] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-432" id="linknote-432"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +432 (<a href="#linknoteref-432">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. des Vœux, in Proc. +Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 3.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-433" id="linknote-433"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +433 (<a href="#linknoteref-433">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Sportsman and +Naturalist in Canada,’ 1866, p. 53. p. 53.{sic}] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-434" id="linknote-434"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +434 (<a href="#linknoteref-434">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Nile Tributaries +of Abyssinia,’ 1867, p. 443.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-501" id="linknote-501"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +501 (<a href="#linknoteref-501">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Anatomy of +Expression,’ 1844, p. 190.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-502" id="linknote-502"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +502 (<a href="#linknoteref-502">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ +1865, pp. 187, 218.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-503" id="linknote-503"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +503 (<a href="#linknoteref-503">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Anatomy of +Expression,’ 1844, p. 140.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-504" id="linknote-504"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +504 (<a href="#linknoteref-504">return</a>)<br/> [ Many particulars are +given by Gueldenstädt in his account of the jackal in Nov. Comm. Acad. Sc. +Imp. Petrop. 1775, tom. xx. p. 449. See also another excellent account of +the manners of this animal and of its play, in ‘Land and Water,’ October, +1869. Lieut. Annesley, R. A., has also communicated to me some particulars +with respect to the jackal. I have made many inquiries about wolves and +jackals in the Zoological Gardens, and have observed them for myself.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-505" id="linknote-505"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +505 (<a href="#linknoteref-505">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Land and Water,’ +November 6, 1869.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-506" id="linknote-506"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +506 (<a href="#linknoteref-506">return</a>)<br/> [ Azara, ‘Quadrupèdes du +Paraquay,’ 1801, tom. 1. p. 136.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-507" id="linknote-507"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +507 (<a href="#linknoteref-507">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, +p. 657. See also Azara on the Puma, in the work above quoted.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-508" id="linknote-508"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +508 (<a href="#linknoteref-508">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy +of Expression,’ 3rd edit. p. 123. See also p. 126, on horses not breathing +through their mouths, with reference to their distended nostrils.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-509" id="linknote-509"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +509 (<a href="#linknoteref-509">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Land and Water,’ 1869, +p. 152.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-510" id="linknote-510"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +510 (<a href="#linknoteref-510">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Natural History of +Mammalia,’ 1841, vol. 1. pp. 383, 410.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-511" id="linknote-511"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +511 (<a href="#linknoteref-511">return</a>)<br/> [ Rengger (‘Sagetheire +von Paraquay’, 1830, s. 46) kept these monkeys in confinement for seven +years in their native country of Paraguay.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-512" id="linknote-512"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +512 (<a href="#linknoteref-512">return</a>)<br/> [ Rengger, ibid. s. 46. +Humboldt, ‘Personal Narrative, Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 527.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-513" id="linknote-513"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +513 (<a href="#linknoteref-513">return</a>)<br/> [ Nat. Hist. of Mammalia, +1841, p. 351.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-514" id="linknote-514"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +514 (<a href="#linknoteref-514">return</a>)<br/> [ Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. +i. s. 84. On baboons striking the ground, s. 61.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-515" id="linknote-515"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +515 (<a href="#linknoteref-515">return</a>)<br/> [ Brehm remarks +(‘Thierleben,’ s. 68) that the eyebrows of the <i>Inuus ecaudatus</i> are +frequently moved up and down when the animal is angered.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-516" id="linknote-516"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +516 (<a href="#linknoteref-516">return</a>)<br/> [ G. Bennett, ‘Wanderings +in New South Wales,’ &c. vol. ii. 1834, p. 153. FIG. 18.-Chimpanzee +disappointed and sulky. Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-517" id="linknote-517"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +517 (<a href="#linknoteref-517">return</a>)<br/> [ W. L. Martin, Nat. +Hist. of Mamm. Animals, 1841, p. 405.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-518" id="linknote-518"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +518 (<a href="#linknoteref-518">return</a>)<br/> [ Prof. Owen on the +Orang, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1830, p. 28. On the Chimpanzee, see Prof. +Macalister, in Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. vii. 1871, p. 342, who +states that the <i>corrugator supercilii</i> is inseparable from the <i>orbicularis +palpebrarum</i>.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-519" id="linknote-519"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +519 (<a href="#linknoteref-519">return</a>)<br/> [ Boston Journal of Nat. +Hist. 1845—-47, vol. v. p. 423. On the Chimpanzee, ibid. 1843-44, +vol. iv. p. 365.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-520" id="linknote-520"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +520 (<a href="#linknoteref-520">return</a>)<br/> [ See on this subject, +‘Descent of Man,’ vol. i. p. 20.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-521" id="linknote-521"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +521 (<a href="#linknoteref-521">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Descent of Man,’ vol, +i. p, 43.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-522" id="linknote-522"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +522 (<a href="#linknoteref-522">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Anatomy of +Expression,’ 3rd edit. 1844, pp. 138, 121.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-601" id="linknote-601"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +601 (<a href="#linknoteref-601">return</a>)<br/> [ The best photographs in +my collection are by Mr. Rejlander, of Victoria Street, London, and by +Herr Kindermann, of Hamburg. Figs. 1, 3, 4, and 6 are by the former; and +figs. 2 and 5, by the latter gentleman. Fig. 6 is given to show moderate +crying in an older child.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-602" id="linknote-602"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +602 (<a href="#linknoteref-602">return</a>)<br/> [ Henle (‘Handbuch d. +Syst. Anat. 1858, B. i. s. 139) agrees with Duchenne that this is the +effect of the contraction of the <i>pyramidalis nasi</i>.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-603" id="linknote-603"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +603 (<a href="#linknoteref-603">return</a>)<br/> [ These consist of the <i>levator +labii superioris alaeque nasi</i>, the <i>levator labii proprius</i>, the +<i>malaris</i>, and the <i>zygomaticus minor</i>, or little zygomatic. +This latter muscle runs parallel to and above the great zygomatic, and is +attached to the outer part of the upper lip. It is represented in fig. 2 +(I. p. 24), but not in figs. 1 and 3. Dr. Duchenne first showed +(‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, 1862, p. 39) the importance +of the contraction of this muscle in the shape assumed by the features in +crying. Henle considers the above-named muscles (excepting the <i>malaris</i>) +as subdivisions of the <i>quadratus labii superioris</i>.