initial commit of ebook 1227HEADmain

70 files changed, 85688 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/1227-0.txt b/1227-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c4dcfe2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,10968 @@
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1227 ***
+
+THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS
+
+By Charles Darwin
+
+_With Photographic And Other Illustrations_
+
+New York
+
+D. Appleton And Company
+
+1899
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+ DETAILED CONTENTS.
+
+ ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS.
+
+ INTRODUCTION.
+
+ CHAPTER I. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
+
+ CHAPTER II. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—_continued_.
+
+ CHAPTER III. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—_concluded_.
+
+ CHAPTER IV. — MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN ANIMALS.
+
+ CHAPTER V. — SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.
+
+ CHAPTER VI. — SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.
+
+ CHAPTER VII. — LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.
+
+ CHAPTER VIII. — JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
+
+ CHAPTER IX. —
+ REFLECTION—MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER—SULKINESS—DETERMINATION.
+
+ CHAPTER X. — HATRED AND ANGER.
+
+ CHAPTER XI. — DISDAIN—CONTEMPT—DISGUST-GUILT—PRIDE, ETC.
+
+ CHAPTER XII. — SURPRISE—ASTONISHMENT—FEAR—HORROR.
+
+ CHAPTER XIII. — SELF-ATTENTION—SHAME—SHYNESS—MODESTY: BLUSHING.
+
+ CHAPTER XIV. — CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
+
+ FOOTNOTES
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+
+ Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 1-2
+
+ Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 3
+
+ Small Dog Watching a Cat on A Table. Figure 4
+
+ Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind. Fig. 5
+
+ Dog in a humble and Affectionate Frame of Mind. Fig. 6
+
+ Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind. Fig. 7
+
+ Dog Carressing his Master. Fig. 8
+
+ Cat, Savage, and Prepared to Fight. Fig. 9
+
+ Cat in an Affectionate Frame of Mind. Fig. 10
+
+ Sound Producing Quills from Tail of a Porcupine. Fig. 11
+
+ Hen Driving Away a Dog from Her Chickens. Fig. 12
+
+ Swan Driving Away an Intruder. Fig 13
+
+ Head of Snarling Dog. Fig 14
+
+ Cat Terrified at a Dog. Fig.15
+
+ Cynopithecus Niger, Pleased by Being Caressed. Fig.17
+
+ Chimpanzee Disappointed and Sulky. Fig. 18
+
+ Screaming Infants. Plate I.
+
+ Obliquity of the Eyebrows. Plate II
+
+ Moderate Laughter and Smiling. Plate III
+
+ Ill-temper. Plate IV
+
+ Anger and Indignation. Plate VI
+
+ Scorn and Disdain. Plate V
+
+ Gestures of the Body. Plate VII
+
+ Photograph of an Insane Woman. Fig. 19
+
+ Terror. Fig. 20
+
+ Horror and Agony. Fig. 21
+
+
+_N.B_.—Several of the figures in these seven Heliotype Plates have been
+reproduced from photographs, instead of from the original negatives;
+and they are in consequence somewhat indistinct. Nevertheless they are
+faithful copies, and are much superior for my purpose to any drawing,
+however carefully executed.
+
+
+DETAILED CONTENTS.
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+CHAP. I—GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
+The three chief principles stated—The first principle—Serviceable
+actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind,
+and are performed whether or not of service in each particular case—The
+force of habit—Inheritance—Associated habitual movements in man—Reflex
+actions—Passage of habits into reflex actions—Associated habitual
+movements in the lower animals—Concluding remarks
+
+CHAP. II—GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.—_continued_.
+The Principle of Antithesis—Instances in the dog and cat—Origin of the
+principle—Conventional signs—The principle of antithesis has not arisen
+from opposite actions being consciously performed under opposite
+impulses
+
+CHAP. III—GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.—_concluded_.
+The principle of the direct action of the excited nervous system on the
+body, independently of the will and in part of habit—Change of colour
+in the hair—Trembling of the muscles—Modified
+secretions—Perspiration—Expression of extreme pain—Of rage, great joy,
+and terror—Contrast between the emotions which cause and do not cause
+expressive movements—Exciting and depressing states of the mind—Summary
+
+CHAP. IV—MEANS OF EXPRESSION. IN ANIMALS.
+The emission of sounds—Vocal sounds—Sounds otherwise produced—Erection
+of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &c., under the emotions of
+anger and terror—The drawing back of the ears as a preparation for
+fighting, and as an expression of anger—Erection of the ears and
+raising the head, a sign of attention
+
+CHAP. V.—SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.
+The Dog, various expressive movements of—Cats—Horses—Ruminants—Monkeys,
+their expression of joy and affection—Of pain—Anger Astonishment and
+Terror
+
+CHAP. VI.—SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.
+The screaming and weeping of infants—Form of features—Age at which
+weeping commences—The effects of habitual restraint on
+weeping—Sobbing—Cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes
+during screaming—Cause of the secretion of tears
+
+CHAP. VII.—LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.
+General effect of grief on the system—Obliquity of the eyebrows under
+suffering—On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows—On the
+depression of the corners of the mouth
+
+CHAP. VIII.—JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
+Laughter primarily the expression of joy—Ludicrous ideas—Movements of
+the features during laughter—Nature of the sound produced—The secretion
+of tears during loud laughter—Gradation from loud laughter to gentle
+smiling—High spirits—The expression of love—Tender feelings—Devotion
+
+CHAP. IX.—REFLECTION—MEDITATION—ILL—TEMPER—SULKINESS DETERMINATION.
+The act of frowning—Reflection with an effort or with the perception of
+something difficult or disagreeable—Abstracted
+meditation—Ill-temper—Moroseness—Obstinacy—Sulkiness and
+pouting—Decision or determination—The firm closure of the mouth
+
+CHAP. X.—HATRED AND ANGER.
+Hatred—Rage, effects of on the system—Uncovering of the teeth—Rage in
+the insane—Anger and indignation—As expressed by the various races of
+man—Sneering and defiance—The uncovering of the canine teeth on one
+side of the face
+
+CHAP. XI.—DISDAIN—CONTEMPT—DISGUST—GUILT—PRIDE,
+ETC.—HELPLESSNESS—PATIENCE—AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.
+Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed—Derisive
+Smile—Gestures expressive of contempt—Disgust—Guilt, deceit, pride,
+etc.—Helplessness or impotence—Patience—Obstinacy—Shrugging the
+shoulders common to most of the races of man—Signs of affirmation and
+negation
+
+CHAP. XII.—SURPRISE—ASTONISHMENT—FEAR—HORROR.
+Surprise, astonishment—Elevation of the eyebrows—Opening the
+mouth—Protrusion of the lips—Gestures accompanying surprise—Admiration
+Fear—Terror—Erection of the hair—Contraction of the platysma
+muscle—Dilatation of the pupils—horror—Conclusion.
+
+CHAP. XIII.—SELF-ATTENTION—SHAME—SHYNESS—MODESTY: BLUSHING.
+Nature of a blush—Inheritance—The parts of the body most
+affected—Blushing in the various races of man—Accompanying
+gestures—Confusion of mind—Causes of blushing—Self-attention, the
+fundamental element—Shyness—Shame, from broken moral laws and
+conventional rules—Modesty—Theory of blushing—Recapitulation
+
+CHAP. XIV.—CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
+The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements
+of expression—Their inheritance—On the part which the will and
+intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions—The
+instinctive recognition of expression—The bearing of our subject on the
+specific unity of the races of man—On the successive acquirement of
+various expressions by the progenitors of man—The importance of
+expression—Conclusion
+
+
+
+
+ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Many works have been written on Expression, but a greater number on
+Physiognomy,—that is, on the recognition of character through the study
+of the permanent form of the features. With this latter subject I am
+not here concerned. The older treatises,[1] which I have consulted,
+have been of little or no service to me. The famous ‘Conférences’[2] of
+the painter Le Brun, published in 1667, is the best known ancient work,
+and contains some good remarks. Another somewhat old essay, namely, the
+‘Discours,’ delivered 1774-1782, by the well-known Dutch anatomist
+Camper,[3] can hardly be considered as having made any marked advance
+in the subject. The following works, on the contrary, deserve the
+fullest consideration.
+
+Sir Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in physiology,
+published in 1806 the first edition, and in the third edition of his
+‘Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression.’[4] He may with justice be said,
+not only to have laid the foundations of the subject as a branch of
+science, but to have built up a noble structure. His work is in every
+way deeply interesting; it includes graphic descriptions of the various
+emotions, and is admirably illustrated. It is generally admitted that
+his service consists chiefly in having shown the intimate relation
+which exists between the movements of expression and those of
+respiration. One of the most important points, small as it may at first
+appear, is that the muscles round the eyes are involuntarily contracted
+during violent expiratory efforts, in order to protect these delicate
+organs from the pressure of the blood. This fact, which has been fully
+investigated for me with the greatest kindness by Professors Donders of
+Utrecht, throws, as we shall hereafter see, a flood of light on several
+of the most important expressions of the human countenance. The merits
+of Sir C. Bell’s work have been undervalued or quite ignored by several
+foreign writers, but have been fully admitted by some, for instance by
+M. Lemoine,[5] who with great justice says:—“Le livre de Ch. Bell
+devrait être médité par quiconque essaye de faire parler le visage de
+l’homme, par les philosophes aussi bien que par les artistes, car, sous
+une apparence plus légère et sous le prétexte de l’esthétique, c’est un
+des plus beaux monuments de la science des rapports du physique et du
+moral.”
+
+From reasons which will presently be assigned, Sir C. Bell did not
+attempt to follow out his views as far as they might have been carried.
+He does not try to explain why different muscles are brought into
+action under different emotions; why, for instance, the inner ends of
+the eyebrows are raised, and the corners of the mouth depressed, by a
+person suffering from grief or anxiety.
+
+In 1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater on Physiognomy,[6] in
+which he incorporated several of his own essays, containing excellent
+descriptions of the movements of the facial muscles, together with many
+valuable remarks. He throws, however, very little light on the
+philosophy of the subject. For instance, M. Moreau, in speaking of the
+act of frowning, that is, of the contraction of the muscle called by
+French writers the _soucilier_ (_corrigator supercilii_), remarks with
+truth:—“Cette action des sourciliers est un des symptômes les plus
+tranchés de l’expression des affections pénibles ou concentrées.” He
+then adds that these muscles, from their attachment and position, are
+fitted “à resserrer, à concentrer les principaux traits de la _face_,
+comme il convient dans toutes ces passions vraiment oppressives ou
+profondes, dans ces affections dont le sentiment semble porter
+l’organisation à revenir sur elle-même, à se contracter et à
+_s’amoindrir_, comme pour offrir moins de prise et de surface à des
+impressions redoutables ou importunes.” He who thinks that remarks of
+this kind throw any light on the meaning or origin of the different
+expressions, takes a very different view of the subject to what I do.
+
+In the above passage there is but a slight, if any, advance in the
+philosophy of the subject, beyond that reached by the painter Le Brun,
+who, in 1667, in describing the expression of fright, says:—“Le sourcil
+qui est abaissé d’un côté et élevé de l’autre, fait voir que la partie
+élevée semble le vouloir joindre au cerveau pour le garantir du mal que
+l’âme aperçoit, et le côté qui est abaissé et qui paraît enflé,—nous
+fait trouver dans cet état par les esprits qui viennent du cerveau en
+abondance, comme polir couvrir l’âme et la défendre du mal qu’elle
+craint; la bouche fort ouverte fait voir le saisissement du cœur, par
+le sang qui se retire vers lui, ce qui l’oblige, voulant respirer, à
+faire un effort qui est cause que la bouche s’ouvre extrêmement, et
+qui, lorsqu’il passe par les organes de la voix, forme un son qui n’est
+point articulé; que si les muscles et les veines paraissent enflés, ce
+n’est que par les esprits que le cerveau envoie en ces parties-là.” I
+have thought the foregoing sentences worth quoting, as specimens of the
+surprising nonsense which has been written on the subject.
+
+‘The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,’ by Dr. Burgess, appeared in
+1839, and to this work I shall frequently refer in my thirteenth
+Chapter.
+
+In 1862 Dr. Duchenne published two editions, in folio and octavo, of
+his ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ in which he analyses by
+means of electricity, and illustrates by magnificent photographs, the
+movements of the facial muscles. He has generously permitted me to copy
+as many of his photographs as I desired. His works have been spoken
+lightly of, or quite passed over, by some of his countrymen. It is
+possible that Dr. Duchenne may have exaggerated the importance of the
+contraction of single muscles in giving expression; for, owing to the
+intimate manner in which the muscles are connected, as may be seen in
+Henle’s anatomical drawings[7]—the best I believe ever published it is
+difficult to believe in their separate action. Nevertheless, it is
+manifest that Dr. Duchenne clearly apprehended this and other sources
+of error, and as it is known that he was eminently successful in
+elucidating the physiology of the muscles of the hand by the aid of
+electricity, it is probable that he is generally in the right about the
+muscles of the face. In my opinion, Dr. Duchenne has greatly advanced
+the subject by his treatment of it. No one has more carefully studied
+the contraction of each separate muscle, and the consequent furrows
+produced on the skin. He has also, and this is a very important
+service, shown which muscles are least under the separate control of
+the will. He enters very little into theoretical considerations, and
+seldom attempts to explain why certain muscles and not others contract
+under the influence of certain emotions.
+
+A distinguished French anatomist, Pierre Gratiolet, gave a course of
+lectures on Expression at the Sorbonne, and his notes were published
+(1865) after his death, under the title of ‘De la Physionomie et des
+Mouvements d’Expression.’ This is a very interesting work, full of
+valuable observations. His theory is rather complex, and, as far as it
+can be given in a single sentence (p. 65), is as follows:—“Il résulte,
+de tous les faits que j’ai rappelés, que les sens, l’imagination et la
+pensée elle-même, si élevée, si abstraite qu’on la suppose, ne peuvent
+s’exercer sans éveiller un sentiment corrélatif, et que ce sentiment se
+traduit directement, sympathiquement, symboliquement ou
+métaphoriquement, dans toutes les sphères des organs extérieurs, qui la
+racontent tous, suivant leur mode d’action propre, comme si chacun
+d’eux avait été directement affecté.”
+
+Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit, and even to some extent
+habit in the individual; and therefore he fails, as it seems to me, to
+give the right explanation, or any explanation at all, of many gestures
+and expressions. As an illustration of what he calls symbolic
+movements, I will quote his remarks (p. 37), taken from M. Chevreul, on
+a man playing at billiards. “Si une bille dévie légèrement de la
+direction que le joueur prétend lui imprimer, ne l’avez-vous pas vu
+cent fois la pousser du regard, de la tête et même des épaules, comme
+si ces mouvements, purement symboliques, pouvaient rectifier son
+trajet? Des mouvements non moins significatifs se produisent quand la
+bille manque d’une impulsion suffisante. Et cliez les joueurs novices,
+ils sont quelquefois accusés au point d’éveiller le sourire sur les
+lèvres des spectateurs.” Such movements, as it appeirs to me, may be
+attributed simply to habit. As often as a man has wished to move an
+object to one side, he has always pushed it to that side when forwards,
+he has pushed it forwards; and if he has wished to arrest it, he has
+pulled backwards. Therefore, when a man sees his ball travelling in a
+wrong direction, and he intensely wishes it to go in another direction,
+he cannot avoid, from long habit, unconsciously performing movements
+which in other cases he has found effectual.
+
+As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet gives (p. 212) the
+following case:—“un jeune chien à oreilles droites, auquel son maître
+présente de loin quelque viande appétissante, fixe avec ardeur ses yeux
+sur cet objet dont il suit tous les mouvements, et pendant que les yeux
+regardent, les deux oreilles se portent en avant comme si cet objet
+pouvait être entendu.” Here, instead of speaking of sympathy between
+the ears and eyes, it appears to me more simple to believe, that as
+dogs during many generations have, whilst intently looking at any
+object, pricked their ears in order to perceive any sound; and
+conversely have looked intently in the direction of a sound to which
+they may have listened, the movements of these organs have become
+firmly associated together through long-continued habit.
+
+Dr. Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, which I have not
+seen, but in which, as he states, he forestalled Gratiolet in many of
+his views. In 1867 he published his ‘Wissenschaftliches System der
+Mimik und Physiognomik.’ It is hardly possible to give in a few
+sentences a fair notion of his views; perhaps the two following
+sentences will tell as much as can be briefly told: “the muscular
+movements of expression are in part related to imaginary objects, and
+in part to imaginary sensorial impressions. In this proposition lies
+the key to the comprehension of all expressive muscular movements.” (s.
+25) Again, “Expressive movements manifest themselves chiefly in the
+numerous and mobile muscles of the face, partly because the nerves by
+which they are set into motion originate in the most immediate vicinity
+of the mind-organ, but partly also because these muscles serve to
+support the organs of sense.” (s. 26.) If Dr. Piderit had studied Sir
+C. Bell’s work, he would probably not have said (s. 101) that violent
+laughter causes a frown from partaking of the nature of pain; or that
+with infants (s. 103) the tears irritate the eyes, and thus excite the
+contraction of the surrounding in muscles. Many good remarks are
+scattered throughout this volume, to which I shall hereafter refer.
+
+Short discussions on Expression may be found in various works, which
+need not here be particularised. Mr. Bain, however, in two of his works
+has treated the subject at some length. He says,[8] “I look upon the
+expression so-called as part and parcel of the feeling. I believe it to
+be a general law of the mind that along with the fact of inward feeling
+or consciousness, there is a diffusive action or excitement over the
+bodily members.” In another place he adds, “A very considerable number
+of the facts may be brought under the following principle: namely, that
+states of pleasure are connected with an increase, and states of pain
+with an abatement, of some, or all, of the vital functions.” But the
+above law of the diffusive action of feelings seems too general to
+throw much light on special expressions.
+
+Mr. Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in his ‘Principles of
+Psychology’ (1855), makes the following remarks:—“Fear, when strong,
+expresses itself in cries, in efforts to hide or escape, in
+palpitations and tremblings; and these are just the manifestations that
+would accompany an actual experience of the evil feared. The
+destructive passions are shown in a general tension of the muscular
+system, in gnashing of the teeth and protrusion of the claws, in
+dilated eyes and nostrils in growls; and these are weaker forms of the
+actions that accompany the killing of prey.” Here we have, as I
+believe, the true theory of a large number of expressions; but the
+chief interest and difficulty of the subject lies in following out the
+wonderfully complex results. I infer that some one (but who he is I
+have not been able to ascertain) formerly advanced a nearly similar
+view, for Sir C. Bell says,[9] “It has been maintained that what are
+called the external signs of passion, are only the concomitants of
+those voluntary movements which the structure renders necessary.” Mr.
+Spencer has also published[10] a valuable essay on the physiology of
+Laughter, in which he insists on “the general law that feeling passing
+a certain pitch, habitually vents itself in bodily action,” and that
+“an overflow of nerve-force undirected by any motive, will manifestly
+take first the most habitual routes; and if these do not suffice, will
+next overflow into the less habitual ones.” This law I believe to be of
+the highest importance in throwing light on our subject.’[11]
+
+All the authors who have written on Expression, with the exception of
+Mr. Spencer—the great expounder of the principle of Evolution—appear to
+have been firmly convinced that species, man of course included, came
+into existence in their present condition. Sir C. Bell, being thus
+convinced, maintains that many of our facial muscles are “purely
+instrumental in expression;” or are “a special provision” for this sole
+object.[12] But the simple fact that the anthropoid apes possess the
+same facial muscles as we do,[13] renders it very improbable that these
+muscles in our case serve exclusively for expression; for no one, I
+presume, would be inclined to admit that monkeys have been endowed with
+special muscles solely for exhibiting their hideous grimaces. Distinct
+uses, independently of expression, can indeed be assigned with much
+probability for almost all the facial muscles.
+
+Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a distinction as possible
+between man and the lower animals; and he consequently asserts that
+with “the lower creatures there is no expression but what may be
+referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary
+instincts.” He further maintains that their faces “seem chiefly capable
+of expressing rage and fear.”[14] But man himself cannot express love
+and humility by external signs, so plainly as does a dog, when with
+drooping ears, hanging lips, flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets
+his beloved master. Nor can these movements in the dog be explained by
+acts of volition or necessary instincts, any more than the beaming eyes
+and smiling cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir C. Bell
+had been questioned about the expression of affection in the dog, he
+would no doubt have answered that this animal had been created with
+special instincts, adapting him for association with man, and that all
+further enquiry on the subject was superfluous.
+
+Although Gratiolet emphatically denies[15] that any muscle has been
+developed solely for the sake of expression, he seems never to have
+reflected on the principle of evolution. He apparently looks at each
+species as a separate creation. So it is with the other writers on
+Expression. For instance, Dr. Duchenne, after speaking of the movements
+of the limbs, refers to those which give expression to the face, and
+remarks:[16] “Le créateur n’a donc pas eu à se préoccuper ici des
+besoins de la mécanique; il a pu, selon sa sagesse, ou—que l’on me
+pardonne cette manière de parler—par une divine fantaisie, mettre en
+action tel ou tel muscle, un seul ou plusieurs muscles à la fois,
+lorsqu’il a voulu que les signes caractéristiques des passions, même
+les plus fugaces, fussent écrits passagèrement sur la face de l’homme.
+Ce langage de la physionomie une fois créé, il lui a suffi, pour le
+rendre universel et immuable, de donner à tout être humain la faculté
+instinctive d’exprimer toujours ses sendments par la contraction des
+mêmes muscles.”
+
+Many writers consider the whole subject of Expression as inexplicable.
+Thus the illustrious physiologist Müller, says,[17] “The completely
+different expression of the features in different passions shows that,
+according to the kind of feeling excited, entirely different groups of
+the fibres of the facial nerve are acted on. Of the cause of this we
+are quite ignorant.”
+
+No doubt as long as man and all other animals are viewed as independent
+creations, an effectual stop is put to our natural desire to
+investigate as far as possible the causes of Expression. By this
+doctrine, anything and everything can be equally well explained; and it
+has proved as pernicious with respect to Expression as to every other
+branch of natural history. With mankind some expressions, such as the
+bristling of the hair under the influence of extreme terror, or the
+uncovering of the teeth under that of furious rage, can hardly be
+understood, except on the belief that man once existed in a much lower
+and animal-like condition. The community of certain expressions in
+distinct though allied species, as in the movements of the same facial
+muscles during laughter by man and by various monkeys, is rendered
+somewhat more intelligible, if we believe in their descent from a
+common progenitor. He who admits on general grounds that the structure
+and habits of all animals have been gradually evolved, will look at the
+whole subject of Expression in a new and interesting light.
+
+The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements being
+often extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature. A difference may be
+clearly perceived, and yet it may be impossible, at least I have found
+it so, to state in what the difference consists. When we witness any
+deep emotion, our sympathy is so strongly excited, that close
+observation is forgotten or rendered almost impossible; of which fact I
+have had many curious proofs. Our imagination is another and still more
+serious source of error; for if from the nature of the circumstances we
+expect to see any expression, we readily imagine its presence.
+Notwithstanding Dr. Duchenne’s great experience, he for a long time
+fancied, as he states, that several muscles contracted under certain
+emotions, whereas he ultimately convinced himself that the movement was
+confined to a single muscle.
+
+In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to ascertain,
+independently of common opinion, how far particular movements of the
+features and gestures are really expressive of certain states of the
+mind, I have found the following means the most serviceable. In the
+first place, to observe infants; for they exhibit many emotions, as Sir
+C. Bell remarks, “with extraordinary force;” whereas, in after life,
+some of our expressions “cease to have the pure and simple source from
+which they spring in infancy.”[18]
+
+In the second place, it occurred to me that the insane ought to be
+studied, as they are liable to the strongest passions, and give
+uncontrolled vent to them. I had, myself, no opportunity of doing this,
+so I applied to Dr. Maudsley and received from him an introduction to
+Dr. J. Crichton Browne, who has charge of an immense asylum near
+Wakefield, and who, as I found, had already attended to the subject.
+This excellent observer has with unwearied kindness sent me copious
+notes and descriptions, with valuable suggestions on many points; and I
+can hardly over-estimate the value of his assistance. I owe also, to
+the kindness of Mr. Patrick Nicol, of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum,
+interesting statements on two or three points.
+
+Thirdly Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already seen, certain
+muscles in the face of an old man, whose skin was little sensitive, and
+thus produced various expressions which were photographed on a large
+scale. It fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best
+plates, without a word of explanation, to above twenty educated persons
+of various ages and both sexes, asking them, in each case, by what
+emotion or feeling the old man was supposed to be agitated; and I
+recorded their answers in the words which they used. Several of the
+expressions were instantly recognised by almost everyone, though
+described in not exactly the same terms; and these may, I think, be
+relied on as truthful, and will hereafter be specified. On the other
+hand, the most widely different judgments were pronounced in regard to
+some of them. This exhibition was of use in another way, by convincing
+me how easily we may be misguided by our imagination; for when I first
+looked through Dr. Duchenne’s photographs, reading at the same time the
+text, and thus learning what was intended, I was struck with admiration
+at the truthfulness of all, with only a few exceptions. Nevertheless,
+if I had examined them without any explanation, no doubt I should have
+been as much perplexed, in some cases, as other persons have been.
+
+Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters in
+painting and sculpture, who are such close observers. Accordingly, I
+have looked at photographs and engravings of many well-known works;
+but, with a few exceptions, have not thus profited. The reason no doubt
+is, that in works of art, beauty is the chief object; and strongly
+contracted facial muscles destroy beauty.[19] The story of the
+composition is generally told with wonderful force and truth by
+skilfully given accessories.
+
+Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascertain whether the same
+expressions and gestures prevail, as has often been asserted without
+much evidence, with all the races of mankind, especially with those who
+have associated but little with Europeans. Whenever the same movements
+of the features or body express the same emotions in several distinct
+races of man, we may infer with much probability, that such expressions
+are true ones,—that is, are innate or instinctive. Conventional
+expressions or gestures, acquired by the individual during early life,
+would probably have differed in the different races, in the same manner
+as do their languages. Accordingly I circulated, early in the year
+1867, the following printed queries with a request, which has been
+fully responded to, that actual observations, and not memory, might be
+trusted. These queries were written after a considerable interval of
+time, during which my attention had been otherwise directed, and I can
+now see that they might have been greatly improved. To some of the
+later copies, I appended, in manuscript, a few additional remarks:—
+
+(1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide,
+and by the eyebrows being raised?
+
+(2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows it to
+be visible? and especially how low down the body does the blush extend?
+
+(3.) When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his body
+and head erect, square his shoulders and clench his fists?
+
+(4) When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to understand any
+puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids?
+
+(5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed, and
+the inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which the French
+call the “Grief muscle”? The eyebrow in this state becomes slightly
+oblique, with a little swelling at the Inner end; and the forehead is
+transversely wrinkled in the middle part, but not across the whole
+breadth, as when the eyebrows are raised in surprise.
+
+(6.) When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little
+wrinkled round and under them, and with the mouth a little drawn back
+at the corners?
+
+(7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the upper
+lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side facing the man whom
+he addresses?
+
+(8) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized, which is
+chiefly shown by the mouth being firmly closed, a lowering brow and a
+slight frown?
+
+(9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips and by
+turning up the nose, and with a slight expiration?
+
+(10) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down, the upper lip
+slightly raised, with a sudden expiration, something like incipient
+vomiting, or like something spit out of the mouth?
+
+(11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as with
+Europeans?
+
+(12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears
+into the eyes?
+
+(13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something being
+done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his shoulders, turn
+inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands and open the palms; with
+the eyebrows raised?
+
+(14) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the lips?
+
+(15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized? though
+I know not how these can be defined.
+
+(16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken
+laterally in negation?
+
+Observations on natives who have had little communication with
+Europeans would be of course the most valuable, though those made on
+any natives would be of much interest to me. General remarks on
+expression are of comparatively little value; and memory is so
+deceptive that I earnestly beg it may not be trusted. A definite
+description of the countenance under any emotion or frame of mind, with
+a statement of the circumstances under which it occurred, would possess
+much value.
+
+To these queries I have received thirty-six answers from different
+observers, several of them missionaries or protectors of the
+aborigines, to all of whom I am deeply indebted for the great trouble
+which they have taken, and for the valuable aid thus received. I will
+specify their names, &c., towards the close of this chapter, so as not
+to interrupt my present remarks. The answers relate to several of the
+most distinct and savage races of man. In many instances, the
+circumstances have been recorded under which each expression was
+observed, and the expression itself described. In such cases, much
+confidence may be placed in the answers. When the answers have been
+simply yes or no, I have always received them with caution. It follows,
+from the information thus acquired, that the same state of mind is
+expressed throughout the world with remarkable uniformity; and this
+fact is in itself interesting as evidence of the close similarity in
+bodily structure and mental disposition of all the races, of mankind.
+
+Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended as closely as I could, to the
+expression of the several passions in some of the commoner animals; and
+this I believe to be of paramount importance, not of course for
+deciding how far in man certain expressions are characteristic of
+certain states of mind, but as affording the safest basis for
+generalisation on the causes, or origin, of the various movements of
+Expression. In observing animals, we are not so likely to be biassed by
+our imagination; and we may feel safe that their expressions are not
+conventional.
+
+From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting nature of some
+expressions (the changes in the features being often extremely slight);
+our sympathy being easily aroused when we behold any strong emotion,
+and our attention thus distracted; our imagination deceiving us, from
+knowing in a vague manner what to expect, though certainly few of us
+know what the exact changes in the countenance are; and lastly, even
+our long familiarity with the subject,—from all these causes combined,
+the observation of Expression is by no means easy, as many persons,
+whom I have asked to observe certain points, have soon discovered.
+Hence it is difficult to determine, with certainty, what are the
+movements of the features and of the body, which commonly characterize
+certain states of the mind. Nevertheless, some of the doubts and
+difficulties have, as I hope, been cleared away by the observation of
+infants,—of the insane,—of the different races of man,—of works of
+art,—and lastly, of the facial muscles under the action of galvanism,
+as effected by Dr. Duchenne.
+
+But there remains the much greater difficulty of understanding the
+cause or origin of the several expressions, and of judging whether any
+theoretical explanation is trustworthy. Besides, judging as well as we
+can by our reason, without the aid of any rules, which of two or more
+explanations is the most satisfactory, or are quite unsatisfactory, I
+see only one way of testing our conclusions. This is to observe whether
+the same principle by which one expression can, as it appears, be
+explained, is applicable in other allied cases; and especially, whether
+the same general principles can be applied with satisfactory results,
+both to man and the lower animals. This latter method, I am inclined to
+think, is the most serviceable of all. The difficulty of judging of the
+truth of any theoretical explanation, and of testing it by some
+distinct line of investigation, is the great drawback to that interest
+which the study seems well fitted to excite.
+
+Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may state that they
+were commenced in the year 1838; and from that time to the present day,
+I have occasionally attended to the subject. At the above date, I was
+already inclined to believe in the principle of evolution, or of the
+derivation of species from other and lower forms. Consequently, when I
+read Sir C. Bell’s great work, his view, that man had been created with
+certain muscles specially adapted for the expression of his feelings,
+struck me as unsatisfactory. It seemed probable that the habit of
+expressing our feelings by certain movements, though now rendered
+innate, had been in some manner gradually acquired. But to discover how
+such habits had been acquired was perplexing in no small degree. The
+whole subject had to be viewed under a new aspect, and each expression
+demanded a rational explanation. This belief led me to attempt the
+present work, however imperfectly it may have been executed.
+
+
+I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, as I have said, I
+am deeply indebted for information in regard to the expressions
+exhibited by various races of man, and I will specify some of the
+circumstances under which the observations were in each case made.
+Owing to the great kindness and powerful influence of Mr. Wilson, of
+Hayes Place, Kent, I have received from Australia no less than thirteen
+sets of answers to my queries. This has been particularly fortunate, as
+the Australian aborigines rank amongst the most distinct of all the
+races of man. It will be seen that the observations have been chiefly
+made in the south, in the outlying parts of the colony of Victoria; but
+some excellent answers have been received from the north.
+
+Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valuable observations, made
+several hundred miles in the interior of Queensland. To Mr. R. Brough
+Smyth, of Melbourne, I am much indebted for observations made by
+himself, and for sending me several of the following letters,
+namely:—From the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer, of Lake Wellington, a missionary
+in Gippsland, Victoria, who has had much experience with the natives.
+From Mr. Samuel Wilson, a landowner, residing at Langerenong, Wimmera,
+Victoria. From the Rev. George Taplin, superintendent of the native
+Industrial Settlement at Port Macleay. From Mr. Archibald G. Lang, of
+Coranderik, Victoria, a teacher at a school where aborigines, old and
+young, are collected from all parts of the colony. From Mr. H. B. Lane,
+of Belfast, Victoria, a police magistrate and warden, whose
+observations, as I am assured, are highly trustworthy. From Mr.
+Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose station is on the borders of the
+colony of Victoria, and who has thus been able to observe many
+aborigines who have had little intercourse with white men. He compared
+his observations with those made by two other gentlemen long resident
+in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr. J. Bulmer, a missionary in a remote
+part of Gippsland, Victoria.
+
+I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr. Ferdinand Müller,
+of Victoria, for some observations made by himself, and for sending me
+others made by Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing
+letters.
+
+In regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Rev. J. W. Stack has
+answered only a few of my queries; but the answers have been remarkably
+full, clear, and distinct, with the circumstances recorded under which
+the observations were made.
+
+The Rajah Brooke has given me some information with respect to the
+Dyaks of Borneo.
+
+Respecting the Malays, I have been highly successful; for Mr. F. Geach
+(to whom I was introduced by Mr. Wallace), during his residence as a
+mining engineer in the interior of Malacca, observed many natives, who
+had never before associated with white men. He wrote me two long
+letters with admirable and detailed observations on their expression.
+He likewise observed the Chinese immigrants in the Malay archipelago.
+
+The well-known naturalist, H. M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, also observed for
+me the Chinese in their native country; and he made inquiries from
+others whom he could trust.
+
+In India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official capacity in
+the Admednugur District in the Bombay Presidency, attended to the
+expression of the inhabitants, but found much difficulty in arriving at
+any safe conclusions, owing to their habitual concealment of all
+emotions in the presence of Europeans. He also obtained information for
+me from Mr. West, the Judge in Canara, and he consulted some
+intelligent native gentlemen on certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J.
+Scott, curator of the Botanic Gardens, carefully observed the various
+tribes of men therein employed during a considerable period, and no one
+has sent me such full and valuable details. The habit of accurate
+observation, gained by his botanical studies, has been brought to bear
+on our present subject. For Ceylon I am much indebted to the Rev. S. O.
+Glenie for answers to some of my queries.
+
+Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with respect to the negroes,
+though Mr. Winwood Reade aided me as far as lay in his power. It would
+have been comparatively easy to have obtained information in regard to
+the negro slaves in America; but as they have long associated with
+white men, such observations would have possessed little value. In the
+southern parts of the continent Mrs. Barber observed the Kafirs and
+Fingoes, and sent me many distinct answers. Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale also
+made some observations on the natives, and procured for me a curious
+document, namely, the opinion, written in English, of Christian Gaika,
+brother of the Chief Sandilli, on the expressions of his
+fellow-countrymen. In the northern regions of Africa Captain Speedy,
+who long resided with the Abyssinians, answered my queries partly from
+memory and partly from observations made on the son of King Theodore,
+who was then under his charge. Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray attended to
+some points in the expressions of the natives, as observed by them
+whilst ascending the Nile.
+
+On the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a catechist residing with
+the Fuegians, answered some few questions about their expression,
+addressed to him many years ago. In the northern half of the continent
+Dr. Rothrock attended to the expressions of the wild Atnah and Espyox
+tribes on the Nasse River, in North-Western America. Mr. Washington
+Matthews Assistant-Surgeon in the United States Army, also observed
+with special care (after having seen my queries, as printed in the
+‘Smithsonian Report’) some of the wildest tribes in the Western parts
+of the United States, namely, the Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans, and
+Assinaboines; and his answers have proved of the highest value.
+
+Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I have collected
+some few facts incidentally given in books of travels.——
+
+
+
+Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 1-2
+
+
+
+Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 3
+
+As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the latter part of
+this volume, to the muscles of the human face, I have had a diagram
+(fig. 1) copied and reduced from Sir C. Bell’s work, and two others,
+with more accurate details (figs. 2 and 3), from Herde’s well-known
+‘Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.’ The same letters
+refer to the same muscles in all three figures, but the names are given
+of only the more important ones to which I shall have to allude. The
+facial muscles blend much together, and, as I am informed, hardly
+appear on a dissected face so distinct as they are here represented.
+Some writers consider that these muscles consist of nineteen pairs,
+with one unpaired;[20] but others make the number much larger,
+amounting even to fifty-five, according to Moreau. They are, as is
+admitted by everyone who has written on the subject, very variable in
+structure; and Moreau remarks that they are hardly alike in
+half-a-dozen subjects.[21] They are also variable in function. Thus the
+power of uncovering the canine tooth on one side differs much in
+different persons. The power of raising the wings of the nostrils is
+also, according to Dr. Piderit,[22] variable in a remarkable degree;
+and other such cases could be given.
+
+Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing my obligations to Mr.
+Rejlander for the trouble which he has taken in photographing for me
+various expressions and gestures. I am also indebted to Herr
+Kindermann, of Hamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of
+crying infants; and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one of a smiling
+girl. I have already expressed my obligations to Dr. Duchenne for
+generously permitting me to have some of his large photographs copied
+and reduced. All these photographs have been printed by the Heliotype
+process, and the accuracy of the copy is thus guaranteed. These plates
+are referred to by Roman numerals.
+
+I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme pains
+which he has taken in drawing from life the expressions of various
+animals. A distinguished artist, Mr. Riviere, has had the kindness to
+give me two drawings of dogs—one in a hostile and the other in a humble
+and caressing frame of mind. Mr. A. May has also given me two similar
+sketches of dogs. Mr. Cooper has taken much care in cutting the blocks.
+Some of the photographs and drawings, namely, those by Mr. May, and
+those by Mr. Wolf of the Cynopithecus, were first reproduced by Mr.
+Cooper on wood by means of photography, and then engraved: by this
+means almost complete fidelity is ensured.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
+
+The three chief principles stated—The first principle—Serviceable
+actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind,
+and are performed whether or not of service in each particular case—The
+force of habit—Inheritance—Associated habitual movements in man—Reflex
+actions—Passage of habits into reflex actions—Associated habitual
+movements in the lower animals—Concluding remarks.
+
+I will begin by giving the three Principles, which appear to me to
+account for most of the expressions and gestures involuntarily used by
+man and the lower animals, under the influence of various emotions and
+sensations.[101] I arrived, however, at these three Principles only at
+the close of my observations. They will be discussed in the present and
+two following chapters in a general manner. Facts observed both with
+man and the lower animals will here be made use of; but the latter
+facts are preferable, as less likely to deceive us. In the fourth and
+fifth chapters, I will describe the special expressions of some of the
+lower animals; and in the succeeding chapters those of man. Everyone
+will thus be able to judge for himself, how far my three principles
+throw light on the theory of the subject. It appears to me that so many
+expressions are thus explained in a fairly satisfactory manner, that
+probably all will hereafter be found to come under the same or closely
+analogous heads. I need hardly premise that movements or changes in any
+part of the body,—as the wagging of a dog’s tail, the drawing back of a
+horse’s ears, the shrugging of a man’s shoulders, or the dilatation of
+the capillary vessels of the skin,—may all equally well serve for
+expression. The three Principles are as follows.
+
+I. _The principle of serviceable associated Habits_.—Certain complex
+actions are of direct or indirect service under certain states of the
+mind, in order to relieve or gratify certain sensations, desires, &c.;
+and whenever the same state of mind is induced, however feebly, there
+is a tendency through the force of habit and association for the same
+movements to be performed, though they may not then be of the least
+use. Some actions ordinarily associated through habit with certain
+states of the mind may be partially repressed through the will, and in
+such cases the muscles which are least under the separate control of
+the will are the most liable still to act, causing movements which we
+recognize as expressive. In certain other cases the checking of one
+habitual movement requires other slight movements; and these are
+likewise expressive.
+
+II. _The principle of Antithesis_.—Certain states of the mind lead to
+certain habitual actions, which are of service, as under our first
+principle. Now when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, there
+is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements of
+a directly opposite nature, though these are of no use; and such
+movements are in some cases highly expressive.
+
+III. _The principle of actions due to the constitution of the Nervous
+System, independently from the first of the Will, and independently to
+a certain extent of Habit_.—When the sensorium is strongly excited,
+nerve-force is generated in excess, and is transmitted in certain
+definite directions, depending on the connection of the nerve-cells,
+and partly on habit: or the supply of nerve-force may, as it appears,
+be interrupted. Effects are thus produced which we recognize as
+expressive. This third principle may, for the sake of brevity, be
+called that of the direct action of the nervous system.
+
+With respect to our _first Principle_, it is notorious how powerful is
+the force of habit. The most complex and difficult movements can in
+time be performed without the least effort or consciousness. It is not
+positively known how it comes that habit is so efficient in
+facilitating complex movements; but physiologists admit[102] “that the
+conducting power of the nervous fibres increases with the frequency of
+their excitement.” This applies to the nerves of motion and sensation,
+as well as to those connected with the act of thinking. That some
+physical change is produced in the nerve-cells or nerves which are
+habitually used can hardly be doubted, for otherwise it is impossible
+to understand how the tendency to certain acquired movements is
+inherited. That they are inherited we see with horses in certain
+transmitted paces, such as cantering and ambling, which are not natural
+to them,—in the pointing of young pointers and the setting of young
+setters—in the peculiar manner of flight of certain breeds of the
+pigeon, &c. We have analogous cases with mankind in the inheritance of
+tricks or unusual gestures, to which we shall presently recur. To those
+who admit the gradual evolution of species, a most striking instance of
+the perfection with which the most difficult consensual movements can
+be transmitted, is afforded by the humming-bird Sphinx-moth
+(_Macroglossa_); for this moth, shortly after its emergence from the
+cocoon, as shown by the bloom on its unruffled scales, may be seen
+poised stationary in the air, with its long hair-like proboscis
+uncurled and inserted into the minute orifices of flowers; and no one,
+I believe, has ever seen this moth learning to perform its difficult
+task, which requires such unerring aim.
+
+When there exists an inherited or instinctive tendency to the
+performance of an action, or an inherited taste for certain kinds of
+food, some degree of habit in the individual is often or generally
+requisite. We find this in the paces of the horse, and to a certain
+extent in the pointing of dogs; although some young dogs point
+excellently the first time they are taken out, yet they often associate
+the proper inherited attitude with a wrong odour, and even with
+eyesight. I have heard it asserted that if a calf be allowed to suck
+its mother only once, it is much more difficult afterwards to rear it
+by hand.[103] Caterpillars which have been fed on the leaves of one
+kind of tree, have been known to perish from hunger rather than to eat
+the leaves of another tree, although this afforded them their proper
+food, under a state of nature;[104] and so it is in many other cases.
+
+The power of Association is admitted by everyone. Mr. Bain remarks,
+that “actions, sensations and states of feeling, occurring together or
+in close succession, tend to grow together, or cohere, in such a way
+that when any one of them is afterwards presented to the mind, the
+others are apt to be brought up in idea.”[105] It is so important for
+our purpose fully to recognize that actions readily become associated
+with other actions and with various states of the mind, that I will
+give a good many instances, in the first place relating to man, and
+afterwards to the lower animals. Some of the instances are of a very
+trifling nature, but they are as good for our purpose as more important
+habits. It is known to everyone how difficult, or even impossible it
+is, without repeated trials, to move the limbs in certain opposed
+directions which have never been practised. Analogous cases occur with
+sensations, as in the common experiment of rolling a marble beneath the
+tips of two crossed fingers, when it feels exactly like two marbles.
+Everyone protects himself when falling to the ground by extending his
+arms, and as Professor Alison has remarked, few can resist acting thus,
+when voluntarily falling on a soft bed. A man when going out of doors
+puts on his gloves quite unconsciously; and this may seem an extremely
+simple operation, but he who has taught a child to put on gloves, knows
+that this is by no means the case.
+
+When our minds are much affected, so are the movements of our bodies;
+but here another principle besides habit, namely the undirected
+overflow of nerve-force, partially comes into play. Norfolk, in
+speaking of Cardinal Wolsey, says—
+
+“Some strange commotion
+Is in his brain; he bites his lip and starts;
+Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground,
+Then, lays his finger on his temple: straight,
+Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again,
+Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he casts
+His eye against the moon: in most strange postures
+We have seen him set himself.”—_Hen. VIII_., act iii, sc. 2.
+
+
+A vulgar man often scratches his head when perplexed in mind; and I
+believe that he acts thus from habit, as if he experienced a slightly
+uncomfortable bodily sensation, namely, the itching of his head, to
+which he is particularly liable, and which he thus relieves. Another
+man rubs his eyes when perplexed, or gives a little cough when
+embarrassed, acting in either case as if he felt a slightly
+uncomfortable sensation in his eyes or windpipe.[106]
+
+From the continued use of the eyes, these organs are especially liable
+to be acted on through association under various states of the mind,
+although there is manifestly nothing to be seen. A man, as Gratiolet
+remarks, who vehemently rejects a proposition, will almost certainly
+shut his eyes or turn away his face; but if he accepts the proposition,
+he will nod his head in affirmation and open his eyes widely. The man
+acts in this latter case as if he clearly saw the thing, and in the
+former case as if he did not or would not see it. I have noticed that
+persons in describing a horrid sight often shut their eyes momentarily
+and firmly, or shake their heads, as if not to see or to drive away
+something disagreeable; and I have caught myself, when thinking in the
+dark of a horrid spectacle, closing my eyes firmly. In looking suddenly
+at any object, or in looking all around, everyone raises his eyebrows,
+so that the eyes may be quickly and widely opened; and Duchenne remarks
+that[107] a person in trying to remember something often raises his
+eyebrows, as if to see it. A Hindoo gentleman made exactly the same
+remark to Mr. Erskine in regard to his countrymen. I noticed a young
+lady earnestly trying to recollect a painter’s name, and she first
+looked to one corner of the ceiling and then to the opposite corner,
+arching the one eyebrow on that side; although, of course, there was
+nothing to be seen there.
+
+In most of the foregoing cases, we can understand how the associated
+movements were acquired through habit; but with some individuals,
+certain strange gestures or tricks have arisen in association with
+certain states of the mind, owing to wholly inexplicable causes, and
+are undoubtedly inherited. I have elsewhere given one instance from my
+own observation of an extraordinary and complex gesture, associated
+with pleasurable feelings, which was transmitted from a father to his
+daughter, as well as some other analogous facts.[108] Another curious
+instance of an odd inherited movement, associated with the wish to
+obtain an object, will be given in the course of this volume.
+
+There are other actions which are commonly performed under certain
+circumstances, independently of habit, and which seem to be due to
+imitation or some sort of sympathy. Thus persons cutting anything with
+a pair of scissors may be seen to move their jaws simultaneously with
+the blades of the scissors. Children learning to write often twist
+about their tongues as their fingers move, in a ridiculous fashion.
+When a public singer suddenly becomes a little hoarse, many of those
+present may be heard, as I have been assured by a gentleman on whom I
+can rely, to clear their throats; but here habit probably comes into
+play, as we clear our own throats under similar circumstances. I have
+also been told that at leaping matches, as the performer makes his
+spring, many of the spectators, generally men and boys, move their
+feet; but here again habit probably comes into play, for it is very
+doubtful whether women would thus act.
+
+_Reflex actions_—Reflex actions, in the strict sense of the term, are
+due to the excitement of a peripheral nerve, which transmits its
+influence to certain nerve-cells, and these in their turn excite
+certain muscles or glands into action; and all this may take place
+without any sensation or consciousness on our part, though often thus
+accompanied. As many reflex actions are highly expressive, the subject
+must here be noticed at some little length. We shall also see that some
+of them graduate into, and can hardly be distinguished from actions
+which have arisen through habit?[109] Coughing and sneezing are
+familiar instances of reflex actions. With infants the first act of
+respiration is often a sneeze, although this requires the co-ordinated
+movement of numerous muscles. Respiration is partly voluntary, but
+mainly reflex, and is performed in the most natural and best manner
+without the interference of the will. A vast number of complex
+movements are reflex. As good an instance as can be given is the
+often-quoted one of a decapitated frog, which cannot of course feel,
+and cannot consciously perform, any movement. Yet if a drop of acid be
+placed on the lower surface of the thigh of a frog in this state, it
+will rub off the drop with the upper surface of the foot of the same
+leg. If this foot be cut off, it cannot thus act. “After some fruitless
+efforts, therefore, it gives up trying in that way, seems restless, as
+though, says Pflüger, it was seeking some other way, and at last it
+makes use of the foot of the other leg and succeeds in rubbing off the
+acid. Notably we have here not merely contractions of muscles, but
+combined and harmonized contractions in due sequence for a special
+purpose. These are actions that have all the appearance of being guided
+by intelligence and instigated by will in an animal, the recognized
+organ of whose intelligence and will has been removed.”[110]
+
+We see the difference between reflex and voluntary movements in very
+young children not being able to perform, as I am informed by Sir Henry
+Holland, certain acts somewhat analogous to those of sneezing and
+coughing, namely, in their not being able to blow their noses (_i.e._
+to compress the nose and blow violently through the passage), and in
+their not being able to clear their throats of phlegm. They have to
+learn to perform these acts, yet they are performed by us, when a
+little older, almost as easily as reflex actions. Sneezing and
+coughing, however, can be controlled by the will only partially or not
+at all; whilst the clearing the throat and blowing the nose are
+completely under our command.
+
+When we are conscious of the presence of an irritating particle in our
+nostrils or windpipe—that is, when the same sensory nerve-cells are
+excited, as in the case of sneezing and coughing—we can voluntarily
+expel the particle by forcibly driving air through these passages; but
+we cannot do this with nearly the same force, rapidity, and precision,
+as by a reflex action. In this latter case the sensory nerve-cells
+apparently excite the motor nerve-cells without any waste of power by
+first communicating with the cerebral hemispheres—the seat of our
+consciousness and volition. In all cases there seems to exist a
+profound antagonism between the same movements, as directed by the will
+and by a reflex stimulant, in the force with which they are performed
+and in the facility with which they are excited. As Claude Bernard
+asserts, “L’influence du cerveau tend donc à entraver les mouvements
+réflexes, à limiter leur force et leur étendue.”[111]
+
+The conscious wish to perform a reflex action sometimes stops or
+interrupts its performance, though the proper sensory nerves may be
+stimulated. For instance, many years ago I laid a small wager with a
+dozen young men that they would not sneeze if they took snuff, although
+they all declared that they invariably did so; accordingly they all
+took a pinch, but from wishing much to succeed, not one sneezed, though
+their eyes watered, and all, without exception, had to pay me the
+wager. Sir H. Holland remarks[112] that attention paid to the act of
+swallowing interferes with the proper movements; from which it probably
+follows, at least in part, that some persons find it so difficult to
+swallow a pill.
+
+Another familiar instance of a reflex action is the involuntary closing
+of the eyelids when the surface of the eye is touched. A similar
+winking movement is caused when a blow is directed towards the face;
+but this is an habitual and not a strictly reflex action, as the
+stimulus is conveyed through the mind and not by the excitement of a
+peripheral nerve. The whole body and head are generally at the same
+time drawn suddenly backwards. These latter movements, however, can be
+prevented, if the danger does not appear to the imagination imminent;
+but our reason telling us that there is no danger does not suffice. I
+may mention a trifling fact, illustrating this point, and which at the
+time amused me. I put my face close to the thick glass-plate in front
+of a puff-adder in the Zoological Gardens, with the firm determination
+of not starting back if the snake struck at me; but, as soon as the
+blow was struck, my resolution went for nothing, and I jumped a yard or
+two backwards with astonishing rapidity. My will and reason were
+powerless against the imagination of a danger which had never been
+experienced.
+
+The violence of a start seems to depend partly on the vividness of the
+imagination, and partly on the condition, either habitual or temporary,
+of the nervous system. He who will attend to the starting of his horse,
+when tired and fresh, will perceive how perfect is the gradation from a
+mere glance at some unexpected object, with a momentary doubt whether
+it is dangerous, to a jump so rapid and violent, that the animal
+probably could not voluntarily whirl round in so rapid a manner. The
+nervous system of a fresh and highly-fed horse sends its order to the
+motory system so quickly, that no time is allowed for him to consider
+whether or not the danger is real. After one violent start, when he is
+excited and the blood flows freely through his brain, he is very apt to
+start again; and so it is, as I have noticed, with young infants.
+
+A start from a sudden noise, when the stimulus is conveyed through the
+auditory nerves, is always accompanied in grown-up persons by the
+winking of the eyelids.[113] I observed, however, that though my
+infants started at sudden sounds, when under a fortnight old, they
+certainly did not always wink their eyes, and I believe never did so.
+The start of an older infant apparently represents a vague catching
+hold of something to prevent falling. I shook a pasteboard box close
+before the eyes of one of my infants, when 114 days old, and it did not
+in the least wink; but when I put a few comfits into the box, holding
+it in the same position as before, and rattled them, the child blinked
+its eyes violently every time, and started a little. It was obviously
+impossible that a carefully-guarded infant could have learnt by
+experience that a rattling sound near its eyes indicated danger to
+them. But such experience will have been slowly gained at a later age
+during a long series of generations; and from what we know of
+inheritance, there is nothing improbable in the transmission of a habit
+to the offspring at an earlier age than that at which it was first
+acquired by the parents.
+
+From the foregoing remarks it seems probable that some actions, which
+were at first performed consciously, have become through habit and
+association converted into reflex actions, and are now so firmly fixed
+and inherited, that they are performed, even when not of the least
+use,[114] as often as the same causes arise, which originally excited
+them in us through the volition. In such cases the sensory nerve-cells
+excite the motor cells, without first communicating with those cells on
+which our consciousness and volition depend. It is probable that
+sneezing and coughing were originally acquired by the habit of
+expelling, as violently as possible, any irritating particle from the
+sensitive air-passages. As far as time is concerned, there has been
+more than enough for these habits to have become innate or converted
+into reflex actions; for they are common to most or all of the higher
+quadrupeds, and must therefore have been first acquired at a very
+remote period. Why the act of clearing the throat is not a reflex
+action, and has to be learnt by our children, I cannot pretend to say;
+but we can see why blowing the nose on a handkerchief has to be learnt.
+
+It is scarcely credible that the movements of a headless frog, when it
+wipes off a drop of acid or other object from its thigh, and which
+movements are so well coordinated for a special purpose, were not at
+first performed voluntarily, being afterwards rendered easy through
+long-continued habit so as at last to be performed unconsciously, or
+independently of the cerebral hemispheres.
+
+So again it appears probable that starting was originally acquired by
+the habit of jumping away as quickly as possible from danger, whenever
+any of our senses gave us warning. Starting, as we have seen, is
+accompanied by the blinking of the eyelids so as to protect the eyes,
+the most tender and sensitive organs of the body; and it is, I believe,
+always accompanied by a sudden and forcible inspiration, which is the
+natural preparation for any violent effort. But when a man or horse
+starts, his heart beats wildly against his ribs, and here it may be
+truly said we have an organ which has never been under the control of
+the will, partaking in the general reflex movements of the body. To
+this point, however, I shall return in a future chapter.
+
+The contraction of the iris, when the retina is stimulated by a bright
+light, is another instance of a movement, which it appears cannot
+possibly have been at first voluntarily performed and then fixed by
+habit; for the iris is not known to be under the conscious control of
+the will in any animal. In such cases some explanation, quite distinct
+from habit, will have to be discovered. The radiation of nerve-force
+from strongly-excited nerve-cells to other connected cells, as in the
+case of a bright light on the retina causing a sneeze, may perhaps aid
+us in understanding how some reflex actions originated. A radiation of
+nerve-force of this kind, if it caused a movement tending to lessen the
+primary irritation, as in the case of the contraction of the iris
+preventing too much light from falling on the retina, might afterwards
+have been taken advantage of and modified for this special purpose.
+
+It further deserves notice that reflex actions are in all probability
+liable to slight variations, as are all corporeal structures and
+instincts; and any variations which were beneficial and of sufficient
+importance, would tend to be preserved and inherited. Thus reflex
+actions, when once gained for one purpose, might afterwards be modified
+independently of the will or habit, so as to serve for some distinct
+purpose. Such cases would be parallel with those which, as we have
+every reason to believe, have occurred with many instincts; for
+although some instincts have been developed simply through
+long-continued and inherited habit, other highly complex ones have been
+developed through the preservation of variations of pre-existing
+instincts—that is, through natural selection.
+
+I have discussed at some little length, though as I am well aware, in a
+very imperfect manner, the acquirement of reflex actions, because they
+are often brought into play in connection with movements expressive of
+our emotions; and it was necessary to show that at least some of them
+might have been first acquired through the will in order to satisfy a
+desire, or to relieve a disagreeable sensation.
+
+_Associated habitual movements in the lower animals_.—I have already
+given in the case of Man several instances of movements associated with
+various states of the mind or body, which are now purposeless, but
+which were originally of use, and are still of use under certain
+circumstances. As this subject is very important for us, I will here
+give a considerable number of analogous facts, with reference to
+animals; although many of them are of a very trifling nature. My object
+is to show that certain movements were originally performed for a
+definite end, and that, under nearly the same circumstances, they are
+still pertinaciously performed through habit when not of the least use.
+That the tendency in most of the following cases is inherited, we may
+infer from such actions being performed in the same manner by all the
+individuals, young and old, of the same species. We shall also see that
+they are excited by the most diversified, often circuitous, and
+sometimes mistaken associations.
+
+Dogs, when they wish to go to sleep on a carpet or other hard surface,
+generally turn round and round and scratch the ground with their
+fore-paws in a senseless manner, as if they intended to trample down
+the grass and scoop out a hollow, as no doubt their wild parents did,
+when they lived on open grassy plains or in the woods. Jackals,
+fennecs, and other allied animals in the Zoological Gardens, treat
+their straw in this manner; but it is a rather odd circumstance that
+the keepers, after observing for some months, have never seen the
+wolves thus behave. A semi-idiotic dog—and an animal in this condition
+would be particularly liable to follow a senseless habit—was observed
+by a friend to turn completely round on a carpet thirteen times before
+going to sleep.
+
+Many carnivorous animals, as they crawl towards their prey and prepare
+to rush or spring on it, lower their heads and crouch, partly, as it
+would appear, to hide themselves, and partly to get ready for their
+rush; and this habit in an exaggerated form has become hereditary in
+our pointers and setters. Now I have noticed scores of times that when
+two strange dogs meet on an open road, the one which first sees the
+other, though at the distance of one or two hundred yards, after the
+first glance always lowers its bead, generally crouches a little, or
+even lies down; that is, he takes the proper attitude for concealing
+himself and for making a rush or spring although the road is quite open
+and the distance great. Again, dogs of all kinds when intently watching
+and slowly approaching their prey, frequently keep one of their
+fore-legs doubled up for a long time, ready for the next cautious step;
+and this is eminently characteristic of the pointer. But from habit
+they behave in exactly the same manner whenever their attention is
+aroused (fig. 4). I have seen a dog at the foot of a high wall,
+listening attentively to a sound on the opposite side, with one leg
+doubled up; and in this case there could have been no intention of
+making a cautious approach.
+
+
+
+Small Dog Watching a Cat on A Table. Figure 4
+
+{illust. caption = for making a rush or FIG. 4.—Small dog watching a
+cat on a table. From a photograph taken by Mr. Rejlander.}
+
+Dogs after voiding their excrement often make with all four feet a few
+scratches backwards, even on a bare stone pavement, as if for the
+purpose of covering up their excrement with earth, in nearly the same
+manner as do cats. Wolves and jackals behave in the Zoological Gardens
+in exactly the same manner, yet, as I am assured by the keepers,
+neither wolves, jackals, nor foxes, when they have the means of doing
+so, ever cover up their excrement, any more than do dogs. All these
+animals, however, bury superfluous food. Hence, if we rightly
+understand the meaning of the above cat-like habit, of which there can
+be little doubt, we have a purposeless remnant of an habitual movement,
+which was originally followed by some remote progenitor of the
+dog-genus for a definite purpose, and which has been retained for a
+prodigious length of time.
+
+Dogs and jackals[115] take much pleasure in rolling and rubbing their
+necks and backs on carrion. The odour seems delightful to them, though
+dogs at least do not eat carrion. Mr. Bartlett has observed wolves for
+me, and has given them carrion, but has never seen them roll on it. I
+have heard it remarked, and I believe it to be true, that the larger
+dogs, which are probably descended from wolves, do not so often roll in
+carrion as do smaller dogs, which are probably descended from jackals.
+When a piece of brown biscuit is offered to a terrier of mine and she
+is not hungry (and I have heard of similar instances), she first tosses
+it about and worries it, as if it were a rat or other prey; she then
+repeatedly rolls on it precisely as if it were a piece of carrion, and
+at last eats it. It would appear that an imaginary relish has to be
+given to the distasteful morsel; and to effect this the dog acts in his
+habitual manner, as if the biscuit was a live animal or smelt like
+carrion, though he knows better than we do that this is not the case. I
+have seen this same terrier act in the same manner after killing a
+little bird or mouse.
+
+Dogs scratch themselves by a rapid movement of one of their hind-feet;
+and when their backs are rubbed with a stick, so strong is the habit,
+that they cannot help rapidly scratching the air or the ground in a
+useless and ludicrous manner. The terrier just alluded to, when thus
+scratched with a stick, will sometimes show her delight by another
+habitual movement, namely, by licking the air as if it were my hand.
+
+Horses scratch themselves by nibbling those parts of their bodies which
+they can reach with their teeth; but more commonly one horse shows
+another where he wants to be scratched, and they then nibble each
+other. A friend whose attention I had called to the subject, observed
+that when he rubbed his horse’s neck, the animal protruded his head,
+uncovered his teeth, and moved his jaws, exactly as if nibbling another
+horse’s neck, for he could never have nibbled his own neck. If a horse
+is much tickled, as when curry-combed, his wish to bite something
+becomes so intolerably strong, that he will clatter his teeth together,
+and though not vicious, bite his groom. At the same time from habit he
+closely depresses his ears, so as to protect them from being bitten, as
+if he were fighting with another horse.
+
+A horse when eager to start on a journey makes the nearest approach
+which he can to the habitual movement of progression by pawing the
+ground. Now when horses in their stalls are about to be fed and are
+eager for their corn, they paw the pavement or the straw. Two of my
+horses thus behave when they see or hear the corn given to their
+neighbours. But here we have what may almost be called a true
+expression, as pawing the ground is universally recognized as a sign of
+eagerness.
+
+Cats cover up their excrements of both kinds with earth; and my
+grandfather[116] saw a kitten scraping ashes over a spoonful of pure
+water spilt on the hearth; so that here an habitual or instinctive
+action was falsely excited, not by a previous act or by odour, but by
+eyesight. It is well known that cats dislike wetting their feet, owing,
+it is probable, to their having aboriginally inhabited the dry country
+of Egypt; and when they wet their feet they shake them violently. My
+daughter poured some water into a glass close to the head of a kitten;
+and it immediately shook its feet in the usual manner; so that here we
+have an habitual movement falsely excited by an associated sound
+instead of by the sense of touch.
+
+Kittens, puppies, young pigs and probably many other young animals,
+alternately push with their forefeet against the mammary glands of
+their mothers, to excite a freer secretion of milk, or to make it flow.
+Now it is very common with young cats, and not at all rare with old
+cats of the common and Persian breeds (believed by some naturalists to
+be specifically extinct), when comfortably lying on a warm shawl or
+other soft substance, to pound it quietly and alternately with their
+fore-feet; their toes being spread out and claws slightly protruded,
+precisely as when sucking their mother. That it is the same movement is
+clearly shown by their often at the same time taking a bit of the shawl
+into their mouths and sucking it; generally closing their eyes and
+purring from delight. This curious movement is commonly excited only in
+association with the sensation of a warm soft surface; but I have seen
+an old cat, when pleased by having its back scratched, pounding the air
+with its feet in the same manner; so that this action has almost become
+the expression of a pleasurable sensation.
+
+Having referred to the act of sucking, I may add that this complex
+movement, as well as the alternate protrusion of the fore-feet, are
+reflex actions; for they are performed if a finger moistened with milk
+is placed in the mouth of a puppy, the front part of whose brain has
+been removed.[117] It has recently been stated in France, that the
+action of sucking is excited solely through the sense of smell, so that
+if the olfactory nerves of a puppy are destroyed, it never sucks. In
+like manner the wonderful power which a chicken possesses only a few
+hours after being hatched, of picking up small particles of food, seems
+to be started into action through the sense of hearing; for with
+chickens hatched by artificial heat, a good observer found that “making
+a noise with the finger-nail against a board, in imitation of the
+hen-mother, first taught them to peck at their meat.”[118]
+
+I will give only one other instance of an habitual and purposeless
+movement. The Sheldrake (_Tadorna_) feeds on the sands left uncovered
+by the tide, and when a worm-cast is discovered, “it begins patting the
+ground with its feet, dancing as it were, over the hole;” and this
+makes the worm come to the surface. Now Mr. St. John says, that when
+his tame Sheldrakes “came to ask for food, they patted the ground in an
+impatient and rapid manner.”[119] This therefore may almost be
+considered as their expression of hunger. Mr. Bartlett informs me that
+the Flamingo and the Kagu (_Rhinochetus jubatus_) when anxious to be
+fed, beat the ground with their feet in the same odd manner. So again
+Kingfishers, when they catch a fish, always beat it until it is killed;
+and in the Zoological Gardens they always beat the raw meat, with which
+they are sometimes fed, before devouring it.
+
+We have now, I think, sufficiently shown the truth of our first
+Principle, namely, that when any sensation, desire, dislike, &c., has
+led during a long series of generations to some voluntary movement,
+then a tendency to the performance of a similar movement will almost
+certainly be excited, whenever the same, or any analogous or associated
+sensation &c., although very weak, is experienced; notwithstanding that
+the movement in this case may not be of the least use. Such habitual
+movements are often, or generally inherited; and they then differ but
+little from reflex actions. When we treat of the special expressions of
+man, the latter part of our first Principle, as given at the
+commencement of this chapter, will be seen to hold good; namely, that
+when movements, associated through habit with certain states of the
+mind, are partially repressed by the will, the strictly involuntary
+muscles, as well as those which are least under the separate control of
+the will, are liable still to act; and their action is often highly
+expressive. Conversely, when the will is temporarily or permanently
+weakened, the voluntary muscles fail before the involuntary. It is a
+fact familiar to pathologists, as Sir C. Bell remarks,[120] “that when
+debility arises from affection of the brain, the influence is greatest
+on those muscles which are, in their natural condition, most under the
+command of the will.” We shall, also, in our future chapters, consider
+another proposition included in our first Principle; namely, that the
+checking of one habitual movement sometimes requires other slight
+movements; these latter serving as a means of expression.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—_continued_.
+
+The Principle of Antithesis—Instances in the dog and cat—Origin of the
+principle—Conventional signs—The principle of antithesis has not arisen
+from opposite actions being consciously performed under opposite
+impulses.
+
+We will now consider our second Principle, that of Antithesis. Certain
+states of the mind lead, as we have seen in the last chapter, to
+certain habitual movements which were primarily, or may still be, of
+service; and we shall find that when a directly opposite state of mind
+is induced, there is a strong and involuntary tendency to the
+performance of movements of a directly opposite nature, though these
+have never been of any service. A few striking instances of antithesis
+will be given, when we treat of the special expressions of man; but as,
+in these cases, we are particularly liable to confound conventional or
+artificial gestures and expressions with those which are innate or
+universal, and which alone deserve to rank as true expressions, I will
+in the present chapter almost confine myself to the lower animals.
+
+
+
+Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind.  Fig. 5
+
+
+
+  Fig. 6
+
+
+
+Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind.  Fig. 7
+
+When a dog approaches a strange dog or man in a savage or hostile frame
+of mind be walks upright and very stiffly; his head is slightly raised,
+or not much lowered; the tail is held erect, and quite rigid; the hairs
+bristle, especially along the neck and back; the pricked ears are
+directed forwards, and the eyes have a fixed stare: (see figs. 5 and
+7). These actions, as will hereafter be explained, follow from the
+dog’s intention to attack his enemy, and are thus to a large extent
+intelligible. As he prepares to spring with a savage growl on his
+enemy, the canine teeth are uncovered, and the ears are pressed close
+backwards on the head; but with these latter actions, we are not here
+concerned. Let us now suppose that the dog suddenly discovers that the
+man he is approaching, is not a stranger, but his master; and let it be
+observed how completely and instantaneously his whole bearing is
+reversed. Instead of walking upright, the body sinks downwards or even
+crouches, and is thrown into flexuous movements; his tail, instead of
+being held stiff and upright, is lowered and wagged from side to side;
+his hair instantly becomes smooth; his ears are depressed and drawn
+backwards, but not closely to the head; and his lips hang loosely. From
+the drawing back of the ears, the eyelids become elongated, and the
+eyes no longer appear round and staring. It should be added that the
+animal is at such times in an excited condition from joy; and
+nerve-force will be generated in excess, which naturally leads to
+action of some kind. Not one of the above movements, so clearly
+expressive of affection, are of the least direct service to the animal.
+They are explicable, as far as I can see, solely from being in complete
+opposition or antithesis to the attitude and movements which, from
+intelligible causes, are assumed when a dog intends to fight, and which
+consequently are expressive of anger. I request the reader to look at
+the four accompanying sketches, which have been given in order to
+recall vividly the appearance of a dog under these two states of mind.
+It is, however, not a little difficult to represent affection in a dog,
+whilst caressing his master and wagging his tail, as the essence of the
+expression lies in the continuous flexuous movements.
+
+
+
+Dog Carressing his Master.  Fig. 8
+
+We will now turn to the cat. When this animal is threatened by a dog,
+it arches its back in a surprising manner, erects its hair, opens its
+mouth and spits. But we are not here concerned with this well-known
+attitude, expressive of terror combined with anger; we are concerned
+only with that of rage or anger. This is not often seen, but may be
+observed when two cats are fighting together; and I have seen it well
+exhibited by a savage cat whilst plagued by a boy. The attitude is
+almost exactly the same as that of a tiger disturbed and growling over
+its food, which every one must have beheld in menageries. The animal
+assumes a crouching position, with the body extended; and the whole
+tail, or the tip alone, is lashed or curled from side to side. The hair
+is not in the least erect. Thus far, the attitude and movements are
+nearly the same as when the animal is prepared to spring on its prey,
+and when, no doubt, it feels savage. But when preparing to fight, there
+is this difference, that the ears are closely pressed backwards; the
+mouth is partially opened, showing the teeth; the fore feet are
+occasionally struck out with protruded claws; and the animal
+occasionally utters a fierce growl. (See figs. 9 and 10.) All, or
+almost all these actions naturally follow (as hereafter to be
+explained), from the cat’s manner and intention of attacking its enemy.
+
+
+
+Cat, Savage, and Prepared to Fight. Fig. 9
+
+
+
+Cat in an Affectionate Frame of Mind. Fig. 10
+
+Let us now look at a cat in a directly opposite frame of mind, whilst
+feeling affectionate and caressing her master; and mark how opposite is
+her attitude in every respect. She now stands upright with her back
+slightly arched, which makes the hair appear rather rough, but it does
+not bristle; her tail, instead of being extended and lashed from side
+to side, is held quite still and perpendicularly upwards; her ears are
+erect and pointed; her mouth is closed; and she rubs against her master
+with a purr instead of a growl. Let it further be observed how widely
+different is the whole bearing of an affectionate cat from that of a
+dog, when with his body crouching and flexuous, his tail lowered and
+wagging, and ears depressed, he caresses his master. This contrast in
+the attitudes and movements of these two carnivorous animals, under the
+same pleased and affectionate frame of mind, can be explained, as it
+appears to me, solely by their movements standing in complete
+antithesis to those which are naturally assumed, when these animals
+feel savage and are prepared either to fight or to seize their prey.
+
+In these cases of the dog and cat, there is every reason to believe
+that the gestures both of hostility and affection are innate or
+inherited; for they are almost identically the same in the different
+races of the species, and in all the individuals of the same race, both
+young and old.
+
+I will here give one other instance of antithesis in expression. I
+formerly possessed a large dog, who, like every other dog, was much
+pleased to go out walking. He showed his pleasure by trotting gravely
+before me with high steps, head much raised, moderately erected ears,
+and tail carried aloft but not stiffly. Not far from my house a path
+branches off to the right, leading to the hot-house, which I used often
+to visit for a few moments, to look at my experimental plants. This was
+always a great disappointment to the dog, as he did not know whether I
+should continue my walk; and the instantaneous and complete change of
+expression which came over him as soon as my body swerved in the least
+towards the path (and I sometimes tried this as an experiment) was
+laughable. His look of dejection was known to every member of the
+family, and was called his _hot-house face_. This consisted in the head
+drooping much, the whole body sinking a little and remaining
+motionless; the ears and tail falling suddenly down, but the tail was
+by no means wagged. With the falling of the ears and of his great
+chaps, the eyes became much changed in appearance, and I fancied that
+they looked less bright. His aspect was that of piteous, hopeless
+dejection; and it was, as I have said, laughable, as the cause was so
+slight. Every detail in his attitude was in complete opposition to his
+former joyful yet dignified bearing; and can be explained, as it
+appears to me, in no other way, except through the principle of
+antithesis. Had not the change been so instantaneous, I should have
+attributed it to his lowered spirits affecting, as in the case of man,
+the nervous system and circulation, and consequently the tone of his
+whole muscular frame; and this may have been in part the cause.
+
+We will now consider how the principle of antithesis in expression has
+arisen. With social animals, the power of intercommunication between
+the members of the same community,—and with other species, between the
+opposite sexes, as well as between the young and the old,—is of the
+highest importance to them. This is generally effected by means of the
+voice, but it is certain that gestures and expressions are to a certain
+extent mutually intelligible. Man not only uses inarticulate cries,
+gestures, and expressions, but has invented articulate language; if,
+indeed, the word INVENTED can be applied to a process, completed by
+innumerable steps, half-consciously made. Any one who has watched
+monkeys will not doubt that they perfectly understand each other’s
+gestures and expression, and to a large extent, as Rengger
+asserts,[201] those of man. An animal when going to attack another, or
+when afraid of another, often makes itself appear terrible, by erecting
+its hair, thus increasing the apparent bulk of its body, by showing its
+teeth, or brandishing its horns, or by uttering fierce sounds.
+
+As the power of intercommunication is certainly of high service to many
+animals, there is no _à priori_ improbability in the supposition, that
+gestures manifestly of an opposite nature to those by which certain
+feelings are already expressed, should at first have been voluntarily
+employed under the influence of an opposite state of feeling. The fact
+of the gestures being now innate, would be no valid objection to the
+belief that they were at first intentional; for if practised during
+many generations, they would probably at last be inherited.
+Nevertheless it is more than doubtful, as we shall immediately see,
+whether any of the cases which come under our present head of
+antithesis, have thus originated.
+
+With conventional signs which are not innate, such as those used by the
+deaf and dumb and by savages, the principle of opposition or antithesis
+has been partially brought into play. The Cistercian monks thought it
+sinful to speak, and as they could not avoid holding some
+communication, they invented a gesture language, in which the principle
+of opposition seems to have been employed.[202] Dr. Scott, of the
+Exeter Deaf and Dumb Institution, writes to me that “opposites are
+greatly used in teaching the deaf and dumb, who have a lively sense of
+them.” Nevertheless I have been surprised how few unequivocal instances
+can be adduced. This depends partly on all the signs having commonly
+had some natural origin; and partly on the practice of the deaf and
+dumb and of savages to contract their signs as much as possible for the
+sake of rapidity.[203] Hence their natural source or origin often
+becomes doubtful or is completely lost; as is likewise the case with
+articulate language.
+
+Many signs, moreover, which plainly stand in opposition to each other,
+appear to have had on both sides a significant origin. This seems to
+hold good with the signs used by the deal and dumb for light and
+darkness, for strength and weakness, &c. In a future chapter I shall
+endeavour to show that the opposite gestures of affirmation and
+negation, namely, vertically nodding and laterally shaking the head,
+have both probably had a natural beginning. The waving of the hand from
+right to left, which is used as a negative by some savages, may have
+been invented in imitation of shaking the head; but whether the
+opposite movement of waving the hand in a straight line from the face,
+which is used in affirmation, has arisen through antithesis or in some
+quite distinct manner, is doubtful.
+
+If we now turn to the gestures which are innate or common to all the
+individuals of the same species, and which come under the present head
+of antithesis, it is extremely doubtful, whether any of them were at
+first deliberately invented and consciously performed. With mankind the
+best instance of a gesture standing in direct opposition to other
+movements, naturally assumed under an opposite frame of mind, is that
+of shrugging the shoulders. This expresses impotence or an
+apology,—something which cannot be done, or cannot be avoided. The
+gesture is sometimes used consciously and voluntarily, but it is
+extremely improbable that it was at first deliberately invented, and
+afterwards fixed by habit; for not only do young children sometimes
+shrug their shoulders under the above states of mind, but the movement
+is accompanied, as will be shown in a future chapter, by various
+subordinate movements, which not one man in a thousand is aware of,
+unless he has specially attended to the subject.
+
+Dogs when approaching a strange dog, may find it useful to show by
+their movements that they are friendly, and do not wish to fight. When
+two young dogs in play are growling and biting each other’s faces and
+legs, it is obvious that they mutually understand each other’s gestures
+and manners. There seems, indeed, some degree of instinctive knowledge
+in puppies and kittens, that they must not use their sharp little teeth
+or claws too freely in their play, though this sometimes happens and a
+squeal is the result; otherwise they would often injure each other’s
+eyes. When my terrier bites my hand in play, often snarling at the same
+time, if he bites too hard and I say GENTLY, GENTLY, he goes on biting,
+but answers me by a few wags of the tail, which seems to say “Never
+mind, it is all fun.” Although dogs do thus express, and may wish to
+express, to other dogs and to man, that they are in a friendly state of
+mind, it is incredible that they could ever have deliberately thought
+of drawing back and depressing their ears, instead of holding them
+erect,—of lowering and wagging their tails, instead of keeping them
+stiff and upright, &c., because they knew that these movements stood in
+direct opposition to those assumed under an opposite and savage frame
+of mind.
+
+Again, when a cat, or rather when some early progenitor of the species,
+from feeling affectionate first slightly arched its back, held its tail
+perpendicularly upwards and pricked its ears, can it be believed that
+the animal consciously wished thus to show that its frame of mind was
+directly the reverse of that, when from being ready to fight or to
+spring on its prey, it assumed a crouching attitude, curled its tail
+from side to side and depressed its ears? Even still less can I believe
+that my dog voluntarily put on his dejected attitude and “_hot-house
+face_,” which formed so complete a contrast to his previous cheerful
+attitude and whole bearing. It cannot be supposed that he knew that I
+should understand his expression, and that he could thus soften my
+heart and make me give up visiting the hot-house.
+
+Hence for the development of the movements which come under the present
+head, some other principle, distinct from the will and consciousness,
+must have intervened. This principle appears to be that every movement
+which we have voluntarily performed throughout our lives has required
+the action of certain muscles; and when we have performed a directly
+opposite movement, an opposite set of muscles has been habitually
+brought into play,—as in turning to the right or to the left, in
+pushing away or pulling an object towards us, and in lifting or
+lowering a weight. So strongly are our intentions and movements
+associated together, that if we eagerly wish an object to move in any
+direction, we can hardly avoid moving our bodies in the same direction,
+although we may be perfectly aware that this can have no influence. A
+good illustration of this fact has already been given in the
+Introduction, namely, in the grotesque movements of a young and eager
+billiard-player, whilst watching the course of his ball. A man or child
+in a passion, if he tells any one in a loud voice to begone, generally
+moves his arm as if to push him away, although the offender may not be
+standing near, and although there may be not the least need to explain
+by a gesture what is meant. On the other hand, if we eagerly desire
+some one to approach us closely, we act as if pulling him towards us;
+and so in innumerable other instances.
+
+As the performance of ordinary movements of an opposite kind, under
+opposite impulses of the will, has become habitual in us and in the
+lower animals, so when actions of one kind have become firmly
+associated with any sensation or emotion, it appears natural that
+actions of a directly opposite kind, though of no use, should be
+unconsciously performed through habit and association, under the
+influence of a directly opposite sensation or emotion. On this
+principle alone can I understand how the gestures and expressions which
+come under the present head of antithesis have originated. If indeed
+they are serviceable to man or to any other animal, in aid of
+inarticulate cries or language, they will likewise be voluntarily
+employed, and the habit will thus be strengthened. But whether or not
+of service as a means of communication, the tendency to perform
+opposite movements under opposite sensations or emotions would, if we
+may judge by analogy, become hereditary through long practice; and
+there cannot be a doubt that several expressive movements due to the
+principle of antithesis are inherited.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—_concluded_.
+
+The principle of direct action of the excited nervous system on the
+body, independently of the will and in part of habit—Change of colour
+in the hair—Trembling of the muscles—Modified
+secretions—Perspiration—Expression of extreme pain—Of rage, great joy,
+and terror—Contrast between the emotions which cause and do not cause
+expressive movements—Exciting and depressing states of the
+mind—Summary.
+
+We now come to our third Principle, namely, that certain actions which
+we recognize as expressive of certain states of the mind, are the
+direct result of the constitution of the nervous system, and have been
+from the first independent of the will, and, to a large extent, of
+habit. When the sensorium is strongly excited nerve-force is generated
+in excess, and is transmitted in certain directions, dependent on the
+connection of the nerve-cells, and, as far as the muscular system is
+concerned, on the nature of the movements which have been habitually
+practised. Or the supply of nerve-force may, as it appears, be
+interrupted. Of course every movement which we make is determined by
+the constitution of the nervous system; but actions performed in
+obedience to the will, or through habit, or through the principle of
+antithesis, are here as far as possible excluded. Our present subject
+is very obscure, but, from its importance, must be discussed at some
+little length; and it is always advisable to perceive clearly our
+ignorance.
+
+The most striking case, though a rare and abnormal one, which can be
+adduced of the direct influence of the nervous system, when strongly
+affected, on the body, is the loss of colour in the hair, which has
+occasionally been observed after extreme terror or grief. One authentic
+instance has been recorded, in the case of a man brought out for
+execution in India, in which the change of colour was so rapid that it
+was perceptible to the eye.[301]
+
+Another good case is that of the trembling of the muscles, which is
+common to man and to many, or most, of the lower animals. Trembling is
+of no service, often of much disservice, and cannot have been at first
+acquired through the will, and then rendered habitual in association
+with any emotion. I am assured by an eminent authority that young
+children do not tremble, but go into convulsions under the
+circumstances which would induce excessive trembling in adults.
+Trembling is excited in different individuals in very different degrees
+and by the most diversified causes,—by cold to the surface, before
+fever-fits, although the temperature of the body is then above the
+normal standard; in blood-poisoning, delirium tremens, and other
+diseases; by general failure of power in old age; by exhaustion after
+excessive fatigue; locally from severe injuries, such as burns; and, in
+an especial manner, by the passage of a catheter. Of all emotions, fear
+notoriously is the most apt to induce trembling; but so do occasionally
+great anger and joy. I remember once seeing a boy who had just shot his
+first snipe on the wing, and his hands trembled to such a degree from
+delight, that he could not for some time reload his gun; and I have
+heard of an exactly similar case with an Australian savage, to whom a
+gun had been lent. Fine music, from the vague emotions thus excited,
+causes a shiver to run down the backs of some persons. There seems to
+be very little in common in the above several physical causes and
+emotions to account for trembling; and Sir J. Paget, to whom I am
+indebted for several of the above statements, informs me that the
+subject is a very obscure one. As trembling is sometimes caused by
+rage, long before exhaustion can have set in, and as it sometimes
+accompanies great joy, it would appear that any strong excitement of
+the nervous system interrupts the steady flow of nerve-force to the
+muscles.[302]
+
+The manner in which the secretions of the alimentary canal and of
+certain glands—as the liver, kidneys, or mammæ are affected by strong
+emotions, is another excellent instance of the direct action of the
+sensorium on these organs, independently of the will or of any
+serviceable associated habit. There is the greatest difference in
+different persons in the parts which are thus affected, and in the
+degree of their affection.
+
+The heart, which goes on uninterruptedly beating night and day in so
+wonderful a manner, is extremely sensitive to external stimulants. The
+great physiologist, Claude Bernard,[303] has shown how the least
+excitement of a sensitive nerve reacts on the heart; even when a nerve
+is touched so slightly that no pain can possibly be felt by the animal
+under experiment. Hence when the mind is strongly excited, we might
+expect that it would instantly affect in a direct manner the heart; and
+this is universally acknowledged and felt to be the case. Claude
+Bernard also repeatedly insists, and this deserves especial notice,
+that when the heart is affected it reacts on the brain; and the state
+of the brain again reacts through the pneumo-gastric nerve on the
+heart; so that under any excitement there will be much mutual action
+and reaction between these, the two most important organs of the body.
+
+The vaso-motor system, which regulates the diameter of the small
+arteries, is directly acted on by the sensorium, as we see when a man
+blushes from shame; but in this latter case the checked transmission of
+nerve-force to the vessels of the face can, I think, be partly
+explained in a curious manner through habit. We shall also be able to
+throw some light, though very little, on the involuntary erection of
+the hair under the emotions of terror and rage. The secretion of tears
+depends, no doubt, on the connection of certain nerve-cells; but here
+again we can trace some few of the steps by which the flow of
+nerve-force through the requisite channels has become habitual under
+certain emotions.
+
+A brief consideration of the outward signs of some of the stronger
+sensations and emotions will best serve to show us, although vaguely,
+in how complex a manner the principle under consideration of the direct
+action of the excited nervous system of the body, is combined with the
+principle of habitually associated, serviceable movements.
+
+When animals suffer from an agony of pain, they generally writhe about
+with frightful contortions; and those which habitually use their voices
+utter piercing cries or groans. Almost every muscle of the body is
+brought into strong action. With man the mouth may be closely
+compressed, or more commonly the lips are retracted, with the teeth
+clenched or ground together. There is said to be “gnashing of teeth” in
+hell; and I have plainly heard the grinding of the molar teeth of a cow
+which was suffering acutely from inflammation of the bowels. The female
+hippopotamus in the Zoological Gardens, when she produced her young,
+suffered greatly; she incessantly walked about, or rolled on her sides,
+opening and closing her jaws, and clattering her teeth together.[304]
+With man the eyes stare wildly as in horrified astonishment, or the
+brows are heavily contracted. Perspiration bathes the body, and drops
+trickle down the face. The circulation and respiration are much
+affected. Hence the nostrils are generally dilated and often quiver; or
+the breath may be held until the blood stagnates in the purple face. If
+the agony be severe and prolonged, these signs all change; utter
+prostration follows, with fainting or convulsions.
+
+A sensitive nerve when irritated transmits some influence to the
+nerve-cell, whence it proceeds; and this transmits its influence, first
+to the corresponding nerve-cell on the opposite side of the body, and
+then upwards and downwards along the cerebro-spinal column to other
+nerve-cells, to a greater or less extent, according to the strength of
+the excitement; so that, ultimately, the whole nervous system maybe
+affected.[305] This involuntary transmission of nerve-force may or may
+not be accompanied by consciousness. Why the irritation of a nerve-cell
+should generate or liberate nerve-force is not known; but that this is
+the case seems to be the conclusion arrived at by all the greatest
+physiologists, such as Müller, Virchow, Bernard, &c.[306] As Mr.
+Herbert Spencer remarks, it may be received as an “unquestionable truth
+that, at any moment, the existing quantity of liberated nerve-force,
+which in an inscrutable way produces in us the state we call feeling,
+MUST expend itself in some direction—MUST generate an equivalent
+manifestation of force somewhere;” so that, when the cerebro-spinal
+system is highly excited and nerve-force is liberated in excess, it may
+be expended in intense sensations, active thought, violent movements,
+or increased activity of the glands.[307] Mr. Spencer further maintains
+that an “overflow of nerve-force, undirected by any motive, will
+manifestly take the most habitual routes; and, if these do not suffice,
+will next overflow into the less habitual ones.” Consequently the
+facial and respiratory muscles, which are the most used, will be apt to
+be first brought into action; then those of the upper extremities, next
+those of the lower, and finally those of the whole body.[308]
+
+An emotion may be very strong, but it will have little tendency to
+induce movements of any kind, if it has not commonly led to voluntary
+action for its relief or gratification; and when movements are excited,
+their nature is, to a large extent, determined by those which have
+often and voluntarily been performed for some definite end under the
+same emotion. Great pain urges all animals, and has urged them during
+endless generations, to make the most violent and diversified efforts
+to escape from the cause of suffering. Even when a limb or other
+separate part of the body is hurt, we often see a tendency to shake it,
+as if to shake off the cause, though this may obviously be impossible.
+Thus a habit of exerting with the utmost force all the muscles will
+have been established, whenever great suffering is experienced. As the
+muscles of the chest and vocal organs are habitually used, these will
+be particularly liable to be acted on, and loud, harsh screams or cries
+will be uttered. But the advantage derived from outcries has here
+probably come into play in an important manner; for the young of most
+animals, when in distress or danger, call loudly to their parents for
+aid, as do the members of the same community for mutual aid.
+
+Another principle, namely, the internal consciousness that the power or
+capacity of the nervous system is limited, will have strengthened,
+though in a subordinate degree, the tendency to violent action under
+extreme suffering. A man cannot think deeply and exert his utmost
+muscular force. As Hippocrates long ago observed, if two pains are felt
+at the same time, the severer one dulls the other. Martyrs, in the
+ecstasy of their religious fervour have often, as it would appear, been
+insensible to the most horrid tortures. Sailors who are going to be
+flogged sometimes take a piece of lead into their mouths, in order to
+bite it with their utmost force, and thus to bear the pain. Parturient
+women prepare to exert their muscles to the utmost in order to relieve
+their sufferings.
+
+We thus see that the undirected radiation of nerve-force from the
+nerve-cells which are first affected—the long-continued habit of
+attempting by struggling to escape from the cause of suffering—and the
+consciousness that voluntary muscular exertion relieves pain, have all
+probably concurred in giving a tendency to the most violent, almost
+convulsive, movements under extreme suffering; and such movements,
+including those of the vocal organs, are universally recognized as
+highly expressive of this condition.
+
+As the mere touching of a sensitive nerve reacts in a direct manner on
+the heart, severe pain will obviously react on it in like manner, but
+far more energetically. Nevertheless, even in this case, we must not
+overlook the indirect effects of habit on the heart, as we shall see
+when we consider the signs of rage.
+
+When a man suffers from an agony of pain, the perspiration often
+trickles down his face; and I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon
+that he has frequently seen drops falling from the belly and running
+down the inside of the thighs of horses, and from the bodies of cattle,
+when thus suffering. He has observed this, when there has been no
+struggling which would account for the perspiration. The whole body of
+the female hippopotamus, before alluded to, was covered with
+red-coloured perspiration whilst giving birth to her young. So it is
+with extreme fear; the same veterinary has often seen horses sweating
+from this cause; as has Mr. Bartlett with the rhinoceros; and with man
+it is a well-known symptom. The cause of perspiration bursting forth in
+these cases is quite obscure; but it is thought by some physiologists
+to be connected with the failing power of the capillary circulation;
+and we know that the vasomotor system, which regulates the capillary
+circulation, is much influenced by the mind. With respect to the
+movements of certain muscles of the face under great suffering, as well
+as from other emotions, these will be best considered when we treat of
+the special expressions of man and of the lower animals.
+
+We will now turn to the characteristic symptoms of Rage. Under this
+powerful emotion the action of the heart is much accelerated,[309] or
+it may be much disturbed. The face reddens, or it becomes purple from
+the impeded return of the blood, or may turn deadly pale. The
+respiration is laboured, the chest heaves, and the dilated nostrils
+quiver. The whole body often trembles. The voice is affected. The teeth
+are clenched or ground together, and the muscular system is commonly
+stimulated to violent, almost frantic action. But the gestures of a man
+in this state usually differ from the purposeless writhings and
+struggles of one suffering from an agony of pain; for they represent
+more or less plainly the act of striking or fighting with an enemy.
+
+All these signs of rage are probably in large part, and some of them
+appear to be wholly, due to the direct action of the excited sensorium.
+But animals of all kinds, and their progenitors before them, when
+attacked or threatened by an enemy, have exerted their utmost powers in
+fighting and in defending themselves. Unless an animal does thus act,
+or has the intention, or at least the desire, to attack its enemy, it
+cannot properly be said to be enraged. An inherited habit of muscular
+exertion will thus have been gained in association with rage; and this
+will directly or indirectly affect various organs, in nearly the same
+manner as does great bodily suffering.
+
+The heart no doubt will likewise be affected in a direct manner; but it
+will also in all probability be affected through habit; and all the
+more so from not being under the control of the will. We know that any
+great exertion which we voluntarily make, affects the heart, through
+mechanical and other principles which need not here be considered; and
+it was shown in the first chapter that nerve-force flows readily
+through habitually used channels,—through the nerves of voluntary or
+involuntary movement, and through those of sensation. Thus even a
+moderate amount of exertion will tend to act on the heart; and on the
+principle of association, of which so many instances have been given,
+we may feel nearly sure that any sensation or emotion, as great pain or
+rage, which has habitually led to much muscular action, will
+immediately influence the flow of nerve-force to the heart, although
+there may not be at the time any muscular exertion.
+
+The heart, as I have said, will be all the more readily affected
+through habitual associations, as it is not under the control of the
+will. A man when moderately angry, or even when enraged, may command
+the movements of his body, but he cannot prevent his heart from beating
+rapidly. His chest will perhaps give a few heaves, and his nostrils
+just quiver, for the movements of respiration are only in part
+voluntary. In like manner those muscles of the face which are least
+obedient to the will, will sometimes alone betray a slight and passing
+emotion. The glands again are wholly independent of the will, and a man
+suffering from grief may command his features, but cannot always
+prevent the tears from coming into his eyes. A hungry man, if tempting
+food is placed before him, may not show his hunger by any outward
+gesture, but he cannot check the secretion of saliva.
+
+Under a transport of Joy or of vivid Pleasure, there is a strong
+tendency to various purposeless movements, and to the utterance of
+various sounds. We see this in our young children, in their loud
+laughter, clapping of hands, and jumping for joy; in the bounding and
+barking of a dog when going out to walk with his master; and in the
+frisking of a horse when turned out into an open field. Joy quickens
+the circulation, and this stimulates the brain, which again reacts on
+the whole body. The above purposeless movements and increased
+heart-action may be attributed in chief part to the excited state of
+the sensorium,[310] and to the consequent undirected overflow, as Mr.
+Herbert Spencer insists, of nerve-force. It deserves notice, that it is
+chiefly the anticipation of a pleasure, and not its actual enjoyment,
+which leads to purposeless and extravagant movements of the body, and
+to the utterance of various sounds. We see this in our children when
+they expect any great pleasure or treat; and dogs, which have been
+bounding about at the sight of a plate of food, when they get it do not
+show their delight by any outward sign, not even by wagging their
+tails. Now with animals of all kinds, the acquirement of almost all
+their pleasures, with the exception of those of warmth and rest, are
+associated, and have long been associated with active movements, as in
+the hunting or search for food, and in their courtship. Moreover, the
+mere exertion of the muscles after long rest or confinement is in
+itself a pleasure, as we ourselves feel, and as we see in the play of
+young animals. Therefore on this latter principle alone we might
+perhaps expect, that vivid pleasure would be apt to show itself
+conversely in muscular movements.
+
+With all or almost all animals, even with birds, Terror causes the body
+to tremble. The skin becomes pale, sweat breaks out, and the hair
+bristles. The secretions of the alimentary canal and of the kidneys are
+increased, and they are involuntarily voided, owing to the relaxation
+of the sphincter muscles, as is known to be the case with man, and as I
+have seen with cattle, dogs, cats, and monkeys. The breathing is
+hurried. The heart beats quickly, wildly, and violently; but whether it
+pumps the blood more efficiently through the body may be doubted, for
+the surface seems bloodless and the strength of the muscles soon fails.
+In a frightened horse I have felt through the saddle the beating of the
+heart so plainly that I could have counted the beats. The mental
+faculties are much disturbed. Utter prostration soon follows, and even
+fainting. A terrified canary-bird has been seen not only to tremble and
+to turn white about the base of the bill, but to faint;[311] and I once
+caught a robin in a room, which fainted so completely, that for a time
+I thought it dead.
+
+Most of these symptoms are probably the direct result, independently of
+habit, of the disturbed state of the sensorium; but it is doubtful
+whether they ought to be wholly thus accounted for. When an animal is
+alarmed it almost always stands motionless for a moment, in order to
+collect its senses and to ascertain the source of danger, and sometimes
+for the sake of escaping detection. But headlong flight soon follows,
+with no husbanding of the strength as in fighting, and the animal
+continues to fly as long as the danger lasts, until utter prostration,
+with failing respiration and circulation, with all the muscles
+quivering and profuse sweating, renders further flight impossible.
+Hence it does not seem improbable that the principle of associated
+habit may in part account for, or at least augment, some of the
+above-named characteristic symptoms of extreme terror.
+
+That the principle of associated habit has played an important part in
+causing the movements expressive of the foregoing several strong
+emotions and sensations, we may, I think, conclude from considering
+firstly, some other strong emotions which do not ordinarily require for
+their relief or gratification any voluntary movement; and secondly the
+contrast in nature between the so-called exciting and depressing states
+of the mind. No emotion is stronger than maternal love; but a mother
+may feel the deepest love for her helpless infant, and yet not show it
+by any outward sign; or only by slight caressing movements, with a
+gentle smile and tender eyes. But let any one intentionally injure her
+infant, and see what a change! how she starts up with threatening
+aspect, how her eyes sparkle and her face reddens, how her bosom
+heaves, nostrils dilate, and heart beats; for anger, and not maternal
+love, has habitually led to action. The love between the opposite sexes
+is widely different from maternal love; and when lovers meet, we know
+that their hearts beat quickly, their breathing is hurried, and their
+faces flush; for this love is not inactive like that of a mother for
+her infant.
+
+A man may have his mind filled with the blackest hatred or suspicion,
+or be corroded with envy or jealousy, but as these feelings do not at
+once lead to action, and as they commonly last for some time, they are
+not shown by any outward sign, excepting that a man in this state
+assuredly does not appear cheerful or good-tempered. If indeed these
+feelings break out into overt acts, rage takes their place, and will be
+plainly exhibited. Painters can hardly portray suspicion, jealousy,
+envy, &c., except by the aid of accessories which tell the tale; and
+poets use such vague and fanciful expressions as “green-eyed jealousy.”
+Spenser describes suspicion as “Foul, ill-favoured, and grim, under his
+eyebrows looking still askance,” &c.; Shakespeare speaks of envy “as
+lean-faced in her loathsome case;” and in another place he says, “no
+black envy shall make my grave;” and again as “above pale envy’s
+threatening reach.”
+
+Emotions and sensations have often been classed as exciting or
+depressing. When all the organs of the body and mind,—those of
+voluntary and involuntary movement, of perception, sensation, thought,
+&c.,—perform their functions more energetically and rapidly than usual,
+a man or animal may be said to be excited, and, under an opposite
+state, to be depressed. Anger and joy are from the first exciting
+emotions, and they naturally lead, more especially the former, to
+energetic movements, which react on the heart and this again on the
+brain. A physician once remarked to me as a proof of the exciting
+nature of anger, that a man when excessively jaded will sometimes
+invent imaginary offences and put himself into a passion, unconsciously
+for the sake of reinvigorating himself; and since hearing this remark,
+I have occasionally recognized its full truth.
+
+Several other states of mind appear to be at first exciting, but soon
+become depressing to an extreme degree. When a mother suddenly loses
+her child, sometimes she is frantic with grief, and must be considered
+to be in an excited state; she walks wildly about, tears her hair or
+clothes, and wrings her hands. This latter action is perhaps due to the
+principle of antithesis, betraying an inward sense of helplessness and
+that nothing can be done. The other wild and violent movements may be
+in part explained by the relief experienced through muscular exertion,
+and in part by the undirected overflow of nerve-force from the excited
+sensorium. But under the sudden loss of a beloved person, one of the
+first and commonest thoughts which occurs, is that something more might
+have been done to save the lost one. An excellent observer,[312] in
+describing the behaviour of a girl at the sudden death of her father,
+says she “went about the house wringing her hands like a creature
+demented, saying ‘It was her fault;’ ‘I should never have left him;’
+‘If I had only sat up with him,’” &c. With such ideas vividly present
+before the mind, there would arise, through the principle of associated
+habit, the strongest tendency to energetic action of some kind.
+
+As soon as the sufferer is fully conscious that nothing can be done,
+despair or deep sorrow takes the place of frantic grief. The sufferer
+sits motionless, or gently rocks to and fro; the circulation becomes
+languid; respiration is almost forgotten, and deep sighs are drawn. All
+this reacts on the brain, and prostration soon follows with collapsed
+muscles and dulled eyes. As associated habit no longer prompts the
+sufferer to action, he is urged by his friends to voluntary exertion,
+and not to give way to silent, motionless grief. Exertion stimulates
+the hear, and this reacts on the brain, and aids the mind to bear its
+heavy load.
+
+
+Pain, if severe, soon induces extreme depression or prostration; but it
+is at first a stimulant and excites to action, as we see when we whip a
+horse, and as is shown by the horrid tortures inflicted in foreign
+lands on exhausted dray-bullocks, to rouse them to renewed exertion.
+Fear again is the most depressing of all the emotions; and it soon
+induces utter, helpless prostration, as if in consequence of, or in
+association with, the most violent and prolonged attempts to escape
+from the danger, though no such attempts have actually been made.
+Nevertheless, even extreme fear often acts at first as a powerful
+stimulant. A man or animal driven through terror to desperation, is
+endowed with wonderful strength, and is notoriously dangerous in the
+highest degree.
+
+On the whole we may conclude that the principle of the direct action of
+the sensorium on the body, due to the constitution of the nervous
+system, and from the first independent of the will, has been highly
+influential in determining many expressions. Good instances are
+afforded by the trembling of the muscles, the sweating of the skin, the
+modified secretions of the alimentary canal and glands, under various
+emotions and sensations. But actions of this kind are often combined
+with others, which follow from our first principle, namely, that
+actions which have often been of direct or indirect service, under
+certain states of the mind, in order to gratify or relieve certain
+sensations, desires, &c., are still performed under analogous
+circumstances through mere habit although of no service. We have
+combinations of this kind, at least in part, in the frantic gestures of
+rage and in the writhings of extreme pain; and, perhaps, in the
+increased action of the heart and of the respiratory organs. Even when
+these and other emotions or sensations are aroused in a very feeble
+manner, there will still be a tendency to similar actions, owing to the
+force of long-associated habit; and those actions which are least under
+voluntary control will generally be longest retained. Our second
+principle of antithesis has likewise occasionally come into play.
+
+Finally, so many expressive movements can be explained, as I trust will
+be seen in the course of this volume, through the three principles
+which have now been discussed, that we may hope hereafter to see all
+thus explained, or by closely analogous principles. It is, however,
+often impossible to decide how much weight ought to be attributed, in
+each particular case, to one of our principles, and how much to
+another; and very many points in the theory of Expression remain
+inexplicable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN ANIMALS.
+
+The emission of Sounds—Vocal sounds—Sounds otherwise produced—Erection
+of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &c., under the emotions of
+anger and terror—The drawing back of the ears as a preparation for
+fighting, and as an expression of anger—Erection of the ears and
+raising the head, a sign of attention.
+
+In this and the following chapter I will describe, but only in
+sufficient detail to illustrate my subject, the expressive movements,
+under different states of the mind, of some few well-known animals. But
+before considering them in due succession, it will save much useless
+repetition to discuss certain means of expression common to most of
+them.
+
+_The emission of Sounds_.—With many kinds of animals, man included, the
+vocal organs are efficient in the highest degree as a means of
+expression. We have seen, in the last chapter, that when the sensorium
+is strongly excited, the muscles of the body are generally thrown into
+violent action; and as a consequence, loud sounds are uttered, however
+silent the animal may generally be, and although the sounds may be of
+no use. Hares and rabbits for instance, never, I believe, use their
+vocal organs except in the extremity of suffering; as, when a wounded
+hare is killed by the sportsman, or when a young rabbit is caught by a
+stoat. Cattle and horses suffer great pain in silence; but when this is
+excessive, and especially when associated with terror, they utter
+fearful sounds. I have often recognized, from a distance on the Pampas,
+the agonized death-bellow of the cattle, when caught by the lasso and
+hamstrung. It is said that horses, when attacked by wolves, utter loud
+and peculiar screams of distress.
+
+Involuntary and purposeless contractions of the muscles of the chest
+and glottis, excited in the above manner, may have first given rise to
+the emission of vocal sounds. But the voice is now largely used by many
+animals for various purposes; and habit seems to have played an
+important part in its employment under other circumstances. Naturalists
+have remarked, I believe with truth, that social animals, from
+habitually using their vocal organs as a means of intercommunication,
+use them on other occasions much more freely than other animals. But
+there are marked exceptions to this rule, for instance, with the
+rabbit. The principle, also, of association, which is so widely
+extended in its power, has likewise played its part. Hence it follows
+that the voice, from having been habitually employed as a serviceable
+aid under certain conditions, inducing pleasure, pain, rage, &c., is
+commonly used whenever the same sensations or emotions are excited,
+under quite different conditions, or in a lesser degree.
+
+The sexes of many animals incessantly call for each other during the
+breeding-season; and in not a few cases, the male endeavours thus to
+charm or excite the female. This, indeed, seems to have been the
+primeval use and means of development of the voice, as I have attempted
+to show in my ‘Descent of Man.’ Thus the use of the vocal organs will
+have become associated with the anticipation of the strongest pleasure
+which animals are capable of feeling. Animals which live in society
+often call to each other when separated, and evidently feel much joy at
+meeting; as we see with a horse, on the return of his companion, for
+whom he has been neighing. The mother calls incessantly for her lost
+young ones; for instance, a cow for her calf; and the young of many
+animals call for their mothers. When a flock of sheep is scattered, the
+ewes bleat incessantly for their lambs, and their mutual pleasure at
+coming together is manifest. Woe betide the man who meddles with the
+young of the larger and fiercer quadrupeds, if they hear the cry of
+distress from their young. Rage leads to the violent exertion of all
+the muscles, including those of the voice; and some animals, when
+enraged, endeavour to strike terror into their enemies by its power and
+harshness, as the lion does by roaring, and the dog by growling. I
+infer that their object is to strike terror, because the lion at the
+same time erects the hair of its mane, and the dog the hair along its
+back, and thus they make themselves appear as large and terrible as
+possible. Rival males try to excel and challenge each other by their
+voices, and this leads to deadly contests. Thus the use of the voice
+will have become associated with the emotion of anger, however it may
+be aroused. We have also seen that intense pain, like rage, leads to
+violent outcries, and the exertion of screaming by itself gives some
+relief; and thus the use of the voice will have become associated with
+suffering of any kind.
+
+The cause of widely different sounds being uttered under different
+emotions and sensations is a very obscure subject. Nor does the rule
+always hold good that there is any marked difference. For instance with
+the dog, the bark of anger and that of joy do not differ much, though
+they can be distinguished. It is not probable that any precise
+explanation of the cause or source of each particular sound, under
+different states of the mind, will ever be given. We know that some
+animals, after being domesticated, have acquired the habit of uttering
+sounds which were not natural to them.[401] Thus domestic dogs, and
+even tamed jackals, have learnt to bark, which is a noise not proper to
+any species of the genus, with the exception of the _Canis latrans_ of
+North America, which is said to bark. Some breeds, also, of the
+domestic pigeon have learnt to coo in a new and quite peculiar manner.
+
+The character of the human voice, under the influence of various
+emotions, has been discussed by Mr. Herbert Spencer[402] in his
+interesting essay on Music. He clearly shows that the voice alters much
+under different conditions, in loudness and in quality, that is, in
+resonance and _timbre_, in pitch and intervals. No one can listen to an
+eloquent orator or preacher, or to a man calling angrily to another, or
+to one expressing astonishment, without being struck with the truth of
+Mr. Spencer’s remarks. It is curious how early in life the modulation
+of the voice becomes expressive. With one of my children, under the age
+of two years, I clearly perceived that his humph of assent was rendered
+by a slight modulation strongly emphatic; and that by a peculiar whine
+his negative expressed obstinate determination. Mr. Spencer further
+shows that emotional speech, in all the above respects is intimately
+related to vocal music, and consequently to instrumental music; and he
+attempts to explain the characteristic qualities of both on
+physiological grounds—namely, on “the general law that a feeling is a
+stimulus to muscular action.” It may be admitted that the voice is
+affected through this law; but the explanation appears to me too
+general and vague to throw much light on the various differences, with
+the exception of that of loudness, between ordinary speech and
+emotional speech, or singing.
+
+This remark holds good, whether we believe that the various qualities
+of the voice originated in speaking under the excitement of strong
+feelings, and that these qualities have subsequently been transferred
+to vocal music; or whether we believe, as I maintain, that the habit of
+uttering musical sounds was first developed, as a means of courtship,
+in the early progenitors of man, and thus became associated with the
+strongest emotions of which they were capable,—namely, ardent love,
+rivalry and triumph. That animals utter musical notes is familiar to
+every one, as we may daily hear in the singing of birds. It is a more
+remarkable fact that an ape, one of the Gibbons, produces an exact
+octave of musical sounds, ascending and descending the scale by
+halftones; so that this monkey “alone of brute mammals may be said to
+sing.”[403] From this fact, and from the analogy of other animals, I
+have been led to infer that the progenitors of man probably uttered
+musical tones, before they had acquired the power of articulate speech;
+and that consequently, when the voice is used under any strong emotion,
+it tends to assume, through the principle of association, a musical
+character. We can plainly perceive, with some of the lower animals,
+that the males employ their voices to please the females, and that they
+themselves take pleasure in their own vocal utterances; but why
+particular sounds are uttered, and why these give pleasure cannot at
+present be explained.
+
+That the pitch of the voice bears some relation to certain states of
+feeling is tolerably clear. A person gently complaining of
+ill-treatment, or slightly suffering, almost always speaks in a
+high-pitched voice. Dogs, when a little impatient, often make a high
+piping note through their noses, which at once strikes us as
+plaintive;[404] but how difficult it is to know whether the sound is
+essentially plaintive, or only appears so in this particular case, from
+our having learnt by experience what it means! Rengger, states[405]
+that the monkeys (_Cebus azaræ_), which he kept in Paraguay, expressed
+astonishment by a half-piping, half-snarling noise; anger or
+impatience, by repeating the sound _hu hu_ in a deeper, grunting voice;
+and fright or pain, by shrill screams. On the other hand, with mankind,
+deep groans and high piercing screams equally express an agony of pain.
+Laughter maybe either high or low; so that, with adult men, as Haller
+long ago remarked,[406] the sound partakes of the character of the
+vowels (as pronounced in German) _O_ and _A_; whilst with children and
+women, it has more of the character of _E_ and _I_; and these latter
+vowel-sounds naturally have, as Helmholtz has shown, a higher pitch
+than the former; yet both tones of laughter equally express enjoyment
+or amusement.
+
+In considering the mode in which vocal utterances express emotion, we
+are naturally led to inquire into the cause of what is called
+“expression” in music. Upon this point Mr. Litchfield, who has long
+attended to the subject of music, has been so kind as to give me the
+following remarks:—“The question, what is the essence of musical
+‘expression’ involves a number of obscure points, which, so far as I am
+aware, are as yet unsolved enigmas. Up to a certain point, however, any
+law which is found to hold as to the expression of the emotions by
+simple sounds must apply to the more developed mode of expression in
+song, which may be taken as the primary type of all music. A great part
+of the emotional effect of a song depends on the character of the
+action by which the sounds are produced. In songs, for instance, which
+express great vehemence of passion, the effect often chiefly depends on
+the forcible utterance of some one or two characteristic passages which
+demand great exertion of vocal force; and it will be frequently noticed
+that a song of this character fails of its proper effect when sung by a
+voice of sufficient power and range to give the characteristic passages
+without much exertion. This is, no doubt, the secret of the loss of
+effect so often produced by the transposition of a song from one key to
+another. The effect is thus seen to depend not merely on the actual
+sounds, but also in part on the nature of the action which produces the
+sounds. Indeed it is obvious that whenever we feel the ‘expression’ of
+a song to be due to its quickness or slowness of movement—to smoothness
+of flow, loudness of utterance, and so on—we are, in fact, interpreting
+the muscular actions which produce sound, in the same way in which we
+interpret muscular action generally. But this leaves unexplained the
+more subtle and more specific effect which we call the _musical_
+expression of the song—the delight given by its melody, or even by the
+separate sounds which make up the melody. This is an effect indefinable
+in language—one which, so far as I am aware, no one has been able to
+analyse, and which the ingenious speculation of Mr. Herbert Spencer as
+to the origin of music leaves quite unexplained. For it is certain that
+the _melodic_ effect of a series of sounds does not depend in the least
+on their loudness or softness, or on their _absolute_ pitch. A tune is
+always the same tune, whether it is sung loudly or softly, by a child
+or a man; whether it is played on a flute or on a trombone. The purely
+musical effect of any sound depends on its place in what is technically
+called a ‘scale;’ the same sound producing absolutely different effects
+on the ear, according as it is heard in connection with one or another
+series of sounds.
+
+“It is on this _relative_ association of the sounds that all the
+essentially characteristic effects which are summed up in the phrase
+‘musical expression,’ depend. But why certain associations of sounds
+have such-and-such effects, is a problem which yet remains to be
+solved. These effects must indeed, in some way or other, be connected
+with the well-known arithmetical relations between the rates of
+vibration of the sounds which form a musical scale. And it is
+possible—but this is merely a suggestion—that the greater or less
+mechanical facility with which the vibrating apparatus of the human
+larynx passes from one state of vibration to another, may have been a
+primary cause of the greater or less pleasure produced by various
+sequences of sounds.”
+
+But leaving aside these complex questions and confining ourselves to
+the simpler sounds, we can, at least, see some reasons for the
+association of certain kinds of sounds with certain states of mind. A
+scream, for instance, uttered by a young animal, or by one of the
+members of a community, as a call for assistance, will naturally be
+loud, prolonged, and high, so as to penetrate to a distance. For
+Helmholtz has shown[407] that, owing to the shape of the internal
+cavity of the human ear and its consequent power of resonance, high
+notes produce a particularly strong impression. When male animals utter
+sounds in order to please the females, they would naturally employ
+those which are sweet to the ears of the species; and it appears that
+the same sounds are often pleasing to widely different animals, owing
+to the similarity of their nervous systems, as we ourselves perceive in
+the singing of birds and even in the chirping of certain tree-frogs
+giving us pleasure. On the other hand, sounds produced in order to
+strike terror into an enemy, would naturally be harsh or displeasing.
+
+Whether the principle of antithesis has come into play with sounds, as
+might perhaps have been expected, is doubtful. The interrupted,
+laughing or tittering sounds made by man and by various kinds of
+monkeys when pleased, are as different as possible from the prolonged
+screams of these animals when distressed. The deep grunt of
+satisfaction uttered by a pig, when pleased with its food, is widely
+different from its harsh scream of pain or terror. But with the dog, as
+lately remarked, the bark of anger and that of joy are sounds which by
+no means stand in opposition to each other; and so it is in some other
+cases.
+
+There is another obscure point, namely, whether the sounds which are
+produced under various states of the mind determine the shape of the
+mouth, or whether its shape is not determined by independent causes,
+and the sound thus modified. When young infants cry they open their
+mouths widely, and this, no doubt, is necessary for pouring forth a
+full volume of sound; but the mouth then assumes, from a quite distinct
+cause, an almost quadrangular shape, depending, as will hereafter be
+explained, on the firm closing of the eyelids, and consequent drawing
+up of the upper lip. How far this square shape of the mouth modifies
+the wailing or crying sound, I am not prepared to say; but we know from
+the researches of Helmholtz and others that the form of the cavity of
+the mouth and lips determines the nature and pitch of the vowel sounds
+which are produced.
+
+It will also be shown in a future chapter that, under the feeling of
+contempt or disgust, there is a tendency, from intelligible causes, to
+blow out of the mouth or nostrils, and this produces sounds like pooh
+or pish. When any one is startled or suddenly astonished, there is an
+instantaneous tendency, likewise from an intelligible cause, namely, to
+be ready for prolonged exertion, to open the mouth widely, so as to
+draw a deep and rapid inspiration. When the next full expiration
+follows, the mouth is slightly closed, and the lips, from causes
+hereafter to be discussed, are somewhat protruded; and this form of the
+mouth, if the voice be at all exerted, produces, according to
+Helmholtz, the sound of the vowel _O_. Certainly a deep sound of a
+prolonged _Oh!_ may be heard from a whole crowd of people immediately
+after witnessing any astonishing spectacle. If, together with surprise,
+pain be felt, there is a tendency to contract all the muscles of the
+body, including those of the face, and the lips will then be drawn
+back; and this will perhaps account for the sound becoming higher and
+assuming the character of _Ah!_ or _Ach!_ As fear causes all the
+muscles of the body to tremble, the voice naturally becomes tremulous,
+and at the same time husky from the dryness of the mouth, owing to the
+salivary glands failing to act. Why the laughter of man and the
+tittering of monkeys should be a rapidly reiterated sound, cannot be
+explained. During the utterance of these sounds, the mouth is
+transversely elongated by the corners being drawn backwards and
+upwards; and of this fact an explanation will be attempted in a future
+chapter. But the whole subject of the differences of the sounds
+produced under different states of the mind is so obscure, that I have
+succeeded in throwing hardly any light on it; and the remarks which I
+have made, have but little significance.
+
+
+
+Sound Producing Quills from Tail of a Porcupine. Fig. 11
+
+All the sounds hitherto noticed depend on the respiratory organs; but
+sounds produced by wholly different means are likewise expressive.
+Rabbits stamp loudly on the ground as a signal to their comrades; and
+if a man knows how to do so properly, he may on a quiet evening hear
+the rabbits answering him all around. These animals, as well as some
+others, also stamp on the ground when made angry. Porcupines rattle
+their quills and vibrate their tails when angered; and one behaved in
+this manner when a live snake was placed in its compartment. The quills
+on the tail are very different from those on the body: they are short,
+hollow, thin like a goose-quill, with their ends transversely
+truncated, so that they are open; they are supported on long, thin,
+elastic foot-stalks. Now, when the tail is rapidly shaken, these hollow
+quills strike against each other and produce, as I heard in the
+presence of Mr. Bartlett, a peculiar continuous sound. We can, I think,
+understand why porcupines have been provided, through the modification
+of their protective spines, with this special sound-producing
+instrument. They are nocturnal animals, and if they scented or heard a
+prowling beast of prey, it would be a great advantage to them in the
+dark to give warning to their enemy what they were, and that they were
+furnished with dangerous spines. They would thus escape being attacked.
+They are, as I may add, so fully conscious of the power of their
+weapons, that when enraged they will charge backwards with their spines
+erected, yet still inclined backwards.
+
+Many birds during their courtship produce diversified sounds by means
+of specially adapted feathers. Storks, when excited, make a loud
+clattering noise with their beaks. Some snakes produce a grating or
+rattling noise. Many insects stridulate by rubbing together specially
+modified parts of their hard integuments. This stridulation generally
+serves as a sexual charm or call; but it is likewise used to express
+different emotions.[408] Every one who has attended to bees knows that
+their humming changes when they are angry; and this serves as a warning
+that there is danger of being stung. I have made these few remarks
+because some writers have laid so much stress on the vocal and
+respiratory organs as having been specially adapted for expression,
+that it was advisable to show that sounds otherwise produced serve
+equally well for the same purpose.
+
+_Erection of the dermal appendages_.—Hardly any expressive movement is
+so general as the involuntary erection of the hairs, feathers and other
+dermal appendages; for it is common throughout three of the great
+vertebrate classes. These appendages are erected under the excitement
+of anger or terror; more especially when these emotions are combined,
+or quickly succeed each other. The action serves to make the animal
+appear larger and more frightful to its enemies or rivals, and is
+generally accompanied by various voluntary movements adapted for the
+same purpose, and by the utterance of savage sounds. Mr. Bartlett, who
+has had such wide experience with animals of all kinds, does not doubt
+that this is the case; but it is a different question whether the power
+of erection was primarily acquired for this special purpose.
+
+I will first give a considerable body of facts showing how general this
+action is with mammals, birds and reptiles; retaining what I have to
+say in regard to man for a future chapter. Mr. Sutton, the intelligent
+keeper in the Zoological Gardens, carefully observed for me the
+Chimpanzee and Orang; and he states that when they are suddenly
+frightened, as by a thunderstorm, or when they are made angry, as by
+being teased, their hair becomes erect. I saw a chimpanzee who was
+alarmed at the sight of a black coalheaver, and the hair rose all over
+his body; he made little starts forward as if to attack the man,
+without any real intention of doing so, but with the hope, as the
+keeper remarked, of frightening him. The Gorilla, when enraged, is
+described by Mr. Ford[409] as having his crest of hair “erect and
+projecting forward, his nostrils dilated, and his under lip thrown
+down; at the same time uttering his characteristic yell, designed, it
+would seem, to terrify his antagonists.” I saw the hair on the Anubis
+baboon, when angered bristling along the back, from the neck to the
+loins, but not on the rump or other parts of the body. I took a stuffed
+snake into the monkey-house, and the hair on several of the species
+instantly became erect; especially on their tails, as I particularly
+noticed with the _Cereopithecus nictitans_. Brehm states[410] that the
+_Midas œdipus_ (belonging to the American division) when excited erects
+its mane, in order, as he adds, to make itself as frightful as
+possible.
+
+With the Carnivora the erection of the hair seems to be almost
+universal, often accompanied by threatening movements, the uncovering
+of the teeth and the utterance of savage growls. In the Herpestes, I
+have seen the hair on end over nearly the whole body, including the
+tail; and the dorsal crest is erected in a conspicuous manner by the
+Hyaena and Proteles. The enraged lion erects his mane. The bristling of
+the hair along the neck and back of the dog, and over the whole body of
+the cat, especially on the tail, is familiar to every one. With the cat
+it apparently occurs only under fear; with the dog, under anger and
+fear; but not, as far as I have observed, under abject fear, as when a
+dog is going to be flogged by a severe gamekeeper. If, however, the dog
+shows fight, as sometimes happens, up goes his hair. I have often
+noticed that the hair of a dog is particularly liable to rise, if he is
+half angry and half afraid, as on beholding some object only
+indistinctly seen in the dusk.
+
+I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon that he has often seen the
+hair erected on horses and cattle, on which he had operated and was
+again going to operate. When I showed a stuffed snake to a Peccary, the
+hair rose in a wonderful manner along its back; and so it does with the
+boar when enraged. An Elk which gored a man to death in the United
+States, is described as first brandishing his antlers, squealing with
+rage and stamping on the ground; “at length his hair was seen to rise
+and stand on end,” and then he plunged forward to the attack.[411] The
+hair likewise becomes erect on goats, and, as I hear from Mr. Blyth, on
+some Indian antelopes. I have seen it erected on the hairy Ant-eater;
+and on the Agouti, one of the Rodents. A female Bat,[412] which reared
+her young under confinement, when any one looked into the cage “erected
+the fur on her back, and bit viciously at intruding fingers.”
+
+Birds belonging to all the chief Orders ruffle their feathers when
+angry or frightened. Every one must have seen two cocks, even quite
+young birds, preparing to fight with erected neck-hackles; nor can
+these feathers when erected serve as a means of defence, for
+cock-fighters have found by experience that it is advantageous to trim
+them. The male Ruff (_Machetes pugnæ_) likewise erects its collar of
+feathers when fighting. When a dog approaches a common hen with her
+chickens, she spreads out her wings, raises her tail, ruffles all her
+feathers, and looking as ferocious as possible, dashes at the intruder.
+The tail is not always held in exactly the same position; it is
+sometimes so much erected, that the central feathers, as in the
+accompanying drawing, almost touch the back. Swans, when angered,
+likewise raise their wings and tail, and erect their feathers. They
+open their beaks, and make by paddling little rapid starts forwards,
+against any one who approaches the water’s edge too closely. Tropic
+birds[413] when disturbed on their nests are said not to fly away, but
+“merely to stick out their feathers and scream.” The Barn-owl, when
+approached “instantly swells out its plumage, extends its wings and
+tail, hisses and clacks its mandibles with force and rapidity.”[414] So
+do other kinds of owls. Hawks, as I am informed by Mr. Jenner Weir,
+likewise ruffle their feathers, and spread out their wings and tail
+under similar circumstances. Some kinds of parrots erect their
+feathers; and I have seen this action in the Cassowary, when angered at
+the sight of an Ant-eater. Young cuckoos in the nest, raise their
+feathers, open their mouths widely, and make themselves as frightful as
+possible.
+
+
+
+Hen Driving Away a Dog from Her Chickens. Fig. 12
+
+{illust. caption = FIG. 12—Hen driving away a dog from her chickens.
+Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.}
+
+
+
+Swan Driving Away an Intruder. Fig 13
+
+{illust. caption = FIG. 13.—Swan driving away an intruder. Drawn from
+life by Mr. Wood.}
+
+Small birds, also, as I hear from Mr. Weir, such as various finches,
+buntings and warblers, when angry, ruffle all their feathers, or only
+those round the neck; or they spread out their wings and tail-feathers.
+With their plumage in this state, they rush at each other with open
+beaks and threatening gestures. Mr. Weir concludes from his large
+experience that the erection of the feathers is caused much more by
+anger than by fear. He gives as an instance a hybrid goldfinch of a
+most irascible disposition, which when approached too closely by a
+servant, instantly assumes the appearance of a ball of ruffled
+feathers. He believes that birds when frightened, as a general rule,
+closely adpress all their feathers, and their consequently diminished
+size is often astonishing. As soon as they recover from their fear or
+surprise, the first thing which they do is to shake out their feathers.
+The best instances of this adpression of the feathers and apparent
+shrinking of the body from fear, which Mr. Weir has noticed, has been
+in the quail and grass-parrakeet.[415] The habit is intelligible in
+these birds from their being accustomed, when in danger, either to
+squat on the ground or to sit motionless on a branch, so as to escape
+detection. Though, with birds, anger may be the chief and commonest
+cause of the erection of the feathers, it is probable that young
+cuckoos when looked at in the nest, and a hen with her chickens when
+approached by a dog, feel at least some terror. Mr. Tegetmeier informs
+me that with game-cocks, the erection of the feathers on the head has
+long been recognized in the cock-pit as a sign of cowardice.
+
+The males of some lizards, when fighting together during their
+courtship, expand their throat pouches or frills, and erect their
+dorsal crests.[416] But Dr. Günther does not believe that they can
+erect their separate spines or scales.
+
+We thus see how generally throughout the two higher vertebrate classes,
+and with some reptiles, the dermal appendages are erected under the
+influence of anger and fear. The movement is effected, as we know from
+Kolliker’s interesting discovery, by the contraction of minute,
+unstriped, involuntary muscles,[417] often called _arrectores pili_,
+which are attached to the capsules of the separate hairs, feathers, &c.
+By the contraction of these muscles the hairs can be instantly erected,
+as we see in a dog, being at the same time drawn a little out of their
+sockets; they are afterwards quickly depressed. The vast number of
+these minute muscles over the whole body of a hairy quadruped is
+astonishing. The erection of the hair is, however, aided in some cases,
+as with that on the head of a man, by the striped and voluntary muscles
+of the underlying _panniculus carnosus_. It is by the action of these
+latter muscles, that the hedgehog erects its spines. It appears, also,
+from the researches of Leydig[418] and others, that striped fibres
+extend from the panniculus to some of the larger hairs, such as the
+vibrissae of certain quadrupeds. The _arrectores pili_ contract not
+only under the above emotions, but from the application of cold to the
+surface. I remember that my mules and dogs, brought from a lower and
+warmer country, after spending a night on the bleak Cordillera, had the
+hair all over their bodies as erect as under the greatest terror. We
+see the same action in our own _goose-skin_ during the chill before a
+fever-fit. Mr. Lister has also found,[419] that tickling a neighbouring
+part of the skin causes the erection and protrusion of the hairs.
+
+From these facts it is manifest that the erection of the dermal
+appendages is a reflex action, independent of the will; and this action
+must be looked at, when, occurring under the influence of anger or
+fear, not as a power acquired for the sake of some advantage, but as an
+incidental result, at least to a large extent, of the sensorium being
+affected. The result, in as far as it is incidental, may be compared
+with the profuse sweating from an agony of pain or terror.
+Nevertheless, it is remarkable how slight an excitement often suffices
+to cause the hair to become erect; as when two dogs pretend to fight
+together in play. We have, also, seen in a large number of animals,
+belonging to widely distinct classes, that the erection of the hair or
+feathers is almost always accompanied by various voluntary movements—by
+threatening gestures, opening the mouth, uncovering the teeth,
+spreading out of the wings and tail by birds, and by the utterance of
+harsh sounds; and the purpose of these voluntary movements is
+unmistakable. Therefore it seems hardly credible that the co-ordinated
+erection of the dermal appendages, by which the animal is made to
+appear larger and more terrible to its enemies or rivals, should be
+altogether an incidental and purposeless result of the disturbance of
+the sensorium. This seems almost as incredible as that the erection by
+the hedgehog of its spines, or of the quills by the porcupine, or of
+the ornamental plumes by many birds during their courtship, should all
+be purposeless actions.
+
+We here encounter a great difficulty. How can the contraction of the
+unstriped and involuntary _arrectores pili_ have been co-ordinated with
+that of various voluntary muscles for the same special purpose? If we
+could believe that the arrectores primordially had been voluntary
+muscles, and had since lost their stripes and become involuntary, the
+case would be comparatively simple. I am not, however, aware that there
+is any evidence in favour of this view; although the reversed
+transition would not have presented any great difficulty, as the
+voluntary muscles are in an unstriped condition in the embryos of the
+higher animals, and in the larvae of some crustaceans. Moreover in the
+deeper layers of the skin of adult birds, the muscular network is,
+according to Leydig,[420] in a transitional condition; the fibres
+exhibiting only indications of transverse striation.
+
+Another explanation seems possible. We may admit that originally the
+_arrectores pili_ were slightly acted on in a direct manner, under the
+influence of rage and terror, by the disturbance of the nervous system;
+as is undoubtedly the case with our so-called _goose-skin_ before a
+fever-fit. Animals have been repeatedly excited by rage and terror
+during many generations; and consequently the direct effects of the
+disturbed nervous system on the dermal appendages will almost certainly
+have been increased through habit and through the tendency of
+nerve-force to pass readily along accustomed channels. We shall find
+this view of the force of habit strikingly confirmed in a future
+chapter, where it will be shown that the hair of the insane is affected
+in an extraordinary manner, owing to their repeated accesses of fury
+and terror. As soon as with animals the power of erection had thus been
+strengthened or increased, they must often have seen the hairs or
+feathers erected in rival and enraged males, and the bulk of their
+bodies thus increased. In this case it appears possible that they might
+have wished to make themselves appear larger and more terrible to their
+enemies, by voluntarily assuming a threatening attitude and uttering
+harsh cries; such attitudes and utterances after a time becoming
+through habit instinctive. In this manner actions performed by the
+contraction of voluntary muscles might have been combined for the same
+special purpose with those effected by involuntary muscles. It is even
+possible that animals, when excited and dimly conscious of some change
+in the state of their hair, might act on it by repeated exertions of
+their attention and will; for we have reason to believe that the will
+is able to influence in an obscure manner the action of some unstriped
+or involuntary muscles, as in the period of the peristaltic movements
+of the intestines, and in the contraction of the bladder. Nor must we
+overlook the part which variation and natural selection may have
+played; for the males which succeeded in making themselves appear the
+most terrible to their rivals, or to their other enemies, if not of
+overwhelming power, will on an average have left more offspring to
+inherit their characteristic qualities, whatever these may be and
+however first acquired, than have other males.
+
+_The inflation of the body, and other means of exciting fear in an
+enemy_.—Certain Amphibians and Reptiles, which either have no spines to
+erect, or no muscles by which they can be erected, enlarge themselves
+when alarmed or angry by inhaling air. This is well known to be the
+case with toads and frogs. The latter animal is made, in AEsop’s fable
+of the ‘Ox and the Frog,’ to blow itself up from vanity and envy until
+it burst. This action must have been observed during the most ancient
+times, as, according to Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood,[421] the word _toad_
+expresses in all the languages of Europe the habit of swelling. It has
+been observed with some of the exotic species in the Zoological
+Gardens; and Dr. Günther believes that it is general throughout the
+group. Judging from analogy, the primary purpose probably was to make
+the body appear as large and frightful as possible to an enemy; but
+another, and perhaps more important secondary advantage is thus gained.
+When frogs are seized by snakes, which are their chief enemies, they
+enlarge themselves wonderfully; so that if the snake be of small size,
+as Dr. Günther informs me, it cannot swallow the frog, which thus
+escapes being devoured.
+
+Chameleons and some other lizards inflate themselves when angry. Thus a
+species inhabiting Oregon, the _Tapaya Douglasii_, is slow in its
+movements and does not bite, but has a ferocious aspect; “when
+irritated it springs in a most threatening manner at anything pointed
+at it, at the same time opening its mouth wide and hissing audibly,
+after which it inflates its body, and shows other marks of anger.”[422]
+
+Several kinds of snakes likewise inflate themselves when irritated. The
+puff-adder (_Clotho arietans_) is remarkable in this respect; but I
+believe, after carefully watching these animals, that they do not act
+thus for the sake of increasing their apparent bulk, but simply for
+inhaling a large supply of air, so as to produce their surprisingly
+loud, harsh, and prolonged hissing sound. The Cobras-de-capello, when
+irritated, enlarge themselves a little, and hiss moderately; but, at
+the same time they lift their heads aloft, and dilate by means of their
+elongated anterior ribs, the skin on each side of the neck into a large
+flat disk,—the so-called hood. With their widely opened mouths, they
+then assume a terrific aspect. The benefit thus derived ought to be
+considerable, in order to compensate for the somewhat lessened rapidity
+(though this is still great) with which, when dilated, they can strike
+at their enemies or prey; on the same principle that a broad, thin
+piece of wood cannot be moved through the air so quickly as a small
+round stick. An innocuous snake, the _Trovidonotus macrophthalmus_, an
+inhabitant of India, likewise dilates its neck when irritated; and
+consequently is often mistaken for its compatriot, the deadly
+Cobra.[423] This resemblance perhaps serves as some protection to the
+Tropidonotus. Another innocuous species, the Dasypeltis of South
+Africa, blows itself out, distends its neck, hisses and darts at an
+intruder.[424] Many other snakes hiss under similar circumstances. They
+also rapidly vibrate their protruded tongues; and this may aid in
+increasing their terrific appearance.
+
+Snakes possess other means of producing sounds besides hissing. Many
+years ago I observed in South America that a venomous Trigonocephalus,
+when disturbed, rapidly vibrated the end of its tail, which striking
+against the dry grass and twigs produced a rattling noise that could be
+distinctly heard at the distance of six feet.[425] The deadly and
+fierce _Echis carinata_ of India produces “a curious prolonged, almost
+hissing sound in a very different manner, namely by rubbing the sides
+of the folds of its body against each other,” whilst the head remains
+in almost the same position. The scales on the sides, and not on other
+parts of the body, are strongly keeled, with the keels toothed like a
+saw; and as the coiled-up animal rubs its sides together, these grate
+against each other.[426] Lastly, we have the well-known case of the
+Rattle-snake. He who has merely shaken the rattle of a dead snake, can
+form no just idea of the sound produced by the living animal. Professor
+Shaler states that it is indistinguishable from that made by the male
+of a large Cicada (an Homopterous insect), which inhabits the same
+district.[427] In the Zoological Gardens, when the rattle-snakes and
+puff-adders were greatly excited at the same time, I was much struck at
+the similarity of the sound produced by them; and although that made by
+the rattle-snake is louder and shriller than the hissing of the
+puff-adder, yet when standing at some yards distance I could scarcely
+distinguish the two. For whatever purpose the sound is produced by the
+one species, I can hardly doubt that it serves for the same purpose in
+the other species; and I conclude from the threatening gestures made at
+the same time by many snakes, that their hissing,—the rattling of the
+rattle-snake and of the tail of the Trigonocephalus,—the grating of the
+scales of the Echis,—and the dilatation of the hood of the Cobra,—all
+subserve the same end, namely, to make them appear terrible to their
+enemies.[428]
+
+It seems at first a probable conclusion that venomous snakes, such as
+the foregoing, from being already so well defended by their
+poison-fangs, would never be attacked by any enemy; and consequently
+would have no need to excite additional terror. But this is far from
+being the case, for they are largely preyed on in all quarters of the
+world by many animals. It is well known that pigs are employed in the
+United States to clear districts infested with rattle-snakes, which
+they do most effectually.[429] In England the hedgehog attacks and
+devours the viper. In India, as I hear from Dr. Jerdon, several kinds
+of hawks, and at least one mammal, the Herpestes, kill cobras and other
+venomous species;[430] and so it is in South Africa. Therefore it is by
+no means improbable that any sounds or signs by which the venomous
+species could instantly make themselves recognized as dangerous, would
+be of more service to them than to the innocuous species which would
+not be able, if attacked, to inflict any real injury.
+
+Having said thus much about snakes, I am tempted to add a few remarks
+on the means by which the rattle of the rattle-snake was probably
+developed. Various animals, including some lizards, either curl or
+vibrate their tails when excited. This is the case with many kinds of
+snakes.[431] In the Zoological Gardens, an innocuous species, the
+_Coronella Sayi_, vibrates its tail so rapidly that it becomes almost
+invisible. The Trigonocephalus, before alluded to, has the same habit;
+and the extremity of its tail is a little enlarged, or ends in a bead.
+In the Lachesis, which is so closely allied to the rattle-snake that it
+was placed by Linnaeus in the same genus, the tail ends in a single,
+large, lancet-shaped point or scale. With some snakes the skin, as
+Professor Shaler remarks, “is more imperfectly detached from the region
+about the tail than at other parts of the body.” Now if we suppose that
+the end of the tail of some ancient American species was enlarged, and
+was covered by a single large scale, this could hardly have been cast
+off at the successive moults. In this case it would have been
+permanently retained, and at each period of growth, as the snake grew
+larger, a new scale, larger than the last, would have been formed above
+it, and would likewise have been retained. The foundation for the
+development of a rattle would thus have been laid; and it would have
+been habitually used, if the species, like so many others, vibrated its
+tail whenever it was irritated. That the rattle has since been
+specially developed to serve as an efficient sound-producing
+instrument, there can hardly be a doubt; for even the vertebrae
+included within the extremity of the tail have been altered in shape
+and cohere. But there is no greater improbability in various
+structures, such as the rattle of the rattle-snake,—the lateral scales
+of the Echis,—the neck with the included ribs of the Cobra,—and the
+whole body of the puff-adder,—having been modified for the sake of
+warning and frightening away their enemies, than in a bird, namely, the
+wonderful Secretary-hawk (_Gypogeranus_) having had its whole frame
+modified for the sake of killing snakes with impunity. It is highly
+probable, judging from what we have before seen, that this bird would
+ruffle its feathers whenever it attacked a snake; and it is certain
+that the Herpestes, when it eagerly rushes to attack a snake, erects
+the hair all over its body, and especially that on its tail.[432] We
+have also seen that some porcupines, when angered or alarmed at the
+sight of a snake, rapidly vibrate their tails, thus producing a
+peculiar sound by the striking together of the hollow quills. So that
+here both the attackers and the attacked endeavour to make themselves
+as dreadful as possible to each other; and both possess for this
+purpose specialised means, which, oddly enough, are nearly the same in
+some of these cases. Finally we can see that if, on the one hand, those
+individual snakes, which were best able to frighten away their enemies,
+escaped best from being devoured; and if, on the other hand, those
+individuals of the attacking enemy survived in larger numbers which
+were the best fitted for the dangerous task of killing and devouring
+venomous snakes;—then in the one case as in the other, beneficial
+variations, supposing the characters in question to vary, would
+commonly have been preserved through the survival of the fittest.
+
+_The Drawing back and pressure of the Ears to the Head_.—The ears
+through their movements are highly expressive in many animals; but in
+some, such as man, the higher apes, and many ruminants, they fail in
+this respect. A slight difference in position serves to express in the
+plainest manner a different state of mind, as we may daily see in the
+dog; but we are here concerned only with the ears being drawn closely
+backwards and pressed to the head. A savage frame of mind is thus
+shown, but only in the case of those animals which fight with their
+teeth; and the care which they take to prevent their ears being seized
+by their antagonists, accounts for this position. Consequently, through
+habit and association, whenever they feel slightly savage, or pretend
+in their play to be savage, their ears are drawn back. That this is the
+true explanation may be inferred from the relation which exists in very
+many animals between their manner of fighting and the retraction of
+their ears.
+
+All the Carnivora fight with their canine teeth, and all, as far as I
+have observed, draw their ears back when feeling savage. This may be
+continually seen with dogs when fighting in earnest, and with puppies
+fighting in play. The movement is different from the falling down and
+slight drawing back of the ears, when a dog feels pleased and is
+caressed by his master. The retraction of the ears may likewise be seen
+in kittens fighting together in their play, and in full-grown cats when
+really savage, as before illustrated in fig. 9 (p. 58). Although their
+ears are thus to a large extent protected, yet they often get much torn
+in old male cats during their mutual battles. The same movement is very
+striking in tigers, leopards, &c., whilst growling over their food in
+menageries. The lynx has remarkably long ears; and their retraction,
+when one of these animals is approached in its cage, is very
+conspicuous, and is eminently expressive of its savage disposition.
+Even one of the Eared Seals, the _Otariapusilla_, which has very small
+ears, draws them backwards, when it makes a savage rush at the legs of
+its keeper.
+
+When horses fight together they use their incisors for biting, and
+their fore-legs for striking, much more than they do their hind-legs
+for kicking backwards. This has been observed when stallions have
+broken loose and have fought together, and may likewise be inferred
+from the kind of wounds which they inflict on each other. Every one
+recognizes the vicious appearance which the drawing back of the ears
+gives to a horse. This movement is very different from that of
+listening to a sound behind. If an ill-tempered horse in a stall is
+inclined to kick backwards, his ears are retracted from habit, though
+he has no intention or power to bite. But when a horse throws up both
+hind-legs in play, as when entering an open field, or when just touched
+by the whip, he does not generally depress his ears, for he does not
+then feel vicious. Guanacoes fight savagely with their teeth; and they
+must do so frequently, for I found the hides of several which I shot in
+Patagonia deeply scored. So do camels; and both these animals, when
+savage, draw their ears closely backwards. Guanacoes, as I have
+noticed, when not intending to bite, but merely to spit their offensive
+saliva from a distance at an intruder, retract their ears. Even the
+hippopotamus, when threatening with its widely-open enormous mouth a
+comrade, draws back its small ears, just like a horse.
+
+Now what a contrast is presented between the foregoing animals and
+cattle, sheep, or goats, which never use their teeth in fighting, and
+never draw back their ears when enraged! Although sheep and goats
+appear such placid animals, the males often join in furious contests.
+As deer form a closely related family, and as I did not know that they
+ever fought with their teeth, I was much surprised at the account given
+by Major Ross King of the Moose-deer in Canada. He says, when“two males
+chance to meet, laying back their ears and gnashing their teeth
+together, they rush at each other with appalling fury.”[433] But Mr.
+Bartlett informs me that some species of deer fight savagely with their
+teeth, so that the drawing back of the ears by the moose accords with
+our rule. Several kinds of kangaroos, kept in the Zoological Gardens,
+fight by scratching with their fore-feet and by kicking with their
+hind-legs; but they never bite each other, and the keepers have never
+seen them draw back their ears when angered. Rabbits fight chiefly by
+kicking and scratching, but they likewise bite each other; and I have
+known one to bite off half the tail of its antagonist. At the
+commencement of their battles they lay back their ears, but afterwards,
+as they bound over and kick each other, they keep their ears erect, or
+move them much about.
+
+Mr. Bartlett watched a wild boar quarrelling rather savagely with his
+sow; and both had their mouths open and their ears drawn backwards. But
+this does not appear to be a common action with domestic pigs when
+quarrelling. Boars fight together by striking upwards with their tusks;
+and Mr. Bartlett doubts whether they then draw back their ears.
+Elephants, which in like manner fight with their tusks, do not retract
+their ears, but, on the contrary, erect them when rushing at each other
+or at an enemy.
+
+The rhinoceroses in the Zoological Gardens fight with their nasal
+horns, and have never been seen to attempt biting each other except in
+play; and the keepers are convinced that they do not draw back their
+ears, like horses and dogs, when feeling savage. The following
+statement, therefore, by Sir S. Baker[434] is inexplicable, namely,
+that a rhinoceros, which he shot in North Africa, “had no ears; they
+had been bitten off close to the head by another of the same species
+while fighting; and this mutilation is by no means uncommon.”
+
+Lastly, with respect to monkeys. Some kinds, which have moveable ears,
+and which fight with their teeth—for instance the _Cereopithecus
+ruber_—draw back their ears when irritated just like dogs; and they
+then have a very spiteful appearance. Other kinds, as the _Inuus
+ecaudatus_, apparently do not thus act. Again, other kinds—and this is
+a great anomaly in comparison with most other animals—retract their
+ears, show their teeth, and jabber, when they are pleased by being
+caressed. I observed this in two or three species of Macacus, and in
+the _Cynopithecus niger_. This expression, owing to our familiarity
+with dogs, would never be recognized as one of joy or pleasure by those
+unacquainted with monkeys.
+
+_Erection of the Ears_.—This movement requires hardly any notice. All
+animals which have the power of freely moving their ears, when they are
+startled, or when they closely observe any object, direct their ears to
+the point towards which they are looking, in order to hear any sound
+from this quarter. At the same time they generally raise their heads,
+as all their organs of sense are there situated, and some of the
+smaller animals rise on their hind-legs. Even those kinds which squat
+on the ground or instantly flee away to avoid danger, generally act
+momentarily in this manner, in order to ascertain the source and nature
+of the danger. The head being raised, with erected ears and eyes
+directed forwards, gives an unmistakable expression of close attention
+to any animal.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.
+
+The Dog, various expressive movements of—Cats—Horses—Ruminants—Monkeys,
+their expression of joy and affection—Of pain—Anger—Astonishment and
+Terror.
+
+_The Dog_.—I have already described (figs. 5 and 7) the appearance of a
+dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions, namely, with
+erected ears, eyes intently directed forwards, hair on the neck and
+back bristling, gait remarkably stiff, with the tail upright and rigid.
+So familiar is this appearance to us, that an angry man is sometimes
+said “to have his back up.” Of the above points, the stiff gait and
+upright tail alone require further discussion. Sir C. Bell remarks[501]
+that, when a tiger or wolf is struck by its keeper and is suddenly
+roused to ferocity, every muscle is in tension, and the limbs are in an
+attitude of strained exertion, prepared to spring. This tension of the
+muscles and consequent stiff gait may be accounted for on the principle
+of associated habit, for anger has continually led to fierce struggles,
+and consequently to all the muscles of the body having been violently
+exerted. There is also reason to suspect that the muscular system
+requires some short preparation, or some degree of innervation, before
+being brought into strong action. My own sensations lead me to this
+inference; but I cannot discover that it is a conclusion admitted by
+physiologists. Sir J. Paget, however, informs me that when muscles are
+suddenly contracted with the greatest force, without any preparation,
+they are liable to be ruptured, as when a man slips unexpectedly; but
+that this rarely occurs when an action, however violent, is
+deliberately performed.
+
+With respect to the upright position of the tail, it seems to depend
+(but whether this is really the case I know not) on the elevator
+muscles being more powerful than the depressors, so that when all the
+muscles of the hinder part of the body are in a state of tension, the
+tail is raised. A dog in cheerful spirits, and trotting before his
+master with high, elastic steps, generally carries his tail aloft,
+though it is not held nearly so stiffly as when he is angered. A horse
+when first turned out into an open field, may be seen to trot with long
+elastic strides, the head and tail being held high aloft. Even cows
+when they frisk about from pleasure, throw up their tails in a
+ridiculous fashion. So it is with various animals in the Zoological
+Gardens. The position of the tail, however, in certain cases, is
+determined by special circumstances; thus as soon as a horse breaks
+into a gallop, at full speed, he always lowers his tail, so that as
+little resistance as possible may be offered to the air.
+
+When a dog is on the point of springing on his antagonist, he utters a
+savage growl; the ears are pressed closely backwards, and the upper lip
+(fig. 14) is retracted out of the way of his teeth, especially of his
+canines. These movements may be observed with dogs and puppies in their
+play. But if a dog gets really savage in his play, his expression
+immediately changes. This, however, is simply due to the lips and ears
+being drawn back with much greater energy. If a dog only snarls at
+another, the lip is generally retracted on one side alone, namely
+towards his enemy.
+
+
+
+Head of Snarling Dog. Fig 14
+
+{illust. caption = FIG. 14.—Head of snarling Dog. From life, by Mr.
+Wood.
+
+The movements of a dog whilst exhibiting affection towards his master
+were described (figs. 6 and 8) in our second chapter. These consist in
+the head and whole body being lowered and thrown into flexuous
+movements, with the tail extended and wagged from side to side. The
+ears fall down and are drawn somewhat backwards, which causes the
+eyelids to be elongated, and alters the whole appearance of the face.
+The lips hang loosely, and the hair remains smooth. All these movements
+or gestures are explicable, as I believe, from their standing in
+complete antithesis to those naturally assumed by a savage dog under a
+directly opposite state of mind. When a man merely speaks to, or just
+notices, his dog, we see the last vestige of these movements in a
+slight wag of the tail, without any other movement of the body, and
+without even the ears being lowered. Dogs also exhibit their affection
+by desiring to rub against their masters, and to be rubbed or patted by
+them.
+
+Gratiolet explains the above gestures of affection in the following
+manner: and the reader can judge whether the explanation appears
+satisfactory. Speaking of animals in general, including the dog, he
+says,[502] “C’est toujours la partie la plus sensible de leurs corps
+qui recherche les caresses ou les donne. Lorsque toute la longueur des
+flancs et du corps est sensible, l’animal serpente et rampe sous les
+caresses; et ces ondulations se propageant le long des muscles
+analogues des segments jusqu’aux extrémités de la colonne vertébrale,
+la queue se ploie et s’agite.” Further on, he adds, that dogs, when
+feeling affectionate, lower their ears in order to exclude all sounds,
+so that their whole attention may be concentrated on the caresses of
+their master!
+
+Dogs have another and striking way of exhibiting their affection,
+namely, by licking the hands or faces of their masters. They sometimes
+lick other dogs, and then it is always their chops. I have also seen
+dogs licking cats with whom they were friends. This habit probably
+originated in the females carefully licking their puppies—the dearest
+object of their love—for the sake of cleansing them. They also often
+give their puppies, after a short absence, a few cursory licks,
+apparently from affection. Thus the habit will have become associated
+with the emotion of love, however it may afterwards be aroused. It is
+now so firmly inherited or innate, that it is transmitted equally to
+both sexes. A female terrier of mine lately had her puppies destroyed,
+and though at all times a very affectionate creature, I was much struck
+with the manner in which she then tried to satisfy her instinctive
+maternal love by expending it on me; and her desire to lick my hands
+rose to an insatiable passion.
+
+The same principle probably explains why dogs, when feeling
+affectionate, like rubbing against their masters and being rubbed or
+patted by them, for from the nursing of their puppies, contact with a
+beloved object has become firmly associated in their minds with the
+emotion of love.
+
+The feeling of affection of a dog towards his master is combined with a
+strong sense of submission, which is akin to fear. Hence dogs not only
+lower their bodies and crouch a little as they approach their masters,
+but sometimes throw themselves on the ground with their bellies
+upwards. This is a movement as completely opposite as is possible to
+any show of resistance. I formerly possessed a large dog who was not at
+all afraid to fight with other dogs; but a wolf-like shepherd-dog in
+the neighbourhood, though not ferocious and not so powerful as my dog,
+had a strange influence over him. When they met on the road, my dog
+used to run to meet him, with his tail partly tucked in between his
+legs and hair not erected; and then he would throw himself on the
+ground, belly upwards. By this action he seemed to say more plainly
+than by words, “Behold, I am your slave.”
+
+A pleasurable and excited state of mind, associated with affection, is
+exhibited by some dogs in a very peculiar manner, namely, by grinning.
+This was noticed long ago by Somerville, who says,
+
+“And with a courtly grin, the fawning hound
+Salutes thee cow’ring, his wide op’ning nose
+Upward he curls, and his large sloe-back eyes
+Melt in soft blandishments, and humble joy.”
+_The Chase_, book i.
+
+
+Sir W. Scott’s famous Scotch greyhound, Maida, had this habit, and it
+is common with terriers. I have also seen it in a Spitz and in a
+sheep-dog. Mr. Riviere, who has particularly attended to this
+expression, informs me that it is rarely displayed in a perfect manner,
+but is quite common in a lesser degree. The upper lip during the act of
+grinning is retracted, as in snarling, so that the canines are exposed,
+and the ears are drawn backwards; but the general appearance of the
+animal clearly shows that anger is not felt. Sir C. Bell[503] remarks
+“Dogs, in their expression of fondness, have a slight eversion of the
+lips, and grin and sniff amidst their gambols, in a way that resembles
+laughter.” Some persons speak of the grin as a smile, but if it had
+been really a smile, we should see a similar, though more pronounced,
+movement of the lips and ears, when dogs utter their bark of joy; but
+this is not the case, although a bark of joy often follows a grin. On
+the other hand, dogs, when playing with their comrades or masters,
+almost always pretend to bite each other; and they then retract, though
+not energetically, their lips and ears. Hence I suspect that there is a
+tendency in some dogs, whenever they feel lively pleasure combined with
+affection, to act through habit and association on the same muscles, as
+in playfully biting each other, or their masters’ hands.
+
+I have described, in the second chapter, the gait and appearance of a
+dog when cheerful, and the marked antithesis presented by the same
+animal when dejected and disappointed, with his head, ears, body, tail,
+and chops drooping, and eyes dull. Under the expectation of any great
+pleasure, dogs bound and jump about in an extravagant manner, and bark
+for joy. The tendency to bark under this state of mind is inherited, or
+runs in the breed: greyhounds rarely bark, whilst the Spitz-dog barks
+so incessantly on starting for a walk with his master that he becomes a
+nuisance.
+
+An agony of pain is expressed by dogs in nearly the same way as by many
+other animals, namely, by howling writhing, and contortions of the
+whole body.
+
+Attention is shown by the head being raised, with the ears erected, and
+eyes intently directed towards the object or quarter under observation.
+If it be a sound and the source is not known, the head is often turned
+obliquely from side to side in a most significant manner, apparently in
+order to judge with more exactness from what point the sound proceeds.
+But I have seen a dog greatly surprised at a new noise, turning, his
+head to one side through habit, though he clearly perceived the source
+of the noise. Dogs, as formerly remarked, when their attention is in
+any way aroused, whilst watching some object, or attending to some
+sound, often lift up one paw (fig. 4) and keep it doubled up, as if to
+make a slow and stealthy approach.
+
+A dog under extreme terror will throw himself down, howl, and void his
+excretions; but the hair, I believe, does not become erect unless some
+anger is felt. I have seen a dog much terrified at a band of musicians
+who were playing loudly outside the house, with every muscle of his
+body trembling, with his heart palpitating so quickly that the beats
+could hardly be counted, and panting for breath with widely open mouth,
+in the same manner as a terrified man does. Yet this dog had not
+exerted himself; he had only wandered slowly and restlessly about the
+room, and the day was cold.
+
+Even a very slight degree of fear is invariably shown by the tail being
+tucked in between the legs. This tucking in of the fail is accompanied
+by the ears being drawn backwards; but they are not pressed closely to
+the head, as in snarling, and they are not lowered, as when a dog is
+pleased or affectionate. When two young dogs chase each other in play,
+the one that runs away always keeps his tail tucked inwards. So it is
+when a dog, in the highest spirits, careers like a mad creature round
+and round his master in circles, or in figures of eight. He then acts
+as if another dog were chasing him. This curious kind of play, which
+must be familiar to every one who has attended to dogs, is particularly
+apt to be excited, after the animal has been a little startled or
+frightened, as by his master suddenly jumping out on him in the dusk.
+In this case, as well as when two young dogs are chasing each other in
+play, it appears as if the one that runs away was afraid of the other
+catching him by the tail; but as far as I can find out, dogs very
+rarely catch each other in this manner. I asked a gentleman, who had
+kept foxhounds all his life, and he applied to other experienced
+sportsmen, whether they had ever seen hounds thus seize a fox; but they
+never had. It appears that when a dog is chased, or when in danger of
+being struck behind, or of anything falling on him, in all these cases
+he wishes to withdraw as quickly as possible his whole hind-quarters,
+and that from some sympathy or connection between the muscles, the tail
+is then drawn closely inwards.
+
+A similarly connected movement between the hind-quarters and the tail
+may be observed in the hyaena. Mr. Bartlett informs me that when two of
+these animals fight together, they are mutually conscious of the
+wonderful power of each other’s jaws, and are extremely cautious. They
+well know that if one of their legs were seized, the bone would
+instantly be crushed into atoms; hence they approach each other
+kneeling, with their legs turned as much as possible inwards, and with
+their whole bodies bowed, so as not to present any salient point; the
+tail at the same time being closely tucked in between the legs. In this
+attitude they approach each other sideways, or even partly backwards.
+So again with deer, several of the species, when savage and fighting,
+tuck in their tails. When one horse in a field tries to bite the
+hind-quarters of another in play, or when a rough boy strikes a donkey
+from behind, the hind-quarters and the tail are drawn in, though it
+does not appear as if this were done merely to save the tail from being
+injured. We have also seen the reverse of these movements; for when an
+animal trots with high elastic steps, the tail is almost always carried
+aloft.
+
+As I have said, when a dog is chased and runs away, he keeps his ears
+directed backwards but still open; and this is clearly done for the
+sake of hearing the footsteps of his pursuer. From habit the ears are
+often held in this same position, and the tail tucked in, when the
+danger is obviously in front. I have repeatedly noticed, with a timid
+terrier of mine, that when she is afraid of some object in front, the
+nature of which she perfectly knows and does not need to reconnoitre,
+yet she will for a long time hold her ears and tail in this position,
+looking the image of discomfort. Discomfort, without any fear, is
+similarly expressed: thus, one day I went out of doors, just at the
+time when this same dog knew that her dinner would be brought. I did
+not call her, but she wished much to accompany me, and at the same time
+she wished much for her dinner; and there she stood, first looking one
+way and then the other, with her tail tucked in and ears drawn back,
+presenting an unmistakable appearance of perplexed discomfort.
+
+Almost all the expressive movements now described, with the exception
+of the grinning from joy, are innate or instinctive, for they are
+common to all the individuals, young and old, of all the breeds. Most
+of them are likewise common to the aboriginal parents of the dog,
+namely the wolf and jackal; and some of them to other species of the
+same group. Tamed wolves and jackals, when caressed by their masters,
+jump about for joy, wag their tails, lower their ears, lick their
+master’s hands, crouch down, and even throw themselves on the ground
+belly upwards.[504] I have seen a rather fox-like African jackal, from
+the Gaboon, depress its ears when caressed. Wolves and jackals, when
+frightened, certainly tuck in their tails; and a tamed jackal has been
+described as careering round his master in circles and figures of
+eight, like a dog, with his tail between his legs.
+
+It has been stated[505] that foxes, however tame, never display any of
+the above expressive movements; but this is not strictly accurate. Many
+years ago I observed in the Zoological Gardens, and recorded the fact
+at the time, that a very tame English fox, When caressed by the keeper,
+wagged its tail, depressed its ears, and then threw itself on the
+ground, belly upwards. The black fox of North America likewise
+depressed its ears in a slight degree. But I believe that foxes never
+lick the hands of their masters, and I have been assured that when
+frightened they never tuck in their tails. If the explanation which I
+have given of the expression of affection in dogs be admitted, then it
+would appear that animals which have never been domesticated—namely
+wolves, jackals, and even foxes—have nevertheless acquired, through the
+principle of antithesis, certain expressive gestures; for it is not
+probable that these animals, confined in cages, should have learnt them
+by imitating dogs.
+
+_Cats_.—I have already described the actions of a cat (fig. 9), when
+feeling savage and not terrified. She assumes a crouching attitude and
+occasionally protrudes her fore-feet, with the claws exserted ready for
+striking. The tail is extended, being curled or lashed from side to
+side. The hair is not erected—at least it was not so in the few cases
+observed by me. The ears are drawn closely backwards and the teeth are
+shown. Low savage growls are uttered. We can understand why the
+attitude assumed by a cat when preparing to fight with another cat, or
+in any way greatly irritated, is so widely different from that of a dog
+approaching another dog with hostile intentions; for the cat uses her
+fore-feet for striking, and this renders a crouching position
+convenient or necessary. She is also much more accustomed than a dog to
+lie concealed and suddenly spring on her prey. No cause can be assigned
+with certainty for the tail being lashed or curled from side to side.
+This habit is common to many other animals—for instance, to the puma,
+when prepared to spring;[506] but it is not common to dogs, or to
+foxes, as I infer from Mr. St. John’s account of a fox lying in wait
+and seizing a hare. We have already seen that some kinds of lizards and
+various snakes, when excited, rapidly vibrate the tips of their tails.
+It would appear as if, under strong excitement, there existed an
+uncontrollable desire for movement of some kind, owing to nerve-force
+being freely liberated from the excited sensorium; and that as the tail
+is left free, and as its movement does not disturb the general position
+of the body, it is curled or lashed about.
+
+All the movements of a cat, when feeling affectionate, are in complete
+antithesis to those just described. She now stands upright, with
+slightly arched back, tail perpendicularly raised, and ears erected;
+and she rubs her cheeks and flanks against her master or mistress. The
+desire to rub something is so strong in cats under this state of mind,
+that they may often be seen rubbing themselves against the legs of
+chairs or tables, or against door-posts. This manner of expressing
+affection probably originated through association, as in the case of
+dogs, from the mother nursing and fondling her young; and perhaps from
+the young themselves loving each other and playing together. Another
+and very different gesture, expressive of pleasure, has already been
+described, namely, the curious manner in which young and even old cats,
+when pleased, alternately protrude their fore-feet, with separated
+toes, as if pushing against and sucking their mother’s teats. This
+habit is so far analogous to that of rubbing against something, that
+both apparently are derived from actions performed during the nursing
+period. Why cats should show affection by rubbing so much more than do
+dogs, though the latter delight in contact with their masters, and why
+cats only occasionally lick the hands of their friends, whilst dogs
+always do so, I cannot say. Cats cleanse themselves by licking their
+own coats more regularly than do dogs. On the other hand, their tongues
+seem less well fitted for the work than the longer and more flexible
+tongues of dogs.
+
+
+
+Cat Terrified at a Dog.  Fig.15
+
+Cats, when terrified, stand at full height, and arch their backs in a
+well-known and ridiculous fashion. They spit, hiss, or growl. The hair
+over the whole body, and especially on the tail, becomes erect. In the
+instances observed by me the basal part of the tail was held upright,
+the terminal part being thrown on one side; but sometimes the tail (see
+fig. 15) is only a little raised, and is bent almost from the base to
+one side. The ears are drawn back, and the teeth exposed. When two
+kittens are playing together, the one often thus tries to frighten the
+other. From what we have seen in former chapters, all the above points
+of expression are intelligible, except the extreme arching of the back.
+I am inclined to believe that, in the same manner as many birds, whilst
+they ruffle their feathers, spread out their wings and tail, to make
+themselves look as big as possible, so cats stand upright at their full
+height, arch their backs, often raise the basal part of the tail, and
+erect their hair, for the same purpose. The lynx, when attacked, is
+said to arch its back, and is thus figured by Brehm. But the keepers in
+the Zoological Gardens have never seen any tendency to this action in
+the larger feline animals, such as tigers, lions, &c.; and these have
+little cause to be afraid of any other animal.
+
+Cats use their voices much as a means of expression, and they utter,
+under various emotions and desires, at least six or seven different
+sounds. The purr of satisfaction, which is made during both inspiration
+and expiration, is one of the most curious. The puma, cheetah, and
+ocelot likewise purr; but the tiger, when pleased, “emits a peculiar
+short snuffle, accompanied by the closure of the eyelids.”[507] It is
+said that the lion, jaguar, and leopard, do not purr.
+
+_Horses_.—Horses when savage draw their ears closely back, protrude
+their heads, and partially uncover their incisor teeth, ready for
+biting. When inclined to kick behind, they generally, through habit,
+draw back their ears; and their eyes are turned backwards in a peculiar
+manner.[508] When pleased, as when some coveted food is brought to them
+in the stable, they raise and draw in their heads, prick their ears,
+and looking intently towards their friend, often whinny. Impatience is
+expressed by pawing the ground.
+
+The actions of a horse when much startled are highly expressive. One
+day my horse was much frightened at a drilling machine, covered by a
+tarpaulin, and lying on an open field. He raised his head so high, that
+his neck became almost perpendicular; and this he did from habit, for
+the machine lay on a slope below, and could not have been seen with
+more distinctness through the raising of the head; nor if any sound had
+proceeded from it, could the sound have been more distinctly heard. His
+eyes and ears were directed intently forwards; and I could feel through
+the saddle the palpitations of his heart. With red dilated nostrils he
+snorted violently, and whirling round, would have dashed off at full
+speed, had I not prevented him. The distension of the nostrils is not
+for the sake of scenting the source of danger, for when a horse smells
+carefully at any object and is not alarmed, he does not dilate his
+nostrils. Owing to the presence of a valve in the throat, a horse when
+panting does not breathe through his open mouth, but through his
+nostrils; and these consequently have become endowed with great powers
+of expansion. This expansion of the nostrils, as well as the snorting,
+and the palpitations of the heart, are actions which have become firmly
+associated during a long series of generations with the emotion of
+terror; for terror has habitually led the horse to the most violent
+exertion in dashing away at full speed from the cause of danger.
+
+_Ruminants_.—Cattle and sheep are remarkable from displaying in so
+slight a degree their emotions or sensations, excepting that of extreme
+pain. A bull when enraged exhibits his rage only by the manner in which
+he holds his lowered head, with distended nostrils, and by bellowing.
+He also often paws the ground; but this pawing seems quite different
+from that of an impatient horse, for when the soil is loose, he throws
+up clouds of dust. I believe that bulls act in this manner when
+irritated by flies, for the sake of driving them away. The wilder
+breeds of sheep and the chamois when startled stamp on the ground, and
+whistle through their noses; and this serves as a danger-signal to
+their comrades. The musk-ox of the Arctic regions, when encountered,
+likewise stamps on the ground.[509] How this stamping action arose I
+cannot conjecture; for from inquiries which I have made it does not
+appear that any of these animals fight with their fore-legs.
+
+Some species of deer, when savage, display far more expression than do
+cattle, sheep, or goats, for, as has already been stated, they draw
+back their ears, grind their teeth, erect their hair, squeal, stamp on
+the ground, and brandish their horns. One day in the Zoological
+Gardens, the Formosan deer (_Cervus pseudaxis_) approached me in a
+curious attitude, with his muzzle raised high up, so that the horns
+were pressed back on his neck; the head being held rather obliquely.
+From the expression of his eye I felt sure that he was savage; he
+approached slowly, and as soon as he came close to the iron bars, he
+did not lower his head to butt at me, but suddenly bent it inwards, and
+struck his horns with great force against the railings. Mr. Bartlett
+informs me that some other species of deer place themselves in the same
+attitude when enraged.
+
+_Monkeys_.—The various species and genera of monkeys express their
+feelings in many different ways; and this fact is interesting, as in
+some degree bearing on the question, whether the so-called races of man
+should be ranked as distinct species or varieties; for, as we shall see
+in the following chapters, the different races of man express their
+emotions and sensations with remarkable uniformity throughout the
+world. Some of the expressive actions of monkeys are interesting in
+another way, namely from being closely analogous to those of man. As I
+have had no opportunity of observing any one species of the group under
+all circumstances, my miscellaneous remarks will be best arranged under
+different states of the mind.
+
+_Pleasure, joy, affection_—It is not possible to distinguish in
+monkeys, at least without more experience than I have had, the
+expression of pleasure or joy from that of affection. Young chimpanzees
+make a kind of barking noise, when pleased by the return of any one to
+whom they are attached. When this noise, which the keepers call a
+laugh, is uttered, the lips are protruded; but so they are under
+various other emotions. Nevertheless I could perceive that when they
+were pleased the form of the lips differed a little from that assumed
+when they were angered. If a young chimpanzee be tickled—and the
+armpits are particularly sensitive to tickling, as in the case of our
+children,—a more decided chuckling or laughing sound is uttered; though
+the laughter is sometimes noiseless. The corners of the mouth are then
+drawn backwards; and this sometimes causes the lower eyelids to be
+slightly wrinkled. But this wrinkling, which is so characteristic of
+our own laughter, is more plainly seen in some other monkeys. The teeth
+in the upper jaw in the chimpanzee are not exposed when they utter
+their laughing noise, in which respect they differ from us. But their
+eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as Mr. W. L. Martin,[510] who has
+particularly attended to their expression, states.
+
+Young Orangs, when tickled, likewise grin and make a chuckling sound;
+and Mr. Martin says that their eyes grow brighter. As soon as their
+laughter ceases, an expression may be detected passing over their
+faces, which, as Mr. Wallace remarked to me, may be called a smile. I
+have also noticed something of the same kind with the chimpanzee. Dr.
+Duchenne—and I cannot quote a better authority—informs me that he kept
+a very tame monkey in his house for a year; and when he gave it during
+meal-times some choice delicacy, he observed that the corners of its
+mouth were slightly raised; thus an expression of satisfaction,
+partaking of the nature of an incipient smile, and resembling that
+often seen on the face of main, could be plainly perceived in this
+animal.
+
+The _Cebus azaræ_,[511] when rejoiced at again seeing a beloved person,
+utters a peculiar tittering (_kichernden_) sound. It also expresses
+agreeable sensations, by drawing back the corners of its mouth, without
+producing any sound. Rengger calls this movement laughter, but it would
+be more appropriately called a smile. The form of the mouth is
+different when either pain or terror is expressed, and high shrieks are
+uttered. Another species of _Cebus_ in the Zoological Gardens (_C.
+hypoleucus_) when pleased, makes a reiterated shrill note, and likewise
+draws back the corners of its mouth, apparently through the contraction
+of the same muscles as with us. So does the Barbary ape (_Inuus
+ecaudatus_) to an extraordinary degree; and I observed in this monkey
+that the skin of the lower eyelids then became much wrinkled. At the
+same time it rapidly moved its lower jaw or lips in a spasmodic manner,
+the teeth being exposed; but the noise produced was hardly more
+distinct than that which we sometimes call silent laughter. Two of the
+keepers affirmed that this slight sound was the animal’s laughter, and
+when I expressed some doubt on this head (being at the time quite
+inexperienced), they made it attack or rather threaten a hated Entellus
+monkey, living in the same compartment. Instantly the whole expression
+of the face of the Inuus changed; the mouth was opened much more
+widely, the canine teeth were more fully exposed, and a hoarse barking
+noise was uttered.
+
+The Anubis baboon (_Cynocephalus anubis_) was first insulted and put
+into a furious rage, as was easily done, by his keeper, who then made
+friends with him and shook hands. As the reconciliation was effected
+the baboon rapidly moved up and down his jaws and lips, and looked
+pleased. When we laugh heartily, a similar movement, or quiver, may be
+observed more or less distinctly in our jaws; but with man the muscles
+of the chest are more particularly acted on, whilst with this baboon,
+and with some other monkeys, it is the muscles of the jaws and lips
+which are spasmodically affected.
+
+
+
+Cynopithecus Niger, in a Placid Condition. Fig.16-17
+
+I have already had occasion to remark on the curious manner in which
+two or three species of Alacacus and the _Cynopithecus niger_ draw back
+their ears and utter a slight jabbering noise, when they are pleased by
+being caressed. With the Cynopithecus (fig. 17), the corners of the
+mouth are at the same time drawn backwards and upwards, so that the
+teeth are exposed. Hence this expression would never be recognized by a
+stranger as one of pleasure. The crest of long hairs on the forehead is
+depressed, and apparently the whole skin of the head drawn backwards.
+The eyebrows are thus raised a little, and the eyes assume a staring
+appearance. The lower eyelids also become slightly wrinkled; but this
+wrinkling is not conspicuous, owing to the permanent transverse furrows
+on the face.
+
+_Painful emotions and sensations_.—With monkeys the expression of
+slight pain, or of any painful emotion, such as grief, vexation,
+jealousy, &c., is not easily distinguished from that of moderate anger;
+and these states of mind readily and quickly pass into each other.
+Grief, however, with some species is certainly exhibited by weeping. A
+woman, who sold a monkey to the Zoological Society, believed to have
+come from Borneo (_Macacus maurus_ or _M. inornatus_ of Gray), said
+that it often cried; and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the keeper Mr.
+Sutton, have repeatedly seen it, when grieved, or even when much
+pitied, weeping so copiously that the tears rolled down its cheeks.
+There is, however, something strange about this case, for two specimens
+subsequently kept in the Gardens, and believed to be the same species,
+have never been seen to weep, though they were carefully observed by
+the keeper and myself when much distressed and loudly screaming.
+Rengger states[512] that the eyes of the _Cebus azaræ_ fill with tears,
+but not sufficiently to overflow, when it is prevented getting some
+much desired object, or is much frightened. Humboldt also asserts that
+the eyes of the _Callithrix sciureus_ “instantly fill with tears when
+it is seized with fear;” but when this pretty little monkey in the
+Zoological Gardens was teased, so as to cry out loudly, this did not
+occur. I do not, however, wish to throw the least doubt on the accuracy
+of Humboldt’s statement.
+
+The appearance of dejection in young orangs and chimpanzees, when out
+of health, is as plain and almost as pathetic as in the case of our
+children. This state of mind and body is shown by their listless
+movements, fallen countenances, dull eyes, and changed complexion.
+
+_Anger_.—This emotion is often exhibited by many kinds of monkeys, and
+is expressed, as Mr. Martin remarks,[513] in many different ways. “Some
+species, when irritated, pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and savage
+glare on their foe, and make repeated short starts as if about to
+spring forward, uttering at the same time inward guttural sounds. Many
+display their anger by suddenly advancing, making abrupt starts, at the
+same time opening the mouth and pursing up the lips, so as to conceal
+the teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed on the enemy, as if in
+savage defiance. Some again, and principally the long-tailed monkeys,
+or Guenons, display their teeth, and accompany their malicious grins
+with a sharp, abrupt, reiterated cry.” Mr. Sutton confirms the
+statement that some species uncover their teeth when enraged, whilst
+others conceal them by the protrusion of their lips; and some kinds
+draw back their ears. The _Cynopithecus niger_, lately referred to,
+acts in this manner, at the same time depressing the crest of hair on
+its forehead, and showing its teeth; so that the movements of the
+features from anger are nearly the same as those from pleasure; and the
+two expressions can be distinguished only by those familiar with the
+animal.
+
+Baboons often show their passion and threaten their enemies in a very
+odd manner, namely, by opening their mouths widely as in the act of
+yawning. Mr. Bartlett has often seen two baboons, when first placed in
+the same compartment, sitting opposite to each other and thus
+alternately opening their mouths; and this action seems frequently to
+end in a real yawn. Mr. Bartlett believes that both animals wish to
+show to each other that they are provided with a formidable set of
+teeth, as is undoubtedly the case. As I could hardly credit the reality
+of this yawning gesture, Mr. Bartlett insulted an old baboon and put
+him into a violent passion; and he almost immediately thus acted. Some
+species of Macacus and of Cereopithecus[514] behave in the same manner.
+Baboons likewise show their anger, as was observed by Brehin with those
+which he kept alive in Abyssinia, in another manner, namely, by
+striking the ground with one hand, “like an angry man striking the
+table with his fist.” I have seen this movement with the baboons in the
+Zoological Gardens; but sometimes the action seems rather to represent
+the searching for a stone or other object in their beds of straw.
+
+Mr. Sutton has often observed the face of the _Macacus rhesus_, when
+much enraged, growing red. As he was mentioning this to me, another
+monkey attacked a _rhesus_, and I saw its face redden as plainly as
+that of a man in a violent passion. In the course of a few minutes,
+after the battle, the face of this monkey recovered its natural tint.
+At the same time that the face reddened, the naked posterior part of
+the body, which is always red, seemed to grow still redder; but I
+cannot positively assert that this was the case. When the Mandrill is
+in any way excited, the brilliantly coloured, naked parts of the skin
+are said to become still more vividly coloured.
+
+With several species of baboons the ridge of the forehead projects much
+over the eyes, and is studded with a few long hairs, representing our
+eyebrows. These animals are always looking about them, and in order to
+look upwards they raise their eyebrows. They have thus, as it would
+appear, acquired the habit of frequently moving their eyebrows. However
+this may be, many kinds of monkeys, especially the baboons, when
+angered or in any way excited, rapidly and incessantly move their
+eyebrows up and down, as well as the hairy skin of their
+foreheads.[515] As we associate in the case of man the raising and
+lowering of the eyebrows with definite states of the mind, the almost
+incessant movement of the eyebrows by monkeys gives them a senseless
+expression. I once observed a man who had a trick of continually
+raising his eyebrows without any corresponding emotion, and this gave
+to him a foolish appearance; so it is with some persons who keep the
+corners of their mouths a little drawn backwards and upwards, as if by
+an incipient smile, though at the time they are not amused or pleased.
+
+A young orang, made jealous by her keeper attending to another monkey,
+slightly uncovered her teeth, and, uttering a peevish noise like
+_tish-shist_, turned her back on him. Both orangs and chimpanzees, when
+a little more angered, protrude their lips greatly, and make a harsh
+barking noise. A young female chimpanzee, in a violent passion,
+presented a curious resemblance to a child in the same state. She
+screamed loudly with widely open mouth, the lips being retracted so
+that the teeth were fully exposed. She threw her arms wildly about,
+sometimes clasping them over her head. She rolled on the ground,
+sometimes on her back, sometimes on her belly, and bit everything
+within reach. A young gibbon (_Hylobates syndactylus_) in a passion has
+been described[516] as behaving in almost exactly the same manner.
+
+The lips of young orangs and chimpanzees are protruded, sometimes to a
+wonderful degree, under various circumstances. They act thus, not only
+when slightly angered, sulky, or disappointed, but when alarmed at
+anything—in one instance, at the sight of a turtle,[517]—and likewise
+when pleased. But neither the degree of protrusion nor the shape of the
+mouth is exactly the same, as I believe, in all cases; and the sounds
+which are then uttered are different. The accompanying drawing
+represents a chimpanzee made sulky by an orange having been offered
+him, and then taken away. A similar protrusion or pouting of the lips,
+though to a much slighter degree, may be seen in sulky children.
+
+
+
+Chimpanzee Disappointed and Sulky. Fig. 18
+
+Many years ago, in the Zoological Gardens, I placed a looking-glass on
+the floor before two young orangs, who, as far as it was known, had
+never before seen one. At first they gazed at their own images with the
+most steady surprise, and often changed their point of view. They then
+approached close and protruded their lips towards the image, as if to
+kiss it, in exactly the same manner as they had previously done towards
+each other, when first placed, a few days before, in the same room.
+They next made all sorts of grimaces, and put themselves in various
+attitudes before the mirror; they pressed and rubbed the surface; they
+placed their hands at different distances behind it; looked behind it;
+and finally seemed almost frightened, started a little, became cross,
+and refused to look any longer.
+
+When we try to perform some little action which is difficult and
+requires precision, for instance, to thread a needle, we generally
+close our lips firmly, for the sake, I presume, of not disturbing our
+movements by breathing; and I noticed the same action in a young Orang.
+The poor little creature was sick, and was amusing itself by trying to
+kill the flies on the window-panes with its knuckles; this was
+difficult as the flies buzzed about, and at each attempt the lips were
+firmly compressed, and at the same time slightly protruded.
+
+Although the countenances, and more especially the gestures, of orangs
+and chimpanzees are in some respects highly expressive, I doubt whether
+on the whole they are so expressive as those of some other kinds of
+monkeys. This may be attributed in part to their ears being immovable,
+and in part to the nakedness of their eyebrows, of which the movements
+are thus rendered less conspicuous. When, however, they raise their
+eyebrows their foreheads become, as with us, transversely wrinkled. In
+comparison with man, their faces are inexpressive, chiefly owing to
+their not frowning under any emotion of the mind—that is, as far as I
+have been able to observe, and I carefully attended to this point.
+Frowning, which is one of the most important of all the expressions in
+man, is due to the contraction of the corrugators by which the eyebrows
+are lowered and brought together, so that vertical furrows are formed
+on the forehead. Both the orang and chimpanzee are said[518] to possess
+this muscle, but it seems rarely brought into action, at least in a
+conspicuous manner. I made my hands into a sort of cage, and placing
+some tempting fruit within, allowed both a young orang and chimpanzee
+to try their utmost to get it out; but although they grew rather cross,
+they showed not a trace of a frown. Nor was there any frown when they
+were enraged. Twice I took two chimpanzees from their rather dark room
+suddenly into bright sunshine, which would certainly have caused us to
+frown; they blinked and winked their eyes, but only once did I see a
+very slight frown. On another occasion, I tickled the nose of a
+chimpanzee with a straw, and as it crumpled up its face, slight
+vertical furrows appeared between the eyebrows. I have never seen a
+frown on the forehead of the orang.
+
+The gorilla, when enraged, is described as erecting its crest of hair,
+throwing down its under lip, dilating its nostrils, and uttering
+terrific yells. Messrs. Savage and Wyman[519] state that the scalp can
+be freely moved backwards and forwards, and that when the animal is
+excited it is strongly contracted; but I presume that they mean by this
+latter expression that the scalp is lowered; for they likewise speak of
+the young chimpanzee, when crying out, as having the eyebrows strongly
+contracted. The great power of movement in the scalp of the gorilla, of
+many baboons and other monkeys, deserves notice in relation to the
+power possessed by some few men, either through reversion or
+persistence, of voluntarily moving their scalps.[520]
+
+_Astonishment, Terror_—A living fresh-water turtle was placed at my
+request in the same compartment in the Zoological Gardens with many
+monkeys; and they showed unbounded astonishment, as well as some fear.
+This was displayed by their remaining motionless, staring intently with
+widely opened eyes, their eyebrows being often moved up and down. Their
+faces seemed somewhat lengthened. They occasionally raised themselves
+on their hind-legs to get abetter view. They often retreated a few
+feet, and then turning their heads over one shoulder, again stared
+intently. It was curious to observe how much less afraid they were of
+the turtle than of a living snake which I had formerly placed in their
+compartment;[521] for in the course of a few minutes some of the
+monkeys ventured to approach and touch the turtle. On the other hand,
+some of the larger baboons were greatly terrified, and grinned as if on
+the point of screaming out. When I showed a little dressed-up doll to
+the _Cynopithecus niger_, it stood motionless, stared intently with
+widely opened eyes, and advanced its ears a little forwards. But when
+the turtle was placed in its compartment, this monkey also moved its
+lips in an odd, rapid, jabbering manner, which the keeper declared was
+meant to conciliate or please the turtle.
+
+I was never able clearly to perceive that the eyebrows of astonished
+monkeys were kept permanently raised, though they were frequently moved
+up and down. Attention, which precedes astonishment, is expressed by
+man by a slight raising of the eyebrows; and Dr. Duchenne informs me
+that when he gave to the monkey formerly mentioned some quite new
+article of food, it elevated its eyebrows a little, thus assuming an
+appearance of close attention. It then took the food in its fingers,
+and, with lowered or rectilinear eyebrows, scratched, smelt, and
+examined it,—an expression of reflection being thus exhibited.
+Sometimes it would throw back its head a little, and again with
+suddenly raised eyebrows re-examine and finally taste the food.
+
+In no case did any monkey keep its mouth open when it was astonished.
+Mr. Sutton observed for me a young orang and chimpanzee during a
+considerable length of time; and however much they were astonished, or
+whilst listening intently to some strange sound, they did not keep
+their mouths open. This fact is surprising, as with mankind hardly any
+expression is more general than a widely open mouth under the sense of
+astonishment. As far as I have been able to observe, monkeys breathe
+more freely through their nostrils than men do; and this may account
+for their not opening their mouths when they are astonished; for, as we
+shall see in a future chapter, man apparently acts in this manner when
+startled, at first for the sake of quickly drawing a full inspiration,
+and afterwards for the sake of breathing as quietly as possible.
+
+Terror is expressed by many kinds of monkeys by the utterance of shrill
+screams; the lips being drawn back, so that the teeth are exposed. The
+hair becomes erect, especially when some anger is likewise felt. Mr.
+Sutton has distinctly seen the face of the _Macacus rhesus_ grow pale
+from fear. Monkeys also tremble from fear; and sometimes they void
+their excretions. I have seen one which, when caught, almost fainted
+from an excess of terror.
+
+Sufficient facts have now been given with respect to the expressions of
+various animals. It is impossible to agree with Sir C. Bell when he
+says[522] that “the faces of animals seem chiefly capable of expressing
+rage and fear;” and again, when he says that all their expressions “may
+be referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or
+necessary instincts.” He who will look at a dog preparing to attack
+another dog or a man, and at the same animal when caressing his master,
+or will watch the countenance of a monkey when insulted, and when
+fondled by his keeper, will be forced to admit that the movements of
+their features and their gestures are almost as expressive as those of
+man. Although no explanation can be given of some of the expressions in
+the lower animals, the greater number are explicable in accordance with
+the three principles given at the commencement of the first chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.
+
+The screaming and weeping of infants—Forms of features—Age at which
+weeping commences—The effects of habitual restraint on
+weeping—Sobbing—Cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes
+during screaming—Cause of the secretion of tears.
+
+In this and the following chapters the expressions exhibited by Man
+under various states of the mind will be described and explained, as
+far as lies in my power. My observations will be arranged according to
+the order which I have found the most convenient; and this will
+generally lead to opposite emotions and sensations succeeding each
+other.
+
+_Suffering of the body and mind: weeping_.—I have already described in
+sufficient detail, in the third chapter, the signs of extreme pain, as
+shown by screams or groans, with the writhing of the whole body and the
+teeth clenched or ground together. These signs are often accompanied or
+followed by profuse sweating, pallor, trembling, utter prostration, or
+faintness. No suffering is greater than that from extreme fear or
+horror, but here a distinct emotion comes into play, and will be
+elsewhere considered. Prolonged suffering, especially of the mind,
+passes into low spirits, grief, dejection, and despair, and these
+states will be the subject of the following chapter. Here I shall
+almost confine myself to weeping or crying, more especially in
+children.
+
+Infants, when suffering even slight pain, moderate hunger, or
+discomfort, utter violent and prolonged screams. Whilst thus screaming
+their eyes are firmly closed, so that the skin round them is wrinkled,
+and the forehead contracted into a frown. The mouth is widely opened
+with the lips retracted in a peculiar manner, which causes it to assume
+a squarish form; the gums or teeth being more or less exposed. The
+breath is inhaled almost spasmodically. It is easy to observe infants
+whilst screaming; but I have found photographs made by the
+instantaneous process the best means for observation, as allowing more
+deliberation. I have collected twelve, most of them made purposely for
+me; and they all exhibit the same general characteristics. I have,
+therefore, had six of them[601] (Plate I.) reproduced by the heliotype
+process.
+
+
+
+Screaming Infants. Plate I.
+
+The firm closing of the eyelids and consequent compression of the
+eyeball,—and this is a most important element in various
+expressions,—serves to protect the eyes from becoming too much gorged
+with blood, as will presently be explained in detail. With respect to
+the order in which the several muscles contract in firmly compressing
+the eyes, I am indebted to Dr. Langstaff, of Southampton, for some
+observations, which I have since repeated. The best plan for observing
+the order is to make a person first raise his eyebrows, and this
+produces transverse wrinkles across the forehead; and then very
+gradually to contract all the muscles round the elves with as much
+force as possible. The reader who is unacquainted with the anatomy of
+the face, ought to refer to p. 24, and look at the woodcuts 1 to 3. The
+corrugators of the brow (_corrugator supercilii_) seem to be the first
+muscles to contract; and these draw the eyebrows downwards and inwards
+towards the base of the nose, causing vertical furrows, that is a
+frown, to appear between the eyebrows; at the same time they cause the
+disappearance of the transverse wrinkles across the forehead. The
+orbicular muscles contract almost simultaneously with the corrugators,
+and produce wrinkles all round the eyes; they appear, however, to be
+enabled to contract with greater force, as soon as the contraction of
+the corrugators has given them some support. Lastly, the pyramidal
+muscles of the nose contract; and these draw the eyebrows and the skin
+of the forehead still lower down, producing short transverse wrinkles
+across the base of the nose.[602] For the sake of brevity these muscles
+will generally be spoken of as the orbiculars, or as those surrounding
+the eyes.
+
+When these muscles are strongly contracted, those running to the upper
+lip[603] likewise contract and raise the upper lip. This might have
+been expected from the manner in which at least one of them, the
+_malaris_, is connected with the orbiculars. Any one who will gradually
+contract the muscles round his eyes, will feel, as he increases the
+force, that his upper lip and the wings of his nose (which are partly
+acted on by one of the same muscles) are almost always a little drawn
+up. If he keeps his mouth firmly shut whilst contracting the muscles
+round the eyes, and then suddenly relaxes his lips, he will feel that
+the pressure on his eyes immediately increases. So again when a person
+on a bright, glaring day wishes to look at a distant object, but is
+compelled partially to close his eyelids, the upper lip may almost
+always be observed to be somewhat raised. The mouths of some very
+short-sighted persons, who are forced habitually to reduce the aperture
+of their eyes, wear from this same reason a grinning expression.
+
+The raising of the upper lip draws upwards the flesh of the upper parts
+of the cheeks, and produces a strongly marked fold on each cheek,—the
+naso-labial fold,—which runs from near the wings of the nostrils to the
+corners of the mouth and below them. This fold or furrow may be seen in
+all the photographs, and is very characteristic of the expression of a
+crying child; though a nearly similar fold is produced in the act of
+laughing or smiling.[604]
+
+As the upper lip is much drawn up during the act of screaming, in the
+manner just explained, the depressor muscles of the angles of the mouth
+(see K in woodcuts 1 and 2) are strongly contracted in order to keep
+the mouth widely open, so that a full volume of sound may be poured
+forth. The action of these opposed muscles, above and below, tends to
+give to the mouth an oblong, almost squarish outline, as may be seen in
+the accompanying photographs. An excellent observer,[605] in describing
+a baby crying whilst being fed, says, “it made its mouth like a square,
+and let the porridge run out at all four corners.” I believe, but we
+shall return to this point in a future chapter, that the depressor
+muscles of the angles of the mouth are less under the separate control
+of the will than the adjoining muscles; so that if a young child is
+only doubtfully inclined to cry, this muscle is generally the first to
+contract, and is the last to cease contracting. When older children
+commence crying, the muscles which run to the upper lip are often the
+first to contract; and this may perhaps be due to older children not
+having so strong a tendency to scream loudly, and consequently to keep
+their mouths widely open; so that the above-named depressor muscles are
+not brought into such strong action.
+
+With one of my own infants, from his eighth day and for some time
+afterwards, I often observed that the first sign of a screaming-fit,
+when it could be observed coming on gradually, was a little frown,
+owing to the contraction of the corrugators of the brows; the
+capillaries of the naked head and face becoming at the same time
+reddened with blood. As soon as the screaming-fit actually began, all
+the muscles round the eyes were strongly contracted, and the mouth
+widely opened in the manner above described; so that at this early
+period the features assumed the same form as at a more advanced age.
+
+Dr. Piderit[606] lays great stress on the contraction of certain
+muscles which draw down the nose and narrow the nostrils, as eminently
+characteristic of a crying expression. The _depressores anguli oris_,
+as we have just seen, are usually contracted at the same time, and they
+indirectly tend, according to Dr. Duchenne, to act in this same manner
+on the nose. With children having bad colds a similar pinched
+appearance of the nose may be noticed, which is at least partly due, as
+remarked to me by Dr. Langstaff, to their constant snuffling, and the
+consequent pressure of the atmosphere on the two sides. The purpose of
+this contraction of the nostrils by children having bad colds, or
+whilst crying, seems to be to check the downward flow of the mucus and
+tears, and to prevent these fluids spreading over the upper lip.
+
+After a prolonged and severe screaming-fit, the scalp, face, and eyes
+are reddened, owing to the return of the blood from the head having
+been impeded by the violent expiratory efforts; but the redness of the
+stimulated eyes is chiefly due to the copious effusion of tears. The
+various muscles of the face which have been strongly contracted, still
+twitch a little, and the upper lip is still slightly drawn up or
+everted,[607] with the corners of the mouth still a little drawn
+downwards. I have myself felt, and have observed in other grown-up
+persons, that when tears are restrained with difficulty, as in reading
+a pathetic story, it is almost impossible to prevent the various
+muscles. which with young children are brought into strong action
+during their screaming-fits, from slightly twitching or trembling.
+
+Infants whilst young do not shed tears or weep, as is well known to
+nurses and medical men. This circumstance is not exclusively due to the
+lacrymal glands being as yet incapable of secreting tears. I first
+noticed this fact from having accidentally brushed with the cuff of my
+coat the open eye of one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old,
+causing this eye to water freely; and though the child screamed
+violently, the other eye remained dry, or was only slightly suffused
+with tears. A similar slight effusion occurred ten days previously in
+both eyes during a screaming-fit. The tears did not run over the
+eyelids and roll down the cheeks of this child, whilst screaming badly,
+when 122 days old. This first happened 17 days later, at the age of 139
+days. A few other children have been observed for me, and the period of
+free weeping appears to be very variable. In one case, the eyes became
+slightly suffused at the age of only 20 days; in another, at 62 days.
+With two other children, the tears did NOT run down the face at the
+ages of 84 and 110 days; but in a third child they did run down at the
+age of 104 days. In one instance, as I was positively assured, tears
+ran down at the unusually early age of 42 days. It would appear as if
+the lacrymal glands required some practice in the individual before
+they are easily excited into action, in somewhat the same manner as
+various inherited consensual movements and tastes require some exercise
+before they are fixed and perfected. This is all the more likely with a
+habit like weeping, which must have been acquired since the period when
+man branched off from the common progenitor of the genus Homo and of
+the non-weeping anthropomorphous apes.
+
+The fact of tears not being shed at a very early age from pain or any
+mental emotion is remarkable, as, later in life, no expression is more
+general or more strongly marked than weeping. When the habit has once
+been acquired by an infant, it expresses in the clearest manner
+suffering of all kinds, both bodily pain and mental distress, even
+though accompanied by other emotions, such as fear or rage. The
+character of the crying, however, changes at a very early age, as I
+noticed in my own infants,—the passionate cry differing from that of
+grief. A lady informs me that her child, nine months old, when in a
+passion screams loudly, but does not weep; tears, however, are shed
+when she is punished by her chair being turned with its back to the
+table. This difference may perhaps be attributed to weeping being
+restrained, as we shall immediately see, at a more advanced age, under
+most circumstances excepting grief; and to the influence of such
+restraint being transmitted to an earlier period of life, than that at
+which it was first practised.
+
+With adults, especially of the male sex, weeping soon ceases to be
+caused by, or to express, bodily pain. This may be accounted for by its
+being thought weak and unmanly by men, both of civilized and barbarous
+races, to exhibit bodily pain by any outward sign. With this exception,
+savages weep copiously from very slight causes, of which fact Sir J.
+Lubbock[608] has collected instances. A New Zealand chief “cried like a
+child because the sailors spoilt his favourite cloak by powdering it
+with flour.” I saw in Tierra del Fuego a native who had lately lost a
+brother, and who alternately cried with hysterical violence, and
+laughed heartily at anything which amused him. With the civilized
+nations of Europe there is also much difference in the frequency of
+weeping. Englishmen rarely cry, except under the pressure of the
+acutest grief; whereas in some parts of the Continent the men shed
+tears much more readily and freely.
+
+The insane notoriously give way to all their emotions with little or no
+restraint; and I am informed by Dr. J. Crichton Browne, that nothing is
+more characteristic of simple melancholia, even in the male sex, than a
+tendency to weep on the slightest occasions, or from no cause. They
+also weep disproportionately on the occurrence of any real cause of
+grief. The length of time during which some patients weep is
+astonishing, as well as the amount of tears which they shed. One
+melancholic girl wept for a whole day, and afterwards confessed to Dr.
+Browne, that it was because she remembered that she had once shaved off
+her eyebrows to promote their growth. Many patients in the asylum sit
+for a long time rocking themselves backwards and forwards; “and if
+spoken to, they stop their movements, purse up their eyes, depress the
+corners of the mouth, and burst out crying.” In some of these cases,
+the being spoken to or kindly greeted appears to suggest some fanciful
+and sorrowful notion; but in other cases an effort of any kind excites
+weeping, independently of any sorrowful idea. Patients suffering from
+acute mania likewise have paroxysms of violent crying or blubbering, in
+the midst of their incoherent ravings. We must not, however, lay too
+much stress on the copious shedding of tears by the insane, as being
+due to the lack of all restraint; for certain brain-diseases, as
+hemiplegia, brain-wasting, and senile decay, have a special tendency to
+induce weeping. Weeping is common in the insane, even after a complete
+state of fatuity has been reached and the power of speech lost. Persons
+born idiotic likewise weep;[609] but it is said that this is not the
+case with cretins.
+
+Weeping seems to be the primary and natural expression, as we see in
+children, of suffering of any kind, whether bodily pain short of
+extreme agony, or mental distress. But the foregoing facts and common
+experience show us that a frequently repeated effort to restrain
+weeping, in association with certain states of the mind, does much in
+checking the habit. On the other hand, it appears that the power of
+weeping can be increased through habit; thus the Rev. R. Taylor,[610]
+who long resided in New Zealand, asserts that the women can voluntarily
+shed tears in abundance; they meet for this purpose to mourn for the
+dead, and they take pride in crying “in the most affecting manner.”
+
+A single effort of repression brought to bear on the lacrymal glands
+does little, and indeed seems often to lead to an opposite result. An
+old and experienced physician told me that he had always found that the
+only means to check the occasional bitter weeping of ladies who
+consulted him, and who themselves wished to desist, was earnestly to
+beg them not to try, and to assure them that nothing would relieve them
+so much as prolonged and copious crying.
+
+The screaming of infants consists of prolonged expirations, with short
+and rapid, almost spasmodic inspirations, followed at a somewhat more
+advanced age by sobbing. According to Gratiolet,[611] the glottis is
+chiefly affected during the act of sobbing. This sound is heard “at the
+moment when the inspiration conquers the resistance of the glottis, and
+the air rushes into the chest.” But the whole act of respiration is
+likewise spasmodic and violent. The shoulders are at the same time
+generally raised, as by this movement respiration is rendered easier.
+With one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old, the inspirations
+were so rapid and strong that they approached in character to sobbing;
+when 138 days old I first noticed distinct sobbing, which subsequently
+followed every bad crying-fit. The respiratory movements are partly
+voluntary and partly involuntary, and I apprehend that sobbing is at
+least in part due to children having some power to command after early
+infancy their vocal organs and to stop their screams, but from having
+less power over their respiratory muscles, these continue for a time to
+act in an involuntary or spasmodic manner, after having been brought
+into violent action. Sobbing seems to be peculiar to the human species;
+for the keepers in the Zoological Gardens assure me that they have
+never heard a sob from any kind of monkey; though monkeys often scream
+loudly whilst being chased and caught, and then pant for a long time.
+We thus see that there is a close analogy between sobbing and the free
+shedding of tears; for with children, sobbing does not commence during
+early infancy, but afterwards comes on rather suddenly and then follows
+every bad crying-fit, until the habit is checked with advancing years.
+
+_On the cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during
+screaming_.—We have seen that infants and young children, whilst
+screaming, invariably close their eyes firmly, by the contraction of
+the surrounding muscles, so that the skin becomes wrinkled all around.
+With older children, and even with adults, whenever there is violent
+and unrestrained crying, a tendency to the contraction of these same
+muscles may be observed; though this is often checked in order not to
+interfere with vision.
+
+Sir C. Bell explains[612] this action in the following manner:—“During
+every violent act of expiration, whether in hearty laughter, weeping,
+coughing, or sneezing, the eyeball is firmly compressed by the fibres
+of the orbicularis; and this is a provision for supporting and
+defending the vascular system of the interior of the eye from a
+retrograde impulse communicated to the blood in the veins at that time.
+When we contract the chest and expel the air, there is a retardation of
+the blood in the veins of the neck and head; and in the more powerful
+acts of expulsion, the blood not only distends the vessels, but is even
+regurgitated into the minute branches. Were the eye not properly
+compressed at that time, and a resistance given to the shock,
+irreparable injury might be inflicted on the delicate textures of the
+interior of the eye.” He further adds, “If we separate the eyelids of a
+child to examine the eye, while it cries and struggles with passion, by
+taking off the natural support to the vascular system of the eye, and
+means of guarding it against the rush of blood then occurring, the
+conjunctiva becomes suddenly filled with blood, and the eyelids
+everted.”
+
+Not only are the muscles round the eyes strongly contracted, as Sir C.
+Bell states and as I have often observed, during screaming, loud
+laughter, coughing, and sneezing, but during several other analogous
+actions. A man contracts these muscles when he violently blows his
+nose. I asked one of my boys to shout as loudly as he possibly could,
+and as soon as he began, he firmly contracted his orbicular muscles; I
+observed this repeatedly, and on asking him why he had every time so
+firmly closed his eyes, I found that he was quite unaware of the fact:
+he had acted instinctively or unconsciously.
+
+It is not necessary, in order to lead to the contraction of these
+muscles, that air should actually be expelled from the chest; it
+suffices that the muscles of the chest and abdomen should contract with
+great force, whilst by the closure of the glottis no air escapes. In
+violent vomiting or retching the diaphragm is made to descend by the
+chest being filled with air; it is then held in this position by the
+closure of the glottis, “as well as by the contraction of its own
+fibres.”[613] The abdominal muscles now contract strongly upon the
+stomach, its proper muscles likewise contracting, and the contents are
+thus ejected. During each effort of vomiting “the head becomes greatly
+congested, so that the features are red and swollen, and the large
+veins of the face and temples visibly dilated.” At the same time, as I
+know from observation, the muscles round the eyes are strongly
+contracted. This is likewise the case when the abdominal muscles act
+downwards with unusual force in expelling the contents of the
+intestinal canal.
+
+The greatest exertion of the muscles of the body, if those of the chest
+are not brought into strong action in expelling or compressing the air
+within the lungs, does not lead to the contraction of the muscles round
+the eyes. I have observed my sons using great force in gymnastic
+exercises, as in repeatedly raising their suspended bodies by their
+arms alone, and in lifting heavy weights from the ground, but there was
+hardly any trace of contraction in the muscles round the eyes.
+
+As the contraction of these muscles for the protection of the eyes
+during violent expiration is indirectly, as we shall hereafter see, a
+fundamental element in several of our most important expressions, I was
+extremely anxious to ascertain how far Sir C. Bell’s view could be
+substantiated. Professor Donders, of Utrecht,[614] well known as one of
+the highest authorities in Europe on vision and on the structure of the
+eye, has most kindly undertaken for me this investigation with the aid
+of the many ingenious mechanisms of modern science, and has published
+the results.[615] He shows that during violent expiration the external,
+the intra-ocular, and the retro-ocular vessels of the eye are all
+affected in two ways, namely by the increased pressure of the blood in
+the arteries, and by the return of the blood in the veins being
+impeded. It is, therefore, certain that both the arteries and the veins
+of the eye are more or less distended during violent expiration. The
+evidence in detail may be found in Professor Donders’ valuable memoir.
+We see the effects on the veins of the head, in their prominence, and
+in the purple colour of the face of a man who coughs violently from
+being half choked. I may mention, on the same authority, that the whole
+eye certainly advances a little during each violent expiration. This is
+due to the dilatation of the retro-ocular vessels, and might have been
+expected from the intimate connection of the eye and brain; the brain
+being known to rise and fall with each respiration, when a portion of
+the skull has been removed; and as may be seen along the unclosed
+sutures of infants’ heads. This also, I presume, is the reason that the
+eyes of a strangled man appear as if they were starting from their
+sockets.
+
+With respect to the protection of the eye during violent expiratory
+efforts by the pressure of the eyelids, Professor Donders concludes
+from his various observations that this action certainly limits or
+entirely removes the dilatation of the vessels.[616] At such times, he
+adds, we not unfrequently see the hand involuntarily laid upon the
+eyelids, as if the better to support and defend the eyeball.
+
+Nevertheless much evidence cannot at present be advanced to prove that
+the eye actually suffers injury from the want of support during violent
+expiration; but there is some. It is “a fact that forcible expiratory
+efforts in violent coughing or vomiting, and especially in sneezing,
+sometimes give rise to ruptures of the little (external) vessels” of
+the eye.[617] With respect to the internal vessels, Dr. Gunning has
+lately recorded a case of exophthalmos in consequence of
+whooping-cough, which in his opinion depended on the rupture of the
+deeper vessels; and another analogous case has been recorded. But a
+mere sense of discomfort would probably suffice to lead to the
+associated habit of protecting the eyeball by the contraction of the
+surrounding muscles. Even the expectation or chance of injury would
+probably be sufficient, in the same manner as an object moving too near
+the eye induces involuntary winking of the eyelids. We may, therefore,
+safely conclude from Sir C. Bell’s observations, and more especially
+from the more careful investigations by Professor Donders, that the
+firm closure of the eyelids during the screaming of children is an
+action full of meaning and of real service.
+
+We have already seen that the contraction of the orbicular muscles
+leads to the drawing up of the upper lip, and consequently, if the
+mouth is kept widely open, to the drawing down of the corners by the
+contraction of the depressor muscles. The formation of the naso-labial
+fold on the cheeks likewise follows from the drawing up of the upper
+lip. Thus all the chief expressive movements of the face during crying
+apparently result from the contraction of the muscles round the eyes.
+We shall also find that the shedding of tears depends on, or at least
+stands in some connection with, the contraction of these same muscles.
+
+In some of the foregoing cases, especially in those of sneezing and
+coughing, it is possible that the contraction of the orbicular muscles
+may serve in addition to protect the eyes from too severe a jar or
+vibration. I think so, because dogs and cats, in crunching hard bones,
+always close their eyelids, and at least sometimes in sneezing; though
+dogs do not do so whilst barking loudly. Mr. Sutton carefully observed
+for me a young orang and chimpanzee, and he found that both always
+closed their eyes in sneezing and coughing, but not whilst screaming
+violently. I gave a small pinch of snuff to a monkey of the American
+division, namely, a Cebus, and it closed its eyelids whilst sneezing;
+but not on a subsequent occasion whilst uttering loud cries.
+
+_Cause of the secretion of tears_.—It is an important fact which must
+be considered in any theory of the secretion of tears from the mind
+being affected, that whenever the muscles round the eyes are strongly
+and involuntarily contracted in order to compress the blood-vessels and
+thus to protect the eyes, tears are secreted, often in sufficient
+abundance to roll down the cheeks. This occurs under the most opposite
+emotions, and under no emotion at all. The sole exception, and this is
+only a partial one, to the existence of a relation between the
+involuntary and strong contraction of these muscles and the secretion
+of tears is that of young infants, who, whilst screaming violently with
+their eyelids firmly closed, do not commonly weep until they have
+attained the age of from two to three or four months. Their eyes,
+however, become suffused with tears at a much earlier age. It would
+appear, as already remarked, that the lacrymal glands do not, from the
+want of practice or some other cause, come to full functional activity
+at a very early period of life. With children at a somewhat later age,
+crying out or wailing from any distress is so regularly accompanied by
+the shedding of tears, that weeping and crying are synonymous
+terms.[618]
+
+Under the opposite emotion of great joy or amusement, as long as
+laughter is moderate there is hardly any contraction of the muscles
+round the eyes, so that there is no frowning; but when peals of loud
+laughter are uttered, with rapid and violent spasmodic expirations,
+tears stream down the face. I have more than once noticed the face of a
+person, after a paroxysm of violent laughter, and I could see that the
+orbicular muscles and those running to the upper lip were still
+partially contracted, which together with the tear-stained cheeks gave
+to the upper half of the face an expression not to be distinguished
+from that of a child still blubbering from grief. The fact of tears
+streaming down the face during violent laughter is common to all the
+races of mankind, as we shall see in a future chapter.