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-604" id="linknote-604"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +604 (<a href="#linknoteref-604">return</a>)<br/> [ Although Dr. Duchenne +has so carefully studied the contraction of the different muscles during +the act of crying, and the furrows on the face thus produced, there seems +to be something incomplete in his account; but what this is I cannot say. +He has given a figure (Album, fig. 48) in which one half of the face is +made, by galvanizing the proper muscles, to smile; whilst the other half +is similarly made to begin crying. Almost all those (viz. nineteen out of +twenty-one persons) to whom I showed the smiling half of the face +instantly recognized the expression; but, with respect to the other half, +only six persons out of twenty-one recognized it,—that is, if we +accept such terms as “grief,” “misery,” “annoyance,” as correct;—whereas, +fifteen persons were ludicrously mistaken; some of them saying the face +expressed “fun,” “satisfaction,” “cunning,” “disgust,” &c. We may +infer from this that there is something wrong in the expression. Some of +the fifteen persons may, however, have been partly misled by not expecting +to see an old man crying, and by tears not being secreted. With respect to +another figure by Dr. Duchenne (fig. 49), in which the muscles of half the +face are galvanized in order to represent a man beginning to cry, with the +eyebrow on the same side rendered oblique, which is characteristic of +misery, the expression was recognized by a greater proportional number of +persons. Out of twenty-three persons, fourteen answered correctly, +“sorrow,” “distress,” “grief,” “just going to cry,” “endurance of pain,” +&c. On the other hand, nine persons either could form no opinion or +were entirely wrong, answering, “cunning leer,” “jocund,” “looking at an +intense light,” “looking at a distant object,” &c.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-605" id="linknote-605"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +605 (<a href="#linknoteref-605">return</a>)<br/> [ Mrs. Gaskell, ‘Mary +Barton,’ new edit. p. 84.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-606" id="linknote-606"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +606 (<a href="#linknoteref-606">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Mimik und +Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 102. Duchenne, Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, +Album, p. 34.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-607" id="linknote-607"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +607 (<a href="#linknoteref-607">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Duchenne makes this +remark, ibid. p. 39.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-608" id="linknote-608"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +608 (<a href="#linknoteref-608">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Origin of +Civilization,’ 1870, p. 355.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-609" id="linknote-609"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +609 (<a href="#linknoteref-609">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for instance, Mr. +Marshall’s account of an idiot in Philosoph. Transact. 1864, p. 526. With +respect to cretins, see Dr. Piderit, ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. +61.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-610" id="linknote-610"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +610 (<a href="#linknoteref-610">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘New Zealand and its +Inhabitants,’ 1855, p. 175.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-611" id="linknote-611"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +611 (<a href="#linknoteref-611">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ +1865, p. 126.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-612" id="linknote-612"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +612 (<a href="#linknoteref-612">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Anatomy of +Expression,’ 1844, p. 106. See also his paper in the ‘Philosophical +Transactions,’ 1822, p. 284, ibid. 1823, pp. 166 and 289. Also ‘The +Nervous System of the Human Body,’ 3rd edit. 1836, p. 175.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-613" id="linknote-613"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +613 (<a href="#linknoteref-613">return</a>)<br/> [ See Dr. Brinton’s +account of the act of vomiting, in Todd’s Cyclop. of Anatomy and +Physiology, 1859, vol. v. Supplement, p. 318.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-614" id="linknote-614"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +614 (<a href="#linknoteref-614">return</a>)<br/> [ I am greatly indebted +to Mr. Bowman for having introduced me to Prof. Donders, and for his aid +in persuading this great physiologist to undertake the investigation of +the present subject. I am likewise much indebted to Mr. Bowman for having +given me, with the utmost kindness, information on many points.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-615" id="linknote-615"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +615 (<a href="#linknoteref-615">return</a>)<br/> [ This memoir first +appeared in the ‘Nederlandsch Archief voor Genees en Natuurkunde,’ Deel +5, 1870. It has been translated by Dr. W. D. Moore, under the title of “On +the Action of the Eyelids in determination of Blood from expiratory +effort,” in ‘Archives of Medicine,’ edited by Dr. L. S. Beale, 1870, vol. +v. p. 20.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-616" id="linknote-616"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +616 (<a href="#linknoteref-616">return</a>)<br/> [ Prof. Donders remarks +(ibid. p. 28), that, “After injury to the eye, after operations, and in +some forms of internal inflammation, we attach great value to the uniform +support of the closed eyelids, and we increase this in many instances by +the application of a bandage. In both cases we carefully endeavour to +avoid great expiratory pressure, the disadvantage of which is well known.” +Mr. Bowman informs me that in the excessive photophobia, accompanying what +is called scrofulous ophthalmia in children, when the light is so very +painful that during weeks or months it is constantly excluded by the most +forcible closure of the lids, he has often been struck on opening the lids +by the paleness of the eye,—not an unnatural paleness, but an +absence of the redness that might have been expected when the surface is +somewhat inflamed, as is then usually the case; and this paleness he is +inclined to attribute to the forcible closure of the eyelids.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-617" id="linknote-617"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +617 (<a href="#linknoteref-617">return</a>)<br/> [ Donders, ibid. p. 36.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-618" id="linknote-618"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +618 (<a href="#linknoteref-618">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood +(Dict. of English Etymology, 1859, vol. i. p. 410) says, “the verb to weep +comes from Anglo-Saxon <i>wop</i>, the primary meaning of which is simply +outcry.”] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-619" id="linknote-619"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +619 (<a href="#linknoteref-619">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ +1865, p. 217.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-620" id="linknote-620"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +620 (<a href="#linknoteref-620">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Ceylon,’ 3rd edit. +1859, vol. ii. pp. 364, 376. I applied to Mr. Thwaites, in Ceylon, for +further information with respect to the weeping of the elephant; and in +consequence received a letter from the Rev. Mr Glenie, who, with others, +kindly observed for me a herd of recently captured elephants. These, when +irritated, screamed violently; but it is remarkable that they never when +thus screaming contracted the muscles round the eyes. Nor did they shed +tears; and the native hunters asserted that they had never observed +elephants weeping. Nevertheless, it appears to me impossible to doubt Sir +E. Tennent’s distinct details about their weeping, supported as they are +by the positive assertion of the keeper in the Zoological Gardens. It is +certain that the two elephants in the Gardens, when they began to trumpet +loudly, invariably contracted their orbicular muscles. I can reconcile +these conflicting statements only by supposing that the recently captured +elephants in Ceylon, from being enraged or frightened, desired to observe +their persecutors, and consequently did not contract their orbicular +muscles, so that their vision might not be impeded. Those seen weeping by +Sir E. Tennent were prostrate, and had given up the contest in despair. +The elephants which trumpeted in the Zoological Gardens at the word of +command, were, of course, neither alarmed nor enraged.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-621" id="linknote-621"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +621 (<a href="#linknoteref-621">return</a>)<br/> [ Bergeon, as quoted in +the ‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,’ Nov. 1871, p. 235.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-622" id="linknote-622"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +622 (<a href="#linknoteref-622">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for instance, a +case given by Sir Charles Bell, ‘Philosophical Transactions,’ 1823, p. +177.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-623" id="linknote-623"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +623 (<a href="#linknoteref-623">return</a>)<br/> [ See, on these several +points, Prof. Donders ‘On the Anomalies of Accommodation and Refraction of +the Eye,’ 1864, p. 573.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-624" id="linknote-624"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +624 (<a href="#linknoteref-624">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Sir J. +Lubbock, ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 1865, p. 458.