+
+In violent coughing especially when a person is half-choked, the face
+becomes purple, the veins distended, the orbicular muscles strongly
+contracted, and tears run down the cheeks. Even after a fit of ordinary
+coughing, almost every one has to wipe his eyes. In violent vomiting or
+retching, as I have myself experienced and seen in others, the
+orbicular muscles are strongly contracted, and tears sometimes flow
+freely down the cheeks. It has been suggested to me that this may be
+due to irritating matter being injected into the nostrils, and causing
+by reflex action the secretion of tears. Accordingly I asked one of my
+informants, a surgeon, to attend to the effects of retching when
+nothing was thrown up from the stomach; and, by an odd coincidence, he
+himself suffered the next morning from an attack of retching, and three
+days subsequently observed a lady under a similar attack; and he is
+certain that in neither case an atom of matter was ejected from the
+stomach; yet the orbicular muscles were strongly contracted, and tears
+freely secreted. I can also speak positively to the energetic
+contraction of these same muscles round the eyes, and to the coincident
+free secretion of tears, when the abdominal muscles act with unusual
+force in a downward direction on the intestinal canal.
+
+Yawning commences with a deep inspiration, followed by a long and
+forcible expiration; and at the same time almost all the muscles of the
+body are strongly contracted, including those round the eyes. During
+this act tears are often secreted, and I have seen them even rolling
+down the cheeks.
+
+I have frequently observed that when persons scratch some point which
+itches intolerably, they forcibly close their eyelids; but they do not,
+as I believe, first draw a deep breath and then expel it with force;
+and I have never noticed that the eyes then become filled with tears;
+but I am not prepared to assert that this does not occur. The forcible
+closure of the eyelids is, perhaps, merely a part of that general
+action by which almost all the muscles of the body are at the same time
+rendered rigid. It is quite different from the gentle closure of the
+eyes which often accompanies, as Gratiolet remarks,[619] the smelling a
+delicious odour, or the tasting a delicious morsel, and which probably
+originates in the desire to shut out any disturbing impression through
+the eyes.
+
+Professor Donders writes to me to the following effect: “I have
+observed some cases of a very curious affection when, after a slight
+rub (_attouchement_), for example, from the friction of a coat, which
+caused neither a wound nor a contusion, spasms of the orbicular muscles
+occurred, with a very profuse flow of tears, lasting about one hour.
+Subsequently, sometimes after an interval of several weeks, violent
+spasms of the same muscles re-occurred, accompanied by the secretion of
+tears, together with primary or secondary redness of the eye.” Mr.
+Bowman informs me that he has occasionally observed closely analogous
+cases, and that, in some of these, there was no redness or inflammation
+of the eyes.
+
+I was anxious to ascertain whether there existed in any of the lower
+animals a similar relation between the contraction of the orbicular
+muscles during violent expiration and the secretion of tears; but there
+are very few animals which contract these muscles in a prolonged
+manner, or which shed tears. _The Macacus maurus_, which formerly wept
+so copiously in the Zoological Gardens, would have been a fine case for
+observation; but the two monkeys now there, and which are believed to
+belong to the same species, do not weep. Nevertheless they were
+carefully observed by Mr. Bartlett and myself, whilst screaming loudly,
+and they seemed to contract these muscles; but they moved about their
+cages so rapidly, that it was difficult to observe with certainty. No
+other monkey, as far as I have been able to ascertain, contracts its
+orbicular muscles whilst screaming.
+
+The Indian elephant is known sometimes to weep. Sir E. Tennent, in
+describing these which he saw captured and bound in Ceylon, says, some
+“lay motionless on the ground, with no other indication of suffering
+than the tears which suffused their eyes and flowed incessantly.”
+Speaking of another elephant he says, “When overpowered and made fast,
+his grief was most affecting; his violence sank to utter prostration,
+and he lay on the ground, uttering choking cries, with tears trickling
+down his cheeks.”[620] In the Zoological Gardens the keeper of the
+Indian elephants positively asserts that he has several times seen
+tears rolling down the face of the old female, when distressed by the
+removal of the young one. Hence I was extremely anxious to ascertain,
+as an extension of the relation between the contraction of the
+orbicular muscles and the shedding of tears in man, whether elephants
+when screaming or trumpeting loudly contract these muscles. At Mr.
+Bartlett’s desire the keeper ordered the old and the young elephant to
+trumpet; and we repeatedly saw in both animals that, just as the
+trumpeting began, the orbicular muscles, especially the lower ones,
+were distinctly contracted. On a subsequent occasion the keeper made
+the old elephant trumpet much more loudly, and invariably both the
+upper and lower orbicular muscles were strongly contracted, and now in
+an equal degree. It is a singular fact that the African elephant,
+which, however, is so different from the Indian species that it is
+placed by some naturalists in a distinct sub-genus, when made on two
+occasions to trumpet loudly, exhibited no trace of the contraction of
+the orbicular muscles.
+
+From the several foregoing cases with respect to Man, there can, I
+think, be no doubt that the contraction of the muscles round the eyes,
+during violent expiration or when the expanded chest is forcibly
+compressed, is, in some manner, intimately connected with the secretion
+of tears. This holds good under widely different emotions, and
+independently of any emotion. It is not, of course, meant that tears
+cannot be secreted without the contraction of these muscles; for it is
+notorious that they are often freely shed with the eyelids not closed,
+and with the brows unwrinkled. The contraction must be both involuntary
+and prolonged, as during a choking fit, or energetic, as during a
+sneeze. The mere involuntary winking of the eyelids, though often
+repeated, does not bring tears into the eyes. Nor does the voluntary
+and prolonged contraction of the several surrounding muscles suffice.
+As the lacrymal glands of children are easily excited, I persuaded my
+own and several other children of different ages to contract these
+muscles repeatedly with their utmost force, and to continue doing so as
+long as they possibly could; but this produced hardly any effect. There
+was sometimes a little moisture in the eyes, but not more than
+apparently could be accounted for by the squeezing out of the already
+secreted tears within the glands.
+
+The nature of the relation between the involuntary and energetic
+contraction of the muscles round the eyes, and the secretion of tears,
+cannot be positively ascertained, but a probable view may be suggested.
+The primary function of the secretion of tears, together with some
+mucus, is to lubricate the surface of the eye; and a secondary one, as
+some believe, is to keep the nostrils damp, so that the inhaled air may
+be moist,[621] and likewise to favour the power of smelling. But
+another, and at least equally important function of tears, is to wash
+out particles of dust or other minute objects which may get into the
+eyes. That this is of great importance is clear from the cases in which
+the cornea has been rendered opaque through inflammation, caused by
+particles of dust not being removed, in consequence of the eye and
+eyelid becoming immovable.[622] The secretion of tears from the
+irritation of any foreign body in the eye is a reflex action;—that is,
+the body irritates a peripheral nerve which sends an impression to
+certain sensory nerve-cells; these transmit an influence to other
+cells, and these again to the lacrymal glands. The influence
+transmitted to these glands causes, as there is good reason to believe,
+the relaxation of the muscular coats of the smaller arteries; this
+allows more blood to permeate the glandular tissue, and this induces a
+free secretion of tears. When the small arteries of the face, including
+those of the retina, are relaxed under very different circumstances,
+namely, during an intense blush, the lacrymal glands are sometimes
+affected in a like manner, for the eyes become suffused with tears.
+
+It is difficult to conjecture how many reflex actions have originated,
+but, in relation to the present case of the affection of the lacrymal
+glands through irritation of the surface of the eye, it may be worth
+remarking that, as soon as some primordial form became semi-terrestrial
+in its habits, and was liable to get particles of dust into its eyes,
+if these were not washed out they would cause much irritation; and on
+the principle of the radiation of nerve-force to adjoining nerve-cells,
+the lacrymal glands would be stimulated to secretion. As this would
+often recur, and as nerve-force readily passes along accustomed
+channels, a slight irritation would ultimately suffice to cause a free
+secretion of tears.
+
+As soon as by this, or by some other means, a reflex action of this
+nature had been established and rendered easy, other stimulants applied
+to the surface of the eye—such as a cold wind, slow inflammatory
+action, or a blow on the eyelids—would cause a copious secretion of
+tears, as we know to be the case. The glands are also excited into
+action through the irritation of adjoining parts. Thus when the
+nostrils are irritated by pungent vapours, though the eyelids may be
+kept firmly closed, tears are copiously secreted; and this likewise
+follows from a blow on the nose, for instance from a boxing-glove. A
+stinging switch on the face produces, as I have seen, the same effect.
+In these latter cases the secretion of tears is an incidental result,
+and of no direct service. As all these parts of the face, including the
+lacrymal glands, are supplied with branches of the same nerve, namely,
+the fifth, it is in some degree intelligible that the effects of the
+excitement of any one branch should spread to the nerve-cells or roots
+of the other branches.
+
+The internal parts of the eye likewise act, under certain conditions,
+in a reflex manner on the lacrymal glands. The following statements
+have been kindly communicated to me by Mr. Bowman; but the subject is a
+very intricate one, as all the parts of the eye are so intimately
+related together, and are so sensitive to various stimulants. A strong
+light acting on the retina, when in a normal condition, has very little
+tendency to cause lacrymation; but with unhealthy children having
+small, old-standing ulcers on the cornea, the retina becomes
+excessively sensitive to light, and exposure even to common daylight
+causes forcible and sustained closure of the lids, and a profuse flow
+of tears. When persons who ought to begin the use of convex glasses
+habitually strain the waning power of accommodation, an undue secretion
+of tears very often follows, and the retina is liable to become unduly
+sensitive to light. In general, morbid affections of the surface of the
+eye, and of the ciliary structures concerned in the accommodative act,
+are prone to be accompanied with excessive secretion of tears. Hardness
+of the eyeball, not rising to inflammation, but implying a want of
+balance between the fluids poured out and again taken up by the
+intra-ocular vessels, is not usually attended with any lacrymation.
+When the balance is on the other side, and the eye becomes too soft,
+there is a greater tendency to lacrymation. Finally, there are numerous
+morbid states and structural alterations of the eyes, and even terrible
+inflammations, which may be attended with little or no secretion of
+tears.
+
+It also deserves notice, as indirectly bearing on our subject, that the
+eye and adjoining parts are subject to an extraordinary number of
+reflex and associated movements, sensations, and actions, besides those
+relating to the lacrymal glands. When a bright light strikes the retina
+of one eye alone, the iris contracts, but the iris of the other eye
+moves after a measurable interval of time. The iris likewise moves in
+accommodation to near or distant vision, and when the two eyes are made
+to converge.[623] Every one knows how irresistibly the eyebrows are
+drawn down under an intensely bright light. The eyelids also
+involuntarily wink when an object is moved near the eyes, or a sound is
+suddenly heard. The well-known case of a bright light causing some
+persons to sneeze is even more curious; for nerve-force here radiates
+from certain nerve-cells in connection with the retina, to the sensory
+nerve-cells of the nose, causing it to tickle; and from these, to the
+cells which command the various respiratory muscles (the orbiculars
+included) which expel the air in so peculiar a manner that it rushes
+through the nostrils alone.
+
+To return to our point: why are tears secreted during a screaming-fit
+or other violent expiratory efforts? As a slight blow on the eyelids
+causes a copious secretion of tears, it is at least possible that the
+spasmodic contraction of the eyelids, by pressing strongly on the
+eyeball, should in a similar manner cause some secretion. This seems
+possible, although the voluntary contraction of the same muscles does
+not produce any such effect. We know that a man cannot voluntarily
+sneeze or cough with nearly the same force as he does automatically;
+and so it is with the contraction of the orbicular muscles: Sir C. Bell
+experimented on them, and found that by suddenly and forcibly closing
+the eyelids in the dark, sparks of light are seen, like those caused by
+tapping the eyelids with the fingers; “but in sneezing the compression
+is both more rapid and more forcible, and the sparks are more
+brilliant.” That these sparks are due to the contraction of the eyelids
+is clear, because if they “are held open during the act of sneezing, no
+sensation of light will be experienced.” In the peculiar cases referred
+to by Professor Donders and Mr. Bowman, we have seen that some weeks
+after the eye has been very slightly injured, spasmodic contractions of
+the eyelids ensue, and these are accompanied by a profuse flow of
+tears. In the act of yawning, the tears are apparently due solely to
+the spasmodic contraction of the muscles round the eyes.
+Notwithstanding these latter cases, it seems hardly credible that the
+pressure of the eyelids on the surface of the eye, although effected
+spasmodically and therefore with much greater force than can be done
+voluntarily, should be sufficient to cause by reflex action the
+secretion of tears in the many cases in which this occurs during
+violent expiratory efforts.
+
+Another cause may come conjointly into play. We have seen that the
+internal parts of the eye, under certain conditions act in a reflex
+manner on the lacrymal glands. We know that during violent expiratory
+efforts the pressure of the arterial blood within the vessels of the
+eye is increased, and that the return of the venous blood is impeded.
+It seems, therefore, not improbable that the distension of the ocular
+vessels, thus induced, might act by reflection on the lacrymal
+glands—the effects due to the spasmodic pressure of the eyelids on the
+surface of the eye being thus increased.
+
+In considering how far this view is probable, we should bear in mind
+that the eyes of infants have been acted on in this double manner
+during numberless generations, whenever they have screamed; and on the
+principle of nerve-force readily passing along accustomed channels,
+even a moderate compression of the eyeballs and a moderate distension
+of the ocular vessels would ultimately come, through habit, to act on
+the glands. We have an analogous case in the orbicular muscles being
+almost always contracted in some slight degree, even during a gentle
+crying-fit, when there can be no distension of the vessels and no
+uncomfortable sensation excited within the eyes.
+
+Moreover, when complex actions or movements have long been performed in
+strict association together, and these are from any cause at first
+voluntarily and afterwards habitually checked, then if the proper
+exciting conditions occur, any part of the action or movement which is
+least under the control of the will, will often still be involuntarily
+performed. The secretion by a gland is remarkably free from the
+influence of the will; therefore, when with the advancing age of the
+individual, or with the advancing culture of the race, the habit of
+crying out or screaming is restrained, and there is consequently no
+distension of the blood-vessels of the eye, it may nevertheless well
+happen that tears should still be secreted. We may see, as lately
+remarked, the muscles round the eyes of a person who reads a pathetic
+story, twitching or trembling in so slight a degree as hardly to be
+detected. In this case there has been no screaming and no distension of
+the blood-vessels, yet through habit certain nerve-cells send a small
+amount of nerve-force to the cells commanding the muscles round the
+eyes; and they likewise send some to the cells commanding the lacrymal
+glands, for the eyes often become at the same time just moistened with
+tears. If the twitching of the muscles round the eyes and the secretion
+of tears had been completely prevented, nevertheless it is almost
+certain that there would have been some tendency to transmit
+nerve-force in these same directions; and as the lacrymal glands are
+remarkably free from the control of the will, they would be eminently
+liable still to act, thus betraying, though there were no other outward
+signs, the pathetic thoughts which were passing through the person’s
+mind.
+
+As a further illustration of the view here advanced, I may remark that
+if, during an early period of life, when habits of all kinds are
+readily established, our infants, when pleased, had been accustomed to
+utter loud peals of laughter (during which the vessels of their eyes
+are distended) as often and as continuously as they have yielded when
+distressed to screaming-fits, then it is probable that in after life
+tears would have been as copiously and as regularly secreted under the
+one state of mind as under the other. Gentle laughter, or a smile, or
+even a pleasing thought, would have sufficed to cause a moderate
+secretion of tears. There does indeed exist an evident tendency in this
+direction, as will be seen in a future chapter, when we treat of the
+tender feelings. With the Sandwich Islanders, according to
+Freycinet,[624] tears are actually recognized as a sign of happiness;
+but we should require better evidence on this head than that of a
+passing voyager. So again if our infants, during many generations, and
+each of them during several years, had almost daily suffered from
+prolonged choking-fits, during which the vessels of the eye are
+distended and tears copiously secreted, then it is probable, such is
+the force of associated habit, that during after life the mere thought
+of a choke, without any distress of mind, would have sufficed to bring
+tears into our eyes.
+
+To sum up this chapter, weeping is probably the result of some such
+chain of events as follows. Children, when wanting food or suffering in
+any way, cry out loudly, like the young of most other animals, partly
+as a call to their parents for aid, and partly from any great exertion
+serving relief. Prolonged screaming inevitably leads to the gorging of
+the blood-vessels of the eye; and this will have led, at first
+consciously and at last habitually, to the contraction of the muscles
+round the eyes in order to protect them. At the same time the spasmodic
+pressure on the surface of the eye, and the distension of the vessels
+within the eye, without necessarily entailing any conscious sensation,
+will have affected, through reflex action, the lacrymal glands.
+Finally, through the three principles of nerve-force readily passing
+along accustomed channels—of association, which is so widely extended
+in its power—and of certain actions, being more under the control of
+the will than others—it has come to pass that suffering readily causes
+the secretion of tears, without being necessarily accompanied by any
+other action.
+
+Although in accordance with this view we must look at weeping as an
+incidental result, as purposeless as the secretion of tears from a blow
+outside the eye, or as a sneeze from the retina being affected by a
+bright light, yet this does not present any difficulty in our
+understanding how the secretion of tears serves as a relief to
+suffering. And by as much as the weeping is more violent or hysterical,
+by so much will the relief be greater,—on the same principle that the
+writhing of the whole body, the grinding of the teeth, and the uttering
+of piercing shrieks, all give relief under an agony of pain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.
+
+General effect of grief on the system—Obliquity of the eyebrows under
+suffering—On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows—On the
+depression of the corners of the mouth.
+
+After the mind has suffered from an acute paroxysm of grief, and the
+cause still continues, we fall into a state of low spirits; or we may
+be utterly cast down and dejected. Prolonged bodily pain, if not
+amounting to an agony, generally leads to the same state of mind. If we
+expect to suffer, we are anxious; if we have no hope of relief, we
+despair.
+
+Persons suffering from excessive grief often seek relief by violent and
+almost frantic movements, as described in a former chapter; but when
+their suffering is somewhat mitigated, yet prolonged, they no longer
+wish for action, but remain motionless and passive, or may occasionally
+rock themselves to and fro. The circulation becomes languid; the face
+pale; the muscles flaccid; the eyelids droop; the head hangs on the
+contracted chest; the lips, cheeks, and lower jaw all sink downwards
+from their own weight. Hence all the features are lengthened; and the
+face of a person who hears bad news is said to fall. A party of natives
+in Tierra del Fuego endeavoured to explain to us that their friend, the
+captain of a sealing vessel, was out of spirits, by pulling down their
+cheeks with both hands, so as to make their faces as long as possible.
+Mr. Bunnet informs me that the Australian aborigines when out of
+spirits have a chop-fallen appearance. After prolonged suffering the
+eyes become dull and lack expression, and are often slightly suffused
+with tears. The eyebrows not rarely are rendered oblique, which is due
+to their inner ends being raised. This produces peculiarly-formed
+wrinkles on the forehead, which are very different from those of a
+simple frown; though in some cases a frown alone may be present. The
+comers of the mouth are drawn downwards, which is so universally
+recognized as a sign of being out of spirits, that it is almost
+proverbial.
+
+The breathing becomes slow and feeble, and is often interrupted by deep
+sighs. As Gratiolet remarks, whenever our attention is long
+concentrated on any subject, we forget to breathe, and then relieve
+ourselves by a deep inspiration; but the sighs of a sorrowful person,
+owing to his slow respiration and languid circulation, are eminently
+characteristic.[701] As the grief of a person in this state
+occasionally recurs and increases into a paroxysm, spasms affect the
+respiratory muscles, and he feels as if something, the so-called
+_globus hystericus_, was rising in his throat. These spasmodic
+movements are clearly allied to the sobbing of children, and are
+remnants of those severer spasms which occur when a person is said to
+choke from excessive grief.[702]
+
+_Obliquity of the eyebrows_.—Two points alone in the above description
+require further elucidation, and these are very curious ones; namely,
+the raising of the inner ends of the eyebrows, and the drawing down of
+the corners of the mouth. With respect to the eyebrows, they may
+occasionally be seen to assume an oblique position in persons suffering
+from deep dejection or anxiety; for instance, I have observed this
+movement in a mother whilst speaking about her sick son; and it is
+sometimes excited by quite trifling or momentary causes of real or
+pretended distress. The eyebrows assume this position owing to the
+contraction of certain muscles (namely, the orbiculars, corrugators,
+and pyramidals of the nose, which together tend to lower and contract
+the eyebrows) being partially cheeked by the more powerful action of
+the central fasciæ of the frontal muscle. These latter fasciæ by their
+contraction raise the inner ends alone of the eyebrows; and as the
+corrugators at the same time draw the eyebrows together, their inner
+ends become puckered into a fold or lump. This fold is a highly
+characteristic point in the appearance of the eyebrows when rendered
+oblique, as may be seen in figs. 2 and 5, Plate II. The eyebrows are at
+the same time somewhat roughened, owing to the hairs being made to
+project. Dr. J. Crichton Browne has also often noticed in melancholic
+patients who keep their eyebrows persistently oblique, “a peculiar
+acute arching of the upper eyelid.” A trace of this may be observed by
+comparing the right and left eyelids of the young man in the photograph
+(fig. 2, Plate II.); for he was not able to act equally on both
+eyebrows. This is also shown by the unequal furrows on the two sides of
+his forehead. The acute arching of the eyelids depends, I believe, on
+the inner end alone of the eyebrows being raised; for when the whole
+eyebrow is elevated and arched, the upper eyelid follows in a slight
+degree the same movement.
+
+
+
+ Obliquity of the Eyebrows. Plate II
+
+But the most conspicuous result of the opposed contraction of the
+above-named muscles, is exhibited by the peculiar furrows formed on the
+forehead. These muscles, when thus in conjoint yet opposed action, may
+be called, for the sake of brevity, the grief-muscles. When a person
+elevates his eyebrows by the contraction of the whole frontal muscle,
+transverse wrinkles extend across the whole breadth of the forehead;
+but in the present case the middle fasciae alone are contracted;
+consequently, transverse furrows are formed across the middle part
+alone of the forehead. The skin over the exterior parts of both
+eyebrows is at the same time drawn downwards and smooth, by the
+contraction of the outer portions of the orbicular muscles. The
+eyebrows are likewise brought together through the simultaneous
+contraction of the corrugators;[703] and this latter action generates
+vertical furrows, separating the exterior and lowered part of the skin
+of the forehead from the central and raised part. The union of these
+vertical furrows with the central and transverse furrows (see figs. 2
+and 3) produces a mark on the forehead which has been compared to a
+horse-shoe; but the furrows more strictly form three sides of a
+quadrangle. They are often conspicuous on the foreheads of adult or
+nearly adult persons, when their eyebrows are made oblique; but with
+young children, owing to their skin not easily wrinkling, they are
+rarely seen, or mere traces of them can be detected.
+
+These peculiar furrows are best represented in fig. 3, Plate II., on
+the forehead of a young lady who has the power in an unusual degree of
+voluntarily acting on the requisite muscles. As she was absorbed in the
+attempt, whilst being photographed, her expression was not at all one
+of grief; I have therefore given the forehead alone. Fig. 1 on the same
+plate, copied from Dr. Duchenne’s work,[704] represents, on a reduced
+scale, the face, in its natural state, of a young man who was a good
+actor. In fig. 2 he is shown simulating grief, but the two eyebrows, as
+before remarked, are not equally acted on. That the expression is true,
+may be inferred from the fact that out of fifteen persons, to whom the
+original photograph was shown, without any clue to what was intended
+being given them, fourteen immediately answered, “despairing sorrow,”
+“suffering endurance,” “melancholy,” and so forth. The history of fig.
+5 is rather curious: I saw the photograph in a shop-window, and took it
+to Mr. Rejlander for the sake of finding out by whom it had been made;
+remarking to him how pathetic the expression was. He answered, “I made
+it, and it was likely to be pathetic, for the boy in a few minutes
+burst out crying.” He then showed me a photograph of the same boy in a
+placid state, which I have had (fig. 4) reproduced. In fig. 6, a trace
+of obliquity in the eyebrows may be detected; but this figure, as well
+as fig. 7, is given to show the depression of the corners of the mouth,
+to which subject I shall presently refer.
+
+Few persons, without some practice, can voluntarily act on their
+grief-muscles; but after repeated trials a considerable number succeed,
+whilst others never can. The degree of obliquity in the eyebrows,
+whether assumed voluntarily or unconsciously, differs much in different
+persons. With some who apparently have unusually strong pyramidal
+muscles, the contraction of the central fasciae of the frontal muscle,
+although it may be energetic, as shown by the quadrangular furrows on
+the forehead, does not raise the inner ends of the eyebrows, but only
+prevents their being so much lowered as they otherwise would have been.
+As far as I have been able to observe, the grief-muscles are brought
+into action much more frequently by children and women than by men.
+They are rarely acted on, at least with grown-up persons, from bodily
+pain, but almost exclusively from mental distress. Two persons who,
+after some practice, succeeded in acting on their grief-muscles, found
+by looking at a mirror that when they made their eyebrows oblique, they
+unintentionally at the same time depressed the corners of their mouths;
+and this is often the case when the expression is naturally assumed.
+
+The power to bring the grief-muscles freely into play appears to be
+hereditary, like almost every other human faculty. A lady belonging to
+a family famous for having produced an extraordinary number of great
+actors and actresses, and who can herself give this expression “with
+singular precision,” told Dr. Crichton Browne that all her family had
+possessed the power in a remarkable degree. The same hereditary
+tendency is said to have extended, as I likewise hear from Dr. Browne,
+to the last descendant of the family, which gave rise to Sir Walter
+Scott’s novel of ‘Red Gauntlet;’ but the hero is described as
+contracting his forehead into a horseshoe mark from any strong emotion.
+I have also seen a young woman whose forehead seemed almost habitually
+thus contracted, independently of any emotion being at the time felt.
+
+The grief-muscles are not very frequently brought into play; and as the
+action is often momentary, it easily escapes observation. Although the
+expression, when observed, is universally and instantly recognized as
+that of grief or anxiety, yet not one person out of a thousand who has
+never studied the subject, is able to say precisely what change passes
+over the sufferer’s face. Hence probably it is that this expression is
+not even alluded to, as far as I have noticed, in any work of fiction,
+with the exception of ‘Red Gauntlet’ and of one other novel; and the
+authoress of the latter, as I am informed, belongs to the famous family
+of actors just alluded to; so that her attention may have been
+specially called to the subject.
+
+The ancient Greek sculptors were familiar with the expression, as shown
+in the statues of the Laocoon and Arretino; but, as Duchenne remarks,
+they carried the transverse furrows across the whole breadth of the
+forehead, and thus committed a great anatomical mistake: this is
+likewise the case in some modern statues. It is, however, more probable
+that these wonderfully accurate observers intentionally sacrificed
+truth for the sake of beauty, than that they made a mistake; for
+rectangular furrows on the forehead would not have had a grand
+appearance on the marble. The expression, in its fully developed
+condition, is, as far as I can discover, not often represented in
+pictures by the old masters, no doubt owing to the same cause; but a
+lady who is perfectly familiar with this expression, informs me that in
+Fra Angelico’s ‘Descent from the Cross’ in Florence, it is clearly
+exhibited in one of the figures on the right-hand; and I could add a
+few other instances.
+
+Dr. Crichton Browne, at my request, closely attended to this expression
+in the numerous insane patients under his care in the West Riding
+Asylum; and he is familiar with Duchenne’s photographs of the action of
+the grief-muscles. He informs me that they may constantly be seen in
+energetic action in cases of melancholia, and especially of
+hypochondria; and that the persistent lines or furrows, due to their
+habitual contraction, are characteristic of the physiognomy of the
+insane belonging to these two classes. Dr. Browne carefully observed
+for me during a considerable period three cases of hypochondria, in
+which the grief-muscles were persistently contracted. In one of these,
+a widow, aged 51, fancied that she had lost all her viscera, and that
+her whole body was empty. She wore an expression of great distress, and
+beat her semi-closed hands rhythmically together for hours. The
+grief-muscles were permanently contracted, and the upper eyelids
+arched. This condition lasted for months; she then recovered, and her
+countenance resumed its natural expression. A second case presented
+nearly the same peculiarities, with the addition that the comers of the
+mouth were depressed.
+
+Mr. Patrick Nicol has also kindly observed for me several cases in the
+Sussex Lunatic Asylum, and has communicated to me full details with
+respect to three of them; but they need not here be given. From his
+observations on melancholic patients, Mr. Nicol concludes that the
+inner ends of the eyebrows are almost always more or less raised, with
+the wrinkles on the forehead more or less plainly marked. In the case
+of one young woman, these wrinkles were observed to be in constant
+slight play or movement. In some cases the comers of the mouth are
+depressed, but often only in a slight degree. Some amount of difference
+in the expression of the several melancholic patients could almost
+always be observed. The eyelids generally droop; and the skin near
+their outer comers and beneath them is wrinkled. The naso-labial fold,
+which runs from the wings of the nostrils to the comers of the mouth,
+and which is so conspicuous in blubbering children, is often plainly
+marked in these patients.
+
+Although with the insane the grief-muscles often act persistently; yet
+in ordinary cases they are sometimes brought unconsciously into
+momentary action by ludicrously slight causes. A gentleman rewarded a
+young lady by an absurdly small present; she pretended to be offended,
+and as she upbraided him, her eyebrows became extremely oblique, with
+the forehead properly wrinkled. Another young lady and a youth, both in
+the highest spirits, were eagerly talking together with extraordinary
+rapidity; and I noticed that, as often as the young lady was beaten,
+and could not get out her words fast enough, her eyebrows went
+obliquely upwards, and rectangular furrows were formed on her forehead.
+She thus each time hoisted a flag of distress; and this she did
+half-a-dozen times in the course of a few minutes. I made no remark on
+the subject, but on a subsequent occasion I asked her to act on her
+grief-muscles; another girl who was present, and who could do so
+voluntarily, showing her what was intended. She tried repeatedly, but
+utterly failed; yet so slight a cause of distress as not being able to
+talk quickly enough, sufficed to bring these muscles over and over
+again into energetic action.
+
+The expression of grief, due to the contraction of the grief-muscles,
+is by no means confined to Europeans, but appears to be common to all
+the races of mankind. I have, at least, received trustworthy accounts
+in regard to Hindoos, Dhangars (one of the aboriginal hill-tribes of
+India, and therefore belonging to a quite distinct race from the
+Hindoos), Malays, Negroes and Australians. With respect to the latter,
+two observers answer my query in the affirmative, but enter into no
+details. Mr. Taplin, however, appends to my descriptive remarks the
+words “this is exact.” With respect to negroes, the lady who told me of
+Fra Angelico’s picture, saw a negro towing a boat on the Nile, and as
+he encountered an obstruction, she observed his grief-muscles in strong
+action, with the middle of the forehead well wrinkled. Mr. Geach
+watched a Malay man in Malacca, with the comers of his mouth much
+depressed, the eyebrows oblique, with deep short grooves on the
+forehead. This expression lasted for a very short time; and Mr. Geach
+remarks it “was a strange one, very much like a person about to cry at
+some great loss.”
+
+In India Mr. H. Erskine found that the natives were familiar with this
+expression; and Mr. J. Scott, of the Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, has
+obligingly sent me a full description of two cases. He observed during
+some time, himself unseen, a very young Dhangar woman from Nagpore, the
+wife of one of the gardeners, nursing her baby who was at the point of
+death; and he distinctly saw the eyebrows raised at the inner comers,
+the eyelids drooping, the forehead wrinkled in the middle, the mouth
+slightly open, with the comers much depressed. He then came from behind
+a screen of plants and spoke to the poor woman, who started, burst into
+a bitter flood of tears, and besought him to cure her baby. The second
+case was that of a Hindustani man, who from illness and poverty was
+compelled to sell his favourite goat. After receiving the money, he
+repeatedly looked at the money in his hand and then at the goat, as if
+doubting whether he would not return it. He went to the goat, which was
+tied up ready to be led away, and the animal reared up and licked his
+hands. His eyes then wavered from side to side; his “mouth was
+partially closed, with the corners very decidedly depressed.” At last
+the poor man seemed to make up his mind that he must part with his
+goat, and then, as Mr. Scott saw, the eyebrows became slightly oblique,
+with the characteristic puckering or swelling at the inner ends, but
+the wrinkles on the forehead were not present. The man stood thus for a
+minute, then heaving a deep sigh, burst into tears, raised up his two
+hands, blessed the goat, turned round, and without looking again, went
+away.
+
+_On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows under suffering_.—During
+several years no expression seemed to me so utterly perplexing as this
+which we are here considering. Why should grief or anxiety cause the
+central fasciae alone of the frontal muscle together with those round
+the eyes, to contract? Here we seem to have a complex movement for the
+sole purpose of expressing grief; and yet it is a comparatively rare
+expression, and often overlooked. I believe the explanation is not so
+difficult as it at first appears. Dr. Duchenne gives a photograph of
+the young man before referred to, who, when looking upwards at a
+strongly illuminated surface, involuntarily contracted his
+grief-muscles in an exaggerated manner. I had entirely forgotten this
+photograph, when on a very bright day with the sun behind me, I met,
+whilst on horseback, a girl whose eyebrows, as she looked up at me,
+became extremely oblique, with the proper furrows on her forehead. I
+have observed the same movement under similar circumstances on several
+subsequent occasions. On my return home I made three of my children,
+without giving them any clue to my object, look as long and as
+attentively as they could, at the summit of a tall tree standing
+against an extremely bright sky. With all three, the orbicular,
+corrugator, and pyramidal muscles were energetically contracted,
+through reflex action, from the excitement of the retina, so that their
+eyes might be protected from the bright light. But they tried their
+utmost to look upwards; and now a curious struggle, with spasmodic
+twitchings, could be observed between the whole or only the central
+portion of the frontal muscle, and the several muscles which serve to
+lower the eyebrows and close the eyelids. The involuntary contraction
+of the pyramidal caused the basal part of their noses to be
+transversely and deeply wrinkled. In one of the three children, the
+whole eyebrows were momentarily raised and lowered by the alternate
+contraction of the whole frontal muscle and of the muscles surrounding
+the eyes, so that the whole breadth of the forehead was alternately
+wrinkled and smoothed. In the other two children the forehead became
+wrinkled in the middle part alone, rectangular furrows being thus
+produced; and the eyebrows were rendered oblique, with their inner
+extremities puckered and swollen,—in the one child in a slight degree,
+in the other in a strongly marked manner. This difference in the
+obliquity of the eyebrows apparently depended on a difference in their
+general mobility, and in the strength of the pyramidal muscles. In both
+these cases the eyebrows and forehead were acted on under the influence
+of a strong light, in precisely the same manner, in every
+characteristic detail, as under the influence of grief or anxiety.
+
+Duchenne states that the pyramidal muscle of the nose is less under the
+control of the will than are the other muscles round the eyes. He
+remarks that the young man who could so well act on his grief-muscles,
+as well as on most of his other facial muscles, could not contract the
+pyramidals.[705] This power, however, no doubt differs in different
+persons. The pyramidal muscle serves to draw down the skin of the
+forehead between the eyebrows, together with their inner extremities.
+The central fasciae of the frontal are the antagonists of the
+pyramidal; and if the action of the latter is to be specially checked,
+these central fasciae must be contracted. So that with persons having
+powerful pyramidal muscles, if there is under the influence of a bright
+light an unconscious desire to prevent the lowering of the eyebrows,
+the central fasciae of the frontal muscle must be brought into play;
+and their contraction, if sufficiently strong to overmaster the
+pyramidals, together with the contraction of the corrugator and
+orbicular muscles, will act in the manner just described on the
+eyebrows and forehead.
+
+When children scream or cry out, they contract, as we know, the
+orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal muscles, primarily for the sake of
+compressing their eyes, and thus protecting them from being gorged with
+blood, and secondarily through habit. I therefore expected to find with
+children, that when they endeavoured either to prevent a crying-fit
+from coming on, or to stop crying, they would cheek the contraction of
+the above-named muscles, in the same manner as when looking upwards at
+a bright light; and consequently that the central fasciae of the
+frontal muscle would often be brought into play. Accordingly, I began
+myself to observe children at such times, and asked others, including
+some medical men, to do the same. It is necessary to observe carefully,
+as the peculiar opposed action of these muscles is not nearly so plain
+in children, owing to their foreheads not easily wrinkling, as in
+adults. But I soon found that the grief-muscles were very frequently
+brought into distinct action on these occasions. It would be
+superfluous to give all the cases which have been observed; and I will
+specify only a few. A little girl, a year and a half old, was teased by
+some other children, and before bursting into tears her eyebrows became
+decidedly oblique. With an older girl the same obliquity was observed,
+with the inner ends of the eyebrows plainly puckered; and at the same
+time the corners of the mouth were drawn downwards. As soon as she
+burst into tears, the features all changed and this peculiar expression
+vanished. Again, after a little boy had been vaccinated, which made him
+scream and cry violently, the surgeon gave him an orange brought for
+the purpose, and this pleased the child much; as he stopped crying all
+the characteristic movements were observed, including the formation of
+rectangular wrinkles in the middle of the forehead. Lastly, I met on
+the road a little girl three or four years old, who had been frightened
+by a dog, and when I asked her what was the matter, she stopped
+whimpering, and her eyebrows instantly became oblique to an
+extraordinary degree.
+
+Here then, as I cannot doubt, we have the key to the problem why the
+central fasciae of the frontal muscle and the muscles round the eyes
+contract in opposition to each other under the influence of
+grief;—whether their contraction be prolonged, as with the melancholic
+insane, or momentary, from some trifling cause of distress. We have all
+of us, as infants, repeatedly contracted our orbicular, corrugator, and
+pyramidal muscles, in order to protect our eyes whilst screaming; our
+progenitors before us have done the same during many generations; and
+though with advancing years we easily prevent, when feeling distressed,
+the utterance of screams, we cannot from long habit always prevent a
+slight contraction of the above-named muscles; nor indeed do we observe
+their contraction in ourselves, or attempt to stop it, if slight. But
+the pyramidal muscles seem to be less under the command of the will
+than the other related muscles; and if they be well developed, their
+contraction can be checked only by the antagonistic contraction of the
+central fasciae of the frontal muscle. The result which necessarily
+follows, if these fasciae contract energetically, is the oblique
+drawing up of the eyebrows, the puckering of their inner ends, and the
+formation of rectangular furrows on the middle of the forehead. As
+children and women cry much more freely than men, and as grown-up
+persons of both sexes rarely weep except from mental distress, we can
+understand why the grief-muscles are more frequently seen in action, as
+I believe to be the case, with children and women than with men; and
+with adults of both sexes from mental distress alone. In some of the
+cases before recorded, as in that of the poor Dhangar woman and of the
+Hindustani man, the action of the grief-muscles was quickly followed by
+bitter weeping. In all cases of distress, whether great or small, our
+brains tend through long habit to send an order to certain muscles to
+contract, as if we were still infants on the point of screaming out;
+but this order we, by the wondrous power of the will, and through
+habit, are able partially to counteract; although this is effected
+unconsciously, as far as the means of counteraction are concerned.
+
+_On the depression of the corners of the mouth_.—This action is
+effected by the _depressores anguili oris_ (see letter K in figs. 1 and
+2). The fibres of this muscle diverge downwards, with the upper
+convergent ends attached round the angles of the mouth, and to the
+lower lip a little way within the angles.[706] Some of the fibres
+appear to be antagonistic to the great zygomatic muscle, and others to
+the several muscles running to the outer part of the upper lip. The
+contraction of this muscle draws downwards and outwards the corners of
+the mouth, including the outer part of the upper lip, and even in a
+slight degree the wings of the nostrils. When the mouth is closed and
+this muscle acts, the commissure or line of junction of the two lips
+forms a curved line with the concavity downwards,[707] and the lips
+themselves are generally somewhat protruded, especially the lower one.
+The mouth in this state is well represented in the two photographs
+(Plate II., figs. 6 and 7) by Mr. Rejlander. The upper boy (fig. 6) had
+just stopped crying, after receiving a slap on the face from another
+boy; and the right moment was seized for photographing him.
+
+The expression of low spirits, grief or dejection, due to the
+contraction of this muscle has been noticed by every one who has
+written on the subject. To say that a person “is down in the mouth,” is
+synonymous with saying that he is out of spirits. The depression of the
+corners may often be seen, as already stated on the authority of Dr.
+Crichton Browne and Mr. Nicol, with the melancholic insane, and was
+well exhibited in some photographs sent to me by the former gentleman,
+of patients with a strong tendency to suicide. It has been observed
+with men belonging to various races, namely with Hindoos, the dark
+hill-tribes of India, Malays, and, as the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer informs
+me, with the aborigines of Australia.
+
+When infants scream they firmly contract the muscles round their eyes,
+and this draws up the upper lip; and as they have to keep their mouths
+widely open, the depressor muscles running to the corners are likewise
+brought into strong action. This generally, but not invariably, causes
+a slight angular bend in the lower lip on both sides, near the corners
+of the mouth. The result of the upper and lower lip being thus acted on
+is that the mouth assumes a squarish outline. The contraction of the
+depressor muscle is best seen in infants when not screaming violently,
+and especially just before they begin, or when they cease to scream.
+Their little faces then acquire an extremely piteous expression, as I
+continually observed with my own infants between the ages of about six
+weeks and two or three months. Sometimes, when they are struggling
+against a crying-fit, the outline of the mouth is curved in so
+exaggerated a manner as to be like a horseshoe; and the expression of
+misery then becomes a ludicrous caricature.
+
+The explanation of the contraction of this muscle, under the influence
+of low spirits or dejection, apparently follows from the same general
+principles as in the case of the obliquity of the eyebrows. Dr.
+Duchenne informs me that he concludes from his observations, now
+prolonged during many years, that this is one of the facial muscles
+which is least under the control of the will. This fact may indeed be
+inferred from what has just been stated with respect to infants when
+doubtfully beginning to cry, or endeavouring to stop crying; for they
+then generally command all the other facial muscles more effectually
+than they do the depressors of the corners of the mouth. Two excellent
+observers who had no theory on the subject, one of them a surgeon,
+carefully watched for me some older children and women as with some
+opposed struggling they very gradually approached the point of bursting
+out into tears; and both observers felt sure that the depressors began
+to act before any of the other muscles. Now as the depressors have been
+repeatedly brought into strong action during infancy in many
+generations, nerve-force will tend to flow, on the principle of long
+associated habit, to these muscles as well as to various other facial
+muscles, whenever in after life even a slight feeling of distress is
+experienced. But as the depressors are somewhat less under the control
+of the will than most of the other muscles, we might expect that they
+would often slightly contract, whilst the others remained passive. It
+is remarkable how small a depression of the corners of the mouth gives
+to the countenance an expression of low spirits or dejection, so that
+an extremely slight contraction of these muscles would be sufficient to
+betray this state of mind.
+
+I may here mention a trifling observation, as it will serve to sum up
+our present subject. An old lady with a comfortable but absorbed
+expression sat nearly opposite to me in a railway carriage. Whilst I
+was looking at her, I saw that her _depressores anguli oris_ became
+very slightly, yet decidedly, contracted; but as her countenance
+remained as placid as ever, I reflected how meaningless was this
+contraction, and how easily one might be deceived. The thought had
+hardly occurred to me when I saw that her eyes suddenly became suffused
+with tears almost to overflowing, and her whole countenance fell. There
+could now be no doubt that some painful recollection, perhaps that of a
+long-lost child, was passing through her mind. As soon as her sensorium
+was thus affected, certain nerve-cells from long habit instantly
+transmitted an order to all the respiratory muscles, and to those round
+the mouth, to prepare for a fit of crying. But the order was
+countermanded by the will, or rather by a later acquired habit, and all
+the muscles were obedient, excepting in a slight degree the
+_depressores anguli oris_. The mouth was not even opened; the
+respiration was not hurried; and no muscle was affected except those
+which draw down the corners of the mouth.
+
+As soon as the mouth of this lady began, involuntarily and
+unconsciously on her part, to assume the proper form for a crying-fit,
+we may feel almost sure that some nerve-influence would have been
+transmitted through the long accustomed channels to the various
+respiratory muscles, as well as to those round the eyes, and to the
+vaso-motor centre which governs the supply of blood sent to the
+lacrymal glands. Of this latter fact we have indeed clear evidence in
+her eyes becoming slightly suffused with tears; and we can understand
+this, as the lacrymal glands are less under the control of the will
+than the facial muscles. No doubt there existed at the same time some
+tendency in the muscles round the eyes at contract, as if for the sake
+of protecting them from being gorged with blood, but this contraction
+was completely overmastered, and her brow remained unruffled. Had the
+pyramidal, corrugator, and orbicular muscles been as little obedient to
+the will, as they are in many persons, they would have been slightly
+acted on; and then the central fasciae of the frontal muscle would have
+contracted in antagonism, and her eyebrows would have become oblique,
+with rectangular furrows on her forehead. Her countenance would then
+have expressed still more plainly than it did a state of dejection, or
+rather one of grief.
+
+Through steps such as these we can understand how it is, that as soon
+as some melancholy thought passes through the brain, there occurs a
+just perceptible drawing down of the corners of the mouth, or a slight
+raising up of the inner ends of the eyebrows, or both movements
+combined, and immediately afterwards a slight suffusion of tears. A
+thrill of nerve-force is transmitted along several habitual channels,
+and produces an effect on any point where the will has not acquired
+through long habit much power of interference. The above actions may be
+considered as rudimental vestiges of the screaming-fits, which are so
+frequent and prolonged during infancy. In this case, as well as in many
+others, the links are indeed wonderful which connect cause and effect
+in giving rise to various expressions on the human countenance; and
+they explain to us the meaning of certain movements, which we
+involuntarily and unconsciously perform, whenever certain transitory
+emotions pass through our minds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
+
+Laughter primarily the expression of joy—Ludicrous ideas—Movements of
+the features during laughter—Nature of the sound produced—The secretion
+of tears during loud laughter—Gradation from loud laughter to gentle
+smiling—High spirits—The expression of love—Tender feelings—Devotion.
+
+Joy, when intense, leads to various purposeless movements—to dancing
+about, clapping the hands, stamping, &c., and to loud laughter.
+Laughter seems primarily to be the expression of mere joy or happiness.
+We clearly see this in children at play, who are almost incessantly
+laughing. With young persons past childhood, when they are in high
+spirits, there is always much meaningless laughter. The laughter of the
+gods is described by Homer as “the exuberance of their celestial joy
+after their daily banquet.” A man smiles—and smiling, as we shall see,
+graduates into laughter—at meeting an old friend in the street, as he
+does at any trifling pleasure, such as smelling a sweet perfume.[801]
+Laura Bridgman, from her blindness and deafness, could not have
+acquired any expression through imitation, yet when a letter from a
+beloved friend was communicated to her by gesture-language, she
+“laughed and clapped her hands, and the colour mounted to her cheeks.”
+On other occasions she has been seen to stamp for joy.[802]
+
+Idiots and imbecile persons likewise afford good evidence that laughter
+or smiling primarily expresses mere happiness or joy. Dr. Crichton
+Browne, to whom, as on so many other occasions, I am indebted for the
+results of his wide experience, informs me that with idiots laughter is
+the most prevalent and frequent of all the emotional expressions. Many
+idiots are morose, passionate, restless, in a painful state of mind, or
+utterly stolid, and these never laugh. Others frequently laugh in a
+quite senseless manner. Thus an idiot boy, incapable of speech,
+complained to Dr. Browne, by the aid of signs, that another boy in the
+asylum had given him a black eye; and this was accompanied by
+“explosions of laughter and with his face covered with the broadest
+smiles.” There is another large class of idiots who are persistently
+joyous and benign, and who are constantly laughing or smiling.[803]
+Their countenances often exhibit a stereotyped smile; their joyousness
+is increased, and they grin, chuckle, or giggle, whenever food is
+placed before them, or when they are caressed, are shown bright
+colours, or hear music. Some of them laugh more than usual when they
+walk about, or attempt any muscular exertion. The joyousness of most of
+these idiots cannot possibly be associated, as Dr. Browne remarks, with
+any distinct ideas: they simply feel pleasure, and express it by
+laughter or smiles. With imbeciles rather higher in the scale, personal
+vanity seems to be the commonest cause of laughter, and next to this,
+pleasure arising from the approbation of their conduct.
+
+With grown-up persons laughter is excited by causes considerably
+different from those which suffice during childhood; but this remark
+hardly applies to smiling. Laughter in this respect is analogous with
+weeping, which with adults is almost confined to mental distress,
+whilst with children it is excited by bodily pain or any suffering, as
+well as by fear or rage. Many curious discussions have been written on
+the causes of laughter with grown-up persons. The subject is extremely
+complex. Something incongruous or unaccountable, exciting surprise and
+some sense of superiority in the laugher, who must be in a happy frame
+of mind, seems to be the commonest cause.[804] The circumstances must
+not be of a momentous nature: no poor man would laugh or smile on
+suddenly hearing that a large fortune had been bequeathed to him. If
+the mind is strongly excited by pleasurable feelings, and any little
+unexpected event or thought occurs, then, as Mr. Herbert Spencer
+remarks,[805] “a large amount of nervous energy, instead of being
+allowed to expend itself in producing an equivalent amount of the new
+thoughts and emotion which were nascent, is suddenly checked in its
+flow.”... “The excess must discharge itself in some other direction,
+and there results an efflux through the motor nerves to various classes
+of the muscles, producing the half-convulsive actions we term
+laughter.” An observation, bearing on this point, was made by a
+correspondent during the recent siege of Paris, namely, that the German
+soldiers, after strong excitement from exposure to extreme danger, were
+particularly apt to burst out into loud laughter at the smallest joke.
+So again when young children are just beginning to cry, an unexpected
+event will sometimes suddenly turn their crying into laughter, which
+apparently serves equally well to expend their superfluous nervous
+energy.
+
+The imagination is sometimes said to be tickled by a ludicrous idea;
+and this so-called tickling of the mind is curiously analogous with
+that of the body. Every one knows how immoderately children laugh, and
+how their whole bodies are convulsed when they are tickled. The
+anthropoid apes, as we have seen, likewise utter a reiterated sound,
+corresponding with our laughter, when they are tickled, especially
+under the armpits. I touched with a bit of paper the sole of the foot
+of one of my infants, when only seven days old, and it was suddenly
+jerked away and the toes curled about, as in an older child. Such
+movements, as well as laughter from being tickled, are manifestly
+reflex actions; and this is likewise shown by the minute unstriped
+muscles, which serve to erect the separate hairs on the body,
+contracting near a tickled surface.[806] Yet laughter from a ludicrous
+idea, though involuntary, cannot be called a strictly reflex action. In
+this case, and in that of laughter from being tickled, the mind must be
+in a pleasurable condition; a young child, if tickled by a strange man,
+would scream from fear. The touch must be light, and an idea or event,
+to be ludicrous, must not be of grave import. The parts of the body
+which are most easily tickled are those which are not commonly touched,
+such as the armpits or between the toes, or parts such as the soles of
+the feet, which are habitually touched by a broad surface; but the
+surface on which we sit offers a marked exception to this rule.
+According to Gratiolet,[807] certain nerves are much more sensitive to
+tickling than others. From the fact that a child can hardly tickle
+itself, or in a much less degree than when tickled by another person,
+it seems that the precise point to be touched must not be known; so
+with the mind, something unexpected—a novel or incongruous idea which
+breaks through an habitual train of thought—appears to be a strong
+element in the ludicrous.
+
+The sound of laughter is produced by a deep inspiration followed by
+short, interrupted, spasmodic contractions of the chest, and especially
+of the diaphragm.[808] Hence we hear of “laughter holding both his
+sides.” From the shaking of the body, the head nods to and fro. The
+lower jaw often quivers up and down, as is likewise the case with some
+species of baboons, when they are much pleased.
+
+
+
+Moderate Laughter and Smiling. Plate III
+
+During laughter the mouth is opened more or less widely, with the
+corners drawn much backwards, as well as a little upwards; and the
+upper lip is somewhat raised. The drawing back of the corners is best
+seen in moderate laughter, and especially in a broad smile—the latter
+epithet showing how the mouth is widened. In the accompanying figs.
+1-3, Plate III., different degrees of moderate laughter and smiling
+have been photographed. The figure of the little girl, with the hat is
+by Dr. Wallich, and the expression was a genuine one; the other two are
+by Mr. Rejlander. Dr. Duchenne repeatedly insists[809] that, under the
+emotion of joy, the mouth is acted on exclusively by the great
+zygomatic muscles, which serve to draw the corners backwards and
+upwards; but judging from the manner in which the upper teeth are
+always exposed during laughter and broad smiling, as well as from my
+own sensations, I cannot doubt that some of the muscles running to the
+upper lip are likewise brought into moderate action. The upper and
+lower orbicular muscles of the eyes are at the same time more or less
+contracted; and there is an intimate connection, as explained in the
+chapter on weeping, between the orbiculars, especially the lower ones
+and some of the muscles running to the upper lip. Henle remarks[810] on
+this head, that when a man closely shuts one eye he cannot avoid
+retracting the upper lip on the same side; conversely, if any one will
+place his finger on his lower eyelid, and then uncover his upper
+incisors as much as possible, he will feel, as his upper lip is drawn
+strongly upwards, that the muscles of the lower eyelid contract. In
+Henle’s drawing, given in woodcut, fig. 2, the _musculus malaris_ (H)
+which runs to the upper lip may be seen to form an almost integral part
+of the lower orbicular muscle.
+
+Dr. Duchenne has given a large photograph of an old man (reduced on
+Plate III. fig 4), in his usual passive condition, and another of the
+same man (fig. 5), naturally smiling. The latter was instantly
+recognized by every one to whom it was shown as true to nature. He has
+also given, as an example of an unnatural or false smile, another
+photograph (fig. 6) of the same old man, with the corners of his mouth
+strongly retracted by the galvanization of the great zygomatic muscles.
+That the expression is not natural is clear, for I showed this
+photograph to twenty-four persons, of whom three could not in the least
+tell what was meant, whilst the others, though they perceived that the
+expression was of the nature of a smile, answered in such words as “a
+wicked joke,” “trying to laugh,” “grinning laughter.... half-amazed
+laughter,” &c. Dr. Duchenne attributes the falseness of the expression
+altogether to the orbicular muscles of the lower eyelids not being
+sufficiently contracted; for he justly lays great stress on their
+contraction in the expression of joy. No doubt there is much truth in
+this view, but not, as it appears to me, the whole truth. The
+contraction of the lower orbiculars is always accompanied, as we have
+seen, by the drawing up of the upper lip. Had the upper lip, in fig. 6,
+been thus acted on to a slight extent, its curvature would have been
+less rigid, the naso-labial farrow would have been slightly different,
+and the whole expression would, as I believe, have been more natural,
+independently of the more conspicuous effect from the stronger
+contraction of the lower eyelids. The corrugator muscle, moreover, in
+fig. 6, is too much contracted, causing a frown; and this muscle never
+acts under the influence of joy except during strongly pronounced or
+violent laughter.
+
+By the drawing backwards and upwards of the corners of the mouth,
+through the contraction of the great zygomatic muscles, and by the
+raising of the upper lip, the cheeks are drawn upwards. Wrinkles are
+thus formed under the eyes, and, with old people, at their outer ends;
+and these are highly characteristic of laughter or smiling. As a gentle
+smile increases into a strong one, or into a laugh, every one may feel
+and see, if he will attend to his own sensations and look at himself in
+a mirror, that as the upper lip is drawn up and the lower orbiculars
+contract, the wrinkles in the lower eyelids and those beneath the eyes
+are much strengthened or increased. At the same time, as I have
+repeatedly observed, the eyebrows are slightly lowered, which shows
+that the upper as well as the lower orbiculars contract at least to
+some degree, though this passes unperecived, as far as our sensations
+are concerned. If the original photograph of the old man, with his
+countenance in its usual placid state (fig. 4), be compared with that
+(fig. 5) in which he is naturally smiling, it may be seen that the
+eyebrows in the latter are a little lowered. I presume that this is
+owing to the upper orbiculars being impelled, through the force of
+long-associated habit, to act to a certain extent in concert with the
+lower orbiculars, which themselves contract in connection with the
+drawing up of the upper lip.
+
+The tendency in the zygomatic muscles to contract under pleasurable
+emotions is shown by a curious fact, communicated to me by Dr. Browne,
+with respect to patients suffering from GENERAL PARALYSIS OF THE
+INSANE.[811] “In this malady there is almost invariably
+optimism—delusions as to wealth, rank, grandeur—insane joyousness,
+benevolence, and profusion, while its very earliest physical symptom is
+trembling at the corners of the mouth and at the outer corners of the
+eyes. This is a well-recognized fact. Constant tremulous agitation of
+the inferior palpebral and great zygomatic muscles is pathognomic of
+the earlier stages of general paralysis. The countenance has a pleased
+and benevolent expression. As the disease advances other muscles become
+involved, but until complete fatuity is reached, the prevailing
+expression is that of feeble benevolence.”
+
+As in laughing and broadly smiling the cheeks and upper lip are much
+raised, the nose appears to be shortened, and the skin on the bridge
+becomes finely wrinkled in transverse lines, with other oblique
+longitudinal lines on the sides. The upper front teeth are commonly
+exposed. A well-marked naso-labial fold is formed, which runs from the
+wing of each nostril to the corner of the mouth; and this fold is often
+double in old persons.
+
+A bright and sparkling eye is as characteristic of a pleased or amused
+state of mind, as is the retraction of the corners of the mouth and
+upper lip with the wrinkles thus produced. Even the eyes of
+microcephalous idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn to
+speak, brighten slightly when they are pleased.[812] Under extreme
+laughter the eyes are too much suffused with tears to sparkle; but the
+moisture squeezed out of the glands during moderate laughter or smiling
+may aid in giving them lustre; though this must be of altogether
+subordinate importance, as they become dull from grief, though they are
+then often moist. Their brightness seems to be chiefly due to their
+tenseness,[813] owing to the contraction of the orbicular muscles and
+to the pressure of the raised cheeks. But, according to Dr. Piderit,
+who has discussed this point more fully than any other writer,[814] the
+tenseness may be largely attributed to the eyeballs becoming filled
+with blood and other fluids, from the acceleration of the circulation,
+consequent on the excitement of pleasure. He remarks on the contrast in
+the appearance of the eyes of a hectic patient with a rapid
+circulation, and of a man suffering from cholera with almost all the
+fluids of his body drained from him. Any cause which lowers the
+circulation deadens the eye. I remember seeing a man utterly prostrated
+by prolonged and severe exertion during a very hot day, and a bystander
+compared his eyes to those of a boiled codfish.
+
+To return to the sounds produced during laughter. We can see in a vague
+manner how the utterance of sounds of some kind would naturally become
+associated with a pleasurable state of mind; for throughout a large
+part of the animal kingdom vocal or instrumental sounds are employed
+either as a call or as a charm by one sex for the other. They are also
+employed as the means for a joyful meeting between the parents and
+their offspring, and between the attached members of the same social
+community. But why the sounds which man utters when he is pleased have
+the peculiar reiterated character of laughter we do not know.
+Nevertheless we can see that they would naturally be as different as
+possible from the screams or cries of distress; and as in the
+production of the latter, the expirations are prolonged and continuous,
+with the inspirations short and interrupted, so it might perhaps have
+been expected with the sounds uttered from joy, that the expirations
+would have been short and broken with the inspirations prolonged; and
+this is the case.
+
+It is an equally obscure point why the corners of the mouth are
+retracted and the upper lip raised during ordinary laughter. The mouth
+must not be opened to its utmost extent, for when this occurs during a
+paroxysm of excessive laughter hardly any sound is emitted; or it
+changes its tone and seems to come from deep down in the throat. The
+respiratory muscles, and even those of the limbs, are at the same time
+thrown into rapid vibratory movements. The lower jaw often partakes of
+this movement, and this would tend to prevent the mouth from being
+widely opened. But as a full volume of sound has to be poured forth,
+the orifice of the mouth must be large; and it is perhaps to gain this
+end that the corners are retracted and the upper lip raised. Although
+we can hardly account for the shape of the mouth during laughter, which
+leads to wrinkles being formed beneath the eyes, nor for the peculiar
+reiterated sound of laughter, nor for the quivering of the jaws,
+nevertheless we may infer that all these effects are due to some common
+cause. For they are all characteristic and expressive of a pleased
+state of mind in various kinds of monkeys.
+
+A graduated series can be followed from violent to moderate laughter,
+to a broad smile, to a gentle smile, and to the expression of mere
+cheerfulness. During excessive laughter the whole body is often thrown
+backward and shakes, or is almost convulsed; the respiration is much
+disturbed; the head and face become gorged with blood, with the veins
+distended; and the orbicular muscles are spasmodically contracted in
+order to protect the eyes. Tears are freely shed. Hence, as formerly
+remarked, it is scarcely possible to point out any difference between
+the tear-stained face of a person after a paroxysm of excessive
+laughter and after a bitter crying-fit.[815] It is probably due to the
+close similarity of the spasmodic movements caused by these widely
+different emotions that hysteric patients alternately cry and laugh
+with violence, and that young children sometimes pass suddenly from the
+one to the other state. Mr. Swinhoe informs me that he has often seen
+the Chinese, when suffering from deep grief, burst out into hysterical
+fits of laughter.
+
+I was anxious to know whether tears are freely shed during excessive
+laughter by most of the races of men, and I hear from my correspondents
+that this is the case. One instance was observed with the Hindoos, and
+they themselves said that it often occurred. So it is with the Chinese.
+The women of a wild tribe of Malays in the Malacca peninsula, sometimes
+shed tears when they laugh heartily, though this seldom occurs. With
+the Dyaks of Borneo it must frequently be the case, at least with the
+women, for I hear from the Rajah C. Brooke that it is a common
+expression with them to say “we nearly made tears from laughter.” The
+aborigines of Australia express their emotions freely, and they are
+described by my correspondents as jumping about and clapping their
+hands for joy, and as often roaring with laughter. No less than four
+observers have seen their eyes freely watering on such occasions; and
+in one instance the tears rolled down their cheeks. Mr. Bulmer, a
+missionary in a remote part of Victoria, remarks, “that they have a
+keen sense of the ridiculous; they are excellent mimics, and when one
+of them is able to imitate the peculiarities of some absent member of
+the tribe, it is very common to hear all in the camp convulsed with
+laughter.” With Europeans hardly anything excites laughter so easily as
+mimicry; and it is rather curious to find the same fact with the
+savages of Australia, who constitute one of the most distinct races in
+the world.
+
+In Southern Africa with two tribes of Kafirs, especially with the
+women, their eyes often fill with tears during laughter. Gaika, the
+brother of the chief Sandilli, answers my query on this head, with the
+words, “Yes, that is their common practice.” Sir Andrew Smith has seen
+the painted face of a Hottentot woman all furrowed with tears after a
+fit of laughter. In Northern Africa, with the Abyssinians, tears are
+secreted under the same circumstances. Lastly, in North America, the
+same fact has been observed in a remarkably savage and isolated tribe,
+but chiefly with the women; in another tribe it was observed only on a
+single occasion.
+
+Excessive laughter, as before remarked, graduates into moderate
+laughter. In this latter case the muscles round the eyes are much less
+contracted, and there is little or no frowning. Between a gentle laugh
+and a broad smile there is hardly any difference, excepting that in
+smiling no reiterated sound is uttered, though a single rather strong
+expiration, or slight noise—a rudiment of a laugh—may often be heard at
+the commencement of a smile. On a moderately smiling countenance the
+contraction of the upper orbicular muscles can still just be traced by
+a slight lowering of the eyebrows. The contraction of the lower
+orbicular and palpebral muscles is much plainer, and is shown by the
+wrinkling of the lower eyelids and of the skin beneath them, together
+with a slight drawing up of the upper lip. From the broadest smile we
+pass by the finest steps into the gentlest one. In this latter case the
+features are moved in a much less degree, and much more slowly, and the
+mouth is kept closed. The curvature of the naso-labial furrow is also
+slightly different in the two cases. We thus see that no abrupt line of
+demarcation can be drawn between the movement of the features during
+the most violent laughter and a very faint smile.[816]
+
+A smile, therefore, may be said to be the first stage in the
+development of a laugh. But a different and more probable view may be
+suggested; namely, that the habit of uttering load reiterated sounds
+from a sense of pleasure, first led to the retraction of the corners of
+the mouth and of the upper lip, and to the contraction of the orbicular
+muscles; and that now, through association and long-continued habit,
+the same muscles are brought into slight play whenever any cause
+excites in us a feeling which, if stronger, would have led to laughter;
+and the result is a smile.
+
+Whether we look at laughter as the full development of a smile, or, as
+is more probable, at a gentle smile as the last trace of a habit,
+firmly fixed during many generations, of laughing whenever we are
+joyful, we can follow in our infants the gradual passage of the one
+into the other. It is well known to those who have the charge of young
+infants, that it is difficult to feel sure when certain movements about
+their mouths are really expressive; that is, when they really smile.
+Hence I carefully watched my own infants. One of them at the age of
+forty-five days, and being at the time in a happy frame of mind,
+smiled; that is, the corners of the mouth were retracted, and
+simultaneously the eyes became decidedly bright. I observed the same
+thing on the following day; but on the third day the child was not
+quite well and there was no trace of a smile, and this renders it
+probable that the previous smiles were real. Eight days subsequently
+and during the next succeeding week, it was remarkable how his eyes
+brightened whenever he smiled, and his nose became at the same time
+transversely wrinkled. This was now accompanied by a little bleating
+noise, which perhaps represented a laugh. At the age of 113 days these
+little noises, which were always made during expiration, assumed a
+slightly different character, and were more broken or interrupted, as
+in sobbing; and this was certainly incipient laughter. The change in
+tone seemed to me at the time to be connected with the greater lateral
+extension of the mouth as the smiles became broader.
+
+In a second infant the first real smile was observed at about the same
+age, viz. forty-five days; and in a third, at a somewhat earlier age.
+The second infant, when sixty-five days old, smiled much more broadly
+and plainly than did the one first mentioned at the same age; and even
+at this early age uttered noises very like laughter. In this gradual
+acquirement, by infants, of the habit of laughing, we have a case in
+some degree analogous to that of weeping. As practice is requisite with
+the ordinary movements of the body, such as walking, so it seems to be
+with laughing and weeping. The art of screaming, on the other hand,
+from being of service to infants, has become finely developed from the
+earliest days.
+
+_High spirits, cheerfulness_.—A man in high spirits, though he may not
+actually smile, commonly exhibits some tendency to the retraction of
+the corners of his mouth. From the excitement of pleasure, the
+circulation becomes more rapid; the eyes are bright, and the colour of
+the face rises. The brain, being stimulated by the increased flow of
+blood, reacts on the mental powers; lively ideas pass still more
+rapidly through the mind, and the affections are warmed. I heard a
+child, a little under four years old, when asked what was meant by
+being in good spirits, answer, “It is laughing, talking, and kissing.”
+It would be difficult to give a truer and more practical definition. A
+man in this state holds his body erect, his head upright, and his eyes
+open. There is no drooping of the features, and no contraction of the
+eyebrows. On the contrary, the frontal muscle, as Moreau observes,[817]
+tends to contract slightly; and this smooths the brow, removes every
+trace of a frown, arches the eyebrows a little, and raises the eyelids.
+Hence the Latin phrase, _exporrigere frontem_—to unwrinkle the
+brow—means, to be cheerful or merry. The whole expression of a man in
+good spirits is exactly the opposite of that of one suffering from
+sorrow. According to Sir C. Bell, “In all the exhilarating emotions the
+eyebrows, eyelids, the nostrils, and the angles of the mouth are
+raised. In the depressing passions it is the reverse.” Under the
+influence of the latter the brow is heavy, the eyelids, cheeks, mouth,
+and whole head droop; the eyes are dull; the countenance pallid, and
+the respiration slow. In joy the face expands, in grief it lengthens.
+Whether the principle of antithesis has here come into play in
+producing these opposite expressions, in aid of the direct causes which
+have been specified and which are sufficiently plain, I will not
+pretend to say.
+
+With all the races of man the expression of good spirit appears to be
+the same, and is easily recognized. My informants, from various parts
+of the Old and New Worlds, answer in the affirmative to my queries on
+this head, and they give some particulars with respect to Hindoos,
+Malays, and New Zealanders. The brightness of the eyes of the
+Australians has struck four observers, and the same fact has been
+noticed with Hindoos, New Zealanders, and the Dyaks of Borneo.
+
+Savages sometimes express their satisfaction not only by smiling, but
+by gestures derived from the pleasure of eating. Thus Mr. Wedgwood[818]
+quotes Petherick that the negroes on the Upper Nile began a general
+rubbing of their bellies when he displayed his beads; and Leichhardt
+says that the Australians smacked and clacked their mouths at the sight
+of his horses and bullocks, and more especially of his kangaroo dogs.
+The Greenlanders, “when they affirm anything with pleasure, suck down
+air with a certain sound;”[819] and this may be an imitation of the act
+of swallowing savoury food.
+
+Laughter is suppressed by the firm contraction of the orbicular muscles
+of the mouth, which prevents the great zygomatic and other muscles from
+drawing the lips backwards and upwards. The lower lip is also sometimes
+held by the teeth, and this gives a roguish expression to the face, as
+was observed with the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman.[820] The great
+zygomatic muscle is sometimes variable in its course, and I have seen a
+young woman in whom the _depressores anguli oris_ were brought into
+strong action in suppressing a smile; but this by no means gave to her
+countenance a melancholy expression, owing to the brightness of her
+eyes.
+
+Laughter is frequently employed in a forced manner to conceal or mask
+some other state of mind, even anger. We often see persons laughing in
+order to conceal their shame or shyness. When a person purses up his
+mouth, as if to prevent the possibility of a smile, though there is
+nothing to excite one, or nothing to prevent its free indulgence, an
+affected, solemn, or pedantic expression is given; but of such hybrid
+expressions nothing more need here be said. In the case of derision, a
+real or pretended smile or laugh is often blended with the expression
+proper to contempt, and this may pass into angry contempt or scorn. In
+such cases the meaning of the laugh or smile is to show the offending
+person that he excites only amusement.
+
+_Love, tender feelings, &c_.—Although the emotion of love, for instance
+that of a mother for her infant, is one of the strongest of which the
+mind is capable, it can hardly be said to have any proper or peculiar
+means of expression; and this is intelligible, as it has not habitually
+led to any special line of action. No doubt, as affection is a
+pleasurable sensation, it generally causes a gentle smile and some
+brightening of the eyes. A strong desire to touch the beloved person is
+commonly felt; and love is expressed by this means more plainly than by
+any other.[821] Hence we long to clasp in our arms those whom we
+tenderly love. We probably owe this desire to inherited habit, in
+association with the nursing and tending of our children, and with the
+mutual caresses of lovers.
+
+With the lower animals we see the same principle of pleasure derived
+from contact in association with love. Dogs and cats manifestly take
+pleasure in rubbing against their masters and mistresses, and in being
+rubbed or patted by them. Many kinds of monkeys, as I am assured by the
+keepers in the Zoological Gardens, delight in fondling and being
+fondled by each other, and by persons to whom they are attached. Mr.
+Bartlett has described to me the behaviour of two chimpanzees, rather
+older animals than those generally imported into this country, when
+they were first brought together. They sat opposite, touching each
+other with their much protruded lips; and the one put his hand on the
+shoulder of the other. They then mutually folded each other in their
+arms. Afterwards they stood up, each with one arm on the shoulder of
+the other, lifted up their heads, opened their mouths, and yelled with
+delight.[822]
+
+We Europeans are so accustomed to kissing as a mark of affection, that
+it might be thought to be innate in mankind; but this is not the case.
+Steele was mistaken when he said “Nature was its author, and it began
+with the first courtship.” Jemmy Button, the Fuegian, told me that this
+practice was unknown in his land. It is equally unknown with the New
+Zealanders, Tahitians, Papuans, Australians, Somals of Africa, and the
+Esquimaux. But it is so far innate or natural that it apparently
+depends on pleasure from close contact with a beloved person; and it is
+replaced in various parts of the world, by the rubbing of noses, as
+with the New Zealanders and Laplanders, by the rubbing or patting of
+the arms, breasts, or stomachs, or by one man striking his own face
+with the hands or feet of another. Perhaps the practice of blowing, as
+a mark of affection, on various parts of the body may depend on the
+same principle.[823]
+
+The feelings which are called tender are difficult to analyse; they
+seem to be compounded of affection, joy, and especially of sympathy.
+These feelings are in themselves of a pleasurable nature, excepting
+when pity is too deep, or horror is aroused, as in hearing of a
+tortured man or animal. They are remarkable under our present point of
+view from so readily exciting the secretion of tears. Many a father and
+son have wept on meeting after a long separation, especially if the
+meeting has been unexpected. No doubt extreme joy by itself tends to
+act on the lacrymal glands; but on such occasions as the foregoing
+vague thoughts of the grief which would have been felt had the father
+and son never met, will probably have passed through their minds; and
+grief naturally leads to the secretion of tears. Thus on the return of
+Ulysses:—
+
+“Telemachus Rose, and clung weeping round his father’s breast.
+There the pent grief rained o’er them, yearning thus.
+*   *    *    *    *    *
+Thus piteously they wailed in sore unrest,
+And on their weepings had gone down the day,
+But that at last Telemachus found words to say.”
+_Worsley’s Translation of the Odyssey_, Book xvi. st. 27.
+
+
+So again when Penelope at last recognized her husband:—
+
+“Then from her eyelids the quick tears did start
+And she ran to him from her place, and threw
+Her arms about his neck, and a warm dew
+Of kisses poured upon him, and thus spake:”
+—Book xxiii.  st.  27.
+
+
+The vivid recollection of our former home, or of long-past happy days,
+readily causes the eyes to be suffused with tears; but here, again, the
+thought naturally occurs that these days will never return. In such
+cases we may be said to sympathize with ourselves in our present, in
+comparison with our former, state. Sympathy with the distresses of
+others, even with the imaginary distresses of a heroine in a pathetic
+story, for whom we feel no affection, readily excites tears. So does
+sympathy with the happiness of others, as with that of a lover, at last
+successful after many hard trials in a well-told tale.
+
+Sympathy appears to constitute a separate or distinct emotion; and it
+is especially apt to excite the lacrymal glands. This holds good
+whether we give or receive sympathy. Every one must have noticed how
+readily children burst out crying if we pity them for some small hurt.
+With the melancholic insane, as Dr. Crichton Browne informs me, a kind
+word will often plunge them into unrestrained weeping. As soon as we
+express our pity for the grief of a friend, tears often come into our
+own eyes. The feeling of sympathy is commonly explained by assuming
+that, when we see or hear of suffering in another, the idea of
+suffering is called up so vividly in our own minds that we ourselves
+suffer. But this explanation is hardly sufficient, for it does not
+account for the intimate alliance between sympathy and affection. We
+undoubtedly sympathize far more deeply with a beloved than with an
+indifferent person; and the sympathy of the one gives us far more
+relief than that of the other. Yet assuredly we can sympathize with
+those for whom we feel no affection.
+
+Why suffering, when actually experienced by ourselves, excites weeping,
+has been discussed in a former chapter. With respect to joy, its
+natural and universal expression is laughter; and with all the races of
+man loud laughter leads to the secretion of tears more freely than does
+any other cause excepting distress. The suffusion of the eyes with
+tears, which undoubtedly occurs under great joy, though there is no
+laughter, can, as it seems to me, be explained through habit and
+association on the same principles as the effusion of tears from grief,
+although there is no screaming. Nevertheless it is not a little
+remarkable that sympathy with the distresses of others should excite
+tears more freely than our own distress; and this certainly is the
+case. Many a man, from whose eyes no suffering of his own could wring a
+tear, has shed tears at the sufferings of a beloved friend. It is still
+more remarkable that sympathy with the happiness or good fortune of
+those whom we tenderly love should lead to the same result, whilst a
+similar happiness felt by ourselves would leave our eyes dry. We
+should, however, bear in mind that the long-continued habit of
+restraint which is so powerful in checking the free flow of tears from
+bodily pain, has not been brought into play in preventing a moderate
+effusion of tears in sympathy with the sufferings or happiness of
+others.
+
+Music has a wonderful power, as I have elsewhere attempted to
+show,[824] of recalling in a vague and indefinite manner, those strong
+emotions which were felt during long-past ages, when, as is probable,
+our early progenitors courted each other by the aid of vocal tones. And
+as several of our strongest emotions—grief, great joy, love, and
+sympathy—lead to the free secretion of tears, it is not surprising that
+music should be apt to cause our eyes to become suffused with tears,
+especially when we are already softened by any of the tenderer
+feelings. Music often produces another peculiar effect. We know that
+every strong sensation, emotion, or excitement—extreme pain, rage,
+terror, joy, or the passion of love—all have a special tendency to
+cause the muscles to tremble; and the thrill or slight shiver which
+runs down the backbone and limbs of many persons when they are
+powerfully affected by music, seems to bear the same relation to the
+above trembling of the body, as a slight suffusion of tears from the
+power of music does to weeping from any strong and real emotion.
+
+_Devotion_.—As devotion is, in some degree, related to affection,
+though mainly consisting of reverence, often combined with fear, the
+expression of this state of mind may here be briefly noticed. With some
+sects, both past and present, religion and love have been strangely
+combined; and it has even been maintained, lamentable as the fact may
+be, that the holy kiss of love differs but little from that which a man
+bestows on a woman, or a woman on a man.[825] Devotion is chiefly
+expressed by the face being directed towards the heavens, with the
+eyeballs upturned. Sir C. Bell remarks that, at the approach of sleep,
+or of a fainting-fit, or of death, the pupils are drawn upwards and
+inwards; and he believes that “when we are wrapt in devotional
+feelings, and outward impressions are unheeded, the eyes are raised by
+an action neither taught nor acquired.” and that this is due to the
+same cause as in the above cases.[826] That the eyes are upturned
+during sleep is, as I hear from Professor Donders, certain. With
+babies, whilst sucking their mother’s breast, this movement of the
+eyeballs often gives to them an absurd appearance of ecstatic delight;
+and here it may be clearly perceived that a struggle is going on
+against the position naturally assumed during sleep. But Sir C. Bell’s
+explanation of the fact, which rests on the assumption that certain
+muscles are more under the control of the will than others is, as I
+hear from Professor Donders, incorrect. As the eyes are often turned up
+in prayer, without the mind being so much absorbed in thought as to
+approach to the unconsciousness of sleep, the movement is probably a
+conventional one—the result of the common belief that Heaven, the
+source of Divine power to which we pray, is seated above us.
+
+A humble kneeling posture, with the hands upturned and palms joined,
+appears to us, from long habit, a gesture so appropriate to devotion,
+that it might be thought to be innate; but I have not met with any
+evidence to this effect with the various extra-European races of
+mankind. During the classical period of Roman history it does not
+appear, as I hear from an excellent classic, that the hands were thus
+joined during prayer. Mr. Rensleigh Wedgwood has apparently given[827]
+the true explanation, though this implies that the attitude is one of
+slavish subjection. “When the suppliant kneels and holds up his hands
+with the palms joined, he represents a captive who proves the
+completeness of his submission by offering up his hands to be bound by
+the victor. It is the pictorial representation of the Latin _dare
+manus_, to signify submission.” Hence it is not probable that either
+the uplifting of the eyes or the joining of the open hands, under the
+influence of devotional feelings, are innate or truly expressive
+actions; and this could hardly have been expected, for it is very
+doubtful whether feelings, such as we should now rank as devotional,
+affected the hearts of men, whilst they remained during past ages in an
+uncivilized condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. REFLECTION—MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER—SULKINESS—DETERMINATION.
+
+The act of frowning—Reflection with an effort, or with the perception
+of something difficult or disagreeable—Abstracted
+meditation—Ill-temper—Moroseness—Obstinacy Sulkiness and
+pouting—Decision or determination—The firm closure of the mouth.
+
+The corrugators, by their contraction, lower the eyebrows and bring
+them together, producing vertical furrows on the forehead—that is, a
+frown. Sir C. Bell, who erroneously thought that the corrugator was
+peculiar to man, ranks it as “the most remarkable muscle of the human
+face. It knits the eyebrows with an energetic effort, which
+unaccountably, but irresistibly, conveys the idea of mind.” Or, as he
+elsewhere says, “when the eyebrows are knit, energy of mind is
+apparent, and there is the mingling of thought and emotion with the
+savage and brutal rage of the mere animal.”[901] There is much truth in
+these remarks, but hardly the whole truth. Dr. Duchenne has called the
+corrugator the muscle of reflection;[902] but this name, without some
+limitation, cannot be considered as quite correct.
+
+A man may be absorbed in the deepest thought, and his brow will remain
+smooth until he encounters some obstacle in his train of reasoning, or
+is interrupted by some disturbance, and then a frown passes like a
+shadow over his brow. A half-starved man may think intently how to
+obtain food, but he probably will not frown unless he encounters either
+in thought or action some difficulty, or finds the food when obtained
+nauseous. I have noticed that almost everyone instantly frowns if he
+perceives a strange or bad taste in what he is eating. I asked several
+persons, without explaining my object, to listen intently to a very
+gentle tapping sound, the nature and source of which they all perfectly
+knew, and not one frowned; but a man who joined us, and who could not
+conceive what we were all doing in profound silence, when asked to
+listen, frowned much, though not in an ill-temper, and said he could
+not in the least understand what we all wanted. Dr. Piderit[903] who
+has published remarks to the same effect, adds that stammerers
+generally frown in speaking, and that a man in doing even so trifling a
+thing as pulling on a boot, frowns if he finds it too tight. Some
+persons are such habitual frowners, that the mere effort of speaking
+almost always causes their brows to contract.
+
+Men of all races frown when they are in any way perplexed in thought,
+as I infer from the answers which I have received to my queries; but I
+framed them badly, confounding absorbed meditation with perplexed
+reflection. Nevertheless, it is clear that the Australians, Malays,
+Hindoos, and Kafirs of South Africa frown, when they are puzzled.
+Dobritzhoffer remarks that the Guaranies of South America on like
+occasions knit their brows.[904]
+
+From these considerations, we may conclude that frowning is not the
+expression of simple reflection, however profound, or of attention,
+however close, but of something difficult or displeasing encountered in
+a train of thought or in action. Deep reflection can, however, seldom
+be long carried on without some difficulty, so that it will generally
+be accompanied by a frown. Hence it is that frowning commonly gives to
+the countenance, as Sir C. Bell remarks, an aspect of intellectual
+energy. But in order that this effect may be produced, the eyes must be
+clear and steady, or they may be cast downwards, as often occurs in
+deep thought. The countenance must not be otherwise disturbed, as in
+the case of an ill-tempered or peevish man, or of one who shows the
+effects of prolonged suffering, with dulled eyes and drooping jaw, or
+who perceives a bad taste in his food, or who finds it difficult to
+perform some trifling act, such as threading a needle. In these cases a
+frown may often be seen, but it will be accompanied by some other
+expression, which will entirely prevent the countenance having an
+appearance of intellectual energy or of profound thought.
+
+We may now inquire how it is that a frown should express the perception
+of something difficult or disagreeable, either in thought or action. In
+the same way as naturalists find it advisable to trace the
+embryological development of an organ in order fully to understand its
+structure, so with the movements of expression it is advisable to
+follow as nearly as possible the same plan. The earliest and almost
+sole expression seen during the first days of infancy, and then often
+exhibited is that displayed during the act of screaming; and screaming
+is excited, both at first and for some time afterwards, by every
+distressing or displeasing sensation and emotion,—by hunger, pain,
+anger, jealousy, fear, &c. At such times the muscles round the eyes are
+strongly contracted; and this, as I believe, explains to a large extent
+the act of frowning during the remainder of our lives. I repeatedly
+observed my own infants, from under the age of one week to that of two
+or three months, and found that when a screaming-fit came on gradually,
+the first sign was the contraction of the corrugators, which produced a
+slight frown, quickly followed by the contraction of the other muscles
+round the eyes. When an infant is uncomfortable or unwell, little
+frowns—as I record in my notes—may be seen incessantly passing like
+shadows over its face; these being generally, but not always, followed
+sooner or later by a crying-fit. For instance, I watched for some time
+a baby, between seven and eight weeks old, sucking some milk which was
+cold, and therefore displeasing to him; and a steady little frown was
+maintained all the time. This was never developed into an actual
+crying-fit, though occasionally every stage of close approach could be
+observed.
+
+As the habit of contracting the brows has been followed by infants
+during innumerable generations, at the commencement of every crying or
+screaming fit, it has become firmly associated with the incipient sense
+of something distressing or disagreeable. Hence under similar
+circumstances it would be apt to be continued during maturity, although
+never then developed into a crying-fit. Screaming or weeping begins to
+be voluntarily restrained at an early period of life, whereas frowning
+is hardly ever restrained at any age. It is perhaps worth notice that
+with children much given to weeping, anything which perplexes their
+minds, and which would cause most other children merely to frown,
+readily makes them weep. So with certain classes of the insane, any
+effort of mind, however slight, which with an habitual frowner would
+cause a slight frown, leads to their weeping in an unrestrained manner.
+It is not more surprising that the habit of contracting the brows at
+the first perception of something distressing, although gained during
+infancy, should be retained during the rest of our lives, than that
+many other associated habits acquired at an early age should be
+permanently retained both by man and the lower animals. For instance,
+full-grown cats, when feeling warm and comfortable, often retain the
+habit of alternately protruding their fore-feet with extended toes,
+which habit they practised for a definite purpose whilst sucking their
+mothers.
+
+Another and distinct cause has probably strengthened the habit of
+frowning, whenever the mind is intent on any subject and encounters
+some difficulty. Vision is the most important of all the senses, and
+during primeval times the closest attention must have been incessantly:
+directed towards distant objects for the sake of obtaining prey and
+avoiding danger. I remember being struck, whilst travelling in parts of
+South America, which were dangerous from the presence of Indians, how
+incessantly, yet as it appeared unconsciously, the half-wild Gauchos
+closely scanned the whole horizon. Now, when any one with no covering
+on his head (as must have been aboriginally the case with mankind),
+strives to the utmost to distinguish in broad daylight, and especially
+if the sky is bright, a distant object, he almost invariably contracts
+his brows to prevent the entrance of too much light; the lower eyelids,
+cheeks, and upper lip being at the same time raised, so as to lessen
+the orifice of the eyes. I have purposely asked several persons, young
+and old, to look, under the above circumstances, at distant objects,
+making them believe that I only wished to test the power of their
+vision; and they all behaved in the manner just described. Some of
+them, also, put their open, flat hands over their eyes to keep out the
+excess of light. Gratiolet, after making some remarks to nearly the
+same effect,[905] says, “Ce sont là des attitudes de vision difficile.”
+He concludes that the muscles round the eyes contract partly for the
+sake of excluding too much light (which appears to me the more
+important end), and partly to prevent all rays striking the retina,
+except those which come direct from the object that is scrutinized. Mr.
+Bowman, whom I consulted on this point, thinks that the contraction of
+the surrounding muscles may, in addition, “partly sustain the
+consensual movements of the two eyes, by giving a firmer support while
+the globes are brought to binocular vision by their own proper
+muscles.”
+
+As the effort of viewing with care under a bright light a distant
+object is both difficult and irksome, and as this effort has been
+habitually accompanied, during numberless generations, by the
+contraction of the eyebrows, the habit of frowning will thus have been
+much strengthened; although it was originally practised during infancy
+from a quite independent cause, namely as the first step in the
+protection of the eyes during screaming. There is, indeed, much
+analogy, as far as the state of the mind is concerned, between intently
+scrutinizing a distant object, and following out an obscure train of
+thought, or performing some little and troublesome mechanical work. The
+belief that the habit of contracting the brows is continued when there
+is no need whatever to exclude too much light, receives support from
+the cases formerly alluded to, in which the eyebrows or eyelids are
+acted on under certain circumstances in a useless manner, from having
+been similarly used, under analogous circumstances, for a serviceable
+purpose. For instance, we voluntarily close our eyes when we do not
+wish to see any object, and we are apt to close them, when we reject a
+proposition, as if we could not or would not see it; or when we think
+about something horrible. We raise our eyebrows when we wish to see
+quickly all round us, and we often do the same, when we earnestly
+desire to remember something; acting as if we endeavoured to see it.
+
+_Abstraction. Meditation_.—When a person is lost in thought with his
+mind absent, or, as it is sometimes said, “when he is in a brown
+study,” he does not frown, but his eyes appear vacant. The lower
+eyelids are generally raised and wrinkled, in the same manner as when a
+short-sighted person tries to distinguish a distant object; and the
+upper orbicular muscles are at the same time slightly contracted. The
+wrinkling of the lower eyelids under these circumstances has been
+observed with some savages, as by Mr. Dyson Lacy with the Australians
+of Queensland, and several times by Mr. Geach with the Malays of the
+interior of Malacca. What the meaning or cause of this action may be,
+cannot at present be explained; but here we have another instance of
+movement round the eyes in relation to the state of the mind.
+
+The vacant expression of the eyes is very peculiar, and at once shows
+when a man is completely lost in thought. Professor Donders has, with
+his usual kindness, investigated this subject for me. He has observed
+others in this condition, and has been himself observed by Professor
+Engelmann. The eyes are not then fixed on any object, and therefore
+not, as I had imagined, on some distant object. The lines of vision of
+the two eyes even often become slightly divergent; the divergence, if
+the head be held vertically, with the plane of vision horizontal,
+amounting to an angle of 2° as a maximum. This was ascertained by
+observing the crossed double image of a distant object. When the head
+droops forward, as often occurs with a man absorbed in thought, owing
+to the general relaxation of his muscles, if the plane of vision be
+still horizontal, the eyes are necessarily a little turned upwards, and
+then the divergence is as much as 3°, or 3° 5’: if the eyes are turned
+still more upwards, it amounts to between 6° and 7°. Professor Donders
+attributes this divergence to the almost complete relaxation of certain
+muscles of the eyes, which would be apt to follow from the mind being
+wholly absorbed.[906] The active condition of the muscles of the eyes
+is that of convergence; and Professor Donders remarks, as bearing on
+their divergence during a period of complete abstraction, that when one
+eye becomes blind, it almost always, after a short lapse of time,
+deviates outwards; for its muscles are no longer used in moving the
+eyeball inwards for the sake of binocular vision.
+
+Perplexed reflection is often accompanied by certain movements or
+gestures. At such times we commonly raise our hands to our foreheads,
+mouths, or chins; but we do not act thus, as far as I have seen, when
+we are quite lost in meditation, and no difficulty is encountered.
+Plautus, describing in one of his plays[907] a puzzled man, says, “Now
+look, he has pillared his chin upon his hand.” Even so trifling and
+apparently unmeaning a gesture as the raising of the hand to the face
+has been observed with some savages. Mr. J. Mansel Weale has seen it
+with the Kafirs of South Africa; and the native chief Gaika adds, that
+men then “sometimes pull their beards.” Mr. Washington Matthews, who
+attended to some of the wildest tribes of Indians in the western
+regions of the United States, remarks that he has seen them when
+concentrating their thoughts, bring their “hands, usually the thumb and
+index finger, in contact with some part of the face, commonly the upper
+lip.” We can understand why the forehead should be pressed or rubbed,
+as deep thought tries the brain; but why the hand should be raised to
+the mouth or face is far from clear.
+
+_Ill-temper_.—We have seen that frowning is the natural expression of
+some difficulty encountered, or of something disagreeable experienced
+either in thought or action, and he whose mind is often and readily
+affected in this way, will be apt to be ill-tempered, or slightly
+angry, or peevish, and will commonly show it by frowning. But a cross
+expression, due to a frown, may be counteracted, if the mouth appears
+sweet, from being habitually drawn into a smile, and the eyes are
+bright and cheerful. So it will be if the eye is clear and steady, and
+there is the appearance of earnest reflection. Frowning, with some
+depression of the corners of the mouth, which is a sign of grief, gives
+an air of peevishness. If a child (see Plate IV., fig. 2)[908] frowns
+much whilst crying, but does not strongly contract in the usual manner
+the orbicular muscles, a well-marked expression of anger or even of
+rage, together with misery, is displayed.
+
+
+
+Ill-temper. Plate IV
+
+If the whole frowning brow be drawn much downward by the contraction of
+the pyramidal muscles of the nose, which produces transverse wrinkles
+or folds across the base of the nose, the expression becomes one of
+moroseness. Duchenne believes that the contraction of this muscle,
+without any frowning, gives the appearance of extreme and aggressive
+hardness.[909] But I much doubt whether this is a true or natural
+expression. I have shown Duchenne’s photograph of a young man, with
+this muscle strongly contracted by means of galvanism, to eleven
+persons, including some artists, and none of them could form an idea
+what was intended, except one, a girl, who answered correctly, “surely
+reserve.” When I first looked at this photograph, knowing what was
+intended, my imagination added, as I believe, what was necessary,
+namely, a frowning brow; and consequently the expression appeared to me
+true and extremely morose.
+
+A firmly closed mouth, in addition to a lowered and frowning brow,
+gives determination to the expression, or may make it obstinate and
+sullen. How it comes that the firm closure of the mouth gives the
+appearance of determination will presently be discussed. An expression
+of sullen obstinacy has been clearly recognized by my informants, in
+the natives of six different regions of Australia. It is well marked,
+according to Mr. Scott, with the Hindoos. It has been recognized with
+the Malays, Chinese, Kafirs, Abyssinians, and in a conspicuous degree,
+according to Dr. Rothrock, with the wild Indians of North America, and
+according to Mr. D. Forbes, with the Aymaras of Bolivia. I have also
+observed it with the Araucanos of southern Chili. Mr. Dyson Lacy
+remarks that the natives of Australia, when in this frame of mind,
+sometimes fold their arms across their breasts, an attitude which may
+be seen with us. A firm determination, amounting to obstinacy, is,
+also, sometimes expressed by both shoulders being kept raised, the
+meaning of which gesture will be explained in the following chapter.
+
+With young children sulkiness is shown by pouting, or, as it is
+sometimes called, “making a snout.”[910] When the corners of the mouth
+are much depressed, the lower lip is a little everted and protruded;
+and this is likewise called a pout. But the pouting here referred to,
+consists of the protrusion of both lips into a tubular form, sometimes
+to such an extent as to project as far as the end of the nose, if this
+be short. Pouting is generally accompanied by frowning, and sometimes
+by the utterance of a booing or whooing noise. This expression is
+remarkable, as almost the sole one, as far as I know, which is
+exhibited much more plainly during childhood, at least with Europeans,
+than during maturity. There is, however, some tendency to the
+protrusion of the lips with the adults of all races under the influence
+of great rage. Some children pout when they are shy, and they can then
+hardly be called sulky.
+
+From inquiries which I have made in several large families, pouting
+does not seem very common with European children; but it prevails
+throughout the world, and must be both common and strongly marked with
+most savage races, as it has caught the attention of many observers. It
+has been noticed in eight different districts of Australia; and one of
+my informants remarks how greatly the lips of the children are then
+protruded. Two observers have seen pouting with the children of
+Hindoos; three, with those of the Kafirs and Fingoes of South Africa,
+and with the Hottentots; and two, with the children of the wild Indians
+of North America. Pouting has also been observed with the Chinese,
+Abyssinians, Malays of Malacca, Dyaks of Borneo, and often with the New
+Zealanders. Mr. Mansel Weale informs me that he has seen the lips much
+protruded, not only with the children of the Kafirs, but with the
+adults of both sexes when sulky; and Mr. Stack has sometimes observed
+the same thing with the men, and very frequently with the women of New
+Zealand. A trace of the same expression may occasionally be detected
+even with adult Europeans.
+
+We thus see that the protrusion of the lips, especially with young
+children, is characteristic of sulkiness throughout the greater part of
+the world. This movement apparently results from the retention, chiefly
+during youth, of a primordial habit, or from an occasional reversion to
+it. Young orangs and chimpanzees protrude their lips to an
+extraordinary degree, as described in a former chapter, when they are
+discontented, somewhat angry, or sulky; also when they are surprised, a
+little frightened, and even when slightly pleased. Their mouths are
+protruded apparently for the sake of making the various noises proper
+to these several states of mind; and its shape, as I observed with the
+chimpanzee, differed slightly when the cry of pleasure and that of
+anger were uttered. As soon as these animals become enraged, the shape
+of the month wholly changes, and the teeth are exposed. The adult orang
+when wounded is said to emit “a singular cry, consisting at first of
+high notes, which at length deepen into a low roar. While giving out
+the high notes he thrusts out his lips into a funnel shape, but in
+uttering the low notes he holds his mouth wide open.”[911] With the
+gorilla, the lower lip is said to be capable of great elongation. If
+then our semi-human progenitors protruded their lips when sulky or a
+little angered, in the same manner as do the existing anthropoid apes,
+it is not an anomalous, though a curious fact, that our children should
+exhibit, when similarly affected, a trace of the same expression,
+together with some tendency to utter a noise. For it is not at all
+unusual for animals to retain, more or less perfectly, during early
+youth, and subsequently to lose, characters which were aboriginally
+possessed by their adult progenitors, and which are still retained by
+distinct species, their near relations.
+
+Nor is it an anomalous fact that the children of savages should exhibit
+a stronger tendency to protrude their lips, when sulky, than the
+children of civilized Europeans; for the essence of savagery seems to
+consist in the retention of a primordial condition, and this
+occasionally holds good even with bodily peculiarities.[912] It may be
+objected to this view of the origin of pouting, that the anthropoid
+apes likewise protrude their lips when astonished and even when a
+little pleased; whilst with us this expression is generally confined to
+a sulky frame of mind. But we shall see in a future chapter that with
+men of various races surprise does sometimes lead to a slight
+protrusion of the lips, though great surprise or astonishment is more
+commonly shown by the mouth being widely opened. As when we smile or
+laugh we draw back the corners of the mouth, we have lost any tendency
+to protrude the lips, when pleased, if indeed our early progenitors
+thus expressed pleasure.
+
+A little gesture made by sulky children may here be noticed, namely,
+their “showing a cold shoulder.” This has a different meaning, as, I
+believe, from the keeping both shoulders raised. A cross child, sitting
+on its parent’s knee, will lift up the near shoulder, then jerk it
+away, as if from a caress, and afterwards give a backward push with it,
+as if to push away the offender. I have seen a child, standing at some
+distance from any one, clearly express its feelings by raising one
+shoulder, giving it a little backward movement, and then turning away
+its whole body.
+
+_Decision or determination_.—The firm closure of the mouth tends to
+give an expression of determination or decision to the countenance. No
+determined man probably ever had an habitually gaping mouth. Hence,
+also, a small and weak lower jaw, which seems to indicate that the
+mouth is not habitually and firmly closed, is commonly thought to be
+characteristic of feebleness of character. A prolonged effort of any
+kind, whether of body or mind, implies previous determination; and if
+it can be shown that the mouth is generally closed with firmness before
+and during a great and continued exertion of the muscular system, then,
+through the principle of association, the mouth would almost certainly
+be closed as soon as any determined resolution was taken. Now several
+observers have noticed that a man, in commencing any violent muscular
+effort, invariably first distends his lungs with air, and then
+compresses it by the strong contraction of the muscles of the chest;
+and to effect this the mouth must be firmly closed. Moreover, as soon
+as the man is compelled to draw breath, he still keeps his chest as
+much distended as possible.
+
+Various causes have been assigned for this manner of acting. Sir C.
+Bell maintains[913] that the chest is distended with air, and is kept
+distended at such times, in order to give a fixed support to the
+muscles which are thereto attached. Hence, as he remarks, when two men
+are engaged in a deadly contest, a terrible silence prevails, broken
+only by hard stifled breathing. There is silence, because to expel the
+air in the utterance of any sound would be to relax the support for the
+muscles of the arms. If an outcry is heard, supposing the struggle to
+take place in the dark, we at once know that one of the two has given
+up in despair.
+
+Gratiolet admits[914] that when a man has to struggle with another to
+his utmost, or has to support a great weight, or to keep for a long
+time the same forced attitude, it is necessary for him first to make a
+deep inspiration, and then to cease breathing; but he thinks that Sir
+C. Bell’s explanation is erroneous. He maintains that arrested
+respiration retards the circulation of the blood, of which I believe
+there is no doubt, and he adduces some curious evidence from the
+structure of the lower animals, showing, on the one hand, that a
+retarded circulation is necessary for prolonged muscular exertion, and,
+on the other hand, that a rapid circulation is necessary for rapid
+movements. According to this view, when we commence any great exertion,
+we close our mouths and stop breathing, in order to retard the
+circulation of the blood. Gratiolet sums up the subject by saying,
+“C’est là la vraie théorie de l’effort continu;” but how far this
+theory is admitted by other physiologists I do not know.
+
+Dr. Piderit accounts[915] for the firm closure of the mouth during
+strong muscular exertion, on the principle that the influence of the
+will spreads to other muscles besides those necessarily brought into
+action in making any particular exertion; and it is natural that the
+muscles of respiration and of the mouth, from being so habitually used,
+should be especially liable to be thus acted on. It appears to me that
+there probably is some truth in this view, for we are apt to press the
+teeth hard together during violent exertion, and this is not requisite
+to prevent expiration, whilst the muscles of the chest are strongly
+contracted.
+
+Lastly, when a man has to perform some delicate and difficult
+operation, not requiring the exertion of any strength, he nevertheless
+generally closes his mouth and ceases for a time to breathe; but he
+acts thus in order that the movements of his chest may not disturb,
+those of his arms. A person, for instance, whilst threading a needle,
+may be seen to compress his lips and either to stop breathing, or to
+breathe as quietly as possible. So it was, as formerly stated, with a
+young and sick chimpanzee, whilst it amused itself by killing flies
+with its knuckles, as they buzzed about on the window-panes. To perform
+an action, however trifling, if difficult, implies some amount of
+previous determination.
+
+There appears nothing improbable in all the above assigned causes
+having come into play in different degrees, either conjointly or
+separately, on various occasions. The result would be a
+well-established habit, now perhaps inherited, of firmly closing the
+mouth at the commencement of and during any violent and prolonged
+exertion, or any delicate operation. Through the principle of
+association there would also be a strong tendency towards this same
+habit, as soon as the mind had resolved on any particular action or
+line of conduct, even before there was any bodily exertion, or if none
+were requisite. The habitual and firm closure of the mouth would thus
+come to show decision of character; and decision readily passes into
+obstinacy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X. HATRED AND ANGER.
+
+Hatred—Rage, effects of on the system—Uncovering of the teeth—Rage in
+the insane—Anger and indignation—As expressed by the various races of
+man—Sneering and defiance—The uncovering of the canine tooth on one
+side of the face.
+
+If we have suffered or expect to suffer some wilful injury from a man,
+or if he is in any way offensive to us, we dislike him; and dislike
+easily rises into hatred. Such feelings, if experienced in a moderate
+degree, are not clearly expressed by any movement of the body or
+features, excepting perhaps by a certain gravity of behaviour, or by
+some ill-temper. Few individuals, however, can long reflect about a
+hated person, without feeling and exhibiting signs of indignation or
+rage. But if the offending person be quite insignificant, we experience
+merely disdain or contempt. If, on the other hand, he is all-powerful,
+then hatred passes into terror, as when a slave thinks about a cruel
+master, or a savage about a bloodthirsty malignant deity.[1001] Most of
+our emotions are so closely connected with their expression, that they
+hardly exist if the body remains passive—the nature of the expression
+depending in chief part on the nature of the actions which have been
+habitually performed under this particular state of the mind. A man,
+for instance, may know that his life is in the extremest peril, and may
+strongly desire to save if; yet, as Louis XVI. said, when surrounded by
+a fierce mob, “Am I afraid? feel my pulse.” So a man may intensely hate
+another, but until his bodily frame is affected, he cannot be said to
+be enraged.