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-701" id="linknote-701"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +701 (<a href="#linknoteref-701">return</a>)<br/> [ The above descriptive +remarks are taken in part from my own observations, but chiefly from +Gratiolet (‘De la Physionomie,’ pp. 53, 337; on Sighing, 232), who has +well treated this whole subject. See, also, Huschke, ‘Mimices et +Physiognomices, Fragmentum Physiologi-cum,’ 1821, p. 21. On the dulness of +the eyes, Dr. Piderit, ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 65.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-702" id="linknote-702"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +702 (<a href="#linknoteref-702">return</a>)<br/> [ On the action of grief +on the organs of respiration, see more especially Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of +Expression,’ 3rd edit. 1844, p. 151.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-703" id="linknote-703"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +703 (<a href="#linknoteref-703">return</a>)<br/> [ In the foregoing +remarks on the manner in which the eyebrows are made oblique, I have +followed what seems to be the universal opinion of all the anatomists, +whose works I have consulted on the action of the above-named muscles, or +with whom I have conversed. Hence throughout this work I shall take a +similar view of the action of the corrugator supercilii, orbicularis, +pyramidalis nasi, and frontalis muscles. Dr. Duchenne, however, believes, +and every conclusion at which he arrives deserves serious consideration, +that it is the corrugator, called by him the sourcilier, which raises the +inner corner of the eyebrows and is antagonistic to the upper and inner +part of the orbicular muscle, as well as to the pyramidalis nasi (see +Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, 1862, folio, art. v., text and figures 19 +to 29: octavo edit. 1862, p. 43 text). He admits, however, that the +corrugator draws together the eyebrows, causing vertical furrows above the +base of the nose, or a frown. He further believes that towards the outer +two-thirds of the eyebrow the corrugator acts in conjunction with the +upper orbicular muscle; both here standing in antagonism to the frontal +muscle. I am unable to understand, judging from Henle’s drawings (woodcut, +fig. 3), how the corrugator can act in the manner described by Duchenne. +See, also, on this subject, Prof. Donders’ remarks in the ‘Archives of +Medicine,’ 1870, vol. v. p. 34. Mr. J. Wood, who is so well known for his +careful study of the muscles of the human frame, informs me that he +believes the account which I have given of the action of the corrugator to +be correct. But this is not a point of any importance with respect to the +expression which is caused by the obliquity of the eyebrows, nor of much +importance to the theory of its origin.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-704" id="linknote-704"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +704 (<a href="#linknoteref-704">return</a>)<br/> [ I am greatly indebted +to Dr. Duchenne for permission to have these two photographs (figs. 1 and +2) reproduced by the heliotype process from his work in folio. Many of the +foregoing remarks on the furrowing of the skin, when the eyebrows are +rendered oblique, are taken from his excellent discussion on this +subject.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-705" id="linknote-705"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +705 (<a href="#linknoteref-705">return</a>)<br/> [ Mécanisme de la Phys. +Humaine, Album, p. 15.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-706" id="linknote-706"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +706 (<a href="#linknoteref-706">return</a>)<br/> [ Henle, Handbuch der +Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s. 148, figs. 68 and 69.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-707" id="linknote-707"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +707 (<a href="#linknoteref-707">return</a>)<br/> [ See the account of the +action of this muscle by Dr. Duchenne, ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie +Humaine, Album (1862), viii. p. 34.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-801" id="linknote-801"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +801 (<a href="#linknoteref-801">return</a>)<br/> [ Herbert Spencer, +‘Essays Scientific,’ &c., 1858, p. 360.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-802" id="linknote-802"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +802 (<a href="#linknoteref-802">return</a>)<br/> [ F. Lieber on the vocal +sounds of L. Bridgman, ‘Smithsonian Contributions,’ 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-803" id="linknote-803"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +803 (<a href="#linknoteref-803">return</a>)<br/> [ See, also, Mr. +Marshall, in Phil. Transact. 1864, p. 526.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-804" id="linknote-804"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +804 (<a href="#linknoteref-804">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bain (‘The Emotions +and the Will,’ 1865, p. 247) has a long and interesting discussion on the +Ludicrous. The quotation above given about the laughter of the gods is +taken from this work. See, also, Mandeville, ‘The Fable of the Bees,’ vol. +ii. p. 168.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-805" id="linknote-805"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +805 (<a href="#linknoteref-805">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Physiology of +Laughter,’ Essays, Second Series, 1863, p. 114.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-806" id="linknote-806"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +806 (<a href="#linknoteref-806">return</a>)<br/> [ J. Lister in ‘Quarterly +Journal of Microscopical Science,’ 1853, vol. 1. p. 266.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-807" id="linknote-807"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +807 (<a href="#linknoteref-807">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ p. +186.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-808" id="linknote-808"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +808 (<a href="#linknoteref-808">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell (Anat. of +Expression, p. 147) makes some remarks on the movement of the diaphragm +during laughter.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-809" id="linknote-809"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +809 (<a href="#linknoteref-809">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Mécanisme de la +Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, Légende vi.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-810" id="linknote-810"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +810 (<a href="#linknoteref-810">return</a>)<br/> [ Handbuch der System. +Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s. 144. See my woodcut (H. fig. 2).] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-811" id="linknote-811"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +811 (<a href="#linknoteref-811">return</a>)<br/> [ See, also, remarks to +the same effect by Dr. J. Crichton Browne in ‘Journal of Mental Science,’ +April, 1871, p. 149.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-812" id="linknote-812"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +812 (<a href="#linknoteref-812">return</a>)<br/> [ C. Vogt, ‘Mémoire sur +les Microcéphales,’ 1867, p. 21.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-813" id="linknote-813"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +813 (<a href="#linknoteref-813">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy +of Expression,’ p. 133.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-814" id="linknote-814"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +814 (<a href="#linknoteref-814">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Mimik und +Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 63-67.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-815" id="linknote-815"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +815 (<a href="#linknoteref-815">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir T. Reynolds remarks +(‘Discourses,’ xii. p. 100), “it is curious to observe, and it is +certainly true, that the extremes of contrary passions are, with very +little variation, expressed by the same action.” He gives as an instance +the frantic joy of a Bacchante and the grief of a Mary Magdalen.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-816" id="linknote-816"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +816 (<a href="#linknoteref-816">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Piderit has come to +the same conclusion, ibid. s. 99.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-817" id="linknote-817"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +817 (<a href="#linknoteref-817">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘La Physionomie,’ par +G. Lavater, edit. of 1820, vol. iv. p. 224. See, also, Sir C. Bell, +‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 172, for the quotation given below.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-818" id="linknote-818"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +818 (<a href="#linknoteref-818">return</a>)<br/> [ A ‘Dictionary of +English Etymology,’ 2nd edit. 1872, Introduction, p. xliv.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-819" id="linknote-819"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +819 (<a href="#linknoteref-819">return</a>)<br/> [ Crantz, quoted by +Tylor, ‘Primitive Culture,’ 1871, Vol. i. P. 169.