+
+_Rage_.—I have already had occasion to treat of this emotion in the
+third chapter, when discussing the direct influence of the excited
+sensorium on the body, in combination with the effects of habitually
+associated actions. Rage exhibits itself in the most diversified
+manner. The heart and circulation are always affected; the face reddens
+or becomes purple, with the veins on the forehead and neck distended.
+The reddening of the skin has been observed with the copper-coloured
+Indians of South America,[1002] and even, as it is said, on the white
+cicatrices left by old wounds on negroes.[1003] Monkeys also redden
+from passion. With one of my own infants, under four months old, I
+repeatedly observed that the first symptom of an approaching passion
+was the rushing of the blood into his bare scalp. On the other hand,
+the action of the heart is sometimes so much impeded by great rage,
+that the countenance becomes pallid or livid,[1004] and not a few men
+with heart-disease have dropped down dead under this powerful emotion.
+
+The respiration is likewise affected; the chest heaves, and the dilated
+nostrils quiver.[1005] As Tennyson writes, “sharp breaths of anger
+puffed her fairy nostrils out.” Hence we have such expressions as
+“breathing out vengeance,” and “fuming with anger.”[1006]
+
+The excited brain gives strength to the muscles, and at the same time
+energy to the will. The body is commonly held erect ready for instant
+action, but sometimes it is bent forward towards the offending person,
+with the limbs more or less rigid. The mouth is generally closed with
+firmness, showing fixed determination, and the teeth are clenched or
+ground together. Such gestures as the raising of the arms, with the
+fists clenched, as if to strike the offender, are common. Few men in a
+great passion, and telling some one to begone, can resist acting as if
+they intended to strike or push the man violently away. The desire,
+indeed, to strike often becomes so intolerably strong, that inanimate
+objects are struck or dashed to the ground; but the gestures frequently
+become altogether purposeless or frantic. Young children, when in a
+violent rage roll on the ground on their backs or bellies, screaming,
+kicking, scratching, or biting everything within reach. So it is, as I
+hear from Mr. Scott, with Hindoo children; and, as we have seen, with
+the young of the anthropomorphous apes.
+
+But the muscular system is often affected in a wholly different way;
+for trembling is a frequent consequence of extreme rage. The paralysed
+lips then refuse to obey the will, “and the voice sticks in the
+throat;”[1007] or it is rendered loud, harsh, and discordant. If there
+be much and rapid speaking, the mouth froths. The hair sometimes
+bristles; but I shall return to this subject in another chapter, when I
+treat of the mingled emotions of rage and terror. There is in most
+cases a strongly-marked frown on the forehead; for this follows from
+the sense of anything displeasing or difficult, together with
+concentration of mind. But sometimes the brow, instead of being much
+contracted and lowered, remains smooth, with the glaring eyes kept
+widely open. The eyes are always bright, or may, as Homer expresses it,
+glisten with fire. They are sometimes bloodshot, and are said to
+protrude from their sockets—the result, no doubt, of the head being
+gorged with blood, as shown by the veins being distended. According to
+Gratiolet, “the pupils are always contracted in rage,” and I hear from
+Dr. Crichton Browne that this is the case in the fierce delirium of
+meningitis; but the movements of the iris under the influence of the
+different emotions is a very obscure subject.[1008]
+
+Shakspeare sums up the chief characteristics of rage as follows:—
+
+“In peace there’s nothing so becomes a man,
+As modest stillness and humility;
+But when the blast of war blows in our ears,
+Then imitate the action of the tiger:
+Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood,
+Then lend the eye a terrible aspect;
+Now set the teeth, and stretch the nostril wide,
+Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit
+To his full height! On, on, you noblest English.”
+_Henry V_., act iii. sc. 1.
+
+
+The lips are sometimes protruded during rage in a manner, the meaning
+of which I do not understand, unless it depends on our descent from
+some ape-like animal. Instances have been observed, not only with
+Europeans, but with the Australians and Hindoos. The lips, however, are
+much more commonly retracted, the grinning or clenched teeth being thus
+exposed. This has been noticed by almost every one who has written on
+expression.[1009] The appearance is as if the teeth were uncovered,
+ready for seizing or tearing an enemy, though there may be no intention
+of acting in this manner. Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen this grinning
+expression with the Australians, when quarrelling, and so has Gaika
+with the Kafirs of South America. Dickens,[1010] in speaking of an
+atrocious murderer who had just been caught, and was surrounded by a
+furious mob, describes “the people as jumping up one behind another,
+snarling with their teeth, and making at him like wild beasts.” Every
+one who has had much to do with young children must have seen how
+naturally they take to biting, when in a passion. It seems as
+instinctive in them as in young crocodiles, who snap their little jaws
+as soon as they emerge from the egg.
+
+A grinning expression and the protrusion of the lips appear sometimes
+to go together. A close observer says that he has seen many instances
+of intense hatred (which can hardly be distinguished from rage, more or
+less suppressed) in Orientals, and once in an elderly English woman. In
+all these cases there “was a grin, not a scowl—the lips lengthening,
+the cheeks settling downwards, the eyes half-closed, whilst the brow
+remained perfectly calm.”[1011]
+
+This retraction of the lips and uncovering of the teeth during
+paroxysms of rage, as if to bite the offender, is so remarkable,
+considering how seldom the teeth are used by men in fighting, that I
+inquired from Dr. J. Crichton Browne whether the habit was common in
+the insane whose passions are unbridled. He informs me that he has
+repeatedly observed it both with the insane and idiotic, and has given
+me the following illustrations:—
+
+Shortly before receiving my letter, he witnessed an uncontrollable
+outbreak of anger and delusive jealousy in an insane lady. At first she
+vituperated her husband, and whilst doing so foamed at the mouth. Next
+she approached close to him with compressed lips, and a virulent set
+frown. Then she drew back her lips, especially the corners of the upper
+lip, and showed her teeth, at the same time aiming a vicious blow at
+him. A second case is that of an old soldier, who, when he is requested
+to conform to the rules of the establishment, gives way to discontent,
+terminating in fury. He commonly begins by asking Dr. Browne whether he
+is not ashamed to treat him in such a manner. He then swears and
+blasphemes, paces tip and down, tosses his arms wildly about, and
+menaces any one near him. At last, as his exasperation culminates, he
+rushes up towards Dr. Browne with a peculiar sidelong movement, shaking
+his doubled fist, and threatening destruction. Then his upper lip may
+be seen to be raised, especially at the corners, so that his huge
+canine teeth are exhibited. He hisses forth his curses through his set
+teeth, and his whole expression assumes the character of extreme
+ferocity. A similar description is applicable to another man, excepting
+that he generally foams at the mouth and spits, dancing and jumping
+about in a strange rapid manner, shrieking out his maledictions in a
+shrill falsetto voice.
+
+Dr. Browne also informs me of the case of an epileptic idiot, incapable
+of independent movements, and who spends the whole day in playing with
+some toys; but his temper is morose and easily roused into fierceness.
+When any one touches his toys, he slowly raises his head from its
+habitual downward position, and fixes his eyes on the offender, with a
+tardy yet angry scowl. If the annoyance be repeated, he draws back his
+thick lips and reveals a prominent row of hideous fangs (large canines
+being especially noticeable), and then makes a quick and cruel clutch
+with his open hand at the offending person. The rapidity of this
+clutch, as Dr. Browne remarks, is marvellous in a being ordinarily so
+torpid that he takes about fifteen seconds, when attracted by any
+noise, to turn his head from one side to the other. If, when thus
+incensed, a handkerchief, book, or other article, be placed into his
+hands, he drags it to his mouth and bites it. Mr. Nicol has likewise
+described to me two cases of insane patients, whose lips are retracted
+during paroxysms of rage.
+
+Dr. Maudsley, after detailing various strange animal-like traits in
+idiots, asks whether these are not due to the reappearance of primitive
+instincts—“a faint echo from a far-distant past, testifying to a
+kinship which man has almost outgrown.” He adds, that as every human
+brain passes, in the course of its development, through the same stages
+as those occurring in the lower vertebrate animals, and as the brain of
+an idiot is in an arrested condition, we may presume that it “will
+manifest its most primitive functions, and no higher functions.” Dr.
+Maudsley thinks that the same view may be extended to the brain in its
+degenerated condition in some insane patients; and asks, whence come
+“the savage snarl, the destructive disposition, the obscene language,
+the wild howl, the offensive habits, displayed by some of the insane?
+Why should a human being, deprived of his reason, ever become so brutal
+in character, as some do, unless he has the brute nature within
+him?”[1012] This question must, as it would appear, he answered in the
+affirmative.
+
+_Anger, Indignation_.—These states of the mind differ from rage only in
+degree, and there is no marked distinction in their characteristic
+signs. Under moderate anger the action of the heart is a little
+increased, the colour heightened, and the eyes become bright. The
+respiration is likewise a little hurried; and as all the muscles
+serving for this function act in association, the wings of the nostrils
+are somewhat raised to allow of a free indraught of air; and this is a
+highly characteristic sign of indignation. The mouth is commonly
+compressed, and there is almost always a frown on the brow. Instead of
+the frantic gestures of extreme rage, an indignant man unconsciously
+throws himself into an attitude ready for attacking or striking his
+enemy, whom he will perhaps scan from head to foot in defiance. He
+carries his head erect, with his chest well expanded, and the feet
+planted firmly on the ground. He holds his arms in various positions,
+with one or both elbows squared, or with the arms rigidly suspended by
+his sides. With Europeans the fists are commonly clenched.[1013] The
+figures 1 and 2 in Plate VI. are fairly good representations of men
+simulating indignation. Any one may see in a mirror, if he will vividly
+imagine that he has been insulted and demands an explanation in an
+angry tone of voice, that he suddenly and unconsciously throws himself
+into some such attitude.
+
+
+
+Anger and Indignation.  Plate VI
+
+Rage, anger, and indignation are exhibited in nearly the same manner
+throughout the world; and the following descriptions may be worth
+giving as evidence of this, and as illustrations of some of the
+foregoing remarks. There is, however, an exception with respect to
+clenching the fists, which seems confined chiefly to the men who fight
+with their fists. With the Australians only one of my informants has
+seen the fists clenched. All agree about the body being held erect; and
+all, with two exceptions, state that the brows are heavily contracted.
+Some of them allude to the firmly-compressed mouth, the distended
+nostrils, and flashing eyes. According to the Rev. Mr. Taplin, rage,
+with the Australians, is expressed by the lips being protruded, the
+eyes being widely open; and in the case of the women by their dancing
+about and casting dust into the air. Another observer speaks of the
+native men, when enraged, throwing their arms wildly about.
+
+I have received similar accounts, except as to the clenching of the
+fists, in regard to the Malays of the Malacca peninsula, the
+Abyssinians, and the natives of South Africa. So it is with the Dakota
+Indians of North America; and, according to Mr. Matthews, they then
+hold their heads erect, frown, and often stalk away with long strides.
+Mr. Bridges states that the Fuegians, when enraged, frequently stamp on
+the ground, walk distractedly about, sometimes cry and grow pale. The
+Rev. Mr. Stack watched a New Zealand man and woman quarrelling, and
+made the following entry in his note-book: “Eyes dilated, body swayed
+violently backwards and forwards, head inclined forwards, fists
+clenched, now thrown behind the body, now directed towards each other’s
+faces.” Mr. Swinhoe says that my description agrees with what he has
+seen of the Chinese, excepting that an angry man generally inclines his
+body towards his antagonist, and pointing at him, pours forth a volley
+of abuse.
+
+Lastly, with respect to the natives of India, Mr. J. Scott has sent me
+a full description of their gestures and expression when enraged. Two
+low-caste Bengalees disputed about a loan. At first they were calm, but
+soon grew furious and poured forth the grossest abuse on each other’s
+relations and progenitors for many generations past. Their gestures
+were very different from those of Europeans; for though their chests
+were expanded and shoulders squared, their arms remained rigidly
+suspended, with the elbows turned inwards and the hands alternately
+clenched and opened. Their shoulders were often raised high, and then
+again lowered. They looked fiercely at each other from under their
+lowered and strongly wrinkled brows, and their protruded lips were
+firmly closed. They approached each other, with heads and necks
+stretched forwards, and pushed, scratched, and grasped at each other.
+This protrusion of the head and body seems a common gesture with the
+enraged; and I have noticed it with degraded English women whilst
+quarrelling violently in the streets. In such cases it may be presumed
+that neither party expects to receive a blow from the other.
+
+A Bengalee employed in the Botanic Gardens was accused, in the presence
+of Mr. Scott, by the native overseer of having stolen a valuable plant.
+He listened silently and scornfully to the accusation; his attitude
+erect, chest expanded, mouth closed, lips protruding, eyes firmly set
+and penetrating. He then defiantly maintained his innocence, with
+upraised and clenched hands, his head being now pushed forwards, with
+the eyes widely open and eyebrows raised. Mr. Scott also watched two
+Mechis, in Sikhim, quarrelling about their share of payment. They soon
+got into a furious passion, and then their bodies became less erect,
+with their heads pushed forwards; they made grimaces at each other;
+their shoulders were raised; their arms rigidly bent inwards at the
+elbows, and their hands spasmodically closed, but not properly
+clenched. They continually approached and retreated from each other,
+and often raised their arms as if to strike, but their hands were open,
+and no blow was given. Mr. Scott made similar observations on the
+Lepchas whom he often saw quarrelling, and he noticed that they kept
+their arms rigid and almost parallel to their bodies, with the hands
+pushed somewhat backwards and partially closed, but not clenched.
+
+_Sneering, Defiance: Uncovering the canine tooth on one side_.—The
+expression which I wish here to consider differs but little from that
+already described, when the lips are retracted and the grinning teeth
+exposed. The difference consists solely in the upper lip being
+retracted in such a manner that the canine tooth on one side of the
+face alone is shown; the face itself being generally a little upturned
+and half averted from the person causing offence. The other signs of
+rage are not necessarily present. This expression may occasionally be
+observed in a person who sneers at or defies another, though there may
+be no real anger; as when any one is playfully accused of some fault,
+and answers, “I scorn the imputation.” The expression is not a common
+one, but I have seen it exhibited with perfect distinctness by a lady
+who was being quizzed by another person. It was described by Parsons as
+long ago as 1746, with an engraving, showing the uncovered canine on
+one side.[1014] Mr. Rejlander, without my having made any allusion to
+the subject, asked me whether I had ever noticed this expression, as he
+had been much struck by it. He has photographed for me (Plate IV. fig
+1) a lady, who sometimes unintentionally displays the canine on one
+side, and who can do so voluntarily with unusual distinctness.
+
+The expression of a half-playful sneer graduates into one of great
+ferocity when, together with a heavily frowning brow and fierce eye,
+the canine tooth is exposed. A Bengalee boy was accused before Mr.
+Scott of some misdeed. The delinquent did not dare to give vent to his
+wrath in words, but it was plainly shown on his countenance, sometimes
+by a defiant frown, and sometimes “by a thoroughly canine snarl.” When
+this was exhibited, “the corner of the lip over the eye-tooth, which
+happened in this case to be large and projecting, was raised on the
+side of his accuser, a strong frown being still retained on the brow.”
+Sir C. Bell states[1015] that the actor Cooke could express the most
+determined hate “when with the oblique cast of his eyes he drew up the
+outer part of the upper lip, and discovered a sharp angular tooth.”
+
+The uncovering of the canine tooth is the result of a double movement.
+The angle or corner of the mouth is drawn a little backwards, and at
+the same time a muscle which runs parallel to and near the nose draws
+up the outer part of the upper lip, and exposes the canine on this side
+of the face. The contraction of this muscle makes a distinct furrow on
+the cheek, and produces strong wrinkles under the eye, especially at
+its inner corner. The action is the same as that of a snarling dog; and
+a dog when pretending to fight often draws up the lip on one side
+alone, namely that facing his antagonist. Our word _sneer_ is in fact
+the same as _snarl_, which was originally _snar_, the _l_ “being merely
+an element implying continuance of action.”[1016]
+
+I suspect that we see a trace of this same expression in what is called
+a derisive or sardonic smile. The lips are then kept joined or almost
+joined, but one corner of the mouth is retracted on the side towards
+the derided person; and this drawing back of the corner is part of a
+true sneer. Although some persons smile more on one side of their face
+than on the other, it is not easy to understand why in cases of
+derision the smile, if a real one, should so commonly be confined to
+one side. I have also on these occasions noticed a slight twitching of
+the muscle which draws up the outer part of the upper lip; and this
+movement, if fully carried out, would have uncovered the canine, and
+would have produced a true sneer.
+
+Mr. Bulmer, an Australian missionary in a remote part of Gipps’ Land,
+says, in answer to my query about the uncovering of the canine on one
+side, “I find that the natives in snarling at each other speak with the
+teeth closed, the upper lip drawn to one side, and a general angry
+expression of face; but they look direct at the person addressed.”
+Three other observers in Australia, one in Abyssinia, and one in China,
+answer my query on this head in the affirmative; but as the expression
+is rare, and as they enter into no details, I am afraid of implicitly
+trusting them. It is, however, by no means improbable that this
+animal-like expression may be more common with savages than with
+civilized races. Mr. Geach is an observer who may be fully trusted, and
+he has observed it on one occasion in a Malay in the interior of
+Malacca. The Rev. S. O. Glenie answers, “We have observed this
+expression with the natives of Ceylon, but not often.” Lastly, in North
+America, Dr. Rothrock has seen it with some wild Indians, and often in
+a tribe adjoining the Atnahs.
+
+Although the upper lip is certainly sometimes raised on one side alone
+in sneering at or defying any one, I do not know that this is always
+the case, for the face is commonly half averted, and the expression is
+often momentary. The movement being confined to one side may not be an
+essential part of the expression, but may depend on the proper muscles
+being incapable of movement excepting on one side. I asked four persons
+to endeavour to act voluntarily in this manner; two could expose the
+canine only on the left side, one only on the right side, and the
+fourth on neither side. Nevertheless it is by no means certain that
+these same persons, if defying any one in earnest, would not
+unconsciously have uncovered their canine tooth on the side, whichever
+it might be, towards the offender. For we have seen that some persons
+cannot voluntarily make their eyebrows oblique, yet instantly act in
+this manner when affected by any real, although most trifling, cause of
+distress. The power of voluntarily uncovering the canine on one side of
+the face being thus often wholly lost, indicates that it is a rarely
+used and almost abortive action. It is indeed a surprising fact that
+man should possess the power, or should exhibit any tendency to its
+use; for Mr. Sutton has never noticed a snarling action in our nearest
+allies, namely, the monkeys in the Zoological Gardens, and he is
+positive that the baboons, though furnished with great canines, never
+act thus, but uncover all their teeth when feeling savage and ready for
+an attack. Whether the adult anthropomorphous apes, in the males of
+whom the canines are much larger than in the females, uncover them when
+prepared to fight, is not known.
+
+The expression here considered, whether that of a playful sneer or
+ferocious snarl, is one of the most curious which occurs in man. It
+reveals his animal descent; for no one, even if rolling on the ground
+in a deadly grapple with an enemy, and attempting to bite him, would
+try to use his canine teeth more than his other teeth. We may readily
+believe from our affinity to the anthropomorphous apes that our male
+semi-human progenitors possessed great canine teeth, and men are now
+occasionally born having them of unusually large size, with interspaces
+in the opposite jaw for their reception.[1017] We may further suspect,
+notwithstanding that we have no support from analogy, that our
+semi-human progenitors uncovered their canine teeth when prepared for
+battle, as we still do when feeling ferocious, or when merely sneering
+at or defying some one, without any intention of making a real attack
+with our teeth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI. DISDAIN—CONTEMPT—DISGUST-GUILT—PRIDE,
+ETC.—HELPLESSNESS—PATIENCE—AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.
+
+Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed—Derisive
+smile—Gestures expressive of contempt—Disgust—Guilt, deceit, pride,
+&c.—Helplessness or impotence—Patience—Obstinacy—Shrugging the
+shoulders common to most of the races of man—Signs of affirmation and
+negation.
+
+Scorn and disdain can hardly be distinguished from contempt, excepting
+that they imply a rather more angry frame of mind. Nor can they be
+clearly distinguished from the feelings discussed in the last chapter
+under the terms of sneering and defiance. Disgust is a sensation rather
+more distinct in its nature and refers to something revolting,
+primarily in relation to the sense of taste, as actually perceived or
+vividly imagined; and secondarily to anything which causes a similar
+feeling, through the sense of smell, touch, and even of eyesight.
+Nevertheless, extreme contempt, or as it is often called loathing
+contempt, hardly differs from disgust. These several conditions of the
+mind are, therefore, nearly related; and each of them may be exhibited
+in many different ways. Some writers have insisted chiefly on one mode
+of expression, and others on a different mode. From this circumstance
+M. Lemoine has argued[1101] that their descriptions are not
+trustworthy. But we shall immediately see that it is natural that the
+feelings which we have here to consider should be expressed in many
+different ways, inasmuch as various habitual actions serve equally
+well, through the principle of association, for their expression.
+
+Scorn and disdain, as well as sneering and defiance, may be displayed
+by a slight uncovering of the canine tooth on one side of the face; and
+this movement appears to graduate into one closely like a smile. Or the
+smile or laugh may be real, although one of derision; and this implies
+that the offender is so insignificant that he excites only amusement;
+but the amusement is generally a pretence. Gaika in his answers to my
+queries remarks, that contempt is commonly shown by his countrymen, the
+Kafirs, by smiling; and the Rajah Brooke makes the same observation
+with respect to the Dyaks of Borneo. As laughter is primarily the
+expression of simple joy, very young children do not, I believe, ever
+laugh in derision.
+
+The partial closure of the eyelids, as Duchenne[1102] insists, or the
+turning away of the eyes or of the whole body, are likewise highly
+expressive of disdain. These actions seem to declare that the despised
+person is not worth looking at or is disagreeable to behold. The
+accompanying photograph (Plate V. fig. 1) by Mr. Rejlander, shows this
+form of disdain. It represents a young lady, who is supposed to be
+tearing up the photograph of a despised lover.
+
+
+
+Scorn and Disdain.  Plate V
+
+The most common method of expressing contempt is by movements about the
+nose, or round the mouth; but the latter movements, when strongly
+pronounced, indicate disgust. The nose may be slightly turned up, which
+apparently follows from the turning up of the upper lip; or the
+movement may be abbreviated into the mere wrinkling of the nose. The
+nose is often slightly contracted, so as partly to close the
+passage;[1103] and this is commonly accompanied by a slight snort or
+expiration. All these actions are the same with those which we employ
+when we perceive an offensive odour, and wish to exclude or expel it.
+In extreme cases, as Dr. Piderit remarks,[1104] we protrude and raise
+both lips, or the upper lip alone, so as to close the nostrils as by a
+valve, the nose being thus turned up. We seem thus to say to the
+despised person that he smells offensively,[1105] in nearly the same
+manner as we express to him by half-closing our eyelids, or turning
+away our faces, that he is not worth looking at. It must not, however,
+be supposed that such ideas actually pass through the mind when we
+exhibit our contempt; but as whenever we have perceived a disagreeable
+odour or seen a disagreeable sight, actions of this kind have been
+performed, they have become habitual or fixed, and are now employed
+under any analogous state of mind.
+
+Various odd little gestures likewise indicate contempt; for instance,
+_snapping one’s fingers_. This, as Mr. Taylor remarks,[1106] “is not
+very intelligible as we generally see it; but when we notice that the
+same sign made quite gently, as if rolling some tiny object away
+between the finger and thumb, or the sign of flipping it away with the
+thumb-nail and forefinger, are usual and well-understood deaf-and-dumb
+gestures, denoting anything tiny, insignificant, contemptible, it seems
+as though we had exaggerated and conventionalized a perfectly natural
+action, so as to lose sight of its original meaning. There is a curious
+mention of this gesture by Strabo.” Mr. Washington Matthews informs me
+that, with the Dakota Indians of North America, contempt is shown not
+only by movements of the face, such as those above described, but
+“conventionally, by the hand being closed and held near the breast,
+then, as the forearm is suddenly extended, the hand is opened and the
+fingers separated from each other. If the person at whose expense the
+sign is made is present, the hand is moved towards him, and the head
+sometimes averted from him.” This sudden extension and opening of the
+hand perhaps indicates the dropping or throwing away a valueless
+object.
+
+The term ‘disgust,’ in its simplest sense, means something offensive to
+the taste. It is curious how readily this feeling is excited by
+anything unusual in the appearance, odour, or nature of our food. In
+Tierra del Fuego a native touched with his finger some cold preserved
+meat which I was eating at our bivouac, and plainly showed utter
+disgust at its softness; whilst I felt utter disgust at my food being
+touched by a naked savage, though his hands did not appear dirty. A
+smear of soup on a man’s beard looks disgusting, though there is of
+course nothing disgusting in the soup itself. I presume that this
+follows from the strong association in our minds between the sight of
+food, however circumstanced, and the idea of eating it.
+
+As the sensation of disgust primarily arises in connection with the act
+of eating or tasting, it is natural that its expression should consist
+chiefly in movements round the mouth. But as disgust also causes
+annoyance, it is generally accompanied by a frown, and often by
+gestures as if to push away or to guard oneself against the offensive
+object. In the two photographs (figs. 2 and 3, on Plate V.) Mr.
+Rejlander has simulated this expression with some success. With respect
+to the face, moderate disgust is exhibited in various ways; by the
+mouth being widely opened, as if to let an offensive morsel drop out;
+by spitting; by blowing out of the protruded lips; or by a sound as of
+clearing the throat. Such guttural sounds are written _ach_ or _ugh_;
+and their utterance is sometimes accompanied by a shudder, the arms
+being pressed close to the sides and the shoulders raised in the same
+manner as when horror is experienced.[1107] Extreme disgust is
+expressed by movements round the month identical with those preparatory
+to the act of vomiting. The mouth is opened widely, with the upper lip
+strongly retracted, which wrinkles the sides of the nose, and with the
+lower lip protruded and everted as much as possible. This latter
+movement requires the contraction of the muscles which draw downwards
+the corners of the mouth.[1108]
+
+It is remarkable how readily and instantly retching or actual vomiting
+is induced in some persons by the mere idea of having partaken of any
+unusual food, as of an animal which is not commonly eaten; although
+there is nothing in such food to cause the stomach to reject it. When
+vomiting results, as a reflex action, from some real cause—as from too
+rich food, or tainted meat, or from an emetic—it does not ensue
+immediately, but generally after a considerable interval of time.
+Therefore, to account for retching or vomiting being so quickly and
+easily excited by a mere idea, the suspicion arises that our
+progenitors must formerly have had the power (like that possessed by
+ruminants and some other animals) of voluntarily rejecting food which
+disagreed with them, or which they thought would disagree with them;
+and now, though this power has been lost, as far as the will is
+concerned, it is called into involuntary action, through the force of a
+formerly well-established habit, whenever the mind revolts at the idea
+of having partaken of any kind of food, or at anything disgusting. This
+suspicion receives support from the fact, of which I am assured by Mr.
+Sutton, that the monkeys in the Zoological Gardens often vomit whilst
+in perfect health, which looks as if the act were voluntary. We can see
+that as man is able to communicate by language to his children and
+others, the knowledge of the kinds of food to be avoided, he would have
+little occasion to use the faculty of voluntary rejection; so that this
+power would tend to be lost through disuse.
+
+As the sense of smell is so intimately connected with that of taste, it
+is not surprising that an excessively bad odour should excite retching
+or vomiting in some persons, quite as readily as the thought of
+revolting food does; and that, as a further consequence, a moderately
+offensive odour should cause the various expressive movements of
+disgust. The tendency to retch from a fetid odour is immediately
+strengthened in a curious manner by some degree of habit, though soon
+lost by longer familiarity with the cause of offence and by voluntary
+restraint. For instance, I wished to clean the skeleton of a bird,
+which had not been sufficiently macerated, and the smell made my
+servant and myself (we not having had much experience in such work)
+retch so violently, that we were compelled to desist. During the
+previous days I had examined some other skeletons, which smelt
+slightly; yet the odour did not in the least affect me, but,
+subsequently for several days, whenever I handled these same skeletons,
+they made me retch.
+
+From the answers received from my correspondents it appears that the
+various movements, which have now been described as expressing contempt
+and disgust, prevail throughout a large part of the world. Dr.
+Rothrock, for instance, answers with a decided affirmative with respect
+to certain wild Indian tribes of North America. Crantz says that when a
+Greenlander denies anything with contempt or horror he turns up his
+nose, and gives a slight sound through it.[1109] Mr. Scott has sent me
+a graphic description of the face of a young Hindoo at the sight of
+castor-oil, which he was compelled occasionally to take. Mr. Scott has
+also seen the same expression on the faces of high-caste natives who
+have approached close to some defiling object. Mr. Bridges says that
+the Fuegians “express contempt by shooting out the lips and hissing
+through them, and by turning up the nose.” The tendency either to snort
+through the nose, or to make a noise expressed by _ugh_ or _ach_, is
+noticed by several of my correspondents.
+
+Spitting seems an almost universal sign of contempt or disgust; and
+spitting obviously represents the rejection of anything offensive from
+the mouth. Shakspeare makes the Duke of Norfolk say, “I spit at
+him—call him a slanderous coward and a villain.” So, again, Falstaff
+says, “Tell thee what, Hal,—if I tell thee a lie, spit in my face.”
+Leichhardt remarks that the Australians “interrupted their speeches by
+spitting, and uttering a noise like pooh! pooh! apparently expressive
+of their disgust.” And Captain Burton speaks of certain negroes
+“spitting with disgust upon the ground.” Captain Speedy informs me that
+this is likewise the case with the Abyssinians. Mr. Geach says that
+with the Malays of Malacca the expression of disgust “answers to
+spitting from the mouth;” and with the Fuegians, according to Mr.
+Bridges “to spit at one is the highest mark of contempt.”[1110]
+
+I never saw disgust more plainly expressed than on the face of one of
+my infants at the age of five months, when, for the first time, some
+cold water, and again a month afterwards, when a piece of ripe cherry
+was put into his mouth. This was shown by the lips and whole mouth
+assuming a shape which allowed the contents to run or fall quickly out;
+the tongue being likewise protruded. These movements were accompanied
+by a little shudder. It was all the more comical, as I doubt whether
+the child felt real disgust—the eyes and forehead expressing much
+surprise and consideration. The protrusion of the tongue in letting a
+nasty object fall out of the mouth, may explain how it is that lolling
+out the tongue universally serves as a sign of contempt and
+hatred.[1111]
+
+We have now seen that scorn, disdain, contempt, and disgust are
+expressed in many different ways, by movements of the features, and by
+various gestures; and that these are the same throughout the world.
+They all consist of actions representing the rejection or exclusion of
+some real object which we dislike or abhor, but which does not excite
+in us certain other strong emotions, such as rage or terror; and
+through the force of habit and association similar actions are
+performed, whenever any analogous sensation arises in our minds.
+
+_Jealousy, Envy, Avarice, Revenge, Suspicion, Deceit, Slyness, Guilt,
+Vanity, Conceit, Ambition, Pride, Humility, &c_.—It is doubtful whether
+the greater number of the above complex states of mind are revealed by
+any fixed expression, sufficiently distinct to be described or
+delineated. When Shakspeare speaks of Envy as _lean-faced_, or _black_,
+or _pale_, and Jealousy as “_the green-eyed monster_;” and when Spenser
+describes Suspicion as “_foul, ill-favoured, and grim_,” they must have
+felt this difficulty. Nevertheless, the above feelings—at least many of
+them—can be detected by the eye; for instance, conceit; but we are
+often guided in a much greater degree than we suppose by our previous
+knowledge of the persons or circumstances.
+
+My correspondents almost unanimously answer in the affirmative to my
+query, whether the expression of guilt and deceit can be recognized
+amongst the various races of man; and I have confidence in their
+answers, as they generally deny that jealousy can thus be recognized.
+In the cases in which details are given, the eyes are almost always
+referred to. The guilty man is said to avoid looking at his accuser, or
+to give him stolen looks. The eyes are said “to be turned askant,” or
+“to waver from side to side,” or “the eyelids to be lowered and partly
+closed.” This latter remark is made by Mr. Hagenauer with respect to
+the Australians, and by Gaika with respect to the Kafirs. The restless
+movements of the eyes apparently follow, as will be explained when we
+treat of blushing, from the guilty man not enduring to meet the gaze of
+his accuser. I may add, that I have observed a guilty expression,
+without a shade of fear, in some of my own children at a very early
+age. In one instance the expression was unmistakably clear in a child
+two years and seven months old, and led to the detection of his little
+crime. It was shown, as I record in my notes made at the time, by an
+unnatural brightness in the eyes, and by an odd, affected manner,
+impossible to describe.
+
+Slyness is also, I believe, exhibited chiefly by movements about the
+eyes; for these are less under the control of the will, owing to the
+force of long-continued habit, than are the movements of the body. Mr.
+Herbert Spencer remarks,[1112] “When there is a desire to see something
+on one side of the visual field without being supposed to see it, the
+tendency is to check the conspicuous movement of the head, and to make
+the required adjustment entirely with the eyes; which are, therefore,
+drawn very much to one side. Hence, when the eyes are turned to one
+side, while the face is not turned to the same side, we get the natural
+language of what is called slyness.”
+
+Of all the above-named complex emotions, Pride, perhaps, is the most
+plainly expressed. A proud man exhibits his sense of superiority over
+others by holding his head and body erect. He is haughty (_haut_), or
+high, and makes himself appear as large as possible; so that
+metaphorically he is said to be swollen or puffed up with pride. A
+peacock or a turkey-cock strutting about with puffed-up feathers, is
+sometimes said to be an emblem of pride.[1113] The arrogant man looks
+down on others, and with lowered eyelids hardly condescends to see
+them; or he may show his contempt by slight movements, such as those
+before described, about the nostrils or lips. Hence the muscle which
+everts the lower lip has been called the _musculus superbus_. In some
+photographs of patients affected by a monomania of pride, sent me by
+Dr. Crichton Browne, the head and body were held erect, and the mouth
+firmly closed. This latter action, expressive of decision, follows, I
+presume, from the proud man feeling perfect self-confidence in himself.
+The whole expression of pride stands in direct antithesis to that of
+humility; so that nothing need here be said of the latter state of
+mind.
+
+_Helplessness, Impotence: Shrugging the shoulders_.—When a man wishes
+to show that he cannot do something, or prevent something being done,
+he often raises with a quick movement both shoulders. At the same time,
+if the whole gesture is completed, he bends his elbows closely inwards,
+raises his open hands, turning them outwards, with the fingers
+separated. The head is often thrown a little on one side; the eyebrows
+are elevated, and this causes wrinkles across the forehead. The mouth
+is generally opened. I may mention, in order to show how unconsciously
+the features are thus acted on, that though I had often intentionally
+shrugged my shoulders to observe how my arms were placed, I was not at
+all aware that my eyebrows were raised and mouth opened, until I looked
+at myself in a glass; and since then I have noticed the same movements
+in the faces of others. In the accompanying Plate VI., figs. 3 and 4,
+Mr. Rejlander has successfully acted the gesture of shrugging the
+shoulders.
+
+Englishmen are much less demonstrative than the men of most other
+European nations, and they shrug their shoulders far less frequently
+and energetically than Frenchmen or Italians do. The gesture varies in
+all degrees from the complex movement, just described, to only a
+momentary and scarcely perceptible raising of both shoulders; or, as I
+have noticed in a lady sitting in an arm-chair, to the mere turning
+slightly outwards of the open hands with separated fingers. I have
+never seen very young English children shrug their shoulders, but the
+following case was observed with care by a medical professor and
+excellent observer, and has been communicated to me by him. The father
+of this gentleman was a Parisian, and his mother a Scotch lady. His
+wife is of British extraction on both sides, and my informant does not
+believe that she ever shrugged her shoulders in her life. His children
+have been reared in England, and the nursemaid is a thorough
+Englishwoman, who has never been seen to shrug her shoulders. Now, his
+eldest daughter was observed to shrug her shoulders at the age of
+between sixteen and eighteen months; her mother exclaiming at the time,
+“Look at the little French girl shrugging her shoulders!” At first she
+often acted thus, sometimes throwing her head a little backwards and on
+one side, but she did not, as far as was observed, move her elbows and
+hands in the usual manner. The habit gradually wore away, and now, when
+she is a little over four years old, she is never seen to act thus. The
+father is told that he sometimes shrugs his shoulders, especially when
+arguing with any one; but it is extremely improbable that his daughter
+should have imitated him at so early an age; for, as he remarks, she
+could not possibly have often seen this gesture in him. Moreover, if
+the habit had been acquired through imitation, it is not probable that
+it would so soon have been spontaneously discontinued by this child,
+and, as we shall immediately see, by a second child, though the father
+still lived with his family. This little girl, it may be added,
+resembles her Parisian grandfather in countenance to an almost absurd
+degree. She also presents another and very curious resemblance to him,
+namely, by practising a singular trick. When she impatiently wants
+something, she holds out her little hand, and rapidly rubs the thumb
+against the index and middle finger: now this same trick was frequently
+performed under the same circumstances by her grandfather.
+
+This gentleman’s second daughter also shrugged her shoulders before the
+age of eighteen months, and afterwards discontinued the habit. It is of
+course possible that she may have imitated her elder sister; but she
+continued it after her sister had lost the habit. She at first
+resembled her Parisian grandfather in a less degree than did her sister
+at the same age, but now in a greater degree. She likewise practises to
+the present time the peculiar habit of rubbing together, when
+impatient, her thumb and two of her fore-fingers.
+
+In this latter case we have a good instance, like those given in a
+former chapter, of the inheritance of a trick or gesture; for no one, I
+presume, will attribute to mere coincidence so peculiar a habit as
+this, which was common to the grandfather and his two grandchildren who
+had never seen him.
+
+Considering all the circumstances with reference to these children
+shrugging their shoulders, it can hardly be doubted that they have
+inherited the habit from their French progenitors, although they have
+only one quarter French blood in their veins, and although their
+grandfather did not often shrug his shoulders. There is nothing very
+unusual, though the fact is interesting, in these children having
+gained by inheritance a habit during early youth, and then
+discontinuing it; for it is of frequent occurrence with many kinds of
+animals that certain characters are retained for a period by the young,
+and are then lost.
+
+As it appeared to me at one time improbable in a high degree that so
+complex a gesture as shrugging the shoulders, together with the
+accompanying movements, should be innate, I was anxious to ascertain
+whether the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman, who could not have learnt
+the habit by imitation, practised it. And I have heard, through Dr.
+Innes, from a lady who has lately had charge of her, that she does
+shrug her shoulders, turn in her elbows, and raise her eyebrows in the
+same manner as other people, and under the same circumstances. I was
+also anxious to learn whether this gesture was practised by the various
+races of man, especially by those who never have had much intercourse
+with Europeans. We shall see that they act in this manner; but it
+appears that the gesture is sometimes confined to merely raising or
+shrugging the shoulders, without the other movements.
+
+Mr. Scott has frequently seen this gesture in the Bengalees and
+Dhangars (the latter constituting a distinct race) who are employed in
+the Botanic Garden at Calcutta; when, for instance, they have declared
+that they could not do some work, such as lifting a heavy weight. He
+ordered a Bengalee to climb a lofty tree; but the man, with a shrug of
+his shoulders and a lateral shake of his head, said he could not. Mr.
+Scott knowing that the man was lazy, thought he could, and insisted on
+his trying. His face now became pale, his arms dropped to his sides,
+his mouth and eyes were widely opened, and again surveying the tree, he
+looked askant at Mr. Scott, shrugged his shoulders, inverted his
+elbows, extended his open hands, and with a few quick lateral shakes of
+the head declared his inability. Mr. H. Erskine has likewise seen the
+natives of India shrugging their shoulders; but he has never seen the
+elbows turned so much inwards as with us; and whilst shrugging their
+shoulders they sometimes lay their uncrossed hands on their breasts.
+
+With the wild Malays of the interior of Malacca, and with the Bugis
+(true Malays, though speaking a different language), Mr. Geach has
+often seen this gesture. I presume that it is complete, as, in answer
+to my query descriptive of the movements of the shoulders, arms, hands,
+and face, Mr. Geach remarks, “it is performed in a beautiful style.” I
+have lost an extract from a scientific voyage, in which shrugging the
+shoulders by some natives (Micronesians) of the Caroline Archipelago in
+the Pacific Ocean, was well described. Capt. Speedy informs me that the
+Abyssinians shrug their shoulders but enters into no details. Mrs. Asa
+Gray saw an Arab dragoman in Alexandria acting exactly as described in
+my query, when an old gentleman, on whom he attended, would not go in
+the proper direction which had been pointed out to him.
+
+Mr. Washington Matthews says, in reference to the wild Indian tribes of
+the western parts of the United States, “I have on a few occasions
+detected men using a slight apologetic shrug, but the rest of the
+demonstration which you describe I have not witnessed.” Fritz Müller
+informs me that he has seen the negroes in Brazil shrugging their
+shoulders; but it is of course possible that they may have learnt to do
+so by imitating the Portuguese. Mrs. Barber has never seen this gesture
+with the Kafirs of South Africa; and Gaika, judging from his answer,
+did not even understand what was meant by my description. Mr. Swinhoe
+is also doubtful about the Chinese; but he has seen them, under the
+circumstances which would make us shrug our shoulders, press their
+right elbow against their side, raise their eyebrows, lift up their
+hand with the palm directed towards the person addressed, and shake it
+from right to left. Lastly, with respect to the Australians, four of my
+informants answer by a simple negative, and one by a simple
+affirmative. Mr. Bunnett, who has had excellent opportunities for
+observation on the borders of the Colony of Victory, also answers by a
+“yes,” adding that the gesture is performed “in a more subdued and less
+demonstrative manner than is the case with civilized nations.” This
+circumstance may account for its not having been noticed by four of my
+informants.
+
+These statements, relating to Europeans, Hindoos, the hill-tribes of
+India, Malays, Micronesians, Abyssinians, Arabs, Negroes, Indians of
+North America, and apparently to the Australians—many of these natives
+having had scarcely any intercourse with Europeans—are sufficient to
+show that shrugging the shoulders, accompanied in some cases by the
+other proper movements, is a gesture natural to mankind.
+
+This gesture implies an unintentional or unavoidable action on our own
+part, or one that we cannot perform; or an action performed by another
+person which we cannot prevent. It accompanies such speeches as, “It
+was not my fault;” “It is impossible for me to grant this favour;” “He
+must follow his own course, I cannot stop him.” Shrugging the shoulders
+likewise expresses patience, or the absence of any intention to resist.
+Hence the muscles which raise the shoulders are sometimes called, as I
+have been informed by an artist, the patience muscles. Shylock the Jew,
+says,
+
+“Signor Antonio, many a time and oft
+In the Rialto have you rated me
+About my monies and usances;
+Still have I borne it with a patient shrug.”
+_Merchant of Venice_, act i. sc. 3.
+
+
+Sir C. Bell has given[1114] a life-like figure of a man, who is
+shrinking back from some terrible danger, and is on the point of
+screaming out in abject terror. He is represented with his shoulders
+lifted up almost to his ears; and this at once declares that there is
+no thought of resistance.
+
+As shrugging the shoulders generally implies “I cannot do this or
+that,” so by a slight change, it sometimes implies “I won’t do it.” The
+movement then expresses a dogged determination not to act. Olmsted
+describes[1115] an Indian in Texas as giving a great shrug to his
+shoulders, when he was informed that a party of men were Germans and
+not Americans, thus expressing that he would have nothing to do with
+them. Sulky and obstinate children may be seen with both their
+shoulders raised high up; but this movement is not associated with the
+others which generally accompany a true shrug. An excellent
+observer[1116] in describing a young man who was determined not to
+yield to his father’s desire, says, “He thrust his hands deep down into
+his pockets, and set up his shoulders to his ears, which was a good
+warning that, come right or wrong, this rock should fly from its firm
+base as soon as Jack would; and that any remonstrance on the subject
+was purely futile.” As soon as the son got his own way, he “put his
+shoulders into their natural position.”
+
+Resignation is sometimes shown by the open hands being placed, one over
+the other, on the lower part of the body. I should not have thought
+this little gesture worth even a passing notice, had not Dr. W. Ogle
+remarked to me that he had two or three times observed it in patients
+who were preparing for operations under chloroform. They exhibited no
+great fear, but seemed to declare by this posture of their hands, that
+they had made up their minds, and were resigned to the inevitable.
+
+We may now inquire why men in all parts of the world when they
+feel,—whether or not they wish to show this feeling,—that they cannot
+or will not do something, or will not resist something if done by
+another, shrug their shoulders, at the same time often bending in their
+elbows, showing the palms of their hands with extended fingers, often
+throwing their heads a little on one side, raising their eyebrows, and
+opening their mouths. These states of the mind are either simply
+passive, or show a determination not to act. None of the above
+movements are of the least service. The explanation lies, I cannot
+doubt, in the principle of unconscious antithesis. This principle here
+seems to come into play as clearly as in the case of a dog, who, when
+feeling savage, puts himself in the proper attitude for attacking and
+for making himself appear terrible to his enemy; but as soon as he
+feels affectionate, throws his whole body into a directly opposite
+attitude, though this is of no direct use to him.
+
+Let it be observed how an indignant man, who resents, and will not
+submit to some injury, holds his head erect, squares his shoulders, and
+expands his chest. He often clenches his fists, and puts one or both
+arms in the proper position for attack or defence, with the muscles of
+his limbs rigid. He frowns,—that is, he contracts and lowers his
+brows,—and, being determined, closes his mouth. The actions and
+attitude of a helpless man are, in every one of these respects, exactly
+the reverse. In Plate VI. we may imagine one of the figures on the left
+side to have just said, “What do you mean by insulting me?” and one of
+the figures on the right side to answer, “I really could not help it.”
+The helpless man unconsciously contracts the muscles of his forehead
+which are antagonistic to those that cause a frown, and thus raises his
+eyebrows; at the same time he relaxes the muscles about the mouth, so
+that the lower jaw drops. The antithesis is complete in every detail,
+not only in the movements of the features, but in the position of the
+limbs and in the attitude of the whole body, as may be seen in the
+accompanying plate. As the helpless or apologetic man often wishes to
+show his state of mind, he then acts in a conspicuous or demonstrative
+manner.
+
+In accordance with the fact that squaring the elbows and clenching the
+fists are gestures by no means universal with the men of all races,
+when they feel indignant and are prepared to attack their enemy, so it
+appears that a helpless or apologetic frame of mind is expressed in
+many parts of the world by merely shrugging the shoulders, without
+turning inwards the elbows and opening the hands. The man or child who
+is obstinate, or one who is resigned to some great misfortune, has in
+neither case any idea of resistance by active means; and he expresses
+this state of mind, by simply keeping his shoulders raised; or he may
+possibly fold his arms across his breast.
+
+_Signs of affirmation or approval, and of negation or disapproval:
+nodding and shaking the head_.—I was curious to ascertain how far the
+common signs used by us in affirmation and negation were general
+throughout the world. These signs are indeed to a certain extent
+expressive of our feelings, as we give a vertical nod of approval with
+a smile to our children, when we approve of their conduct; and shake
+our heads laterally with a frown, when we disapprove. With infants, the
+first act of denial consists in refusing food; and I repeatedly noticed
+with my own infants, that they did so by withdrawing their heads
+laterally from the breast, or from anything offered them in a spoon. In
+accepting food and taking it into their mouths, they incline their
+heads forwards. Since making these observations I have been informed
+that the same idea had occurred to Charma.[1117] It deserves notice
+that in accepting or taking food, there is only a single movement
+forward, and a single nod implies an affirmation. On the other hand, in
+refusing food, especially if it be pressed on them, children frequently
+move their heads several times from side to side, as we do in shaking
+our heads in negation. Moreover, in the case of refusal, the head is
+not rarely thrown backwards, or the mouth is closed, so that these
+movements might likewise come to serve as signs of negation. Mr.
+Wedgwood remarks on this subject,[1118] that “when the voice is exerted
+with closed teeth or lips, it produces the sound of the letter _n_ or
+_m_. Hence we may account for the use of the particle _ne_ to signify
+negation, and possibly also of the Greek mh in the same sense.”
+
+That these signs are innate or instinctive, at least with Anglo-Saxons,
+is rendered highly probable by the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman
+“constantly accompanying her _yes_ with the common affirmative nod, and
+her _no_ with our negative shake of the head.” Had not Mr. Lieber
+stated to the contrary,[1119] I should have imagined that these
+gestures might have been acquired or learnt by her, considering her
+wonderful sense of touch and appreciation of the movements of others.
+With microcephalous idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn
+to speak, one of them is described by Vogt,[1120] as answering, when
+asked whether he wished for more food or drink, by inclining or shaking
+his head. Schmalz, in his remarkable dissertation on the education of
+the deaf and dumb, as well as of children raised only one degree above
+idiotcy, assumes that they can always both make and understand the
+common signs of affirmation and negation.[1121]
+
+Nevertheless if we look to the various races of man, these signs are
+not so universally employed as I should have expected; yet they seem
+too general to be ranked as altogether conventional or artificial. My
+informants assert that both signs are used by the Malays, by the
+natives of Ceylon, the Chinese, the negroes of the Guinea coast, and,
+according to Gaika, by the Kafirs of South Africa, though with these
+latter people Mrs. Barber has never seen a lateral shake used as a
+negative. With respect to the Australians, seven observers agree that a
+nod is given in affirmation; five agree about a lateral shake in
+negation, accompanied or not by some word; but Mr. Dyson Lacy has never
+seen this latter sign in Queensland, and Mr. Bulmer says that in Gipps’
+Land a negative is expressed by throwing the head a little backwards
+and putting out the tongue. At the northern extremity of the continent,
+near Torres Straits, the natives when uttering a negative “don’t shake
+the head with it, but holding up the right hand, shake it by turning it
+half round and back again two or three times.”[1122] The throwing back
+of the head with a cluck of the tongue is said to be used as a negative
+by the modern Greeks and Turks, the latter people expressing _yes_ by a
+movement like that made by us when we shake our heads.[1123] The
+Abyssinians, as I am informed by Captain Speedy, express a negative by
+jerking the head to the right shoulder, together with a slight cluck,
+the mouth being closed; an affirmation is expressed by the head being
+thrown backwards and the eyebrows raised for an instant. The Tagals of
+Luzon, in the Philippine Archipelago, as I hear from Dr. Adolf Meyer,
+when they say “yes,” also throw the head backwards. According to the
+Rajah Brooke, the Dyaks of Borneo express an affirmation by raising the
+eyebrows, and a negation by slightly contracting them, together with a
+peculiar look from the eyes. With the Arabs on the Nile, Professor and
+Mrs. Asa Gray concluded that nodding in affirmation was rare, whilst
+shaking the head in negation was never used, and was not even
+understood by them. With the Esquimaux[1124] a nod means _yes_ and a
+wink _no_. The New Zealanders “elevate the head and chin in place of
+nodding acquiescence.”[1125]
+
+With the Hindoos Mr. H. Erskine concludes from inquiries made from
+experienced Europeans, and from native gentlemen, that the signs of
+affirmation and negation vary—a nod and a lateral shake being sometimes
+used as we do; but a negative is more commonly expressed by the head
+being thrown suddenly backwards and a little to one side, with a cluck
+of the tongue. What the meaning may be of this cluck of the tongue,
+which has been observed with various people, I cannot imagine. A native
+gentleman stated that affirmation is frequently shown by the head being
+thrown to the left. I asked Mr. Scott to attend particularly to this
+point, and, after repeated observations, he believes that a vertical
+nod is not commonly used by the natives in affirmation, but that the
+head is first thrown backwards either to the left or right, and then
+jerked obliquely forwards only once. This movement would perhaps have
+been described by a less careful observer as a lateral shake. He also
+states that in negation the head is usually held nearly upright, and
+shaken several times.
+
+Mr. Bridges informs me that the Fuegians nod their heads vertically in
+affirmation, and shake them laterally in denial. With the wild Indians
+of North America, according to Mr. Washington Matthews, nodding and
+shaking the head have been learnt from Europeans, and are not naturally
+employed. They express affirmation by describing with the hand (all the
+fingers except the index being flexed) a curve downwards and outwards
+from the body, whilst negation is expressed by moving the open hand
+outwards, with the palm facing inwards. Other observers state that the
+sign of affirmation with these Indians is the forefinger being raised,
+and then lowered and pointed to the ground, or the hand is waved
+straight forward from the face; and that the sign of negation is the
+finger or whole hand shaken from side to side.[1126] This latter
+movement probably represents in all cases the lateral shaking of the
+head. The Italians are said in like manner to move the lifted finger
+from right to left in negation, as indeed we English sometimes do.
+
+On the whole we find considerable diversity in the signs of affirmation
+and negation in the different races of man. With respect to negation,
+if we admit that the shaking of the finger or hand from side to side is
+symbolic of the lateral movement of the head; and if we admit that the
+sudden backward movement of the head represents one of the actions
+often practised by young children in refusing food, then there is much
+uniformity throughout the world in the signs of negation, and we can
+see how they originated. The most marked exceptions are presented by
+the Arabs, Esquimaux, some Australian tribes, and Dyaks. With the
+latter a frown is the sign of negation, and with us frowning often
+accompanies a lateral shake of the head.
+
+With respect to nodding in affirmation, the exceptions are rather more
+numerous, namely with some of the Hindoos, with the Turks, Abyssinians,
+Dyaks, Tagals, and New Zealanders. The eyebrows are sometimes raised in
+affirmation, and as a person in bending his head forwards and downwards
+naturally looks up to the person whom he addresses, he will be apt to
+raise his eyebrows, and this sign may thus have arisen as an
+abbreviation. So again with the New Zealanders, the lifting up the chin
+and head in affirmation may perhaps represent in an abbreviated form
+the upward movement of the head after it has been nodded forwards and
+downwards.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII. SURPRISE—ASTONISHMENT—FEAR—HORROR.
+
+Surprise, astonishment—Elevation of the eyebrows—Opening the
+mouth—Protrusion of the lips—Gestures accompanying
+surprise—Admiration—Fear—Terror—Erection of the hair—Contraction of the
+platysma muscle—Dilatation of the pupils—Horror—Conclusion.
+
+Attention, if sudden and close, graduates into surprise; and this into
+astonishment; and this into stupefied amazement. The latter frame of
+mind is closely akin to terror. Attention is shown by the eyebrows
+being slightly raised; and as this state increases into surprise, they
+are raised to a much greater extent, with the eyes and mouth widely
+open. The raising of the eyebrows is necessary in order that the eyes
+should be opened quickly and widely; and this movement produces
+transverse wrinkles across the forehead. The degree to which the eyes
+and mouth are opened corresponds with the degree of surprise felt; but
+these movements must be coordinated; for a widely opened mouth with
+eyebrows only slightly raised results in a meaningless grimace, as Dr.
+Duchenne has shown in one of his photographs.[1201] On the other hand,
+a person may often be seen to pretend surprise by merely raising his
+eyebrows.
+
+Dr. Duchenne has given a photograph of an old man with his eyebrows
+well elevated and arched by the galvanization of the frontal muscle;
+and with his mouth voluntarily opened. This figure expresses surprise
+with much truth. I showed it to twenty-four persons without a word of
+explanation, and one alone did not at all understand what was intended.
+A second person answered terror, which is not far wrong; some of the
+others, however, added to the words surprise or astonishment, the
+epithets horrified, woful, painful, or disgusted.
+
+The eyes and mouth being widely open is an expression universally
+recognized as one of surprise or astonishment. Thus Shakespeare says,
+“I saw a smith stand with open mouth swallowing a tailor’s news.”
+(‘King John,’ act iv. scene ii.) And again, “They seemed almost, with
+staring on one another, to tear the cases of their eyes; there was
+speech in the dumbness, language in their very gesture; they looked as
+they had heard of a world destroyed.” (‘Winter’s Tale,’ act v. scene
+ii.)
+
+My informants answer with remarkable uniformity to the same effect,
+with respect to the various races of man; the above movements of the
+features being often accompanied by certain gestures and sounds,
+presently to be described. Twelve observers in different parts of
+Australia agree on this head. Mr. Winwood Reade has observed this
+expression with the negroes on the Guinea coast. The chief Gaika and
+others answer _yes_ to my query with respect to the Kafirs of South
+Africa; and so do others emphatically with reference to the
+Abyssinians, Ceylonese, Chinese, Fuegians, various tribes of North
+America, and New Zealanders. With the latter, Mr. Stack states that the
+expression is more plainly shown by certain individuals than by others,
+though all endeavour as much as possible to conceal their feelings. The
+Dyaks of Borneo are said by the Rajah Brooke to open their eyes widely,
+when astonished, often swinging their heads to and fro, and beating
+their breasts. Mr. Scott informs me that the workmen in the Botanic
+Gardens at Calcutta are strictly ordered not to smoke; but they often
+disobey this order, and when suddenly surprised in the act, they first
+open their eyes and mouths widely. They then often slightly shrug their
+shoulders, as they perceive that discovery is inevitable, or frown and
+stamp on the ground from vexation. Soon they recover from their
+surprise, and abject fear is exhibited by the relaxation of all their
+muscles; their heads seem to sink between their shoulders; their fallen
+eyes wander to and fro; and they supplicate forgiveness.
+
+The well-known Australian explorer, Mr. Stuart, has given[1202] a
+striking account of stupefied amazement together with terror in a
+native who had never before seen a man on horseback. Mr. Stuart
+approached unseen and called to him from a little distance. “He turned
+round and saw me. What he imagined I was I do not know; but a finer
+picture of fear and astonishment I never saw. He stood incapable of
+moving a limb, riveted to the spot, mouth open and eyes staring.... He
+remained motionless until our black got within a few yards of him, when
+suddenly throwing down his waddies, he jumped into a mulga bush as high
+as he could get.” He could not speak, and answered not a word to the
+inquiries made by the black, but, trembling from head to foot, “waved
+with his hand for us to be off.”
+
+That the eyebrows are raised by an innate or instinctive impulse may be
+inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman invariably acts thus when
+astonished, as I have been assured by the lady who has lately had
+charge of her. As surprise is excited by something unexpected or
+unknown, we naturally desire, when startled, to perceive the cause as
+quickly as possible; and we consequently open our eyes fully, so that
+the field of vision may be increased, and the eyeballs moved easily in
+any direction. But this hardly accounts for the eyebrows being so
+greatly raised as is the case, and for the wild staring of the open
+eyes. The explanation lies, I believe, in the impossibility of opening
+the eyes with great rapidity by merely raising the upper lids. To
+effect this the eyebrows must be lifted energetically. Any one who will
+try to open his eyes as quickly as possible before a mirror will find
+that he acts thus; and the energetic lifting up of the eyebrows opens
+the eyes so widely that they stare, the white being exposed all round
+the iris. Moreover, the elevation of the eyebrows is an advantage in
+looking upwards; for as long as they are lowered they impede our vision
+in this direction. Sir C. Bell gives[1203] a curious little proof of
+the part which the eyebrows play in opening the eyelids. In a stupidly
+drunken man all the muscles are relaxed, and the eyelids consequently
+droop, in the same manner as when we are falling asleep. To counteract
+this tendency the drunkard raises his eyebrows; and this gives to him a
+puzzled, foolish look, as is well represented in one of Hogarth’s
+drawings. The habit of raising the eyebrows having once been gained in
+order to see as quickly as possible all around us, the movement would
+follow from the force of association whenever astonishment was felt
+from any cause, even from a sudden sound or an idea.
+
+With adult persons, when the eyebrows are raised, the whole forehead
+becomes much wrinkled in transverse lines; but with children this
+occurs only to a slight degree. The wrinkles run in lines concentric
+with each eyebrow, and are partially confluent in the middle. They are
+highly characteristic of the expression of surprise or astonishment.
+Each eyebrow, when raised, becomes also, as Duchenne remarks,[1204]
+more arched than it was before.
+
+The cause of the mouth being opened when astonishment is felt, is a
+much more complex affair; and several causes apparently concur in
+leading to this movement. It has often been supposed[1205] that the
+sense of hearing is thus rendered more acute; but I have watched
+persons listening intently to a slight noise, the nature and source of
+which they knew perfectly, and they did not open their mouths.
+Therefore I at one time imagined that the open mouth might aid in
+distinguishing the direction whence a sound proceeded, by giving
+another channel for its entrance into the ear through the eustachian
+tube, But Dr. W. Ogle[1206] has been so kind as to search the best
+recent authorities on the functions of the eustachian tube, and he
+informs me that it is almost conclusively proved that it remains closed
+except during the act of deglutition; and that in persons in whom the
+tube remains abnormally open, the sense of hearing, as far as external
+sounds are concerned, is by no means improved; on the contrary, it is
+impaired by the respiratory sounds being rendered more distinct. If a
+watch be placed within the mouth, but not allowed to touch the sides,
+the ticking is heard much less plainly than when held outside. In
+persons in whom from disease or a cold the eustachian tube is
+permanently or temporarily closed, the sense of hearing is injured; but
+this may be accounted for by mucus accumulating within the tube, and
+the consequent exclusion of air. We may therefore infer that the mouth
+is not kept open under the sense of astonishment for the sake of
+hearing sounds more distinctly; notwithstanding that most deaf people
+keep their mouths open.
+
+Every sudden emotion, including astonishment, quickens the action of
+the heart, and with it the respiration. Now we can breathe, as
+Gratiolet remarks[1207] and as appears to me to be the case, much more
+quietly through the open mouth than through the nostrils. Therefore,
+when we wish to listen intently to any sound, we either stop breathing,
+or breathe as quietly as possible, by opening our mouths, at the same
+time keeping our bodies motionless. One of my sons was awakened in the
+night by a noise under circumstances which naturally led to great care,
+and after a few minutes he perceived that his mouth was widely open. He
+then became conscious that he had opened it for the sake of breathing
+as quietly as possible. This view receives support from the reversed
+case which occurs with dogs. A dog when panting after exercise, or on a
+hot day, breathes loudly; but if his attention be suddenly aroused, he
+instantly pricks his ears to listen, shuts his mouth, and breathes
+quietly, as he is enabled to do, through his nostrils.
+
+When the attention is concentrated for a length of time with fixed
+earnestness on any object or subject, all the organs of the body are
+forgotten and neglected;[1208] and as the nervous energy of each
+individual is limited in amount, little is transmitted to any part of
+the system, excepting that which is at the time brought into energetic
+action. Therefore many of the muscles tend to become relaxed, and the
+jaw drops from its own weight. This will account for the dropping of
+the jaw and open mouth of a man stupefied with amazement, and perhaps
+when less strongly affected. I have noticed this appearance, as I find
+recorded in my notes, in very young children when they were only
+moderately surprised.
+
+There is still another and highly effective cause, leading to the mouth
+being opened, when we are astonished, and more especially when we are
+suddenly startled. We can draw a full and deep inspiration much more
+easily through the widely open mouth than through the nostrils. Now
+when we start at any sudden sound or sight, almost all the muscles of
+the body are involuntarily and momentarily thrown into strong action,
+for the sake of guarding ourselves against or jumping away from the
+danger, which we habitually associate with anything unexpected. But we
+always unconsciously prepare ourselves for any great exertion, as
+formerly explained, by first taking a deep and full inspiration, and we
+consequently open our mouths. If no exertion follows, and we still
+remain astonished, we cease for a time to breathe, or breathe as
+quietly as possible, in order that every sound may be distinctly heard.
+Or again, if our attention continues long and earnestly absorbed, all
+our muscles become relaxed, and the jaw, which was at first suddenly
+opened, remains dropped. Thus several causes concur towards this same
+movement, whenever surprise, astonishment, or amazement is felt.
+
+Although when thus affected, our mouths are generally opened, yet the
+lips are often a little protruded. This fact reminds us of the same
+movement, though in a much more strongly marked degree, in the
+chimpanzee and orang when astonished. As a strong expiration naturally
+follows the deep inspiration which accompanies the first sense of
+startled surprise, and as the lips are often protruded, the various
+sounds which are then commonly uttered can apparently be accounted for.
+But sometimes a strong expiration alone is heard; thus Laura Bridgman,
+when amazed, rounds and protrudes her lips, opens them, and breathes
+strongly.[1209] One of the commonest sounds is a deep _Oh_; and this
+would naturally follow, as explained by Helmholtz, from the mouth being
+moderately opened and the lips protruded. On a quiet night some rockets
+were fired from the ‘Beagle,’ in a little creek at Tahiti, to amuse the
+natives; and as each rocket, was let off there was absolute silence,
+but this was invariably followed by a deep groaning _Oh_, resounding
+all round the bay. Mr. Washington Matthews says that the North American
+Indians express astonishment by a groan; and the negroes on the West
+Coast of Africa, according to Mr. Winwood Reade, protrude their lips,
+and make a sound like _heigh, heigh_. If the mouth is not much opened,
+whilst the lips are considerably protruded, a blowing, hissing, or
+whistling noise is produced. Mr. R. Brough Smith informs me that an
+Australian from the interior was taken to the theatre to see an acrobat
+rapidly turning head over heels: “he was greatly astonished, and
+protruded his lips, making a noise with his mouth as if blowing out a
+match.” According to Mr. Bulmer the Australians, when surprised, utter
+the exclamation _korki_, “and to do this the mouth is drawn out as if
+going to whistle.” We Europeans often whistle as a sign of surprise;
+thus, in a recent novel[1210] it is said, “here the man expressed his
+astonishment and disapprobation by a prolonged whistle.” A Kafir girl,
+as Mr. J. Mansel Weale informs me, “on hearing of the high price of an
+article, raised her eyebrows and whistled just as a European would.”
+Mr. Wedgwood remarks that such sounds are written down as _whew_, and
+they serve as interjections for surprise.
+
+According to three other observers, the Australians often evince
+astonishment by a clucking noise. Europeans also sometimes express
+gentle surprise by a little clicking noise of nearly the same kind. We
+have seen that when we are startled, the mouth is suddenly opened; and
+if the tongue happens to be then pressed closely against the palate,
+its sudden withdrawal will produce a sound of this kind, which might
+thus come to express surprise.
+
+
+
+Gestures of the Body. Plate VII
+
+Turning to gestures of the body. A surprised person often raises his
+opened hands high above his head, or by bending his arms only to the
+level of his face. The flat palms are directed towards the person who
+causes this feeling, and the straightened fingers are separated. This
+gesture is represented by Mr. Rejlander in Plate VII. fig. 1. In the
+‘Last Supper,’ by Leonardo da Vinci, two of the Apostles have their
+hands half uplifted, clearly expressive of their astonishment. A
+trustworthy observer told me that he had lately met his wife under most
+unexpected circumstances: “She started, opened her mouth and eyes very
+widely, and threw up both her arms above her head.” Several years ago I
+was surprised by seeing several of my young children earnestly doing
+something together on the ground; but the distance was too great for me
+to ask what they were about. Therefore I threw up my open hands with
+extended fingers above my head; and as soon as I had done this, I
+became conscious of the action. I then waited, without saying a word,
+to see if my children had understood this gesture; and as they came
+running to me they cried out, “We saw that you were astonished at us.”
+I do not know whether this gesture is common to the various races of
+man, as I neglected to make inquiries on this head. That it is innate
+or natural may be inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman, when
+amazed, “spreads her arms and turns her hands with extended fingers
+upwards;”[1211] nor is it likely, considering that the feeling of
+surprise is generally a brief one, that she should have learnt this
+gesture through her keen sense of touch.
+
+Huschke describes[1212] a somewhat different yet allied gesture, which
+he says is exhibited by persons when astonished. They hold themselves
+erect, with the features as before described, but with the straightened
+arms extended backwards—the stretched fingers being separated from each
+other. I have never myself seen this gesture; but Huschke is probably
+correct; for a friend asked another man how he would express great
+astonishment, and he at once threw himself into this attitude.
+
+These gestures are, I believe, explicable on the principle of
+antithesis. We have seen that an indignant man holds his head erect,
+squares his shoulders, turns out his elbows, often clenches his fist,
+frowns, and closes his mouth; whilst the attitude of a helpless man is
+in every one of these details the reverse. Now, a man in an ordinary
+frame of mind, doing nothing and thinking of nothing in particular,
+usually keeps his two arms suspended laxly by his sides, with his hands
+somewhat flexed, and the fingers near together. Therefore, to raise the
+arms suddenly, either the whole arms or the fore-arms, to open the
+palms flat, and to separate the fingers,—or, again, to straighten the
+arms, extending them backwards with separated fingers,—are movements in
+complete antithesis to those preserved under an indifferent frame of
+mind, and they are, in consequence, unconsciously assumed by an
+astonished man. There is, also, often a desire to display surprise in a
+conspicuous manner, and the above attitudes are well fitted for this
+purpose. It may be asked why should surprise, and only a few other
+states of the mind, be exhibited by movements in antithesis to others.
+But this principle will not be brought into play in the case of those
+emotions, such as terror, great joy, suffering, or rage, which
+naturally lead to certain lines of action and produce certain effects
+on the body, for the whole system is thus preoccupied; and these
+emotions are already thus expressed with the greatest plainness.
+
+There is another little gesture, expressive of astonishment of which I
+can offer no explanation; namely, the hand being placed over the mouth
+or on some part of the head. This has been observed with so many races
+of man, that it must have some natural origin. A wild Australian was
+taken into a large room full of official papers, which surprised him
+greatly, and he cried out, _cluck, cluck, cluck_, putting the back of
+his hand towards his lips. Mrs. Barber says that the Kafirs and Fingoes
+express astonishment by a serious look and by placing the right hand
+upon the mouth, uttering the word _mawo_, which means ‘wonderful.’ The
+Bushmen are said[1213] to put their right hands to their necks, bending
+their heads backwards. Mr. Winwood Reade has observed that the negroes
+on the West Coast of Africa, when surprised, clap their hands to their
+mouths, saying at the same time, “My mouth cleaves to me,” i. e. to my
+hands; and he has heard that this is their usual gesture on such
+occasions. Captain Speedy informs me that the Abyssinians place their
+right hand to the forehead, with the palm outside. Lastly, Mr.
+Washington Matthews states that the conventional sign of astonishment
+with the wild tribes of the western parts of the United States “is made
+by placing the half-closed hand over the mouth; in doing this, the head
+is often bent forwards, and words or low groans are sometimes uttered.”
+Catlin[1214] makes the same remark about the hand being pressed over
+the mouth by the Mandans and other Indian tribes.
+
+_Admiration_.—Little need be said on this head. Admiration apparently
+consists of surprise associated with some pleasure and a sense of
+approval. When vividly felt, the eyes are opened and the eyebrows
+raised; the eyes become bright, instead of remaining blank, as under
+simple astonishment; and the mouth, instead of gaping open, expands
+into a smile.
+
+_Fear, Terror_.—The word ‘fear’ seems to be derived from what is sudden
+and dangerous;[1215] and that of terror from the trembling of the vocal
+organs and body. I use the word ‘terror’ for extreme fear; but some
+writers think it ought to be confined to cases in which the imagination
+is more particularly concerned. Fear is often preceded by astonishment,
+and is so far akin to it, that both lead to the senses of sight and
+hearing being instantly aroused. In both cases the eyes and mouth are
+widely opened, and the eyebrows raised. The frightened man at first
+stands like a statue motionless and breathless, or crouches down as if
+instinctively to escape observation.
+
+The heart beats quickly and violently, so that it palpitates or knocks
+against the ribs; but it is very doubtful whether it then works more
+efficiently than usual, so as to send a greater supply of blood to all
+parts of the body; for the skin instantly becomes pale, as during
+incipient faintness. This paleness of the surface, however, is probably
+in large part, or exclusively, due to the vasomotor centre being
+affected in such a manner as to cause the contraction of the small
+arteries of the skin. That the skin is much affected under the sense of
+great fear, we see in the marvellous and inexplicable manner in which
+perspiration immediately exudes from it. This exudation is all the more
+remarkable, as the surface is then cold, and hence the term a cold
+sweat; whereas, the sudorific glands are properly excited into action
+when the surface is heated. The hairs also on the skin stand erect; and
+the superficial muscles shiver. In connection with the disturbed action
+of the heart, the breathing is hurried. The salivary glands act
+imperfectly; the mouth becomes dry,[1216] and is often opened and shut.
+I have also noticed that under slight fear there is a strong tendency
+to yawn. One of the best-marked symptoms is the trembling of all the
+muscles of the body; and this is often first seen in the lips. From
+this cause, and from the dryness of the mouth, the voice becomes husky
+or indistinct, or may altogether fail. “Obstupui, steteruntque comae,
+et vox faucibus haesit.”
+
+Of vague fear there is a well-known and grand description in Job:—“In
+thoughts from the visions of the night, when deep sleep falleth on men,
+fear came upon me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake.
+Then a spirit passed before my face; the hair of my flesh stood up. It
+stood still, but I could not discern the form thereof: an image was
+before my eyes, there was silence, and I heard a voice, saying, Shall
+mortal man be more just than God? Shall a man be more pure than his
+Maker?” (Job iv. 13)
+
+As fear increases into an agony of terror, we behold, as under all
+violent emotions, diversified results. The heart beats wildly, or may
+fail to act and faintness ensue; there is a death-like pallor; the
+breathing is laboured; the wings of the nostrils are wildly dilated;
+“there is a gasping and convulsive motion of the lips, a tremor on the
+hollow cheek, a gulping and catching of the throat;”[1217] the
+uncovered and protruding eyeballs are fixed on the object of terror; or
+they may roll restlessly from side to side, _huc illuc volvens oculos
+totumque pererrat_.[1218] The pupils are said to be enormously dilated.
+All the muscles of the body may become rigid, or may be thrown into
+convulsive movements. The hands are alternately clenched and opened,
+often with a twitching movement. The arms may be protruded, as if to
+avert some dreadful danger, or may be thrown wildly over the head. The
+Rev. Mr. Hagenauer has seen this latter action in a terrified
+Australian. In other cases there is a sudden and uncontrollable
+tendency to headlong flight; and so strong is this, that the boldest
+soldiers may be seized with a sudden panic.
+
+As fear rises to an extreme pitch, the dreadful scream of terror is
+heard. Great beads of sweat stand on the skin. All the muscles of the
+body are relaxed. Utter prostration soon follows, and the mental powers
+fail. The intestines are affected. The sphincter muscles cease to act,
+and no longer retain the contents of the body.
+
+
+
+Photograph of an Insane Woman. Fig. 19
+
+Dr. J. Crichton Browne has given me so striking an account of intense
+fear in an insane woman, aged thirty-five, that the description though
+painful ought not to be omitted. When a paroxysm seizes her, she
+screams out, “This is hell!” “There is a black woman!” “I can’t get
+out!”—and other such exclamations. When thus screaming, her movements
+are those of alternate tension and tremor. For one instant she clenches
+her hands, holds her arms out before her in a stiff semi-flexed
+position; then suddenly bends her body forwards, sways rapidly to and
+fro, draws her fingers through her hair, clutches at her neck, and
+tries to tear off her clothes. The sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles (which
+serve to bend the head on the chest) stand out prominently, as if
+swollen, and the skin in front of them is much wrinkled. Her hair,
+which is cut short at the back of her head, and is smooth when she is
+calm, now stands on end; that in front being dishevelled by the
+movements of her hands. The countenance expresses great mental agony.
+The skin is flushed over the face and neck, down to the clavicles, and
+the veins of the forehead and neck stand out like thick cords. The
+lower lip drops, and is somewhat everted. The mouth is kept half open,
+with the lower jaw projecting. The cheeks are hollow and deeply
+furrowed in curved lines running from the wings of the nostrils to the
+corners of the mouth. The nostrils themselves are raised and extended.
+The eyes are widely opened, and beneath them the skin appears swollen;
+the pupils are large. The forehead is wrinkled transversely in many
+folds, and at the inner extremities of the eyebrows it is strongly
+furrowed in diverging lines, produced by the powerful and persistent
+contraction of the corrugators.
+
+
+
+Terror. Fig. 20
+
+Mr. Bell has also described[1219] an agony of terror and of despair,
+which he witnessed in a murderer, whilst carried to the place of
+execution in Turin. “On each side of the car the officiating priests
+were seated; and in the centre sat the criminal himself. It was
+impossible to witness the condition of this unhappy wretch without
+terror; and yet, as if impelled by some strange infatuation, it was
+equally impossible not to gaze upon an object so wild, so full of
+horror. He seemed about thirty-five years of age; of large and muscular
+form; his countenance marked by strong and savage features; half naked,
+pale as death, agonized with terror, every limb strained in anguish,
+his hands clenched convulsively, the sweat breaking out on his bent and
+contracted brow, he kissed incessantly the figure of our Saviour,
+painted on the flag which was suspended before him; but with an agony
+of wildness and despair, of which nothing ever exhibited on the stage
+can give the slightest conception.”
+
+I will add only one other case, illustrative of a man utterly
+prostrated by terror. An atrocious murderer of two persons was brought
+into a hospital, under the mistaken impression that he had poisoned
+himself; and Dr. W. Ogle carefully watched him the next morning, while
+he was being handcuffed and taken away by the police. His pallor was
+extreme, and his prostration so great that he was hardly able to dress
+himself. His skin perspired; and his eyelids and head drooped so much
+that it was impossible to catch even a glimpse of his eyes. His lower
+jaw hung down. There was no contraction of any facial muscle, and Dr.
+Ogle is almost certain that the hair did not stand on end, for he
+observed it narrowly, as it had been dyed for the sake of concealment.
+
+With respect to fear, as exhibited by the various races of man, my
+informants agree that the signs are the same as with Europeans. They
+are displayed in an exaggerated degree with the Hindoos and natives of
+Ceylon. Mr. Geach has seen Malays when terrified turn pale and shake;
+and Mr. Brough Smyth states that a native Australian “being on one
+occasion much frightened, showed a complexion as nearly approaching to
+what we call paleness, as can well be conceived in the case of a very
+black man.” Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen extreme fear shown in an
+Australian, by a nervous twitching of the hands, feet, and lips; and by
+the perspiration standing on the skin. Many savages do not repress the
+signs of fear so much as Europeans; and they often tremble greatly.
+With the Kafir, Gaika says, in his rather quaint English, the shaking
+“of the body is much experienced, and the eyes are widely open.” With
+savages, the sphincter muscles are often relaxed, just as may be
+observed in much frightened dogs, and as I have seen with monkeys when
+terrified by being caught.
+
+_The erection of the hair_.—Some of the signs of fear deserve a little
+further consideration. Poets continually speak of the hair standing on
+end; Brutus says to the ghost of Caesar, “that mak’st my blood cold,
+and my hair to stare.” And Cardinal Beaufort, after the murder of
+Gloucester exclaims, “Comb down his hair; look, look, it stands
+upright.” As I did not feel sure whether writers of fiction might not
+have applied to man what they had often observed in animals, I begged
+for information from Dr. Crichton Browne with respect to the insane. He
+states in answer that he has repeatedly seen their hair erected under
+the influence of sudden and extreme terror. For instance, it is
+occasionally necessary to inject morphia, under the skin of an insane
+woman, who dreads the operation extremely, though it causes very little
+pain; for she believes that poison is being introduced into her system,
+and that her bones will be softened, and her flesh turned into dust.
+She becomes deadly pale; her limbs are stiffened by a sort of tetanic
+spasm, and her hair is partially erected on the front of the head.
+
+Dr. Browne further remarks that the bristling of the hair which is so
+common in the insane, is not always associated with terror. It is
+perhaps most frequently seen in chronic maniacs, who rave incoherently
+and have destructive impulses; but it is during their paroxysms of
+violence that the bristling is most observable. The fact of the hair
+becoming erect under the influence both of rage and fear agrees
+perfectly with what we have seen in the lower animals. Dr. Browne
+adduces several cases in evidence. Thus with a man now in the Asylum,
+before the recurrence of each maniacal paroxysm, “the hair rises up
+from his forehead like the mane of a Shetland pony.” He has sent me
+photographs of two women, taken in the intervals between their
+paroxysms, and he adds with respect to one of these women, “that the
+state of her hair is a sure and convenient criterion of her mental
+condition.” I have had one of these photographs copied, and the
+engraving gives, if viewed from a little distance, a faithful
+representation of the original, with the exception that the hair
+appears rather too coarse and too much curled. The extraordinary
+condition of the hair in the insane is due, not only to its erection,
+but to its dryness and harshness, consequent on the subcutaneous glands
+failing to act. Dr. Bucknill has said[1220] that a lunatic “is a
+lunatic to his finger’s ends;” he might have added, and often to the
+extremity of each particular hair.
+
+Dr. Browne mentions as an empirical confirmation of the relation which
+exists in the insane between the state of their hair and minds, that
+the wife of a medical man, who has charge of a lady suffering from
+acute melancholia, with a strong fear of death, for herself, her
+husband and children, reported verbally to him the day before receiving
+my letter as follows, “I think Mrs. —— will soon improve, for her hair
+is getting smooth; and I always notice that our patients get better
+whenever their hair ceases to be rough and unmanageable.”
+
+Dr. Browne attributes the persistently rough condition of the hair in
+many insane patients, in part to their minds being always somewhat
+disturbed, and in part to the effects of habit,—that is, to the hair
+being frequently and strongly erected during their many recurrent
+paroxysms. In patients in whom the bristling of the hair is extreme,
+the disease is generally permanent and mortal; but in others, in whom
+the bristling is moderate, as soon as they recover their health of mind
+the hair recovers its smoothness.
+
+In a previous chapter we have seen that with animals the hairs are
+erected by the contraction of minute, unstriped, and involuntary
+muscles, which run to each separate follicle. In addition to this
+action, Mr. J. Wood has clearly ascertained by experiment, as he
+informs me, that with man the hairs on the front of the head which
+slope forwards, and those on the back which slope backwards, are raised
+in opposite directions by the contraction of the occipito-frontalis or
+scalp muscle. So that this muscle seems to aid in the erection of the
+hairs on the head of man in the same manner as the homologous
+_panniculus carnosus_ aids, or takes the greater part, in the erection
+of the spines on the backs of some of the lower animals.
+
+_Contraction of the platysma myoides muscle_.—This muscle is spread
+over the sides of the neck, extending downwards to a little beneath the
+collar-bones, and upwards to the lower part of the cheeks. A portion,
+called the risorius, is represented in the woodcut (M) fig. 2. The
+contraction of this muscle draws the corners of the mouth and the lower
+parts of the checks downwards and backwards. It produces at the same
+time divergent, longitudinal, prominent ridges on the sides of the neck
+in the young; and, in old thin persons, fine transverse wrinkles. This
+muscle is sometimes said not to be under the control of the will; but
+almost every one, if told to draw the corners of his mouth backwards
+and downwards with great force, brings it into action. I have, however,
+heard of a man who can voluntarily act on it only on one side of his
+neck.
+
+Sir C. Bell[1221] and others have stated that this muscle is strongly
+contracted under the influence of fear; and Duchenne insists so
+strongly on its importance in the expression of this emotion, that he
+calls it the _muscle of fright_.[1222] He admits, however, that its
+contraction is quite inexpressive unless associated with widely open
+eyes and mouth. He has given a photograph (copied and reduced in the
+accompanying woodcut) of the same old man as on former occasions, with
+his eyebrows strongly raised, his mouth opened, and the platysma
+contracted, all by means of galvanism. The original photograph was
+shown to twenty-four persons, and they were separately asked, without
+any explanation being given, what expression was intended: twenty
+instantly answered, “intense fright” or “horror”; three said pain, and
+one extreme discomfort. Dr. Duchenne has given another photograph of
+the same old man, with the platysma contracted, the eyes and mouth
+opened, and the eyebrows rendered oblique, by means of galvanism. The
+expression thus induced is very striking (see Plate VII. fig. 2); the
+obliquity of the eyebrows adding the appearance of great mental
+distress. The original was shown to fifteen persons; twelve answered
+terror or horror, and three agony or great suffering. From these cases,
+and from an examination of the other photographs given by Dr. Duchenne,
+together with his remarks thereon, I think there can be little doubt
+that the contraction of the platysma does add greatly to the expression
+of fear. Nevertheless this muscle ought hardly to be called that of
+fright, for its contraction is certainly not a necessary concomitant of
+this state of mind.
+
+A man may exhibit extreme terror in the plainest manner by death-like
+pallor, by drops of perspiration on his skin, and by utter prostration,
+with all the muscles of his body, including the platysma, completely
+relaxed. Although Dr. Browne has often seen this muscle quivering and
+contracting in the insane, he has not been able to connect its action
+with any emotional condition in them, though he carefully attended to
+patients suffering from great fear. Mr. Nicol, on the other hand, has
+observed three cases in which this muscle appeared to be more or less
+permanently contracted under the influence of melancholia, associated
+with much dread; but in one of these cases, various other muscles about
+the neck and head were subject to spasmodic contractions.
+
+Dr. W. Ogle observed for me in one of the London hospitals about twenty
+patients, just before they were put under the influence of chloroform
+for operations. They exhibited some trepidation, but no great terror.
+In only four of the cases was the platysma visibly contracted; and it
+did not begin to contract until the patients began to cry. The muscle
+seemed to contract at the moment of each deep-drawn inspiration; so
+that it is very doubtful whether the contraction depended at all on the
+emotion of fear. In a fifth case, the patient, who was not
+chloroformed, was much terrified; and his platysma was more forcibly
+and persistently contracted than in the other cases. But even here
+there is room for doubt, for the muscle which appeared to be unusually
+developed, was seen by Dr. Ogle to contract as the man moved his head
+from the pillow, after the operation was over.
+
+As I felt much perplexed why, in any case, a superficial muscle on the
+neck should be especially affected by fear, I applied to my many
+obliging correspondents for information about the contraction of this
+muscle under other circumstances. It would be superfluous to give all
+the answers which I have received. They show that this muscle acts,
+often in a variable manner and degree, under many different conditions.
+It is violently contracted in hydrophobia, and in a somewhat less
+degree in lockjaw; sometimes in a marked manner during the
+insensibility from chloroform. Dr. W. Ogle observed two male patients,
+suffering from such difficulty in breathing, that the trachea had to be
+opened, and in both the platysma was strongly contracted. One of these
+men overheard the conversation of the surgeons surrounding him, and
+when he was able to speak, declared that he had not been frightened. In
+some other cases of extreme difficulty of respiration, though not
+requiring tracheotomy, observed by Drs. Ogle and Langstaff, the
+platysma was not contracted.
+
+Mr. J. Wood, who has studied with such care the muscles of the human
+body, as shown by his various publications, has often seen the platysma
+contracted in vomiting, nausea, and disgust; also in children and
+adults under the influence of rage,—for instance, in Irishwomen,
+quarrelling and brawling together with angry gesticulations. This may
+possibly have been due to their high and angry tones; for I know a
+lady, an excellent musician, who, in singing certain high notes, always
+contracts her platysma. So does a young man, as I have observed, in
+sounding certain notes on the flute. Mr. J. Wood informs me that he has
+found the platysma best developed in persons with thick necks and broad
+shoulders; and that in families inheriting these peculiarities, its
+development is usually associated with much voluntary power over the
+homologous occipito-frontalis muscle, by which the scalp can be moved.
+
+None of the foregoing cases appear to throw any light on the
+contraction of the platysma from fear; but it is different, I think,
+with the following cases. The gentleman before referred to, who can
+voluntarily act on this muscle only on one side of his neck, is
+positive that it contracts on both sides whenever he is startled.
+Evidence has already been given showing that this muscle sometimes
+contracts, perhaps for the sake of opening the mouth widely, when the
+breathing is rendered difficult by disease, and during the deep
+inspirations of crying-fits before an operation. Now, whenever a person
+starts at any sudden sight or sound, he instantaneously draws a deep
+breath; and thus the contraction of the platysma may possibly have
+become associated with the sense of fear. But there is, I believe, a
+more efficient relation. The first sensation of fear, or the
+imagination of something dreadful, commonly excites a shudder. I have
+caught myself giving a little involuntary shudder at a painful thought,
+and I distinctly perceived that my platysma contracted; so it does if I
+simulate a shudder. I have asked others to act in this manner; and in
+some the muscle contracted, but not in others. One of my sons, whilst
+getting out of bed, shuddered from the cold, and, as he happened to
+have his hand on his neck, he plainly felt that this muscle strongly
+contracted. He then voluntarily shuddered, as he had done on former
+occasions, but the platysma was not then affected. Mr. J. Wood has also
+several times observed this muscle contracting in patients, when
+stripped for examination, and who were not frightened, but shivered
+slightly from the cold. Unfortunately I have not been able to ascertain
+whether, when the whole body shakes, as in the cold stage of an ague
+fit, the platysma contracts. But as it certainly often contracts during
+a shudder; and as a shudder or shiver often accompanies the first
+sensation of fear, we have, I think, a clue to its action in this
+latter case.[1223] Its contraction, however, is not an invariable
+concomitant of fear; for it probably never acts under the influence of
+extreme, prostrating terror.
+
+_Dilatation of the Pupils_.—Gratiolet repeatedly insists[1224] that the
+pupils are enormously dilated whenever terror is felt. I have no reason
+to doubt the accuracy of this statement, but have failed to obtain
+confirmatory evidence, excepting in the one instance before given of an
+insane woman suffering from great fear. When writers of fiction speak
+of the eyes being widely dilated, I presume that they refer to the
+eyelids. Munro’s statement, that with parrots the iris is affected by
+the passions, independently of the amount of light, seems to bear on
+this question; but Professor Donders informs me, that he has often seen
+movements in the pupils of these birds which he thinks may be related
+to their power of accommodation to distance, in nearly the same manner
+as our own pupils contract when our eyes converge for near vision.
+Gratiolet remarks that the dilated pupils appear as if they were gazing
+into profound darkness. No doubt the fears of man have often been
+excited in the dark; but hardly so often or so exclusively, as to
+account for a fixed and associated habit having thus arisen. It seems
+more probable, assuming that Gratiolet’s statement is correct, that the
+brain is directly affected by the powerful emotion of fear and reacts
+on the pupils; but Professor Donders informs me that this is an
+extremely complicated subject. I may add, as possibly throwing light on
+the subject, that Dr. Fyffe, of Netley Hospital, has observed in two
+patients that the pupils were distinctly dilated during the cold stage
+of an ague fit. Professor Donders has also often seen dilatation of the
+pupils in incipient faintness.[1225]
+
+_Horror_.—The state of mind expressed by this term implies terror, and
+is in some, cases almost synonymous with it. Many a man must have felt,
+before the blessed discovery of chloroform, great horror at the thought
+of an impending surgical operation. He who dreads, as well as hates a
+man, will feel, as Milton uses the word, a horror of him. We feel
+horror if we see any one, for instance a child, exposed to some instant
+and crushing danger. Almost every one would experience the same feeling
+in the highest degree in witnessing a man being tortured or going to be
+tortured. In these cases there is no danger to ourselves; but from the
+power of the imagination and of sympathy we put ourselves in the
+position of the sufferer, and feel something akin to fear.
+
+
+
+Horror and Agony. Fig. 21
+
+Sir C. Bell remarks,[1226] that “horror is full of energy; the body is
+in the utmost tension, not unnerved by fear.” It is, therefore,
+probable that horror would generally be accompanied by the strong
+contraction of the brows; but as fear is one of the elements, the eyes
+and mouth would be opened, and the eyebrows would be raised, as far as
+the antagonistic action of the corrugators permitted this movement.
+Duchenne has given a photograph[1227] (fig. 21) of the same old man as
+before, with his eyes somewhat staring, the eyebrows partially raised,
+and at the same time strongly contracted, the mouth opened, and the
+platysma in action, all effected by the means of galvanism. He
+considers that the expression thus produced shows extreme terror with
+horrible pain or torture. A tortured man, as long as his sufferings
+allowed him to feel any dread for the future, would probably exhibit
+horror in an extreme degree. I have shown the original of this
+photograph to twenty-three persons of both sexes and various ages; and
+thirteen immediately answered horror, great pain, torture, or agony;
+three answered extreme fright; so that sixteen answered nearly in
+accordance with Duchenne’s belief. Six, however, said anger, guided no
+doubt, by the strongly contracted brows, and overlooking the peculiarly
+opened mouth. One said disgust. On the whole, the evidence indicates
+that we have here a fairly good representation of horror and agony. The
+photograph before referred to (Pl. VII. fig. 2) likewise exhibits
+horror; but in this the oblique eyebrows indicate great mental distress
+in place of energy.
+
+Horror is generally accompanied by various gestures, which differ in
+different individuals. Judging from pictures, the whole body is often
+turned away or shrinks; or the arms are violently protruded as if to
+push away some dreadful object. The most frequent gesture, as far as
+can be inferred from the action of persons who endeavour to express a
+vividly-imagined scene of horror, is the raising of both shoulders,
+with the bent arms pressed closely against the sides or chest. These
+movements are nearly the same with those commonly made when we feel
+very cold; and they are generally accompanied by a shudder, as well as
+by a deep expiration or inspiration, according as the chest happens at
+the time to be expanded or contracted. The sounds thus made are
+expressed by words like _uh_ or _ugh_.[1228] It is not, however,
+obvious why, when we feel cold or express a sense of horror, we press
+our bent arms against our bodies, raise our shoulders, and shudder.
+
+_Conclusion_.—I have now endeavoured to describe the diversified
+expressions of fear, in its gradations from mere attention to a start
+of surprise, into extreme terror and horror. Some of the signs may be
+accounted for through the principles of habit, association, and
+inheritance,—such as the wide opening of the mouth and eyes, with
+upraised eyebrows, so as to see as quickly as possible all around us,
+and to hear distinctly whatever sound may reach our ears. For we have
+thus habitually prepared ourselves to discover and encounter any
+danger. Some of the other signs of fear may likewise be accounted for,
+at least in part, through these same principles. Men, during numberless
+generations, have endeavoured to escape from their enemies or danger by
+headlong flight, or by violently struggling with them; and such great
+exertions will have caused the heart to beat rapidly, the breathing to
+be hurried, the chest to heave, and the nostrils to be dilated. As
+these exertions have often been prolonged to the last extremity, the
+final result will have been utter prostration, pallor, perspiration,
+trembling of all the muscles, or their complete relaxation. And now,
+whenever the emotion of fear is strongly felt, though it may not lead
+to any exertion, the same results tend to reappear, through the force
+of inheritance and association.
+
+Nevertheless, it is probable that many or most of the above symptoms of
+terror, such as the beating of the heart, the trembling of the muscles,
+cold perspiration, &c., are in large part directly due to the disturbed
+or interrupted transmission of nerve-force from the cerebro-spinal
+system to various parts of the body, owing to the mind being so
+powerfully affected. We may confidently look to this cause,
+independently of habit and association, in such cases as the modified
+secretions of the intestinal canal, and the failure of certain glands
+to act. With respect to the involuntary bristling of the hair, we have
+good reason to believe that in the case of animals this action, however
+it may have originated, serves, together with certain voluntary
+movements, to make them appear terrible to their enemies; and as the
+same involuntary and voluntary actions are performed by animals nearly
+related to man, we are led to believe that man has retained through
+inheritance a relic of them, now become useless. It is certainly a
+remarkable fact, that the minute unstriped muscles, by which the hairs
+thinly scattered over man’s almost naked body are erected, should have
+been preserved to the present day; and that they should still contract
+under the same emotions, namely, terror and rage, which cause the hairs
+to stand on end in the lower members of the Order to which man belongs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII. SELF-ATTENTION—SHAME—SHYNESS—MODESTY: BLUSHING.
+
+Nature of a blush—Inheritance—The parts of the body most
+affected—Blushing in the various races of man—Accompanying
+gestures—Confusion of mind—Causes of blushing—Self-attention, the
+fundamental element—Shyness—Shame, from broken moral laws and
+conventional rules—Modesty—Theory of blushing—Recapitulation.
+
+Blushing is the most peculiar and the most human of all expressions.
+Monkeys redden from passion, but it would require an overwhelming
+amount of evidence to make us believe that any animal could blush. The
+reddening of the face from a blush is due to the relaxation of the
+muscular coats of the small arteries, by which the capillaries become
+filled with blood; and this depends on the proper vaso-motor centre
+being affected. No doubt if there be at the same time much mental
+agitation, the general circulation will be affected; but it is not due
+to the action of the heart that the network of minute vessels covering
+the face becomes under a sense of shame gorged with blood. We can cause
+laughing by tickling the skin, weeping or frowning by a blow, trembling
+from the fear of pain, and so forth; but we cannot cause a blush, as
+Dr. Burgess remarks,[1301] by any physical means,—that is by any action
+on the body. It is the mind which must be affected. Blushing is not
+only involuntary; but the wish to restrain it, by leading to
+self-attention actually increases the tendency.
+
+The young blush much more freely than the old, but not during
+infancy,[1302] which is remarkable, as we know that infants at a very
+early age redden from passion. I have received authentic accounts of
+two little girls blushing at the ages of between two and three years;
+and of another sensitive child, a year older, blushing, when reproved
+for a fault. Many children, at a somewhat more advanced age blush in a
+strongly marked manner. It appears that the mental powers of infants
+are not as yet sufficiently developed to allow of their blushing.
+Hence, also, it is that idiots rarely blush. Dr. Crichton Browne
+observed for me those under his care, but never saw a genuine blush,
+though he has seen their faces flush, apparently from joy, when food
+was placed before them, and from anger. Nevertheless some, if not
+utterly degraded, are capable of blushing. A microcephalous idiot, for
+instance, thirteen years old, whose eyes brightened a little when he
+was pleased or amused, has been described by Dr. Behn,[1303] as
+blushing and turning to one side, when undressed for medical
+examination.
+
+Women blush much more than men. It is rare to see an old man, but not
+nearly so rare to see an old woman blushing. The blind do not escape.
+Laura Bridgman, born in this condition, as well as completely deaf,
+blushes.[1304] The Rev. R. H. Blair, Principal of the Worcester
+College, informs me that three children born blind, out of seven or
+eight then in the Asylum, are great blushers. The blind are not at
+first conscious that they are observed, and it is a most important part
+of their education, as Mr. Blair informs me, to impress this knowledge
+on their minds; and the impression thus gained would greatly strengthen
+the tendency to blush, by increasing the habit of self-attention.
+
+The tendency to blush is inherited. Dr. Burgess gives the case[1305] of
+a family consisting of a father, mother, and ten children, all of whom,
+without exception, were prone to blush to a most painful degree. The
+children were grown up; “and some of them were sent to travel in order
+to wear away this diseased sensibility, but nothing was of the
+slightest avail.” Even peculiarities in blushing seem to be inherited.
+Sir James Paget, whilst examining the spine of a girl, was struck at
+her singular manner of blushing; a big splash of red appeared first on
+one cheek, and then other splashes, variously scattered over the face
+and neck. He subsequently asked the mother whether her daughter always
+blushed in this peculiar manner; and was answered, “Yes, she takes
+after me.” Sir J. Paget then perceived that by asking this question he
+had caused the mother to blush; and she exhibited the same peculiarity
+as her daughter.
+
+In most cases the face, ears and neck are the sole parts which redden;
+but many persons, whilst blushing intensely, feel that their whole
+bodies grow hot and tingle; and this shows that the entire surface must
+be in some manner affected. Blushes are said sometimes to commence on
+the forehead, but more commonly on the cheeks, afterwards spreading to
+the ears and neck.[1306] In two Albinos examined by Dr. Burgess, the
+blushes commenced by a small circumscribed spot on the cheeks, over the
+parotidean plexus of nerves, and then increased into a circle; between
+this blushing circle and the blush on the neck there was an evident
+line of demarcation; although both arose simultaneously. The retina,
+which is naturally red in the Albino, invariably increased at the same
+time in redness.[1307] Every one must have noticed how easily after one
+blush fresh blushes chase each other over the face. Blushing is
+preceded by a peculiar sensation in the skin. According to Dr. Burgess
+the reddening of the skin is generally succeeded by a slight pallor,
+which shows that the capillary vessels contract after dilating. In some
+rare cases paleness instead of redness is caused under conditions which
+would naturally induce a blush. For instance, a young lady told me that
+in a large and crowded party she caught her hair so firmly on the
+button of a passing servant, that it took some time before she could be
+extricated; from her sensations she imagined that she had blushed
+crimson; but was assured by a friend that she had turned extremely
+pale.
+
+I was desirous to learn how far down the body blushes extend; and Sir
+J. Paget, who necessarily has frequent opportunities for observation,
+has kindly attended to this point for me during two or three years. He
+finds that with women who blush intensely on the face, ears, and nape
+of neck, the blush does not commonly extend any lower down the body. It
+is rare to see it as low down as the collar-bones and shoulder-blades;
+and he has never himself seen a single instance in which it extended
+below the upper part of the chest. He has also noticed that blushes
+sometimes die away downwards, not gradually and insensibly, but by
+irregular ruddy blotches. Dr. Langstaff has likewise observed for me
+several women whose bodies did not in the least redden while their
+faces were crimsoned with blushes. With the insane, some of whom appear
+to be particularly liable to blushing, Dr. J. Crichton Browne has
+several times seen the blush extend as far down as the collar-bones,
+and in two instances to the breasts. He gives me the case of a married
+woman, aged twenty-seven, who suffered from epilepsy. On the morning
+after her arrival in the Asylum, Dr. Browne, together with his
+assistants, visited her whilst she was in bed. The moment that he
+approached, she blushed deeply over her cheeks and temples; and the
+blush spread quickly to her ears. She was much agitated and tremulous.
+He unfastened the collar of her chemise in order to examine the state
+of her lungs; and then a brilliant blush rushed over her chest, in an
+arched line over the upper third of each breast, and extended downwards
+between the breasts nearly to the ensiform cartilage of the sternum.
+This case is interesting, as the blush did not thus extend downwards
+until it became intense by her attention being drawn to this part of
+her person. As the examination proceeded she became composed, and the
+blush disappeared; but on several subsequent occasions the same
+phenomena were observed.
+
+The foregoing facts show that, as a general rule, with English women,
+blushing does not extend beneath the neck and upper part of the chest.
+Nevertheless Sir J. Paget informs me that he has lately heard of a
+case, on which he can fully rely, in which a little girl, shocked by
+what she imagined to be an act of indelicacy, blushed all over her
+abdomen and the upper parts of her legs. Moreau also[1308] relates, on
+the authority of a celebrated painter, that the chest, shoulders, arms,
+and whole body of a girl, who unwillingly consented to serve as a
+model, reddened when she was first divested of her clothes.
+
+It is a rather curious question why, in most cases the face, ears, and
+neck alone redden, inasmuch as the whole surface of the body often
+tingles and grows hot. This seems to depend, chiefly, on the face and
+adjoining parts of the skin having been habitually exposed to the air,
+light, and alternations of temperature, by which the small arteries not
+only have acquired the habit of readily dilating and contracting, but
+appear to have become unusually developed in comparison with other
+parts of the surface.[1309] It is probably owing to this same cause, as
+M. Moreau and Dr. Burgess have remarked, that the face is so liable to
+redden under various circumstances, such as a fever-fit, ordinary heat,
+violent exertion, anger, a slight blow, &c.; and on the other hand that
+it is liable to grow pale from cold and fear, and to be discoloured
+during pregnancy. The face is also particularly liable to be affected
+by cutaneous complaints, by small-pox, erysipelas, &c. This view is
+likewise supported by the fact that the men of certain races, who
+habitually go nearly naked, often blush over their arms and chests and
+even down to their waists. A lady, who is a great blusher, informs Dr.
+Crichton Browne, that when she feels ashamed or is agitated, she
+blushes over her face, neck, wrists, and hands,—that is, over all the
+exposed portions of her skin. Nevertheless it may be doubted whether
+the habitual exposure of the skin of the face and neck, and its
+consequent power of reaction under stimulants of all kinds, is by
+itself sufficient to account for the much greater tendency in English
+women of these parts than of others to blush; for the hands are well
+supplied with nerves and small vessels, and have been as much exposed
+to the air as the face or neck, and yet the hands rarely blush. We
+shall presently see that the attention of the mind having been directed
+much more frequently and earnestly to the face than to any other part
+of the body, probably affords a sufficient explanation.
+
+_Blushing in the various races of man_.—The small vessels of the face
+become filled with blood, from the emotion of shame, in almost all the
+races of man, though in the very dark races no distinct change of
+colour can be perceived. Blushing is evident in all the Aryan nations
+of Europe, and to a certain extent with those of India. But Mr. Erskine
+has never noticed that the necks of the Hindoos are decidedly affected.