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-820" id="linknote-820"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +820 (<a href="#linknoteref-820">return</a>)<br/> [ F. Lieber, ‘Smithsonian +Contributions,’ 1851, vol. ii. p. 7.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-821" id="linknote-821"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +821 (<a href="#linknoteref-821">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bain remarks +(‘Mental and Moral Science,’ 1868, p. 239), “Tenderness is a pleasurable +emotion, variously stimulated, whose effort is to draw human beings into +mutual embrace.”] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-822" id="linknote-822"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +822 (<a href="#linknoteref-822">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir J. Lubbock, +‘Prehistoric Times,’ 2nd edit. 1869, p. 552, gives full authorities for +these statements. The quotation from Steele is taken from this work.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-823" id="linknote-823"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +823 (<a href="#linknoteref-823">return</a>)<br/> [ See a full acount,{sic} +with references, by E. B. Tylor, ‘Researches into the Early History of +Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 51.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-824" id="linknote-824"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +824 (<a href="#linknoteref-824">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Descent of Man,’ +vol. ii. p. 336.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-825" id="linknote-825"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +825 (<a href="#linknoteref-825">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Mandsley has a +discussion to this effect in his ‘Body and Mind,’ 1870, p. 85.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-826" id="linknote-826"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +826 (<a href="#linknoteref-826">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Anatomy of +Expression,’ p. 103, and ‘Philosophical Transactions,’ 1823, p. 182.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-827" id="linknote-827"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +827 (<a href="#linknoteref-827">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Origin of +Language,’ 1866, p. 146. Mr. Tylor (‘Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit. +1870, p. 48) gives a more complex origin to the position of the hands +during prayer.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-901" id="linknote-901"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +901 (<a href="#linknoteref-901">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Anatomy of +Expression,’ pp. 137, 139. It is not surprising that the corrugators +should have become much more developed in man than in the anthropoid apes; +for they are brought into incessant action by him under various +circumstances, and will have been strengthened and modified by the +inherited effects of use. We have seen how important a part they play, +together with the orbiculares, in protecting the eyes from being too much +gorged with blood during violent expiratory movements. When the eyes are +closed as quickly and as forcibly as possible, to save them from being +injured by a blow, the corrugators contract. With savages or other men +whose heads are uncovered, the eyebrows are continually lowered and +contracted to serve as a shade against a too strong light; and this is +effected partly by the corrugators. This movement would have been more +especially serviceable to man, as soon as his early progenitors held their +heads erect. Lastly, Prof. Donders believes (‘Archives of Medicine,’ ed. +by L. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 34), that the corrugators are brought into +action in causing the eyeball to advance in accommodation for proximity in +vision.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-902" id="linknote-902"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +902 (<a href="#linknoteref-902">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Mécanisme de la +Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, Légende iii.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-903" id="linknote-903"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +903 (<a href="#linknoteref-903">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Mimik und +Physiognomik,’ s. 46.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-904" id="linknote-904"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +904 (<a href="#linknoteref-904">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘History of the +Abipones,’ Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 59, as quoted by Lubbock, ‘Origin of +Civilisation,’ 1870, p. 355.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-905" id="linknote-905"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +905 (<a href="#linknoteref-905">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ +pp. 15, 144, 146. Mr. Herbert Spencer accounts for frowning exclusively by +the habit of contracting the brows as a shade to the eyes in a bright +light: see ‘Principles of Physiology,’ 2nd edit. 1872, p. 546.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-906" id="linknote-906"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +906 (<a href="#linknoteref-906">return</a>)<br/> [ Gratiolet remarks (De +la Phys. p. 35), “Quand l’attention est fixee sur quelque image +interieure, l’oeil regarde dons le vide et s’associe automatiquement a la +contemplation de l’esprit.” But this view hardly deserves to be called an +explanation.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-907" id="linknote-907"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +907 (<a href="#linknoteref-907">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Miles Gloriosus,’ act +ii. sc. 2.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-908" id="linknote-908"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +908 (<a href="#linknoteref-908">return</a>)<br/> [ The original photograph +by Herr Kindermann is much more expressive than this copy, as it shows the +frown on the brow more plainly.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-909" id="linknote-909"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +909 (<a href="#linknoteref-909">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Mécanisme de la +Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, Légende iv. figs. 16-18.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-910" id="linknote-910"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +910 (<a href="#linknoteref-910">return</a>)<br/> [ Hensleigh Wedgwood on +‘The Origin of Language,’ 1866, p. 78.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-911" id="linknote-911"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +911 (<a href="#linknoteref-911">return</a>)<br/> [ Müller, as quoted by +Huxley, ‘Man’s Place in Nature,’ 1863, p. 38.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-912" id="linknote-912"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +912 (<a href="#linknoteref-912">return</a>)<br/> [ I have given several +instances in my ‘Descent of Man,’ vol. i. chap. iv.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-913" id="linknote-913"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +913 (<a href="#linknoteref-913">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Anatomy of +Expression.’ p. 190.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-914" id="linknote-914"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +914 (<a href="#linknoteref-914">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ +pp. 118-121.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-915" id="linknote-915"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +915 (<a href="#linknoteref-915">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Mimik und +Physiognomik,’ s. 79.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1001" id="linknote-1001"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1001 (<a href="#linknoteref-1001">return</a>)<br/> [ See some remarks to +this effect by Mr. Bain, ‘The Emotions and the Will,’ 2nd edit. 1865, p. +127.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1002" id="linknote-1002"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1002 (<a href="#linknoteref-1002">return</a>)<br/> [ Rengger, Naturgesch. +der Säugethiere von Paraguay, 1830, s. 3.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1003" id="linknote-1003"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1003 (<a href="#linknoteref-1003">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy +of Expression,’ p. 96. On the other hand, Dr. Burgess (‘Physiology of +Blushing,’ 1839, p. 31) speaks of the reddening of a cicatrix in a negress +as of the nature of a blush.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1004" id="linknote-1004"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1004 (<a href="#linknoteref-1004">return</a>)<br/> [ Moreau and Gratiolet +have discussed the colour of the face under the influence of intense +passion: see the edit. of 1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. pp. 282 and 300; and +Gratiolet, ‘De la Physionomie,’ p. 345.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1005" id="linknote-1005"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1005 (<a href="#linknoteref-1005">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell ‘Anatomy +of Expression,’ pp. 91, 107, has fully discussed this subject. Moreau +remarks (in the edit. of 1820 of ‘La Physionomie, par G. Lavater,’ vol. +iv. p. 237), and quotes Portal in confirmation, that asthmatic patients +acquire permanently expanded nostrils, owing to the habitual contraction +of the elevatory muscles of the wings of the nose. The explanation by Dr. +Piderit (‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ s. 82) of the distension of the +nostrils, namely, to allow free breathing whilst the mouth is closed and +the teeth clenched, does not appear to be nearly so correct as that by Sir +C. Bell, who attributes it to the sympathy (<i>i. e</i>. habitual +co-action) of all the respiratory muscles. The nostrils of an angry man +may be seen to become dilated, although his mouth is open.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1006" id="linknote-1006"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1006 (<a href="#linknoteref-1006">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Wedgwood, ‘On the +Origin of Language,’ 1866, p. 76. He also observes that the sound of hard +breathing “is represented by the syllables <i>puff, huff, whiff</i>, +whence a <i>huff</i> is a fit of ill-temper.”] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1007" id="linknote-1007"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1007 (<a href="#linknoteref-1007">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell ‘Anatomy +of Expression,’ p. 95) has some excellent remarks on the expression of +rage.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1008" id="linknote-1008"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1008 (<a href="#linknoteref-1008">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ +1865, p. 346.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1009" id="linknote-1009"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1009 (<a href="#linknoteref-1009">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy +of Expression,’ p. 177. Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 369) says, ‘les dents se +découvrent, et imitent symboliquement l’action de déchirer et de mordre.’I +If, instead of using the vague term <i>symboliquement</i>, Gratiolet had +said that the action was a remnant of a habit acquired during primeval +times when our semi-human progenitors fought together with their teeth, +like gorillas and orangs at the present day, he would have been more +intelligible. Dr. Piderit (‘Mimik,’ &c., s. 82) also speaks of the +retraction of the upper lip during rage. In an engraving of one of +Hogarth’s wonderful pictures, passion is represented in the plainest +manner by the open glaring eyes, frowning forehead, and exposed grinning +teeth.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1010" id="linknote-1010"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1010 (<a href="#linknoteref-1010">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Oliver Twist,’ vol. +iii. p. 245.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1011" id="linknote-1011"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1011 (<a href="#linknoteref-1011">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Spectator,’ July +11, 1868, p. 810.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1012" id="linknote-1012"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1012 (<a href="#linknoteref-1012">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Body and Mind,’ +1870, pp. 51-53.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1013" id="linknote-1013"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1013 (<a href="#linknoteref-1013">return</a>)<br/> [ Le Brun, in his +well-known ‘Conference sur l’Expression’ (‘La Physionomie, par Lavater,’ +edit. of 1820, vol. lx. p. 268), remarks that anger is expressed by the +clenching of the fists. See, to the same effect, Huschke, ‘Mimices et +Physiognomices, Fragmentum Physiologicum,’ 1824, p. 20. Also Sir C. Bell, +‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 219.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1014" id="linknote-1014"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1014 (<a href="#linknoteref-1014">return</a>)<br/> [ Transact. Philosoph. +Soc., Appendix, 1746, p. 65.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1015" id="linknote-1015"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1015 (<a href="#linknoteref-1015">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Anatomy of +Expression,’ p. 136. Sir C. Bell calls (p. 131) the muscles which uncover +the canines the snarling muscles.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1016" id="linknote-1016"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1016 (<a href="#linknoteref-1016">return</a>)<br/> [ Hensleigh Wedgwood, +‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’ 1865, vol. iii. pp. 240, 243.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1017" id="linknote-1017"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1017 (<a href="#linknoteref-1017">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Descent of Man,’ +1871, vol. L p. 126.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1101" id="linknote-1101"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1101 (<a href="#linknoteref-1101">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘De In Physionomie et +la Parole,’ 1865, p. 89.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1102" id="linknote-1102"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1102 (<a href="#linknoteref-1102">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Physionomie +Humaine,’ Album, Légende viii. p. 35. Gratiolet also speaks (De la Phys. +1865, p. 52) of the turning away of the eyes and body.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1103" id="linknote-1103"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1103 (<a href="#linknoteref-1103">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. W. Ogle, in an +interesting paper on the Sense of Smell (‘Medico-Chirurgical +Transactions,’ vol. liii. p. 268), shows that when we wish to smell +carefully, instead of taking one deep nasal inspiration, we draw in the +air by a succession of rapid short sniffs. If “the nostrils be watched +during this process, it will be seen that, so far from dilating, they +actually contract at each sniff. The contraction does not include the +whole anterior opening, but only the posterior portion.” He then explains +the cause of this movement. When, on the other hand, we wish to exclude +any odour, the contraction, I presume, affects only the anterior part of +the nostrils.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1104" id="linknote-1104"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1104 (<a href="#linknoteref-1104">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Mimik und +Physiognomik,’ ss. 84, 93. Gratiolet (ibid. p. 155) takes nearly the same +view with Dr. Piderit respecting the expression of contempt and disgust.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1105" id="linknote-1105"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1105 (<a href="#linknoteref-1105">return</a>)<br/> [ Scorn implies a +strong form of contempt; and one of the roots of the word ‘scorn’ means, +according to Mr. Wedgwood (Dict. of English Etymology, vol. iii. p. 125), +ordure or dirt. A person who is scorned is treated like dirt.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1106" id="linknote-1106"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1106 (<a href="#linknoteref-1106">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Early History of +Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 45.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1107" id="linknote-1107"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1107 (<a href="#linknoteref-1107">return</a>)<br/> [ See, to this effect, +Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood’s Introduction to the ‘Dictionary of English +Etymology,’ 2nd edit. 1872, p. xxxvii.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1108" id="linknote-1108"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1108 (<a href="#linknoteref-1108">return</a>)<br/> [ Duchenne believes +that in the eversion of the lower lip, the corners are drawn downwards by +the <i>depressores anguli oris</i>. Henle (Handbuch d. Anat. des Menschen, +1858, B. i. s. 151) concludes that this is effected by the <i>musculus +quadratus menti</i>.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1109" id="linknote-1109"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1109 (<a href="#linknoteref-1109">return</a>)<br/> [ As quoted by Tylor, +‘Primitive Culture,’ 1871, vol. i. p. 169.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1110" id="linknote-1110"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1110 (<a href="#linknoteref-1110">return</a>)<br/> [ Both these quotations +are given by Mr. H. Wedgwood, ‘On the Origin of Language,’ 1866, p. 75.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1111" id="linknote-1111"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1111 (<a href="#linknoteref-1111">return</a>)<br/> [ This is stated to be +the case by Mr. Tylor (Early Hist. of Mankind, 2nd edit. 1870, p. 52); and +he adds, “it is not clear why this should be so.”] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1112" id="linknote-1112"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1112 (<a href="#linknoteref-1112">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Principles of +Psychology,’ 2nd edit. 1872, p. 552.