+With the Lepchas of Sikhim, Mr. Scott has often observed a faint blush
+on the cheeks, base of the ears, and sides of the neck, accompanied by
+sunken eyes and lowered head. This has occurred when he has detected
+them in a falsehood, or has accused them of ingratitude. The pale,
+sallow complexions of these men render a blush much more conspicuous
+than in most of the other natives of India. With the latter, shame, or
+it may be in part fear, is expressed, according to Mr. Scott, much more
+plainly by the head being averted or bent down, with the eyes wavering
+or turned askant, than by any change of colour in the skin.
+
+The Semitic races blush freely, as might have been expected, from their
+general similitude to the Aryans. Thus with the Jews, it is said in the
+Book of Jeremiah (chap. vi. 15), “Nay, they were not at all ashamed,
+neither could they blush.” Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab managing his boat
+clumsily on the Nile, and when laughed at by his companions, “he
+blushed quite to the back of his neck.” Lady Duff Gordon remarks that a
+young Arab blushed on coming into her presence.[1310]
+
+Mr. Swinhoe has seen the Chinese blushing, but he thinks it is rare;
+yet they have the expression “to redden with shame.” Mr. Geach informs
+me that the Chinese settled in Malacca and the native Malays of the
+interior both blush. Some of these people go nearly naked, and he
+particularly attended to the downward extension of the blush. Omitting
+the cases in which the face alone was seen to blush, Mr. Geach observed
+that the face, arms, and breast of a Chinaman, aged 24 years, reddened
+from shame; and with another Chinese, when asked why he had not done
+his work in better style, the whole body was similarly affected. In two
+Malays[1311] he saw the face, neck, breast, and arms blushing; and in a
+third Malay (a Bugis) the blush extended down to the waist.
+
+The Polynesians blush freely. The Rev. Mr. Stack has seen hundreds of
+instances with the New Zealanders. The following case is worth giving,
+as it relates to an old man who was unusually dark-coloured and partly
+tattooed. After having let his land to an Englishman for a small yearly
+rental, a strong passion seized him to buy a gig, which had lately
+become the fashion with the Maoris. He consequently wished to draw all
+the rent for four years from his tenant, and consulted Mr. Stack
+whether he could do so. The man was old, clumsy, poor, and ragged, and
+the idea of his driving himself about in his carriage for display
+amused Mr. Stack so much that he could not help bursting out into a
+laugh; and then “the old man blushed up to the roots of his hair.”
+Forster says that “you may easily distinguish a spreading blush” on the
+cheeks of the fairest women in Tahiti.[1312] The natives also of
+several of the other archipelagoes in the Pacific have been seen to
+blush.
+
+Mr. Washington Matthews has often seen a blush on the faces of the
+young squaws belonging to various wild Indian tribes of North America.
+At the opposite extremity of the continent in Tierra del Fuego, the
+natives, according to Mr. Bridges, “blush much, but chiefly in regard
+to women; but they certainly blush also at their own personal
+appearance.” This latter statement agrees with what I remember of the
+Fuegian, Jemmy Button, who blushed when he was quizzed about the care
+which he took in polishing his shoes, and in otherwise adorning
+himself. With respect to the Aymara Indians on the lofty plateaus of
+Bolivia, Mr. Forbes says,[1313] that from the colour of their skins it
+is impossible that their blushes should be as clearly visible as in the
+white races; still under such circumstances as would raise a blush in
+us, “there can always be seen the same expression of modesty or
+confusion; and even in the dark, a rise of temperature of the skin of
+the face can be felt, exactly as occurs in the European.” With the
+Indians who inhabit the hot, equable, and damp parts of South America,
+the skin apparently does not answer to mental excitement so readily as
+with the natives of the northern and southern parts of the continent,
+who have long been exposed to great vicissitudes of climate; for
+Humboldt quotes without a protest the sneer of the Spaniard, “How can
+those be trusted, who know not how to blush?”[1314] Von Spix and
+Martius, in speaking of the aborigines of Brazil, assert that they
+cannot properly be said to blush; “it was only after long intercourse
+with the whites, and after receiving some education, that we perceived
+in the Indians a change of colour expressive of the emotions of their
+minds.”[1315] It is, however, incredible that the power of blushing
+could have thus originated; but the habit of self-attention, consequent
+on their education and new course of life, would have much increased
+any innate tendency to blush.
+
+Several trustworthy observers have assured me that they have seen on
+the faces of negroes an appearance resembling a blush, under
+circumstances which would have excited one in us, though their skins
+were of an ebony-black tint. Some describe it as blushing brown, but
+most say that the blackness becomes more intense. An increased supply
+of blood in the skin seems in some manner to increase its blackness;
+thus certain exanthematous diseases cause the affected places in the
+negro to appear blacker, instead of, as with us, redder.[1316] The
+skin, perhaps, from being rendered more tense by the filling of the
+capillaries, would reflect a somewhat different tint to what it did
+before. That the capillaries of the face in the negro become filled
+with blood, under the emotion of shame, we may feel confident; because
+a perfectly characterized albino negress, described by Buffon,[1317]
+showed a faint tinge of crimson on her cheeks when she exhibited
+herself naked. Cicatrices of the skin remain for a long time white in
+the negro, and Dr. Burgess, who had frequent opportunities of observing
+a scar of this kind on the face of a negress, distinctly saw that it
+“invariably became red whenever she was abruptly spoken to, or charged
+with any trivial offence.”[1318] The blush could be seen proceeding
+from the circumference of the scar towards the middle, but it did not
+reach the centre. Mulattoes are often great blushers, blush succeeding
+blush over their faces. From these facts there can be no doubt that
+negroes blush, although no redness is visible on the skin.
+
+I am assured by Gaika and by Mrs. Barber that the Kafirs of South
+Africa never blush; but this may only mean that no change of colour is
+distinguishable. Gaika adds that under the circumstances which would
+make a European blush, his countrymen “look ashamed to keep their heads
+up.”
+
+It is asserted by four of my informants that the Australians, who are
+almost as black as negroes, never blush. A fifth answers doubtfully,
+remarking that only a very strong blush could be seen, on account of
+the dirty state of their skins. Three observers state that they do
+blush;[1319] Mr. S. Wilson adding that this is noticeable only under a
+strong emotion, and when the skin is not too dark from long exposure
+and want of cleanliness. Mr. Lang answers, “I have noticed that shame
+almost always excites a blush, which frequently extends as low as the
+neck.” Shame is also shown, as he adds, “by the eyes being turned from
+side to side.” As Mr. Lang was a teacher in a native school, it is
+probable that he chiefly observed children; and we know that they blush
+more than adults. Mr. G. Taplin has seen half-castes blushing, and he
+says that the aborigines have a word expressive of shame. Mr.
+Hagenauer, who is one of those who has never observed the Australians
+to blush, says that he has “seen them looking down to the ground on
+account of shame;” and the missionary, Mr. Bulmer, remarks that though
+“I have not been able to detect anything like shame in the adult
+aborigines, I have noticed that the eyes of the children, when ashamed,
+present a restless, watery appearance, as if they did not know where to
+look.”
+
+The facts now given are sufficient to show that blushing, whether or
+not there is any change of colour, is common to most, probably to all,
+of the races of man.
+
+_Movements and gestures which accompany Blushing_.—Under a keen sense
+of shame there is a strong desire for concealment.[1320] We turn away
+the whole body, more especially the face, which we endeavour in some
+manner to hide. An ashamed person can hardly endure to meet the gaze of
+those present, so that he almost invariably casts down his eyes or
+looks askant. As there generally exists at the same time a strong wish
+to avoid the appearance of shame, a vain attempt is made to look direct
+at the person who causes this feeling; and the antagonism between these
+opposite tendencies leads to various restless movements in the eyes. I
+have noticed two ladies who, whilst blushing, to which they are very
+liable, have thus acquired, as it appears, the oddest trick of
+incessantly blinking their eyelids with extraordinary rapidity. An
+intense blush is sometimes accompanied by a slight effusion of
+tears;[1321] and this, I presume, is due to the lacrymal glands
+partaking of the increased supply of blood, which we know rushes into
+the capillaries of the adjoining parts, including the retina.
+
+Many writers, ancient and modern, have noticed the foregoing movements;
+and it has already been shown that the aborigines in various parts of
+the world often exhibit their shame by looking downwards or askant, or
+by restless movements of their eyes. Ezra cries out (ch. ix. 6), “O, my
+God! I am ashamed, and blush to lift up my head to thee, my God.” In
+Isaiah (ch. I. 6) we meet with the words, “I hid not my face from
+shame.” Seneca remarks (Epist. xi. 5) “that the Roman players hang down
+their heads, fix their eyes on the ground and keep them lowered, but
+are unable to blush in acting shame.” According to Macrobius, who lived
+in the filth century (‘Saturnalia,’ B. vii. C. 11), “Natural
+philosophers assert that nature being moved by shame spreads the blood
+before herself as a veil, as we see any one blushing often puts his
+hands before his face.” Shakspeare makes Marcus (‘Titus Andronicus,’
+act ii, sc. 5) say to his niece, “Ah! now thou turn’st away thy face
+for shame.” A lady informs me that she found in the Lock Hospital a
+girl whom she had formerly known, and who had become a wretched
+castaway, and the poor creature, when approached, hid her face under
+the bed-clothes, and could not be persuaded to uncover it. We often see
+little children, when shy or ashamed, turn away, and still standing up,
+bury their faces in their mother’s gown; or they throw themselves face
+downwards on her lap.
+
+_Confusion of mind_.—Most persons, whilst blushing intensely, have
+their mental powers confused. This is recognized in such common
+expressions as “she was covered with confusion.” Persons in this
+condition lose their presence of mind, and utter singularly
+inappropriate remarks. They are often much distressed, stammer, and
+make awkward movements or strange grimaces. In certain cases
+involuntary twitchings of some of the facial muscles may be observed. I
+have been informed by a young lady, who blushes excessively, that at
+such times she does not even know what she is saying. When it was
+suggested to her that this might be due to her distress from the
+consciousness that her blushing was noticed, she answered that this
+could not be the case, “as she had sometimes felt quite as stupid when
+blushing at a thought in her own room.”
+
+I will give an instance of the extreme disturbance of mind to which
+some sensitive men are liable. A gentleman, on whom I can rely, assured
+me that he had been an eye-witness of the following scene:—A small
+dinner-party was given in honour of an extremely shy man, who, when he
+rose to return thanks, rehearsed the speech, which he had evidently
+learnt by heart, in absolute silence, and did not utter a single word;
+but he acted as if he were speaking with much emphasis. His friends,
+perceiving how the case stood, loudly applauded the imaginary bursts of
+eloquence, whenever his gestures indicated a pause, and the man never
+discovered that he had remained the whole time completely silent. On
+the contrary, he afterwards remarked to my friend, with much
+satisfaction, that he thought he had succeeded uncommonly well.
+
+When a person is much ashamed or very shy, and blushes intensely, his
+heart beats rapidly and his breathing is disturbed. This can hardly
+fail to affect the circulation of the blood within the brain, and
+perhaps the mental powers. It seems however doubtful, judging from the
+still more powerful influence of anger and fear on the circulation,
+whether we can thus satisfactorily account for the confused state of
+mind in persons whilst blushing intensely.
+
+The true explanation apparently lies in the intimate sympathy which
+exists between the capillary circulation of the surface of the head and
+face, and that of the brain. On applying to Dr. J. Crichton Browne for
+information, he has given me various facts bearing on this subject.
+When the sympathetic nerve is divided on one side of the head, the
+capillaries on this side are relaxed and become filled with blood,
+causing the skin to redden and to grow hot, and at the same time the
+temperature within the cranium on the same side rises. Inflammation of
+the membranes of the brain leads to the engorgement of the face, ears,
+and eyes with blood. The first stage of an epileptic fit appears to be
+the contraction of the vessels of the brain, and the first outward
+manifestation is, an extreme pallor of countenance. Erysipelas of the
+head commonly induces delirium. Even the relief given to a severe
+headache by burning the skin with strong lotion, depends, I presume, on
+the same principle.
+
+Dr. Browne has often administered to his patients the vapour of the
+nitrite of amyl,[1322] which has the singular property of causing vivid
+redness of the face in from thirty to sixty seconds. This flushing
+resembles blushing in almost every detail: it begins at several
+distinct points on the face, and spreads till it involves the whole
+surface of the head, neck, and front of the chest; but has been
+observed to extend only in one case to the abdomen. The arteries in the
+retina become enlarged; the eyes glisten, and in one instance there was
+a slight effusion of tears. The patients are at first pleasantly
+stimulated, but, as the flushing increases, they become confused and
+bewildered. One woman to whom the vapour had often been administered
+asserted that, as soon as she grew hot, she grew MUDDLED. With persons
+just commencing to blush it appears, judging from their bright eyes and
+lively behaviour, that their mental powers are somewhat stimulated. It
+is only when the blushing is excessive that the mind grows confused.
+Therefore it would seem that the capillaries of the face are affected,
+both during the inhalation of the nitrite of amyl and during blushing,
+before that part of the brain is affected on which the mental powers
+depend.
+
+Conversely when the brain is primarily affected; the circulation of the
+skin is so in a secondary manner. Dr. Browne has frequently observed,
+as he informs me, scattered red blotches and mottlings on the chests of
+epileptic patients. In these cases, when the skin on the thorax or
+abdomen is gently rubbed with a pencil or other object, or, in
+strongly-marked cases, is merely touched by the finger, the surface
+becomes suffused in less than half a minute with bright red marks,
+which spread to some distance on each side of the touched point, and
+persist for several minutes. These are the _cerebral maculae_ of
+Trousseau; and they indicate, as Dr. Browne remarks, a highly modified
+condition of the cutaneous vascular system. If, then, there exists, as
+cannot be doubted, an intimate sympathy between the capillary
+circulation in that part of the brain on which our mental powers
+depend, and in the skin of the face, it is not surprising that the
+moral causes which induce intense blushing should likewise induce,
+independently of their own disturbing influence, much confusion of
+mind.
+
+_The Nature of the Mental States which induce Blushing_.—These consist
+of shyness, shame, and modesty; the essential element in all being
+self-attention. Many reasons can be assigned for believing that
+originally self-attention directed to personal appearance, in relation
+to the opinion of others, was the exciting cause; the same effect being
+subsequently produced, through the force of association, by
+self-attention in relation to moral conduct. It is not the simple act
+of reflecting on our own appearance, but the thinking what others think
+of us, which excites a blush. In absolute solitude the most sensitive
+person would be quite indifferent about his appearance. We feel blame
+or disapprobation more acutely than approbation; and consequently
+depreciatory remarks or ridicule, whether of our appearance or conduct,
+causes us to blush much more readily than does praise. But undoubtedly
+praise and admiration are highly efficient: a pretty girl blushes when
+a man gazes intently at her, though she may know perfectly well that he
+is not depreciating her. Many children, as well as old and sensitive
+persons blush, when they are much praised. Hereafter the question will
+be discussed, how it has arisen that the consciousness that others are
+attending to our personal appearance should have led to the
+capillaries, especially those of the face, instantly becoming filled
+with blood.
+
+My reasons for believing that attention directed to personal
+appearance, and not to moral conduct, has been the fundamental element
+in the acquirement of the habit of blushing, will now be given. They
+are separately light, but combined possess, as it appears to me,
+considerable weight. It is notorious that nothing makes a shy person
+blush so much as any remark, however slight, on his personal
+appearance. One cannot notice even the dress of a woman much given to
+blushing, without causing her face to crimson. It is sufficient to
+stare hard at some persons to make them, as Coleridge remarks,
+blush,—“account for that he who can.”[1323]
+
+With the two albinos observed by Dr. Burgess,[1324] “the slightest
+attempt to examine their peculiarities invariably caused them to blush
+deeply.” Women are much more sensitive about their personal appearance
+than men are, especially elderly women in comparison with elderly men,
+and they blush much more freely. The young of both sexes are much more
+sensitive on this same head than the old, and they also blush much more
+freely than the old. Children at a very early age do not blush; nor do
+they show those other signs of self-consciousness which generally
+accompany blushing; and it is one of their chief charms that they think
+nothing about what others think of them. At this early age they will
+stare at a stranger with a fixed gaze and un-blinking eyes, as on an
+inanimate object, in a manner which we elders cannot imitate.
+
+It is plain to every one that young men and women are highly sensitive
+to the opinion of each other with reference to their personal
+appearance; and they blush incomparably more in the presence of the
+opposite sex than in that of their own.[1325] A young man, not very
+liable to blush, will blush intensely at any slight ridicule of his
+appearance from a girl whose judgment on any important subject he would
+disregard. No happy pair of young lovers, valuing each other’s
+admiration and love more than anything else in the world, probably ever
+courted each other without many a blush. Even the barbarians of Tierra
+del Fuego, according to Mr. Bridges, blush “chiefly in regard to women,
+but certainly also at their own personal appearance.”
+
+Of all parts of the body, the face is most considered and regarded, as
+is natural from its being the chief seat of expression and the source
+of the voice. It is also the chief seat of beauty and of ugliness, and
+throughout the world is the most ornamented.[1326] The face, therefore,
+will have been subjected during many generations to much closer and
+more earnest self-attention than any other part of the body; and in
+accordance with the principle here advanced we can understand why it
+should be the most liable to blush. Although exposure to alternations
+of temperature, &c., has probably much increased the power of
+dilatation and contraction in the capillaries of the face and adjoining
+parts, yet this by itself will hardly account for these parts blushing
+much more than the rest of the body; for it does not explain the fact
+of the hands rarely blushing. With Europeans the whole body tingles
+slightly when the face blushes intensely; and with the races of men who
+habitually go nearly naked, the blushes extend over a much larger
+surface than with us. These facts are, to a certain extent,
+intelligible, as the self-attention of primeval man, as well as of the
+existing races which still go naked, will not have been so exclusively
+confined to their faces, as is the case with the people who now go
+clothed.
+
+We have seen that in all parts of the world persons who feel shame for
+some moral delinquency, are apt to avert, bend down, or hide their
+faces, independently of any thought about their personal appearance.
+The object can hardly be to conceal their blushes, for the face is thus
+averted or hidden under circumstances which exclude any desire to
+conceal shame, as when guilt is fully confessed and repented of. It is,
+however, probable that primeval man before he had acquired much moral
+sensitiveness would have been highly sensitive about his personal
+appearance, at least in reference to the other sex, and he would
+consequently have felt distress at any depreciatory remarks about his
+appearance; and this is one form of shame. And as the face is the part
+of the body which is most regarded, it is intelligible that any one
+ashamed of his personal appearance would desire to conceal this part of
+his body. The habit having been thus acquired, would naturally be
+carried on when shame from strictly moral causes was felt; and it is
+not easy otherwise to see why under these circumstances there should be
+a desire to hide the face more than any other part of the body.
+
+The habit, so general with every one who feels ashamed, of turning
+away, or lowering his eyes, or restlessly moving them from side to
+side, probably follows from each glance directed towards those present,
+bringing home the conviction that he is intently regarded; and he
+endeavours, by not looking at those present, and especially not at
+their eyes, momentarily to escape from this painful conviction.
+
+_Shyness_.—This odd state of mind, often called shamefacedness, or
+false shame, or _mauvaise honte_, appears to be one of the most
+efficient of all the causes of blushing. Shyness is, indeed, chiefly
+recognized by the face reddening, by the eyes being averted or cast
+down, and by awkward, nervous movements of the body. Many a woman
+blushes from this cause, a hundred, perhaps a thousand times, to once
+that she blushes from having done anything deserving blame, and of
+which she is truly ashamed. Shyness seems to depend on sensitiveness to
+the opinion, whether good or bad, of others, more especially with
+respect to external appearance. Strangers neither know nor care
+anything about our conduct or character, but they may, and often do,
+criticize our appearance: hence shy persons are particularly apt to be
+shy and to blush in the presence of strangers. The consciousness of
+anything peculiar, or even new, in the dress, or any slight blemish on
+the person, and more especially, on the face—points which are likely to
+attract the attention of strangers—makes the shy intolerably shy. On
+the other hand, in those cases in which conduct and not personal
+appearance is concerned, we are much more apt to be shy in the presence
+of acquaintances, whose judgment we in some degree value, than in that
+of strangers. A physician told me that a young man, a wealthy duke,
+with whom he had travelled as medical attendant, blushed like a girl,
+when he paid him his fee; yet this young man probably would not have
+blushed and been shy, had he been paying a bill to a tradesman. Some
+persons, however, are so sensitive, that the mere act of speaking to
+almost any one is sufficient to rouse their self-consciousness, and a
+slight blush is the result.
+
+Disapprobation or ridicule, from our sensitiveness on this head, causes
+shyness and blushing much more readily than does approbation; though
+the latter with some persons is highly efficient. The conceited are
+rarely shy; for they value themselves much too highly to expect
+depreciation. Why a proud man is often shy, as appears to be the case,
+is not so obvious, unless it be that, with all his self-reliance, he
+really thinks much about the opinion of others although in a disdainful
+spirit. Persons who are exceedingly shy are rarely shy in the presence
+of those with whom they are quite familiar, and of whose good opinion
+and sympathy they are perfectly assured;—for instance, a girl in the
+presence of her mother. I neglected to inquire in my printed paper
+whether shyness can be detected in the different races of man; but a
+Hindoo gentleman assured Mr. Erskine that it is recognizable in his
+countrymen.
+
+Shyness, as the derivation of the word indicates in several
+languages,[1327] is closely related to fear; yet it is distinct from
+fear in the ordinary sense. A shy man no doubt dreads the notice of
+strangers, but can hardly be said to be afraid of them, he may be as
+bold as a hero in battle, and yet have no self-confidence about trifles
+in the presence of strangers. Almost every one is extremely nervous
+when first addressing a public assembly, and most men remain so
+throughout their lives; but this appears to depend on the consciousness
+of a great coming exertion, with its associated effects on the system,
+rather than on shyness;[1328] although a timid or shy man no doubt
+suffers on such occasions infinitely more than another. With very young
+children it is difficult to distinguish between fear and shyness; but
+this latter feeling with them has often seemed to me to partake of the
+character of the wildness of an untamed animal. Shyness comes on at a
+very early age. In one of my own children, when two years and three
+months old, I saw a trace of what certainly appeared to be shyness,
+directed towards myself after an absence from home of only a week. This
+was shown not by a blush, but by the eyes being for a few minutes
+slightly averted from me. I have noticed on other occasions that
+shyness or shamefacedness and real shame are exhibited in the eyes of
+young children before they have acquired the power of blushing.
+
+As shyness apparently depends on self-attention, we can perceive how
+right are those who maintain that reprehending children for shyness,
+instead of doing them any good, does much harm, as it calls their
+attention still more closely to themselves. It has been well urged that
+“nothing hurts young people more than to be watched continually about
+their feelings, to have their countenances scrutinized, and the degrees
+of their sensibility measured by the surveying eye of the unmerciful
+spectator. Under the constraint of such examinations they can think of
+nothing but that they are looked at, and feel nothing but shame or
+apprehension.”[1329]
+
+_Moral causes: guilt_.—With respect to blushing from strictly moral
+causes, we meet with the same fundamental principle as before, namely,
+regard for the opinion of others. It is not the conscience which raises
+a blush, for a man may sincerely regret some slight fault committed in
+solitude, or he may suffer the deepest remorse for an undetected crime,
+but he will not blush. “I blush,” says Dr. Burgess,[1330] “in the
+presence of my accusers.” It is not the sense of guilt, but the thought
+that others think or know us to be guilty which crimsons the face. A
+man may feel thoroughly ashamed at having told a small falsehood,
+without blushing; but if he even suspects that he is detected he will
+instantly blush, especially if detected by one whom he reveres.
+
+On the other hand, a man may be convinced that God witnesses all his
+actions, and he may feel deeply conscious of some fault and pray for
+forgiveness; but this will not, as a lady who is a great blusher
+believes, ever excite a blush. The explanation of this difference
+between the knowledge by God and man of our actions lies, I presume, in
+man’s disapprobation of immoral conduct being somewhat akin in nature
+to his depreciation of our personal appearance, so that through
+association both lead to similar results; whereas the disapprobation of
+God brings up no such association.
+
+Many a person has blushed intensely when accused of some crime, though
+completely innocent of it. Even the thought, as the lady before
+referred to has observed to me, that others think that we have made an
+unkind or stupid remark, is amply sufficient to cause a blush, although
+we know all the time that we have been completely misunderstood. An
+action may be meritorious or of an indifferent nature, but a sensitive
+person, if he suspects that others take a different view of it, will
+blush. For instance, a lady by herself may give money to a beggar
+without a trace of a blush, but if others are present, and she doubts
+whether they approve, or suspects that they think her influenced by
+display, she will blush. So it will be, if she offers to relieve the
+distress of a decayed gentlewoman, more particularly of one whom she
+had previously known under better circumstances, as she cannot then
+feel sure how her conduct will be viewed. But such cases as these blend
+into shyness.
+
+_Breaches of etiquette_.—The rules of _etiquette_ always refer to
+conduct in the presence of, or towards others. They have no necessary
+connection with the moral sense, and are often meaningless.
+Nevertheless as they depend on the fixed custom of our equals and
+superiors, whose opinion we highly regard, they are considered almost
+as binding as are the laws of honour to a gentleman. Consequently the
+breach of the laws of etiquette, that is, any impoliteness or
+_gaucherie_, any impropriety, or an inappropriate remark, though quite
+accidental, will cause the most intense blushing of which a man is
+capable. Even the recollection of such an act, after an interval of
+many years, will make the whole body to tingle. So strong, also, is the
+power of sympathy that a sensitive person, as a lady has assured me,
+will sometimes blush at a flagrant breach of etiquette by a perfect
+stranger, though the act may in no way concern her.
+
+_Modesty_.—This is another powerful agent in exciting blushes; but the
+word modesty includes very different states of the mind. It implies
+humility, and we often judge of this by persons being greatly pleased
+and blushing at slight praise, or by being annoyed at praise which
+seems to them too high according to their own humble standard of
+themselves. Blushing here has the usual signification of regard for the
+opinion of others. But modesty frequently relates to acts of
+indelicacy; and indelicacy is an affair of etiquette, as we clearly see
+with the nations that go altogether or nearly naked. He who is modest,
+and blushes easily at acts of this nature, does so because they are
+breaches of a firmly and wisely established etiquette. This is indeed
+shown by the derivation of the word _modest_ from _modus_, a measure or
+standard of behaviour. A blush due to this form of modesty is,
+moreover, apt to be intense, because it generally relates to the
+opposite sex; and we have seen how in all cases our liability to blush
+is thus increased. We apply the term ‘modest,’ as it would appear, to
+those who have an humble opinion of themselves, and to those who are
+extremely sensitive about an indelicate word or deed, simply because in
+both cases blushes are readily excited, for these two frames of mind
+have nothing else in common. Shyness also, from this same cause, is
+often mistaken for modesty in the sense of humility.
+
+Some persons flush up, as I have observed and have been assured, at any
+sudden and disagreeable recollection. The commonest cause seems to be
+the sudden remembrance of not having done something for another person
+which had been promised. In this case it may be that the thought passes
+half unconsciously through the mind, “What will he think of me?” and
+then the flush would partake of the nature of a true blush. But whether
+such flushes are in most cases due to the capillary circulation being
+affected, is very doubtful; for we must remember that almost every
+strong emotion, such as anger or great joy, acts on the heart, and
+causes the face to redden.
+
+The fact that blushes may be excited in absolute solitude seems opposed
+to the view here taken, namely that the habit originally arose from
+thinking about what others think of us. Several ladies, who are great
+blushers, are unanimous in regard to solitude; and some of them believe
+that they have blushed in the dark. From what Mr. Forbes has stated
+with respect to the Aymaras, and from my own sensations, I have no
+doubt that this latter statement is correct. Shakspeare, therefore,
+erred when he made Juliet, who was not even by herself, say to Romeo
+(act ii. sc. 2):—
+
+“Thou know’st the mask of night is on my face;
+Else would a maiden blush bepaint my cheek,
+For that which thou hast heard me speak to-night.”
+
+
+But when a blush is excited in solitude, the cause almost always
+relates to the thoughts of others about us—to acts done in their
+presence, or suspected by them; or again when we reflect what others
+would have thought of us had they known of the act. Nevertheless one or
+two of my informants believe that they have blushed from shame at acts
+in no way relating to others. If this be so, we must attribute the
+result to the force of inveterate habit and association, under a state
+of mind closely analogous to that which ordinarily excites a blush; nor
+need we feel surprise at this, as even sympathy with another person who
+commits a flagrant breach of etiquette is believed, as we have just
+seen, sometimes to cause a blush.
+
+Finally, then, I conclude that blushing,—whether due to shyness—to
+shame for a real crime—to shame from a breach of the laws of
+etiquette—to modesty from humility—to modesty from an
+indelicacy—depends in all cases on the same principle; this principle
+being a sensitive regard for the opinion, more particularly for the
+depreciation of others, primarily in relation to our personal
+appearance, especially of our faces; and secondarily, through the force
+of association and habit, in relation to the opinion of others on our
+conduct.
+
+_Theory of Blushing_.—We have now to consider, why should the thought
+that others are thinking about us affect our capillary circulation? Sir
+C. Bell insists[1331] that blushing “is a provision for expression, as
+may be inferred from the colour extending only to the surface of the
+face, neck, and breast, the parts most exposed. It is not acquired; it
+is from the beginning.” Dr. Burgess believes that it was designed by
+the Creator in “order that the soul might have sovereign power of
+displaying in the cheeks the various internal emotions of the moral
+feelings;” so as to serve as a check on ourselves, and as a sign to
+others, that we were violating rules which ought to be held sacred.
+Gratiolet merely remarks,—“Or, comme il est dans l’ordre de la nature
+que l’être social le plus intelligent soit aussi le plus intelligible,
+cette faculté de rougeur et de pâleur qui distingue l’homme, est un
+signe naturel de sa haute perfection.”
+
+The belief that blushing was SPECIALLY designed by the Creator is
+opposed to the general theory of evolution, which is now so largely
+accepted; but it forms no part of my duty here to argue on the general
+question. Those who believe in design, will find it difficult to
+account for shyness being the most frequent and efficient of all the
+causes of blushing, as it makes the blusher to suffer and the beholder
+uncomfortable, without being of the least service to either of them.
+They will also find it difficult to account for negroes and other
+dark-coloured races blushing, in whom a change of colour in the skin is
+scarcely or not at all visible.
+
+No doubt a slight blush adds to the beauty of a maiden’s face; and the
+Circassian women who are capable of blushing, invariably fetch a higher
+price in the seraolio of the Sultan than less susceptible women.[1332]
+But the firmest believer in the efficacy of sexual selection will
+hardly suppose that blushing was acquired as a sexual ornament. This
+view would also be opposed to what has just been said about the
+dark-coloured races blushing in an invisible manner.
+
+The hypothesis which appears to me the most probable, though it may at
+first seem rash, is that attention closely directed to any part of the
+body tends to interfere with the ordinary and tonic contraction of the
+small arteries of that part. These vessels, in consequence, become at
+such times more or less relaxed, and are instantly filled with arterial
+blood. This tendency will have been much strengthened, if frequent
+attention has been paid during many generations to the same part, owing
+to nerve-force readily flowing along accustomed channels, and by the
+power of inheritance. Whenever we believe that others are depreciating
+or even considering our personal appearance, our attention is vividly
+directed to the outer and visible parts of our bodies; and of all such
+parts we are most sensitive about our faces, as no doubt has been the
+case during many past generations. Therefore, assuming for the moment
+that the capillary vessels can be acted on by close attention, those of
+the face will have become eminently susceptible. Through the force of
+association, the same effects will tend to follow whenever we think
+that others are considering or censuring our actions or character.
+
+As the basis of this theory rests on mental attention having some power
+to influence the capillary circulation, it will be necessary to give a
+considerable body of details, bearing more or less directly on this
+subject. Several observers,[1333] who from their wide experience and
+knowledge are eminently capable of forming a sound judgment, are
+convinced that attention or consciousness (which latter term Sir H.
+Holland thinks the more explicit) concentrated on almost any part of
+the body produces some direct physical effect on it. This applies to
+the movements of the involuntary muscles, and of the voluntary muscles
+when acting involuntarily,—to the secretion of the glands,—to the
+activity of the senses and sensations,—and even to the nutrition of
+parts.
+
+It is known that the involuntary movements of the heart are affected if
+close attention be paid to them. Gratiolet[1334] gives the case of a
+man, who by continually watching and counting his own pulse, at last
+caused one beat out of every six to intermit. On the other hand, my
+father told me of a careful observer, who certainly had heart-disease
+and died from it, and who positively stated that his pulse was
+habitually irregular to an extreme degree; yet to his great
+disappointment it invariably became regular as soon as my father
+entered the room. Sir H. Holland remarks, that “the effect upon the
+circulation of a part from the consciousness suddenly directed and
+fixed upon it, is often obvious and immediate.” Professor Laycock, who
+has particularly attended to phenomena of this nature, insists that
+“when the attention is directed to any portion of the body, innervation
+and circulation are excited locally, and the functional activity of
+that portion developed.”
+
+It is generally believed that the peristaltic movements of the
+intestines are influenced by attention being paid to them at fixed
+recurrent periods; and these movements depend on the contraction of
+unstriped and involuntary muscles. The abnormal action of the voluntary
+muscles in epilepsy, chorea, and hysteria is known to be influenced by
+the expectation of an attack, and by the sight of other patients
+similarly affected. So it is with the involuntary acts of yawning and
+laughing.
+
+Certain glands are much influenced by thinking of them, or of the
+conditions under which they have been habitually excited. This is
+familiar to every one in the increased flow of saliva, when the
+thought, for instance, of intensely acid fruit is kept before the mind.
+It was shown in our sixth chapter, that an earnest and long-continued
+desire either to repress, or to increase, the action of the lacrymal
+glands is effectual. Some curious cases have been recorded in the case
+of women, of the power of the mind on the mammary glands; and still
+more remarkable ones in relation to the uterine functions.
+
+See Gratiolet on this subject, De la Phys. p. 287. Dr. J. Crichton
+Browne, from his observations on the insane, is convinced that
+attention directed for a prolonged period on any part or organ may
+ultimately influence its capillary circulation and nutrition. He has
+given me some extraordinary cases; one of these, which cannot here be
+related in full, refers to a married woman fifty years of age, who
+laboured under the firm and long-continued delusion that she was
+pregnant. When the expected period arrived, she acted precisely as if
+she had been really delivered of a child, and seemed to suffer extreme
+pain, so that the perspiration broke out on her forehead. The result
+was that a state of things returned, continuing for three days, which
+had ceased during the six previous years. Mr. Braid gives, in his
+‘Magic, Hypnotism,’ &c., 1852, p. 95, and in his other works analogous
+cases, as well as other facts showing the great influence of the will
+on the mammary glands, even on one breast alone.
+
+When we direct our whole attention to any one sense, its acuteness is
+increased;[1340] and the continued habit of close attention, as with
+blind people to that of hearing, and with the blind and deaf to that of
+touch, appears to improve the sense in question permanently. There is,
+also, some reason to believe, judging from the capacities of different
+races of man, that the effects are inherited. Turning to ordinary
+sensations, it is well known that pain is increased by attending to it;
+and Sir B. Brodie goes so far as to believe that pain may be felt in
+any part of the body to which attention is closely drawn.[1341] Sir H.
+Holland also remarks that we become not only conscious of the existence
+of a part subjected to concentrated attention, but we experience in it
+various odd sensations as of weight, heat, cold, tingling, or
+itching.[1342]
+
+Lastly, some physiologists maintain that the mind can influence the
+nutrition of parts. Sir J. Paget has given a curious instance of the
+power, not indeed of the mind, but of the nervous system, on the hair.
+A lady “who is subject to attacks of what is called nervous headache,
+always finds in the morning after such an one, that some patches of her
+hair are white, as if powdered with starch. The change is effected in a
+night, and in a few days after, the hairs gradually regain their dark
+brownish colour.”[1343]
+
+We thus see that close attention certainly affects various parts and
+organs, which are not properly under the control of the will. By what
+means attention—perhaps the most wonderful of all the wondrous powers
+of the mind—is effected, is an extremely obscure subject. According to
+Müller,[1344] the process by which the sensory cells of the brain are
+rendered, through the will, susceptible of receiving more intense and
+distinct impressions, is closely analogous to that by which the motor
+cells are excited to send nerve-force to the voluntary muscles. There
+are many points of analogy in the action of the sensory and motor
+nerve-cells; for instance, the familiar fact that close attention to
+any one sense causes fatigue, like the prolonged exertion of any one
+muscle.[1345] When therefore we voluntarily concentrate our attention
+on any part of the body, the cells of the brain which receive
+impressions or sensations from that part are, it is probable, in some
+unknown manner stimulated into activity. This may account, without any
+local change in the part to which our attention is earnestly directed,
+for pain or odd sensations being there felt or increased.
+
+If, however, the part is furnished with muscles, we cannot feel sure,
+as Mr. Michael Foster has remarked to me, that some slight impulse may
+not be unconsciously sent to such muscles; and this would probably
+cause an obscure sensation in the part.
+
+In a large number of cases, as with the salivary and lacrymal glands,
+intestinal canal, &c., the power of attention seems to rest, either
+chiefly, or as some physiologists think, exclusively, on the vaso-motor
+system being affected in such a manner that more blood is allowed to
+flow into the capillaries of the part in question. This increased
+action of the capillaries may in some cases be combined with the
+simultaneously increased activity of the sensorium.
+
+The manner in which the mind affects the vasomotor system may be
+conceived in the following manner. When we actually taste sour fruit,
+an impression is sent through the gustatory nerves to a certain part of
+the sensorium; this transmits nerve-force to the vasomotor centre,
+which consequently allows the muscular coats of the small arteries that
+permeate the salivary glands to relax. Hence more blood flows into
+these glands, and they secrete a copious supply of saliva. Now it does
+not seem an improbable assumption, that, when we reflect intently on a
+sensation, the same part of the sensorium, or a closely connected part
+of it, is brought into a state of activity, in the same manner as when
+we actually perceive the sensation. If so, the same cells in the brain
+will be excited, though, perhaps, in a less degree, by vividly thinking
+about a sour taste, as by perceiving it; and they will transmit in the
+one case, as in the other, nerve-force to the vaso-motor centre with
+the same results.
+
+To give another, and, in some respects, more appropriate illustration.
+If a man stands before a hot fire, his face reddens. This appears to be
+due, as Mr. Michael Foster informs me, in part to the local action of
+the heat, and in part to a reflex action from the vaso-motor
+centres.[1346] In this latter case, the heat affects the nerves of the
+face; these transmit an impression to the sensory cells of the brain,
+which act on the vaso-motor centre, and this reacts on the small
+arteries of the face, relaxing them and allowing them to become filled
+with blood. Here, again, it seems not improbable that if we were
+repeatedly to concentrate with great earnestness our attention on the
+recollection of our heated faces, the same part of the sensorium which
+gives us the consciousness of actual heat would be in some slight
+degree stimulated, and would in consequence tend to transmit some
+nerve-force to the vaso-motor centres, so as to relax the capillaries
+of the face. Now as men during endless generations have had their
+attention often and earnestly directed to their personal appearance,
+and especially to their faces, any incipient tendency in the facial
+capillaries to be thus affected will have become in the course of time
+greatly strengthened through the principles just referred to, namely,
+nerve-force passing readily along accustomed channels, and inherited
+habit. Thus, as it appears to me, a plausible explanation is afforded
+of the leading phenomena connected with the act of blushing.
+
+_Recapitulation_.—Men and women, and especially the young, have always
+valued, in a high degree, their personal appearance; and have likewise
+regarded the appearance of others. The face has been the chief object
+of attention, though, when man aboriginally went naked, the whole
+surface of his body would have been attended to. Our self-attention is
+excited almost exclusively by the opinion of others, for no person
+living in absolute solitude would care about his appearance. Every one
+feels blame more acutely than praise. Now, whenever we know, or
+suppose, that others are depreciating our personal appearance, our
+attention is strongly drawn towards ourselves, more especially to our
+faces. The probable effect of this will be, as has just been explained,
+to excite into activity that part of the sensorium, which receives the
+sensory nerves of the face; and this will react through the vaso-motor
+system on the facial capillaries. By frequent reiteration during
+numberless generations, the process will have become so habitual, in
+association with the belief that others are thinking of us, that even a
+suspicion of their depreciation suffices to relax the capillaries,
+without any conscious thought about our faces. With some sensitive
+persons it is enough even to notice their dress to produce the same
+effect. Through the force, also, of association and inheritance our
+capillaries are relaxed, whenever we know, or imagine, that any one is
+blaming, though in silence, our actions, thoughts, or character; and,
+again, when we are highly praised.
+
+On this hypothesis we can understand how it is that the face blushes
+much more than any other part of the body, though the whole surface is
+somewhat affected, more especially with the races which still go nearly
+naked. It is not at all surprising that the dark-coloured races should
+blush, though no change of colour is visible in their skins. From the
+principle of inheritance it is not surprising that persons born blind
+should blush. We can understand why the young are much more affected
+than the old, and women more than men; and why the opposite sexes
+especially excite each other’s blushes. It becomes obvious why personal
+remarks should be particularly liable to cause blushing, and why the
+most powerful of all the causes is shyness; for shyness relates to the
+presence and opinion of others, and the shy are always more or less
+self-conscious. With respect to real shame from moral delinquencies, we
+can perceive why it is not guilt, but the thought that others think us
+guilty, which raises a blush. A man reflecting on a crime committed in
+solitude, and stung by his conscience, does not blush; yet he will
+blush under the vivid recollection of a detected fault, or of one
+committed in the presence of others, the degree of blushing being
+closely related to the feeling of regard for those who have detected,
+witnessed, or suspected his fault. Breaches of conventional rules of
+conduct, if they are rigidly insisted on by our equals or superiors,
+often cause more intense blushes even than a detected crime, and an act
+which is really criminal, if not blamed by our equals, hardly raises a
+tinge of colour on our cheeks. Modesty from humility, or from an
+indelicacy, excites a vivid blush, as both relate to the judgment or
+fixed customs of others.
+
+From the intimate sympathy which exists between the capillary
+circulation of the surface of the head and of the brain, whenever there
+is intense blushing, there will be some, and often great, confusion of
+mind. This is frequently accompanied by awkward movements, and
+sometimes by the involuntary twitching of certain muscles.
+
+As blushing, according to this hypothesis, is an indirect result of
+attention, originally directed to our personal appearance, that is to
+the surface of the body, and more especially to the face, we can
+understand the meaning of the gestures which accompany blushing
+throughout the world. These consist in hiding the face, or turning it
+towards the ground, or to one side. The eyes are generally averted or
+are restless, for to look at the man who causes us to feel shame or
+shyness, immediately brings home in an intolerable manner the
+consciousness that his gaze is directed on us. Through the principle of
+associated habit, the same movements of the face and eyes are
+practised, and can, indeed, hardly be avoided, whenever we know or
+believe that, others are blaming, or too strongly praising, our moral
+conduct.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
+
+The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements
+of expression—Their inheritance—On the part which the will and
+intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions—The
+instinctive recognition of expression—The bearing of our subject on the
+specific unity of the races of man—On the successive acquirement of
+various expressions by the progenitors of man—The importance of
+expression—Conclusion.
+
+I have now described, to the best of my ability, the chief expressive
+actions in man, and in some few of the lower animals. I have also
+attempted to explain the origin or development of these actions through
+the three principles given in the first chapter. The first of these
+principles is, that movements which are serviceable in gratifying some
+desire, or in relieving some sensation, if often repeated, become so
+habitual that they are performed, whether or not of any service,
+whenever the same desire or sensation is felt, even in a very weak
+degree.
+
+Our second principle is that of antithesis. The habit of voluntarily
+performing opposite movements under opposite impulses has become firmly
+established in us by the practice of our whole lives. Hence, if certain
+actions have been regularly performed, in accordance with our first
+principle, under a certain frame of mind, there will be a strong and
+involuntary tendency to the performance of directly opposite actions,
+whether or not these are of any use, under the excitement of an
+opposite frame of mind.
+
+Our third principle is the direct action of the excited nervous system
+on the body, independently of the will, and independently, in large
+part, of habit. Experience shows that nerve-force is generated and set
+free whenever the cerebro-spinal system is excited. The direction which
+this nerve-force follows is necessarily determined by the lines of
+connection between the nerve-cells, with each other and with various
+parts of the body. But the direction is likewise much influenced by
+habit; inasmuch as nerve-force passes readily along accustomed
+channels.
+
+The frantic and senseless actions of an enraged man may be attributed
+in part to the undirected flow of nerve-force, and in part to the
+effects of habit, for these actions often vaguely represent the act of
+striking. They thus pass into gestures included under our first
+principle; as when an indignant man unconsciously throws himself into a
+fitting attitude for attacking his opponent, though without any
+intention of making an actual attack. We see also the influence of
+habit in all the emotions and sensations which are called exciting; for
+they have assumed this character from having habitually led to
+energetic action; and action affects, in an indirect manner, the
+respiratory and circulatory system; and the latter reacts on the brain.
+Whenever these emotions or sensations are even slightly felt by us,
+though they may not at the time lead to any exertion, our whole system
+is nevertheless disturbed through the force of habit and association.
+Other emotions and sensations are called depressing, because they have
+not habitually led to energetic action, excepting just at first, as in
+the case of extreme pain, fear, and grief, and they have ultimately
+caused complete exhaustion; they are consequently expressed chiefly by
+negative signs and by prostration. Again, there are other emotions,
+such as that of affection, which do not commonly lead to action of any
+kind, and consequently are not exhibited by any strongly marked outward
+signs. Affection indeed, in as far as it is a pleasurable sensation,
+excites the ordinary signs of pleasure.
+
+On the other hand, many of the effects due to the excitement of the
+nervous system seem to be quite independent of the flow of nerve-force
+along the channels which have been rendered habitual by former
+exertions of the will. Such effects, which often reveal the state of
+mind of the person thus affected, cannot at present be explained; for
+instance, the change of colour in the hair from extreme terror or
+grief,—the cold sweat and the trembling of the muscles from fear,—the
+modified secretions of the intestinal canal,—and the failure of certain
+glands to act.
+
+Notwithstanding that much remains unintelligible in our present
+subject, so many expressive movements and actions can be explained to a
+certain extent through the above three principles, that we may hope
+hereafter to see all explained by these or by closely analogous
+principles.
+
+Actions of all kinds, if regularly accompanying any state of the mind,
+are at once recognized as expressive. These may consist of movements of
+any part of the body, as the wagging of a dog’s tail, the shrugging of
+a man’s shoulders, the erection of the hair, the exudation of
+perspiration, the state of the capillary circulation, laboured
+breathing, and the use of the vocal or other sound-producing
+instruments. Even insects express anger, terror, jealousy, and love by
+their stridulation. With man the respiratory organs are of especial
+importance in expression, not only in a direct, but in a still higher
+degree in an indirect manner.
+
+Few points are more interesting in our present subject than the
+extraordinarily complex chain of events which lead to certain
+expressive movements. Take, for instance, the oblique eyebrows of a man
+suffering from grief or anxiety. When infants scream loudly from hunger
+or pain, the circulation is affected, and the eyes tend to become
+gorged with blood: consequently the muscles surrounding the eyes are
+strongly contracted as a protection: this action, in the course of many
+generations, has become firmly fixed and inherited: but when, with
+advancing years and culture, the habit of screaming is partially
+repressed, the muscles round the eyes still tend to contract, whenever
+even slight distress is felt: of these muscles, the pyramidals of the
+nose are less under the control of the will than are the others and
+their contraction can be checked only by that of the central fasciae of
+the frontal muscle: these latter fasciae draw up the inner ends of the
+eyebrows, and wrinkle the forehead in a peculiar manner, which we
+instantly recognize as the expression of grief or anxiety. Slight
+movements, such as these just described, or the scarcely perceptible
+drawing down of the corners of the mouth, are the last remnants or
+rudiments of strongly marked and intelligible movements. They are as
+full of significance to us in regard to expression, as are ordinary
+rudiments to the naturalist in the classification and genealogy of
+organic beings.
+
+That the chief expressive actions, exhibited by man and by the lower
+animals, are now innate or inherited,—that is, have not been learnt by
+the individual,—is admitted by every one. So little has learning or
+imitation to do with several of them that they are from the earliest
+days and throughout life quite beyond our control; for instance, the
+relaxation of the arteries of the skin in blushing, and the increased
+action of the heart in anger. We may see children, only two or three
+years old, and even those born blind, blushing from shame; and the
+naked scalp of a very young infant reddens from passion. Infants scream
+from pain directly after birth, and all their features then assume the
+same form as during subsequent years. These facts alone suffice to show
+that many of our most important expressions have not been learnt; but
+it is remarkable that some, which are certainly innate, require
+practice in the individual, before they are performed in a full and
+perfect manner; for instance, weeping and laughing. The inheritance of
+most of our expressive actions explains the fact that those born blind
+display them, as I hear from the Rev. R. H. Blair, equally well with
+those gifted with eyesight. We can thus also understand the fact that
+the young and the old of widely different races, both with man and
+animals, express the same state of mind by the same movements.
+
+We are so familiar with the fact of young and old animals displaying
+their feelings in the same manner, that we hardly perceive how
+remarkable it is that a young puppy should wag its tail when pleased,
+depress its ears and uncover its canine teeth when pretending to be
+savage, just like an old dog; or that a kitten should arch its little
+back and erect its hair when frightened and angry, like an old cat.
+When, however, we turn to less common gestures in ourselves, which we
+are accustomed to look at as artificial or conventional,—such as
+shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence, or the raising the
+arms with open hands and extended fingers, as a sign of wonder,—we feel
+perhaps too much surprise at finding that they are innate. That these
+and some other gestures are inherited, we may infer from their being
+performed by very young children, by those born blind, and by the most
+widely distinct races of man. We should also bear in mind that new and
+highly peculiar tricks, in association with certain states of the mind,
+are known to have arisen in certain individuals, and to have been
+afterwards transmitted to their offspring, in some cases, for more than
+one generation.
+
+Certain other gestures, which seem to us so natural that we might
+easily imagine that they were innate, apparently have been learnt like
+the words of a language. This seems to be the case with the joining of
+the uplifted hands, and the turning up of the eyes, in prayer. So it is
+with kissing as a mark of affection; but this is innate, in so far as
+it depends on the pleasure derived from contact with a beloved person.
+The evidence with respect to the inheritance of nodding and shaking the
+head, as signs of affirmation and negation, is doubtful; for they are
+not universal, yet seem too general to have been independently acquired
+by all the individuals of so many races.
+
+We will now consider how far the will and consciousness have come into
+play in the development of the various movements of expression. As far
+as we can judge, only a few expressive movements, such as those just
+referred to, are learnt by each individual; that is, were consciously
+and voluntarily performed during the early years of life for some
+definite object, or in imitation of others, and then became habitual.
+The far greater number of the movements of expression, and all the more
+important ones, are, as we have seen, innate or inherited; and such
+cannot be said to depend on the will of the individual. Nevertheless,
+all those included under our first principle were at first voluntarily
+performed for a definite object,—namely, to escape some danger, to
+relieve some distress, or to gratify some desire. For instance, there
+can hardly be a doubt that the animals which fight with their teeth,
+have acquired the habit of drawing back their ears closely to their
+heads, when feeling savage, from their progenitors having voluntarily
+acted in this manner in order to protect their ears from being torn by
+their antagonists; for those animals which do not fight with their
+teeth do not thus express a savage state of mind. We may infer as
+highly probable that we ourselves have acquired the habit of
+contracting the muscles round the eyes, whilst crying gently, that is,
+without the utterance of any loud sound, from our progenitors,
+especially during infancy, having experienced, during the act of
+screaming, an uncomfortable sensation in their eyeballs. Again, some
+highly expressive movements result from the endeavour to cheek or
+prevent other expressive movements; thus the obliquity of the eyebrows
+and the drawing down of the corners of the mouth follow from the
+endeavour to prevent a screaming-fit from coming on, or to cheek it
+after it has come on. Here it is obvious that the consciousness and
+will must at first have come into play; not that we are conscious in
+these or in other such cases what muscles are brought into action, any
+more than when we perform the most ordinary voluntary movements.
+
+With respect to the expressive movements due to the principle of
+antithesis, it is clear that the will has intervened, though in a
+remote and indirect manner. So again with the movements coming under
+our third principle; these, in as far as they are influenced by
+nerve-force readily passing along habitual channels, have been
+determined by former and repeated exertions of the will. The effects
+indirectly due to this latter agency are often combined in a complex
+manner, through the force of habit and association, with those directly
+resulting from the excitement of the cerebro-spinal system. This seems
+to be the case with the increased action of the heart under the
+influence of any strong emotion. When an animal erects its hair,
+assumes a threatening attitude, and utters fierce sounds, in order to
+terrify an enemy, we see a curious combination of movements which were
+originally voluntary with those that are involuntary. It is, however,
+possible that even strictly involuntary actions, such as the erection
+of the hair, may have been affected by the mysterious power of the
+will.
+
+Some expressive movements may have arisen spontaneously, in association
+with certain states of the mind, like the tricks lately referred to,
+and afterwards been inherited. But I know of no evidence rendering this
+view probable.
+
+The power of communication between the members of the same tribe by
+means of language has been of paramount importance in the development
+of man; and the force of language is much aided by the expressive
+movements of the face and body. We perceive this at once when we
+converse on an important subject with any person whose face is
+concealed. Nevertheless there are no grounds, as far as I can discover,
+for believing that any muscle has been developed or even modified
+exclusively for the sake of expression. The vocal and other
+sound-producing organs, by which various expressive noises are
+produced, seem to form a partial exception; but I have elsewhere
+attempted to show that these organs were first developed for sexual
+purposes, in order that one sex might call or charm the other. Nor can
+I discover grounds for believing that any inherited movement, which now
+serves as a means of expression, was at first voluntarily and
+consciously performed for this special purpose,—like some of the
+gestures and the finger-language used by the deaf and dumb. On the
+contrary, every true or inherited movement of expression seems to have
+had some natural and independent origin. But when once acquired, such
+movements may be voluntarily and consciously employed as a means of
+communication. Even infants, if carefully attended to, find out at a
+very early age that their screaming brings relief, and they soon
+voluntarily practise it. We may frequently see a person voluntarily
+raising his eyebrows to express surprise, or smiling to express
+pretended satisfaction and acquiescence. A man often wishes to make
+certain gestures conspicuous or demonstrative, and will raise his
+extended arms with widely opened fingers above his head, to show
+astonishment, or lift his shoulders to his ears, to show that he cannot
+or will not do something. The tendency to such movements will be
+strengthened or increased by their being thus voluntarily and
+repeatedly performed; and the effects may be inherited.
+
+It is perhaps worth consideration whether movements at first used only
+by one or a few individuals to express a certain state of mind may not
+sometimes have spread to others, and ultimately have become universal,
+through the power of conscious and unconscious imitation. That there
+exists in man a strong tendency to imitation, independently of the
+conscious will, is certain. This is exhibited in the most extraordinary
+manner in certain brain diseases, especially at the commencement of
+inflammatory softening of the brain, and has been called the “echo
+sign.” Patients thus affected imitate, without understanding every
+absurd gesture which is made, and every word which is uttered near
+them, even in a foreign language.[1401] In the case of animals, the
+jackal and wolf have learnt under confinement to imitate the barking of
+the dog. How the barking of the dog, which serves to express various
+emotions and desires, and which is so remarkable from having been
+acquired since the animal was domesticated, and from being inherited in
+different degrees by different breeds, was first learnt we do not know;
+but may we not suspect that imitation has had something to do with its
+acquisition, owing to dogs having long lived in strict association with
+so loquacious an animal as man?
+
+In the course of the foregoing remarks and throughout this volume, I
+have often felt much difficulty about the proper application of the
+terms, will, consciousness, and intention. Actions, which were at first
+voluntary, soon became habitual, and at last hereditary, and may then
+be performed even in opposition to the will. Although they often reveal
+the state of the mind, this result was not at first either intended or
+expected. Even such words as that “certain movements serve as a means
+of expression,” are apt to mislead, as they imply that this was their
+primary purpose or object. This, however, seems rarely or never to have
+been the case; the movements having been at first either of some direct
+use, or the indirect effect of the excited state of the sensorium. An
+infant may scream either intentionally or instinctively to show that it
+wants food; but it has no wish or intention to draw its features into
+the peculiar form which so plainly indicates misery; yet some of the
+most characteristic expressions exhibited by man are derived from the
+act of screaming, as has been explained.
+
+Although most of our expressive actions are innate or instinctive, as
+is admitted by everyone, it is a different question whether we have any
+instinctive power of recognizing them. This has generally been assumed
+to be the case; but the assumption has been strongly controverted by M.
+Lemoine.[1402] Monkeys soon learn to distinguish, not only the tones of
+voice of their masters, but the expression of their faces, as is
+asserted by a careful observer.[1403] Dogs well know the difference
+between caressing and threatening gestures or tones; and they seem to
+recognize a compassionate tone. But as far as I can make out, after
+repeated trials, they do not understand any movement confined to the
+features, excepting a smile or laugh; and this they appear, at least in
+some cases, to recognize. This limited amount of knowledge has probably
+been gained, both by monkeys and dogs, through their associating harsh
+or kind treatment with our actions; and the knowledge certainly is not
+instinctive. Children, no doubt, would soon learn the movements of
+expression in their elders in the same manner as animals learn those of
+man. Moreover, when a child cries or laughs, he knows in a general
+manner what he is doing and what he feels; so that a very small
+exertion of reason would tell him what crying or laughing meant in
+others. But the question is, do our children acquire their knowledge of
+expression solely by experience through the power of association and
+reason?
+
+As most of the movements of expression must have been gradually
+acquired, afterwards becoming instinctive, there seems to be some
+degree of _a priori_ probability that their recognition would likewise
+have become instinctive. There is, at least, no greater difficulty in
+believing this than in admitting that, when a female quadruped first
+bears young, she knows the cry of distress of her offspring, or than in
+admitting that many animals instinctively recognize and fear their
+enemies; and of both these statements there can be no reasonable doubt.
+It is however extremely difficult to prove that our children
+instinctively recognize any expression. I attended to this point in my
+first-born infant, who could not have learnt anything by associating
+with other children, and I was convinced that he understood a smile and
+received pleasure from seeing one, answering it by another, at much too
+early an age to have learnt anything by experience. When this child was
+about four months old, I made in his presence many odd noises and
+strange grimaces, and tried to look savage; but the noises, if not too
+loud, as well as the grimaces, were all taken as good jokes; and I
+attributed this at the time to their being preceded or accompanied by
+smiles. When five months old, he seemed to understand a compassionate,
+expression and tone of voice. When a few days over six months old, his
+nurse pretended to cry, and I saw that his face instantly assumed a
+melancholy expression, with the corners of the mouth strongly
+depressed; now this child could rarely have seen any other child
+crying, and never a grown-up person crying, and I should doubt whether
+at so early an age he could have reasoned on the subject. Therefore it
+seems to me that an innate feeling must have told him that the
+pretended crying of his nurse expressed grief; and this through the
+instinct of sympathy excited grief in him.
+
+M. Lemoine argues that, if man possessed an innate knowledge of
+expression, authors and artists would not have found it so difficult,
+as is notoriously the case, to describe and depict the characteristic
+signs of each particular state of mind. But this does not seem to me a
+valid argument. We may actually behold the expression changing in an
+unmistakable manner in a man or animal, and yet be quite unable, as I
+know from experience, to analyse the nature of the change. In the two
+photographs given by Duchenne of the same old man (Plate III. figs. 5
+and 6), almost every one recognized that the one represented a true,
+and the other a false smile; but I have found it very difficult to
+decide in what the whole amount of difference consists. It has often
+struck me as a curious fact that so many shades of expression are
+instantly recognized without any conscious process of analysis on our
+part. No one, I believe, can clearly describe a sullen or sly
+expression; yet many observers are unanimous that these expressions can
+be recognized in the various races of man. Almost everyone to whom I
+showed Duchenne’s photograph of the young man with oblique eyebrows
+(Plate II. fig. 2) at once declared that it expressed grief or some
+such feeling; yet probably not one of these persons, or one out of a
+thousand persons, could beforehand have told anything precise about the
+obliquity of the eyebrows with their inner ends puckered, or about the
+rectangular furrows on the forehead. So it is with many other
+expressions, of which I have had practical experience in the trouble
+requisite in instructing others what points to observe. If, then, great
+ignorance of details does not prevent our recognizing with certainty
+and promptitude various expressions, I do not see how this ignorance
+can be advanced as an argument that our knowledge, though vague and
+general, is not innate.
+
+I have endeavoured to show in considerable detail that all the chief
+expressions exhibited by man are the same throughout the world. This
+fact is interesting, as it affords a new argument in favour of the
+several races being descended from a single parent-stock, which must
+have been almost completely human in structure, and to a large extent
+in mind, before the period at which the races diverged from each other.
+No doubt similar structures, adapted for the same purpose, have often
+been independently acquired through variation and natural selection by
+distinct species; but this view will not explain close similarity
+between distinct species in a multitude of unimportant details. Now if
+we bear in mind the numerous points of structure having no relation to
+expression, in which all the races of man closely agree, and then add
+to them the numerous points, some of the highest importance and many of
+the most trifling value, on which the movements of expression directly
+or indirectly depend, it seems to me improbable in the highest degree
+that so much similarity, or rather identity of structure, could have
+been acquired by independent means. Yet this must have been the case if
+the races of man are descended from several aboriginally distinct
+species. It is far more probable that the many points of close
+similarity in the various races are due to inheritance from a single
+parent-form, which had already assumed a human character.
+
+It is a curious, though perhaps an idle speculation, how early in the
+long line of our progenitors the various expressive movements, now
+exhibited by man, were successively acquired. The following remarks
+will at least serve to recall some of the chief points discussed in
+this volume. We may confidently believe that laughter, as a sign of
+pleasure or enjoyment, was practised by our progenitors long before
+they deserved to be called human; for very many kinds of monkeys, when
+pleased, utter a reiterated sound, clearly analogous to our laughter,
+often accompanied by vibratory movements of their jaws or lips, with
+the corners of the mouth drawn backwards and upwards, by the wrinkling
+of the cheeks, and even by the brightening of the eyes.
+
+We may likewise infer that fear was expressed from an extremely remote
+period, in almost the same manner as it now is by man; namely, by
+trembling, the erection of the hair, cold perspiration, pallor, widely
+opened eyes, the relaxation of most of the muscles, and by the whole
+body cowering downwards or held motionless.
+
+Suffering, if great, will from the first have caused screams or groans
+to be uttered, the body to be contorted, and the teeth to be ground
+together. But our progenitors will not have exhibited those highly
+expressive movements of the features which accompany screaming and
+crying until their circulatory and respiratory organs, and the muscles
+surrounding the eyes, had acquired their present structure. The
+shedding of tears appears to have originated through reflex action from
+the spasmodic contraction of the eyelids, together perhaps with the
+eyeballs becoming gorged with blood during the act of screaming.
+Therefore weeping probably came on rather late in the line of our
+descent; and this conclusion agrees with the fact that our nearest
+allies, the anthropomorphous apes, do not weep. But we must here
+exercise some caution, for as certain monkeys, which are not closely
+related to man, weep, this habit might have been developed long ago in
+a sub-branch of the group from which man is derived. Our early
+progenitors, when suffering from grief or anxiety, would not have made
+their eyebrows oblique, or have drawn down the corners of their mouth,
+until they had acquired the habit of endeavouring to restrain their
+screams. The expression, therefore, of grief and anxiety is eminently
+human.
+
+Rage will have been expressed at a very early period by threatening or
+frantic gestures, by the reddening of the skin, and by glaring eyes,
+but not by frowning. For the habit of frowning seems to have been
+acquired chiefly from the corrugators being the first muscles to
+contract round the eyes, whenever during infancy pain, anger, or
+distress is felt, and there consequently is a near approach to
+screaming; and partly from a frown serving as a shade in difficult and
+intent vision. It seems probable that this shading action would not
+have become habitual until man had assumed a completely upright
+position, for monkeys do not frown when exposed to a glaring light. Our
+early progenitors, when enraged, would probably have exposed their
+teeth more freely than does man, even when giving full vent to his
+rage, as with the insane. We may, also, feel almost certain that they
+would have protruded their lips, when sulky or disappointed, in a
+greater degree than is the case with our own children, or even with the
+children of existing savage races.
+
+Our early progenitors, when indignant or moderately angry, would not
+have held their heads erect, opened their chests, squared their
+shoulders, and clenched their fists, until they had acquired the
+ordinary carriage and upright attitude of man, and had learnt to fight
+with their fists or clubs. Until this period had arrived the
+antithetical gesture of shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence
+or of patience, would not have been developed. From the same reason
+astonishment would not then have been expressed by raising the arms
+with open hands and extended fingers. Nor, judging from the actions of
+monkeys, would astonishment have been exhibited by a widely opened
+mouth; but the eyes would have been opened and the eyebrows arched.
+Disgust would have been shown at a very early period by movements round
+the mouth, like those of vomiting,—that is, if the view which I have
+suggested respecting the source of the expression is correct, namely,
+that our progenitors had the power, and used it, of voluntarily and
+quickly rejecting any food from their stomachs which they disliked. But
+the more refined manner of showing contempt or disdain, by lowering the
+eyelids, or turning away the eyes and face, as if the despised person
+were not worth looking at, would not probably have been acquired until
+a much later period.
+
+Of all expressions, blushing seems to be the most strictly human; yet
+it is common to all or nearly all the races of man, whether or not any
+change of colour is visible in their skin. The relaxation of the small
+arteries of the surface, on which blushing depends, seems to have
+primarily resulted from earnest attention directed to the appearance of
+our own persons, especially of our faces, aided by habit, inheritance,
+and the ready flow of nerve-force along accustomed channels; and
+afterwards to have been extended by the power of association to
+self-attention directed to moral conduct. It can hardly be doubted that
+many animals are capable of appreciating beautiful colours and even
+forms, as is shown by the pains which the individuals of one sex take
+in displaying their beauty before those of the opposite sex. But it
+does not seem possible that any animal, until its mental powers had
+been developed to an equal or nearly equal degree with those of man,
+would have closely considered and been sensitive about its own personal
+appearance. Therefore we may conclude that blushing originated at a
+very late period in the long line of our descent.
+
+From the various facts just alluded to, and given in the course of this
+volume, it follows that, if the structure of our organs of respiration
+and circulation had differed in only a slight degree from the state in
+which they now exist, most of our expressions would have been
+wonderfully different. A very slight change in the course of the
+arteries and veins which run to the head, would probably have prevented
+the blood from accumulating in our eyeballs during violent expiration;
+for this occurs in extremely few quadrupeds. In this case we should not
+have displayed some of our most characteristic expressions. If man had
+breathed water by the aid of external branchiae (though the idea is
+hardly conceivable), instead of air through his mouth and nostrils, his
+features would not have expressed his feelings much more efficiently
+than now do his hands or limbs. Rage and disgust, however, would still
+have been shown by movements about the lips and mouth, and the eyes
+would have become brighter or duller according to the state of the
+circulation. If our ears had remained movable, their movements would
+have been highly expressive, as is the case with all the animals which
+fight with their teeth; and we may infer that our early progenitors
+thus fought, as we still uncover the canine tooth on one side when we
+sneer at or defy any one, and we uncover all our teeth when furiously
+enraged.
+
+The movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin
+may have been, are in themselves of much importance for our welfare.
+They serve as the first means of communication between the mother and
+her infant; she smiles approval, and thus encourages her child on the
+right path, or frowns disapproval. We readily perceive sympathy in
+others by their expression; our sufferings are thus mitigated and our
+pleasures increased; and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened. The
+movements of expression give vividness and energy to our spoken words.
+They reveal the thoughts and intentions of others more truly than do
+words, which may be falsified. Whatever amount of truth the so-called
+science of physiognomy may contain, appears to depend, as Haller long
+ago remarked,[1404] on different persons bringing into frequent use
+different facial muscles, according to their dispositions; the
+development of these muscles being perhaps thus increased, and the
+lines or furrows on the face, due to their habitual contraction, being
+thus rendered deeper and more conspicuous. The free expression by
+outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the
+repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward signs softens
+our emotions.[1405] He who gives way to violent gestures will increase
+his rage; he who does not control the signs of fear will experience
+fear in a greater degree; and he who remains passive when overwhelmed
+with grief loses his best chance of recovering elasticity of mind.
+These results follow partly from the intimate relation which exists
+between almost all the emotions and their outward manifestations; and
+partly from the direct influence of exertion on the heart, and
+consequently on the brain. Even the simulation of an emotion tends to
+arouse it in our minds. Shakespeare, who from his wonderful knowledge
+of the human mind ought to be an excellent judge, says:—
+
+Is it not monstrous that this player here,
+But in a fiction, in a dream of passion,
+Could force his soul so to his own conceit,
+That, from her working, all his visage wann’d;
+Tears in his eyes, distraction in ’s aspect,
+A broken voice, and his whole function suiting
+With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing!
+_Hamlet_, act ii. sc. 2.
+
+
+We have seen that the study of the theory of expression confirms to a
+certain limited extent the conclusion that man is derived from some
+lower animal form, and supports the belief of the specific or
+sub-specific unity of the several races; but as far as my judgment
+serves, such confirmation was hardly needed. We have also seen that
+expression in itself, or the language of the emotions, as it has
+sometimes been called, is certainly of importance for the welfare of
+mankind. To understand, as far as possible, the source or origin of the
+various expressions which may be hourly seen on the faces of the men
+around us, not to mention our domesticated animals, ought to possess
+much interest for us. From these several causes, we may conclude that
+the philosophy of our subject has well deserved the attention which it
+has already received from several excellent observers, and that it
+deserves still further attention, especially from any able
+physiologist.
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+
+1 (return) [ J. Parsons, in his paper in the Appendix to the
+‘Philosophical Transactions’ for 1746, p. 41, gives a list of forty-one
+old authors who have written on Expression.]
+
+2 (return) [ Conférences sur l’expression des différents Caractères des
+Passions.’ Paris, 4to, 1667. I always quote from the republication of
+the ‘Conférences’ in the edition of Lavater, by Moreau, which appeared
+in 1820, as given in vol. ix. p. 257.]
+
+3 (return) [ ‘Discours par Pierre Camper sur le moyen de représenter
+les diverses passions,’ &c. 1792. 1844]
+
+4 (return) [ I always quote from the third edition, 1844, which was
+published after the death of Sir C. Bell, and contains his latest
+corrections. The first edition of 1806 is much inferior in merit, and
+does not include some of his more important views.]
+
+5 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie et de la Parole,’ par Albert Lemoine,
+1865, p. 101.]
+
+6 (return) [ ‘L’Art de connaître les Hommes,’ &c., par G. Lavater. The
+earliest edition of this work, referred to in the preface to the
+edition of 1820 in ten volumes, as containing the observations of M.
+Moreau, is said to have been published in 1807; and I have no doubt
+that this is correct, because the ‘Notice sur Lavater’ at the
+commencement of volume i. is dated April 13, 1806. In some
+bibliographical works, however, the date of 1805—1809 is given, but it
+seems impossible that 1805 can be correct. Dr. Duchenne remarks
+(‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’-8vo edit. 1862, p. 5, and
+‘Archives Générales de Médecine,’ Jan. et Fév. 1862) that M. Moreau “_a
+composé pour son ouvrage un article important_,” &c., in the year 1805;
+and I find in volume i. of the edition of 1820 passages bearing the
+dates of December 12, 1805, and another January 5, 1806, besides that
+of April 13, 1806, above referred to. In consequence of some of these
+passages having thus been _composed_ in 1805, Dr. Duchenne assigns to
+M. Moreau the priority over Sir C. Bell, whose work, as we have seen,
+was published in 1806. This is a very unusual manner of determining the
+priority of scientific works; but such questions are of extremely
+little importance in comparison with their relative merits. The
+passages above quoted from M. Moreau and from Le Brun are taken in this
+and all other cases from the edition of 1820 of Lavater, tom. iv. p.
+228, and tom. ix. p. 279.]
+
+
+7 (return) [ ‘Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.’ Band
+I. Dritte Abtheilung, 1858.]
+
+8 (return) [ ‘The Senses and the Intellect,’ 2nd edit. 1864, pp. 96 and
+288. The preface to the first edition of this work is dated June, 1855.
+See also the 2nd edition of Mr. Bain’s work on the ‘Emotions and
+Will.’]
+
+9 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. p. 121.]
+
+10 (return) [ ‘Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,’ Second
+Series, 1863, p. 111. There is a discussion on Laughter in the First
+Series of Essays, which discussion seems to me of very inferior value.]
+
+11 (return) [ Since the publication of the essay just referred to, Mr.
+Spencer has written another, on “Morals and Moral Sentiments,” in the
+‘Fortnightly Review,’ April 1, 1871, p. 426. He has, also, now
+published his final conclusions in vol. ii. of the second edit. of the
+‘Principles of Psychology,’ 1872, p. 539. I may state, in order that I
+may not be accused of trespassing on Mr. Spencer’s domain, that I
+announced in my ‘Descent of Man,’ that I had then written a part of the
+present volume: my first MS. notes on the subject of expression bear
+the date of the year 1838.]
+
+12 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131.]
+
+13 (return) [ Professor Owen expressly states (Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1830,
+p. 28) that this is the case with respect to the Orang, and specifies
+all the more important muscles which are well known to serve with man
+for the expression of his feelings. See, also, a description of several
+of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof. Macalister, in
+‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History,’ vol. vii. May, 1871, p. 342.]
+
+14 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ pp. 121, 138.]
+
+15 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ pp. 12, 73.]
+
+16 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ 8vo edit. p. 31.]
+
+17 (return) [ ‘Elements of Physiology,’ English translation, vol. ii.
+p. 934.]
+
+18 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. p. 198.]
+
+19 (return) [ See remarks to this effect in Lessing’s ‘Lacooon,’
+translated by W. Ross, 1836, p. 19.]
+
+20 (return) [ Mr. Partridge in Todd’s ‘Cyclopædia of Anatomy and
+Physiology,’ vol. ii. p. 227.]
+
+21 (return) [ ‘La Physionomie,’ par G. Lavater, tom. iv. 1820, p. 274.
+On the number of the facial muscles, see vol. iv. pp. 209-211.]
+
+22 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 91.]
+
+101 (return) [ Mr. Herbert Spencer (‘Essays,’ Second Series, 1863, p.
+138) has drawn a clear distinction between emotions and sensations, the
+latter being “generated in our corporeal framework.” He classes as
+Feelings both emotions and-sensations.]
+
+102 (return) [ Müller, ‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol.
+ii. p. 939. See also Mr. H. Spencer’s interesting speculations on the
+same subject, and on the genesis of nerves, in his ‘Principles of
+Biology,’ vol. ii. p. 346; and in his ‘Principles of Psychology,’ 2nd
+edit. pp. 511-557.]
+
+103 (return) [ A remark to much the same effect was made long ago by
+Hippocrates and by the illustrious Harvey; for both assert that a young
+animal forgets in the course of a few days the art of sucking, and
+cannot without some difficulty again acquire it. I give these
+assertions on the authority of Dr. Darwin, ‘Zoonomia,’ 1794, vol. i. p.
+140.]
+
+104 (return) [ See for my authorities, and for various analogous facts,
+‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ 1868, vol.
+ii. p. 304.]
+
+105 (return) [ ‘The Senses and the Intellect,’ 2nd edit. 1864, p. 332.
+Prof. Huxley remarks (‘Elementary Lessons in Physiology,’ 5th edit.
+1872, p. 306), “It may be laid down as a rule, that, if any two mental
+states be called up together, or in succession, with due frequency and
+vividness, the subsequent production of the one of them will suffice to
+call up the other, and that whether we desire it or not.”]
+
+106 (return) [ Gratiolet (‘De la Physionomie,’ p. 324), in his
+discussion on this subject, gives many analogous instances. See p. 42,
+on the opening and shutting of the eyes. Engel is quoted (p. 323) on
+the changed paces of a man, as his thoughts change.]
+
+107 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ 1862, p. 17.]
+
+108 (return) [ ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 6. The inheritance of habitual gestures is
+so important for us, that I gladly avail myself of Mr. F. Galton’s
+permission to give in his own words the following remarkable case:—“The
+following account of a habit occurring in individuals of three
+consecutive generations {footnote continues:} is of peculiar interest,
+because it occurs only during sound sleep, and therefore cannot be due
+to imitation, but must be altogether natural. The particulars are
+perfectly trustworthy, for I have enquired fully into them, and speak
+from abundant and independent evidence. A gentleman of considerable
+position was found by his wife to have the curious trick, when he lay
+fast asleep on his back in bed, of raising his right arm slowly in
+front of his face, up to his forehead, and then dropping it with a
+jerk, so that the wrist fell heavily on the bridge of his nose. The
+trick did not occur every night, but occasionally, and was independent
+of any ascertained cause. Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an
+hour or more. The gentleman’s nose was prominent, and its bridge often
+became sore from the blows which it received. At one time an awkward
+sore was produced, that was long in healing, on account of the
+recurrence, night after night, of the blows which first caused it. His
+wife had to remove the button from the wrist of his night-gown as it
+made severe scratches, and some means were attempted of tying his arm.
+
+“Many years after his death, his son married a lady who had never heard
+of the family incident. She, however, observed precisely the same
+peculiarity in her husband; but his nose, from not being particularly
+prominent, has never as yet suffered from the blows. The trick does not
+occur when he is half-asleep, as, for example, when dozing in his
+arm-chair, but the moment he is fast asleep it is apt to begin. It is,
+as with his father, intermittent; sometimes ceasing for many nights,
+and sometimes almost incessant during a part of every night. It is
+performed, as it was by his father, with his right hand.
+
+“One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick. She
+performs it, likewise, with the right hand, but in a slightly modified
+form; for, after raising the arm, she does not allow the wrist to drop
+upon the bridge of the nose, but the palm of the half-closed hand falls
+over and down the nose, striking it rather rapidly. It is also very
+intermittent with this child, not occurring for periods of some months,
+but sometimes occurring almost incessantly.”]
+
+109 (return) [ Prof. Huxley remarks (‘Elementary Physiology,’ 5th edit.
+p. 305) that reflex actions proper to the spinal cord are _natural_;
+but, by the help of the brain, that is through habit, an infinity of
+_artificial_ reflex actions may be acquired. Virchow admits (‘Sammlung
+wissenschaft. Vorträge,’ &c., “Ueber das Rückenmark,” 1871, ss. 24, 31)
+that some reflex actions can hardly be distinguished from instincts;
+and, of the latter, it may be added, some cannot be distinguished from
+inherited habits.]
+
+110 (return) [ Dr. Maudsley, ‘Body and Mind,’ 1870, p. 8.]
+
+111 (return) [ See the very interesting discussion on the whole subject
+by Claude Bernard, ‘Tissus Vivants,’ 1866, p. 353-356.]
+
+112 (return) [ ‘Chapters on Mental Physiology,’ 1858, p. 85.]
+
+113 (return) [ Müller remarks (‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. tr. vol.
+ii. p. 1311) on starting being always accompanied by the closure of the
+eyelids.]
+
+114 (return) [ Dr. Maudsley remarks (‘Body and Mind,’ p. 10) that
+“reflex movements which commonly effect a useful end may, under the
+changed circumstances of disease, do great mischief, becoming even the
+occasion of violent suffering and of a most painful death.”]
+
+115 (return) [ See Mr. F. H. Salvin’s account of a tame jackal in ‘Land
+and Water,’ October, 1869.]
+
+116 (return) [ “Dr. Darwin, ‘Zoonomia,’ 1794, vol. i. p. 160. I find
+that the fact of cats protruding their feet when pleased is also
+noticed (p. 151) in this work.]
+
+117 (return) [ Carpenter, ‘Principles of Comparative Physiology,’ 1854,
+p. 690, and Müller’s ‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol. ii.
+p. 936.]
+
+118 (return) [ Mowbray on ‘Poultry,’ 6th edit. 1830, p. 54.]
+
+119 (return) [ See the account given by this excellent observer in
+‘Wild Sports of the Highlands,’ 1846, p. 142.]
+
+120 (return) [ ‘Philosophical Translations,’ 1823, p. 182.]
+
+201 (return) [ ‘Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s.
+55.]
+
+202 (return) [ Mr. Tylor gives an account of the Cistercian
+gesture-language in his ‘Early History of Mankind’ (2nd edit. 1870, p.
+40), and makes some remarks on the principle of opposition in
+gestures.]
+
+203 (return) [ See on this subject Dr. W. R. Scott’s interesting work,
+‘The Deaf and Dumb,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 12. He says, “This contracting
+of natural gestures into much shorter gestures than the natural
+expression requires, is very common amongst the deaf and dumb. This
+contracted gesture is frequently so shortened as nearly to lose all
+semblance of the natural one, but to the deaf and dumb who use it, it
+still has the force of the original expression.”]
+
+301 (return) [ See the interesting cases collected by M. G. Pouchet in
+the ‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’ January 1, 1872, p. 79. An instance was
+also brought some years ago before the British Association at Belfast.]
+
+302 (return) [ Müller remarks (‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat.
+vol. ii. p. 934) that when the feelings are very intense, “all the
+spinal nerves become affected to the extent of imperfect paralysis, or
+the excitement of trembling of the whole body.”]
+
+303 (return) [ ‘Leçons sur les Prop. des Tissus Vivants,’ 1866, pp.
+457-466.]
+
+304 (return) [ Mr. Bartlett, “Notes on the Birth of a Hippopotamus,”
+Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1871, p. 255.]
+
+305 (return) [ See, on this subject, Claude Bernard, ‘Tissus Vivants,’
+1866, pp. 316, 337, 358. Virchow expresses himself to almost exactly
+the same effect in his essay “Ueber das Rückenmark” (Sammlung
+wissenschaft. Vorträge, 1871, s. 28).]
+
+306 (return) [ Müller (‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol.
+ii. p. 932) in speaking of the nerves, says, “any sudden change of
+condition of whatever kind sets the nervous principle into action.” See
+Virchow and Bernard on the same subject in passages in the two works
+referred to in my last foot-note.]
+
+307 (return) [ H. Spencer, ‘Essays, Scientific, Political,’ &c., Second
+Series, 1863, pp. 109, 111.]
+
+308 (return) [ Sir H. Holland, in speaking (‘Medical Notes and
+Reflexions,’ 1839, p. 328) of that curious state of body called the
+_fidgets_, remarks that it seems due to “an accumulation of some cause
+of irritation which requires muscular action for its relief.”]
+
+309 (return) [ I am much indebted to Mr. A. H. Garrod for having
+informed me of M. Lorain’s work on the pulse, in which a sphygmogram of
+a woman in a rage is given; and this shows much difference in the rate
+and other characters from that of the same woman in her ordinary
+state.]
+
+310 (return) [ How powerfully intense joy excites the brain, and how
+the brain reacts on the body, is well shown in the rare cases of
+Psychical Intoxication. Dr. J. Crichton Browne (‘Medical Mirror,’ 1865)
+records the case of a young man of strongly nervous temperament, who,
+on hearing by a telegram that a fortune had been bequeathed him, first
+became pale, then exhilarated, and soon in the highest spirits, but
+flushed and very restless. He then took a walk with a friend for the
+sake of tranquillising himself, but returned staggering in his gait,
+uproariously laughing, yet irritable in temper, incessantly talking,
+and singing loudly in the public streets. It was positively ascertained
+that he had not touched any spirituous liquor, though every one thought
+that he was intoxicated. Vomiting after a time came on, and the
+half-digested contents of his stomach were examined, but no odour of
+alcohol could be detected. He then slept heavily, and on awaking was
+well, except that he suffered from headache, nausea, and prostration of
+strength.]
+
+311 (return) [ Dr. Darwin, ‘Zoonomia,’ 1794, vol. i. p. 148.]
+
+312 (return) [ Mrs. Oliphant, in her novel of ‘Miss Majoribanks,’ p.
+362. All this reacts on the brain, and prostration soon follows with
+collapsed muscles and dulled eyes. As associated habit no longer
+prompts the sufferer to action, he is urged by his friends to voluntary
+exertion, and not to give way to silent, motionless grief. Exertion
+stimulates the heart, and this reacts on the brain, and aids the mind
+to bear its heavy load.]
+
+401 (return) [ See the evidence on this head in my ‘Variation of
+Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 27. On the cooing
+of pigeons, vol. i. pp. 154, 155.]
+
+402 (return) [ ‘Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,’ 1858.
+‘The Origin and Function of Music,’ p. 359.]
+
+403 (return) [ ‘The Descent of Man,’ 1870, vol. ii. p. 332. The words
+quoted are from Professor Owen. It has lately been shown that some
+quadrupeds much lower in the scale than monkeys, namely Rodents, are
+able to produce correct musical tones: see the account of a singing
+Hesperomys, by the Rev. S. Lockwood, in the ‘American Naturalist,’ vol.
+v. December, 1871, p. 761.]
+
+404 (return) [ Mr. Tylor (‘Primitive Culture,’ 1871, vol. i. p. 166),
+in his discussion on this subject, alludes to the whining of the dog.]
+
+405 (return) [ ‘Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s.
+46.]
+
+406 (return) [ Quoted by Gratiolet, ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 115.]
+
+407 (return) [ ‘Théorie Physiologique de la Musique,’ Paris, 1868, P.
+146. Helmholtz has also fully discussed in this profound work the
+relation of the form of the cavity of the mouth to the production of
+vowel-sounds.]
+
+408 (return) [ I have given some details on this subject in my ‘Descent
+of Man,’ vol. i. pp. 352, 384.]
+
+409 (return) [ As quoted in Huxley’s ‘Evidence as to Man’s Place in
+Nature,’ 1863, p. 52.]
+
+410 (return) [ Illust. Thierleben, 1864, B. i. s. 130.]
+
+411 (return) [ The Hon. J. Caton, Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences, May,
+1868, pp. 36, 40. For the _Capra, Ægagrus_, ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p.
+37.]
+
+412 (return) [ ‘Land and Water,’ July 20, 1867, p. 659.]
+
+413 (return) [ _Phaeton rubricauda_: ‘Ibis,’ vol. iii. 1861, p. 180.]
+
+414 (return) [ On the _Strix flammea_, Audubon, ‘Ornithological
+Biography,’ 1864, vol. ii. p. 407. I have observed other cases in the
+Zoological Gardens.]
+
+415 (return) [ _Melopsittacus undulatus_. See an account of its habits
+by Gould, ‘Handbook of Birds of Australia,’ 1865, vol. ii. p. 82.]
+
+416 (return) [ See, for instance, the account which I have given
+(‘Descent of Man,’ vol. ii. p. 32) of an Anolis and Draco.]
+
+417 (return) [ These muscles are described in his well-known works. I
+am greatly indebted to this distinguished observer for having given me
+in a letter information on this same subject.]
+
+418 (return) [ ‘Lehrbuch der Histologie des Menschen,’ 1857, s. 82. I
+owe to Prof. W. Turner’s kindness an extract from this work.]
+
+419 (return) [ ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,’ 1853, vol.
+i. p. 262.]
+
+420 (return) [ ‘Lehrbuch der Histologie,’ 1857, s. 82.]
+
+421 (return) [ ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’ p. 403.]
+
+422 (return) [ See the account of the habits of this animal by Dr.
+Cooper, as quoted in ‘Nature,’ April 27, 1871, p. 512.]
+
+423 (return) [ Dr. Günther, ‘Reptiles of British India,’ p. 262.]
+
+424 (return) [ Mr. J. Mansel Weale, ‘Nature,’ April 27, 1871, p. 508.]
+
+425 (return) [ ‘Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the
+“Beagle,”’ 1845, p. 96. I have compared the rattling thus produced with
+that of the Rattle-snake.]
+
+426 (return) [ See the account by Dr. Anderson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871,
+p. 196.]
+
+427 (return) [ The ‘American Naturalist,’ Jan. 1872, p. 32. I regret
+that I cannot follow Prof. Shaler in believing that the rattle has been
+developed, by the aid of natural selection, for the sake of producing
+sounds which deceive and attract birds, so that they may serve as prey
+to the snake. I do not, however, wish to doubt that the sounds may
+occasionally subserve this end. But the conclusion at which I have
+arrived, viz. that the rattling serves as a warning to would-be
+devourers, appears to me much more probable, as it connects together
+various classes of facts. If this snake had acquired its rattle and the
+habit of rattling, for the sake of attracting prey, it does not seem
+probable that it would have invariably used its instrument when angered
+or disturbed. Prof. Shaler takes nearly the same view as I do of the
+manner of development of the rattle; and I have always held this
+opinion since observing the Trigonocephalus in South America.]
+
+428 (return) [ From the accounts lately collected, and given in the
+‘Journal of the Linnean Society,’ by Airs. Barber, on the habits of the
+snakes of South Africa; and from the accounts published by several
+writers, for instance by Lawson, of the rattle-snake in North
+America,—it does not seem improbable that the terrific appearance of
+snakes and the sounds produced by them, may likewise serve in procuring
+prey, by paralysing, or as it is sometimes called fascinating, the
+smaller animals.]
+
+429 (return) [ See the account by Dr. R. Brown, in Proc. Zool. Soc.
+1871, p. 39. He says that as soon as a pig sees a snake it rushes upon
+it; and a snake makes off immediately on the appearance of a pig.]
+
+430 (return) [ Dr. Günther remarks (‘Reptiles of British India,’ p.
+340) on the destruction of cobras by the ichneumon or herpestes, and
+whilst the cobras are young by the jungle-fowl. It is well known that
+the peacock also eagerly kills snakes.]
+
+431 (return) [ Prof. Cope enumerates a number of kinds in his ‘Method
+of Creation of Organic Types,’ read before the American Phil. Soc.,
+December 15th, 1871, p. 20. Prof. Cope takes the same view as I do of
+the use of the gestures and sounds made by snakes. I briefly alluded to
+this subject in the last edition of my ‘Origin of Species.’ Since the
+passages in the text above have been printed, I have been pleased to
+find that Mr. Henderson (‘The American Naturalist,’ May, 1872, p. 260)
+also takes a similar view of the use of the rattle, namely “in
+preventing an attack from being made.”]
+
+432 (return) [ Mr. des Vœux, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 3.]
+
+433 (return) [ ‘The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada,’ 1866, p. 53.
+p. 53.{sic}]
+
+434 (return) [ ‘The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,’ 1867, p. 443.]
+
+501 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ 1844, p. 190.]
+
+502 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, pp. 187, 218.]
+
+503 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ 1844, p. 140.]
+
+504 (return) [ Many particulars are given by Gueldenstädt in his
+account of the jackal in Nov. Comm. Acad. Sc. Imp. Petrop. 1775, tom.
+xx. p. 449. See also another excellent account of the manners of this
+animal and of its play, in ‘Land and Water,’ October, 1869. Lieut.
+Annesley, R. A., has also communicated to me some particulars with
+respect to the jackal. I have made many inquiries about wolves and
+jackals in the Zoological Gardens, and have observed them for myself.]
+
+505 (return) [ ‘Land and Water,’ November 6, 1869.]
+
+506 (return) [ Azara, ‘Quadrupèdes du Paraquay,’ 1801, tom. 1. p. 136.]
+
+507 (return) [ ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p. 657. See also Azara on the
+Puma, in the work above quoted.]
+
+508 (return) [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. p. 123.
+See also p. 126, on horses not breathing through their mouths, with
+reference to their distended nostrils.]
+
+509 (return) [ ‘Land and Water,’ 1869, p. 152.]
+
+510 (return) [ ‘Natural History of Mammalia,’ 1841, vol. 1. pp. 383,
+410.]
+
+511 (return) [ Rengger (‘Sagetheire von Paraquay’, 1830, s. 46) kept
+these monkeys in confinement for seven years in their native country of
+Paraguay.]
+
+512 (return) [ Rengger, ibid. s. 46. Humboldt, ‘Personal Narrative,
+Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 527.]
+
+513 (return) [ Nat. Hist. of Mammalia, 1841, p. 351.]
+
+514 (return) [ Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. s. 84. On baboons striking
+the ground, s. 61.]
+
+515 (return) [ Brehm remarks (‘Thierleben,’ s. 68) that the eyebrows of
+the _Inuus ecaudatus_ are frequently moved up and down when the animal
+is angered.]
+
+516 (return) [ G. Bennett, ‘Wanderings in New South Wales,’ &c. vol.
+ii. 1834, p. 153. FIG. 18.-Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky. Drawn
+from life by Mr. Wood.]
+
+517 (return) [ W. L. Martin, Nat. Hist. of Mamm. Animals, 1841, p.
+405.]
+
+518 (return) [ Prof. Owen on the Orang, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1830, p. 28.
+On the Chimpanzee, see Prof. Macalister, in Annals and Mag. of Nat.
+Hist. vol. vii. 1871, p. 342, who states that the _corrugator
+supercilii_ is inseparable from the _orbicularis palpebrarum_.]
+
+519 (return) [ Boston Journal of Nat. Hist. 1845—-47, vol. v. p. 423.
+On the Chimpanzee, ibid. 1843-44, vol. iv. p. 365.]
+
+520 (return) [ See on this subject, ‘Descent of Man,’ vol. i. p. 20.]
+
+521 (return) [ ‘Descent of Man,’ vol, i. p, 43.]
+
+522 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. 1844, pp. 138, 121.]
+
+601 (return) [ The best photographs in my collection are by Mr.
+Rejlander, of Victoria Street, London, and by Herr Kindermann, of
+Hamburg. Figs. 1, 3, 4, and 6 are by the former; and figs. 2 and 5, by
+the latter gentleman. Fig. 6 is given to show moderate crying in an
+older child.]
+
+602 (return) [ Henle (‘Handbuch d. Syst. Anat. 1858, B. i. s. 139)
+agrees with Duchenne that this is the effect of the contraction of the
+_pyramidalis nasi_.]
+
+603 (return) [ These consist of the _levator labii superioris alaeque
+nasi_, the _levator labii proprius_, the _malaris_, and the
+_zygomaticus minor_, or little zygomatic. This latter muscle runs
+parallel to and above the great zygomatic, and is attached to the outer
+part of the upper lip. It is represented in fig. 2 (I. p. 24), but not
+in figs. 1 and 3. Dr. Duchenne first showed (‘Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, 1862, p. 39) the importance of the
+contraction of this muscle in the shape assumed by the features in
+crying. Henle considers the above-named muscles (excepting the
+_malaris_) as subdivisions of the _quadratus labii superioris_.]
+
+604 (return) [ Although Dr. Duchenne has so carefully studied the
+contraction of the different muscles during the act of crying, and the
+furrows on the face thus produced, there seems to be something
+incomplete in his account; but what this is I cannot say. He has given
+a figure (Album, fig. 48) in which one half of the face is made, by
+galvanizing the proper muscles, to smile; whilst the other half is
+similarly made to begin crying. Almost all those (viz. nineteen out of
+twenty-one persons) to whom I showed the smiling half of the face
+instantly recognized the expression; but, with respect to the other
+half, only six persons out of twenty-one recognized it,—that is, if we
+accept such terms as “grief,” “misery,” “annoyance,” as
+correct;—whereas, fifteen persons were ludicrously mistaken; some of
+them saying the face expressed “fun,” “satisfaction,” “cunning,”
+“disgust,” &c. We may infer from this that there is something wrong in
+the expression. Some of the fifteen persons may, however, have been
+partly misled by not expecting to see an old man crying, and by tears
+not being secreted. With respect to another figure by Dr. Duchenne
+(fig. 49), in which the muscles of half the face are galvanized in
+order to represent a man beginning to cry, with the eyebrow on the same
+side rendered oblique, which is characteristic of misery, the
+expression was recognized by a greater proportional number of persons.
+Out of twenty-three persons, fourteen answered correctly, “sorrow,”
+“distress,” “grief,” “just going to cry,” “endurance of pain,” &c. On
+the other hand, nine persons either could form no opinion or were
+entirely wrong, answering, “cunning leer,” “jocund,” “looking at an
+intense light,” “looking at a distant object,” &c.]
+
+605 (return) [ Mrs. Gaskell, ‘Mary Barton,’ new edit. p. 84.]
+
+606 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 102. Duchenne,
+Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, p. 34.]
+
+607 (return) [ Dr. Duchenne makes this remark, ibid. p. 39.]
+
+608 (return) [ ‘The Origin of Civilization,’ 1870, p. 355.]
+
+609 (return) [ See, for instance, Mr. Marshall’s account of an idiot in
+Philosoph. Transact. 1864, p. 526. With respect to cretins, see Dr.
+Piderit, ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 61.]
+
+610 (return) [ ‘New Zealand and its Inhabitants,’ 1855, p. 175.]
+
+611 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 126.]
+
+612 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ 1844, p. 106. See also his
+paper in the ‘Philosophical Transactions,’ 1822, p. 284, ibid. 1823,
+pp. 166 and 289. Also ‘The Nervous System of the Human Body,’ 3rd edit.
+1836, p. 175.]
+
+613 (return) [ See Dr. Brinton’s account of the act of vomiting, in
+Todd’s Cyclop. of Anatomy and Physiology, 1859, vol. v. Supplement, p.
+318.]
+
+614 (return) [ I am greatly indebted to Mr. Bowman for having
+introduced me to Prof. Donders, and for his aid in persuading this
+great physiologist to undertake the investigation of the present
+subject. I am likewise much indebted to Mr. Bowman for having given me,
+with the utmost kindness, information on many points.]
+
+615 (return) [ This memoir first appeared in the ‘Nederlandsch Archief
+voor Genees en Natuurkunde,’ Deel 5, 1870. It has been translated by
+Dr. W. D. Moore, under the title of “On the Action of the Eyelids in
+determination of Blood from expiratory effort,” in ‘Archives of
+Medicine,’ edited by Dr. L. S. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 20.]
+
+616 (return) [ Prof. Donders remarks (ibid. p. 28), that, “After injury
+to the eye, after operations, and in some forms of internal
+inflammation, we attach great value to the uniform support of the
+closed eyelids, and we increase this in many instances by the
+application of a bandage. In both cases we carefully endeavour to avoid
+great expiratory pressure, the disadvantage of which is well known.”
+Mr. Bowman informs me that in the excessive photophobia, accompanying
+what is called scrofulous ophthalmia in children, when the light is so
+very painful that during weeks or months it is constantly excluded by
+the most forcible closure of the lids, he has often been struck on
+opening the lids by the paleness of the eye,—not an unnatural paleness,
+but an absence of the redness that might have been expected when the
+surface is somewhat inflamed, as is then usually the case; and this
+paleness he is inclined to attribute to the forcible closure of the
+eyelids.]
+
+617 (return) [ Donders, ibid. p. 36.]
+
+618 (return) [ Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood (Dict. of English Etymology,
+1859, vol. i. p. 410) says, “the verb to weep comes from Anglo-Saxon
+_wop_, the primary meaning of which is simply outcry.”]
+
+619 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 217.]
+
+620 (return) [ ‘Ceylon,’ 3rd edit. 1859, vol. ii. pp. 364, 376. I
+applied to Mr. Thwaites, in Ceylon, for further information with
+respect to the weeping of the elephant; and in consequence received a
+letter from the Rev. Mr Glenie, who, with others, kindly observed for
+me a herd of recently captured elephants. These, when irritated,
+screamed violently; but it is remarkable that they never when thus
+screaming contracted the muscles round the eyes. Nor did they shed
+tears; and the native hunters asserted that they had never observed
+elephants weeping. Nevertheless, it appears to me impossible to doubt
+Sir E. Tennent’s distinct details about their weeping, supported as
+they are by the positive assertion of the keeper in the Zoological
+Gardens. It is certain that the two elephants in the Gardens, when they
+began to trumpet loudly, invariably contracted their orbicular muscles.
+I can reconcile these conflicting statements only by supposing that the
+recently captured elephants in Ceylon, from being enraged or
+frightened, desired to observe their persecutors, and consequently did
+not contract their orbicular muscles, so that their vision might not be
+impeded. Those seen weeping by Sir E. Tennent were prostrate, and had
+given up the contest in despair. The elephants which trumpeted in the
+Zoological Gardens at the word of command, were, of course, neither
+alarmed nor enraged.]
+
+621 (return) [ Bergeon, as quoted in the ‘Journal of Anatomy and
+Physiology,’ Nov. 1871, p. 235.]
+
+622 (return) [ See, for instance, a case given by Sir Charles Bell,
+‘Philosophical Transactions,’ 1823, p. 177.]
+
+623 (return) [ See, on these several points, Prof. Donders ‘On the
+Anomalies of Accommodation and Refraction of the Eye,’ 1864, p. 573.]
+
+624 (return) [ Quoted by Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 1865, p.
+458.]
+
+701 (return) [ The above descriptive remarks are taken in part from my
+own observations, but chiefly from Gratiolet (‘De la Physionomie,’ pp.
+53, 337; on Sighing, 232), who has well treated this whole subject.
+See, also, Huschke, ‘Mimices et Physiognomices, Fragmentum
+Physiologi-cum,’ 1821, p. 21. On the dulness of the eyes, Dr. Piderit,
+‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 65.]
+
+702 (return) [ On the action of grief on the organs of respiration, see
+more especially Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. 1844,
+p. 151.]
+
+703 (return) [ In the foregoing remarks on the manner in which the
+eyebrows are made oblique, I have followed what seems to be the
+universal opinion of all the anatomists, whose works I have consulted
+on the action of the above-named muscles, or with whom I have
+conversed. Hence throughout this work I shall take a similar view of
+the action of the corrugator supercilii, orbicularis, pyramidalis nasi,
+and frontalis muscles. Dr. Duchenne, however, believes, and every
+conclusion at which he arrives deserves serious consideration, that it
+is the corrugator, called by him the sourcilier, which raises the inner
+corner of the eyebrows and is antagonistic to the upper and inner part
+of the orbicular muscle, as well as to the pyramidalis nasi (see
+Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, 1862, folio, art. v., text and figures
+19 to 29: octavo edit. 1862, p. 43 text). He admits, however, that the
+corrugator draws together the eyebrows, causing vertical furrows above
+the base of the nose, or a frown. He further believes that towards the
+outer two-thirds of the eyebrow the corrugator acts in conjunction with
+the upper orbicular muscle; both here standing in antagonism to the
+frontal muscle. I am unable to understand, judging from Henle’s
+drawings (woodcut, fig. 3), how the corrugator can act in the manner
+described by Duchenne. See, also, on this subject, Prof. Donders’
+remarks in the ‘Archives of Medicine,’ 1870, vol. v. p. 34. Mr. J.
+Wood, who is so well known for his careful study of the muscles of the
+human frame, informs me that he believes the account which I have given
+of the action of the corrugator to be correct. But this is not a point
+of any importance with respect to the expression which is caused by the
+obliquity of the eyebrows, nor of much importance to the theory of its
+origin.]
+
+704 (return) [ I am greatly indebted to Dr. Duchenne for permission to
+have these two photographs (figs. 1 and 2) reproduced by the heliotype
+process from his work in folio. Many of the foregoing remarks on the
+furrowing of the skin, when the eyebrows are rendered oblique, are
+taken from his excellent discussion on this subject.]
+
+705 (return) [ Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, p. 15.]
+
+706 (return) [ Henle, Handbuch der Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s.
+148, figs. 68 and 69.]
+
+707 (return) [ See the account of the action of this muscle by Dr.
+Duchenne, ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine, Album (1862), viii. p.
+34.]
+
+801 (return) [ Herbert Spencer, ‘Essays Scientific,’ &c., 1858, p.
+360.]
+
+802 (return) [ F. Lieber on the vocal sounds of L. Bridgman,
+‘Smithsonian Contributions,’ 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.]
+
+803 (return) [ See, also, Mr. Marshall, in Phil. Transact. 1864, p.
+526.]
+
+804 (return) [ Mr. Bain (‘The Emotions and the Will,’ 1865, p. 247) has
+a long and interesting discussion on the Ludicrous. The quotation above
+given about the laughter of the gods is taken from this work. See,
+also, Mandeville, ‘The Fable of the Bees,’ vol. ii. p. 168.]
+
+805 (return) [ ‘The Physiology of Laughter,’ Essays, Second Series,
+1863, p. 114.]
+
+806 (return) [ J. Lister in ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
+Science,’ 1853, vol. 1. p. 266.]
+
+807 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ p. 186.]
+
+808 (return) [ Sir C. Bell (Anat. of Expression, p. 147) makes some
+remarks on the movement of the diaphragm during laughter.]
+
+809 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, Légende
+vi.]
+
+810 (return) [ Handbuch der System. Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s.
+144. See my woodcut (H. fig. 2).]
+
+811 (return) [ See, also, remarks to the same effect by Dr. J. Crichton
+Browne in ‘Journal of Mental Science,’ April, 1871, p. 149.]
+
+812 (return) [ C. Vogt, ‘Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,’ 1867, p. 21.]
+
+813 (return) [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 133.]
+
+814 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 63-67.]
+
+815 (return) [ Sir T. Reynolds remarks (‘Discourses,’ xii. p. 100), “it
+is curious to observe, and it is certainly true, that the extremes of
+contrary passions are, with very little variation, expressed by the
+same action.” He gives as an instance the frantic joy of a Bacchante
+and the grief of a Mary Magdalen.]
+
+816 (return) [ Dr. Piderit has come to the same conclusion, ibid. s.
+99.]
+
+817 (return) [ ‘La Physionomie,’ par G. Lavater, edit. of 1820, vol.
+iv. p. 224. See, also, Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 172,
+for the quotation given below.]
+
+818 (return) [ A ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’ 2nd edit. 1872,
+Introduction, p. xliv.]
+
+819 (return) [ Crantz, quoted by Tylor, ‘Primitive Culture,’ 1871, Vol.
+i. P. 169.]
+
+820 (return) [ F. Lieber, ‘Smithsonian Contributions,’ 1851, vol. ii.
+p. 7.]
+
+821 (return) [ Mr. Bain remarks (‘Mental and Moral Science,’ 1868, p.
+239), “Tenderness is a pleasurable emotion, variously stimulated, whose
+effort is to draw human beings into mutual embrace.”]
+
+822 (return) [ Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 2nd edit. 1869, p.
+552, gives full authorities for these statements. The quotation from
+Steele is taken from this work.]
+
+823 (return) [ See a full acount,{sic} with references, by E. B. Tylor,
+‘Researches into the Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 51.]
+
+824 (return) [ ‘The Descent of Man,’ vol. ii. p. 336.]
+
+825 (return) [ Dr. Mandsley has a discussion to this effect in his
+‘Body and Mind,’ 1870, p. 85.]
+
+826 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 103, and ‘Philosophical
+Transactions,’ 1823, p. 182.]
+
+827 (return) [ ‘The Origin of Language,’ 1866, p. 146. Mr. Tylor
+(‘Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 48) gives a more
+complex origin to the position of the hands during prayer.]
+
+901 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ pp. 137, 139. It is not
+surprising that the corrugators should have become much more developed
+in man than in the anthropoid apes; for they are brought into incessant
+action by him under various circumstances, and will have been
+strengthened and modified by the inherited effects of use. We have seen
+how important a part they play, together with the orbiculares, in
+protecting the eyes from being too much gorged with blood during
+violent expiratory movements. When the eyes are closed as quickly and
+as forcibly as possible, to save them from being injured by a blow, the
+corrugators contract. With savages or other men whose heads are
+uncovered, the eyebrows are continually lowered and contracted to serve
+as a shade against a too strong light; and this is effected partly by
+the corrugators. This movement would have been more especially
+serviceable to man, as soon as his early progenitors held their heads
+erect. Lastly, Prof. Donders believes (‘Archives of Medicine,’ ed. by
+L. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 34), that the corrugators are brought into
+action in causing the eyeball to advance in accommodation for proximity
+in vision.]
+
+902 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, Légende
+iii.]
+
+903 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ s. 46.]
+
+904 (return) [ ‘History of the Abipones,’ Eng. translat. vol. ii. p.
+59, as quoted by Lubbock, ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, p. 355.]
+
+905 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ pp. 15, 144, 146. Mr. Herbert
+Spencer accounts for frowning exclusively by the habit of contracting
+the brows as a shade to the eyes in a bright light: see ‘Principles of
+Physiology,’ 2nd edit. 1872, p. 546.]
+
+906 (return) [ Gratiolet remarks (De la Phys. p. 35), “Quand
+l’attention est fixee sur quelque image interieure, l’oeil regarde dons
+le vide et s’associe automatiquement a la contemplation de l’esprit.”
+But this view hardly deserves to be called an explanation.]
+
+907 (return) [ ‘Miles Gloriosus,’ act ii. sc. 2.]
+
+908 (return) [ The original photograph by Herr Kindermann is much more
+expressive than this copy, as it shows the frown on the brow more
+plainly.]
+
+909 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, Légende
+iv. figs. 16-18.]
+
+910 (return) [ Hensleigh Wedgwood on ‘The Origin of Language,’ 1866, p.
+78.]
+
+911 (return) [ Müller, as quoted by Huxley, ‘Man’s Place in Nature,’
+1863, p. 38.]
+
+912 (return) [ I have given several instances in my ‘Descent of Man,’
+vol. i. chap. iv.]
+
+913 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression.’ p. 190.]
+
+914 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ pp. 118-121.]
+
+915 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ s. 79.]
+
+1001 (return) [ See some remarks to this effect by Mr. Bain, ‘The
+Emotions and the Will,’ 2nd edit. 1865, p. 127.]
+
+1002 (return) [ Rengger, Naturgesch. der Säugethiere von Paraguay,
+1830, s. 3.]
+
+1003 (return) [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 96. On the
+other hand, Dr. Burgess (‘Physiology of Blushing,’ 1839, p. 31) speaks
+of the reddening of a cicatrix in a negress as of the nature of a
+blush.]
+
+1004 (return) [ Moreau and Gratiolet have discussed the colour of the
+face under the influence of intense passion: see the edit. of 1820 of
+Lavater, vol. iv. pp. 282 and 300; and Gratiolet, ‘De la Physionomie,’
+p. 345.]
+
+1005 (return) [ Sir C. Bell ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ pp. 91, 107, has
+fully discussed this subject. Moreau remarks (in the edit. of 1820 of
+‘La Physionomie, par G. Lavater,’ vol. iv. p. 237), and quotes Portal
+in confirmation, that asthmatic patients acquire permanently expanded
+nostrils, owing to the habitual contraction of the elevatory muscles of
+the wings of the nose. The explanation by Dr. Piderit (‘Mimik und
+Physiognomik,’ s. 82) of the distension of the nostrils, namely, to
+allow free breathing whilst the mouth is closed and the teeth clenched,
+does not appear to be nearly so correct as that by Sir C. Bell, who
+attributes it to the sympathy (_i. e_. habitual co-action) of all the
+respiratory muscles. The nostrils of an angry man may be seen to become
+dilated, although his mouth is open.]
+
+1006 (return) [ Mr. Wedgwood, ‘On the Origin of Language,’ 1866, p. 76.
+He also observes that the sound of hard breathing “is represented by
+the syllables _puff, huff, whiff_, whence a _huff_ is a fit of
+ill-temper.”]
+
+1007 (return) [ Sir C. Bell ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 95) has some
+excellent remarks on the expression of rage.]
+
+1008 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 346.]
+
+1009 (return) [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 177. Gratiolet
+(De la Phys. p. 369) says, ‘les dents se découvrent, et imitent
+symboliquement l’action de déchirer et de mordre.’I If, instead of
+using the vague term _symboliquement_, Gratiolet had said that the
+action was a remnant of a habit acquired during primeval times when our
+semi-human progenitors fought together with their teeth, like gorillas
+and orangs at the present day, he would have been more intelligible.
+Dr. Piderit (‘Mimik,’ &c., s. 82) also speaks of the retraction of the
+upper lip during rage. In an engraving of one of Hogarth’s wonderful
+pictures, passion is represented in the plainest manner by the open
+glaring eyes, frowning forehead, and exposed grinning teeth.]
+
+1010 (return) [ ‘Oliver Twist,’ vol. iii. p. 245.]
+
+1011 (return) [ ‘The Spectator,’ July 11, 1868, p. 810.]
+
+1012 (return) [ ‘Body and Mind,’ 1870, pp. 51-53.]
+
+1013 (return) [ Le Brun, in his well-known ‘Conference sur
+l’Expression’ (‘La Physionomie, par Lavater,’ edit. of 1820, vol. lx.
+p. 268), remarks that anger is expressed by the clenching of the fists.
+See, to the same effect, Huschke, ‘Mimices et Physiognomices,
+Fragmentum Physiologicum,’ 1824, p. 20. Also Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of
+Expression,’ p. 219.]
+
+1014 (return) [ Transact. Philosoph. Soc., Appendix, 1746, p. 65.]
+
+1015 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 136. Sir C. Bell calls (p.
+131) the muscles which uncover the canines the snarling muscles.]
+
+1016 (return) [ Hensleigh Wedgwood, ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’
+1865, vol. iii. pp. 240, 243.]
+
+1017 (return) [ ‘The Descent of Man,’ 1871, vol. L p. 126.]
+
+1101 (return) [ ‘De In Physionomie et la Parole,’ 1865, p. 89.]
+
+1102 (return) [ ‘Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, Légende viii. p. 35.
+Gratiolet also speaks (De la Phys. 1865, p. 52) of the turning away of
+the eyes and body.]
+
+1103 (return) [ Dr. W. Ogle, in an interesting paper on the Sense of
+Smell (‘Medico-Chirurgical Transactions,’ vol. liii. p. 268), shows
+that when we wish to smell carefully, instead of taking one deep nasal
+inspiration, we draw in the air by a succession of rapid short sniffs.
+If “the nostrils be watched during this process, it will be seen that,
+so far from dilating, they actually contract at each sniff. The
+contraction does not include the whole anterior opening, but only the
+posterior portion.” He then explains the cause of this movement. When,
+on the other hand, we wish to exclude any odour, the contraction, I
+presume, affects only the anterior part of the nostrils.]
+
+1104 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ ss. 84, 93. Gratiolet (ibid.
+p. 155) takes nearly the same view with Dr. Piderit respecting the
+expression of contempt and disgust.]
+
+1105 (return) [ Scorn implies a strong form of contempt; and one of the
+roots of the word ‘scorn’ means, according to Mr. Wedgwood (Dict. of
+English Etymology, vol. iii. p. 125), ordure or dirt. A person who is
+scorned is treated like dirt.]
+
+1106 (return) [ ‘Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 45.]
+
+1107 (return) [ See, to this effect, Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood’s
+Introduction to the ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’ 2nd edit. 1872,
+p. xxxvii.]
+
+1108 (return) [ Duchenne believes that in the eversion of the lower
+lip, the corners are drawn downwards by the _depressores anguli oris_.
+Henle (Handbuch d. Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s. 151) concludes
+that this is effected by the _musculus quadratus menti_.]
+
+1109 (return) [ As quoted by Tylor, ‘Primitive Culture,’ 1871, vol. i.
+p. 169.]
+
+1110 (return) [ Both these quotations are given by Mr. H. Wedgwood, ‘On
+the Origin of Language,’ 1866, p. 75.]
+
+1111 (return) [ This is stated to be the case by Mr. Tylor (Early Hist.
+of Mankind, 2nd edit. 1870, p. 52); and he adds, “it is not clear why
+this should be so.”]
+
+1112 (return) [ ‘Principles of Psychology,’ 2nd edit. 1872, p. 552.]
+
+1113 (return) [ Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 351) makes this remark, and
+has some good observations on the expression of pride. See Sir C. Bell
+(‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 111) on the action of the _musculus
+superbus_.]
+
+1114 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 166.]
+
+1115 (return) [ ‘Journey through Texas,’ p. 352.]
+
+1116 (return) [ Mrs. Oliphant, ‘The Brownlows,’ vol. ii. p. 206.]
+
+1117 (return) [ ‘Essai sur le Langage,’ 2nd edit. 1846. I am much
+indebted to Miss Wedgwood for having given me this information, with an
+extract from the work.]
+
+1118 (return) [ ‘On the Origin of Language,’ 1866, p. 91.]
+
+1119 (return) [ ‘On the Vocal Sounds of L. Bridgman;’ Smithsonian
+Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 11.]
+
+1120 (return) [ ‘Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,’ 1867, p. 27.]
+
+1121 (return) [ Quoted by Tylor, ‘Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit.
+1870, p. 38.]
+
+1122 (return) [ Mr. J. B. Jukes, ‘Letters and Extracts,’ &c. 1871, p.
+248.]
+
+1123 (return) [ F. Lieber, ‘On the Vocal Sounds,’ &c. p. 11. Tylor,
+ibid. p. 53.]
+
+1124 (return) [ Dr. King, Edinburgh Phil. Journal, 1845, p. 313.]
+
+1125 (return) [ Tylor, ‘Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p.
+53.]
+
+1126 (return) [ Lubbock, ‘The Origin of Civilization,’ 1870, p. 277.
+Tylor, ibid. p. 38. Lieber (ibid. p. 11) remarks on the negative of the
+Italians.]
+
+1201 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie,’ Album, 1862, p. 42.]
+
+1202 (return) [ ‘The Polyglot News Letter,’ Melbourne, Dec. 1858, p.
+2.]
+
+1203 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 106.]
+
+1204 (return) [ Mécanisme de la Physionomie,’ Album, p. 6.]
+
+1205 (return) [ See, for instance, Dr. Piderit (‘Mimik und
+Physiognomik,’ s. 88), who has a good discussion on the expression of
+surprise.]
+
+1206 (return) [ Dr. Murie has also given me information leading to the
+same conclusion, derived in part from comparative anatomy.]
+
+1207 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 234.]
+
+1208 (return) [ See, on this subject, Gratiolet, ibid. p. 254.]
+
+1209 (return) [ Lieber, ‘On the Vocal Sounds of Laura Bridgman,’
+Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 7.]
+
+1210 (return) [ ‘Wenderholme,’ vol. ii. p. 91.]
+
+1211 (return) [ Lieber, ‘On the Vocal Sounds,’ &c., ibid. p. 7.]
+
+1212 (return) [ Huschke, ‘Mimices et Physiognomices,’ 1821, p. 18.
+Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 255) gives a figure of a man in this
+attitude, which, however, seems to me expressive of fear combined with
+astonishment. Le Brun also refers (Lavater, vol. ix. p. 299) to the
+hands of an astonished man being opened.]
+
+1213 (return) [ Huschke, ibid. p. 18.]
+
+1214 (return) [ ‘North American Indians,’ 3rd edit. 1842, vol. i. p.
+105.]
+
+1215 (return) [ H. Wedgwood, Dict. of English Etymology, vol. ii. 1862,
+p. 35. See, also, Gratiolet (‘De la Physionomie,’ p. 135) on the
+sources of such words as ‘terror, horror, rigidus, frigidus,’ &c.]
+
+1216 (return) [ Mr. Bain (‘The Emotions and the Will,’ 1865, p. 54)
+explains in the following manner the origin of the custom “of
+subjecting criminals in India to the ordeal of the morsel of rice. The
+accused is made to take a mouthful of rice, and after a little time to
+throw it out. If the morsel is quite dry, the party is believed to be
+guilty,—his own evil conscience operating to paralyse the salivating
+organs.”]
+
+1217 (return) [ Sir C. Bell, Transactions of Royal Phil. Soc. 1822, p.
+308. ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 88 and pp. 164-469.]
+
+1218 (return) [ See Moreau on the rolling of the eyes, in the edit. of
+1820 of Lavater, tome iv. p. 263. Also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 17.]
+
+1219 (return) [ ‘Observations on Italy,’ 1825, p. 48, as quoted in ‘The
+Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 168.]
+
+1220 (return) [ Quoted by Dr. Maudsley, ‘Body and Mind,’ 1870, p. 41.]
+
+1221 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 168.]
+
+1222 (return) [ Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, Légende xi.]
+
+1223 (return) [ Ducheinne takes, in fact, this view (ibid. p. 45), as
+he attributes the contraction of the platysma to the shivering of fear
+(_frisson de la peur_); but he elsewhere compares the action with that
+which causes the hair of frightened quadrupeds to stand erect; and this
+can hardly be considered as quite correct.]
+
+1224 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ pp. 51, 256, 346.]
+
+1225 (return) [ As quoted in White’s ‘Gradation in Man,’ p. 57.]
+
+1226 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 169.]
+
+1227 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie,’ Album, pl. 65, pp. 44,
+45.]
+
+1228 (return) [ See remarks to this effect by Mr. Wedgwood, in the
+Introduction to his ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’ 2nd edit. 1872,
+p. xxxvii. He shows by intermediate forms that the sounds here referred
+to have probably given rise to many words, such as _ugly, huge_, &c.]
+
+1301 (return) [ ‘The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,’ 1839, p.
+156. I shall have occasion often to quote this work in the present
+chapter.]
+
+1302 (return) [ Dr. Burgess, ibid. p. 56. At p. 33 he also remarks on
+women blushing more freely than men, as stated below.]
+
+1303 (return) [ Quoted by Vogt, ‘Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,’ 1867,
+p. 20. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 56) doubts whether idiots ever blush.]
+
+1304 (return) [ Lieber ‘On the Vocal Sounds,’ &c.; Smithsonian
+Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.]
+
+1305 (return) [ Ibid. p. 182.]
+
+1306 (return) [ Moreau, in edit. of 1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. p. 303.]
+
+1307 (return) [ Burgess. ibid. p. 38, on paleness after blushing, p.
+177.]
+
+1308 (return) [ See Lavater, edit. of 1820, vol. iv. p. 303.]
+
+1309 (return) [ Burgess, ibid. pp. 114, 122. Moreau in Lavater, ibid.
+vol. iv. p. 293.]
+
+1310 (return) [ ‘Letters from Egypt,’ 1865, p. 66. Lady Gordon is
+mistaken when she says Malays and Mulattoes never blush.]
+
+1311 (return) [ Capt. Osborn (‘Quedah,’ p. 199), in speaking of a
+Malay, whom he reproached for cruelty, says he was glad to see that the
+man blushed.]
+
+1312 (return) [ J. R. Forster, ‘Observations during a Voyage round the
+World,’ 4to, 1778, p. 229. Waitz gives (‘Introduction to Anthropology,’
+Eng. translat. 1863, vol. i. p. 135) references for other islands in
+the Pacific. See, also, Dampier ‘On the Blushing of the Tunquinese’
+(vol. ii. p. 40); but I have not consulted this work. Waitz quotes
+Bergmann, that the Kalmucks do not blush, but this may be doubted after
+what we have seen with respect to the Chinese. He also quotes Roth, who
+denies that the Abyssinians are capable of blushing. Unfortunately,
+Capt. Speedy, who lived so long with the Abyssinians, has not answered
+my inquiry on this head. Lastly, I must add that the Rajah Brooke has
+never observed the least sign of a blush with the Dyaks of Borneo; on
+the contrary under circumstances which would excite a blush in us, they
+assert “that they feel the blood drawn from their faces.”]
+
+1313 (return) [ Transact. of the Ethnological Soc. 1870, vol. ii. p.
+16.]
+
+1314 (return) [ Humboldt, ‘Personal Narrative,’ Eng. translat. vol.
+iii. p. 229.]
+
+1315 (return) [ Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit
+1851, vol. i. p. 271.]
+
+1316 (return) [ See, on this head, Burgess, ibid. p. 32. Also Waitz,
+‘Introduction to Anthropology,’ Eng. edit. vol. i. p. 139. Moreau gives
+a detailed account (‘Lavater,’ 1820, tom. iv. p. 302) of the blushing
+of a Madagascar negress-slave when forced by her brutal master to
+exhibit her naked bosom.]
+
+1317 (return) [ Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit.
+1851, vol. i. p. 225.]
+
+1318 (return) [ Burgess, ibid. p. 31. On mulattoes blushing, see p. 33.
+I have received similar accounts with respect to, mulattoes.]
+
+1319 (return) [ Barrington also says that the Australians of New South
+Wales blush, as quoted by Waitz, ibid. p. 135.]
+
+1320 (return) [ Mr. Wedgwood says (Dict. of English Etymology, vol.
+iii. 1865, p. 155) that the word shame “may well originate in the idea
+of shade or concealment, and may be illustrated by the Low German
+_scheme_, shade or shadow.” Gratiolet (De la Phys. pp. 357-362) has a
+good discussion on the gestures accompanying shame; but some of his
+remarks seem to me rather fanciful. See, also, Burgess (ibid. pp. 69,
+134) on the same subject.]
+
+1321 (return) [ Burgess, ibid. pp. 181, 182. Boerhaave also noticed (as
+quoted by Gratiolet, ibid. p. 361) the tendency to the secretion of
+tears during intense blushing. Mr. Bulmer, as we have seen, speaks of
+the “watery eyes” of the children of the Australian aborigines when
+ashamed.]
+
+1322 (return) [ See also Dr. J. Crichton Browne’s Memoir on this
+subject in the ‘West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Report,’ 1871, pp.
+95-98.]
+
+1323 (return) [ In a discussion on so-called animal magnetism in ‘Table
+Talk,’ vol. i.]
+
+1324 (return) [ Ibid. p. 40.]
+
+1325 (return) [ Mr. Bain (‘The Emotions and the Will,’ 1865, p. 65)
+remarks on “the shyness of manners which is induced between the
+sexes.... from the influence of mutual regard, by the apprehension on
+either side of not standing well with the other.”]
+
+1326 (return) [ See, for evidence on this subject, ‘The Descent of
+Man,’ &c., vol. ii. pp. 71, 341.]
+
+1327 (return) [ H. Wedgwood, Dict. English Etymology, vol. iii. 1865,
+p. 184. So with the Latin word _verecundus_.]
+
+1328 (return) [ Mr. Bain (‘The Emotions and the Will,’ p. 64) has
+discussed the “abashed” feelings experienced on these occasions, as
+well as the _stage-fright_ of actors unused to the stage. Mr. Bain
+apparently attributes these feelings to simple apprehension or dread.]
+
+1329 (return) [ ‘Essays on Practical Education,’ by Maria and R. L.
+Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 38. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 187)
+insists strongly to the same effect.]
+
+1330 (return) [ ‘Essays on Practical Education,’ by Maria and R. L.
+Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 50.]
+
+1331 (return) [ Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 95. Burgess, as
+quoted below, ibid. p. 49. Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 94.]
+
+1332 (return) [ On the authority of Lady Mary Wortley Montague; see
+Burgess, ibid. p. 43.]
+
+1333 (return) [ In England, Sir H. Holland was, I believe, the first to
+consider the influence of mental attention on various parts of the
+body, in his ‘Medical Notes and Reflections,’ 1839 p. 64. This essay,
+much enlarged, was reprinted by Sir H. Holland in his ‘Chapters on
+Mental Physiology,’ 1858, p. 79, from which work I always quote. At
+nearly the same time, as well as subsequently, Prof. Laycock discussed
+the same subject: see ‘Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,’ 1839,
+July, pp. 17-22. Also his ‘Treatise on the Nervous Diseases of Women,’
+1840, p. 110; and ‘Mind and Brain,’ vol. ii. 1860, p. 327. Dr.
+Carpenter’s views on mesmerism have a nearly similar bearing. The great
+physiologist Müller treated (‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat.
+vol. ii. pp. 937, 1085) of the influence of the attention on the
+senses. Sir J. Paget discusses the influence of the mind on the
+nutrition of parts, in his ‘Lectures on Surgical Pathology,’ 1853, vol.
+i. p. 39: 1 quote from the 3rd edit. revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, p.
+28. See, also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. pp. 283-287.]
+
+1334 (return) [ De la Phys. p. 283.]
+
+1340 (return) [ Dr. Maudsley has given (‘The Physiology and Pathology
+of Mind,’ 2nd edit. 1868, p. 105), on good authority, some curious
+statements with respect to the improvement of the sense of touch by
+practice and attention. It is remarkable that when this sense has thus
+been rendered more acute at any point of the body, for instance, in a
+finger, it is likewise improved at the corresponding point on the
+opposite side of the body.]
+
+1341 (return) [ The Lancet,’ 1838, pp. 39-40, as quoted by Prof.
+Laycock, ‘Nervous Diseases of Women,’ 1840, p. 110.]
+
+1342 (return) [ ‘Chapters on Mental Physiology,’ 1858, pp. 91-93.]
+
+1343 (return) [ ‘Lectures on Surgical Pathology,’ 3rd edit. revised by
+Prof. Turner, 1870, pp. 28, 31.]
+
+1344 (return) [ ‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol. ii. p.
+938.]
+
+1345 (return) [ Prof. Laycock has discussed this point in a very
+interesting manner. See his ‘Nervous Diseases of Women,’ 1840, p. 110.]
+
+1346 (return) [ See, also, Mr. Michael Foster, on the action of the
+vaso-motor system, in his interesting Lecture before the royal
+Institution, as translated in the ‘Revue des Cours Scientifiques,’
+Sept. 25, 1869, p. 683.]
+
+1401 (return) [ See the interesting facts given by Dr. Bateman on
+‘Aphasia,’ 1870, p. 110.]
+
+1402 (return) [ ‘La Physionomie et la Parole,’ 1865, pp. 103, 118.]
+
+1403 (return) [ Rengger, ‘Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von
+Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 55.]
+
+1404 (return) [ Quoted by Moreau, in his edition of Lavater, 1820, tom.
+iv. p. 211.]
+
+1405 (return) [ Gratiolet (‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 66) insists on
+the truth of this conclusion.]
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Expression of Emotion in Man and
+Animals, by Charles Darwin
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1227 ***
diff --git a/1227-h/1227-h.htm b/1227-h/1227-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d77ff05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/1227-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,14499 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" />
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" />
+<title>The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals, by Charles Darwin</title>
+
+<style type="text/css">
+
+body { margin-left: 20%;
+       margin-right: 20%;
+       text-align: justify }
+
+h1, h2, h3, h4, h5 {text-align: center; font-style: normal; font-weight:
+normal; line-height: 1.5; margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em;}
+
+h1 {font-size: 300%;
+    margin-top: 0.6em;
+    margin-bottom: 0.6em;
+    letter-spacing: 0.12em;
+    word-spacing: 0.2em;
+    text-indent: 0em;}
+h2 {font-size: 150%; }
+h3 {font-size: 130%; }
+h4 {font-size: 120%;}
+h5 {font-size: 110%;}
+
+hr {width: 80%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;}
+
+div.chapter {page-break-before: always; margin-top: 4em;}
+
+p {text-indent: 1em;
+   margin-top: 0.25em;
+   margin-bottom: 0.25em; }
+
+.p2 {margin-top: 2em;}
+
+p.poem {text-indent: 0%;
+        margin-left: 10%;
+        font-size: 90%;
+        margin-top: 1em;
+        margin-bottom: 1em; }
+
+p.letter {text-indent: 0%;
+          margin-left: 10%;
+          margin-right: 10%;
+          margin-top: 1em;
+          margin-bottom: 1em; }
+
+p.noindent {text-indent: 0% }
+
+p.center  {text-align: center;
+           text-indent: 0em;
+           margin-top: 1em;
+           margin-bottom: 1em; }
+
+p.right {text-align: right;
+         margin-right: 10%;
+         margin-top: 1em;
+         margin-bottom: 1em; }
+
+p.footnote {font-size: 90%;
+           text-indent: 0%;
+           margin-left: 10%;
+           margin-right: 10%;
+           margin-top: 1em;
+           margin-bottom: 1em; }
+
+div.fig { display:block;
+          margin:0 auto;
+          text-align:center; }
+
+a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none}
+a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none}
+a:hover {color:red}
+
+</style>
+
+</head>
+
+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1227 ***</div>
+
+<h1>
+THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS
+</h1>
+
+<h2>
+By Charles Darwin
+</h2>
+
+<h3>
+<i>With Photographic And Other Illustrations</i>
+<br/><br/>
+New York
+<br/>
+D. Appleton And Company
+<br/><br/>
+1899
+</h3>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="toc">
+<big><b>CONTENTS</b></big>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<br/>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2H_4_0001"> DETAILED CONTENTS. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2H_4_0003"> <big><b>ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN
+AND ANIMALS.</b></big> </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2H_INTR"> INTRODUCTION. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. &mdash; GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
+EXPRESSION. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. &mdash; GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
+EXPRESSION&mdash;<i>continued</i>. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. &mdash; GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
+EXPRESSION&mdash;<i>concluded</i>. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. &mdash; MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN
+ANIMALS. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. &mdash; SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF
+ANIMALS. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. &mdash; SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN:
+SUFFERING AND WEEPING. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. &mdash; LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF,
+DEJECTION, DESPAIR. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. &mdash; JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE,
+TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. &mdash; REFLECTION&mdash;MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER&mdash;SULKINESS&mdash;DETERMINATION.
+</a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. &mdash; HATRED AND ANGER. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. &mdash; DISDAIN&mdash;CONTEMPT&mdash;DISGUST-GUILT&mdash;PRIDE,
+ETC. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. &mdash; SURPRISE&mdash;ASTONISHMENT&mdash;FEAR&mdash;HORROR.
+</a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. &mdash; SELF-ATTENTION&mdash;SHAME&mdash;SHYNESS&mdash;MODESTY:
+BLUSHING. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV. &mdash; CONCLUDING REMARKS AND
+SUMMARY. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2H_FOOT"> FOOTNOTES </a>
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="toc">
+<big><b>ILLUSTRATIONS</b></big>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<br/>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0001"> Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 1-2 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0002"> Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 3 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0003"> Small Dog Watching a Cat on A Table. Figure 4
+</a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0004"> Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind. Fig. 5 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0005"> Dog in a humble and Affectionate Frame of Mind.
+Fig. 6 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0006"> Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind. Fig. 7 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0007"> Dog Carressing his Master. Fig. 8 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0008"> Cat, Savage, and Prepared to Fight. Fig. 9 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0009"> Cat in an Affectionate Frame of Mind. Fig. 10
+</a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0010"> Sound Producing Quills from Tail of a
+Porcupine. Fig. 11 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0011"> Hen Driving Away a Dog from Her Chickens. Fig.
+12 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0012"> Swan Driving Away an Intruder. Fig 13 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0013"> Head of Snarling Dog. Fig 14 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0014"> Cat Terrified at a Dog. Fig.15 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0016"> Cynopithecus Niger, Pleased by Being Caressed.
+Fig.17 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0017"> Chimpanzee Disappointed and Sulky. Fig. 18 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0018"> Screaming Infants. Plate I. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0019"> Obliquity of the Eyebrows. Plate II </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0020"> Moderate Laughter and Smiling. Plate III </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0021"> Ill-temper. Plate IV </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0022"> Anger and Indignation. Plate VI </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0023"> Scorn and Disdain. Plate V </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0024"> Gestures of the Body. Plate VII </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0025"> Photograph of an Insane Woman. Fig. 19 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0026"> Terror. Fig. 20 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0027"> Horror and Agony. Fig. 21 </a>
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>N.B</i>.&mdash;Several of the figures in these seven Heliotype
+Plates have been reproduced from photographs, instead of from the
+original negatives; and they are in consequence somewhat indistinct.
+Nevertheless they are faithful copies, and are much superior for my
+purpose to any drawing, however carefully executed.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"></a>DETAILED CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2H_INTR">INTRODUCTION</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0001">CHAP. I&mdash;GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.</a><br/>
+The three chief principles stated&mdash;The first principle&mdash;Serviceable
+actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind, and are
+performed whether or not of service in each particular case&mdash;The force of
+habit&mdash;Inheritance&mdash;Associated habitual movements in man&mdash;Reflex
+actions&mdash;Passage of habits into reflex actions&mdash;Associated habitual
+movements in the lower animals&mdash;Concluding remarks
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0002">CHAP. II&mdash;GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.</a>&mdash;<i>continued</i>.<br/>
+The Principle of Antithesis&mdash;Instances in the dog and cat&mdash;Origin of
+the principle&mdash;Conventional signs&mdash;The principle of antithesis has
+not arisen from opposite actions being consciously performed under opposite
+impulses
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0003">CHAP. III&mdash;GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.</a>&mdash;<i>concluded</i>.<br/>
+The principle of the direct action of the excited nervous system on the
+body, independently of the will and in part of habit&mdash;Change of
+colour in the hair&mdash;Trembling of the muscles&mdash;Modified
+secretions&mdash;Perspiration&mdash;Expression of extreme pain&mdash;Of
+rage, great joy, and terror&mdash;Contrast between the emotions which
+cause and do not cause expressive movements&mdash;Exciting and depressing
+states of the mind&mdash;Summary
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0004">CHAP. IV&mdash;MEANS OF EXPRESSION. IN ANIMALS.</a><br/>
+The emission of sounds&mdash;Vocal sounds&mdash;Sounds otherwise
+produced&mdash;Erection of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &amp;c.,
+under the emotions of anger and terror&mdash;The drawing back of the ears as a
+preparation for fighting, and as an expression of anger&mdash;Erection of the
+ears and raising the head, a sign of attention
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0005">CHAP. V.&mdash;SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.</a><br/>
+The Dog, various expressive movements
+of&mdash;Cats&mdash;Horses&mdash;Ruminants&mdash;Monkeys, their expression of
+joy and affection&mdash;Of pain&mdash;Anger Astonishment and Terror
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0006">CHAP. VI.&mdash;SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.</a><br/>
+The screaming and weeping of infants&mdash;Form of features&mdash;Age at which
+weeping commences&mdash;The effects of habitual restraint on
+weeping&mdash;Sobbing&mdash;Cause of the contraction of the muscles round the
+eyes during screaming&mdash;Cause of the secretion of tears
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0007">CHAP. VII.&mdash;LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.</a><br/>
+General effect of grief on the system&mdash;Obliquity of the eyebrows under
+suffering&mdash;On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows&mdash;On the
+depression of the corners of the mouth
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0008">CHAP. VIII.&mdash;JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.</a><br/>
+Laughter primarily the expression of joy&mdash;Ludicrous ideas&mdash;Movements
+of the features during laughter&mdash;Nature of the sound produced&mdash;The
+secretion of tears during loud laughter&mdash;Gradation from loud laughter
+to gentle smiling&mdash;High spirits&mdash;The expression of love&mdash;Tender
+feelings&mdash;Devotion
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0009">CHAP. IX.&mdash;REFLECTION&mdash;MEDITATION&mdash;ILL&mdash;TEMPER&mdash;SULKINESS
+DETERMINATION.</a><br/>
+The act of frowning&mdash;Reflection with an effort or with the perception of
+something difficult or disagreeable&mdash;Abstracted
+meditation&mdash;Ill-temper&mdash;Moroseness&mdash;Obstinacy&mdash;Sulkiness
+and pouting&mdash;Decision or determination&mdash;The firm closure of the mouth
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0010">CHAP. X.&mdash;HATRED AND ANGER.</a><br/>
+Hatred&mdash;Rage, effects of on the system&mdash;Uncovering of the
+teeth&mdash;Rage in the insane&mdash;Anger and indignation&mdash;As expressed
+by the various races of man&mdash;Sneering and defiance&mdash;The uncovering of
+the canine teeth on one side of the face
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0011">CHAP. XI.&mdash;DISDAIN&mdash;CONTEMPT&mdash;DISGUST&mdash;GUILT&mdash;PRIDE,
+ETC.&mdash;HELPLESSNESS&mdash;PATIENCE&mdash;AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.</a><br/>
+Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed&mdash;Derisive Smile&mdash;Gestures
+expressive of contempt&mdash;Disgust&mdash;Guilt, deceit, pride, etc.&mdash;Helplessness
+or impotence&mdash;Patience&mdash;Obstinacy&mdash;Shrugging the shoulders
+common to most of the races of man&mdash;Signs of affirmation and negation
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0012">CHAP. XII.&mdash;SURPRISE&mdash;ASTONISHMENT&mdash;FEAR&mdash;HORROR.</a><br/>
+Surprise, astonishment&mdash;Elevation of the eyebrows&mdash;Opening the
+mouth&mdash;Protrusion of the lips&mdash;Gestures accompanying
+surprise&mdash;Admiration Fear&mdash;Terror&mdash;Erection of the
+hair&mdash;Contraction of the platysma muscle&mdash;Dilatation of the
+pupils&mdash;horror&mdash;Conclusion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0013">CHAP. XIII.&mdash;SELF-ATTENTION&mdash;SHAME&mdash;SHYNESS&mdash;MODESTY:
+BLUSHING.</a><br/>
+Nature of a blush&mdash;Inheritance&mdash;The parts of the body most
+affected&mdash;Blushing in the various races of man&mdash;Accompanying
+gestures&mdash;Confusion of mind&mdash;Causes of blushing&mdash;Self-attention,
+the fundamental element&mdash;Shyness&mdash;Shame, from broken moral laws and
+conventional rules&mdash;Modesty&mdash;Theory of blushing&mdash;Recapitulation
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0014">CHAP. XIV.&mdash;CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.</a><br/>
+The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements of
+expression&mdash;Their inheritance&mdash;On the part which the will and
+intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions&mdash;The
+instinctive recognition of expression&mdash;The bearing of our subject on the
+specific unity of the races of man&mdash;On the successive acquirement of
+various expressions by the progenitors of man&mdash;The importance of
+expression&mdash;Conclusion
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"></a>
+ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS.
+</h2>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2H_INTR" id="link2H_INTR"></a>
+INTRODUCTION.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+Many works have been written on Expression, but a greater number on
+Physiognomy,&mdash;that is, on the recognition of character through the
+study of the permanent form of the features. With this latter subject I am
+not here concerned. The older treatises,<a href="#linknote-1"
+name="linknoteref-1" id="linknoteref-1">[1]</a> which I have consulted,
+have been of little or no service to me. The famous &lsquo;Conférences&rsquo;<a
+href="#linknote-2" name="linknoteref-2" id="linknoteref-2">[2]</a> of the
+painter Le Brun, published in 1667, is the best known ancient work, and
+contains some good remarks. Another somewhat old essay, namely, the
+&lsquo;Discours,&rsquo; delivered 1774-1782, by the well-known Dutch anatomist Camper,<a
+href="#linknote-3" name="linknoteref-3" id="linknoteref-3">[3]</a> can
+hardly be considered as having made any marked advance in the subject. The
+following works, on the contrary, deserve the fullest consideration.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sir Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in physiology,
+published in 1806 the first edition, and in the third edition of his
+&lsquo;Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression.&rsquo;<a href="#linknote-4"
+name="linknoteref-4" id="linknoteref-4">[4]</a> He may with justice be
+said, not only to have laid the foundations of the subject as a branch of
+science, but to have built up a noble structure. His work is in every way
+deeply interesting; it includes graphic descriptions of the various
+emotions, and is admirably illustrated. It is generally admitted that his
+service consists chiefly in having shown the intimate relation which
+exists between the movements of expression and those of respiration. One
+of the most important points, small as it may at first appear, is that the
+muscles round the eyes are involuntarily contracted during violent
+expiratory efforts, in order to protect these delicate organs from the
+pressure of the blood. This fact, which has been fully investigated for me
+with the greatest kindness by Professors Donders of Utrecht, throws, as we
+shall hereafter see, a flood of light on several of the most important
+expressions of the human countenance. The merits of Sir C. Bell&rsquo;s work
+have been undervalued or quite ignored by several foreign writers, but
+have been fully admitted by some, for instance by M. Lemoine,<a
+href="#linknote-5" name="linknoteref-5" id="linknoteref-5">[5]</a> who
+with great justice says:&mdash;&ldquo;Le livre de Ch. Bell devrait être médité
+par quiconque essaye de faire parler le visage de l&rsquo;homme, par les
+philosophes aussi bien que par les artistes, car, sous une apparence plus
+légère et sous le prétexte de l&rsquo;esthétique, c&rsquo;est un des plus beaux
+monuments de la science des rapports du physique et du moral.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From reasons which will presently be assigned, Sir C. Bell did not attempt
+to follow out his views as far as they might have been carried. He does
+not try to explain why different muscles are brought into action under
+different emotions; why, for instance, the inner ends of the eyebrows are
+raised, and the corners of the mouth depressed, by a person suffering from
+grief or anxiety.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater on Physiognomy,<a
+href="#linknote-6" name="linknoteref-6" id="linknoteref-6">[6]</a> in
+which he incorporated several of his own essays, containing excellent
+descriptions of the movements of the facial muscles, together with many
+valuable remarks. He throws, however, very little light on the philosophy
+of the subject. For instance, M. Moreau, in speaking of the act of
+frowning, that is, of the contraction of the muscle called by French
+writers the <i>soucilier</i> (<i>corrigator supercilii</i>), remarks with
+truth:&mdash;&ldquo;Cette action des sourciliers est un des symptômes les plus
+tranchés de l&rsquo;expression des affections pénibles ou concentrées.&rdquo; He then
+adds that these muscles, from their attachment and position, are fitted &ldquo;à
+resserrer, à concentrer les principaux traits de la <i>face</i>, comme il
+convient dans toutes ces passions vraiment oppressives ou profondes, dans
+ces affections dont le sentiment semble porter l&rsquo;organisation à revenir
+sur elle-même, à se contracter et à <i>s&rsquo;amoindrir</i>, comme pour offrir
+moins de prise et de surface à des impressions redoutables ou importunes.&rdquo;
+He who thinks that remarks of this kind throw any light on the meaning or
+origin of the different expressions, takes a very different view of the
+subject to what I do.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the above passage there is but a slight, if any, advance in the philosophy
+of the subject, beyond that reached by the painter Le Brun, who, in 1667, in
+describing the expression of fright, says:&mdash;&ldquo;Le sourcil qui est
+abaissé d&rsquo;un côté et élevé de l&rsquo;autre, fait voir que la partie
+élevée semble le vouloir joindre au cerveau pour le garantir du mal que
+l&rsquo;âme aperçoit, et le côté qui est abaissé et qui paraît
+enflé,&mdash;nous fait trouver dans cet état par les esprits qui viennent du
+cerveau en abondance, comme polir couvrir l&rsquo;âme et la défendre du mal
+qu&rsquo;elle craint; la bouche fort ouverte fait voir le saisissement du
+cœur, par le sang qui se retire vers lui, ce qui l&rsquo;oblige, voulant
+respirer, à faire un effort qui est cause que la bouche s&rsquo;ouvre
+extrêmement, et qui, lorsqu&rsquo;il passe par les organes de la voix, forme un
+son qui n&rsquo;est point articulé; que si les muscles et les veines paraissent
+enflés, ce n&rsquo;est que par les esprits que le cerveau envoie en ces
+parties-là.&rdquo; I have thought the foregoing sentences worth quoting, as
+specimens of the surprising nonsense which has been written on the subject.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,&rsquo; by Dr. Burgess, appeared in
+1839, and to this work I shall frequently refer in my thirteenth Chapter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1862 Dr. Duchenne published two editions, in folio and octavo, of his
+&lsquo;Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo; in which he analyses by means of
+electricity, and illustrates by magnificent photographs, the movements of
+the facial muscles. He has generously permitted me to copy as many of his
+photographs as I desired. His works have been spoken lightly of, or quite
+passed over, by some of his countrymen. It is possible that Dr. Duchenne
+may have exaggerated the importance of the contraction of single muscles
+in giving expression; for, owing to the intimate manner in which the
+muscles are connected, as may be seen in Henle&rsquo;s anatomical drawings<a
+href="#linknote-7" name="linknoteref-7" id="linknoteref-7">[7]</a>&mdash;the
+best I believe ever published it is difficult to believe in their separate
+action. Nevertheless, it is manifest that Dr. Duchenne clearly apprehended
+this and other sources of error, and as it is known that he was eminently
+successful in elucidating the physiology of the muscles of the hand by the
+aid of electricity, it is probable that he is generally in the right about
+the muscles of the face. In my opinion, Dr. Duchenne has greatly advanced
+the subject by his treatment of it. No one has more carefully studied the
+contraction of each separate muscle, and the consequent furrows produced
+on the skin. He has also, and this is a very important service, shown
+which muscles are least under the separate control of the will. He enters
+very little into theoretical considerations, and seldom attempts to
+explain why certain muscles and not others contract under the influence of
+certain emotions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A distinguished French anatomist, Pierre Gratiolet, gave a course of lectures
+on Expression at the Sorbonne, and his notes were published (1865) after his
+death, under the title of &lsquo;De la Physionomie et des Mouvements
+d&rsquo;Expression.&rsquo; This is a very interesting work, full of valuable
+observations. His theory is rather complex, and, as far as it can be given in a
+single sentence (p. 65), is as follows:&mdash;&ldquo;Il résulte, de tous les
+faits que j&rsquo;ai rappelés, que les sens, l&rsquo;imagination et la pensée
+elle-même, si élevée, si abstraite qu&rsquo;on la suppose, ne peuvent
+s&rsquo;exercer sans éveiller un sentiment corrélatif, et que ce sentiment se
+traduit directement, sympathiquement, symboliquement ou métaphoriquement, dans
+toutes les sphères des organs extérieurs, qui la racontent tous, suivant leur
+mode d&rsquo;action propre, comme si chacun d&rsquo;eux avait été directement
+affecté.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit, and even to some extent
+habit in the individual; and therefore he fails, as it seems to me, to
+give the right explanation, or any explanation at all, of many gestures
+and expressions. As an illustration of what he calls symbolic movements, I
+will quote his remarks (p. 37), taken from M. Chevreul, on a man playing
+at billiards. &ldquo;Si une bille dévie légèrement de la direction que le joueur
+prétend lui imprimer, ne l&rsquo;avez-vous pas vu cent fois la pousser du
+regard, de la tête et même des épaules, comme si ces mouvements, purement
+symboliques, pouvaient rectifier son trajet? Des mouvements non moins
+significatifs se produisent quand la bille manque d&rsquo;une impulsion
+suffisante. Et cliez les joueurs novices, ils sont quelquefois accusés au
+point d&rsquo;éveiller le sourire sur les lèvres des spectateurs.&rdquo; Such
+movements, as it appeirs to me, may be attributed simply to habit. As
+often as a man has wished to move an object to one side, he has always
+pushed it to that side when forwards, he has pushed it forwards; and if he
+has wished to arrest it, he has pulled backwards. Therefore, when a man
+sees his ball travelling in a wrong direction, and he intensely wishes it
+to go in another direction, he cannot avoid, from long habit,
+unconsciously performing movements which in other cases he has found
+effectual.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet gives (p. 212) the
+following case:&mdash;&ldquo;un jeune chien à oreilles droites, auquel son
+maître présente de loin quelque viande appétissante, fixe avec ardeur ses
+yeux sur cet objet dont il suit tous les mouvements, et pendant que les
+yeux regardent, les deux oreilles se portent en avant comme si cet objet
+pouvait être entendu.&rdquo; Here, instead of speaking of sympathy between the
+ears and eyes, it appears to me more simple to believe, that as dogs
+during many generations have, whilst intently looking at any object,
+pricked their ears in order to perceive any sound; and conversely have
+looked intently in the direction of a sound to which they may have
+listened, the movements of these organs have become firmly associated
+together through long-continued habit.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, which I have not
+seen, but in which, as he states, he forestalled Gratiolet in many of his
+views. In 1867 he published his &lsquo;Wissenschaftliches System der Mimik und
+Physiognomik.&rsquo; It is hardly possible to give in a few sentences a fair
+notion of his views; perhaps the two following sentences will tell as much
+as can be briefly told: &ldquo;the muscular movements of expression are in part
+related to imaginary objects, and in part to imaginary sensorial
+impressions. In this proposition lies the key to the comprehension of all
+expressive muscular movements.&rdquo; (s. 25) Again, &ldquo;Expressive movements
+manifest themselves chiefly in the numerous and mobile muscles of the
+face, partly because the nerves by which they are set into motion
+originate in the most immediate vicinity of the mind-organ, but partly
+also because these muscles serve to support the organs of sense.&rdquo; (s. 26.)
+If Dr. Piderit had studied Sir C. Bell&rsquo;s work, he would probably not have
+said (s. 101) that violent laughter causes a frown from partaking of the
+nature of pain; or that with infants (s. 103) the tears irritate the eyes,
+and thus excite the contraction of the surrounding in muscles. Many good
+remarks are scattered throughout this volume, to which I shall hereafter
+refer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Short discussions on Expression may be found in various works, which need
+not here be particularised. Mr. Bain, however, in two of his works has
+treated the subject at some length. He says,<a href="#linknote-8"
+name="linknoteref-8" id="linknoteref-8">[8]</a> &ldquo;I look upon the
+expression so-called as part and parcel of the feeling. I believe it to be
+a general law of the mind that along with the fact of inward feeling or
+consciousness, there is a diffusive action or excitement over the bodily
+members.&rdquo; In another place he adds, &ldquo;A very considerable number of the
+facts may be brought under the following principle: namely, that states of
+pleasure are connected with an increase, and states of pain with an
+abatement, of some, or all, of the vital functions.&rdquo; But the above law of
+the diffusive action of feelings seems too general to throw much light on
+special expressions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in his &lsquo;Principles of
+Psychology&rsquo; (1855), makes the following remarks:&mdash;&ldquo;Fear, when strong,
+expresses itself in cries, in efforts to hide or escape, in palpitations
+and tremblings; and these are just the manifestations that would accompany
+an actual experience of the evil feared. The destructive passions are
+shown in a general tension of the muscular system, in gnashing of the
+teeth and protrusion of the claws, in dilated eyes and nostrils in growls;
+and these are weaker forms of the actions that accompany the killing of
+prey.&rdquo; Here we have, as I believe, the true theory of a large number of
+expressions; but the chief interest and difficulty of the subject lies in
+following out the wonderfully complex results. I infer that some one (but
+who he is I have not been able to ascertain) formerly advanced a nearly
+similar view, for Sir C. Bell says,<a href="#linknote-9"
+name="linknoteref-9" id="linknoteref-9">[9]</a> &ldquo;It has been maintained
+that what are called the external signs of passion, are only the
+concomitants of those voluntary movements which the structure renders
+necessary.&rdquo; Mr. Spencer has also published<a href="#linknote-10"
+name="linknoteref-10" id="linknoteref-10">[10]</a> a valuable essay on the
+physiology of Laughter, in which he insists on &ldquo;the general law that
+feeling passing a certain pitch, habitually vents itself in bodily
+action,&rdquo; and that &ldquo;an overflow of nerve-force undirected by any motive,
+will manifestly take first the most habitual routes; and if these do not
+suffice, will next overflow into the less habitual ones.&rdquo; This law I
+believe to be of the highest importance in throwing light on our subject.&rsquo;<a
+href="#linknote-11" name="linknoteref-11" id="linknoteref-11">[11]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All the authors who have written on Expression, with the exception of Mr.
+Spencer&mdash;the great expounder of the principle of Evolution&mdash;appear
+to have been firmly convinced that species, man of course included, came
+into existence in their present condition. Sir C. Bell, being thus
+convinced, maintains that many of our facial muscles are &ldquo;purely
+instrumental in expression;&rdquo; or are &ldquo;a special provision&rdquo; for this sole
+object.<a href="#linknote-12" name="linknoteref-12" id="linknoteref-12">[12]</a>
+But the simple fact that the anthropoid apes possess the same facial
+muscles as we do,<a href="#linknote-13" name="linknoteref-13"
+id="linknoteref-13">[13]</a> renders it very improbable that these muscles
+in our case serve exclusively for expression; for no one, I presume, would
+be inclined to admit that monkeys have been endowed with special muscles
+solely for exhibiting their hideous grimaces. Distinct uses, independently
+of expression, can indeed be assigned with much probability for almost all
+the facial muscles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a distinction as possible
+between man and the lower animals; and he consequently asserts that with
+&ldquo;the lower creatures there is no expression but what may be referred, more
+or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary instincts.&rdquo; He
+further maintains that their faces &ldquo;seem chiefly capable of expressing
+rage and fear.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-14" name="linknoteref-14"
+id="linknoteref-14">[14]</a> But man himself cannot express love and
+humility by external signs, so plainly as does a dog, when with drooping
+ears, hanging lips, flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets his beloved
+master. Nor can these movements in the dog be explained by acts of
+volition or necessary instincts, any more than the beaming eyes and
+smiling cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir C. Bell had
+been questioned about the expression of affection in the dog, he would no
+doubt have answered that this animal had been created with special
+instincts, adapting him for association with man, and that all further
+enquiry on the subject was superfluous.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although Gratiolet emphatically denies<a href="#linknote-15"
+name="linknoteref-15" id="linknoteref-15">[15]</a> that any muscle has
+been developed solely for the sake of expression, he seems never to have
+reflected on the principle of evolution. He apparently looks at each
+species as a separate creation. So it is with the other writers on
+Expression. For instance, Dr. Duchenne, after speaking of the movements of
+the limbs, refers to those which give expression to the face, and remarks:<a
+href="#linknote-16" name="linknoteref-16" id="linknoteref-16">[16]</a> &ldquo;Le
+créateur n&rsquo;a donc pas eu à se préoccuper ici des besoins de la mécanique;
+il a pu, selon sa sagesse, ou&mdash;que l&rsquo;on me pardonne cette manière de
+parler&mdash;par une divine fantaisie, mettre en action tel ou tel muscle,
+un seul ou plusieurs muscles à la fois, lorsqu&rsquo;il a voulu que les signes
+caractéristiques des passions, même les plus fugaces, fussent écrits
+passagèrement sur la face de l&rsquo;homme. Ce langage de la physionomie une
+fois créé, il lui a suffi, pour le rendre universel et immuable, de donner
+à tout être humain la faculté instinctive d&rsquo;exprimer toujours ses
+sendments par la contraction des mêmes muscles.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many writers consider the whole subject of Expression as inexplicable.
+Thus the illustrious physiologist Müller, says,<a href="#linknote-17"
+name="linknoteref-17" id="linknoteref-17">[17]</a> &ldquo;The completely
+different expression of the features in different passions shows that,
+according to the kind of feeling excited, entirely different groups of the
+fibres of the facial nerve are acted on. Of the cause of this we are quite
+ignorant.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+No doubt as long as man and all other animals are viewed as independent
+creations, an effectual stop is put to our natural desire to investigate
+as far as possible the causes of Expression. By this doctrine, anything
+and everything can be equally well explained; and it has proved as
+pernicious with respect to Expression as to every other branch of natural
+history. With mankind some expressions, such as the bristling of the hair
+under the influence of extreme terror, or the uncovering of the teeth
+under that of furious rage, can hardly be understood, except on the belief
+that man once existed in a much lower and animal-like condition. The
+community of certain expressions in distinct though allied species, as in
+the movements of the same facial muscles during laughter by man and by
+various monkeys, is rendered somewhat more intelligible, if we believe in
+their descent from a common progenitor. He who admits on general grounds
+that the structure and habits of all animals have been gradually evolved,
+will look at the whole subject of Expression in a new and interesting
+light.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements being often
+extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature. A difference may be clearly
+perceived, and yet it may be impossible, at least I have found it so, to
+state in what the difference consists. When we witness any deep emotion,
+our sympathy is so strongly excited, that close observation is forgotten
+or rendered almost impossible; of which fact I have had many curious
+proofs. Our imagination is another and still more serious source of error;
+for if from the nature of the circumstances we expect to see any
+expression, we readily imagine its presence. Notwithstanding Dr.
+Duchenne&rsquo;s great experience, he for a long time fancied, as he states,
+that several muscles contracted under certain emotions, whereas he
+ultimately convinced himself that the movement was confined to a single
+muscle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to ascertain,
+independently of common opinion, how far particular movements of the
+features and gestures are really expressive of certain states of the mind,
+I have found the following means the most serviceable. In the first place,
+to observe infants; for they exhibit many emotions, as Sir C. Bell
+remarks, &ldquo;with extraordinary force;&rdquo; whereas, in after life, some of our
+expressions &ldquo;cease to have the pure and simple source from which they
+spring in infancy.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-18" name="linknoteref-18"
+id="linknoteref-18">[18]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the second place, it occurred to me that the insane ought to be
+studied, as they are liable to the strongest passions, and give
+uncontrolled vent to them. I had, myself, no opportunity of doing this, so
+I applied to Dr. Maudsley and received from him an introduction to Dr. J.
+Crichton Browne, who has charge of an immense asylum near Wakefield, and
+who, as I found, had already attended to the subject. This excellent
+observer has with unwearied kindness sent me copious notes and
+descriptions, with valuable suggestions on many points; and I can hardly
+over-estimate the value of his assistance. I owe also, to the kindness of
+Mr. Patrick Nicol, of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, interesting statements on
+two or three points.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Thirdly Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already seen, certain muscles
+in the face of an old man, whose skin was little sensitive, and thus
+produced various expressions which were photographed on a large scale. It
+fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best plates, without a
+word of explanation, to above twenty educated persons of various ages and
+both sexes, asking them, in each case, by what emotion or feeling the old
+man was supposed to be agitated; and I recorded their answers in the words
+which they used. Several of the expressions were instantly recognised by
+almost everyone, though described in not exactly the same terms; and these
+may, I think, be relied on as truthful, and will hereafter be specified.
+On the other hand, the most widely different judgments were pronounced in
+regard to some of them. This exhibition was of use in another way, by
+convincing me how easily we may be misguided by our imagination; for when
+I first looked through Dr. Duchenne&rsquo;s photographs, reading at the same
+time the text, and thus learning what was intended, I was struck with
+admiration at the truthfulness of all, with only a few exceptions.
+Nevertheless, if I had examined them without any explanation, no doubt I
+should have been as much perplexed, in some cases, as other persons have
+been.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters in
+painting and sculpture, who are such close observers. Accordingly, I have
+looked at photographs and engravings of many well-known works; but, with a
+few exceptions, have not thus profited. The reason no doubt is, that in
+works of art, beauty is the chief object; and strongly contracted facial
+muscles destroy beauty.<a href="#linknote-19" name="linknoteref-19"
+id="linknoteref-19">[19]</a> The story of the composition is generally
+told with wonderful force and truth by skilfully given accessories.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascertain whether the same
+expressions and gestures prevail, as has often been asserted without much
+evidence, with all the races of mankind, especially with those who have
+associated but little with Europeans. Whenever the same movements of the
+features or body express the same emotions in several distinct races of
+man, we may infer with much probability, that such expressions are true
+ones,&mdash;that is, are innate or instinctive. Conventional expressions
+or gestures, acquired by the individual during early life, would probably
+have differed in the different races, in the same manner as do their
+languages. Accordingly I circulated, early in the year 1867, the following
+printed queries with a request, which has been fully responded to, that
+actual observations, and not memory, might be trusted. These queries were
+written after a considerable interval of time, during which my attention
+had been otherwise directed, and I can now see that they might have been
+greatly improved. To some of the later copies, I appended, in manuscript,
+a few additional remarks:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide,
+and by the eyebrows being raised?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows it to be
+visible? and especially how low down the body does the blush extend?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(3.) When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his body and
+head erect, square his shoulders and clench his fists?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(4) When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to understand any
+puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed, and the
+inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which the French call
+the &ldquo;Grief muscle&rdquo;? The eyebrow in this state becomes slightly oblique,
+with a little swelling at the Inner end; and the forehead is transversely
+wrinkled in the middle part, but not across the whole breadth, as when the
+eyebrows are raised in surprise.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(6.) When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little wrinkled
+round and under them, and with the mouth a little drawn back at the corners?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the upper
+lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side facing the man whom he
+addresses?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(8) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized, which is chiefly
+shown by the mouth being firmly closed, a lowering brow and a slight
+frown?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips and by
+turning up the nose, and with a slight expiration?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(10) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down, the upper lip
+slightly raised, with a sudden expiration, something like incipient
+vomiting, or like something spit out of the mouth?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as with
+Europeans?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears into
+the eyes?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something being
+done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his shoulders, turn
+inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands and open the palms; with the
+eyebrows raised?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(14) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the lips?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized? though I
+know not how these can be defined.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken laterally
+in negation?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Observations on natives who have had little communication with Europeans
+would be of course the most valuable, though those made on any natives
+would be of much interest to me. General remarks on expression are of
+comparatively little value; and memory is so deceptive that I earnestly
+beg it may not be trusted. A definite description of the countenance under
+any emotion or frame of mind, with a statement of the circumstances under
+which it occurred, would possess much value.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To these queries I have received thirty-six answers from different
+observers, several of them missionaries or protectors of the aborigines,
+to all of whom I am deeply indebted for the great trouble which they have
+taken, and for the valuable aid thus received. I will specify their names,
+&amp;c., towards the close of this chapter, so as not to interrupt my
+present remarks. The answers relate to several of the most distinct and
+savage races of man. In many instances, the circumstances have been
+recorded under which each expression was observed, and the expression
+itself described. In such cases, much confidence may be placed in the
+answers. When the answers have been simply yes or no, I have always
+received them with caution. It follows, from the information thus
+acquired, that the same state of mind is expressed throughout the world
+with remarkable uniformity; and this fact is in itself interesting as
+evidence of the close similarity in bodily structure and mental
+disposition of all the races, of mankind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended as closely as I could, to the
+expression of the several passions in some of the commoner animals; and
+this I believe to be of paramount importance, not of course for deciding
+how far in man certain expressions are characteristic of certain states of
+mind, but as affording the safest basis for generalisation on the causes,
+or origin, of the various movements of Expression. In observing animals,
+we are not so likely to be biassed by our imagination; and we may feel
+safe that their expressions are not conventional.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting nature of some
+expressions (the changes in the features being often extremely slight);
+our sympathy being easily aroused when we behold any strong emotion, and
+our attention thus distracted; our imagination deceiving us, from knowing
+in a vague manner what to expect, though certainly few of us know what the
+exact changes in the countenance are; and lastly, even our long
+familiarity with the subject,&mdash;from all these causes combined, the
+observation of Expression is by no means easy, as many persons, whom I
+have asked to observe certain points, have soon discovered. Hence it is
+difficult to determine, with certainty, what are the movements of the
+features and of the body, which commonly characterize certain states of
+the mind. Nevertheless, some of the doubts and difficulties have, as I
+hope, been cleared away by the observation of infants,&mdash;of the
+insane,&mdash;of the different races of man,&mdash;of works of art,&mdash;and
+lastly, of the facial muscles under the action of galvanism, as effected
+by Dr. Duchenne.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But there remains the much greater difficulty of understanding the cause
+or origin of the several expressions, and of judging whether any
+theoretical explanation is trustworthy. Besides, judging as well as we can
+by our reason, without the aid of any rules, which of two or more
+explanations is the most satisfactory, or are quite unsatisfactory, I see
+only one way of testing our conclusions. This is to observe whether the
+same principle by which one expression can, as it appears, be explained,
+is applicable in other allied cases; and especially, whether the same
+general principles can be applied with satisfactory results, both to man
+and the lower animals. This latter method, I am inclined to think, is the
+most serviceable of all. The difficulty of judging of the truth of any
+theoretical explanation, and of testing it by some distinct line of
+investigation, is the great drawback to that interest which the study
+seems well fitted to excite.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may state that they were
+commenced in the year 1838; and from that time to the present day, I have
+occasionally attended to the subject. At the above date, I was already
+inclined to believe in the principle of evolution, or of the derivation of
+species from other and lower forms. Consequently, when I read Sir C.
+Bell&rsquo;s great work, his view, that man had been created with certain
+muscles specially adapted for the expression of his feelings, struck me as
+unsatisfactory. It seemed probable that the habit of expressing our
+feelings by certain movements, though now rendered innate, had been in
+some manner gradually acquired. But to discover how such habits had been
+acquired was perplexing in no small degree. The whole subject had to be
+viewed under a new aspect, and each expression demanded a rational
+explanation. This belief led me to attempt the present work, however
+imperfectly it may have been executed.
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>
+I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, as I have said, I am
+deeply indebted for information in regard to the expressions exhibited by
+various races of man, and I will specify some of the circumstances under
+which the observations were in each case made. Owing to the great kindness
+and powerful influence of Mr. Wilson, of Hayes Place, Kent, I have
+received from Australia no less than thirteen sets of answers to my
+queries. This has been particularly fortunate, as the Australian
+aborigines rank amongst the most distinct of all the races of man. It will
+be seen that the observations have been chiefly made in the south, in the
+outlying parts of the colony of Victoria; but some excellent answers have
+been received from the north.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valuable observations, made
+several hundred miles in the interior of Queensland. To Mr. R. Brough
+Smyth, of Melbourne, I am much indebted for observations made by himself,
+and for sending me several of the following letters, namely:&mdash;From
+the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer, of Lake Wellington, a missionary in Gippsland,
+Victoria, who has had much experience with the natives. From Mr. Samuel
+Wilson, a landowner, residing at Langerenong, Wimmera, Victoria. From the
+Rev. George Taplin, superintendent of the native Industrial Settlement at
+Port Macleay. From Mr. Archibald G. Lang, of Coranderik, Victoria, a
+teacher at a school where aborigines, old and young, are collected from
+all parts of the colony. From Mr. H. B. Lane, of Belfast, Victoria, a
+police magistrate and warden, whose observations, as I am assured, are
+highly trustworthy. From Mr. Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose station
+is on the borders of the colony of Victoria, and who has thus been able to
+observe many aborigines who have had little intercourse with white men. He
+compared his observations with those made by two other gentlemen long
+resident in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr. J. Bulmer, a missionary in a
+remote part of Gippsland, Victoria.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr. Ferdinand Müller, of
+Victoria, for some observations made by himself, and for sending me others
+made by Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing letters.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Rev. J. W. Stack has answered
+only a few of my queries; but the answers have been remarkably full,
+clear, and distinct, with the circumstances recorded under which the
+observations were made.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Rajah Brooke has given me some information with respect to the Dyaks
+of Borneo.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Respecting the Malays, I have been highly successful; for Mr. F. Geach (to
+whom I was introduced by Mr. Wallace), during his residence as a mining
+engineer in the interior of Malacca, observed many natives, who had never
+before associated with white men. He wrote me two long letters with
+admirable and detailed observations on their expression. He likewise
+observed the Chinese immigrants in the Malay archipelago.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The well-known naturalist, H. M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, also observed for me
+the Chinese in their native country; and he made inquiries from others
+whom he could trust.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official capacity in the
+Admednugur District in the Bombay Presidency, attended to the expression
+of the inhabitants, but found much difficulty in arriving at any safe
+conclusions, owing to their habitual concealment of all emotions in the
+presence of Europeans. He also obtained information for me from Mr. West,
+the Judge in Canara, and he consulted some intelligent native gentlemen on
+certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J. Scott, curator of the Botanic Gardens,
+carefully observed the various tribes of men therein employed during a
+considerable period, and no one has sent me such full and valuable
+details. The habit of accurate observation, gained by his botanical
+studies, has been brought to bear on our present subject. For Ceylon I am
+much indebted to the Rev. S. O. Glenie for answers to some of my queries.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with respect to the negroes,
+though Mr. Winwood Reade aided me as far as lay in his power. It would
+have been comparatively easy to have obtained information in regard to the
+negro slaves in America; but as they have long associated with white men,
+such observations would have possessed little value. In the southern parts
+of the continent Mrs. Barber observed the Kafirs and Fingoes, and sent me
+many distinct answers. Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale also made some observations
+on the natives, and procured for me a curious document, namely, the
+opinion, written in English, of Christian Gaika, brother of the Chief
+Sandilli, on the expressions of his fellow-countrymen. In the northern
+regions of Africa Captain Speedy, who long resided with the Abyssinians,
+answered my queries partly from memory and partly from observations made
+on the son of King Theodore, who was then under his charge. Professor and
+Mrs. Asa Gray attended to some points in the expressions of the natives,
+as observed by them whilst ascending the Nile.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a catechist residing with the
+Fuegians, answered some few questions about their expression, addressed to
+him many years ago. In the northern half of the continent Dr. Rothrock
+attended to the expressions of the wild Atnah and Espyox tribes on the
+Nasse River, in North-Western America. Mr. Washington Matthews
+Assistant-Surgeon in the United States Army, also observed with special
+care (after having seen my queries, as printed in the &lsquo;Smithsonian
+Report&rsquo;) some of the wildest tribes in the Western parts of the United
+States, namely, the Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans, and Assinaboines; and
+his answers have proved of the highest value.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I have collected
+some few facts incidentally given in books of travels.&mdash;&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig1-2.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 1-2 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig3.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 3 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the latter part of this
+volume, to the muscles of the human face, I have had a diagram (fig. 1)
+copied and reduced from Sir C. Bell&rsquo;s work, and two others, with more
+accurate details (figs. 2 and 3), from Herde&rsquo;s well-known &lsquo;Handbuch der
+Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.&rsquo; The same letters refer to the same
+muscles in all three figures, but the names are given of only the more
+important ones to which I shall have to allude. The facial muscles blend
+much together, and, as I am informed, hardly appear on a dissected face so
+distinct as they are here represented. Some writers consider that these
+muscles consist of nineteen pairs, with one unpaired;<a href="#linknote-20"
+name="linknoteref-20" id="linknoteref-20">[20]</a> but others make the
+number much larger, amounting even to fifty-five, according to Moreau.
+They are, as is admitted by everyone who has written on the subject, very
+variable in structure; and Moreau remarks that they are hardly alike in
+half-a-dozen subjects.<a href="#linknote-21" name="linknoteref-21"
+id="linknoteref-21">[21]</a> They are also variable in function. Thus the
+power of uncovering the canine tooth on one side differs much in different
+persons. The power of raising the wings of the nostrils is also, according
+to Dr. Piderit,<a href="#linknote-22" name="linknoteref-22"
+id="linknoteref-22">[22]</a> variable in a remarkable degree; and other
+such cases could be given.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing my obligations to Mr.
+Rejlander for the trouble which he has taken in photographing for me
+various expressions and gestures. I am also indebted to Herr Kindermann,
+of Hamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of crying infants;
+and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one of a smiling girl. I have already
+expressed my obligations to Dr. Duchenne for generously permitting me to
+have some of his large photographs copied and reduced. All these
+photographs have been printed by the Heliotype process, and the accuracy
+of the copy is thus guaranteed. These plates are referred to by Roman
+numerals.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme pains which
+he has taken in drawing from life the expressions of various animals. A
+distinguished artist, Mr. Riviere, has had the kindness to give me two
+drawings of dogs&mdash;one in a hostile and the other in a humble and
+caressing frame of mind. Mr. A. May has also given me two similar sketches
+of dogs. Mr. Cooper has taken much care in cutting the blocks. Some of the
+photographs and drawings, namely, those by Mr. May, and those by Mr. Wolf
+of the Cynopithecus, were first reproduced by Mr. Cooper on wood by means
+of photography, and then engraved: by this means almost complete fidelity
+is ensured.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"></a>
+CHAPTER I.<br/>GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The three chief principles stated&mdash;The first principle&mdash;Serviceable
+actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind,
+and are performed whether or not of service in each particular case&mdash;The
+force of habit&mdash;Inheritance&mdash;Associated habitual movements in
+man&mdash;Reflex actions&mdash;Passage of habits into reflex actions&mdash;Associated
+habitual movements in the lower animals&mdash;Concluding remarks.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+I will begin by giving the three Principles, which appear to me to account
+for most of the expressions and gestures involuntarily used by man and the
+lower animals, under the influence of various emotions and sensations.<a
+href="#linknote-101" name="linknoteref-101" id="linknoteref-101">[101]</a>
+I arrived, however, at these three Principles only at the close of my
+observations. They will be discussed in the present and two following
+chapters in a general manner. Facts observed both with man and the lower
+animals will here be made use of; but the latter facts are preferable, as
+less likely to deceive us. In the fourth and fifth chapters, I will
+describe the special expressions of some of the lower animals; and in the
+succeeding chapters those of man. Everyone will thus be able to judge for
+himself, how far my three principles throw light on the theory of the
+subject. It appears to me that so many expressions are thus explained in a
+fairly satisfactory manner, that probably all will hereafter be found to
+come under the same or closely analogous heads. I need hardly premise that
+movements or changes in any part of the body,&mdash;as the wagging of a
+dog&rsquo;s tail, the drawing back of a horse&rsquo;s ears, the shrugging of a man&rsquo;s
+shoulders, or the dilatation of the capillary vessels of the skin,&mdash;may
+all equally well serve for expression. The three Principles are as
+follows.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I. <i>The principle of serviceable associated Habits</i>.&mdash;Certain
+complex actions are of direct or indirect service under certain states of
+the mind, in order to relieve or gratify certain sensations, desires,
+&amp;c.; and whenever the same state of mind is induced, however feebly,
+there is a tendency through the force of habit and association for the
+same movements to be performed, though they may not then be of the least
+use. Some actions ordinarily associated through habit with certain states
+of the mind may be partially repressed through the will, and in such cases
+the muscles which are least under the separate control of the will are the
+most liable still to act, causing movements which we recognize as
+expressive. In certain other cases the checking of one habitual movement
+requires other slight movements; and these are likewise expressive.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+II. <i>The principle of Antithesis</i>.&mdash;Certain states of the mind
+lead to certain habitual actions, which are of service, as under our first
+principle. Now when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, there is
+a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements of a
+directly opposite nature, though these are of no use; and such movements
+are in some cases highly expressive.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+III. <i>The principle of actions due to the constitution of the Nervous
+System, independently from the first of the Will, and independently to a
+certain extent of Habit</i>.&mdash;When the sensorium is strongly excited,
+nerve-force is generated in excess, and is transmitted in certain definite
+directions, depending on the connection of the nerve-cells, and partly on
+habit: or the supply of nerve-force may, as it appears, be interrupted.
+Effects are thus produced which we recognize as expressive. This third
+principle may, for the sake of brevity, be called that of the direct
+action of the nervous system.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+With respect to our <i>first Principle</i>, it is notorious how powerful
+is the force of habit. The most complex and difficult movements can in
+time be performed without the least effort or consciousness. It is not
+positively known how it comes that habit is so efficient in facilitating
+complex movements; but physiologists admit<a href="#linknote-102"
+name="linknoteref-102" id="linknoteref-102">[102]</a> &ldquo;that the conducting
+power of the nervous fibres increases with the frequency of their
+excitement.&rdquo; This applies to the nerves of motion and sensation, as well
+as to those connected with the act of thinking. That some physical change
+is produced in the nerve-cells or nerves which are habitually used can
+hardly be doubted, for otherwise it is impossible to understand how the
+tendency to certain acquired movements is inherited. That they are
+inherited we see with horses in certain transmitted paces, such as
+cantering and ambling, which are not natural to them,&mdash;in the
+pointing of young pointers and the setting of young setters&mdash;in the
+peculiar manner of flight of certain breeds of the pigeon, &amp;c. We have
+analogous cases with mankind in the inheritance of tricks or unusual
+gestures, to which we shall presently recur. To those who admit the
+gradual evolution of species, a most striking instance of the perfection
+with which the most difficult consensual movements can be transmitted, is
+afforded by the humming-bird Sphinx-moth (<i>Macroglossa</i>); for this
+moth, shortly after its emergence from the cocoon, as shown by the bloom
+on its unruffled scales, may be seen poised stationary in the air, with
+its long hair-like proboscis uncurled and inserted into the minute
+orifices of flowers; and no one, I believe, has ever seen this moth
+learning to perform its difficult task, which requires such unerring aim.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When there exists an inherited or instinctive tendency to the performance
+of an action, or an inherited taste for certain kinds of food, some degree
+of habit in the individual is often or generally requisite. We find this
+in the paces of the horse, and to a certain extent in the pointing of
+dogs; although some young dogs point excellently the first time they are
+taken out, yet they often associate the proper inherited attitude with a
+wrong odour, and even with eyesight. I have heard it asserted that if a
+calf be allowed to suck its mother only once, it is much more difficult
+afterwards to rear it by hand.<a href="#linknote-103"
+name="linknoteref-103" id="linknoteref-103">[103]</a> Caterpillars which
+have been fed on the leaves of one kind of tree, have been known to perish
+from hunger rather than to eat the leaves of another tree, although this
+afforded them their proper food, under a state of nature;<a
+href="#linknote-104" name="linknoteref-104" id="linknoteref-104">[104]</a>
+and so it is in many other cases.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The power of Association is admitted by everyone. Mr. Bain remarks, that
+&ldquo;actions, sensations and states of feeling, occurring together or in close
+succession, tend to grow together, or cohere, in such a way that when any
+one of them is afterwards presented to the mind, the others are apt to be
+brought up in idea.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-105" name="linknoteref-105"
+id="linknoteref-105">[105]</a> It is so important for our purpose fully to
+recognize that actions readily become associated with other actions and
+with various states of the mind, that I will give a good many instances,
+in the first place relating to man, and afterwards to the lower animals.
+Some of the instances are of a very trifling nature, but they are as good
+for our purpose as more important habits. It is known to everyone how
+difficult, or even impossible it is, without repeated trials, to move the
+limbs in certain opposed directions which have never been practised.
+Analogous cases occur with sensations, as in the common experiment of
+rolling a marble beneath the tips of two crossed fingers, when it feels
+exactly like two marbles. Everyone protects himself when falling to the
+ground by extending his arms, and as Professor Alison has remarked, few
+can resist acting thus, when voluntarily falling on a soft bed. A man when
+going out of doors puts on his gloves quite unconsciously; and this may
+seem an extremely simple operation, but he who has taught a child to put
+on gloves, knows that this is by no means the case.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When our minds are much affected, so are the movements of our bodies; but
+here another principle besides habit, namely the undirected overflow of
+nerve-force, partially comes into play. Norfolk, in speaking of Cardinal
+Wolsey, says&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;Some strange commotion<br/>
+Is in his brain; he bites his lip and starts;<br/>
+Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground,<br/>
+Then, lays his finger on his temple: straight,<br/>
+Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again,<br/>
+Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he casts<br/>
+His eye against the moon: in most strange postures<br/>
+We have seen him set himself.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Hen. VIII</i>., act iii, sc. 2.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A vulgar man often scratches his head when perplexed in mind; and I
+believe that he acts thus from habit, as if he experienced a slightly
+uncomfortable bodily sensation, namely, the itching of his head, to which
+he is particularly liable, and which he thus relieves. Another man rubs
+his eyes when perplexed, or gives a little cough when embarrassed, acting
+in either case as if he felt a slightly uncomfortable sensation in his
+eyes or windpipe.<a href="#linknote-106" name="linknoteref-106"
+id="linknoteref-106">[106]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the continued use of the eyes, these organs are especially liable to
+be acted on through association under various states of the mind, although
+there is manifestly nothing to be seen. A man, as Gratiolet remarks, who
+vehemently rejects a proposition, will almost certainly shut his eyes or
+turn away his face; but if he accepts the proposition, he will nod his
+head in affirmation and open his eyes widely. The man acts in this latter
+case as if he clearly saw the thing, and in the former case as if he did
+not or would not see it. I have noticed that persons in describing a
+horrid sight often shut their eyes momentarily and firmly, or shake their
+heads, as if not to see or to drive away something disagreeable; and I
+have caught myself, when thinking in the dark of a horrid spectacle,
+closing my eyes firmly. In looking suddenly at any object, or in looking
+all around, everyone raises his eyebrows, so that the eyes may be quickly
+and widely opened; and Duchenne remarks that<a href="#linknote-107"
+name="linknoteref-107" id="linknoteref-107">[107]</a> a person in trying
+to remember something often raises his eyebrows, as if to see it. A Hindoo
+gentleman made exactly the same remark to Mr. Erskine in regard to his
+countrymen. I noticed a young lady earnestly trying to recollect a
+painter&rsquo;s name, and she first looked to one corner of the ceiling and then
+to the opposite corner, arching the one eyebrow on that side; although, of
+course, there was nothing to be seen there.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In most of the foregoing cases, we can understand how the associated movements
+were acquired through habit; but with some individuals, certain strange
+gestures or tricks have arisen in association with certain states of the mind,
+owing to wholly inexplicable causes, and are undoubtedly inherited. I have
+elsewhere given one instance from my own observation of an extraordinary and
+complex gesture, associated with pleasurable feelings, which was transmitted
+from a father to his daughter, as well as some other analogous facts.<a
+href="#linknote-108" name="linknoteref-108" id="linknoteref-108">[108]</a>
+Another curious instance of an odd inherited movement, associated with the wish
+to obtain an object, will be given in the course of this volume.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There are other actions which are commonly performed under certain
+circumstances, independently of habit, and which seem to be due to
+imitation or some sort of sympathy. Thus persons cutting anything with a
+pair of scissors may be seen to move their jaws simultaneously with the
+blades of the scissors. Children learning to write often twist about their
+tongues as their fingers move, in a ridiculous fashion. When a public
+singer suddenly becomes a little hoarse, many of those present may be
+heard, as I have been assured by a gentleman on whom I can rely, to clear
+their throats; but here habit probably comes into play, as we clear our
+own throats under similar circumstances. I have also been told that at
+leaping matches, as the performer makes his spring, many of the
+spectators, generally men and boys, move their feet; but here again habit
+probably comes into play, for it is very doubtful whether women would thus
+act.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Reflex actions</i>&mdash;Reflex actions, in the strict sense of the
+term, are due to the excitement of a peripheral nerve, which transmits its
+influence to certain nerve-cells, and these in their turn excite certain
+muscles or glands into action; and all this may take place without any
+sensation or consciousness on our part, though often thus accompanied. As
+many reflex actions are highly expressive, the subject must here be
+noticed at some little length. We shall also see that some of them
+graduate into, and can hardly be distinguished from actions which have
+arisen through habit?<a href="#linknote-109" name="linknoteref-109" id="linknoteref-109">[109]</a> Coughing and sneezing are familiar instances of
+reflex actions. With infants the first act of respiration is often a
+sneeze, although this requires the co-ordinated movement of numerous
+muscles. Respiration is partly voluntary, but mainly reflex, and is
+performed in the most natural and best manner without the interference of
+the will. A vast number of complex movements are reflex. As good an
+instance as can be given is the often-quoted one of a decapitated frog,
+which cannot of course feel, and cannot consciously perform, any movement.
+Yet if a drop of acid be placed on the lower surface of the thigh of a
+frog in this state, it will rub off the drop with the upper surface of the
+foot of the same leg. If this foot be cut off, it cannot thus act. &ldquo;After
+some fruitless efforts, therefore, it gives up trying in that way, seems
+restless, as though, says Pflüger, it was seeking some other way, and at
+last it makes use of the foot of the other leg and succeeds in rubbing off
+the acid. Notably we have here not merely contractions of muscles, but
+combined and harmonized contractions in due sequence for a special
+purpose. These are actions that have all the appearance of being guided by
+intelligence and instigated by will in an animal, the recognized organ of
+whose intelligence and will has been removed.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-110"
+name="linknoteref-110" id="linknoteref-110">[110]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We see the difference between reflex and voluntary movements in very young
+children not being able to perform, as I am informed by Sir Henry Holland,
+certain acts somewhat analogous to those of sneezing and coughing, namely,
+in their not being able to blow their noses (<i>i.e.</i> to compress the nose
+and blow violently through the passage), and in their not being able to
+clear their throats of phlegm. They have to learn to perform these acts,
+yet they are performed by us, when a little older, almost as easily as
+reflex actions. Sneezing and coughing, however, can be controlled by the
+will only partially or not at all; whilst the clearing the throat and
+blowing the nose are completely under our command.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When we are conscious of the presence of an irritating particle in our
+nostrils or windpipe&mdash;that is, when the same sensory nerve-cells are
+excited, as in the case of sneezing and coughing&mdash;we can voluntarily
+expel the particle by forcibly driving air through these passages; but we
+cannot do this with nearly the same force, rapidity, and precision, as by
+a reflex action. In this latter case the sensory nerve-cells apparently
+excite the motor nerve-cells without any waste of power by first
+communicating with the cerebral hemispheres&mdash;the seat of our
+consciousness and volition. In all cases there seems to exist a profound
+antagonism between the same movements, as directed by the will and by a
+reflex stimulant, in the force with which they are performed and in the
+facility with which they are excited. As Claude Bernard asserts,
+&ldquo;L&rsquo;influence du cerveau tend donc à entraver les mouvements réflexes, à
+limiter leur force et leur étendue.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-111"
+name="linknoteref-111" id="linknoteref-111">[111]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The conscious wish to perform a reflex action sometimes stops or
+interrupts its performance, though the proper sensory nerves may be
+stimulated. For instance, many years ago I laid a small wager with a dozen
+young men that they would not sneeze if they took snuff, although they all
+declared that they invariably did so; accordingly they all took a pinch,
+but from wishing much to succeed, not one sneezed, though their eyes
+watered, and all, without exception, had to pay me the wager. Sir H.
+Holland remarks<a href="#linknote-112" name="linknoteref-112"
+id="linknoteref-112">[112]</a> that attention paid to the act of
+swallowing interferes with the proper movements; from which it probably
+follows, at least in part, that some persons find it so difficult to
+swallow a pill.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another familiar instance of a reflex action is the involuntary closing of
+the eyelids when the surface of the eye is touched. A similar winking
+movement is caused when a blow is directed towards the face; but this is
+an habitual and not a strictly reflex action, as the stimulus is conveyed
+through the mind and not by the excitement of a peripheral nerve. The
+whole body and head are generally at the same time drawn suddenly
+backwards. These latter movements, however, can be prevented, if the
+danger does not appear to the imagination imminent; but our reason telling
+us that there is no danger does not suffice. I may mention a trifling
+fact, illustrating this point, and which at the time amused me. I put my
+face close to the thick glass-plate in front of a puff-adder in the
+Zoological Gardens, with the firm determination of not starting back if
+the snake struck at me; but, as soon as the blow was struck, my resolution
+went for nothing, and I jumped a yard or two backwards with astonishing
+rapidity. My will and reason were powerless against the imagination of a
+danger which had never been experienced.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The violence of a start seems to depend partly on the vividness of the
+imagination, and partly on the condition, either habitual or temporary, of
+the nervous system. He who will attend to the starting of his horse, when
+tired and fresh, will perceive how perfect is the gradation from a mere
+glance at some unexpected object, with a momentary doubt whether it is
+dangerous, to a jump so rapid and violent, that the animal probably could
+not voluntarily whirl round in so rapid a manner. The nervous system of a
+fresh and highly-fed horse sends its order to the motory system so
+quickly, that no time is allowed for him to consider whether or not the
+danger is real. After one violent start, when he is excited and the blood
+flows freely through his brain, he is very apt to start again; and so it
+is, as I have noticed, with young infants.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A start from a sudden noise, when the stimulus is conveyed through the
+auditory nerves, is always accompanied in grown-up persons by the winking
+of the eyelids.<a href="#linknote-113" name="linknoteref-113"
+id="linknoteref-113">[113]</a> I observed, however, that though my infants
+started at sudden sounds, when under a fortnight old, they certainly did
+not always wink their eyes, and I believe never did so. The start of an
+older infant apparently represents a vague catching hold of something to
+prevent falling. I shook a pasteboard box close before the eyes of one of
+my infants, when 114 days old, and it did not in the least wink; but when
+I put a few comfits into the box, holding it in the same position as
+before, and rattled them, the child blinked its eyes violently every time,
+and started a little. It was obviously impossible that a carefully-guarded
+infant could have learnt by experience that a rattling sound near its eyes
+indicated danger to them. But such experience will have been slowly gained
+at a later age during a long series of generations; and from what we know
+of inheritance, there is nothing improbable in the transmission of a habit
+to the offspring at an earlier age than that at which it was first
+acquired by the parents.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the foregoing remarks it seems probable that some actions, which were
+at first performed consciously, have become through habit and association
+converted into reflex actions, and are now so firmly fixed and inherited,
+that they are performed, even when not of the least use,<a
+href="#linknote-114" name="linknoteref-114" id="linknoteref-114">[114]</a>
+as often as the same causes arise, which originally excited them in us
+through the volition. In such cases the sensory nerve-cells excite the
+motor cells, without first communicating with those cells on which our
+consciousness and volition depend. It is probable that sneezing and
+coughing were originally acquired by the habit of expelling, as violently
+as possible, any irritating particle from the sensitive air-passages. As
+far as time is concerned, there has been more than enough for these habits
+to have become innate or converted into reflex actions; for they are
+common to most or all of the higher quadrupeds, and must therefore have
+been first acquired at a very remote period. Why the act of clearing the
+throat is not a reflex action, and has to be learnt by our children, I
+cannot pretend to say; but we can see why blowing the nose on a
+handkerchief has to be learnt.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is scarcely credible that the movements of a headless frog, when it
+wipes off a drop of acid or other object from its thigh, and which
+movements are so well coordinated for a special purpose, were not at first
+performed voluntarily, being afterwards rendered easy through
+long-continued habit so as at last to be performed unconsciously, or
+independently of the cerebral hemispheres.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So again it appears probable that starting was originally acquired by the
+habit of jumping away as quickly as possible from danger, whenever any of
+our senses gave us warning. Starting, as we have seen, is accompanied by
+the blinking of the eyelids so as to protect the eyes, the most tender and
+sensitive organs of the body; and it is, I believe, always accompanied by
+a sudden and forcible inspiration, which is the natural preparation for
+any violent effort. But when a man or horse starts, his heart beats wildly
+against his ribs, and here it may be truly said we have an organ which has
+never been under the control of the will, partaking in the general reflex
+movements of the body. To this point, however, I shall return in a future
+chapter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The contraction of the iris, when the retina is stimulated by a bright
+light, is another instance of a movement, which it appears cannot possibly
+have been at first voluntarily performed and then fixed by habit; for the
+iris is not known to be under the conscious control of the will in any
+animal. In such cases some explanation, quite distinct from habit, will
+have to be discovered. The radiation of nerve-force from strongly-excited
+nerve-cells to other connected cells, as in the case of a bright light on
+the retina causing a sneeze, may perhaps aid us in understanding how some
+reflex actions originated. A radiation of nerve-force of this kind, if it
+caused a movement tending to lessen the primary irritation, as in the case
+of the contraction of the iris preventing too much light from falling on
+the retina, might afterwards have been taken advantage of and modified for
+this special purpose.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It further deserves notice that reflex actions are in all probability
+liable to slight variations, as are all corporeal structures and
+instincts; and any variations which were beneficial and of sufficient
+importance, would tend to be preserved and inherited. Thus reflex actions,
+when once gained for one purpose, might afterwards be modified
+independently of the will or habit, so as to serve for some distinct
+purpose. Such cases would be parallel with those which, as we have every
+reason to believe, have occurred with many instincts; for although some
+instincts have been developed simply through long-continued and inherited
+habit, other highly complex ones have been developed through the
+preservation of variations of pre-existing instincts&mdash;that is,
+through natural selection.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have discussed at some little length, though as I am well aware, in a
+very imperfect manner, the acquirement of reflex actions, because they are
+often brought into play in connection with movements expressive of our
+emotions; and it was necessary to show that at least some of them might
+have been first acquired through the will in order to satisfy a desire, or
+to relieve a disagreeable sensation.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Associated habitual movements in the lower animals</i>.&mdash;I have
+already given in the case of Man several instances of movements associated
+with various states of the mind or body, which are now purposeless, but
+which were originally of use, and are still of use under certain
+circumstances. As this subject is very important for us, I will here give
+a considerable number of analogous facts, with reference to animals;
+although many of them are of a very trifling nature. My object is to show
+that certain movements were originally performed for a definite end, and
+that, under nearly the same circumstances, they are still pertinaciously
+performed through habit when not of the least use. That the tendency in
+most of the following cases is inherited, we may infer from such actions
+being performed in the same manner by all the individuals, young and old,
+of the same species. We shall also see that they are excited by the most
+diversified, often circuitous, and sometimes mistaken associations.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dogs, when they wish to go to sleep on a carpet or other hard surface,
+generally turn round and round and scratch the ground with their fore-paws
+in a senseless manner, as if they intended to trample down the grass and
+scoop out a hollow, as no doubt their wild parents did, when they lived on
+open grassy plains or in the woods. Jackals, fennecs, and other allied
+animals in the Zoological Gardens, treat their straw in this manner; but
+it is a rather odd circumstance that the keepers, after observing for some
+months, have never seen the wolves thus behave. A semi-idiotic dog&mdash;and
+an animal in this condition would be particularly liable to follow a
+senseless habit&mdash;was observed by a friend to turn completely round on
+a carpet thirteen times before going to sleep.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many carnivorous animals, as they crawl towards their prey and prepare to
+rush or spring on it, lower their heads and crouch, partly, as it would
+appear, to hide themselves, and partly to get ready for their rush; and
+this habit in an exaggerated form has become hereditary in our pointers
+and setters. Now I have noticed scores of times that when two strange dogs
+meet on an open road, the one which first sees the other, though at the
+distance of one or two hundred yards, after the first glance always lowers
+its bead, generally crouches a little, or even lies down; that is, he
+takes the proper attitude for concealing himself and for making a rush or
+spring although the road is quite open and the distance great. Again, dogs
+of all kinds when intently watching and slowly approaching their prey,
+frequently keep one of their fore-legs doubled up for a long time, ready
+for the next cautious step; and this is eminently characteristic of the
+pointer. But from habit they behave in exactly the same manner whenever
+their attention is aroused (fig. 4). I have seen a dog at the foot of a
+high wall, listening attentively to a sound on the opposite side, with one
+leg doubled up; and in this case there could have been no intention of
+making a cautious approach.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig4.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Small Dog Watching a Cat on A Table. Figure 4 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+{illust. caption = for making a rush or FIG. 4.&mdash;Small dog watching a
+cat on a table. From a photograph taken by Mr. Rejlander.}
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dogs after voiding their excrement often make with all four feet a few
+scratches backwards, even on a bare stone pavement, as if for the purpose
+of covering up their excrement with earth, in nearly the same manner as do
+cats. Wolves and jackals behave in the Zoological Gardens in exactly the
+same manner, yet, as I am assured by the keepers, neither wolves, jackals,
+nor foxes, when they have the means of doing so, ever cover up their
+excrement, any more than do dogs. All these animals, however, bury
+superfluous food. Hence, if we rightly understand the meaning of the above
+cat-like habit, of which there can be little doubt, we have a purposeless
+remnant of an habitual movement, which was originally followed by some
+remote progenitor of the dog-genus for a definite purpose, and which has
+been retained for a prodigious length of time.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dogs and jackals<a href="#linknote-115" name="linknoteref-115"
+id="linknoteref-115">[115]</a> take much pleasure in rolling and rubbing
+their necks and backs on carrion. The odour seems delightful to them,
+though dogs at least do not eat carrion. Mr. Bartlett has observed wolves
+for me, and has given them carrion, but has never seen them roll on it. I
+have heard it remarked, and I believe it to be true, that the larger dogs,
+which are probably descended from wolves, do not so often roll in carrion
+as do smaller dogs, which are probably descended from jackals. When a
+piece of brown biscuit is offered to a terrier of mine and she is not
+hungry (and I have heard of similar instances), she first tosses it about
+and worries it, as if it were a rat or other prey; she then repeatedly
+rolls on it precisely as if it were a piece of carrion, and at last eats
+it. It would appear that an imaginary relish has to be given to the
+distasteful morsel; and to effect this the dog acts in his habitual
+manner, as if the biscuit was a live animal or smelt like carrion, though
+he knows better than we do that this is not the case. I have seen this
+same terrier act in the same manner after killing a little bird or mouse.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dogs scratch themselves by a rapid movement of one of their hind-feet; and
+when their backs are rubbed with a stick, so strong is the habit, that
+they cannot help rapidly scratching the air or the ground in a useless and
+ludicrous manner. The terrier just alluded to, when thus scratched with a
+stick, will sometimes show her delight by another habitual movement,
+namely, by licking the air as if it were my hand.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Horses scratch themselves by nibbling those parts of their bodies which
+they can reach with their teeth; but more commonly one horse shows another
+where he wants to be scratched, and they then nibble each other. A friend
+whose attention I had called to the subject, observed that when he rubbed
+his horse&rsquo;s neck, the animal protruded his head, uncovered his teeth, and
+moved his jaws, exactly as if nibbling another horse&rsquo;s neck, for he could
+never have nibbled his own neck. If a horse is much tickled, as when
+curry-combed, his wish to bite something becomes so intolerably strong,
+that he will clatter his teeth together, and though not vicious, bite his
+groom. At the same time from habit he closely depresses his ears, so as to
+protect them from being bitten, as if he were fighting with another horse.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A horse when eager to start on a journey makes the nearest approach which
+he can to the habitual movement of progression by pawing the ground. Now
+when horses in their stalls are about to be fed and are eager for their
+corn, they paw the pavement or the straw. Two of my horses thus behave
+when they see or hear the corn given to their neighbours. But here we have
+what may almost be called a true expression, as pawing the ground is
+universally recognized as a sign of eagerness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cats cover up their excrements of both kinds with earth; and my grandfather<a
+href="#linknote-116" name="linknoteref-116" id="linknoteref-116">[116]</a> saw
+a kitten scraping ashes over a spoonful of pure water spilt on the hearth; so
+that here an habitual or instinctive action was falsely excited, not by a
+previous act or by odour, but by eyesight. It is well known that cats dislike
+wetting their feet, owing, it is probable, to their having aboriginally
+inhabited the dry country of Egypt; and when they wet their feet they shake
+them violently. My daughter poured some water into a glass close to the head of
+a kitten; and it immediately shook its feet in the usual manner; so that here
+we have an habitual movement falsely excited by an associated sound instead of
+by the sense of touch.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Kittens, puppies, young pigs and probably many other young animals,
+alternately push with their forefeet against the mammary glands of their
+mothers, to excite a freer secretion of milk, or to make it flow. Now it
+is very common with young cats, and not at all rare with old cats of the
+common and Persian breeds (believed by some naturalists to be specifically
+extinct), when comfortably lying on a warm shawl or other soft substance,
+to pound it quietly and alternately with their fore-feet; their toes being
+spread out and claws slightly protruded, precisely as when sucking their
+mother. That it is the same movement is clearly shown by their often at
+the same time taking a bit of the shawl into their mouths and sucking it;
+generally closing their eyes and purring from delight. This curious
+movement is commonly excited only in association with the sensation of a
+warm soft surface; but I have seen an old cat, when pleased by having its
+back scratched, pounding the air with its feet in the same manner; so that
+this action has almost become the expression of a pleasurable sensation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Having referred to the act of sucking, I may add that this complex
+movement, as well as the alternate protrusion of the fore-feet, are reflex
+actions; for they are performed if a finger moistened with milk is placed
+in the mouth of a puppy, the front part of whose brain has been removed.<a
+href="#linknote-117" name="linknoteref-117" id="linknoteref-117">[117]</a>
+It has recently been stated in France, that the action of sucking is
+excited solely through the sense of smell, so that if the olfactory nerves
+of a puppy are destroyed, it never sucks. In like manner the wonderful
+power which a chicken possesses only a few hours after being hatched, of
+picking up small particles of food, seems to be started into action
+through the sense of hearing; for with chickens hatched by artificial
+heat, a good observer found that &ldquo;making a noise with the finger-nail
+against a board, in imitation of the hen-mother, first taught them to peck
+at their meat.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-118" name="linknoteref-118"
+id="linknoteref-118">[118]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I will give only one other instance of an habitual and purposeless
+movement. The Sheldrake (<i>Tadorna</i>) feeds on the sands left uncovered
+by the tide, and when a worm-cast is discovered, &ldquo;it begins patting the
+ground with its feet, dancing as it were, over the hole;&rdquo; and this makes
+the worm come to the surface. Now Mr. St. John says, that when his tame
+Sheldrakes &ldquo;came to ask for food, they patted the ground in an impatient
+and rapid manner.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-119" name="linknoteref-119"
+id="linknoteref-119">[119]</a> This therefore may almost be considered as
+their expression of hunger. Mr. Bartlett informs me that the Flamingo and
+the Kagu (<i>Rhinochetus jubatus</i>) when anxious to be fed, beat the
+ground with their feet in the same odd manner. So again Kingfishers, when
+they catch a fish, always beat it until it is killed; and in the
+Zoological Gardens they always beat the raw meat, with which they are
+sometimes fed, before devouring it.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+We have now, I think, sufficiently shown the truth of our first Principle,
+namely, that when any sensation, desire, dislike, &amp;c., has led during
+a long series of generations to some voluntary movement, then a tendency
+to the performance of a similar movement will almost certainly be excited,
+whenever the same, or any analogous or associated sensation &amp;c.,
+although very weak, is experienced; notwithstanding that the movement in
+this case may not be of the least use. Such habitual movements are often,
+or generally inherited; and they then differ but little from reflex
+actions. When we treat of the special expressions of man, the latter part
+of our first Principle, as given at the commencement of this chapter, will
+be seen to hold good; namely, that when movements, associated through
+habit with certain states of the mind, are partially repressed by the
+will, the strictly involuntary muscles, as well as those which are least
+under the separate control of the will, are liable still to act; and their
+action is often highly expressive. Conversely, when the will is
+temporarily or permanently weakened, the voluntary muscles fail before the
+involuntary. It is a fact familiar to pathologists, as Sir C. Bell
+remarks,<a href="#linknote-120" name="linknoteref-120" id="linknoteref-120">[120]</a>
+&ldquo;that when debility arises from affection of the brain, the influence is
+greatest on those muscles which are, in their natural condition, most
+under the command of the will.&rdquo; We shall, also, in our future chapters,
+consider another proposition included in our first Principle; namely, that
+the checking of one habitual movement sometimes requires other slight
+movements; these latter serving as a means of expression.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"></a>
+CHAPTER II.<br/>GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION&mdash;<i>continued</i>.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The Principle of Antithesis&mdash;Instances in the dog and cat&mdash;Origin
+of the principle&mdash;Conventional signs&mdash;The principle of
+antithesis has not arisen from opposite actions being consciously
+performed under opposite impulses.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+We will now consider our second Principle, that of Antithesis. Certain
+states of the mind lead, as we have seen in the last chapter, to certain
+habitual movements which were primarily, or may still be, of service; and
+we shall find that when a directly opposite state of mind is induced,
+there is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements
+of a directly opposite nature, though these have never been of any
+service. A few striking instances of antithesis will be given, when we
+treat of the special expressions of man; but as, in these cases, we are
+particularly liable to confound conventional or artificial gestures and
+expressions with those which are innate or universal, and which alone
+deserve to rank as true expressions, I will in the present chapter almost
+confine myself to the lower animals.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig5.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind.  Fig. 5 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig6.jpg" width="100%" alt="  Fig. 6 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig7.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind.  Fig. 7 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+When a dog approaches a strange dog or man in a savage or hostile frame of
+mind be walks upright and very stiffly; his head is slightly raised, or
+not much lowered; the tail is held erect, and quite rigid; the hairs
+bristle, especially along the neck and back; the pricked ears are directed
+forwards, and the eyes have a fixed stare: (see figs. 5 and 7). These
+actions, as will hereafter be explained, follow from the dog&rsquo;s intention
+to attack his enemy, and are thus to a large extent intelligible. As he
+prepares to spring with a savage growl on his enemy, the canine teeth are
+uncovered, and the ears are pressed close backwards on the head; but with
+these latter actions, we are not here concerned. Let us now suppose that
+the dog suddenly discovers that the man he is approaching, is not a
+stranger, but his master; and let it be observed how completely and
+instantaneously his whole bearing is reversed. Instead of walking upright,
+the body sinks downwards or even crouches, and is thrown into flexuous
+movements; his tail, instead of being held stiff and upright, is lowered
+and wagged from side to side; his hair instantly becomes smooth; his ears
+are depressed and drawn backwards, but not closely to the head; and his
+lips hang loosely. From the drawing back of the ears, the eyelids become
+elongated, and the eyes no longer appear round and staring. It should be
+added that the animal is at such times in an excited condition from joy;
+and nerve-force will be generated in excess, which naturally leads to
+action of some kind. Not one of the above movements, so clearly expressive
+of affection, are of the least direct service to the animal. They are
+explicable, as far as I can see, solely from being in complete opposition
+or antithesis to the attitude and movements which, from intelligible
+causes, are assumed when a dog intends to fight, and which consequently
+are expressive of anger. I request the reader to look at the four
+accompanying sketches, which have been given in order to recall vividly
+the appearance of a dog under these two states of mind. It is, however,
+not a little difficult to represent affection in a dog, whilst caressing
+his master and wagging his tail, as the essence of the expression lies in
+the continuous flexuous movements.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig8.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Dog Carressing his Master.  Fig. 8 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+We will now turn to the cat. When this animal is threatened by a dog, it
+arches its back in a surprising manner, erects its hair, opens its mouth
+and spits. But we are not here concerned with this well-known attitude,
+expressive of terror combined with anger; we are concerned only with that
+of rage or anger. This is not often seen, but may be observed when two
+cats are fighting together; and I have seen it well exhibited by a savage
+cat whilst plagued by a boy. The attitude is almost exactly the same as
+that of a tiger disturbed and growling over its food, which every one must
+have beheld in menageries. The animal assumes a crouching position, with
+the body extended; and the whole tail, or the tip alone, is lashed or
+curled from side to side. The hair is not in the least erect. Thus far,
+the attitude and movements are nearly the same as when the animal is
+prepared to spring on its prey, and when, no doubt, it feels savage. But
+when preparing to fight, there is this difference, that the ears are
+closely pressed backwards; the mouth is partially opened, showing the
+teeth; the fore feet are occasionally struck out with protruded claws; and
+the animal occasionally utters a fierce growl. (See figs. 9 and 10.) All,
+or almost all these actions naturally follow (as hereafter to be
+explained), from the cat&rsquo;s manner and intention of attacking its enemy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig9.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Cat, Savage, and Prepared to Fight. Fig. 9 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig10.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Cat in an Affectionate Frame of Mind. Fig. 10 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Let us now look at a cat in a directly opposite frame of mind, whilst
+feeling affectionate and caressing her master; and mark how opposite is
+her attitude in every respect. She now stands upright with her back
+slightly arched, which makes the hair appear rather rough, but it does not
+bristle; her tail, instead of being extended and lashed from side to side,
+is held quite still and perpendicularly upwards; her ears are erect and
+pointed; her mouth is closed; and she rubs against her master with a purr
+instead of a growl. Let it further be observed how widely different is the
+whole bearing of an affectionate cat from that of a dog, when with his
+body crouching and flexuous, his tail lowered and wagging, and ears
+depressed, he caresses his master. This contrast in the attitudes and
+movements of these two carnivorous animals, under the same pleased and
+affectionate frame of mind, can be explained, as it appears to me, solely
+by their movements standing in complete antithesis to those which are
+naturally assumed, when these animals feel savage and are prepared either
+to fight or to seize their prey.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In these cases of the dog and cat, there is every reason to believe that
+the gestures both of hostility and affection are innate or inherited; for
+they are almost identically the same in the different races of the
+species, and in all the individuals of the same race, both young and old.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I will here give one other instance of antithesis in expression. I
+formerly possessed a large dog, who, like every other dog, was much
+pleased to go out walking. He showed his pleasure by trotting gravely
+before me with high steps, head much raised, moderately erected ears, and
+tail carried aloft but not stiffly. Not far from my house a path branches
+off to the right, leading to the hot-house, which I used often to visit
+for a few moments, to look at my experimental plants. This was always a
+great disappointment to the dog, as he did not know whether I should
+continue my walk; and the instantaneous and complete change of expression
+which came over him as soon as my body swerved in the least towards the
+path (and I sometimes tried this as an experiment) was laughable. His look
+of dejection was known to every member of the family, and was called his
+<i>hot-house face</i>. This consisted in the head drooping much, the whole
+body sinking a little and remaining motionless; the ears and tail falling
+suddenly down, but the tail was by no means wagged. With the falling of
+the ears and of his great chaps, the eyes became much changed in
+appearance, and I fancied that they looked less bright. His aspect was
+that of piteous, hopeless dejection; and it was, as I have said,
+laughable, as the cause was so slight. Every detail in his attitude was in
+complete opposition to his former joyful yet dignified bearing; and can be
+explained, as it appears to me, in no other way, except through the
+principle of antithesis. Had not the change been so instantaneous, I
+should have attributed it to his lowered spirits affecting, as in the case
+of man, the nervous system and circulation, and consequently the tone of
+his whole muscular frame; and this may have been in part the cause.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+We will now consider how the principle of antithesis in expression has
+arisen. With social animals, the power of intercommunication between the
+members of the same community,&mdash;and with other species, between the
+opposite sexes, as well as between the young and the old,&mdash;is of the
+highest importance to them. This is generally effected by means of the
+voice, but it is certain that gestures and expressions are to a certain
+extent mutually intelligible. Man not only uses inarticulate cries,
+gestures, and expressions, but has invented articulate language; if,
+indeed, the word INVENTED can be applied to a process, completed by
+innumerable steps, half-consciously made. Any one who has watched monkeys
+will not doubt that they perfectly understand each other&rsquo;s gestures and
+expression, and to a large extent, as Rengger asserts,<a
+href="#linknote-201" name="linknoteref-201" id="linknoteref-201">[201]</a>
+those of man. An animal when going to attack another, or when afraid of
+another, often makes itself appear terrible, by erecting its hair, thus
+increasing the apparent bulk of its body, by showing its teeth, or
+brandishing its horns, or by uttering fierce sounds.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the power of intercommunication is certainly of high service to many
+animals, there is no <i>à priori</i> improbability in the supposition,
+that gestures manifestly of an opposite nature to those by which certain
+feelings are already expressed, should at first have been voluntarily
+employed under the influence of an opposite state of feeling. The fact of
+the gestures being now innate, would be no valid objection to the belief
+that they were at first intentional; for if practised during many
+generations, they would probably at last be inherited. Nevertheless it is
+more than doubtful, as we shall immediately see, whether any of the cases
+which come under our present head of antithesis, have thus originated.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With conventional signs which are not innate, such as those used by the
+deaf and dumb and by savages, the principle of opposition or antithesis
+has been partially brought into play. The Cistercian monks thought it
+sinful to speak, and as they could not avoid holding some communication,
+they invented a gesture language, in which the principle of opposition
+seems to have been employed.<a href="#linknote-202" name="linknoteref-202"
+id="linknoteref-202">[202]</a> Dr. Scott, of the Exeter Deaf and Dumb
+Institution, writes to me that &ldquo;opposites are greatly used in teaching the
+deaf and dumb, who have a lively sense of them.&rdquo; Nevertheless I have been
+surprised how few unequivocal instances can be adduced. This depends
+partly on all the signs having commonly had some natural origin; and
+partly on the practice of the deaf and dumb and of savages to contract
+their signs as much as possible for the sake of rapidity.<a
+href="#linknote-203" name="linknoteref-203" id="linknoteref-203">[203]</a>
+Hence their natural source or origin often becomes doubtful or is
+completely lost; as is likewise the case with articulate language.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many signs, moreover, which plainly stand in opposition to each other,
+appear to have had on both sides a significant origin. This seems to hold
+good with the signs used by the deal and dumb for light and darkness, for
+strength and weakness, &amp;c. In a future chapter I shall endeavour to
+show that the opposite gestures of affirmation and negation, namely,
+vertically nodding and laterally shaking the head, have both probably had
+a natural beginning. The waving of the hand from right to left, which is
+used as a negative by some savages, may have been invented in imitation of
+shaking the head; but whether the opposite movement of waving the hand in
+a straight line from the face, which is used in affirmation, has arisen
+through antithesis or in some quite distinct manner, is doubtful.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+If we now turn to the gestures which are innate or common to all the
+individuals of the same species, and which come under the present head of
+antithesis, it is extremely doubtful, whether any of them were at first
+deliberately invented and consciously performed. With mankind the best
+instance of a gesture standing in direct opposition to other movements,
+naturally assumed under an opposite frame of mind, is that of shrugging
+the shoulders. This expresses impotence or an apology,&mdash;something
+which cannot be done, or cannot be avoided. The gesture is sometimes used
+consciously and voluntarily, but it is extremely improbable that it was at
+first deliberately invented, and afterwards fixed by habit; for not only
+do young children sometimes shrug their shoulders under the above states
+of mind, but the movement is accompanied, as will be shown in a future
+chapter, by various subordinate movements, which not one man in a thousand
+is aware of, unless he has specially attended to the subject.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dogs when approaching a strange dog, may find it useful to show by their
+movements that they are friendly, and do not wish to fight. When two young
+dogs in play are growling and biting each other&rsquo;s faces and legs, it is
+obvious that they mutually understand each other&rsquo;s gestures and manners.