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1113" id="linknote-1113"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1113 (<a href="#linknoteref-1113">return</a>)<br/> [ Gratiolet (De la +Phys. p. 351) makes this remark, and has some good observations on the +expression of pride. See Sir C. Bell (‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 111) on +the action of the <i>musculus superbus</i>.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1114" id="linknote-1114"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1114 (<a href="#linknoteref-1114">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Anatomy of +Expression,’ p. 166.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1115" id="linknote-1115"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1115 (<a href="#linknoteref-1115">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Journey through +Texas,’ p. 352.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1116" id="linknote-1116"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1116 (<a href="#linknoteref-1116">return</a>)<br/> [ Mrs. Oliphant, ‘The +Brownlows,’ vol. ii. p. 206.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1117" id="linknote-1117"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1117 (<a href="#linknoteref-1117">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Essai sur le +Langage,’ 2nd edit. 1846. I am much indebted to Miss Wedgwood for having +given me this information, with an extract from the work.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1118" id="linknote-1118"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1118 (<a href="#linknoteref-1118">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘On the Origin of +Language,’ 1866, p. 91.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1119" id="linknote-1119"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1119 (<a href="#linknoteref-1119">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘On the Vocal Sounds +of L. Bridgman;’ Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 11.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1120" id="linknote-1120"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1120 (<a href="#linknoteref-1120">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Mémoire sur les +Microcéphales,’ 1867, p. 27.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1121" id="linknote-1121"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1121 (<a href="#linknoteref-1121">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Tylor, +‘Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 38.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1122" id="linknote-1122"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1122 (<a href="#linknoteref-1122">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. J. B. Jukes, +‘Letters and Extracts,’ &c. 1871, p. 248.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1123" id="linknote-1123"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1123 (<a href="#linknoteref-1123">return</a>)<br/> [ F. Lieber, ‘On the +Vocal Sounds,’ &c. p. 11. Tylor, ibid. p. 53.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1124" id="linknote-1124"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1124 (<a href="#linknoteref-1124">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. King, Edinburgh +Phil. Journal, 1845, p. 313.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1125" id="linknote-1125"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1125 (<a href="#linknoteref-1125">return</a>)<br/> [ Tylor, ‘Early History +of Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 53.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1126" id="linknote-1126"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1126 (<a href="#linknoteref-1126">return</a>)<br/> [ Lubbock, ‘The Origin +of Civilization,’ 1870, p. 277. Tylor, ibid. p. 38. Lieber (ibid. p. 11) +remarks on the negative of the Italians.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1201" id="linknote-1201"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1201 (<a href="#linknoteref-1201">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Mécanisme de la +Physionomie,’ Album, 1862, p. 42.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1202" id="linknote-1202"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1202 (<a href="#linknoteref-1202">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Polyglot News +Letter,’ Melbourne, Dec. 1858, p. 2.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1203" id="linknote-1203"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1203 (<a href="#linknoteref-1203">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Anatomy of +Expression,’ p. 106.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1204" id="linknote-1204"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1204 (<a href="#linknoteref-1204">return</a>)<br/> [ Mécanisme de la +Physionomie,’ Album, p. 6.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1205" id="linknote-1205"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1205 (<a href="#linknoteref-1205">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for instance, +Dr. Piderit (‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ s. 88), who has a good discussion +on the expression of surprise.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1206" id="linknote-1206"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1206 (<a href="#linknoteref-1206">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Murie has also +given me information leading to the same conclusion, derived in part from +comparative anatomy.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1207" id="linknote-1207"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1207 (<a href="#linknoteref-1207">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ +1865, p. 234.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1208" id="linknote-1208"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1208 (<a href="#linknoteref-1208">return</a>)<br/> [ See, on this subject, +Gratiolet, ibid. p. 254.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1209" id="linknote-1209"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1209 (<a href="#linknoteref-1209">return</a>)<br/> [ Lieber, ‘On the Vocal +Sounds of Laura Bridgman,’ Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. +7.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1210" id="linknote-1210"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1210 (<a href="#linknoteref-1210">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Wenderholme,’ vol. +ii. p. 91.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1211" id="linknote-1211"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1211 (<a href="#linknoteref-1211">return</a>)<br/> [ Lieber, ‘On the Vocal +Sounds,’ &c., ibid. p. 7.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1212" id="linknote-1212"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1212 (<a href="#linknoteref-1212">return</a>)<br/> [ Huschke, ‘Mimices et +Physiognomices,’ 1821, p. 18. Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 255) gives a +figure of a man in this attitude, which, however, seems to me expressive +of fear combined with astonishment. Le Brun also refers (Lavater, vol. ix. +p. 299) to the hands of an astonished man being opened.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1213" id="linknote-1213"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1213 (<a href="#linknoteref-1213">return</a>)<br/> [ Huschke, ibid. p. +18.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1214" id="linknote-1214"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1214 (<a href="#linknoteref-1214">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘North American +Indians,’ 3rd edit. 1842, vol. i. p. 105.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1215" id="linknote-1215"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1215 (<a href="#linknoteref-1215">return</a>)<br/> [ H. Wedgwood, Dict. of +English Etymology, vol. ii. 1862, p. 35. See, also, Gratiolet (‘De la +Physionomie,’ p. 135) on the sources of such words as ‘terror, horror, +rigidus, frigidus,’ &c.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1216" id="linknote-1216"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1216 (<a href="#linknoteref-1216">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bain (‘The +Emotions and the Will,’ 1865, p. 54) explains in the following manner the +origin of the custom “of subjecting criminals in India to the ordeal of +the morsel of rice. The accused is made to take a mouthful of rice, and +after a little time to throw it out. If the morsel is quite dry, the party +is believed to be guilty,—his own evil conscience operating to +paralyse the salivating organs.”] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1217" id="linknote-1217"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1217 (<a href="#linknoteref-1217">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell, +Transactions of Royal Phil. Soc. 1822, p. 308. ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. +88 and pp. 164-469.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1218" id="linknote-1218"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1218 (<a href="#linknoteref-1218">return</a>)<br/> [ See Moreau on the +rolling of the eyes, in the edit. of 1820 of Lavater, tome iv. p. 263. +Also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 17.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1219" id="linknote-1219"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1219 (<a href="#linknoteref-1219">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Observations on +Italy,’ 1825, p. 48, as quoted in ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 168.