+There seems, indeed, some degree of instinctive knowledge in puppies and
+kittens, that they must not use their sharp little teeth or claws too
+freely in their play, though this sometimes happens and a squeal is the
+result; otherwise they would often injure each other&rsquo;s eyes. When my
+terrier bites my hand in play, often snarling at the same time, if he
+bites too hard and I say GENTLY, GENTLY, he goes on biting, but answers me
+by a few wags of the tail, which seems to say &ldquo;Never mind, it is all fun.&rdquo;
+Although dogs do thus express, and may wish to express, to other dogs and
+to man, that they are in a friendly state of mind, it is incredible that
+they could ever have deliberately thought of drawing back and depressing
+their ears, instead of holding them erect,&mdash;of lowering and wagging
+their tails, instead of keeping them stiff and upright, &amp;c., because
+they knew that these movements stood in direct opposition to those assumed
+under an opposite and savage frame of mind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Again, when a cat, or rather when some early progenitor of the species,
+from feeling affectionate first slightly arched its back, held its tail
+perpendicularly upwards and pricked its ears, can it be believed that the
+animal consciously wished thus to show that its frame of mind was directly
+the reverse of that, when from being ready to fight or to spring on its
+prey, it assumed a crouching attitude, curled its tail from side to side
+and depressed its ears? Even still less can I believe that my dog
+voluntarily put on his dejected attitude and &ldquo;<i>hot-house face</i>,&rdquo;
+which formed so complete a contrast to his previous cheerful attitude and
+whole bearing. It cannot be supposed that he knew that I should understand
+his expression, and that he could thus soften my heart and make me give up
+visiting the hot-house.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Hence for the development of the movements which come under the present
+head, some other principle, distinct from the will and consciousness, must
+have intervened. This principle appears to be that every movement which we
+have voluntarily performed throughout our lives has required the action of
+certain muscles; and when we have performed a directly opposite movement,
+an opposite set of muscles has been habitually brought into play,&mdash;as
+in turning to the right or to the left, in pushing away or pulling an
+object towards us, and in lifting or lowering a weight. So strongly are
+our intentions and movements associated together, that if we eagerly wish
+an object to move in any direction, we can hardly avoid moving our bodies
+in the same direction, although we may be perfectly aware that this can
+have no influence. A good illustration of this fact has already been given
+in the Introduction, namely, in the grotesque movements of a young and
+eager billiard-player, whilst watching the course of his ball. A man or
+child in a passion, if he tells any one in a loud voice to begone,
+generally moves his arm as if to push him away, although the offender may
+not be standing near, and although there may be not the least need to
+explain by a gesture what is meant. On the other hand, if we eagerly
+desire some one to approach us closely, we act as if pulling him towards
+us; and so in innumerable other instances.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the performance of ordinary movements of an opposite kind, under
+opposite impulses of the will, has become habitual in us and in the lower
+animals, so when actions of one kind have become firmly associated with
+any sensation or emotion, it appears natural that actions of a directly
+opposite kind, though of no use, should be unconsciously performed through
+habit and association, under the influence of a directly opposite
+sensation or emotion. On this principle alone can I understand how the
+gestures and expressions which come under the present head of antithesis
+have originated. If indeed they are serviceable to man or to any other
+animal, in aid of inarticulate cries or language, they will likewise be
+voluntarily employed, and the habit will thus be strengthened. But whether
+or not of service as a means of communication, the tendency to perform
+opposite movements under opposite sensations or emotions would, if we may
+judge by analogy, become hereditary through long practice; and there
+cannot be a doubt that several expressive movements due to the principle
+of antithesis are inherited.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"></a>
+CHAPTER III.<br/>GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION&mdash;<i>concluded</i>.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The principle of direct action of the excited nervous system on the body,
+independently of the will and in part of habit&mdash;Change of colour in
+the hair&mdash;Trembling of the muscles&mdash;Modified secretions&mdash;Perspiration&mdash;Expression
+of extreme pain&mdash;Of rage, great joy, and terror&mdash;Contrast
+between the emotions which cause and do not cause expressive movements&mdash;Exciting
+and depressing states of the mind&mdash;Summary.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+We now come to our third Principle, namely, that certain actions which we
+recognize as expressive of certain states of the mind, are the direct
+result of the constitution of the nervous system, and have been from the
+first independent of the will, and, to a large extent, of habit. When the
+sensorium is strongly excited nerve-force is generated in excess, and is
+transmitted in certain directions, dependent on the connection of the
+nerve-cells, and, as far as the muscular system is concerned, on the
+nature of the movements which have been habitually practised. Or the
+supply of nerve-force may, as it appears, be interrupted. Of course every
+movement which we make is determined by the constitution of the nervous
+system; but actions performed in obedience to the will, or through habit,
+or through the principle of antithesis, are here as far as possible
+excluded. Our present subject is very obscure, but, from its importance,
+must be discussed at some little length; and it is always advisable to
+perceive clearly our ignorance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The most striking case, though a rare and abnormal one, which can be
+adduced of the direct influence of the nervous system, when strongly
+affected, on the body, is the loss of colour in the hair, which has
+occasionally been observed after extreme terror or grief. One authentic
+instance has been recorded, in the case of a man brought out for execution
+in India, in which the change of colour was so rapid that it was
+perceptible to the eye.<a href="#linknote-301" name="linknoteref-301"
+id="linknoteref-301">[301]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another good case is that of the trembling of the muscles, which is common
+to man and to many, or most, of the lower animals. Trembling is of no
+service, often of much disservice, and cannot have been at first acquired
+through the will, and then rendered habitual in association with any
+emotion. I am assured by an eminent authority that young children do not
+tremble, but go into convulsions under the circumstances which would
+induce excessive trembling in adults. Trembling is excited in different
+individuals in very different degrees and by the most diversified causes,&mdash;by
+cold to the surface, before fever-fits, although the temperature of the
+body is then above the normal standard; in blood-poisoning, delirium
+tremens, and other diseases; by general failure of power in old age; by
+exhaustion after excessive fatigue; locally from severe injuries, such as
+burns; and, in an especial manner, by the passage of a catheter. Of all
+emotions, fear notoriously is the most apt to induce trembling; but so do
+occasionally great anger and joy. I remember once seeing a boy who had
+just shot his first snipe on the wing, and his hands trembled to such a
+degree from delight, that he could not for some time reload his gun; and I
+have heard of an exactly similar case with an Australian savage, to whom a
+gun had been lent. Fine music, from the vague emotions thus excited,
+causes a shiver to run down the backs of some persons. There seems to be
+very little in common in the above several physical causes and emotions to
+account for trembling; and Sir J. Paget, to whom I am indebted for several
+of the above statements, informs me that the subject is a very obscure
+one. As trembling is sometimes caused by rage, long before exhaustion can
+have set in, and as it sometimes accompanies great joy, it would appear
+that any strong excitement of the nervous system interrupts the steady
+flow of nerve-force to the muscles.<a href="#linknote-302"
+name="linknoteref-302" id="linknoteref-302">[302]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The manner in which the secretions of the alimentary canal and of certain
+glands&mdash;as the liver, kidneys, or mammæ are affected by strong
+emotions, is another excellent instance of the direct action of the
+sensorium on these organs, independently of the will or of any serviceable
+associated habit. There is the greatest difference in different persons in
+the parts which are thus affected, and in the degree of their affection.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The heart, which goes on uninterruptedly beating night and day in so wonderful
+a manner, is extremely sensitive to external stimulants. The great
+physiologist, Claude Bernard,<a href="#linknote-303" name="linknoteref-303"
+id="linknoteref-303">[303]</a> has shown how the least excitement of a
+sensitive nerve reacts on the heart; even when a nerve is touched so slightly
+that no pain can possibly be felt by the animal under experiment. Hence when
+the mind is strongly excited, we might expect that it would instantly affect in
+a direct manner the heart; and this is universally acknowledged and felt to be
+the case. Claude Bernard also repeatedly insists, and this deserves especial
+notice, that when the heart is affected it reacts on the brain; and the state
+of the brain again reacts through the pneumo-gastric nerve on the heart; so
+that under any excitement there will be much mutual action and reaction between
+these, the two most important organs of the body.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The vaso-motor system, which regulates the diameter of the small arteries,
+is directly acted on by the sensorium, as we see when a man blushes from
+shame; but in this latter case the checked transmission of nerve-force to
+the vessels of the face can, I think, be partly explained in a curious
+manner through habit. We shall also be able to throw some light, though
+very little, on the involuntary erection of the hair under the emotions of
+terror and rage. The secretion of tears depends, no doubt, on the
+connection of certain nerve-cells; but here again we can trace some few of
+the steps by which the flow of nerve-force through the requisite channels
+has become habitual under certain emotions.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+A brief consideration of the outward signs of some of the stronger
+sensations and emotions will best serve to show us, although vaguely, in
+how complex a manner the principle under consideration of the direct
+action of the excited nervous system of the body, is combined with the
+principle of habitually associated, serviceable movements.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When animals suffer from an agony of pain, they generally writhe about
+with frightful contortions; and those which habitually use their voices
+utter piercing cries or groans. Almost every muscle of the body is brought
+into strong action. With man the mouth may be closely compressed, or more
+commonly the lips are retracted, with the teeth clenched or ground
+together. There is said to be &ldquo;gnashing of teeth&rdquo; in hell; and I have
+plainly heard the grinding of the molar teeth of a cow which was suffering
+acutely from inflammation of the bowels. The female hippopotamus in the
+Zoological Gardens, when she produced her young, suffered greatly; she
+incessantly walked about, or rolled on her sides, opening and closing her
+jaws, and clattering her teeth together.<a href="#linknote-304"
+name="linknoteref-304" id="linknoteref-304">[304]</a> With man the eyes
+stare wildly as in horrified astonishment, or the brows are heavily
+contracted. Perspiration bathes the body, and drops trickle down the face.
+The circulation and respiration are much affected. Hence the nostrils are
+generally dilated and often quiver; or the breath may be held until the
+blood stagnates in the purple face. If the agony be severe and prolonged,
+these signs all change; utter prostration follows, with fainting or
+convulsions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A sensitive nerve when irritated transmits some influence to the
+nerve-cell, whence it proceeds; and this transmits its influence, first to
+the corresponding nerve-cell on the opposite side of the body, and then
+upwards and downwards along the cerebro-spinal column to other
+nerve-cells, to a greater or less extent, according to the strength of the
+excitement; so that, ultimately, the whole nervous system maybe affected.<a
+href="#linknote-305" name="linknoteref-305" id="linknoteref-305">[305]</a>
+This involuntary transmission of nerve-force may or may not be accompanied
+by consciousness. Why the irritation of a nerve-cell should generate or
+liberate nerve-force is not known; but that this is the case seems to be
+the conclusion arrived at by all the greatest physiologists, such as
+Müller, Virchow, Bernard, &amp;c.<a href="#linknote-306"
+name="linknoteref-306" id="linknoteref-306">[306]</a> As Mr. Herbert
+Spencer remarks, it may be received as an &ldquo;unquestionable truth that, at
+any moment, the existing quantity of liberated nerve-force, which in an
+inscrutable way produces in us the state we call feeling, MUST expend
+itself in some direction&mdash;MUST generate an equivalent manifestation
+of force somewhere;&rdquo; so that, when the cerebro-spinal system is highly
+excited and nerve-force is liberated in excess, it may be expended in
+intense sensations, active thought, violent movements, or increased
+activity of the glands.<a href="#linknote-307" name="linknoteref-307"
+id="linknoteref-307">[307]</a> Mr. Spencer further maintains that an
+&ldquo;overflow of nerve-force, undirected by any motive, will manifestly take
+the most habitual routes; and, if these do not suffice, will next overflow
+into the less habitual ones.&rdquo; Consequently the facial and respiratory
+muscles, which are the most used, will be apt to be first brought into
+action; then those of the upper extremities, next those of the lower, and
+finally those of the whole body.<a href="#linknote-308"
+name="linknoteref-308" id="linknoteref-308">[308]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+An emotion may be very strong, but it will have little tendency to induce
+movements of any kind, if it has not commonly led to voluntary action for
+its relief or gratification; and when movements are excited, their nature
+is, to a large extent, determined by those which have often and
+voluntarily been performed for some definite end under the same emotion.
+Great pain urges all animals, and has urged them during endless
+generations, to make the most violent and diversified efforts to escape
+from the cause of suffering. Even when a limb or other separate part of
+the body is hurt, we often see a tendency to shake it, as if to shake off
+the cause, though this may obviously be impossible. Thus a habit of
+exerting with the utmost force all the muscles will have been established,
+whenever great suffering is experienced. As the muscles of the chest and
+vocal organs are habitually used, these will be particularly liable to be
+acted on, and loud, harsh screams or cries will be uttered. But the
+advantage derived from outcries has here probably come into play in an
+important manner; for the young of most animals, when in distress or
+danger, call loudly to their parents for aid, as do the members of the
+same community for mutual aid.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another principle, namely, the internal consciousness that the power or
+capacity of the nervous system is limited, will have strengthened, though
+in a subordinate degree, the tendency to violent action under extreme
+suffering. A man cannot think deeply and exert his utmost muscular force.
+As Hippocrates long ago observed, if two pains are felt at the same time,
+the severer one dulls the other. Martyrs, in the ecstasy of their
+religious fervour have often, as it would appear, been insensible to the
+most horrid tortures. Sailors who are going to be flogged sometimes take a
+piece of lead into their mouths, in order to bite it with their utmost
+force, and thus to bear the pain. Parturient women prepare to exert their
+muscles to the utmost in order to relieve their sufferings.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We thus see that the undirected radiation of nerve-force from the
+nerve-cells which are first affected&mdash;the long-continued habit of
+attempting by struggling to escape from the cause of suffering&mdash;and
+the consciousness that voluntary muscular exertion relieves pain, have all
+probably concurred in giving a tendency to the most violent, almost
+convulsive, movements under extreme suffering; and such movements,
+including those of the vocal organs, are universally recognized as highly
+expressive of this condition.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the mere touching of a sensitive nerve reacts in a direct manner on the
+heart, severe pain will obviously react on it in like manner, but far more
+energetically. Nevertheless, even in this case, we must not overlook the
+indirect effects of habit on the heart, as we shall see when we consider
+the signs of rage.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When a man suffers from an agony of pain, the perspiration often trickles
+down his face; and I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon that he has
+frequently seen drops falling from the belly and running down the inside
+of the thighs of horses, and from the bodies of cattle, when thus
+suffering. He has observed this, when there has been no struggling which
+would account for the perspiration. The whole body of the female
+hippopotamus, before alluded to, was covered with red-coloured
+perspiration whilst giving birth to her young. So it is with extreme fear;
+the same veterinary has often seen horses sweating from this cause; as has
+Mr. Bartlett with the rhinoceros; and with man it is a well-known symptom.
+The cause of perspiration bursting forth in these cases is quite obscure;
+but it is thought by some physiologists to be connected with the failing
+power of the capillary circulation; and we know that the vasomotor system,
+which regulates the capillary circulation, is much influenced by the mind.
+With respect to the movements of certain muscles of the face under great
+suffering, as well as from other emotions, these will be best considered
+when we treat of the special expressions of man and of the lower animals.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We will now turn to the characteristic symptoms of Rage. Under this
+powerful emotion the action of the heart is much accelerated,<a
+href="#linknote-309" name="linknoteref-309" id="linknoteref-309">[309]</a>
+or it may be much disturbed. The face reddens, or it becomes purple from
+the impeded return of the blood, or may turn deadly pale. The respiration
+is laboured, the chest heaves, and the dilated nostrils quiver. The whole
+body often trembles. The voice is affected. The teeth are clenched or
+ground together, and the muscular system is commonly stimulated to
+violent, almost frantic action. But the gestures of a man in this state
+usually differ from the purposeless writhings and struggles of one
+suffering from an agony of pain; for they represent more or less plainly
+the act of striking or fighting with an enemy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All these signs of rage are probably in large part, and some of them
+appear to be wholly, due to the direct action of the excited sensorium.
+But animals of all kinds, and their progenitors before them, when attacked
+or threatened by an enemy, have exerted their utmost powers in fighting
+and in defending themselves. Unless an animal does thus act, or has the
+intention, or at least the desire, to attack its enemy, it cannot properly
+be said to be enraged. An inherited habit of muscular exertion will thus
+have been gained in association with rage; and this will directly or
+indirectly affect various organs, in nearly the same manner as does great
+bodily suffering.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The heart no doubt will likewise be affected in a direct manner; but it
+will also in all probability be affected through habit; and all the more
+so from not being under the control of the will. We know that any great
+exertion which we voluntarily make, affects the heart, through mechanical
+and other principles which need not here be considered; and it was shown
+in the first chapter that nerve-force flows readily through habitually
+used channels,&mdash;through the nerves of voluntary or involuntary
+movement, and through those of sensation. Thus even a moderate amount of
+exertion will tend to act on the heart; and on the principle of
+association, of which so many instances have been given, we may feel
+nearly sure that any sensation or emotion, as great pain or rage, which
+has habitually led to much muscular action, will immediately influence the
+flow of nerve-force to the heart, although there may not be at the time
+any muscular exertion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The heart, as I have said, will be all the more readily affected through
+habitual associations, as it is not under the control of the will. A man
+when moderately angry, or even when enraged, may command the movements of
+his body, but he cannot prevent his heart from beating rapidly. His chest
+will perhaps give a few heaves, and his nostrils just quiver, for the
+movements of respiration are only in part voluntary. In like manner those
+muscles of the face which are least obedient to the will, will sometimes
+alone betray a slight and passing emotion. The glands again are wholly
+independent of the will, and a man suffering from grief may command his
+features, but cannot always prevent the tears from coming into his eyes. A
+hungry man, if tempting food is placed before him, may not show his hunger
+by any outward gesture, but he cannot check the secretion of saliva.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Under a transport of Joy or of vivid Pleasure, there is a strong tendency
+to various purposeless movements, and to the utterance of various sounds.
+We see this in our young children, in their loud laughter, clapping of
+hands, and jumping for joy; in the bounding and barking of a dog when
+going out to walk with his master; and in the frisking of a horse when
+turned out into an open field. Joy quickens the circulation, and this
+stimulates the brain, which again reacts on the whole body. The above
+purposeless movements and increased heart-action may be attributed in
+chief part to the excited state of the sensorium,<a href="#linknote-310"
+name="linknoteref-310" id="linknoteref-310">[310]</a> and to the
+consequent undirected overflow, as Mr. Herbert Spencer insists, of
+nerve-force. It deserves notice, that it is chiefly the anticipation of a
+pleasure, and not its actual enjoyment, which leads to purposeless and
+extravagant movements of the body, and to the utterance of various sounds.
+We see this in our children when they expect any great pleasure or treat;
+and dogs, which have been bounding about at the sight of a plate of food,
+when they get it do not show their delight by any outward sign, not even
+by wagging their tails. Now with animals of all kinds, the acquirement of
+almost all their pleasures, with the exception of those of warmth and
+rest, are associated, and have long been associated with active movements,
+as in the hunting or search for food, and in their courtship. Moreover,
+the mere exertion of the muscles after long rest or confinement is in
+itself a pleasure, as we ourselves feel, and as we see in the play of
+young animals. Therefore on this latter principle alone we might perhaps
+expect, that vivid pleasure would be apt to show itself conversely in
+muscular movements.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With all or almost all animals, even with birds, Terror causes the body to
+tremble. The skin becomes pale, sweat breaks out, and the hair bristles.
+The secretions of the alimentary canal and of the kidneys are increased,
+and they are involuntarily voided, owing to the relaxation of the
+sphincter muscles, as is known to be the case with man, and as I have seen
+with cattle, dogs, cats, and monkeys. The breathing is hurried. The heart
+beats quickly, wildly, and violently; but whether it pumps the blood more
+efficiently through the body may be doubted, for the surface seems
+bloodless and the strength of the muscles soon fails. In a frightened
+horse I have felt through the saddle the beating of the heart so plainly
+that I could have counted the beats. The mental faculties are much
+disturbed. Utter prostration soon follows, and even fainting. A terrified
+canary-bird has been seen not only to tremble and to turn white about the
+base of the bill, but to faint;<a href="#linknote-311"
+name="linknoteref-311" id="linknoteref-311">[311]</a> and I once caught a
+robin in a room, which fainted so completely, that for a time I thought it
+dead.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Most of these symptoms are probably the direct result, independently of
+habit, of the disturbed state of the sensorium; but it is doubtful whether
+they ought to be wholly thus accounted for. When an animal is alarmed it
+almost always stands motionless for a moment, in order to collect its
+senses and to ascertain the source of danger, and sometimes for the sake
+of escaping detection. But headlong flight soon follows, with no
+husbanding of the strength as in fighting, and the animal continues to fly
+as long as the danger lasts, until utter prostration, with failing
+respiration and circulation, with all the muscles quivering and profuse
+sweating, renders further flight impossible. Hence it does not seem
+improbable that the principle of associated habit may in part account for,
+or at least augment, some of the above-named characteristic symptoms of
+extreme terror.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+That the principle of associated habit has played an important part in
+causing the movements expressive of the foregoing several strong emotions
+and sensations, we may, I think, conclude from considering firstly, some
+other strong emotions which do not ordinarily require for their relief or
+gratification any voluntary movement; and secondly the contrast in nature
+between the so-called exciting and depressing states of the mind. No
+emotion is stronger than maternal love; but a mother may feel the deepest
+love for her helpless infant, and yet not show it by any outward sign; or
+only by slight caressing movements, with a gentle smile and tender eyes.
+But let any one intentionally injure her infant, and see what a change!
+how she starts up with threatening aspect, how her eyes sparkle and her
+face reddens, how her bosom heaves, nostrils dilate, and heart beats; for
+anger, and not maternal love, has habitually led to action. The love
+between the opposite sexes is widely different from maternal love; and
+when lovers meet, we know that their hearts beat quickly, their breathing
+is hurried, and their faces flush; for this love is not inactive like that
+of a mother for her infant.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A man may have his mind filled with the blackest hatred or suspicion, or
+be corroded with envy or jealousy, but as these feelings do not at once
+lead to action, and as they commonly last for some time, they are not
+shown by any outward sign, excepting that a man in this state assuredly
+does not appear cheerful or good-tempered. If indeed these feelings break
+out into overt acts, rage takes their place, and will be plainly
+exhibited. Painters can hardly portray suspicion, jealousy, envy, &amp;c.,
+except by the aid of accessories which tell the tale; and poets use such
+vague and fanciful expressions as &ldquo;green-eyed jealousy.&rdquo; Spenser describes
+suspicion as &ldquo;Foul, ill-favoured, and grim, under his eyebrows looking
+still askance,&rdquo; &amp;c.; Shakespeare speaks of envy &ldquo;as lean-faced in her
+loathsome case;&rdquo; and in another place he says, &ldquo;no black envy shall make
+my grave;&rdquo; and again as &ldquo;above pale envy&rsquo;s threatening reach.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Emotions and sensations have often been classed as exciting or depressing.
+When all the organs of the body and mind,&mdash;those of voluntary and
+involuntary movement, of perception, sensation, thought, &amp;c.,&mdash;perform
+their functions more energetically and rapidly than usual, a man or animal
+may be said to be excited, and, under an opposite state, to be depressed.
+Anger and joy are from the first exciting emotions, and they naturally
+lead, more especially the former, to energetic movements, which react on
+the heart and this again on the brain. A physician once remarked to me as
+a proof of the exciting nature of anger, that a man when excessively jaded
+will sometimes invent imaginary offences and put himself into a passion,
+unconsciously for the sake of reinvigorating himself; and since hearing
+this remark, I have occasionally recognized its full truth.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Several other states of mind appear to be at first exciting, but soon
+become depressing to an extreme degree. When a mother suddenly loses her
+child, sometimes she is frantic with grief, and must be considered to be
+in an excited state; she walks wildly about, tears her hair or clothes,
+and wrings her hands. This latter action is perhaps due to the principle
+of antithesis, betraying an inward sense of helplessness and that nothing
+can be done. The other wild and violent movements may be in part explained
+by the relief experienced through muscular exertion, and in part by the
+undirected overflow of nerve-force from the excited sensorium. But under
+the sudden loss of a beloved person, one of the first and commonest
+thoughts which occurs, is that something more might have been done to save
+the lost one. An excellent observer,<a href="#linknote-312"
+name="linknoteref-312" id="linknoteref-312">[312]</a> in describing the
+behaviour of a girl at the sudden death of her father, says she &ldquo;went
+about the house wringing her hands like a creature demented, saying &lsquo;It
+was her fault;&rsquo; &lsquo;I should never have left him;&rsquo; &lsquo;If I had only sat up with
+him,&rsquo;&rdquo; &amp;c. With such ideas vividly present before the mind, there
+would arise, through the principle of associated habit, the strongest
+tendency to energetic action of some kind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As soon as the sufferer is fully conscious that nothing can be done, despair or
+deep sorrow takes the place of frantic grief. The sufferer sits motionless, or
+gently rocks to and fro; the circulation becomes languid; respiration is almost
+forgotten, and deep sighs are drawn. All this reacts on the brain, and
+prostration soon follows with collapsed muscles and dulled eyes. As associated
+habit no longer prompts the sufferer to action, he is urged by his friends to
+voluntary exertion, and not to give way to silent, motionless grief. Exertion
+stimulates the hear, and this reacts on the brain, and aids the mind to bear
+its heavy load. 
+
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pain, if severe, soon induces extreme depression or prostration; but it is
+at first a stimulant and excites to action, as we see when we whip a
+horse, and as is shown by the horrid tortures inflicted in foreign lands
+on exhausted dray-bullocks, to rouse them to renewed exertion. Fear again
+is the most depressing of all the emotions; and it soon induces utter,
+helpless prostration, as if in consequence of, or in association with, the
+most violent and prolonged attempts to escape from the danger, though no
+such attempts have actually been made. Nevertheless, even extreme fear
+often acts at first as a powerful stimulant. A man or animal driven
+through terror to desperation, is endowed with wonderful strength, and is
+notoriously dangerous in the highest degree.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+On the whole we may conclude that the principle of the direct action of
+the sensorium on the body, due to the constitution of the nervous system,
+and from the first independent of the will, has been highly influential in
+determining many expressions. Good instances are afforded by the trembling
+of the muscles, the sweating of the skin, the modified secretions of the
+alimentary canal and glands, under various emotions and sensations. But
+actions of this kind are often combined with others, which follow from our
+first principle, namely, that actions which have often been of direct or
+indirect service, under certain states of the mind, in order to gratify or
+relieve certain sensations, desires, &amp;c., are still performed under
+analogous circumstances through mere habit although of no service. We have
+combinations of this kind, at least in part, in the frantic gestures of
+rage and in the writhings of extreme pain; and, perhaps, in the increased
+action of the heart and of the respiratory organs. Even when these and
+other emotions or sensations are aroused in a very feeble manner, there
+will still be a tendency to similar actions, owing to the force of
+long-associated habit; and those actions which are least under voluntary
+control will generally be longest retained. Our second principle of
+antithesis has likewise occasionally come into play.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Finally, so many expressive movements can be explained, as I trust will be
+seen in the course of this volume, through the three principles which have
+now been discussed, that we may hope hereafter to see all thus explained,
+or by closely analogous principles. It is, however, often impossible to
+decide how much weight ought to be attributed, in each particular case, to
+one of our principles, and how much to another; and very many points in
+the theory of Expression remain inexplicable.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"></a>
+CHAPTER IV.<br/>MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN ANIMALS.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The emission of Sounds&mdash;Vocal sounds&mdash;Sounds otherwise produced&mdash;Erection
+of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &amp;c., under the emotions of
+anger and terror&mdash;The drawing back of the ears as a preparation for
+fighting, and as an expression of anger&mdash;Erection of the ears and
+raising the head, a sign of attention.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+In this and the following chapter I will describe, but only in sufficient
+detail to illustrate my subject, the expressive movements, under different
+states of the mind, of some few well-known animals. But before considering
+them in due succession, it will save much useless repetition to discuss
+certain means of expression common to most of them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>The emission of Sounds</i>.&mdash;With many kinds of animals, man
+included, the vocal organs are efficient in the highest degree as a means
+of expression. We have seen, in the last chapter, that when the sensorium
+is strongly excited, the muscles of the body are generally thrown into
+violent action; and as a consequence, loud sounds are uttered, however
+silent the animal may generally be, and although the sounds may be of no
+use. Hares and rabbits for instance, never, I believe, use their vocal
+organs except in the extremity of suffering; as, when a wounded hare is
+killed by the sportsman, or when a young rabbit is caught by a stoat.
+Cattle and horses suffer great pain in silence; but when this is
+excessive, and especially when associated with terror, they utter fearful
+sounds. I have often recognized, from a distance on the Pampas, the
+agonized death-bellow of the cattle, when caught by the lasso and
+hamstrung. It is said that horses, when attacked by wolves, utter loud and
+peculiar screams of distress.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Involuntary and purposeless contractions of the muscles of the chest and
+glottis, excited in the above manner, may have first given rise to the
+emission of vocal sounds. But the voice is now largely used by many
+animals for various purposes; and habit seems to have played an important
+part in its employment under other circumstances. Naturalists have
+remarked, I believe with truth, that social animals, from habitually using
+their vocal organs as a means of intercommunication, use them on other
+occasions much more freely than other animals. But there are marked
+exceptions to this rule, for instance, with the rabbit. The principle,
+also, of association, which is so widely extended in its power, has
+likewise played its part. Hence it follows that the voice, from having
+been habitually employed as a serviceable aid under certain conditions,
+inducing pleasure, pain, rage, &amp;c., is commonly used whenever the same
+sensations or emotions are excited, under quite different conditions, or
+in a lesser degree.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The sexes of many animals incessantly call for each other during the
+breeding-season; and in not a few cases, the male endeavours thus to charm
+or excite the female. This, indeed, seems to have been the primeval use
+and means of development of the voice, as I have attempted to show in my
+&lsquo;Descent of Man.&rsquo; Thus the use of the vocal organs will have become
+associated with the anticipation of the strongest pleasure which animals
+are capable of feeling. Animals which live in society often call to each
+other when separated, and evidently feel much joy at meeting; as we see
+with a horse, on the return of his companion, for whom he has been
+neighing. The mother calls incessantly for her lost young ones; for
+instance, a cow for her calf; and the young of many animals call for their
+mothers. When a flock of sheep is scattered, the ewes bleat incessantly
+for their lambs, and their mutual pleasure at coming together is manifest.
+Woe betide the man who meddles with the young of the larger and fiercer
+quadrupeds, if they hear the cry of distress from their young. Rage leads
+to the violent exertion of all the muscles, including those of the voice;
+and some animals, when enraged, endeavour to strike terror into their
+enemies by its power and harshness, as the lion does by roaring, and the
+dog by growling. I infer that their object is to strike terror, because
+the lion at the same time erects the hair of its mane, and the dog the
+hair along its back, and thus they make themselves appear as large and
+terrible as possible. Rival males try to excel and challenge each other by
+their voices, and this leads to deadly contests. Thus the use of the voice
+will have become associated with the emotion of anger, however it may be
+aroused. We have also seen that intense pain, like rage, leads to violent
+outcries, and the exertion of screaming by itself gives some relief; and
+thus the use of the voice will have become associated with suffering of
+any kind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The cause of widely different sounds being uttered under different
+emotions and sensations is a very obscure subject. Nor does the rule
+always hold good that there is any marked difference. For instance with
+the dog, the bark of anger and that of joy do not differ much, though they
+can be distinguished. It is not probable that any precise explanation of
+the cause or source of each particular sound, under different states of
+the mind, will ever be given. We know that some animals, after being
+domesticated, have acquired the habit of uttering sounds which were not
+natural to them.<a href="#linknote-401" name="linknoteref-401"
+id="linknoteref-401">[401]</a> Thus domestic dogs, and even tamed jackals,
+have learnt to bark, which is a noise not proper to any species of the
+genus, with the exception of the <i>Canis latrans</i> of North America,
+which is said to bark. Some breeds, also, of the domestic pigeon have
+learnt to coo in a new and quite peculiar manner.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The character of the human voice, under the influence of various emotions,
+has been discussed by Mr. Herbert Spencer<a href="#linknote-402"
+name="linknoteref-402" id="linknoteref-402">[402]</a> in his interesting
+essay on Music. He clearly shows that the voice alters much under
+different conditions, in loudness and in quality, that is, in resonance
+and <i>timbre</i>, in pitch and intervals. No one can listen to an
+eloquent orator or preacher, or to a man calling angrily to another, or to
+one expressing astonishment, without being struck with the truth of Mr.
+Spencer&rsquo;s remarks. It is curious how early in life the modulation of the
+voice becomes expressive. With one of my children, under the age of two
+years, I clearly perceived that his humph of assent was rendered by a
+slight modulation strongly emphatic; and that by a peculiar whine his
+negative expressed obstinate determination. Mr. Spencer further shows that
+emotional speech, in all the above respects is intimately related to vocal
+music, and consequently to instrumental music; and he attempts to explain
+the characteristic qualities of both on physiological grounds&mdash;namely,
+on &ldquo;the general law that a feeling is a stimulus to muscular action.&rdquo; It
+may be admitted that the voice is affected through this law; but the
+explanation appears to me too general and vague to throw much light on the
+various differences, with the exception of that of loudness, between
+ordinary speech and emotional speech, or singing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This remark holds good, whether we believe that the various qualities of
+the voice originated in speaking under the excitement of strong feelings,
+and that these qualities have subsequently been transferred to vocal
+music; or whether we believe, as I maintain, that the habit of uttering
+musical sounds was first developed, as a means of courtship, in the early
+progenitors of man, and thus became associated with the strongest emotions
+of which they were capable,&mdash;namely, ardent love, rivalry and
+triumph. That animals utter musical notes is familiar to every one, as we
+may daily hear in the singing of birds. It is a more remarkable fact that
+an ape, one of the Gibbons, produces an exact octave of musical sounds,
+ascending and descending the scale by halftones; so that this monkey
+&ldquo;alone of brute mammals may be said to sing.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-403"
+name="linknoteref-403" id="linknoteref-403">[403]</a> From this fact, and
+from the analogy of other animals, I have been led to infer that the
+progenitors of man probably uttered musical tones, before they had
+acquired the power of articulate speech; and that consequently, when the
+voice is used under any strong emotion, it tends to assume, through the
+principle of association, a musical character. We can plainly perceive,
+with some of the lower animals, that the males employ their voices to
+please the females, and that they themselves take pleasure in their own
+vocal utterances; but why particular sounds are uttered, and why these
+give pleasure cannot at present be explained.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+That the pitch of the voice bears some relation to certain states of
+feeling is tolerably clear. A person gently complaining of ill-treatment,
+or slightly suffering, almost always speaks in a high-pitched voice. Dogs,
+when a little impatient, often make a high piping note through their
+noses, which at once strikes us as plaintive;<a href="#linknote-404"
+name="linknoteref-404" id="linknoteref-404">[404]</a> but how difficult it
+is to know whether the sound is essentially plaintive, or only appears so
+in this particular case, from our having learnt by experience what it
+means! Rengger, states<a href="#linknote-405" name="linknoteref-405"
+id="linknoteref-405">[405]</a> that the monkeys (<i>Cebus azaræ</i>),
+which he kept in Paraguay, expressed astonishment by a half-piping,
+half-snarling noise; anger or impatience, by repeating the sound <i>hu hu</i>
+in a deeper, grunting voice; and fright or pain, by shrill screams. On the
+other hand, with mankind, deep groans and high piercing screams equally
+express an agony of pain. Laughter maybe either high or low; so that, with
+adult men, as Haller long ago remarked,<a href="#linknote-406"
+name="linknoteref-406" id="linknoteref-406">[406]</a> the sound partakes
+of the character of the vowels (as pronounced in German) <i>O</i> and <i>A</i>;
+whilst with children and women, it has more of the character of <i>E</i>
+and <i>I</i>; and these latter vowel-sounds naturally have, as Helmholtz
+has shown, a higher pitch than the former; yet both tones of laughter
+equally express enjoyment or amusement.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In considering the mode in which vocal utterances express emotion, we are
+naturally led to inquire into the cause of what is called &ldquo;expression&rdquo; in
+music. Upon this point Mr. Litchfield, who has long attended to the
+subject of music, has been so kind as to give me the following remarks:&mdash;&ldquo;The
+question, what is the essence of musical &lsquo;expression&rsquo; involves a number of
+obscure points, which, so far as I am aware, are as yet unsolved enigmas.
+Up to a certain point, however, any law which is found to hold as to the
+expression of the emotions by simple sounds must apply to the more
+developed mode of expression in song, which may be taken as the primary
+type of all music. A great part of the emotional effect of a song depends
+on the character of the action by which the sounds are produced. In songs,
+for instance, which express great vehemence of passion, the effect often
+chiefly depends on the forcible utterance of some one or two
+characteristic passages which demand great exertion of vocal force; and it
+will be frequently noticed that a song of this character fails of its
+proper effect when sung by a voice of sufficient power and range to give
+the characteristic passages without much exertion. This is, no doubt, the
+secret of the loss of effect so often produced by the transposition of a
+song from one key to another. The effect is thus seen to depend not merely
+on the actual sounds, but also in part on the nature of the action which
+produces the sounds. Indeed it is obvious that whenever we feel the
+&lsquo;expression&rsquo; of a song to be due to its quickness or slowness of movement&mdash;to
+smoothness of flow, loudness of utterance, and so on&mdash;we are, in
+fact, interpreting the muscular actions which produce sound, in the same
+way in which we interpret muscular action generally. But this leaves
+unexplained the more subtle and more specific effect which we call the
+<i>musical</i> expression of the song&mdash;the delight given by its melody, or
+even by the separate sounds which make up the melody. This is an effect
+indefinable in language&mdash;one which, so far as I am aware, no one has
+been able to analyse, and which the ingenious speculation of Mr. Herbert
+Spencer as to the origin of music leaves quite unexplained. For it is
+certain that the <i>melodic</i> effect of a series of sounds does not depend in
+the least on their loudness or softness, or on their <i>absolute</i> pitch. A
+tune is always the same tune, whether it is sung loudly or softly, by a
+child or a man; whether it is played on a flute or on a trombone. The
+purely musical effect of any sound depends on its place in what is
+technically called a &lsquo;scale;&rsquo; the same sound producing absolutely
+different effects on the ear, according as it is heard in connection with
+one or another series of sounds.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;It is on this <i>relative</i> association of the sounds that all the essentially
+characteristic effects which are summed up in the phrase &lsquo;musical
+expression,&rsquo; depend. But why certain associations of sounds have
+such-and-such effects, is a problem which yet remains to be solved. These
+effects must indeed, in some way or other, be connected with the
+well-known arithmetical relations between the rates of vibration of the
+sounds which form a musical scale. And it is possible&mdash;but this is
+merely a suggestion&mdash;that the greater or less mechanical facility
+with which the vibrating apparatus of the human larynx passes from one
+state of vibration to another, may have been a primary cause of the
+greater or less pleasure produced by various sequences of sounds.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But leaving aside these complex questions and confining ourselves to the
+simpler sounds, we can, at least, see some reasons for the association of
+certain kinds of sounds with certain states of mind. A scream, for
+instance, uttered by a young animal, or by one of the members of a
+community, as a call for assistance, will naturally be loud, prolonged,
+and high, so as to penetrate to a distance. For Helmholtz has shown<a
+href="#linknote-407" name="linknoteref-407" id="linknoteref-407">[407]</a>
+that, owing to the shape of the internal cavity of the human ear and its
+consequent power of resonance, high notes produce a particularly strong
+impression. When male animals utter sounds in order to please the females,
+they would naturally employ those which are sweet to the ears of the
+species; and it appears that the same sounds are often pleasing to widely
+different animals, owing to the similarity of their nervous systems, as we
+ourselves perceive in the singing of birds and even in the chirping of
+certain tree-frogs giving us pleasure. On the other hand, sounds produced
+in order to strike terror into an enemy, would naturally be harsh or
+displeasing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Whether the principle of antithesis has come into play with sounds, as
+might perhaps have been expected, is doubtful. The interrupted, laughing
+or tittering sounds made by man and by various kinds of monkeys when
+pleased, are as different as possible from the prolonged screams of these
+animals when distressed. The deep grunt of satisfaction uttered by a pig,
+when pleased with its food, is widely different from its harsh scream of
+pain or terror. But with the dog, as lately remarked, the bark of anger
+and that of joy are sounds which by no means stand in opposition to each
+other; and so it is in some other cases.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is another obscure point, namely, whether the sounds which are
+produced under various states of the mind determine the shape of the
+mouth, or whether its shape is not determined by independent causes, and
+the sound thus modified. When young infants cry they open their mouths
+widely, and this, no doubt, is necessary for pouring forth a full volume
+of sound; but the mouth then assumes, from a quite distinct cause, an
+almost quadrangular shape, depending, as will hereafter be explained, on
+the firm closing of the eyelids, and consequent drawing up of the upper
+lip. How far this square shape of the mouth modifies the wailing or crying
+sound, I am not prepared to say; but we know from the researches of
+Helmholtz and others that the form of the cavity of the mouth and lips
+determines the nature and pitch of the vowel sounds which are produced.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It will also be shown in a future chapter that, under the feeling of
+contempt or disgust, there is a tendency, from intelligible causes, to
+blow out of the mouth or nostrils, and this produces sounds like pooh or
+pish. When any one is startled or suddenly astonished, there is an
+instantaneous tendency, likewise from an intelligible cause, namely, to be
+ready for prolonged exertion, to open the mouth widely, so as to draw a
+deep and rapid inspiration. When the next full expiration follows, the
+mouth is slightly closed, and the lips, from causes hereafter to be
+discussed, are somewhat protruded; and this form of the mouth, if the
+voice be at all exerted, produces, according to Helmholtz, the sound of
+the vowel <i>O</i>. Certainly a deep sound of a prolonged <i>Oh!</i> may
+be heard from a whole crowd of people immediately after witnessing any
+astonishing spectacle. If, together with surprise, pain be felt, there is
+a tendency to contract all the muscles of the body, including those of the
+face, and the lips will then be drawn back; and this will perhaps account
+for the sound becoming higher and assuming the character of <i>Ah!</i> or
+<i>Ach!</i> As fear causes all the muscles of the body to tremble, the
+voice naturally becomes tremulous, and at the same time husky from the
+dryness of the mouth, owing to the salivary glands failing to act. Why the
+laughter of man and the tittering of monkeys should be a rapidly
+reiterated sound, cannot be explained. During the utterance of these
+sounds, the mouth is transversely elongated by the corners being drawn
+backwards and upwards; and of this fact an explanation will be attempted
+in a future chapter. But the whole subject of the differences of the
+sounds produced under different states of the mind is so obscure, that I
+have succeeded in throwing hardly any light on it; and the remarks which I
+have made, have but little significance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig11.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Sound Producing Quills from Tail of a Porcupine. Fig. 11 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+All the sounds hitherto noticed depend on the respiratory organs; but
+sounds produced by wholly different means are likewise expressive. Rabbits
+stamp loudly on the ground as a signal to their comrades; and if a man
+knows how to do so properly, he may on a quiet evening hear the rabbits
+answering him all around. These animals, as well as some others, also
+stamp on the ground when made angry. Porcupines rattle their quills and
+vibrate their tails when angered; and one behaved in this manner when a
+live snake was placed in its compartment. The quills on the
+tail are very different from those on the body: they are short, hollow,
+thin like a goose-quill, with their ends transversely truncated, so that
+they are open; they are supported on long, thin, elastic foot-stalks. Now,
+when the tail is rapidly shaken, these hollow quills strike against each
+other and produce, as I heard in the presence of Mr. Bartlett, a peculiar
+continuous sound. We can, I think, understand why porcupines have been
+provided, through the modification of their protective spines, with this
+special sound-producing instrument. They are nocturnal animals, and if
+they scented or heard a prowling beast of prey, it would be a great
+advantage to them in the dark to give warning to their enemy what they
+were, and that they were furnished with dangerous spines. They would thus
+escape being attacked. They are, as I may add, so fully conscious of the
+power of their weapons, that when enraged they will charge backwards with
+their spines erected, yet still inclined backwards.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many birds during their courtship produce diversified sounds by means of
+specially adapted feathers. Storks, when excited, make a loud clattering
+noise with their beaks. Some snakes produce a grating or rattling noise.
+Many insects stridulate by rubbing together specially modified parts of
+their hard integuments. This stridulation generally serves as a sexual
+charm or call; but it is likewise used to express different emotions.<a
+href="#linknote-408" name="linknoteref-408" id="linknoteref-408">[408]</a>
+Every one who has attended to bees knows that their humming changes when
+they are angry; and this serves as a warning that there is danger of being
+stung. I have made these few remarks because some writers have laid so
+much stress on the vocal and respiratory organs as having been specially
+adapted for expression, that it was advisable to show that sounds
+otherwise produced serve equally well for the same purpose.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Erection of the dermal appendages</i>.&mdash;Hardly any expressive
+movement is so general as the involuntary erection of the hairs, feathers
+and other dermal appendages; for it is common throughout three of the
+great vertebrate classes. These appendages are erected under the
+excitement of anger or terror; more especially when these emotions are
+combined, or quickly succeed each other. The action serves to make the
+animal appear larger and more frightful to its enemies or rivals, and is
+generally accompanied by various voluntary movements adapted for the same
+purpose, and by the utterance of savage sounds. Mr. Bartlett, who has had
+such wide experience with animals of all kinds, does not doubt that this
+is the case; but it is a different question whether the power of erection
+was primarily acquired for this special purpose.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I will first give a considerable body of facts showing how general this
+action is with mammals, birds and reptiles; retaining what I have to say
+in regard to man for a future chapter. Mr. Sutton, the intelligent keeper
+in the Zoological Gardens, carefully observed for me the Chimpanzee and
+Orang; and he states that when they are suddenly frightened, as by a
+thunderstorm, or when they are made angry, as by being teased, their hair
+becomes erect. I saw a chimpanzee who was alarmed at the sight of a black
+coalheaver, and the hair rose all over his body; he made little starts
+forward as if to attack the man, without any real intention of doing so,
+but with the hope, as the keeper remarked, of frightening him. The
+Gorilla, when enraged, is described by Mr. Ford<a href="#linknote-409"
+name="linknoteref-409" id="linknoteref-409">[409]</a> as having his crest
+of hair &ldquo;erect and projecting forward, his nostrils dilated, and his under
+lip thrown down; at the same time uttering his characteristic yell,
+designed, it would seem, to terrify his antagonists.&rdquo; I saw the hair on
+the Anubis baboon, when angered bristling along the back, from the neck to
+the loins, but not on the rump or other parts of the body. I took a
+stuffed snake into the monkey-house, and the hair on several of the
+species instantly became erect; especially on their tails, as I
+particularly noticed with the <i>Cereopithecus nictitans</i>. Brehm states<a
+href="#linknote-410" name="linknoteref-410" id="linknoteref-410">[410]</a>
+that the <i>Midas œdipus</i> (belonging to the American division) when
+excited erects its mane, in order, as he adds, to make itself as frightful
+as possible.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With the Carnivora the erection of the hair seems to be almost universal,
+often accompanied by threatening movements, the uncovering of the teeth
+and the utterance of savage growls. In the Herpestes, I have seen the hair
+on end over nearly the whole body, including the tail; and the dorsal
+crest is erected in a conspicuous manner by the Hyaena and Proteles. The
+enraged lion erects his mane. The bristling of the hair along the neck and
+back of the dog, and over the whole body of the cat, especially on the
+tail, is familiar to every one. With the cat it apparently occurs only
+under fear; with the dog, under anger and fear; but not, as far as I have
+observed, under abject fear, as when a dog is going to be flogged by a
+severe gamekeeper. If, however, the dog shows fight, as sometimes happens,
+up goes his hair. I have often noticed that the hair of a dog is
+particularly liable to rise, if he is half angry and half afraid, as on
+beholding some object only indistinctly seen in the dusk.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon that he has often seen the
+hair erected on horses and cattle, on which he had operated and was again
+going to operate. When I showed a stuffed snake to a Peccary, the hair
+rose in a wonderful manner along its back; and so it does with the boar
+when enraged. An Elk which gored a man to death in the United States, is
+described as first brandishing his antlers, squealing with rage and
+stamping on the ground; &ldquo;at length his hair was seen to rise and stand on
+end,&rdquo; and then he plunged forward to the attack.<a href="#linknote-411"
+name="linknoteref-411" id="linknoteref-411">[411]</a> The hair likewise
+becomes erect on goats, and, as I hear from Mr. Blyth, on some Indian
+antelopes. I have seen it erected on the hairy Ant-eater; and on the
+Agouti, one of the Rodents. A female Bat,<a href="#linknote-412"
+name="linknoteref-412" id="linknoteref-412">[412]</a> which reared her
+young under confinement, when any one looked into the cage &ldquo;erected the
+fur on her back, and bit viciously at intruding fingers.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Birds belonging to all the chief Orders ruffle their feathers when angry
+or frightened. Every one must have seen two cocks, even quite young birds,
+preparing to fight with erected neck-hackles; nor can these feathers when
+erected serve as a means of defence, for cock-fighters have found by
+experience that it is advantageous to trim them. The male Ruff (<i>Machetes
+pugnæ</i>) likewise erects its collar of feathers when fighting. When a
+dog approaches a common hen with her chickens, she spreads out her wings,
+raises her tail, ruffles all her feathers, and looking as ferocious as
+possible, dashes at the intruder. The tail is not always held in exactly
+the same position; it is sometimes so much erected, that the central
+feathers, as in the accompanying drawing, almost touch the back. Swans,
+when angered, likewise raise their wings and tail, and erect their
+feathers. They open their beaks, and make by paddling little rapid starts
+forwards, against any one who approaches the water&rsquo;s edge too closely.
+Tropic birds<a href="#linknote-413" name="linknoteref-413"
+id="linknoteref-413">[413]</a> when disturbed on their nests are said not
+to fly away, but &ldquo;merely to stick out their feathers and scream.&rdquo; The
+Barn-owl, when approached &ldquo;instantly swells out its plumage, extends its
+wings and tail, hisses and clacks its mandibles with force and rapidity.&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-414" name="linknoteref-414" id="linknoteref-414">[414]</a>
+So do other kinds of owls. Hawks, as I am informed by Mr. Jenner Weir,
+likewise ruffle their feathers, and spread out their wings and tail under
+similar circumstances. Some kinds of parrots erect their feathers; and I
+have seen this action in the Cassowary, when angered at the sight of an
+Ant-eater. Young cuckoos in the nest, raise their feathers, open their
+mouths widely, and make themselves as frightful as possible.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0011" id="linkimage-0011">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Hen Driving Away a Dog from Her Chickens. Fig. 12 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+{illust. caption = FIG. 12&mdash;Hen driving away a dog from her chickens.
+Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.}
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0012" id="linkimage-0012">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig13.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Swan Driving Away an Intruder. Fig 13 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+{illust. caption = FIG. 13.&mdash;Swan driving away an intruder. Drawn
+from life by Mr. Wood.}
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Small birds, also, as I hear from Mr. Weir, such as various finches,
+buntings and warblers, when angry, ruffle all their feathers, or only
+those round the neck; or they spread out their wings and tail-feathers.
+With their plumage in this state, they rush at each other with open beaks
+and threatening gestures. Mr. Weir concludes from his large experience
+that the erection of the feathers is caused much more by anger than by
+fear. He gives as an instance a hybrid goldfinch of a most irascible
+disposition, which when approached too closely by a servant, instantly
+assumes the appearance of a ball of ruffled feathers. He believes that
+birds when frightened, as a general rule, closely adpress all their
+feathers, and their consequently diminished size is often astonishing. As
+soon as they recover from their fear or surprise, the first thing which
+they do is to shake out their feathers. The best instances of this
+adpression of the feathers and apparent shrinking of the body from fear,
+which Mr. Weir has noticed, has been in the quail and grass-parrakeet.<a
+href="#linknote-415" name="linknoteref-415" id="linknoteref-415">[415]</a>
+The habit is intelligible in these birds from their being accustomed, when
+in danger, either to squat on the ground or to sit motionless on a branch,
+so as to escape detection. Though, with birds, anger may be the chief and
+commonest cause of the erection of the feathers, it is probable that young
+cuckoos when looked at in the nest, and a hen with her chickens when
+approached by a dog, feel at least some terror. Mr. Tegetmeier informs me
+that with game-cocks, the erection of the feathers on the head has long
+been recognized in the cock-pit as a sign of cowardice.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The males of some lizards, when fighting together during their courtship,
+expand their throat pouches or frills, and erect their dorsal crests.<a
+href="#linknote-416" name="linknoteref-416" id="linknoteref-416">[416]</a>
+But Dr. Günther does not believe that they can erect their separate spines
+or scales.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We thus see how generally throughout the two higher vertebrate classes,
+and with some reptiles, the dermal appendages are erected under the
+influence of anger and fear. The movement is effected, as we know from
+Kolliker&rsquo;s interesting discovery, by the contraction of minute, unstriped,
+involuntary muscles,<a href="#linknote-417" name="linknoteref-417"
+id="linknoteref-417">[417]</a> often called <i>arrectores pili</i>, which
+are attached to the capsules of the separate hairs, feathers, &amp;c. By
+the contraction of these muscles the hairs can be instantly erected, as we
+see in a dog, being at the same time drawn a little out of their sockets;
+they are afterwards quickly depressed. The vast number of these minute
+muscles over the whole body of a hairy quadruped is astonishing. The
+erection of the hair is, however, aided in some cases, as with that on the
+head of a man, by the striped and voluntary muscles of the underlying <i>panniculus
+carnosus</i>. It is by the action of these latter muscles, that the
+hedgehog erects its spines. It appears, also, from the researches of
+Leydig<a href="#linknote-418" name="linknoteref-418" id="linknoteref-418">[418]</a>
+and others, that striped fibres extend from the panniculus to some of the
+larger hairs, such as the vibrissae of certain quadrupeds. The <i>arrectores
+pili</i> contract not only under the above emotions, but from the
+application of cold to the surface. I remember that my mules and dogs,
+brought from a lower and warmer country, after spending a night on the
+bleak Cordillera, had the hair all over their bodies as erect as under the
+greatest terror. We see the same action in our own <i>goose-skin</i>
+during the chill before a fever-fit. Mr. Lister has also found,<a
+href="#linknote-419" name="linknoteref-419" id="linknoteref-419">[419]</a>
+that tickling a neighbouring part of the skin causes the erection and
+protrusion of the hairs.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From these facts it is manifest that the erection of the dermal appendages
+is a reflex action, independent of the will; and this action must be
+looked at, when, occurring under the influence of anger or fear, not as a
+power acquired for the sake of some advantage, but as an incidental
+result, at least to a large extent, of the sensorium being affected. The
+result, in as far as it is incidental, may be compared with the profuse
+sweating from an agony of pain or terror. Nevertheless, it is remarkable
+how slight an excitement often suffices to cause the hair to become erect;
+as when two dogs pretend to fight together in play. We have, also, seen in
+a large number of animals, belonging to widely distinct classes, that the
+erection of the hair or feathers is almost always accompanied by various
+voluntary movements&mdash;by threatening gestures, opening the mouth,
+uncovering the teeth, spreading out of the wings and tail by birds, and by
+the utterance of harsh sounds; and the purpose of these voluntary
+movements is unmistakable. Therefore it seems hardly credible that the
+co-ordinated erection of the dermal appendages, by which the animal is
+made to appear larger and more terrible to its enemies or rivals, should
+be altogether an incidental and purposeless result of the disturbance of
+the sensorium. This seems almost as incredible as that the erection by the
+hedgehog of its spines, or of the quills by the porcupine, or of the
+ornamental plumes by many birds during their courtship, should all be
+purposeless actions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We here encounter a great difficulty. How can the contraction of the
+unstriped and involuntary <i>arrectores pili</i> have been co-ordinated
+with that of various voluntary muscles for the same special purpose? If we
+could believe that the arrectores primordially had been voluntary muscles,
+and had since lost their stripes and become involuntary, the case would be
+comparatively simple. I am not, however, aware that there is any evidence
+in favour of this view; although the reversed transition would not have
+presented any great difficulty, as the voluntary muscles are in an
+unstriped condition in the embryos of the higher animals, and in the
+larvae of some crustaceans. Moreover in the deeper layers of the skin of
+adult birds, the muscular network is, according to Leydig,<a
+href="#linknote-420" name="linknoteref-420" id="linknoteref-420">[420]</a>
+in a transitional condition; the fibres exhibiting only indications of
+transverse striation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another explanation seems possible. We may admit that originally the <i>arrectores
+pili</i> were slightly acted on in a direct manner, under the influence of
+rage and terror, by the disturbance of the nervous system; as is
+undoubtedly the case with our so-called <i>goose-skin</i> before a
+fever-fit. Animals have been repeatedly excited by rage and terror during
+many generations; and consequently the direct effects of the disturbed
+nervous system on the dermal appendages will almost certainly have been
+increased through habit and through the tendency of nerve-force to pass
+readily along accustomed channels. We shall find this view of the force of
+habit strikingly confirmed in a future chapter, where it will be shown
+that the hair of the insane is affected in an extraordinary manner, owing
+to their repeated accesses of fury and terror. As soon as with animals the
+power of erection had thus been strengthened or increased, they must often
+have seen the hairs or feathers erected in rival and enraged males, and
+the bulk of their bodies thus increased. In this case it appears possible
+that they might have wished to make themselves appear larger and more
+terrible to their enemies, by voluntarily assuming a threatening attitude
+and uttering harsh cries; such attitudes and utterances after a time
+becoming through habit instinctive. In this manner actions performed by
+the contraction of voluntary muscles might have been combined for the same
+special purpose with those effected by involuntary muscles. It is even
+possible that animals, when excited and dimly conscious of some change in
+the state of their hair, might act on it by repeated exertions of their
+attention and will; for we have reason to believe that the will is able to
+influence in an obscure manner the action of some unstriped or involuntary
+muscles, as in the period of the peristaltic movements of the intestines,
+and in the contraction of the bladder. Nor must we overlook the part which
+variation and natural selection may have played; for the males which
+succeeded in making themselves appear the most terrible to their rivals,
+or to their other enemies, if not of overwhelming power, will on an
+average have left more offspring to inherit their characteristic
+qualities, whatever these may be and however first acquired, than have
+other males.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>The inflation of the body, and other means of exciting fear in an enemy</i>.&mdash;Certain
+Amphibians and Reptiles, which either have no spines to erect, or no
+muscles by which they can be erected, enlarge themselves when alarmed or
+angry by inhaling air. This is well known to be the case with toads and
+frogs. The latter animal is made, in AEsop&rsquo;s fable of the &lsquo;Ox and the
+Frog,&rsquo; to blow itself up from vanity and envy until it burst. This action
+must have been observed during the most ancient times, as, according to
+Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood,<a href="#linknote-421" name="linknoteref-421"
+id="linknoteref-421">[421]</a> the word <i>toad</i> expresses in all the
+languages of Europe the habit of swelling. It has been observed with some
+of the exotic species in the Zoological Gardens; and Dr. Günther believes
+that it is general throughout the group. Judging from analogy, the primary
+purpose probably was to make the body appear as large and frightful as
+possible to an enemy; but another, and perhaps more important secondary
+advantage is thus gained. When frogs are seized by snakes, which are their
+chief enemies, they enlarge themselves wonderfully; so that if the snake
+be of small size, as Dr. Günther informs me, it cannot swallow the frog,
+which thus escapes being devoured.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Chameleons and some other lizards inflate themselves when angry. Thus a
+species inhabiting Oregon, the <i>Tapaya Douglasii</i>, is slow in its
+movements and does not bite, but has a ferocious aspect; &ldquo;when irritated
+it springs in a most threatening manner at anything pointed at it, at the
+same time opening its mouth wide and hissing audibly, after which it
+inflates its body, and shows other marks of anger.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-422"
+name="linknoteref-422" id="linknoteref-422">[422]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Several kinds of snakes likewise inflate themselves when irritated. The
+puff-adder (<i>Clotho arietans</i>) is remarkable in this respect; but I
+believe, after carefully watching these animals, that they do not act thus for
+the sake of increasing their apparent bulk, but simply for inhaling a large
+supply of air, so as to produce their surprisingly loud, harsh, and prolonged
+hissing sound. The Cobras-de-capello, when irritated, enlarge themselves a
+little, and hiss moderately; but, at the same time they lift their heads aloft,
+and dilate by means of their elongated anterior ribs, the skin on each side of
+the neck into a large flat disk,&mdash;the so-called hood. With their widely
+opened mouths, they then assume a terrific aspect. The benefit thus derived
+ought to be considerable, in order to compensate for the somewhat lessened
+rapidity (though this is still great) with which, when dilated, they can strike
+at their enemies or prey; on the same principle that a broad, thin piece of
+wood cannot be moved through the air so quickly as a small round stick. An
+innocuous snake, the <i>Trovidonotus macrophthalmus</i>, an inhabitant of
+India, likewise dilates its neck when irritated; and consequently is often
+mistaken for its compatriot, the deadly Cobra.<a href="#linknote-423"
+name="linknoteref-423" id="linknoteref-423">[423]</a> This resemblance perhaps
+serves as some protection to the Tropidonotus. Another innocuous species, the
+Dasypeltis of South Africa, blows itself out, distends its neck, hisses and
+darts at an intruder.<a href="#linknote-424" name="linknoteref-424"
+id="linknoteref-424">[424]</a> Many other snakes hiss under similar
+circumstances. They also rapidly vibrate their protruded tongues; and this may
+aid in increasing their terrific appearance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Snakes possess other means of producing sounds besides hissing. Many years
+ago I observed in South America that a venomous Trigonocephalus, when
+disturbed, rapidly vibrated the end of its tail, which striking against
+the dry grass and twigs produced a rattling noise that could be distinctly
+heard at the distance of six feet.<a href="#linknote-425"
+name="linknoteref-425" id="linknoteref-425">[425]</a> The deadly and
+fierce <i>Echis carinata</i> of India produces &ldquo;a curious prolonged,
+almost hissing sound in a very different manner, namely by rubbing the
+sides of the folds of its body against each other,&rdquo; whilst the head
+remains in almost the same position. The scales on the sides, and not on
+other parts of the body, are strongly keeled, with the keels toothed like
+a saw; and as the coiled-up animal rubs its sides together, these grate
+against each other.<a href="#linknote-426" name="linknoteref-426"
+id="linknoteref-426">[426]</a> Lastly, we have the well-known case of the
+Rattle-snake. He who has merely shaken the rattle of a dead snake, can
+form no just idea of the sound produced by the living animal. Professor
+Shaler states that it is indistinguishable from that made by the male of a
+large Cicada (an Homopterous insect), which inhabits the same district.<a
+href="#linknote-427" name="linknoteref-427" id="linknoteref-427">[427]</a>
+In the Zoological Gardens, when the rattle-snakes and puff-adders were
+greatly excited at the same time, I was much struck at the similarity of
+the sound produced by them; and although that made by the rattle-snake is
+louder and shriller than the hissing of the puff-adder, yet when standing
+at some yards distance I could scarcely distinguish the two. For whatever
+purpose the sound is produced by the one species, I can hardly doubt that
+it serves for the same purpose in the other species; and I conclude from
+the threatening gestures made at the same time by many snakes, that their
+hissing,&mdash;the rattling of the rattle-snake and of the tail of the
+Trigonocephalus,&mdash;the grating of the scales of the Echis,&mdash;and
+the dilatation of the hood of the Cobra,&mdash;all subserve the same end,
+namely, to make them appear terrible to their enemies.<a
+href="#linknote-428" name="linknoteref-428" id="linknoteref-428">[428]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It seems at first a probable conclusion that venomous snakes, such as the
+foregoing, from being already so well defended by their poison-fangs,
+would never be attacked by any enemy; and consequently would have no need
+to excite additional terror. But this is far from being the case, for they
+are largely preyed on in all quarters of the world by many animals. It is
+well known that pigs are employed in the United States to clear districts
+infested with rattle-snakes, which they do most effectually.<a
+href="#linknote-429" name="linknoteref-429" id="linknoteref-429">[429]</a>
+In England the hedgehog attacks and devours the viper. In India, as I hear
+from Dr. Jerdon, several kinds of hawks, and at least one mammal, the
+Herpestes, kill cobras and other venomous species;<a href="#linknote-430"
+name="linknoteref-430" id="linknoteref-430">[430]</a> and so it is in
+South Africa. Therefore it is by no means improbable that any sounds or
+signs by which the venomous species could instantly make themselves
+recognized as dangerous, would be of more service to them than to the
+innocuous species which would not be able, if attacked, to inflict any
+real injury.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Having said thus much about snakes, I am tempted to add a few remarks on
+the means by which the rattle of the rattle-snake was probably developed.
+Various animals, including some lizards, either curl or vibrate their
+tails when excited. This is the case with many kinds of snakes.<a
+href="#linknote-431" name="linknoteref-431" id="linknoteref-431">[431]</a>
+In the Zoological Gardens, an innocuous species, the <i>Coronella Sayi</i>,
+vibrates its tail so rapidly that it becomes almost invisible. The
+Trigonocephalus, before alluded to, has the same habit; and the extremity
+of its tail is a little enlarged, or ends in a bead. In the Lachesis,
+which is so closely allied to the rattle-snake that it was placed by
+Linnaeus in the same genus, the tail ends in a single, large,
+lancet-shaped point or scale. With some snakes the skin, as Professor
+Shaler remarks, &ldquo;is more imperfectly detached from the region about the
+tail than at other parts of the body.&rdquo; Now if we suppose that the end of
+the tail of some ancient American species was enlarged, and was covered by
+a single large scale, this could hardly have been cast off at the
+successive moults. In this case it would have been permanently retained,
+and at each period of growth, as the snake grew larger, a new scale,
+larger than the last, would have been formed above it, and would likewise
+have been retained. The foundation for the development of a rattle would
+thus have been laid; and it would have been habitually used, if the
+species, like so many others, vibrated its tail whenever it was irritated.
+That the rattle has since been specially developed to serve as an
+efficient sound-producing instrument, there can hardly be a doubt; for
+even the vertebrae included within the extremity of the tail have been
+altered in shape and cohere. But there is no greater improbability in
+various structures, such as the rattle of the rattle-snake,&mdash;the
+lateral scales of the Echis,&mdash;the neck with the included ribs of the
+Cobra,&mdash;and the whole body of the puff-adder,&mdash;having been
+modified for the sake of warning and frightening away their enemies, than
+in a bird, namely, the wonderful Secretary-hawk (<i>Gypogeranus</i>)
+having had its whole frame modified for the sake of killing snakes with
+impunity. It is highly probable, judging from what we have before seen,
+that this bird would ruffle its feathers whenever it attacked a snake; and
+it is certain that the Herpestes, when it eagerly rushes to attack a
+snake, erects the hair all over its body, and especially that on its tail.<a
+href="#linknote-432" name="linknoteref-432" id="linknoteref-432">[432]</a>
+We have also seen that some porcupines, when angered or alarmed at the
+sight of a snake, rapidly vibrate their tails, thus producing a peculiar
+sound by the striking together of the hollow quills. So that here both the
+attackers and the attacked endeavour to make themselves as dreadful as
+possible to each other; and both possess for this purpose specialised
+means, which, oddly enough, are nearly the same in some of these cases.
+Finally we can see that if, on the one hand, those individual snakes,
+which were best able to frighten away their enemies, escaped best from
+being devoured; and if, on the other hand, those individuals of the
+attacking enemy survived in larger numbers which were the best fitted for
+the dangerous task of killing and devouring venomous snakes;&mdash;then in
+the one case as in the other, beneficial variations, supposing the
+characters in question to vary, would commonly have been preserved through
+the survival of the fittest.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>The Drawing back and pressure of the Ears to the Head</i>.&mdash;The
+ears through their movements are highly expressive in many animals; but in
+some, such as man, the higher apes, and many ruminants, they fail in this
+respect. A slight difference in position serves to express in the plainest
+manner a different state of mind, as we may daily see in the dog; but we
+are here concerned only with the ears being drawn closely backwards and
+pressed to the head. A savage frame of mind is thus shown, but only in the
+case of those animals which fight with their teeth; and the care which
+they take to prevent their ears being seized by their antagonists,
+accounts for this position. Consequently, through habit and association,
+whenever they feel slightly savage, or pretend in their play to be savage,
+their ears are drawn back. That this is the true explanation may be
+inferred from the relation which exists in very many animals between their
+manner of fighting and the retraction of their ears.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All the Carnivora fight with their canine teeth, and all, as far as I have
+observed, draw their ears back when feeling savage. This may be
+continually seen with dogs when fighting in earnest, and with puppies
+fighting in play. The movement is different from the falling down and
+slight drawing back of the ears, when a dog feels pleased and is caressed
+by his master. The retraction of the ears may likewise be seen in kittens
+fighting together in their play, and in full-grown cats when really
+savage, as before illustrated in fig. 9 (p. 58). Although their ears are
+thus to a large extent protected, yet they often get much torn in old male
+cats during their mutual battles. The same movement is very striking in
+tigers, leopards, &amp;c., whilst growling over their food in menageries.
+The lynx has remarkably long ears; and their retraction, when one of these
+animals is approached in its cage, is very conspicuous, and is eminently
+expressive of its savage disposition. Even one of the Eared Seals, the <i>Otariapusilla</i>,
+which has very small ears, draws them backwards, when it makes a savage
+rush at the legs of its keeper.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When horses fight together they use their incisors for biting, and their
+fore-legs for striking, much more than they do their hind-legs for kicking
+backwards. This has been observed when stallions have broken loose and
+have fought together, and may likewise be inferred from the kind of wounds
+which they inflict on each other. Every one recognizes the vicious
+appearance which the drawing back of the ears gives to a horse. This
+movement is very different from that of listening to a sound behind. If an
+ill-tempered horse in a stall is inclined to kick backwards, his ears are
+retracted from habit, though he has no intention or power to bite. But
+when a horse throws up both hind-legs in play, as when entering an open
+field, or when just touched by the whip, he does not generally depress his
+ears, for he does not then feel vicious. Guanacoes fight savagely with
+their teeth; and they must do so frequently, for I found the hides of
+several which I shot in Patagonia deeply scored. So do camels; and both
+these animals, when savage, draw their ears closely backwards. Guanacoes,
+as I have noticed, when not intending to bite, but merely to spit their
+offensive saliva from a distance at an intruder, retract their ears. Even
+the hippopotamus, when threatening with its widely-open enormous mouth a
+comrade, draws back its small ears, just like a horse.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now what a contrast is presented between the foregoing animals and cattle,
+sheep, or goats, which never use their teeth in fighting, and never draw
+back their ears when enraged! Although sheep and goats appear such placid
+animals, the males often join in furious contests. As deer form a closely
+related family, and as I did not know that they ever fought with their
+teeth, I was much surprised at the account given by Major Ross King of the
+Moose-deer in Canada. He says, when&ldquo;two males chance to meet, laying back
+their ears and gnashing their teeth together, they rush at each other with
+appalling fury.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-433" name="linknoteref-433"
+id="linknoteref-433">[433]</a> But Mr. Bartlett informs me that some
+species of deer fight savagely with their teeth, so that the drawing back
+of the ears by the moose accords with our rule. Several kinds of
+kangaroos, kept in the Zoological Gardens, fight by scratching with their
+fore-feet and by kicking with their hind-legs; but they never bite each
+other, and the keepers have never seen them draw back their ears when
+angered. Rabbits fight chiefly by kicking and scratching, but they
+likewise bite each other; and I have known one to bite off half the tail
+of its antagonist. At the commencement of their battles they lay back
+their ears, but afterwards, as they bound over and kick each other, they
+keep their ears erect, or move them much about.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Bartlett watched a wild boar quarrelling rather savagely with his sow;
+and both had their mouths open and their ears drawn backwards. But this
+does not appear to be a common action with domestic pigs when quarrelling.
+Boars fight together by striking upwards with their tusks; and Mr.
+Bartlett doubts whether they then draw back their ears. Elephants, which
+in like manner fight with their tusks, do not retract their ears, but, on
+the contrary, erect them when rushing at each other or at an enemy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The rhinoceroses in the Zoological Gardens fight with their nasal horns,
+and have never been seen to attempt biting each other except in play; and
+the keepers are convinced that they do not draw back their ears, like
+horses and dogs, when feeling savage. The following statement, therefore,
+by Sir S. Baker<a href="#linknote-434" name="linknoteref-434"
+id="linknoteref-434">[434]</a> is inexplicable, namely, that a rhinoceros,
+which he shot in North Africa, &ldquo;had no ears; they had been bitten off
+close to the head by another of the same species while fighting; and this
+mutilation is by no means uncommon.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lastly, with respect to monkeys. Some kinds, which have moveable ears, and
+which fight with their teeth&mdash;for instance the <i>Cereopithecus ruber</i>&mdash;draw
+back their ears when irritated just like dogs; and they then have a very
+spiteful appearance. Other kinds, as the <i>Inuus ecaudatus</i>,
+apparently do not thus act. Again, other kinds&mdash;and this is a great
+anomaly in comparison with most other animals&mdash;retract their ears,
+show their teeth, and jabber, when they are pleased by being caressed. I
+observed this in two or three species of Macacus, and in the <i>Cynopithecus
+niger</i>. This expression, owing to our familiarity with dogs, would
+never be recognized as one of joy or pleasure by those unacquainted with
+monkeys.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Erection of the Ears</i>.&mdash;This movement requires hardly any
+notice. All animals which have the power of freely moving their ears, when
+they are startled, or when they closely observe any object, direct their
+ears to the point towards which they are looking, in order to hear any
+sound from this quarter. At the same time they generally raise their
+heads, as all their organs of sense are there situated, and some of the
+smaller animals rise on their hind-legs. Even those kinds which squat on
+the ground or instantly flee away to avoid danger, generally act
+momentarily in this manner, in order to ascertain the source and nature of
+the danger. The head being raised, with erected ears and eyes directed
+forwards, gives an unmistakable expression of close attention to any
+animal.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"></a>
+CHAPTER V.<br/>SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The Dog, various expressive movements of&mdash;Cats&mdash;Horses&mdash;Ruminants&mdash;Monkeys,
+their expression of joy and affection&mdash;Of pain&mdash;Anger&mdash;Astonishment
+and Terror.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>The Dog</i>.&mdash;I have already described (figs. 5 and 7) the
+appearance of a dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions,
+namely, with erected ears, eyes intently directed forwards, hair on the
+neck and back bristling, gait remarkably stiff, with the tail upright and
+rigid. So familiar is this appearance to us, that an angry man is
+sometimes said &ldquo;to have his back up.&rdquo; Of the above points, the stiff gait
+and upright tail alone require further discussion. Sir C. Bell remarks<a
+href="#linknote-501" name="linknoteref-501" id="linknoteref-501">[501]</a>
+that, when a tiger or wolf is struck by its keeper and is suddenly roused
+to ferocity, every muscle is in tension, and the limbs are in an attitude
+of strained exertion, prepared to spring. This tension of the muscles and
+consequent stiff gait may be accounted for on the principle of associated
+habit, for anger has continually led to fierce struggles, and consequently
+to all the muscles of the body having been violently exerted. There is
+also reason to suspect that the muscular system requires some short
+preparation, or some degree of innervation, before being brought into
+strong action. My own sensations lead me to this inference; but I cannot
+discover that it is a conclusion admitted by physiologists. Sir J. Paget,
+however, informs me that when muscles are suddenly contracted with the
+greatest force, without any preparation, they are liable to be ruptured,
+as when a man slips unexpectedly; but that this rarely occurs when an
+action, however violent, is deliberately performed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With respect to the upright position of the tail, it seems to depend (but
+whether this is really the case I know not) on the elevator muscles being
+more powerful than the depressors, so that when all the muscles of the
+hinder part of the body are in a state of tension, the tail is raised. A
+dog in cheerful spirits, and trotting before his master with high, elastic
+steps, generally carries his tail aloft, though it is not held nearly so
+stiffly as when he is angered. A horse when first turned out into an open
+field, may be seen to trot with long elastic strides, the head and tail
+being held high aloft. Even cows when they frisk about from pleasure,
+throw up their tails in a ridiculous fashion. So it is with various
+animals in the Zoological Gardens. The position of the tail, however, in
+certain cases, is determined by special circumstances; thus as soon as a
+horse breaks into a gallop, at full speed, he always lowers his tail, so
+that as little resistance as possible may be offered to the air.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When a dog is on the point of springing on his antagonist, he utters a
+savage growl; the ears are pressed closely backwards, and the upper lip
+(fig. 14) is retracted out of the way of his teeth, especially of his
+canines. These movements may be observed with dogs and puppies in their
+play. But if a dog gets really savage in his play, his expression
+immediately changes. This, however, is simply due to the lips and ears
+being drawn back with much greater energy. If a dog only snarls at
+another, the lip is generally retracted on one side alone, namely towards
+his enemy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0013" id="linkimage-0013">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Head of Snarling Dog. Fig 14 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+{illust. caption = FIG. 14.&mdash;Head of snarling Dog. From life, by Mr.
+Wood.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The movements of a dog whilst exhibiting affection towards his master were
+described (figs. 6 and 8) in our second chapter. These consist in the head
+and whole body being lowered and thrown into flexuous movements, with the
+tail extended and wagged from side to side. The ears fall down and are
+drawn somewhat backwards, which causes the eyelids to be elongated, and
+alters the whole appearance of the face. The lips hang loosely, and the
+hair remains smooth. All these movements or gestures are explicable, as I
+believe, from their standing in complete antithesis to those naturally
+assumed by a savage dog under a directly opposite state of mind. When a
+man merely speaks to, or just notices, his dog, we see the last vestige of
+these movements in a slight wag of the tail, without any other movement of
+the body, and without even the ears being lowered. Dogs also exhibit their
+affection by desiring to rub against their masters, and to be rubbed or
+patted by them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gratiolet explains the above gestures of affection in the following manner: and
+the reader can judge whether the explanation appears satisfactory. Speaking of
+animals in general, including the dog, he says,<a href="#linknote-502"
+name="linknoteref-502" id="linknoteref-502">[502]</a> &ldquo;C&rsquo;est
+toujours la partie la plus sensible de leurs corps qui recherche les caresses
+ou les donne. Lorsque toute la longueur des flancs et du corps est sensible,
+l&rsquo;animal serpente et rampe sous les caresses; et ces ondulations se
+propageant le long des muscles analogues des segments jusqu&rsquo;aux
+extrémités de la colonne vertébrale, la queue se ploie et s&rsquo;agite.&rdquo;
+Further on, he adds, that dogs, when feeling affectionate, lower their ears in
+order to exclude all sounds, so that their whole attention may be concentrated
+on the caresses of their master!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dogs have another and striking way of exhibiting their affection, namely, by
+licking the hands or faces of their masters. They sometimes lick other dogs,
+and then it is always their chops. I have also seen dogs licking cats with whom
+they were friends. This habit probably originated in the females carefully
+licking their puppies&mdash;the dearest object of their love&mdash;for the sake
+of cleansing them. They also often give their puppies, after a short absence, a
+few cursory licks, apparently from affection. Thus the habit will have become
+associated with the emotion of love, however it may afterwards be aroused. It
+is now so firmly inherited or innate, that it is transmitted equally to both
+sexes. A female terrier of mine lately had her puppies destroyed, and though at
+all times a very affectionate creature, I was much struck with the manner in
+which she then tried to satisfy her instinctive maternal love by expending it
+on me; and her desire to lick my hands rose to an insatiable passion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The same principle probably explains why dogs, when feeling affectionate,
+like rubbing against their masters and being rubbed or patted by them, for
+from the nursing of their puppies, contact with a beloved object has
+become firmly associated in their minds with the emotion of love.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The feeling of affection of a dog towards his master is combined with a strong
+sense of submission, which is akin to fear. Hence dogs not only lower their
+bodies and crouch a little as they approach their masters, but sometimes throw
+themselves on the ground with their bellies upwards. This is a movement as
+completely opposite as is possible to any show of resistance. I formerly
+possessed a large dog who was not at all afraid to fight with other dogs; but a
+wolf-like shepherd-dog in the neighbourhood, though not ferocious and not so
+powerful as my dog, had a strange influence over him. When they met on the
+road, my dog used to run to meet him, with his tail partly tucked in between
+his legs and hair not erected; and then he would throw himself on the ground,
+belly upwards. By this action he seemed to say more plainly than by words,
+&ldquo;Behold, I am your slave.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A pleasurable and excited state of mind, associated with affection, is
+exhibited by some dogs in a very peculiar manner, namely, by grinning. This was
+noticed long ago by Somerville, who says,
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;And with a courtly grin, the fawning hound<br/>
+Salutes thee cow&rsquo;ring, his wide op&rsquo;ning nose<br/>
+Upward he curls, and his large sloe-back eyes<br/>
+Melt in soft blandishments, and humble joy.&rdquo;<br/>
+<i>The Chase</i>, book i.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sir W. Scott&rsquo;s famous Scotch greyhound, Maida, had this habit, and it is
+common with terriers. I have also seen it in a Spitz and in a sheep-dog. Mr.
+Riviere, who has particularly attended to this expression, informs me that it
+is rarely displayed in a perfect manner, but is quite common in a lesser
+degree. The upper lip during the act of grinning is retracted, as in snarling,
+so that the canines are exposed, and the ears are drawn backwards; but the
+general appearance of the animal clearly shows that anger is not felt. Sir C.
+Bell<a href="#linknote-503" name="linknoteref-503"
+id="linknoteref-503">[503]</a> remarks &ldquo;Dogs, in their expression of
+fondness, have a slight eversion of the lips, and grin and sniff amidst their
+gambols, in a way that resembles laughter.&rdquo; Some persons speak of the
+grin as a smile, but if it had been really a smile, we should see a similar,
+though more pronounced, movement of the lips and ears, when dogs utter their
+bark of joy; but this is not the case, although a bark of joy often follows a
+grin. On the other hand, dogs, when playing with their comrades or masters,
+almost always pretend to bite each other; and they then retract, though not
+energetically, their lips and ears. Hence I suspect that there is a tendency in
+some dogs, whenever they feel lively pleasure combined with affection, to act
+through habit and association on the same muscles, as in playfully biting each
+other, or their masters&rsquo; hands.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have described, in the second chapter, the gait and appearance of a dog when
+cheerful, and the marked antithesis presented by the same animal when dejected
+and disappointed, with his head, ears, body, tail, and chops drooping, and eyes
+dull. Under the expectation of any great pleasure, dogs bound and jump about in
+an extravagant manner, and bark for joy. The tendency to bark under this state
+of mind is inherited, or runs in the breed: greyhounds rarely bark, whilst the
+Spitz-dog barks so incessantly on starting for a walk with his master that he
+becomes a nuisance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+An agony of pain is expressed by dogs in nearly the same way as by many
+other animals, namely, by howling writhing, and contortions of the whole
+body.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Attention is shown by the head being raised, with the ears erected, and eyes
+intently directed towards the object or quarter under observation. If it be a
+sound and the source is not known, the head is often turned obliquely from side
+to side in a most significant manner, apparently in order to judge with more
+exactness from what point the sound proceeds. But I have seen a dog greatly
+surprised at a new noise, turning, his head to one side through habit, though
+he clearly perceived the source of the noise. Dogs, as formerly remarked, when
+their attention is in any way aroused, whilst watching some object, or
+attending to some sound, often lift up one paw (fig. 4) and keep it doubled up,
+as if to make a slow and stealthy approach.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A dog under extreme terror will throw himself down, howl, and void his
+excretions; but the hair, I believe, does not become erect unless some anger is
+felt. I have seen a dog much terrified at a band of musicians who were playing
+loudly outside the house, with every muscle of his body trembling, with his
+heart palpitating so quickly that the beats could hardly be counted, and
+panting for breath with widely open mouth, in the same manner as a terrified
+man does. Yet this dog had not exerted himself; he had only wandered slowly and
+restlessly about the room, and the day was cold.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Even a very slight degree of fear is invariably shown by the tail being tucked
+in between the legs. This tucking in of the fail is accompanied by the ears
+being drawn backwards; but they are not pressed closely to the head, as in
+snarling, and they are not lowered, as when a dog is pleased or affectionate.
+When two young dogs chase each other in play, the one that runs away always
+keeps his tail tucked inwards. So it is when a dog, in the highest spirits,
+careers like a mad creature round and round his master in circles, or in
+figures of eight. He then acts as if another dog were chasing him. This curious
+kind of play, which must be familiar to every one who has attended to dogs, is
+particularly apt to be excited, after the animal has been a little startled or
+frightened, as by his master suddenly jumping out on him in the dusk. In this
+case, as well as when two young dogs are chasing each other in play, it appears
+as if the one that runs away was afraid of the other catching him by the tail;
+but as far as I can find out, dogs very rarely catch each other in this manner.
+I asked a gentleman, who had kept foxhounds all his life, and he applied to
+other experienced sportsmen, whether they had ever seen hounds thus seize a
+fox; but they never had. It appears that when a dog is chased, or when in
+danger of being struck behind, or of anything falling on him, in all these
+cases he wishes to withdraw as quickly as possible his whole hind-quarters, and
+that from some sympathy or connection between the muscles, the tail is then
+drawn closely inwards.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A similarly connected movement between the hind-quarters and the tail may be
+observed in the hyaena. Mr. Bartlett informs me that when two of these animals
+fight together, they are mutually conscious of the wonderful power of each
+other&rsquo;s jaws, and are extremely cautious. They well know that if one of
+their legs were seized, the bone would instantly be crushed into atoms; hence
+they approach each other kneeling, with their legs turned as much as possible
+inwards, and with their whole bodies bowed, so as not to present any salient
+point; the tail at the same time being closely tucked in between the legs. In
+this attitude they approach each other sideways, or even partly backwards. So
+again with deer, several of the species, when savage and fighting, tuck in
+their tails. When one horse in a field tries to bite the hind-quarters of
+another in play, or when a rough boy strikes a donkey from behind, the
+hind-quarters and the tail are drawn in, though it does not appear as if this
+were done merely to save the tail from being injured. We have also seen the
+reverse of these movements; for when an animal trots with high elastic steps,
+the tail is almost always carried aloft.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As I have said, when a dog is chased and runs away, he keeps his ears directed
+backwards but still open; and this is clearly done for the sake of hearing the
+footsteps of his pursuer. From habit the ears are often held in this same
+position, and the tail tucked in, when the danger is obviously in front. I have
+repeatedly noticed, with a timid terrier of mine, that when she is afraid of
+some object in front, the nature of which she perfectly knows and does not need
+to reconnoitre, yet she will for a long time hold her ears and tail in this
+position, looking the image of discomfort. Discomfort, without any fear, is
+similarly expressed: thus, one day I went out of doors, just at the time when
+this same dog knew that her dinner would be brought. I did not call her, but
+she wished much to accompany me, and at the same time she wished much for her
+dinner; and there she stood, first looking one way and then the other, with her
+tail tucked in and ears drawn back, presenting an unmistakable appearance of
+perplexed discomfort.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Almost all the expressive movements now described, with the exception of the
+grinning from joy, are innate or instinctive, for they are common to all the
+individuals, young and old, of all the breeds. Most of them are likewise common
+to the aboriginal parents of the dog, namely the wolf and jackal; and some of
+them to other species of the same group. Tamed wolves and jackals, when
+caressed by their masters, jump about for joy, wag their tails, lower their
+ears, lick their master&rsquo;s hands, crouch down, and even throw themselves
+on the ground belly upwards.<a href="#linknote-504" name="linknoteref-504"
+id="linknoteref-504">[504]</a> I have seen a rather fox-like African jackal,
+from the Gaboon, depress its ears when caressed. Wolves and jackals, when
+frightened, certainly tuck in their tails; and a tamed jackal has been
+described as careering round his master in circles and figures of eight, like a
+dog, with his tail between his legs.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It has been stated<a href="#linknote-505" name="linknoteref-505"
+id="linknoteref-505">[505]</a> that foxes, however tame, never display any of
+the above expressive movements; but this is not strictly accurate. Many years
+ago I observed in the Zoological Gardens, and recorded the fact at the time,
+that a very tame English fox, When caressed by the keeper, wagged its tail,
+depressed its ears, and then threw itself on the ground, belly upwards. The
+black fox of North America likewise depressed its ears in a slight degree. But
+I believe that foxes never lick the hands of their masters, and I have been
+assured that when frightened they never tuck in their tails. If the explanation
+which I have given of the expression of affection in dogs be admitted, then it
+would appear that animals which have never been domesticated&mdash;namely
+wolves, jackals, and even foxes&mdash;have nevertheless acquired, through the
+principle of antithesis, certain expressive gestures; for it is not probable
+that these animals, confined in cages, should have learnt them by imitating
+dogs.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Cats</i>.&mdash;I have already described the actions of a cat (fig. 9),
+when feeling savage and not terrified. She assumes a crouching attitude
+and occasionally protrudes her fore-feet, with the claws exserted ready
+for striking. The tail is extended, being curled or lashed from side to
+side. The hair is not erected&mdash;at least it was not so in the few
+cases observed by me. The ears are drawn closely backwards and the teeth
+are shown. Low savage growls are uttered. We can understand why the
+attitude assumed by a cat when preparing to fight with another cat, or in
+any way greatly irritated, is so widely different from that of a dog
+approaching another dog with hostile intentions; for the cat uses her
+fore-feet for striking, and this renders a crouching position convenient
+or necessary. She is also much more accustomed than a dog to lie concealed
+and suddenly spring on her prey. No cause can be assigned with certainty
+for the tail being lashed or curled from side to side. This habit is
+common to many other animals&mdash;for instance, to the puma, when
+prepared to spring;<a href="#linknote-506" name="linknoteref-506"
+id="linknoteref-506">[506]</a> but it is not common to dogs, or to foxes,
+as I infer from Mr. St. John&rsquo;s account of a fox lying in wait and seizing
+a hare. We have already seen that some kinds of lizards and various
+snakes, when excited, rapidly vibrate the tips of their tails. It would
+appear as if, under strong excitement, there existed an uncontrollable
+desire for movement of some kind, owing to nerve-force being freely
+liberated from the excited sensorium; and that as the tail is left free,
+and as its movement does not disturb the general position of the body, it
+is curled or lashed about.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All the movements of a cat, when feeling affectionate, are in complete
+antithesis to those just described. She now stands upright, with slightly
+arched back, tail perpendicularly raised, and ears erected; and she rubs
+her cheeks and flanks against her master or mistress. The desire to rub
+something is so strong in cats under this state of mind, that they may
+often be seen rubbing themselves against the legs of chairs or tables, or
+against door-posts. This manner of expressing affection probably
+originated through association, as in the case of dogs, from the mother
+nursing and fondling her young; and perhaps from the young themselves
+loving each other and playing together. Another and very different
+gesture, expressive of pleasure, has already been described, namely, the
+curious manner in which young and even old cats, when pleased, alternately
+protrude their fore-feet, with separated toes, as if pushing against and
+sucking their mother&rsquo;s teats. This habit is so far analogous to that of
+rubbing against something, that both apparently are derived from actions
+performed during the nursing period. Why cats should show affection by
+rubbing so much more than do dogs, though the latter delight in contact
+with their masters, and why cats only occasionally lick the hands of their
+friends, whilst dogs always do so, I cannot say. Cats cleanse themselves
+by licking their own coats more regularly than do dogs. On the other hand,
+their tongues seem less well fitted for the work than the longer and more
+flexible tongues of dogs.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0014" id="linkimage-0014">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Cat Terrified at a Dog.  Fig.15 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Cats, when terrified, stand at full height, and arch their backs in a
+well-known and ridiculous fashion. They spit, hiss, or growl. The hair
+over the whole body, and especially on the tail, becomes erect. In the
+instances observed by me the basal part of the tail was held upright, the
+terminal part being thrown on one side; but sometimes the tail (see fig.
+15) is only a little raised, and is bent almost from the base to one side.
+The ears are drawn back, and the teeth exposed. When two kittens are
+playing together, the one often thus tries to frighten the other. From
+what we have seen in former chapters, all the above points of expression
+are intelligible, except the extreme arching of the back. I am inclined to
+believe that, in the same manner as many birds, whilst they ruffle their
+feathers, spread out their wings and tail, to make themselves look as big
+as possible, so cats stand upright at their full height, arch their backs,
+often raise the basal part of the tail, and erect their hair, for the same
+purpose. The lynx, when attacked, is said to arch its back, and is thus
+figured by Brehm. But the keepers in the Zoological Gardens have never
+seen any tendency to this action in the larger feline animals, such as
+tigers, lions, &amp;c.; and these have little cause to be afraid of any
+other animal.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cats use their voices much as a means of expression, and they utter, under
+various emotions and desires, at least six or seven different sounds. The
+purr of satisfaction, which is made during both inspiration and
+expiration, is one of the most curious. The puma, cheetah, and ocelot
+likewise purr; but the tiger, when pleased, &ldquo;emits a peculiar short
+snuffle, accompanied by the closure of the eyelids.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-507"
+name="linknoteref-507" id="linknoteref-507">[507]</a> It is said that the
+lion, jaguar, and leopard, do not purr.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Horses</i>.&mdash;Horses when savage draw their ears closely back,
+protrude their heads, and partially uncover their incisor teeth, ready for
+biting. When inclined to kick behind, they generally, through habit, draw
+back their ears; and their eyes are turned backwards in a peculiar manner.<a
+href="#linknote-508" name="linknoteref-508" id="linknoteref-508">[508]</a>
+When pleased, as when some coveted food is brought to them in the stable,
+they raise and draw in their heads, prick their ears, and looking intently
+towards their friend, often whinny. Impatience is expressed by pawing the
+ground.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The actions of a horse when much startled are highly expressive. One day
+my horse was much frightened at a drilling machine, covered by a
+tarpaulin, and lying on an open field. He raised his head so high, that
+his neck became almost perpendicular; and this he did from habit, for the
+machine lay on a slope below, and could not have been seen with more
+distinctness through the raising of the head; nor if any sound had
+proceeded from it, could the sound have been more distinctly heard. His
+eyes and ears were directed intently forwards; and I could feel through
+the saddle the palpitations of his heart. With red dilated nostrils he
+snorted violently, and whirling round, would have dashed off at full
+speed, had I not prevented him. The distension of the nostrils is not for
+the sake of scenting the source of danger, for when a horse smells
+carefully at any object and is not alarmed, he does not dilate his
+nostrils. Owing to the presence of a valve in the throat, a horse when
+panting does not breathe through his open mouth, but through his nostrils;
+and these consequently have become endowed with great powers of expansion.
+This expansion of the nostrils, as well as the snorting, and the
+palpitations of the heart, are actions which have become firmly associated
+during a long series of generations with the emotion of terror; for terror
+has habitually led the horse to the most violent exertion in dashing away
+at full speed from the cause of danger.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Ruminants</i>.&mdash;Cattle and sheep are remarkable from displaying in
+so slight a degree their emotions or sensations, excepting that of extreme
+pain. A bull when enraged exhibits his rage only by the manner in which he
+holds his lowered head, with distended nostrils, and by bellowing. He also
+often paws the ground; but this pawing seems quite different from that of
+an impatient horse, for when the soil is loose, he throws up clouds of
+dust. I believe that bulls act in this manner when irritated by flies, for
+the sake of driving them away. The wilder breeds of sheep and the chamois
+when startled stamp on the ground, and whistle through their noses; and
+this serves as a danger-signal to their comrades. The musk-ox of the
+Arctic regions, when encountered, likewise stamps on the ground.<a
+href="#linknote-509" name="linknoteref-509" id="linknoteref-509">[509]</a>
+How this stamping action arose I cannot conjecture; for from inquiries
+which I have made it does not appear that any of these animals fight with
+their fore-legs.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Some species of deer, when savage, display far more expression than do
+cattle, sheep, or goats, for, as has already been stated, they draw back
+their ears, grind their teeth, erect their hair, squeal, stamp on the
+ground, and brandish their horns. One day in the Zoological Gardens, the
+Formosan deer (<i>Cervus pseudaxis</i>) approached me in a curious
+attitude, with his muzzle raised high up, so that the horns were pressed
+back on his neck; the head being held rather obliquely. From the
+expression of his eye I felt sure that he was savage; he approached
+slowly, and as soon as he came close to the iron bars, he did not lower
+his head to butt at me, but suddenly bent it inwards, and struck his horns
+with great force against the railings. Mr. Bartlett informs me that some
+other species of deer place themselves in the same attitude when enraged.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Monkeys</i>.&mdash;The various species and genera of monkeys express
+their feelings in many different ways; and this fact is interesting, as in
+some degree bearing on the question, whether the so-called races of man
+should be ranked as distinct species or varieties; for, as we shall see in
+the following chapters, the different races of man express their emotions
+and sensations with remarkable uniformity throughout the world. Some of
+the expressive actions of monkeys are interesting in another way, namely
+from being closely analogous to those of man. As I have had no opportunity
+of observing any one species of the group under all circumstances, my
+miscellaneous remarks will be best arranged under different states of the
+mind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Pleasure, joy, affection</i>&mdash;It is not possible to distinguish in
+monkeys, at least without more experience than I have had, the expression
+of pleasure or joy from that of affection. Young chimpanzees make a kind
+of barking noise, when pleased by the return of any one to whom they are
+attached. When this noise, which the keepers call a laugh, is uttered, the
+lips are protruded; but so they are under various other emotions.