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1220" id="linknote-1220"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1220 (<a href="#linknoteref-1220">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Dr. +Maudsley, ‘Body and Mind,’ 1870, p. 41.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1221" id="linknote-1221"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1221 (<a href="#linknoteref-1221">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Anatomy of +Expression,’ p. 168.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1222" id="linknote-1222"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1222 (<a href="#linknoteref-1222">return</a>)<br/> [ Mécanisme de la Phys. +Humaine, Album, Légende xi.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1223" id="linknote-1223"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1223 (<a href="#linknoteref-1223">return</a>)<br/> [ Ducheinne takes, in +fact, this view (ibid. p. 45), as he attributes the contraction of the +platysma to the shivering of fear (<i>frisson de la peur</i>); but he +elsewhere compares the action with that which causes the hair of +frightened quadrupeds to stand erect; and this can hardly be considered as +quite correct.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1224" id="linknote-1224"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1224 (<a href="#linknoteref-1224">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ +pp. 51, 256, 346.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1225" id="linknote-1225"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1225 (<a href="#linknoteref-1225">return</a>)<br/> [ As quoted in White’s +‘Gradation in Man,’ p. 57.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1226" id="linknote-1226"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1226 (<a href="#linknoteref-1226">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Anatomy of +Expression,’ p. 169.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1227" id="linknote-1227"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1227 (<a href="#linknoteref-1227">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Mécanisme de la +Physionomie,’ Album, pl. 65, pp. 44, 45.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1228" id="linknote-1228"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1228 (<a href="#linknoteref-1228">return</a>)<br/> [ See remarks to this +effect by Mr. Wedgwood, in the Introduction to his ‘Dictionary of English +Etymology,’ 2nd edit. 1872, p. xxxvii. He shows by intermediate forms that +the sounds here referred to have probably given rise to many words, such +as <i>ugly, huge</i>, &c.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1301" id="linknote-1301"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1301 (<a href="#linknoteref-1301">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘The Physiology or +Mechanism of Blushing,’ 1839, p. 156. I shall have occasion often to quote +this work in the present chapter.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1302" id="linknote-1302"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1302 (<a href="#linknoteref-1302">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Burgess, ibid. p. +56. At p. 33 he also remarks on women blushing more freely than men, as +stated below.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1303" id="linknote-1303"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1303 (<a href="#linknoteref-1303">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Vogt, +‘Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,’ 1867, p. 20. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 56) +doubts whether idiots ever blush.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1304" id="linknote-1304"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1304 (<a href="#linknoteref-1304">return</a>)<br/> [ Lieber ‘On the Vocal +Sounds,’ &c.; Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1305" id="linknote-1305"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1305 (<a href="#linknoteref-1305">return</a>)<br/> [ Ibid. p. 182.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1306" id="linknote-1306"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1306 (<a href="#linknoteref-1306">return</a>)<br/> [ Moreau, in edit. of +1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. p. 303.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1307" id="linknote-1307"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1307 (<a href="#linknoteref-1307">return</a>)<br/> [ Burgess. ibid. p. 38, +on paleness after blushing, p. 177.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1308" id="linknote-1308"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1308 (<a href="#linknoteref-1308">return</a>)<br/> [ See Lavater, edit. of +1820, vol. iv. p. 303.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1309" id="linknote-1309"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1309 (<a href="#linknoteref-1309">return</a>)<br/> [ Burgess, ibid. pp. +114, 122. Moreau in Lavater, ibid. vol. iv. p. 293.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1310" id="linknote-1310"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1310 (<a href="#linknoteref-1310">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Letters from Egypt,’ +1865, p. 66. Lady Gordon is mistaken when she says Malays and Mulattoes +never blush.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1311" id="linknote-1311"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1311 (<a href="#linknoteref-1311">return</a>)<br/> [ Capt. Osborn +(‘Quedah,’ p. 199), in speaking of a Malay, whom he reproached for +cruelty, says he was glad to see that the man blushed.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1312" id="linknote-1312"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1312 (<a href="#linknoteref-1312">return</a>)<br/> [ J. R. Forster, +‘Observations during a Voyage round the World,’ 4to, 1778, p. 229. Waitz +gives (‘Introduction to Anthropology,’ Eng. translat. 1863, vol. i. p. +135) references for other islands in the Pacific. See, also, Dampier ‘On +the Blushing of the Tunquinese’ (vol. ii. p. 40); but I have not consulted +this work. Waitz quotes Bergmann, that the Kalmucks do not blush, but this +may be doubted after what we have seen with respect to the Chinese. He +also quotes Roth, who denies that the Abyssinians are capable of blushing. +Unfortunately, Capt. Speedy, who lived so long with the Abyssinians, has +not answered my inquiry on this head. Lastly, I must add that the Rajah +Brooke has never observed the least sign of a blush with the Dyaks of +Borneo; on the contrary under circumstances which would excite a blush in +us, they assert “that they feel the blood drawn from their faces.”] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1313" id="linknote-1313"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1313 (<a href="#linknoteref-1313">return</a>)<br/> [ Transact. of the +Ethnological Soc. 1870, vol. ii. p. 16.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1314" id="linknote-1314"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1314 (<a href="#linknoteref-1314">return</a>)<br/> [ Humboldt, ‘Personal +Narrative,’ Eng. translat. vol. iii. p. 229.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1315" id="linknote-1315"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1315 (<a href="#linknoteref-1315">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Prichard, +Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit 1851, vol. i. p. 271.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1316" id="linknote-1316"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1316 (<a href="#linknoteref-1316">return</a>)<br/> [ See, on this head, +Burgess, ibid. p. 32. Also Waitz, ‘Introduction to Anthropology,’ Eng. +edit. vol. i. p. 139. Moreau gives a detailed account (‘Lavater,’ 1820, +tom. iv. p. 302) of the blushing of a Madagascar negress-slave when forced +by her brutal master to exhibit her naked bosom.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1317" id="linknote-1317"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1317 (<a href="#linknoteref-1317">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Prichard, +Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit. 1851, vol. i. p. 225.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1318" id="linknote-1318"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1318 (<a href="#linknoteref-1318">return</a>)<br/> [ Burgess, ibid. p. 31. +On mulattoes blushing, see p. 33. I have received similar accounts with +respect to, mulattoes.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1319" id="linknote-1319"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1319 (<a href="#linknoteref-1319">return</a>)<br/> [ Barrington also says +that the Australians of New South Wales blush, as quoted by Waitz, ibid. +p. 135.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1320" id="linknote-1320"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1320 (<a href="#linknoteref-1320">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Wedgwood says +(Dict. of English Etymology, vol. iii. 1865, p. 155) that the word shame +“may well originate in the idea of shade or concealment, and may be +illustrated by the Low German <i>scheme</i>, shade or shadow.” Gratiolet +(De la Phys. pp. 357-362) has a good discussion on the gestures +accompanying shame; but some of his remarks seem to me rather fanciful. +See, also, Burgess (ibid. pp. 69, 134) on the same subject.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1321" id="linknote-1321"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1321 (<a href="#linknoteref-1321">return</a>)<br/> [ Burgess, ibid. pp. +181, 182. Boerhaave also noticed (as quoted by Gratiolet, ibid. p. 361) +the tendency to the secretion of tears during intense blushing. Mr. +Bulmer, as we have seen, speaks of the “watery eyes” of the children of +the Australian aborigines when ashamed.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1322" id="linknote-1322"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1322 (<a href="#linknoteref-1322">return</a>)<br/> [ See also Dr. J. +Crichton Browne’s Memoir on this subject in the ‘West Riding Lunatic +Asylum Medical Report,’ 1871, pp. 95-98.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1323" id="linknote-1323"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1323 (<a href="#linknoteref-1323">return</a>)<br/> [ In a discussion on +so-called animal magnetism in ‘Table Talk,’ vol. i.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1324" id="linknote-1324"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1324 (<a href="#linknoteref-1324">return</a>)<br/> [ Ibid. p. 40.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1325" id="linknote-1325"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1325 (<a href="#linknoteref-1325">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bain (‘The +Emotions and the Will,’ 1865, p. 65) remarks on “the shyness of manners +which is induced between the sexes.... from the influence of mutual +regard, by the apprehension on either side of not standing well with the +other.”] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1326" id="linknote-1326"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1326 (<a href="#linknoteref-1326">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for evidence on +this subject, ‘The Descent of Man,’ &c., vol. ii. pp. 71, 341.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1327" id="linknote-1327"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1327 (<a href="#linknoteref-1327">return</a>)<br/> [ H. Wedgwood, Dict. +English Etymology, vol. iii. 1865, p. 184. So with the Latin word <i>verecundus</i>.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1328" id="linknote-1328"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1328 (<a href="#linknoteref-1328">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bain (‘The +Emotions and the Will,’ p. 64) has discussed the “abashed” feelings +experienced on these occasions, as well as the <i>stage-fright</i> of +actors unused to the stage. Mr. Bain apparently attributes these feelings +to simple apprehension or dread.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1329" id="linknote-1329"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1329 (<a href="#linknoteref-1329">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Essays on Practical +Education,’ by Maria and R. L. Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 38. +Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 187) insists strongly to the same effect.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1330" id="linknote-1330"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1330 (<a href="#linknoteref-1330">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Essays on Practical +Education,’ by Maria and R. L. Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 50.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1331" id="linknote-1331"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1331 (<a href="#linknoteref-1331">return</a>)<br/> [ Bell, ‘Anatomy of +Expression,’ p. 95. Burgess, as quoted below, ibid. p. 49. Gratiolet, De +la Phys. p. 94.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1332" id="linknote-1332"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1332 (<a href="#linknoteref-1332">return</a>)<br/> [ On the authority of +Lady Mary Wortley Montague; see Burgess, ibid. p. 43.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1333" id="linknote-1333"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1333 (<a href="#linknoteref-1333">return</a>)<br/> [ In England, Sir H. +Holland was, I believe, the first to consider the influence of mental +attention on various parts of the body, in his ‘Medical Notes and +Reflections,’ 1839 p. 64. This essay, much enlarged, was reprinted by Sir +H. Holland in his ‘Chapters on Mental Physiology,’ 1858, p. 79, from which +work I always quote. At nearly the same time, as well as subsequently, +Prof. Laycock discussed the same subject: see ‘Edinburgh Medical and +Surgical Journal,’ 1839, July, pp. 17-22. Also his ‘Treatise on the +Nervous Diseases of Women,’ 1840, p. 110; and ‘Mind and Brain,’ vol. ii. +1860, p. 327. Dr. Carpenter’s views on mesmerism have a nearly similar +bearing. The great physiologist Müller treated (‘Elements of Physiology,’ +Eng. translat. vol. ii. pp. 937, 1085) of the influence of the attention +on the senses. Sir J. Paget discusses the influence of the mind on the +nutrition of parts, in his ‘Lectures on Surgical Pathology,’ 1853, vol. i. +p. 39: 1 quote from the 3rd edit. revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, p. 28. +See, also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. pp. 283-287.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1334" id="linknote-1334"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1334 (<a href="#linknoteref-1334">return</a>)<br/> [ De la Phys. p. 283.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1340" id="linknote-1340"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1340 (<a href="#linknoteref-1340">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Maudsley has +given (‘The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,’ 2nd edit. 1868, p. 105), on +good authority, some curious statements with respect to the improvement of +the sense of touch by practice and attention. It is remarkable that when +this sense has thus been rendered more acute at any point of the body, for +instance, in a finger, it is likewise improved at the corresponding point +on the opposite side of the body.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1341" id="linknote-1341"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1341 (<a href="#linknoteref-1341">return</a>)<br/> [ The Lancet,’ 1838, +pp. 39-40, as quoted by Prof. Laycock, ‘Nervous Diseases of Women,’ 1840, +p. 110.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1342" id="linknote-1342"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1342 (<a href="#linknoteref-1342">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Chapters on Mental +Physiology,’ 1858, pp. 91-93.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1343" id="linknote-1343"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1343 (<a href="#linknoteref-1343">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Lectures on Surgical +Pathology,’ 3rd edit. revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, pp. 28, 31.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1344" id="linknote-1344"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1344 (<a href="#linknoteref-1344">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘Elements of +Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 938.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1345" id="linknote-1345"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1345 (<a href="#linknoteref-1345">return</a>)<br/> [ Prof. Laycock has +discussed this point in a very interesting manner. See his ‘Nervous +Diseases of Women,’ 1840, p. 110.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1346" id="linknote-1346"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1346 (<a href="#linknoteref-1346">return</a>)<br/> [ See, also, Mr. +Michael Foster, on the action of the vaso-motor system, in his interesting +Lecture before the royal Institution, as translated in the ‘Revue des +Cours Scientifiques,’ Sept. 25, 1869, p. 683.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1401" id="linknote-1401"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1401 (<a href="#linknoteref-1401">return</a>)<br/> [ See the interesting +facts given by Dr. Bateman on ‘Aphasia,’ 1870, p. 110.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1402" id="linknote-1402"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1402 (<a href="#linknoteref-1402">return</a>)<br/> [ ‘La Physionomie et la +Parole,’ 1865, pp. 103, 118.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1403" id="linknote-1403"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1403 (<a href="#linknoteref-1403">return</a>)<br/> [ Rengger, +‘Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 55.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1404" id="linknote-1404"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1404 (<a href="#linknoteref-1404">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Moreau, in +his edition of Lavater, 1820, tom. iv. p. 211.] +</p> + +<p> +<a name="linknote-1405" id="linknote-1405"> +<!-- Note --></a> +</p> +<p class="foot"> +1405 (<a href="#linknoteref-1405">return</a>)<br/> [ Gratiolet (‘De la +Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 66) insists on the truth of this conclusion.] +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1227 ***</div> +</body> + +</html> + + diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig1-2.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig1-2.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4acbc84 --- /dev/null +++ b/1227-h/images/fig1-2.jpg diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig10.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig10.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 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