+Nevertheless I could perceive that when they were pleased the form of the
+lips differed a little from that assumed when they were angered. If a
+young chimpanzee be tickled&mdash;and the armpits are particularly
+sensitive to tickling, as in the case of our children,&mdash;a more
+decided chuckling or laughing sound is uttered; though the laughter is
+sometimes noiseless. The corners of the mouth are then drawn backwards;
+and this sometimes causes the lower eyelids to be slightly wrinkled. But
+this wrinkling, which is so characteristic of our own laughter, is more
+plainly seen in some other monkeys. The teeth in the upper jaw in the
+chimpanzee are not exposed when they utter their laughing noise, in which
+respect they differ from us. But their eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as
+Mr. W. L. Martin,<a href="#linknote-510" name="linknoteref-510"
+id="linknoteref-510">[510]</a> who has particularly attended to their
+expression, states.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Young Orangs, when tickled, likewise grin and make a chuckling sound; and
+Mr. Martin says that their eyes grow brighter. As soon as their laughter
+ceases, an expression may be detected passing over their faces, which, as
+Mr. Wallace remarked to me, may be called a smile. I have also noticed
+something of the same kind with the chimpanzee. Dr. Duchenne&mdash;and I
+cannot quote a better authority&mdash;informs me that he kept a very tame
+monkey in his house for a year; and when he gave it during meal-times some
+choice delicacy, he observed that the corners of its mouth were slightly
+raised; thus an expression of satisfaction, partaking of the nature of an
+incipient smile, and resembling that often seen on the face of main, could
+be plainly perceived in this animal.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Cebus azaræ</i>,<a href="#linknote-511" name="linknoteref-511"
+id="linknoteref-511">[511]</a> when rejoiced at again seeing a beloved
+person, utters a peculiar tittering (<i>kichernden</i>) sound. It also
+expresses agreeable sensations, by drawing back the corners of its mouth,
+without producing any sound. Rengger calls this movement laughter, but it
+would be more appropriately called a smile. The form of the mouth is
+different when either pain or terror is expressed, and high shrieks are
+uttered. Another species of <i>Cebus</i> in the Zoological Gardens (<i>C.
+hypoleucus</i>) when pleased, makes a reiterated shrill note, and likewise
+draws back the corners of its mouth, apparently through the contraction of
+the same muscles as with us. So does the Barbary ape (<i>Inuus ecaudatus</i>)
+to an extraordinary degree; and I observed in this monkey that the skin of
+the lower eyelids then became much wrinkled. At the same time it rapidly
+moved its lower jaw or lips in a spasmodic manner, the teeth being
+exposed; but the noise produced was hardly more distinct than that which
+we sometimes call silent laughter. Two of the keepers affirmed that this
+slight sound was the animal&rsquo;s laughter, and when I expressed some doubt on
+this head (being at the time quite inexperienced), they made it attack or
+rather threaten a hated Entellus monkey, living in the same compartment.
+Instantly the whole expression of the face of the Inuus changed; the mouth
+was opened much more widely, the canine teeth were more fully exposed, and
+a hoarse barking noise was uttered.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Anubis baboon (<i>Cynocephalus anubis</i>) was first insulted and put
+into a furious rage, as was easily done, by his keeper, who then made
+friends with him and shook hands. As the reconciliation was effected the
+baboon rapidly moved up and down his jaws and lips, and looked pleased.
+When we laugh heartily, a similar movement, or quiver, may be observed
+more or less distinctly in our jaws; but with man the muscles of the chest
+are more particularly acted on, whilst with this baboon, and with some
+other monkeys, it is the muscles of the jaws and lips which are
+spasmodically affected.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0016" id="linkimage-0016">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig16-17.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Cynopithecus Niger, in a Placid Condition. Fig.16-17 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+I have already had occasion to remark on the curious manner in which two
+or three species of Alacacus and the <i>Cynopithecus niger</i> draw back
+their ears and utter a slight jabbering noise, when they are pleased by
+being caressed. With the Cynopithecus (fig. 17), the corners of the mouth
+are at the same time drawn backwards and upwards, so that the teeth are
+exposed. Hence this expression would never be recognized by a stranger as
+one of pleasure. The crest of long hairs on the forehead is depressed, and
+apparently the whole skin of the head drawn backwards. The eyebrows are
+thus raised a little, and the eyes assume a staring appearance. The lower
+eyelids also become slightly wrinkled; but this wrinkling is not
+conspicuous, owing to the permanent transverse furrows on the face.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Painful emotions and sensations</i>.&mdash;With monkeys the expression
+of slight pain, or of any painful emotion, such as grief, vexation,
+jealousy, &amp;c., is not easily distinguished from that of moderate
+anger; and these states of mind readily and quickly pass into each other.
+Grief, however, with some species is certainly exhibited by weeping. A
+woman, who sold a monkey to the Zoological Society, believed to have come
+from Borneo (<i>Macacus maurus</i> or <i>M. inornatus</i> of Gray), said
+that it often cried; and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the keeper Mr. Sutton,
+have repeatedly seen it, when grieved, or even when much pitied, weeping
+so copiously that the tears rolled down its cheeks. There is, however,
+something strange about this case, for two specimens subsequently kept in
+the Gardens, and believed to be the same species, have never been seen to
+weep, though they were carefully observed by the keeper and myself when
+much distressed and loudly screaming. Rengger states<a href="#linknote-512"
+name="linknoteref-512" id="linknoteref-512">[512]</a> that the eyes of the
+<i>Cebus azaræ</i> fill with tears, but not sufficiently to overflow,
+when it is prevented getting some much desired object, or is much
+frightened. Humboldt also asserts that the eyes of the <i>Callithrix
+sciureus</i> &ldquo;instantly fill with tears when it is seized with fear;&rdquo; but
+when this pretty little monkey in the Zoological Gardens was teased, so as
+to cry out loudly, this did not occur. I do not, however, wish to throw
+the least doubt on the accuracy of Humboldt&rsquo;s statement.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The appearance of dejection in young orangs and chimpanzees, when out of
+health, is as plain and almost as pathetic as in the case of our children.
+This state of mind and body is shown by their listless movements, fallen
+countenances, dull eyes, and changed complexion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Anger</i>.&mdash;This emotion is often exhibited by many kinds of
+monkeys, and is expressed, as Mr. Martin remarks,<a href="#linknote-513"
+name="linknoteref-513" id="linknoteref-513">[513]</a> in many different
+ways. &ldquo;Some species, when irritated, pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and
+savage glare on their foe, and make repeated short starts as if about to
+spring forward, uttering at the same time inward guttural sounds. Many
+display their anger by suddenly advancing, making abrupt starts, at the
+same time opening the mouth and pursing up the lips, so as to conceal the
+teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed on the enemy, as if in savage
+defiance. Some again, and principally the long-tailed monkeys, or Guenons,
+display their teeth, and accompany their malicious grins with a sharp,
+abrupt, reiterated cry.&rdquo; Mr. Sutton confirms the statement that some
+species uncover their teeth when enraged, whilst others conceal them by
+the protrusion of their lips; and some kinds draw back their ears. The <i>Cynopithecus
+niger</i>, lately referred to, acts in this manner, at the same time
+depressing the crest of hair on its forehead, and showing its teeth; so
+that the movements of the features from anger are nearly the same as those
+from pleasure; and the two expressions can be distinguished only by those
+familiar with the animal.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Baboons often show their passion and threaten their enemies in a very odd
+manner, namely, by opening their mouths widely as in the act of yawning.
+Mr. Bartlett has often seen two baboons, when first placed in the same
+compartment, sitting opposite to each other and thus alternately opening
+their mouths; and this action seems frequently to end in a real yawn. Mr.
+Bartlett believes that both animals wish to show to each other that they
+are provided with a formidable set of teeth, as is undoubtedly the case.
+As I could hardly credit the reality of this yawning gesture, Mr. Bartlett
+insulted an old baboon and put him into a violent passion; and he almost
+immediately thus acted. Some species of Macacus and of Cereopithecus<a
+href="#linknote-514" name="linknoteref-514" id="linknoteref-514">[514]</a>
+behave in the same manner. Baboons likewise show their anger, as was
+observed by Brehin with those which he kept alive in Abyssinia, in another
+manner, namely, by striking the ground with one hand, &ldquo;like an angry man
+striking the table with his fist.&rdquo; I have seen this movement with the
+baboons in the Zoological Gardens; but sometimes the action seems rather
+to represent the searching for a stone or other object in their beds of
+straw.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Sutton has often observed the face of the <i>Macacus rhesus</i>, when
+much enraged, growing red. As he was mentioning this to me, another monkey
+attacked a <i>rhesus</i>, and I saw its face redden as plainly as that of
+a man in a violent passion. In the course of a few minutes, after the
+battle, the face of this monkey recovered its natural tint. At the same
+time that the face reddened, the naked posterior part of the body, which
+is always red, seemed to grow still redder; but I cannot positively assert
+that this was the case. When the Mandrill is in any way excited, the
+brilliantly coloured, naked parts of the skin are said to become still
+more vividly coloured.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With several species of baboons the ridge of the forehead projects much
+over the eyes, and is studded with a few long hairs, representing our
+eyebrows. These animals are always looking about them, and in order to
+look upwards they raise their eyebrows. They have thus, as it would
+appear, acquired the habit of frequently moving their eyebrows. However
+this may be, many kinds of monkeys, especially the baboons, when angered
+or in any way excited, rapidly and incessantly move their eyebrows up and
+down, as well as the hairy skin of their foreheads.<a href="#linknote-515"
+name="linknoteref-515" id="linknoteref-515">[515]</a> As we associate in
+the case of man the raising and lowering of the eyebrows with definite
+states of the mind, the almost incessant movement of the eyebrows by
+monkeys gives them a senseless expression. I once observed a man who had a
+trick of continually raising his eyebrows without any corresponding
+emotion, and this gave to him a foolish appearance; so it is with some
+persons who keep the corners of their mouths a little drawn backwards and
+upwards, as if by an incipient smile, though at the time they are not
+amused or pleased.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A young orang, made jealous by her keeper attending to another monkey,
+slightly uncovered her teeth, and, uttering a peevish noise like <i>tish-shist</i>,
+turned her back on him. Both orangs and chimpanzees, when a little more
+angered, protrude their lips greatly, and make a harsh barking noise. A
+young female chimpanzee, in a violent passion, presented a curious
+resemblance to a child in the same state. She screamed loudly with widely
+open mouth, the lips being retracted so that the teeth were fully exposed.
+She threw her arms wildly about, sometimes clasping them over her head.
+She rolled on the ground, sometimes on her back, sometimes on her belly,
+and bit everything within reach. A young gibbon (<i>Hylobates syndactylus</i>)
+in a passion has been described<a href="#linknote-516"
+name="linknoteref-516" id="linknoteref-516">[516]</a> as behaving in
+almost exactly the same manner.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The lips of young orangs and chimpanzees are protruded, sometimes to a
+wonderful degree, under various circumstances. They act thus, not only
+when slightly angered, sulky, or disappointed, but when alarmed at
+anything&mdash;in one instance, at the sight of a turtle,<a
+href="#linknote-517" name="linknoteref-517" id="linknoteref-517">[517]</a>&mdash;and
+likewise when pleased. But neither the degree of protrusion nor the shape
+of the mouth is exactly the same, as I believe, in all cases; and the
+sounds which are then uttered are different. The accompanying drawing
+represents a chimpanzee made sulky by an orange having been offered him,
+and then taken away. A similar protrusion or pouting of the lips, though
+to a much slighter degree, may be seen in sulky children.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0017" id="linkimage-0017">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig18.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Chimpanzee Disappointed and Sulky. Fig. 18 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Many years ago, in the Zoological Gardens, I placed a looking-glass on the
+floor before two young orangs, who, as far as it was known, had never
+before seen one. At first they gazed at their own images with the most
+steady surprise, and often changed their point of view. They then
+approached close and protruded their lips towards the image, as if to kiss
+it, in exactly the same manner as they had previously done towards each
+other, when first placed, a few days before, in the same room. They next
+made all sorts of grimaces, and put themselves in various attitudes before
+the mirror; they pressed and rubbed the surface; they placed their hands
+at different distances behind it; looked behind it; and finally seemed
+almost frightened, started a little, became cross, and refused to look any
+longer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When we try to perform some little action which is difficult and requires
+precision, for instance, to thread a needle, we generally close our lips
+firmly, for the sake, I presume, of not disturbing our movements by
+breathing; and I noticed the same action in a young Orang. The poor little
+creature was sick, and was amusing itself by trying to kill the flies on
+the window-panes with its knuckles; this was difficult as the flies buzzed
+about, and at each attempt the lips were firmly compressed, and at the
+same time slightly protruded.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although the countenances, and more especially the gestures, of orangs and
+chimpanzees are in some respects highly expressive, I doubt whether on the
+whole they are so expressive as those of some other kinds of monkeys. This
+may be attributed in part to their ears being immovable, and in part to
+the nakedness of their eyebrows, of which the movements are thus rendered
+less conspicuous. When, however, they raise their eyebrows their foreheads
+become, as with us, transversely wrinkled. In comparison with man, their
+faces are inexpressive, chiefly owing to their not frowning under any
+emotion of the mind&mdash;that is, as far as I have been able to observe,
+and I carefully attended to this point. Frowning, which is one of the most
+important of all the expressions in man, is due to the contraction of the
+corrugators by which the eyebrows are lowered and brought together, so
+that vertical furrows are formed on the forehead. Both the orang and
+chimpanzee are said<a href="#linknote-518" name="linknoteref-518"
+id="linknoteref-518">[518]</a> to possess this muscle, but it seems rarely
+brought into action, at least in a conspicuous manner. I made my hands
+into a sort of cage, and placing some tempting fruit within, allowed both
+a young orang and chimpanzee to try their utmost to get it out; but
+although they grew rather cross, they showed not a trace of a frown. Nor
+was there any frown when they were enraged. Twice I took two chimpanzees
+from their rather dark room suddenly into bright sunshine, which would
+certainly have caused us to frown; they blinked and winked their eyes, but
+only once did I see a very slight frown. On another occasion, I tickled
+the nose of a chimpanzee with a straw, and as it crumpled up its face,
+slight vertical furrows appeared between the eyebrows. I have never seen a
+frown on the forehead of the orang.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The gorilla, when enraged, is described as erecting its crest of hair,
+throwing down its under lip, dilating its nostrils, and uttering terrific
+yells. Messrs. Savage and Wyman<a href="#linknote-519"
+name="linknoteref-519" id="linknoteref-519">[519]</a> state that the scalp
+can be freely moved backwards and forwards, and that when the animal is
+excited it is strongly contracted; but I presume that they mean by this
+latter expression that the scalp is lowered; for they likewise speak of
+the young chimpanzee, when crying out, as having the eyebrows strongly
+contracted. The great power of movement in the scalp of the gorilla, of
+many baboons and other monkeys, deserves notice in relation to the power
+possessed by some few men, either through reversion or persistence, of
+voluntarily moving their scalps.<a href="#linknote-520"
+name="linknoteref-520" id="linknoteref-520">[520]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Astonishment, Terror</i>&mdash;A living fresh-water turtle was placed
+at my request in the same compartment in the Zoological Gardens with many
+monkeys; and they showed unbounded astonishment, as well as some fear.
+This was displayed by their remaining motionless, staring intently with
+widely opened eyes, their eyebrows being often moved up and down. Their
+faces seemed somewhat lengthened. They occasionally raised themselves on
+their hind-legs to get abetter view. They often retreated a few feet, and
+then turning their heads over one shoulder, again stared intently. It was
+curious to observe how much less afraid they were of the turtle than of a
+living snake which I had formerly placed in their compartment;<a
+href="#linknote-521" name="linknoteref-521" id="linknoteref-521">[521]</a>
+for in the course of a few minutes some of the monkeys ventured to
+approach and touch the turtle. On the other hand, some of the larger
+baboons were greatly terrified, and grinned as if on the point of
+screaming out. When I showed a little dressed-up doll to the <i>Cynopithecus
+niger</i>, it stood motionless, stared intently with widely opened eyes,
+and advanced its ears a little forwards. But when the turtle was placed in
+its compartment, this monkey also moved its lips in an odd, rapid,
+jabbering manner, which the keeper declared was meant to conciliate or
+please the turtle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I was never able clearly to perceive that the eyebrows of astonished
+monkeys were kept permanently raised, though they were frequently moved up
+and down. Attention, which precedes astonishment, is expressed by man by a
+slight raising of the eyebrows; and Dr. Duchenne informs me that when he
+gave to the monkey formerly mentioned some quite new article of food, it
+elevated its eyebrows a little, thus assuming an appearance of close
+attention. It then took the food in its fingers, and, with lowered or
+rectilinear eyebrows, scratched, smelt, and examined it,&mdash;an
+expression of reflection being thus exhibited. Sometimes it would throw
+back its head a little, and again with suddenly raised eyebrows re-examine
+and finally taste the food.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In no case did any monkey keep its mouth open when it was astonished. Mr.
+Sutton observed for me a young orang and chimpanzee during a considerable
+length of time; and however much they were astonished, or whilst listening
+intently to some strange sound, they did not keep their mouths open. This
+fact is surprising, as with mankind hardly any expression is more general
+than a widely open mouth under the sense of astonishment. As far as I have
+been able to observe, monkeys breathe more freely through their nostrils
+than men do; and this may account for their not opening their mouths when
+they are astonished; for, as we shall see in a future chapter, man
+apparently acts in this manner when startled, at first for the sake of
+quickly drawing a full inspiration, and afterwards for the sake of
+breathing as quietly as possible.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Terror is expressed by many kinds of monkeys by the utterance of shrill
+screams; the lips being drawn back, so that the teeth are exposed. The
+hair becomes erect, especially when some anger is likewise felt. Mr.
+Sutton has distinctly seen the face of the <i>Macacus rhesus</i> grow pale
+from fear. Monkeys also tremble from fear; and sometimes they void their
+excretions. I have seen one which, when caught, almost fainted from an
+excess of terror.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Sufficient facts have now been given with respect to the expressions of
+various animals. It is impossible to agree with Sir C. Bell when he says<a
+href="#linknote-522" name="linknoteref-522" id="linknoteref-522">[522]</a>
+that &ldquo;the faces of animals seem chiefly capable of expressing rage and
+fear;&rdquo; and again, when he says that all their expressions &ldquo;may be
+referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary
+instincts.&rdquo; He who will look at a dog preparing to attack another dog or a
+man, and at the same animal when caressing his master, or will watch the
+countenance of a monkey when insulted, and when fondled by his keeper,
+will be forced to admit that the movements of their features and their
+gestures are almost as expressive as those of man. Although no explanation
+can be given of some of the expressions in the lower animals, the greater
+number are explicable in accordance with the three principles given at the
+commencement of the first chapter.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"></a>
+CHAPTER VI.<br/>SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The screaming and weeping of infants&mdash;Forms of features&mdash;Age at
+which weeping commences&mdash;The effects of habitual restraint on weeping&mdash;Sobbing&mdash;Cause
+of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during screaming&mdash;Cause
+of the secretion of tears.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+In this and the following chapters the expressions exhibited by Man under
+various states of the mind will be described and explained, as far as lies
+in my power. My observations will be arranged according to the order which
+I have found the most convenient; and this will generally lead to opposite
+emotions and sensations succeeding each other.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Suffering of the body and mind: weeping</i>.&mdash;I have already
+described in sufficient detail, in the third chapter, the signs of extreme
+pain, as shown by screams or groans, with the writhing of the whole body
+and the teeth clenched or ground together. These signs are often
+accompanied or followed by profuse sweating, pallor, trembling, utter
+prostration, or faintness. No suffering is greater than that from extreme
+fear or horror, but here a distinct emotion comes into play, and will be
+elsewhere considered. Prolonged suffering, especially of the mind, passes
+into low spirits, grief, dejection, and despair, and these states will be
+the subject of the following chapter. Here I shall almost confine myself
+to weeping or crying, more especially in children.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Infants, when suffering even slight pain, moderate hunger, or discomfort,
+utter violent and prolonged screams. Whilst thus screaming their eyes are
+firmly closed, so that the skin round them is wrinkled, and the forehead
+contracted into a frown. The mouth is widely opened with the lips
+retracted in a peculiar manner, which causes it to assume a squarish form;
+the gums or teeth being more or less exposed. The breath is inhaled almost
+spasmodically. It is easy to observe infants whilst screaming; but I have
+found photographs made by the instantaneous process the best means for
+observation, as allowing more deliberation. I have collected twelve, most
+of them made purposely for me; and they all exhibit the same general
+characteristics. I have, therefore, had six of them<a href="#linknote-601"
+name="linknoteref-601" id="linknoteref-601">[601]</a> (Plate I.)
+reproduced by the heliotype process.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0018" id="linkimage-0018">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/plate-1.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Screaming Infants. Plate I. " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The firm closing of the eyelids and consequent compression of the eyeball,&mdash;and
+this is a most important element in various expressions,&mdash;serves to
+protect the eyes from becoming too much gorged with blood, as will
+presently be explained in detail. With respect to the order in which the
+several muscles contract in firmly compressing the eyes, I am indebted to
+Dr. Langstaff, of Southampton, for some observations, which I have since
+repeated. The best plan for observing the order is to make a person first
+raise his eyebrows, and this produces transverse wrinkles across the
+forehead; and then very gradually to contract all the muscles round the
+elves with as much force as possible. The reader who is unacquainted with
+the anatomy of the face, ought to refer to p. 24, and look at the woodcuts
+1 to 3. The corrugators of the brow (<i>corrugator supercilii</i>) seem to
+be the first muscles to contract; and these draw the eyebrows downwards
+and inwards towards the base of the nose, causing vertical furrows, that
+is a frown, to appear between the eyebrows; at the same time they cause
+the disappearance of the transverse wrinkles across the forehead. The
+orbicular muscles contract almost simultaneously with the corrugators, and
+produce wrinkles all round the eyes; they appear, however, to be enabled
+to contract with greater force, as soon as the contraction of the
+corrugators has given them some support. Lastly, the pyramidal muscles of
+the nose contract; and these draw the eyebrows and the skin of the
+forehead still lower down, producing short transverse wrinkles across the
+base of the nose.<a href="#linknote-602" name="linknoteref-602"
+id="linknoteref-602">[602]</a> For the sake of brevity these muscles will
+generally be spoken of as the orbiculars, or as those surrounding the
+eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When these muscles are strongly contracted, those running to the upper lip<a
+href="#linknote-603" name="linknoteref-603" id="linknoteref-603">[603]</a>
+likewise contract and raise the upper lip. This might have been expected
+from the manner in which at least one of them, the <i>malaris</i>, is
+connected with the orbiculars. Any one who will gradually contract the
+muscles round his eyes, will feel, as he increases the force, that his
+upper lip and the wings of his nose (which are partly acted on by one of
+the same muscles) are almost always a little drawn up. If he keeps his
+mouth firmly shut whilst contracting the muscles round the eyes, and then
+suddenly relaxes his lips, he will feel that the pressure on his eyes
+immediately increases. So again when a person on a bright, glaring day
+wishes to look at a distant object, but is compelled partially to close
+his eyelids, the upper lip may almost always be observed to be somewhat
+raised. The mouths of some very short-sighted persons, who are forced
+habitually to reduce the aperture of their eyes, wear from this same
+reason a grinning expression.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The raising of the upper lip draws upwards the flesh of the upper parts of
+the cheeks, and produces a strongly marked fold on each cheek,&mdash;the
+naso-labial fold,&mdash;which runs from near the wings of the nostrils to
+the corners of the mouth and below them. This fold or furrow may be seen
+in all the photographs, and is very characteristic of the expression of a
+crying child; though a nearly similar fold is produced in the act of
+laughing or smiling.<a href="#linknote-604" name="linknoteref-604"
+id="linknoteref-604">[604]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the upper lip is much drawn up during the act of screaming, in the
+manner just explained, the depressor muscles of the angles of the mouth
+(see K in woodcuts 1 and 2) are strongly contracted in order to keep the
+mouth widely open, so that a full volume of sound may be poured forth. The
+action of these opposed muscles, above and below, tends to give to the
+mouth an oblong, almost squarish outline, as may be seen in the
+accompanying photographs. An excellent observer,<a href="#linknote-605"
+name="linknoteref-605" id="linknoteref-605">[605]</a> in describing a baby
+crying whilst being fed, says, &ldquo;it made its mouth like a square, and let
+the porridge run out at all four corners.&rdquo; I believe, but we shall return
+to this point in a future chapter, that the depressor muscles of the
+angles of the mouth are less under the separate control of the will than
+the adjoining muscles; so that if a young child is only doubtfully
+inclined to cry, this muscle is generally the first to contract, and is
+the last to cease contracting. When older children commence crying, the
+muscles which run to the upper lip are often the first to contract; and
+this may perhaps be due to older children not having so strong a tendency
+to scream loudly, and consequently to keep their mouths widely open; so
+that the above-named depressor muscles are not brought into such strong
+action.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With one of my own infants, from his eighth day and for some time
+afterwards, I often observed that the first sign of a screaming-fit, when
+it could be observed coming on gradually, was a little frown, owing to the
+contraction of the corrugators of the brows; the capillaries of the naked
+head and face becoming at the same time reddened with blood. As soon as
+the screaming-fit actually began, all the muscles round the eyes were
+strongly contracted, and the mouth widely opened in the manner above
+described; so that at this early period the features assumed the same form
+as at a more advanced age.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Piderit<a href="#linknote-606" name="linknoteref-606"
+id="linknoteref-606">[606]</a> lays great stress on the contraction of
+certain muscles which draw down the nose and narrow the nostrils, as
+eminently characteristic of a crying expression. The <i>depressores anguli
+oris</i>, as we have just seen, are usually contracted at the same time,
+and they indirectly tend, according to Dr. Duchenne, to act in this same
+manner on the nose. With children having bad colds a similar pinched
+appearance of the nose may be noticed, which is at least partly due, as
+remarked to me by Dr. Langstaff, to their constant snuffling, and the
+consequent pressure of the atmosphere on the two sides. The purpose of
+this contraction of the nostrils by children having bad colds, or whilst
+crying, seems to be to check the downward flow of the mucus and tears, and
+to prevent these fluids spreading over the upper lip.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After a prolonged and severe screaming-fit, the scalp, face, and eyes are
+reddened, owing to the return of the blood from the head having been
+impeded by the violent expiratory efforts; but the redness of the
+stimulated eyes is chiefly due to the copious effusion of tears. The
+various muscles of the face which have been strongly contracted, still
+twitch a little, and the upper lip is still slightly drawn up or everted,<a
+href="#linknote-607" name="linknoteref-607" id="linknoteref-607">[607]</a>
+with the corners of the mouth still a little drawn downwards. I have
+myself felt, and have observed in other grown-up persons, that when tears
+are restrained with difficulty, as in reading a pathetic story, it is
+almost impossible to prevent the various muscles. which with young
+children are brought into strong action during their screaming-fits, from
+slightly twitching or trembling.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Infants whilst young do not shed tears or weep, as is well known to nurses
+and medical men. This circumstance is not exclusively due to the lacrymal
+glands being as yet incapable of secreting tears. I first noticed this
+fact from having accidentally brushed with the cuff of my coat the open
+eye of one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old, causing this eye to
+water freely; and though the child screamed violently, the other eye
+remained dry, or was only slightly suffused with tears. A similar slight
+effusion occurred ten days previously in both eyes during a screaming-fit.
+The tears did not run over the eyelids and roll down the cheeks of this
+child, whilst screaming badly, when 122 days old. This first happened 17
+days later, at the age of 139 days. A few other children have been
+observed for me, and the period of free weeping appears to be very
+variable. In one case, the eyes became slightly suffused at the age of
+only 20 days; in another, at 62 days. With two other children, the tears
+did NOT run down the face at the ages of 84 and 110 days; but in a third
+child they did run down at the age of 104 days. In one instance, as I was
+positively assured, tears ran down at the unusually early age of 42 days.
+It would appear as if the lacrymal glands required some practice in the
+individual before they are easily excited into action, in somewhat the
+same manner as various inherited consensual movements and tastes require
+some exercise before they are fixed and perfected. This is all the more
+likely with a habit like weeping, which must have been acquired since the
+period when man branched off from the common progenitor of the genus Homo
+and of the non-weeping anthropomorphous apes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The fact of tears not being shed at a very early age from pain or any
+mental emotion is remarkable, as, later in life, no expression is more
+general or more strongly marked than weeping. When the habit has once been
+acquired by an infant, it expresses in the clearest manner suffering of
+all kinds, both bodily pain and mental distress, even though accompanied
+by other emotions, such as fear or rage. The character of the crying,
+however, changes at a very early age, as I noticed in my own infants,&mdash;the
+passionate cry differing from that of grief. A lady informs me that her
+child, nine months old, when in a passion screams loudly, but does not
+weep; tears, however, are shed when she is punished by her chair being
+turned with its back to the table. This difference may perhaps be
+attributed to weeping being restrained, as we shall immediately see, at a
+more advanced age, under most circumstances excepting grief; and to the
+influence of such restraint being transmitted to an earlier period of
+life, than that at which it was first practised.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With adults, especially of the male sex, weeping soon ceases to be caused
+by, or to express, bodily pain. This may be accounted for by its being
+thought weak and unmanly by men, both of civilized and barbarous races, to
+exhibit bodily pain by any outward sign. With this exception, savages weep
+copiously from very slight causes, of which fact Sir J. Lubbock<a
+href="#linknote-608" name="linknoteref-608" id="linknoteref-608">[608]</a>
+has collected instances. A New Zealand chief &ldquo;cried like a child because
+the sailors spoilt his favourite cloak by powdering it with flour.&rdquo; I saw
+in Tierra del Fuego a native who had lately lost a brother, and who
+alternately cried with hysterical violence, and laughed heartily at
+anything which amused him. With the civilized nations of Europe there is
+also much difference in the frequency of weeping. Englishmen rarely cry,
+except under the pressure of the acutest grief; whereas in some parts of
+the Continent the men shed tears much more readily and freely.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The insane notoriously give way to all their emotions with little or no
+restraint; and I am informed by Dr. J. Crichton Browne, that nothing is
+more characteristic of simple melancholia, even in the male sex, than a
+tendency to weep on the slightest occasions, or from no cause. They also
+weep disproportionately on the occurrence of any real cause of grief. The
+length of time during which some patients weep is astonishing, as well as
+the amount of tears which they shed. One melancholic girl wept for a whole
+day, and afterwards confessed to Dr. Browne, that it was because she
+remembered that she had once shaved off her eyebrows to promote their
+growth. Many patients in the asylum sit for a long time rocking themselves
+backwards and forwards; &ldquo;and if spoken to, they stop their movements,
+purse up their eyes, depress the corners of the mouth, and burst out
+crying.&rdquo; In some of these cases, the being spoken to or kindly greeted
+appears to suggest some fanciful and sorrowful notion; but in other cases
+an effort of any kind excites weeping, independently of any sorrowful
+idea. Patients suffering from acute mania likewise have paroxysms of
+violent crying or blubbering, in the midst of their incoherent ravings. We
+must not, however, lay too much stress on the copious shedding of tears by
+the insane, as being due to the lack of all restraint; for certain
+brain-diseases, as hemiplegia, brain-wasting, and senile decay, have a
+special tendency to induce weeping. Weeping is common in the insane, even
+after a complete state of fatuity has been reached and the power of speech
+lost. Persons born idiotic likewise weep;<a href="#linknote-609"
+name="linknoteref-609" id="linknoteref-609">[609]</a> but it is said that
+this is not the case with cretins.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Weeping seems to be the primary and natural expression, as we see in
+children, of suffering of any kind, whether bodily pain short of extreme
+agony, or mental distress. But the foregoing facts and common experience
+show us that a frequently repeated effort to restrain weeping, in
+association with certain states of the mind, does much in checking the
+habit. On the other hand, it appears that the power of weeping can be
+increased through habit; thus the Rev. R. Taylor,<a href="#linknote-610"
+name="linknoteref-610" id="linknoteref-610">[610]</a> who long resided in
+New Zealand, asserts that the women can voluntarily shed tears in
+abundance; they meet for this purpose to mourn for the dead, and they take
+pride in crying &ldquo;in the most affecting manner.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A single effort of repression brought to bear on the lacrymal glands does
+little, and indeed seems often to lead to an opposite result. An old and
+experienced physician told me that he had always found that the only means
+to check the occasional bitter weeping of ladies who consulted him, and
+who themselves wished to desist, was earnestly to beg them not to try, and
+to assure them that nothing would relieve them so much as prolonged and
+copious crying.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The screaming of infants consists of prolonged expirations, with short and
+rapid, almost spasmodic inspirations, followed at a somewhat more advanced
+age by sobbing. According to Gratiolet,<a href="#linknote-611"
+name="linknoteref-611" id="linknoteref-611">[611]</a> the glottis is
+chiefly affected during the act of sobbing. This sound is heard &ldquo;at the
+moment when the inspiration conquers the resistance of the glottis, and
+the air rushes into the chest.&rdquo; But the whole act of respiration is
+likewise spasmodic and violent. The shoulders are at the same time
+generally raised, as by this movement respiration is rendered easier. With
+one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old, the inspirations were so
+rapid and strong that they approached in character to sobbing; when 138
+days old I first noticed distinct sobbing, which subsequently followed
+every bad crying-fit. The respiratory movements are partly voluntary and
+partly involuntary, and I apprehend that sobbing is at least in part due
+to children having some power to command after early infancy their vocal
+organs and to stop their screams, but from having less power over their
+respiratory muscles, these continue for a time to act in an involuntary or
+spasmodic manner, after having been brought into violent action. Sobbing
+seems to be peculiar to the human species; for the keepers in the
+Zoological Gardens assure me that they have never heard a sob from any
+kind of monkey; though monkeys often scream loudly whilst being chased and
+caught, and then pant for a long time. We thus see that there is a close
+analogy between sobbing and the free shedding of tears; for with children,
+sobbing does not commence during early infancy, but afterwards comes on
+rather suddenly and then follows every bad crying-fit, until the habit is
+checked with advancing years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>On the cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during
+screaming</i>.&mdash;We have seen that infants and young children, whilst
+screaming, invariably close their eyes firmly, by the contraction of the
+surrounding muscles, so that the skin becomes wrinkled all around. With
+older children, and even with adults, whenever there is violent and
+unrestrained crying, a tendency to the contraction of these same muscles
+may be observed; though this is often checked in order not to interfere
+with vision.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sir C. Bell explains<a href="#linknote-612" name="linknoteref-612"
+id="linknoteref-612">[612]</a> this action in the following manner:&mdash;&ldquo;During
+every violent act of expiration, whether in hearty laughter, weeping,
+coughing, or sneezing, the eyeball is firmly compressed by the fibres of
+the orbicularis; and this is a provision for supporting and defending the
+vascular system of the interior of the eye from a retrograde impulse
+communicated to the blood in the veins at that time. When we contract the
+chest and expel the air, there is a retardation of the blood in the veins
+of the neck and head; and in the more powerful acts of expulsion, the
+blood not only distends the vessels, but is even regurgitated into the
+minute branches. Were the eye not properly compressed at that time, and a
+resistance given to the shock, irreparable injury might be inflicted on
+the delicate textures of the interior of the eye.&rdquo; He further adds, &ldquo;If we
+separate the eyelids of a child to examine the eye, while it cries and
+struggles with passion, by taking off the natural support to the vascular
+system of the eye, and means of guarding it against the rush of blood then
+occurring, the conjunctiva becomes suddenly filled with blood, and the
+eyelids everted.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Not only are the muscles round the eyes strongly contracted, as Sir C.
+Bell states and as I have often observed, during screaming, loud laughter,
+coughing, and sneezing, but during several other analogous actions. A man
+contracts these muscles when he violently blows his nose. I asked one of
+my boys to shout as loudly as he possibly could, and as soon as he began,
+he firmly contracted his orbicular muscles; I observed this repeatedly,
+and on asking him why he had every time so firmly closed his eyes, I found
+that he was quite unaware of the fact: he had acted instinctively or
+unconsciously.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is not necessary, in order to lead to the contraction of these muscles,
+that air should actually be expelled from the chest; it suffices that the
+muscles of the chest and abdomen should contract with great force, whilst
+by the closure of the glottis no air escapes. In violent vomiting or
+retching the diaphragm is made to descend by the chest being filled with
+air; it is then held in this position by the closure of the glottis, &ldquo;as
+well as by the contraction of its own fibres.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-613"
+name="linknoteref-613" id="linknoteref-613">[613]</a> The abdominal
+muscles now contract strongly upon the stomach, its proper muscles
+likewise contracting, and the contents are thus ejected. During each
+effort of vomiting &ldquo;the head becomes greatly congested, so that the
+features are red and swollen, and the large veins of the face and temples
+visibly dilated.&rdquo; At the same time, as I know from observation, the
+muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted. This is likewise the case
+when the abdominal muscles act downwards with unusual force in expelling
+the contents of the intestinal canal.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The greatest exertion of the muscles of the body, if those of the chest
+are not brought into strong action in expelling or compressing the air
+within the lungs, does not lead to the contraction of the muscles round
+the eyes. I have observed my sons using great force in gymnastic
+exercises, as in repeatedly raising their suspended bodies by their arms
+alone, and in lifting heavy weights from the ground, but there was hardly
+any trace of contraction in the muscles round the eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the contraction of these muscles for the protection of the eyes during
+violent expiration is indirectly, as we shall hereafter see, a fundamental
+element in several of our most important expressions, I was extremely
+anxious to ascertain how far Sir C. Bell&rsquo;s view could be substantiated.
+Professor Donders, of Utrecht,<a href="#linknote-614"
+name="linknoteref-614" id="linknoteref-614">[614]</a> well known as one of
+the highest authorities in Europe on vision and on the structure of the
+eye, has most kindly undertaken for me this investigation with the aid of
+the many ingenious mechanisms of modern science, and has published the
+results.<a href="#linknote-615" name="linknoteref-615" id="linknoteref-615">[615]</a>
+He shows that during violent expiration the external, the intra-ocular,
+and the retro-ocular vessels of the eye are all affected in two ways,
+namely by the increased pressure of the blood in the arteries, and by the
+return of the blood in the veins being impeded. It is, therefore, certain
+that both the arteries and the veins of the eye are more or less distended
+during violent expiration. The evidence in detail may be found in
+Professor Donders&rsquo; valuable memoir. We see the effects on the veins of the
+head, in their prominence, and in the purple colour of the face of a man
+who coughs violently from being half choked. I may mention, on the same
+authority, that the whole eye certainly advances a little during each
+violent expiration. This is due to the dilatation of the retro-ocular
+vessels, and might have been expected from the intimate connection of the
+eye and brain; the brain being known to rise and fall with each
+respiration, when a portion of the skull has been removed; and as may be
+seen along the unclosed sutures of infants&rsquo; heads. This also, I presume,
+is the reason that the eyes of a strangled man appear as if they were
+starting from their sockets.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With respect to the protection of the eye during violent expiratory
+efforts by the pressure of the eyelids, Professor Donders concludes from
+his various observations that this action certainly limits or entirely
+removes the dilatation of the vessels.<a href="#linknote-616"
+name="linknoteref-616" id="linknoteref-616">[616]</a> At such times, he
+adds, we not unfrequently see the hand involuntarily laid upon the
+eyelids, as if the better to support and defend the eyeball.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nevertheless much evidence cannot at present be advanced to prove that the
+eye actually suffers injury from the want of support during violent
+expiration; but there is some. It is &ldquo;a fact that forcible expiratory
+efforts in violent coughing or vomiting, and especially in sneezing,
+sometimes give rise to ruptures of the little (external) vessels&rdquo; of the
+eye.<a href="#linknote-617" name="linknoteref-617" id="linknoteref-617">[617]</a>
+With respect to the internal vessels, Dr. Gunning has lately recorded a
+case of exophthalmos in consequence of whooping-cough, which in his
+opinion depended on the rupture of the deeper vessels; and another
+analogous case has been recorded. But a mere sense of discomfort would
+probably suffice to lead to the associated habit of protecting the eyeball
+by the contraction of the surrounding muscles. Even the expectation or
+chance of injury would probably be sufficient, in the same manner as an
+object moving too near the eye induces involuntary winking of the eyelids.
+We may, therefore, safely conclude from Sir C. Bell&rsquo;s observations, and
+more especially from the more careful investigations by Professor Donders,
+that the firm closure of the eyelids during the screaming of children is
+an action full of meaning and of real service.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have already seen that the contraction of the orbicular muscles leads
+to the drawing up of the upper lip, and consequently, if the mouth is kept
+widely open, to the drawing down of the corners by the contraction of the
+depressor muscles. The formation of the naso-labial fold on the cheeks
+likewise follows from the drawing up of the upper lip. Thus all the chief
+expressive movements of the face during crying apparently result from the
+contraction of the muscles round the eyes. We shall also find that the
+shedding of tears depends on, or at least stands in some connection with,
+the contraction of these same muscles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In some of the foregoing cases, especially in those of sneezing and
+coughing, it is possible that the contraction of the orbicular muscles may
+serve in addition to protect the eyes from too severe a jar or vibration.
+I think so, because dogs and cats, in crunching hard bones, always close
+their eyelids, and at least sometimes in sneezing; though dogs do not do
+so whilst barking loudly. Mr. Sutton carefully observed for me a young
+orang and chimpanzee, and he found that both always closed their eyes in
+sneezing and coughing, but not whilst screaming violently. I gave a small
+pinch of snuff to a monkey of the American division, namely, a Cebus, and
+it closed its eyelids whilst sneezing; but not on a subsequent occasion
+whilst uttering loud cries.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Cause of the secretion of tears</i>.&mdash;It is an important fact
+which must be considered in any theory of the secretion of tears from the
+mind being affected, that whenever the muscles round the eyes are strongly
+and involuntarily contracted in order to compress the blood-vessels and
+thus to protect the eyes, tears are secreted, often in sufficient
+abundance to roll down the cheeks. This occurs under the most opposite
+emotions, and under no emotion at all. The sole exception, and this is
+only a partial one, to the existence of a relation between the involuntary
+and strong contraction of these muscles and the secretion of tears is that
+of young infants, who, whilst screaming violently with their eyelids
+firmly closed, do not commonly weep until they have attained the age of
+from two to three or four months. Their eyes, however, become suffused
+with tears at a much earlier age. It would appear, as already remarked,
+that the lacrymal glands do not, from the want of practice or some other
+cause, come to full functional activity at a very early period of life.
+With children at a somewhat later age, crying out or wailing from any
+distress is so regularly accompanied by the shedding of tears, that
+weeping and crying are synonymous terms.<a href="#linknote-618"
+name="linknoteref-618" id="linknoteref-618">[618]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Under the opposite emotion of great joy or amusement, as long as laughter
+is moderate there is hardly any contraction of the muscles round the eyes,
+so that there is no frowning; but when peals of loud laughter are uttered,
+with rapid and violent spasmodic expirations, tears stream down the face.
+I have more than once noticed the face of a person, after a paroxysm of
+violent laughter, and I could see that the orbicular muscles and those
+running to the upper lip were still partially contracted, which together
+with the tear-stained cheeks gave to the upper half of the face an
+expression not to be distinguished from that of a child still blubbering
+from grief. The fact of tears streaming down the face during violent
+laughter is common to all the races of mankind, as we shall see in a
+future chapter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In violent coughing especially when a person is half-choked, the face
+becomes purple, the veins distended, the orbicular muscles strongly
+contracted, and tears run down the cheeks. Even after a fit of ordinary
+coughing, almost every one has to wipe his eyes. In violent vomiting or
+retching, as I have myself experienced and seen in others, the orbicular
+muscles are strongly contracted, and tears sometimes flow freely down the
+cheeks. It has been suggested to me that this may be due to irritating
+matter being injected into the nostrils, and causing by reflex action the
+secretion of tears. Accordingly I asked one of my informants, a surgeon,
+to attend to the effects of retching when nothing was thrown up from the
+stomach; and, by an odd coincidence, he himself suffered the next morning
+from an attack of retching, and three days subsequently observed a lady
+under a similar attack; and he is certain that in neither case an atom of
+matter was ejected from the stomach; yet the orbicular muscles were
+strongly contracted, and tears freely secreted. I can also speak
+positively to the energetic contraction of these same muscles round the
+eyes, and to the coincident free secretion of tears, when the abdominal
+muscles act with unusual force in a downward direction on the intestinal
+canal.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Yawning commences with a deep inspiration, followed by a long and forcible
+expiration; and at the same time almost all the muscles of the body are
+strongly contracted, including those round the eyes. During this act tears
+are often secreted, and I have seen them even rolling down the cheeks.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have frequently observed that when persons scratch some point which
+itches intolerably, they forcibly close their eyelids; but they do not, as
+I believe, first draw a deep breath and then expel it with force; and I
+have never noticed that the eyes then become filled with tears; but I am
+not prepared to assert that this does not occur. The forcible closure of
+the eyelids is, perhaps, merely a part of that general action by which
+almost all the muscles of the body are at the same time rendered rigid. It
+is quite different from the gentle closure of the eyes which often
+accompanies, as Gratiolet remarks,<a href="#linknote-619"
+name="linknoteref-619" id="linknoteref-619">[619]</a> the smelling a
+delicious odour, or the tasting a delicious morsel, and which probably
+originates in the desire to shut out any disturbing impression through the
+eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Professor Donders writes to me to the following effect: &ldquo;I have observed
+some cases of a very curious affection when, after a slight rub (<i>attouchement</i>),
+for example, from the friction of a coat, which caused neither a wound nor
+a contusion, spasms of the orbicular muscles occurred, with a very profuse
+flow of tears, lasting about one hour. Subsequently, sometimes after an
+interval of several weeks, violent spasms of the same muscles re-occurred,
+accompanied by the secretion of tears, together with primary or secondary
+redness of the eye.&rdquo; Mr. Bowman informs me that he has occasionally
+observed closely analogous cases, and that, in some of these, there was no
+redness or inflammation of the eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I was anxious to ascertain whether there existed in any of the lower
+animals a similar relation between the contraction of the orbicular
+muscles during violent expiration and the secretion of tears; but there
+are very few animals which contract these muscles in a prolonged manner,
+or which shed tears. <i>The Macacus maurus</i>, which formerly wept so
+copiously in the Zoological Gardens, would have been a fine case for
+observation; but the two monkeys now there, and which are believed to
+belong to the same species, do not weep. Nevertheless they were carefully
+observed by Mr. Bartlett and myself, whilst screaming loudly, and they
+seemed to contract these muscles; but they moved about their cages so
+rapidly, that it was difficult to observe with certainty. No other monkey,
+as far as I have been able to ascertain, contracts its orbicular muscles
+whilst screaming.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Indian elephant is known sometimes to weep. Sir E. Tennent, in
+describing these which he saw captured and bound in Ceylon, says, some
+&ldquo;lay motionless on the ground, with no other indication of suffering than
+the tears which suffused their eyes and flowed incessantly.&rdquo; Speaking of
+another elephant he says, &ldquo;When overpowered and made fast, his grief was
+most affecting; his violence sank to utter prostration, and he lay on the
+ground, uttering choking cries, with tears trickling down his cheeks.&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-620" name="linknoteref-620" id="linknoteref-620">[620]</a>
+In the Zoological Gardens the keeper of the Indian elephants positively
+asserts that he has several times seen tears rolling down the face of the
+old female, when distressed by the removal of the young one. Hence I was
+extremely anxious to ascertain, as an extension of the relation between
+the contraction of the orbicular muscles and the shedding of tears in man,
+whether elephants when screaming or trumpeting loudly contract these
+muscles. At Mr. Bartlett&rsquo;s desire the keeper ordered the old and the young
+elephant to trumpet; and we repeatedly saw in both animals that, just as
+the trumpeting began, the orbicular muscles, especially the lower ones,
+were distinctly contracted. On a subsequent occasion the keeper made the
+old elephant trumpet much more loudly, and invariably both the upper and
+lower orbicular muscles were strongly contracted, and now in an equal
+degree. It is a singular fact that the African elephant, which, however,
+is so different from the Indian species that it is placed by some
+naturalists in a distinct sub-genus, when made on two occasions to trumpet
+loudly, exhibited no trace of the contraction of the orbicular muscles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the several foregoing cases with respect to Man, there can, I think,
+be no doubt that the contraction of the muscles round the eyes, during
+violent expiration or when the expanded chest is forcibly compressed, is,
+in some manner, intimately connected with the secretion of tears. This
+holds good under widely different emotions, and independently of any
+emotion. It is not, of course, meant that tears cannot be secreted without
+the contraction of these muscles; for it is notorious that they are often
+freely shed with the eyelids not closed, and with the brows unwrinkled.
+The contraction must be both involuntary and prolonged, as during a
+choking fit, or energetic, as during a sneeze. The mere involuntary
+winking of the eyelids, though often repeated, does not bring tears into
+the eyes. Nor does the voluntary and prolonged contraction of the several
+surrounding muscles suffice. As the lacrymal glands of children are easily
+excited, I persuaded my own and several other children of different ages
+to contract these muscles repeatedly with their utmost force, and to
+continue doing so as long as they possibly could; but this produced hardly
+any effect. There was sometimes a little moisture in the eyes, but not
+more than apparently could be accounted for by the squeezing out of the
+already secreted tears within the glands.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The nature of the relation between the involuntary and energetic
+contraction of the muscles round the eyes, and the secretion of tears,
+cannot be positively ascertained, but a probable view may be suggested.
+The primary function of the secretion of tears, together with some mucus,
+is to lubricate the surface of the eye; and a secondary one, as some
+believe, is to keep the nostrils damp, so that the inhaled air may be
+moist,<a href="#linknote-621" name="linknoteref-621" id="linknoteref-621">[621]</a>
+and likewise to favour the power of smelling. But another, and at least
+equally important function of tears, is to wash out particles of dust or
+other minute objects which may get into the eyes. That this is of great
+importance is clear from the cases in which the cornea has been rendered
+opaque through inflammation, caused by particles of dust not being
+removed, in consequence of the eye and eyelid becoming immovable.<a
+href="#linknote-622" name="linknoteref-622" id="linknoteref-622">[622]</a>
+The secretion of tears from the irritation of any foreign body in the eye
+is a reflex action;&mdash;that is, the body irritates a peripheral nerve
+which sends an impression to certain sensory nerve-cells; these transmit
+an influence to other cells, and these again to the lacrymal glands. The
+influence transmitted to these glands causes, as there is good reason to
+believe, the relaxation of the muscular coats of the smaller arteries;
+this allows more blood to permeate the glandular tissue, and this induces
+a free secretion of tears. When the small arteries of the face, including
+those of the retina, are relaxed under very different circumstances,
+namely, during an intense blush, the lacrymal glands are sometimes
+affected in a like manner, for the eyes become suffused with tears.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is difficult to conjecture how many reflex actions have originated,
+but, in relation to the present case of the affection of the lacrymal
+glands through irritation of the surface of the eye, it may be worth
+remarking that, as soon as some primordial form became semi-terrestrial in
+its habits, and was liable to get particles of dust into its eyes, if
+these were not washed out they would cause much irritation; and on the
+principle of the radiation of nerve-force to adjoining nerve-cells, the
+lacrymal glands would be stimulated to secretion. As this would often
+recur, and as nerve-force readily passes along accustomed channels, a
+slight irritation would ultimately suffice to cause a free secretion of
+tears.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As soon as by this, or by some other means, a reflex action of this nature
+had been established and rendered easy, other stimulants applied to the
+surface of the eye&mdash;such as a cold wind, slow inflammatory action, or
+a blow on the eyelids&mdash;would cause a copious secretion of tears, as
+we know to be the case. The glands are also excited into action through
+the irritation of adjoining parts. Thus when the nostrils are irritated by
+pungent vapours, though the eyelids may be kept firmly closed, tears are
+copiously secreted; and this likewise follows from a blow on the nose, for
+instance from a boxing-glove. A stinging switch on the face produces, as I
+have seen, the same effect. In these latter cases the secretion of tears
+is an incidental result, and of no direct service. As all these parts of
+the face, including the lacrymal glands, are supplied with branches of the
+same nerve, namely, the fifth, it is in some degree intelligible that the
+effects of the excitement of any one branch should spread to the
+nerve-cells or roots of the other branches.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The internal parts of the eye likewise act, under certain conditions, in a
+reflex manner on the lacrymal glands. The following statements have been
+kindly communicated to me by Mr. Bowman; but the subject is a very
+intricate one, as all the parts of the eye are so intimately related
+together, and are so sensitive to various stimulants. A strong light
+acting on the retina, when in a normal condition, has very little tendency
+to cause lacrymation; but with unhealthy children having small,
+old-standing ulcers on the cornea, the retina becomes excessively
+sensitive to light, and exposure even to common daylight causes forcible
+and sustained closure of the lids, and a profuse flow of tears. When
+persons who ought to begin the use of convex glasses habitually strain the
+waning power of accommodation, an undue secretion of tears very often
+follows, and the retina is liable to become unduly sensitive to light. In
+general, morbid affections of the surface of the eye, and of the ciliary
+structures concerned in the accommodative act, are prone to be accompanied
+with excessive secretion of tears. Hardness of the eyeball, not rising to
+inflammation, but implying a want of balance between the fluids poured out
+and again taken up by the intra-ocular vessels, is not usually attended
+with any lacrymation. When the balance is on the other side, and the eye
+becomes too soft, there is a greater tendency to lacrymation. Finally,
+there are numerous morbid states and structural alterations of the eyes,
+and even terrible inflammations, which may be attended with little or no
+secretion of tears.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It also deserves notice, as indirectly bearing on our subject, that the
+eye and adjoining parts are subject to an extraordinary number of reflex
+and associated movements, sensations, and actions, besides those relating
+to the lacrymal glands. When a bright light strikes the retina of one eye
+alone, the iris contracts, but the iris of the other eye moves after a
+measurable interval of time. The iris likewise moves in accommodation to
+near or distant vision, and when the two eyes are made to converge.<a
+href="#linknote-623" name="linknoteref-623" id="linknoteref-623">[623]</a>
+Every one knows how irresistibly the eyebrows are drawn down under an
+intensely bright light. The eyelids also involuntarily wink when an object
+is moved near the eyes, or a sound is suddenly heard. The well-known case
+of a bright light causing some persons to sneeze is even more curious; for
+nerve-force here radiates from certain nerve-cells in connection with the
+retina, to the sensory nerve-cells of the nose, causing it to tickle; and
+from these, to the cells which command the various respiratory muscles
+(the orbiculars included) which expel the air in so peculiar a manner that
+it rushes through the nostrils alone.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To return to our point: why are tears secreted during a screaming-fit or
+other violent expiratory efforts? As a slight blow on the eyelids causes a
+copious secretion of tears, it is at least possible that the spasmodic
+contraction of the eyelids, by pressing strongly on the eyeball, should in
+a similar manner cause some secretion. This seems possible, although the
+voluntary contraction of the same muscles does not produce any such
+effect. We know that a man cannot voluntarily sneeze or cough with nearly
+the same force as he does automatically; and so it is with the contraction
+of the orbicular muscles: Sir C. Bell experimented on them, and found that
+by suddenly and forcibly closing the eyelids in the dark, sparks of light
+are seen, like those caused by tapping the eyelids with the fingers; &ldquo;but
+in sneezing the compression is both more rapid and more forcible, and the
+sparks are more brilliant.&rdquo; That these sparks are due to the contraction
+of the eyelids is clear, because if they &ldquo;are held open during the act of
+sneezing, no sensation of light will be experienced.&rdquo; In the peculiar
+cases referred to by Professor Donders and Mr. Bowman, we have seen that
+some weeks after the eye has been very slightly injured, spasmodic
+contractions of the eyelids ensue, and these are accompanied by a profuse
+flow of tears. In the act of yawning, the tears are apparently due solely
+to the spasmodic contraction of the muscles round the eyes.
+Notwithstanding these latter cases, it seems hardly credible that the
+pressure of the eyelids on the surface of the eye, although effected
+spasmodically and therefore with much greater force than can be done
+voluntarily, should be sufficient to cause by reflex action the secretion
+of tears in the many cases in which this occurs during violent expiratory
+efforts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another cause may come conjointly into play. We have seen that the
+internal parts of the eye, under certain conditions act in a reflex manner
+on the lacrymal glands. We know that during violent expiratory efforts the
+pressure of the arterial blood within the vessels of the eye is increased,
+and that the return of the venous blood is impeded. It seems, therefore,
+not improbable that the distension of the ocular vessels, thus induced,
+might act by reflection on the lacrymal glands&mdash;the effects due to
+the spasmodic pressure of the eyelids on the surface of the eye being thus
+increased.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In considering how far this view is probable, we should bear in mind that
+the eyes of infants have been acted on in this double manner during
+numberless generations, whenever they have screamed; and on the principle
+of nerve-force readily passing along accustomed channels, even a moderate
+compression of the eyeballs and a moderate distension of the ocular
+vessels would ultimately come, through habit, to act on the glands. We
+have an analogous case in the orbicular muscles being almost always
+contracted in some slight degree, even during a gentle crying-fit, when
+there can be no distension of the vessels and no uncomfortable sensation
+excited within the eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Moreover, when complex actions or movements have long been performed in
+strict association together, and these are from any cause at first
+voluntarily and afterwards habitually checked, then if the proper exciting
+conditions occur, any part of the action or movement which is least under
+the control of the will, will often still be involuntarily performed. The
+secretion by a gland is remarkably free from the influence of the will;
+therefore, when with the advancing age of the individual, or with the
+advancing culture of the race, the habit of crying out or screaming is
+restrained, and there is consequently no distension of the blood-vessels
+of the eye, it may nevertheless well happen that tears should still be
+secreted. We may see, as lately remarked, the muscles round the eyes of a
+person who reads a pathetic story, twitching or trembling in so slight a
+degree as hardly to be detected. In this case there has been no screaming
+and no distension of the blood-vessels, yet through habit certain
+nerve-cells send a small amount of nerve-force to the cells commanding the
+muscles round the eyes; and they likewise send some to the cells
+commanding the lacrymal glands, for the eyes often become at the same time
+just moistened with tears. If the twitching of the muscles round the eyes
+and the secretion of tears had been completely prevented, nevertheless it
+is almost certain that there would have been some tendency to transmit
+nerve-force in these same directions; and as the lacrymal glands are
+remarkably free from the control of the will, they would be eminently
+liable still to act, thus betraying, though there were no other outward
+signs, the pathetic thoughts which were passing through the person&rsquo;s mind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As a further illustration of the view here advanced, I may remark that if,
+during an early period of life, when habits of all kinds are readily
+established, our infants, when pleased, had been accustomed to utter loud
+peals of laughter (during which the vessels of their eyes are distended)
+as often and as continuously as they have yielded when distressed to
+screaming-fits, then it is probable that in after life tears would have
+been as copiously and as regularly secreted under the one state of mind as
+under the other. Gentle laughter, or a smile, or even a pleasing thought,
+would have sufficed to cause a moderate secretion of tears. There does
+indeed exist an evident tendency in this direction, as will be seen in a
+future chapter, when we treat of the tender feelings. With the Sandwich
+Islanders, according to Freycinet,<a href="#linknote-624"
+name="linknoteref-624" id="linknoteref-624">[624]</a> tears are actually
+recognized as a sign of happiness; but we should require better evidence
+on this head than that of a passing voyager. So again if our infants,
+during many generations, and each of them during several years, had almost
+daily suffered from prolonged choking-fits, during which the vessels of
+the eye are distended and tears copiously secreted, then it is probable,
+such is the force of associated habit, that during after life the mere
+thought of a choke, without any distress of mind, would have sufficed to
+bring tears into our eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To sum up this chapter, weeping is probably the result of some such chain
+of events as follows. Children, when wanting food or suffering in any way,
+cry out loudly, like the young of most other animals, partly as a call to
+their parents for aid, and partly from any great exertion serving relief.
+Prolonged screaming inevitably leads to the gorging of the blood-vessels
+of the eye; and this will have led, at first consciously and at last
+habitually, to the contraction of the muscles round the eyes in order to
+protect them. At the same time the spasmodic pressure on the surface of
+the eye, and the distension of the vessels within the eye, without
+necessarily entailing any conscious sensation, will have affected, through
+reflex action, the lacrymal glands. Finally, through the three principles
+of nerve-force readily passing along accustomed channels&mdash;of
+association, which is so widely extended in its power&mdash;and of certain
+actions, being more under the control of the will than others&mdash;it has
+come to pass that suffering readily causes the secretion of tears, without
+being necessarily accompanied by any other action.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although in accordance with this view we must look at weeping as an
+incidental result, as purposeless as the secretion of tears from a blow
+outside the eye, or as a sneeze from the retina being affected by a bright
+light, yet this does not present any difficulty in our understanding how
+the secretion of tears serves as a relief to suffering. And by as much as
+the weeping is more violent or hysterical, by so much will the relief be
+greater,&mdash;on the same principle that the writhing of the whole body,
+the grinding of the teeth, and the uttering of piercing shrieks, all give
+relief under an agony of pain.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"></a>
+CHAPTER VII.<br/>LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+General effect of grief on the system&mdash;Obliquity of the eyebrows
+under suffering&mdash;On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows&mdash;On
+the depression of the corners of the mouth.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+After the mind has suffered from an acute paroxysm of grief, and the cause
+still continues, we fall into a state of low spirits; or we may be utterly
+cast down and dejected. Prolonged bodily pain, if not amounting to an
+agony, generally leads to the same state of mind. If we expect to suffer,
+we are anxious; if we have no hope of relief, we despair.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Persons suffering from excessive grief often seek relief by violent and
+almost frantic movements, as described in a former chapter; but when their
+suffering is somewhat mitigated, yet prolonged, they no longer wish for
+action, but remain motionless and passive, or may occasionally rock
+themselves to and fro. The circulation becomes languid; the face pale; the
+muscles flaccid; the eyelids droop; the head hangs on the contracted
+chest; the lips, cheeks, and lower jaw all sink downwards from their own
+weight. Hence all the features are lengthened; and the face of a person
+who hears bad news is said to fall. A party of natives in Tierra del Fuego
+endeavoured to explain to us that their friend, the captain of a sealing
+vessel, was out of spirits, by pulling down their cheeks with both hands,
+so as to make their faces as long as possible. Mr. Bunnet informs me that
+the Australian aborigines when out of spirits have a chop-fallen
+appearance. After prolonged suffering the eyes become dull and lack
+expression, and are often slightly suffused with tears. The eyebrows not
+rarely are rendered oblique, which is due to their inner ends being
+raised. This produces peculiarly-formed wrinkles on the forehead, which
+are very different from those of a simple frown; though in some cases a
+frown alone may be present. The comers of the mouth are drawn downwards,
+which is so universally recognized as a sign of being out of spirits, that
+it is almost proverbial.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The breathing becomes slow and feeble, and is often interrupted by deep
+sighs. As Gratiolet remarks, whenever our attention is long concentrated
+on any subject, we forget to breathe, and then relieve ourselves by a deep
+inspiration; but the sighs of a sorrowful person, owing to his slow
+respiration and languid circulation, are eminently characteristic.<a
+href="#linknote-701" name="linknoteref-701" id="linknoteref-701">[701]</a>
+As the grief of a person in this state occasionally recurs and increases
+into a paroxysm, spasms affect the respiratory muscles, and he feels as if
+something, the so-called <i>globus hystericus</i>, was rising in his
+throat. These spasmodic movements are clearly allied to the sobbing of
+children, and are remnants of those severer spasms which occur when a
+person is said to choke from excessive grief.<a href="#linknote-702"
+name="linknoteref-702" id="linknoteref-702">[702]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Obliquity of the eyebrows</i>.&mdash;Two points alone in the above
+description require further elucidation, and these are very curious ones;
+namely, the raising of the inner ends of the eyebrows, and the drawing
+down of the corners of the mouth. With respect to the eyebrows, they may
+occasionally be seen to assume an oblique position in persons suffering
+from deep dejection or anxiety; for instance, I have observed this
+movement in a mother whilst speaking about her sick son; and it is
+sometimes excited by quite trifling or momentary causes of real or
+pretended distress. The eyebrows assume this position owing to the
+contraction of certain muscles (namely, the orbiculars, corrugators, and
+pyramidals of the nose, which together tend to lower and contract the
+eyebrows) being partially cheeked by the more powerful action of the
+central fasciæ of the frontal muscle. These latter fasciæ by their
+contraction raise the inner ends alone of the eyebrows; and as the
+corrugators at the same time draw the eyebrows together, their inner ends
+become puckered into a fold or lump. This fold is a highly characteristic
+point in the appearance of the eyebrows when rendered oblique, as may be
+seen in figs. 2 and 5, Plate II. The eyebrows are at the same time
+somewhat roughened, owing to the hairs being made to project. Dr. J.
+Crichton Browne has also often noticed in melancholic patients who keep
+their eyebrows persistently oblique, &ldquo;a peculiar acute arching of the
+upper eyelid.&rdquo; A trace of this may be observed by comparing the right and
+left eyelids of the young man in the photograph (fig. 2, Plate II.); for
+he was not able to act equally on both eyebrows. This is also shown by the
+unequal furrows on the two sides of his forehead. The acute arching of the
+eyelids depends, I believe, on the inner end alone of the eyebrows being
+raised; for when the whole eyebrow is elevated and arched, the upper
+eyelid follows in a slight degree the same movement.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0019" id="linkimage-0019">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/plate-2.jpg" width="100%"
+alt=" Obliquity of the Eyebrows. Plate II " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+But the most conspicuous result of the opposed contraction of the
+above-named muscles, is exhibited by the peculiar furrows formed on the
+forehead. These muscles, when thus in conjoint yet opposed action, may be
+called, for the sake of brevity, the grief-muscles. When a person elevates
+his eyebrows by the contraction of the whole frontal muscle, transverse
+wrinkles extend across the whole breadth of the forehead; but in the
+present case the middle fasciae alone are contracted; consequently,
+transverse furrows are formed across the middle part alone of the
+forehead. The skin over the exterior parts of both eyebrows is at the same
+time drawn downwards and smooth, by the contraction of the outer portions
+of the orbicular muscles. The eyebrows are likewise brought together
+through the simultaneous contraction of the corrugators;<a
+href="#linknote-703" name="linknoteref-703" id="linknoteref-703">[703]</a>
+and this latter action generates vertical furrows, separating the exterior
+and lowered part of the skin of the forehead from the central and raised
+part. The union of these vertical furrows with the central and transverse
+furrows (see figs. 2 and 3) produces a mark on the forehead which has been
+compared to a horse-shoe; but the furrows more strictly form three sides
+of a quadrangle. They are often conspicuous on the foreheads of adult or
+nearly adult persons, when their eyebrows are made oblique; but with young
+children, owing to their skin not easily wrinkling, they are rarely seen,
+or mere traces of them can be detected.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These peculiar furrows are best represented in fig. 3, Plate II., on the
+forehead of a young lady who has the power in an unusual degree of
+voluntarily acting on the requisite muscles. As she was absorbed in the
+attempt, whilst being photographed, her expression was not at all one of
+grief; I have therefore given the forehead alone. Fig. 1 on the same
+plate, copied from Dr. Duchenne&rsquo;s work,<a href="#linknote-704"
+name="linknoteref-704" id="linknoteref-704">[704]</a> represents, on a
+reduced scale, the face, in its natural state, of a young man who was a
+good actor. In fig. 2 he is shown simulating grief, but the two eyebrows,
+as before remarked, are not equally acted on. That the expression is true,
+may be inferred from the fact that out of fifteen persons, to whom the
+original photograph was shown, without any clue to what was intended being
+given them, fourteen immediately answered, &ldquo;despairing sorrow,&rdquo; &ldquo;suffering
+endurance,&rdquo; &ldquo;melancholy,&rdquo; and so forth. The history of fig. 5 is rather
+curious: I saw the photograph in a shop-window, and took it to Mr.
+Rejlander for the sake of finding out by whom it had been made; remarking
+to him how pathetic the expression was. He answered, &ldquo;I made it, and it
+was likely to be pathetic, for the boy in a few minutes burst out crying.&rdquo;
+He then showed me a photograph of the same boy in a placid state, which I
+have had (fig. 4) reproduced. In fig. 6, a trace of obliquity in the
+eyebrows may be detected; but this figure, as well as fig. 7, is given to
+show the depression of the corners of the mouth, to which subject I shall
+presently refer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Few persons, without some practice, can voluntarily act on their
+grief-muscles; but after repeated trials a considerable number succeed,
+whilst others never can. The degree of obliquity in the eyebrows, whether
+assumed voluntarily or unconsciously, differs much in different persons.
+With some who apparently have unusually strong pyramidal muscles, the
+contraction of the central fasciae of the frontal muscle, although it may
+be energetic, as shown by the quadrangular furrows on the forehead, does
+not raise the inner ends of the eyebrows, but only prevents their being so
+much lowered as they otherwise would have been. As far as I have been able
+to observe, the grief-muscles are brought into action much more frequently
+by children and women than by men. They are rarely acted on, at least with
+grown-up persons, from bodily pain, but almost exclusively from mental
+distress. Two persons who, after some practice, succeeded in acting on
+their grief-muscles, found by looking at a mirror that when they made
+their eyebrows oblique, they unintentionally at the same time depressed
+the corners of their mouths; and this is often the case when the
+expression is naturally assumed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The power to bring the grief-muscles freely into play appears to be
+hereditary, like almost every other human faculty. A lady belonging to a
+family famous for having produced an extraordinary number of great actors
+and actresses, and who can herself give this expression &ldquo;with singular
+precision,&rdquo; told Dr. Crichton Browne that all her family had possessed the
+power in a remarkable degree. The same hereditary tendency is said to have
+extended, as I likewise hear from Dr. Browne, to the last descendant of
+the family, which gave rise to Sir Walter Scott&rsquo;s novel of &lsquo;Red Gauntlet;&rsquo;
+but the hero is described as contracting his forehead into a horseshoe
+mark from any strong emotion. I have also seen a young woman whose
+forehead seemed almost habitually thus contracted, independently of any
+emotion being at the time felt.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The grief-muscles are not very frequently brought into play; and as the
+action is often momentary, it easily escapes observation. Although the
+expression, when observed, is universally and instantly recognized as that
+of grief or anxiety, yet not one person out of a thousand who has never
+studied the subject, is able to say precisely what change passes over the
+sufferer&rsquo;s face. Hence probably it is that this expression is not even
+alluded to, as far as I have noticed, in any work of fiction, with the
+exception of &lsquo;Red Gauntlet&rsquo; and of one other novel; and the authoress of
+the latter, as I am informed, belongs to the famous family of actors just
+alluded to; so that her attention may have been specially called to the
+subject.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The ancient Greek sculptors were familiar with the expression, as shown in
+the statues of the Laocoon and Arretino; but, as Duchenne remarks, they
+carried the transverse furrows across the whole breadth of the forehead,
+and thus committed a great anatomical mistake: this is likewise the case
+in some modern statues. It is, however, more probable that these
+wonderfully accurate observers intentionally sacrificed truth for the sake
+of beauty, than that they made a mistake; for rectangular furrows on the
+forehead would not have had a grand appearance on the marble. The
+expression, in its fully developed condition, is, as far as I can
+discover, not often represented in pictures by the old masters, no doubt
+owing to the same cause; but a lady who is perfectly familiar with this
+expression, informs me that in Fra Angelico&rsquo;s &lsquo;Descent from the Cross&rsquo; in
+Florence, it is clearly exhibited in one of the figures on the right-hand;
+and I could add a few other instances.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Crichton Browne, at my request, closely attended to this expression in
+the numerous insane patients under his care in the West Riding Asylum; and
+he is familiar with Duchenne&rsquo;s photographs of the action of the
+grief-muscles. He informs me that they may constantly be seen in energetic
+action in cases of melancholia, and especially of hypochondria; and that
+the persistent lines or furrows, due to their habitual contraction, are
+characteristic of the physiognomy of the insane belonging to these two
+classes. Dr. Browne carefully observed for me during a considerable period
+three cases of hypochondria, in which the grief-muscles were persistently
+contracted. In one of these, a widow, aged 51, fancied that she had lost
+all her viscera, and that her whole body was empty. She wore an expression
+of great distress, and beat her semi-closed hands rhythmically together
+for hours. The grief-muscles were permanently contracted, and the upper
+eyelids arched. This condition lasted for months; she then recovered, and
+her countenance resumed its natural expression. A second case presented
+nearly the same peculiarities, with the addition that the comers of the
+mouth were depressed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Patrick Nicol has also kindly observed for me several cases in the
+Sussex Lunatic Asylum, and has communicated to me full details with
+respect to three of them; but they need not here be given. From his
+observations on melancholic patients, Mr. Nicol concludes that the inner
+ends of the eyebrows are almost always more or less raised, with the
+wrinkles on the forehead more or less plainly marked. In the case of one
+young woman, these wrinkles were observed to be in constant slight play or
+movement. In some cases the comers of the mouth are depressed, but often
+only in a slight degree. Some amount of difference in the expression of
+the several melancholic patients could almost always be observed. The
+eyelids generally droop; and the skin near their outer comers and beneath
+them is wrinkled. The naso-labial fold, which runs from the wings of the
+nostrils to the comers of the mouth, and which is so conspicuous in
+blubbering children, is often plainly marked in these patients.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although with the insane the grief-muscles often act persistently; yet in
+ordinary cases they are sometimes brought unconsciously into momentary
+action by ludicrously slight causes. A gentleman rewarded a young lady by
+an absurdly small present; she pretended to be offended, and as she
+upbraided him, her eyebrows became extremely oblique, with the forehead
+properly wrinkled. Another young lady and a youth, both in the highest
+spirits, were eagerly talking together with extraordinary rapidity; and I
+noticed that, as often as the young lady was beaten, and could not get out
+her words fast enough, her eyebrows went obliquely upwards, and
+rectangular furrows were formed on her forehead. She thus each time
+hoisted a flag of distress; and this she did half-a-dozen times in the
+course of a few minutes. I made no remark on the subject, but on a
+subsequent occasion I asked her to act on her grief-muscles; another girl
+who was present, and who could do so voluntarily, showing her what was
+intended. She tried repeatedly, but utterly failed; yet so slight a cause
+of distress as not being able to talk quickly enough, sufficed to bring
+these muscles over and over again into energetic action.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The expression of grief, due to the contraction of the grief-muscles, is
+by no means confined to Europeans, but appears to be common to all the
+races of mankind. I have, at least, received trustworthy accounts in
+regard to Hindoos, Dhangars (one of the aboriginal hill-tribes of India,
+and therefore belonging to a quite distinct race from the Hindoos),
+Malays, Negroes and Australians. With respect to the latter, two observers
+answer my query in the affirmative, but enter into no details. Mr. Taplin,
+however, appends to my descriptive remarks the words &ldquo;this is exact.&rdquo; With
+respect to negroes, the lady who told me of Fra Angelico&rsquo;s picture, saw a
+negro towing a boat on the Nile, and as he encountered an obstruction, she
+observed his grief-muscles in strong action, with the middle of the
+forehead well wrinkled. Mr. Geach watched a Malay man in Malacca, with the
+comers of his mouth much depressed, the eyebrows oblique, with deep short
+grooves on the forehead. This expression lasted for a very short time; and
+Mr. Geach remarks it &ldquo;was a strange one, very much like a person about to
+cry at some great loss.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In India Mr. H. Erskine found that the natives were familiar with this
+expression; and Mr. J. Scott, of the Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, has
+obligingly sent me a full description of two cases. He observed during
+some time, himself unseen, a very young Dhangar woman from Nagpore, the
+wife of one of the gardeners, nursing her baby who was at the point of
+death; and he distinctly saw the eyebrows raised at the inner comers, the
+eyelids drooping, the forehead wrinkled in the middle, the mouth slightly
+open, with the comers much depressed. He then came from behind a screen of
+plants and spoke to the poor woman, who started, burst into a bitter flood
+of tears, and besought him to cure her baby. The second case was that of a
+Hindustani man, who from illness and poverty was compelled to sell his
+favourite goat. After receiving the money, he repeatedly looked at the
+money in his hand and then at the goat, as if doubting whether he would
+not return it. He went to the goat, which was tied up ready to be led
+away, and the animal reared up and licked his hands. His eyes then wavered
+from side to side; his &ldquo;mouth was partially closed, with the corners very
+decidedly depressed.&rdquo; At last the poor man seemed to make up his mind that
+he must part with his goat, and then, as Mr. Scott saw, the eyebrows
+became slightly oblique, with the characteristic puckering or swelling at
+the inner ends, but the wrinkles on the forehead were not present. The man
+stood thus for a minute, then heaving a deep sigh, burst into tears,
+raised up his two hands, blessed the goat, turned round, and without
+looking again, went away.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows under suffering</i>.&mdash;During
+several years no expression seemed to me so utterly perplexing as this
+which we are here considering. Why should grief or anxiety cause the
+central fasciae alone of the frontal muscle together with those round the
+eyes, to contract? Here we seem to have a complex movement for the sole
+purpose of expressing grief; and yet it is a comparatively rare
+expression, and often overlooked. I believe the explanation is not so
+difficult as it at first appears. Dr. Duchenne gives a photograph of the
+young man before referred to, who, when looking upwards at a strongly
+illuminated surface, involuntarily contracted his grief-muscles in an
+exaggerated manner. I had entirely forgotten this photograph, when on a
+very bright day with the sun behind me, I met, whilst on horseback, a girl
+whose eyebrows, as she looked up at me, became extremely oblique, with the
+proper furrows on her forehead. I have observed the same movement under
+similar circumstances on several subsequent occasions. On my return home I
+made three of my children, without giving them any clue to my object, look
+as long and as attentively as they could, at the summit of a tall tree
+standing against an extremely bright sky. With all three, the orbicular,
+corrugator, and pyramidal muscles were energetically contracted, through
+reflex action, from the excitement of the retina, so that their eyes might
+be protected from the bright light. But they tried their utmost to look
+upwards; and now a curious struggle, with spasmodic twitchings, could be
+observed between the whole or only the central portion of the frontal
+muscle, and the several muscles which serve to lower the eyebrows and
+close the eyelids. The involuntary contraction of the pyramidal caused the
+basal part of their noses to be transversely and deeply wrinkled. In one
+of the three children, the whole eyebrows were momentarily raised and
+lowered by the alternate contraction of the whole frontal muscle and of
+the muscles surrounding the eyes, so that the whole breadth of the
+forehead was alternately wrinkled and smoothed. In the other two children
+the forehead became wrinkled in the middle part alone, rectangular furrows
+being thus produced; and the eyebrows were rendered oblique, with their
+inner extremities puckered and swollen,&mdash;in the one child in a slight
+degree, in the other in a strongly marked manner. This difference in the
+obliquity of the eyebrows apparently depended on a difference in their
+general mobility, and in the strength of the pyramidal muscles. In both
+these cases the eyebrows and forehead were acted on under the influence of
+a strong light, in precisely the same manner, in every characteristic
+detail, as under the influence of grief or anxiety.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Duchenne states that the pyramidal muscle of the nose is less under the
+control of the will than are the other muscles round the eyes. He remarks
+that the young man who could so well act on his grief-muscles, as well as
+on most of his other facial muscles, could not contract the pyramidals.<a
+href="#linknote-705" name="linknoteref-705" id="linknoteref-705">[705]</a>
+This power, however, no doubt differs in different persons. The pyramidal
+muscle serves to draw down the skin of the forehead between the eyebrows,
+together with their inner extremities. The central fasciae of the frontal
+are the antagonists of the pyramidal; and if the action of the latter is
+to be specially checked, these central fasciae must be contracted. So that
+with persons having powerful pyramidal muscles, if there is under the
+influence of a bright light an unconscious desire to prevent the lowering
+of the eyebrows, the central fasciae of the frontal muscle must be brought
+into play; and their contraction, if sufficiently strong to overmaster the
+pyramidals, together with the contraction of the corrugator and orbicular
+muscles, will act in the manner just described on the eyebrows and
+forehead.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When children scream or cry out, they contract, as we know, the orbicular,
+corrugator, and pyramidal muscles, primarily for the sake of compressing
+their eyes, and thus protecting them from being gorged with blood, and
+secondarily through habit. I therefore expected to find with children,
+that when they endeavoured either to prevent a crying-fit from coming on,
+or to stop crying, they would cheek the contraction of the above-named
+muscles, in the same manner as when looking upwards at a bright light; and
+consequently that the central fasciae of the frontal muscle would often be
+brought into play. Accordingly, I began myself to observe children at such
+times, and asked others, including some medical men, to do the same. It is
+necessary to observe carefully, as the peculiar opposed action of these
+muscles is not nearly so plain in children, owing to their foreheads not
+easily wrinkling, as in adults. But I soon found that the grief-muscles
+were very frequently brought into distinct action on these occasions. It
+would be superfluous to give all the cases which have been observed; and I
+will specify only a few. A little girl, a year and a half old, was teased
+by some other children, and before bursting into tears her eyebrows became
+decidedly oblique. With an older girl the same obliquity was observed,
+with the inner ends of the eyebrows plainly puckered; and at the same time
+the corners of the mouth were drawn downwards. As soon as she burst into
+tears, the features all changed and this peculiar expression vanished.
+Again, after a little boy had been vaccinated, which made him scream and
+cry violently, the surgeon gave him an orange brought for the purpose, and
+this pleased the child much; as he stopped crying all the characteristic
+movements were observed, including the formation of rectangular wrinkles
+in the middle of the forehead. Lastly, I met on the road a little girl
+three or four years old, who had been frightened by a dog, and when I
+asked her what was the matter, she stopped whimpering, and her eyebrows
+instantly became oblique to an extraordinary degree.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Here then, as I cannot doubt, we have the key to the problem why the
+central fasciae of the frontal muscle and the muscles round the eyes
+contract in opposition to each other under the influence of grief;&mdash;whether
+their contraction be prolonged, as with the melancholic insane, or
+momentary, from some trifling cause of distress. We have all of us, as
+infants, repeatedly contracted our orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal
+muscles, in order to protect our eyes whilst screaming; our progenitors
+before us have done the same during many generations; and though with
+advancing years we easily prevent, when feeling distressed, the utterance
+of screams, we cannot from long habit always prevent a slight contraction
+of the above-named muscles; nor indeed do we observe their contraction in
+ourselves, or attempt to stop it, if slight. But the pyramidal muscles
+seem to be less under the command of the will than the other related
+muscles; and if they be well developed, their contraction can be checked
+only by the antagonistic contraction of the central fasciae of the frontal
+muscle. The result which necessarily follows, if these fasciae contract
+energetically, is the oblique drawing up of the eyebrows, the puckering of
+their inner ends, and the formation of rectangular furrows on the middle
+of the forehead. As children and women cry much more freely than men, and
+as grown-up persons of both sexes rarely weep except from mental distress,
+we can understand why the grief-muscles are more frequently seen in
+action, as I believe to be the case, with children and women than with
+men; and with adults of both sexes from mental distress alone. In some of
+the cases before recorded, as in that of the poor Dhangar woman and of the
+Hindustani man, the action of the grief-muscles was quickly followed by
+bitter weeping. In all cases of distress, whether great or small, our
+brains tend through long habit to send an order to certain muscles to
+contract, as if we were still infants on the point of screaming out; but
+this order we, by the wondrous power of the will, and through habit, are
+able partially to counteract; although this is effected unconsciously, as
+far as the means of counteraction are concerned.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>On the depression of the corners of the mouth</i>.&mdash;This action is
+effected by the <i>depressores anguili oris</i> (see letter K in figs. 1
+and 2). The fibres of this muscle diverge downwards, with the upper
+convergent ends attached round the angles of the mouth, and to the lower
+lip a little way within the angles.<a href="#linknote-706"
+name="linknoteref-706" id="linknoteref-706">[706]</a> Some of the fibres
+appear to be antagonistic to the great zygomatic muscle, and others to the
+several muscles running to the outer part of the upper lip. The
+contraction of this muscle draws downwards and outwards the corners of the
+mouth, including the outer part of the upper lip, and even in a slight
+degree the wings of the nostrils. When the mouth is closed and this muscle
+acts, the commissure or line of junction of the two lips forms a curved
+line with the concavity downwards,<a href="#linknote-707"
+name="linknoteref-707" id="linknoteref-707">[707]</a> and the lips
+themselves are generally somewhat protruded, especially the lower one. The
+mouth in this state is well represented in the two photographs (Plate II.,
+figs. 6 and 7) by Mr. Rejlander. The upper boy (fig. 6) had just stopped
+crying, after receiving a slap on the face from another boy; and the right
+moment was seized for photographing him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The expression of low spirits, grief or dejection, due to the contraction
+of this muscle has been noticed by every one who has written on the
+subject. To say that a person &ldquo;is down in the mouth,&rdquo; is synonymous with
+saying that he is out of spirits. The depression of the corners may often
+be seen, as already stated on the authority of Dr. Crichton Browne and Mr.
+Nicol, with the melancholic insane, and was well exhibited in some
+photographs sent to me by the former gentleman, of patients with a strong
+tendency to suicide. It has been observed with men belonging to various
+races, namely with Hindoos, the dark hill-tribes of India, Malays, and, as
+the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer informs me, with the aborigines of Australia.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When infants scream they firmly contract the muscles round their eyes, and
+this draws up the upper lip; and as they have to keep their mouths widely
+open, the depressor muscles running to the corners are likewise brought
+into strong action. This generally, but not invariably, causes a slight
+angular bend in the lower lip on both sides, near the corners of the
+mouth. The result of the upper and lower lip being thus acted on is that
+the mouth assumes a squarish outline. The contraction of the depressor
+muscle is best seen in infants when not screaming violently, and
+especially just before they begin, or when they cease to scream. Their
+little faces then acquire an extremely piteous expression, as I
+continually observed with my own infants between the ages of about six
+weeks and two or three months. Sometimes, when they are struggling against
+a crying-fit, the outline of the mouth is curved in so exaggerated a
+manner as to be like a horseshoe; and the expression of misery then
+becomes a ludicrous caricature.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The explanation of the contraction of this muscle, under the influence of
+low spirits or dejection, apparently follows from the same general
+principles as in the case of the obliquity of the eyebrows. Dr. Duchenne
+informs me that he concludes from his observations, now prolonged during
+many years, that this is one of the facial muscles which is least under
+the control of the will. This fact may indeed be inferred from what has
+just been stated with respect to infants when doubtfully beginning to cry,
+or endeavouring to stop crying; for they then generally command all the
+other facial muscles more effectually than they do the depressors of the
+corners of the mouth. Two excellent observers who had no theory on the
+subject, one of them a surgeon, carefully watched for me some older
+children and women as with some opposed struggling they very gradually
+approached the point of bursting out into tears; and both observers felt
+sure that the depressors began to act before any of the other muscles. Now
+as the depressors have been repeatedly brought into strong action during
+infancy in many generations, nerve-force will tend to flow, on the
+principle of long associated habit, to these muscles as well as to various
+other facial muscles, whenever in after life even a slight feeling of
+distress is experienced. But as the depressors are somewhat less under the
+control of the will than most of the other muscles, we might expect that
+they would often slightly contract, whilst the others remained passive. It
+is remarkable how small a depression of the corners of the mouth gives to
+the countenance an expression of low spirits or dejection, so that an
+extremely slight contraction of these muscles would be sufficient to
+betray this state of mind.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+I may here mention a trifling observation, as it will serve to sum up our
+present subject. An old lady with a comfortable but absorbed expression
+sat nearly opposite to me in a railway carriage. Whilst I was looking at
+her, I saw that her <i>depressores anguli oris</i> became very slightly,
+yet decidedly, contracted; but as her countenance remained as placid as
+ever, I reflected how meaningless was this contraction, and how easily one
+might be deceived. The thought had hardly occurred to me when I saw that
+her eyes suddenly became suffused with tears almost to overflowing, and
+her whole countenance fell. There could now be no doubt that some painful
+recollection, perhaps that of a long-lost child, was passing through her
+mind. As soon as her sensorium was thus affected, certain nerve-cells from
+long habit instantly transmitted an order to all the respiratory muscles,
+and to those round the mouth, to prepare for a fit of crying. But the
+order was countermanded by the will, or rather by a later acquired habit,
+and all the muscles were obedient, excepting in a slight degree the <i>depressores
+anguli oris</i>. The mouth was not even opened; the respiration was not
+hurried; and no muscle was affected except those which draw down the
+corners of the mouth.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As soon as the mouth of this lady began, involuntarily and unconsciously
+on her part, to assume the proper form for a crying-fit, we may feel
+almost sure that some nerve-influence would have been transmitted through
+the long accustomed channels to the various respiratory muscles, as well
+as to those round the eyes, and to the vaso-motor centre which governs the
+supply of blood sent to the lacrymal glands. Of this latter fact we have
+indeed clear evidence in her eyes becoming slightly suffused with tears;
+and we can understand this, as the lacrymal glands are less under the
+control of the will than the facial muscles. No doubt there existed at the
+same time some tendency in the muscles round the eyes at contract, as if
+for the sake of protecting them from being gorged with blood, but this
+contraction was completely overmastered, and her brow remained unruffled.
+Had the pyramidal, corrugator, and orbicular muscles been as little
+obedient to the will, as they are in many persons, they would have been
+slightly acted on; and then the central fasciae of the frontal muscle
+would have contracted in antagonism, and her eyebrows would have become
+oblique, with rectangular furrows on her forehead. Her countenance would
+then have expressed still more plainly than it did a state of dejection,
+or rather one of grief.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Through steps such as these we can understand how it is, that as soon as
+some melancholy thought passes through the brain, there occurs a just
+perceptible drawing down of the corners of the mouth, or a slight raising
+up of the inner ends of the eyebrows, or both movements combined, and
+immediately afterwards a slight suffusion of tears. A thrill of
+nerve-force is transmitted along several habitual channels, and produces
+an effect on any point where the will has not acquired through long habit
+much power of interference. The above actions may be considered as
+rudimental vestiges of the screaming-fits, which are so frequent and
+prolonged during infancy. In this case, as well as in many others, the
+links are indeed wonderful which connect cause and effect in giving rise
+to various expressions on the human countenance; and they explain to us
+the meaning of certain movements, which we involuntarily and unconsciously
+perform, whenever certain transitory emotions pass through our minds.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"></a>
+CHAPTER VIII.<br/>JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+Laughter primarily the expression of joy&mdash;Ludicrous ideas&mdash;Movements
+of the features during laughter&mdash;Nature of the sound produced&mdash;The
+secretion of tears during loud laughter&mdash;Gradation from loud laughter
+to gentle smiling&mdash;High spirits&mdash;The expression of love&mdash;Tender
+feelings&mdash;Devotion.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Joy, when intense, leads to various purposeless movements&mdash;to dancing
+about, clapping the hands, stamping, &amp;c., and to loud laughter.
+Laughter seems primarily to be the expression of mere joy or happiness. We
+clearly see this in children at play, who are almost incessantly laughing.
+With young persons past childhood, when they are in high spirits, there is
+always much meaningless laughter. The laughter of the gods is described by
+Homer as &ldquo;the exuberance of their celestial joy after their daily
+banquet.&rdquo; A man smiles&mdash;and smiling, as we shall see, graduates into
+laughter&mdash;at meeting an old friend in the street, as he does at any
+trifling pleasure, such as smelling a sweet perfume.<a href="#linknote-801"
+name="linknoteref-801" id="linknoteref-801">[801]</a> Laura Bridgman, from
+her blindness and deafness, could not have acquired any expression through
+imitation, yet when a letter from a beloved friend was communicated to her
+by gesture-language, she &ldquo;laughed and clapped her hands, and the colour
+mounted to her cheeks.&rdquo; On other occasions she has been seen to stamp for
+joy.<a href="#linknote-802" name="linknoteref-802" id="linknoteref-802">[802]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Idiots and imbecile persons likewise afford good evidence that laughter or
+smiling primarily expresses mere happiness or joy. Dr. Crichton Browne, to
+whom, as on so many other occasions, I am indebted for the results of his
+wide experience, informs me that with idiots laughter is the most
+prevalent and frequent of all the emotional expressions. Many idiots are
+morose, passionate, restless, in a painful state of mind, or utterly
+stolid, and these never laugh. Others frequently laugh in a quite
+senseless manner. Thus an idiot boy, incapable of speech, complained to
+Dr. Browne, by the aid of signs, that another boy in the asylum had given
+him a black eye; and this was accompanied by &ldquo;explosions of laughter and
+with his face covered with the broadest smiles.&rdquo; There is another large
+class of idiots who are persistently joyous and benign, and who are
+constantly laughing or smiling.<a href="#linknote-803"
+name="linknoteref-803" id="linknoteref-803">[803]</a> Their countenances
+often exhibit a stereotyped smile; their joyousness is increased, and they
+grin, chuckle, or giggle, whenever food is placed before them, or when
+they are caressed, are shown bright colours, or hear music. Some of them
+laugh more than usual when they walk about, or attempt any muscular
+exertion. The joyousness of most of these idiots cannot possibly be
+associated, as Dr. Browne remarks, with any distinct ideas: they simply
+feel pleasure, and express it by laughter or smiles. With imbeciles rather
+higher in the scale, personal vanity seems to be the commonest cause of
+laughter, and next to this, pleasure arising from the approbation of their
+conduct.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With grown-up persons laughter is excited by causes considerably different
+from those which suffice during childhood; but this remark hardly applies
+to smiling. Laughter in this respect is analogous with weeping, which with
+adults is almost confined to mental distress, whilst with children it is
+excited by bodily pain or any suffering, as well as by fear or rage. Many
+curious discussions have been written on the causes of laughter with
+grown-up persons. The subject is extremely complex. Something incongruous
+or unaccountable, exciting surprise and some sense of superiority in the
+laugher, who must be in a happy frame of mind, seems to be the commonest
+cause.<a href="#linknote-804" name="linknoteref-804" id="linknoteref-804">[804]</a>
+The circumstances must not be of a momentous nature: no poor man would
+laugh or smile on suddenly hearing that a large fortune had been
+bequeathed to him. If the mind is strongly excited by pleasurable
+feelings, and any little unexpected event or thought occurs, then, as Mr.
+Herbert Spencer remarks,<a href="#linknote-805" name="linknoteref-805"
+id="linknoteref-805">[805]</a> &ldquo;a large amount of nervous energy, instead
+of being allowed to expend itself in producing an equivalent amount of the
+new thoughts and emotion which were nascent, is suddenly checked in its
+flow.&rdquo;... &ldquo;The excess must discharge itself in some other direction, and
+there results an efflux through the motor nerves to various classes of the
+muscles, producing the half-convulsive actions we term laughter.&rdquo; An
+observation, bearing on this point, was made by a correspondent during the
+recent siege of Paris, namely, that the German soldiers, after strong
+excitement from exposure to extreme danger, were particularly apt to burst
+out into loud laughter at the smallest joke. So again when young children
+are just beginning to cry, an unexpected event will sometimes suddenly
+turn their crying into laughter, which apparently serves equally well to
+expend their superfluous nervous energy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The imagination is sometimes said to be tickled by a ludicrous idea; and
+this so-called tickling of the mind is curiously analogous with that of
+the body. Every one knows how immoderately children laugh, and how their
+whole bodies are convulsed when they are tickled. The anthropoid apes, as
+we have seen, likewise utter a reiterated sound, corresponding with our
+laughter, when they are tickled, especially under the armpits. I touched
+with a bit of paper the sole of the foot of one of my infants, when only
+seven days old, and it was suddenly jerked away and the toes curled about,
+as in an older child. Such movements, as well as laughter from being
+tickled, are manifestly reflex actions; and this is likewise shown by the
+minute unstriped muscles, which serve to erect the separate hairs on the
+body, contracting near a tickled surface.<a href="#linknote-806"
+name="linknoteref-806" id="linknoteref-806">[806]</a> Yet laughter from a
+ludicrous idea, though involuntary, cannot be called a strictly reflex
+action. In this case, and in that of laughter from being tickled, the mind
+must be in a pleasurable condition; a young child, if tickled by a strange
+man, would scream from fear. The touch must be light, and an idea or
+event, to be ludicrous, must not be of grave import. The parts of the body
+which are most easily tickled are those which are not commonly touched,
+such as the armpits or between the toes, or parts such as the soles of the
+feet, which are habitually touched by a broad surface; but the surface on
+which we sit offers a marked exception to this rule. According to
+Gratiolet,<a href="#linknote-807" name="linknoteref-807"
+id="linknoteref-807">[807]</a> certain nerves are much more sensitive to
+tickling than others. From the fact that a child can hardly tickle itself,
+or in a much less degree than when tickled by another person, it seems
+that the precise point to be touched must not be known; so with the mind,
+something unexpected&mdash;a novel or incongruous idea which breaks
+through an habitual train of thought&mdash;appears to be a strong element
+in the ludicrous.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The sound of laughter is produced by a deep inspiration followed by short,
+interrupted, spasmodic contractions of the chest, and especially of the
+diaphragm.<a href="#linknote-808" name="linknoteref-808"
+id="linknoteref-808">[808]</a> Hence we hear of &ldquo;laughter holding both his
+sides.&rdquo; From the shaking of the body, the head nods to and fro. The lower
+jaw often quivers up and down, as is likewise the case with some species
+of baboons, when they are much pleased.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0020" id="linkimage-0020">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/plate-3.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Moderate Laughter and Smiling. Plate III " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+During laughter the mouth is opened more or less widely, with the corners
+drawn much backwards, as well as a little upwards; and the upper lip is
+somewhat raised. The drawing back of the corners is best seen in moderate
+laughter, and especially in a broad smile&mdash;the latter epithet showing
+how the mouth is widened. In the accompanying figs. 1-3, Plate III.,
+different degrees of moderate laughter and smiling have been photographed.
+The figure of the little girl, with the hat is by Dr. Wallich, and the
+expression was a genuine one; the other two are by Mr. Rejlander. Dr.
+Duchenne repeatedly insists<a href="#linknote-809" name="linknoteref-809"
+id="linknoteref-809">[809]</a> that, under the emotion of joy, the mouth
+is acted on exclusively by the great zygomatic muscles, which serve to
+draw the corners backwards and upwards; but judging from the manner in
+which the upper teeth are always exposed during laughter and broad
+smiling, as well as from my own sensations, I cannot doubt that some of
+the muscles running to the upper lip are likewise brought into moderate
+action. The upper and lower orbicular muscles of the eyes are at the same
+time more or less contracted; and there is an intimate connection, as
+explained in the chapter on weeping, between the orbiculars, especially
+the lower ones and some of the muscles running to the upper lip. Henle
+remarks<a href="#linknote-810" name="linknoteref-810" id="linknoteref-810">[810]</a>
+on this head, that when a man closely shuts one eye he cannot avoid
+retracting the upper lip on the same side; conversely, if any one will
+place his finger on his lower eyelid, and then uncover his upper incisors
+as much as possible, he will feel, as his upper lip is drawn strongly
+upwards, that the muscles of the lower eyelid contract. In Henle&rsquo;s
+drawing, given in woodcut, fig. 2, the <i>musculus malaris</i> (H) which
+runs to the upper lip may be seen to form an almost integral part of the
+lower orbicular muscle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Duchenne has given a large photograph of an old man (reduced on Plate
+III. fig 4), in his usual passive condition, and another of the same man
+(fig. 5), naturally smiling. The latter was instantly recognized by every
+one to whom it was shown as true to nature. He has also given, as an
+example of an unnatural or false smile, another photograph (fig. 6) of the
+same old man, with the corners of his mouth strongly retracted by the
+galvanization of the great zygomatic muscles. That the expression is not
+natural is clear, for I showed this photograph to twenty-four persons, of
+whom three could not in the least tell what was meant, whilst the others,
+though they perceived that the expression was of the nature of a smile,
+answered in such words as &ldquo;a wicked joke,&rdquo; &ldquo;trying to laugh,&rdquo; &ldquo;grinning
+laughter.... half-amazed laughter,&rdquo; &amp;c. Dr. Duchenne attributes the
+falseness of the expression altogether to the orbicular muscles of the
+lower eyelids not being sufficiently contracted; for he justly lays great
+stress on their contraction in the expression of joy. No doubt there is
+much truth in this view, but not, as it appears to me, the whole truth.
+The contraction of the lower orbiculars is always accompanied, as we have
+seen, by the drawing up of the upper lip. Had the upper lip, in fig. 6,
+been thus acted on to a slight extent, its curvature would have been less
+rigid, the naso-labial farrow would have been slightly different, and the
+whole expression would, as I believe, have been more natural,
+independently of the more conspicuous effect from the stronger contraction
+of the lower eyelids. The corrugator muscle, moreover, in fig. 6, is too
+much contracted, causing a frown; and this muscle never acts under the
+influence of joy except during strongly pronounced or violent laughter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+By the drawing backwards and upwards of the corners of the mouth, through
+the contraction of the great zygomatic muscles, and by the raising of the
+upper lip, the cheeks are drawn upwards. Wrinkles are thus formed under
+the eyes, and, with old people, at their outer ends; and these are highly
+characteristic of laughter or smiling. As a gentle smile increases into a
+strong one, or into a laugh, every one may feel and see, if he will attend
+to his own sensations and look at himself in a mirror, that as the upper
+lip is drawn up and the lower orbiculars contract, the wrinkles in the
+lower eyelids and those beneath the eyes are much strengthened or
+increased. At the same time, as I have repeatedly observed, the eyebrows
+are slightly lowered, which shows that the upper as well as the lower
+orbiculars contract at least to some degree, though this passes
+unperecived, as far as our sensations are concerned. If the original
+photograph of the old man, with his countenance in its usual placid state
+(fig. 4), be compared with that (fig. 5) in which he is naturally smiling,
+it may be seen that the eyebrows in the latter are a little lowered. I
+presume that this is owing to the upper orbiculars being impelled, through
+the force of long-associated habit, to act to a certain extent in concert
+with the lower orbiculars, which themselves contract in connection with
+the drawing up of the upper lip.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The tendency in the zygomatic muscles to contract under pleasurable
+emotions is shown by a curious fact, communicated to me by Dr. Browne,
+with respect to patients suffering from GENERAL PARALYSIS OF THE INSANE.<a
+href="#linknote-811" name="linknoteref-811" id="linknoteref-811">[811]</a>
+&ldquo;In this malady there is almost invariably optimism&mdash;delusions as to
+wealth, rank, grandeur&mdash;insane joyousness, benevolence, and
+profusion, while its very earliest physical symptom is trembling at the
+corners of the mouth and at the outer corners of the eyes. This is a
+well-recognized fact. Constant tremulous agitation of the inferior
+palpebral and great zygomatic muscles is pathognomic of the earlier stages
+of general paralysis. The countenance has a pleased and benevolent
+expression. As the disease advances other muscles become involved, but
+until complete fatuity is reached, the prevailing expression is that of
+feeble benevolence.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As in laughing and broadly smiling the cheeks and upper lip are much
+raised, the nose appears to be shortened, and the skin on the bridge
+becomes finely wrinkled in transverse lines, with other oblique
+longitudinal lines on the sides. The upper front teeth are commonly
+exposed. A well-marked naso-labial fold is formed, which runs from the
+wing of each nostril to the corner of the mouth; and this fold is often
+double in old persons.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A bright and sparkling eye is as characteristic of a pleased or amused
+state of mind, as is the retraction of the corners of the mouth and upper
+lip with the wrinkles thus produced. Even the eyes of microcephalous
+idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn to speak, brighten
+slightly when they are pleased.<a href="#linknote-812"
+name="linknoteref-812" id="linknoteref-812">[812]</a> Under extreme
+laughter the eyes are too much suffused with tears to sparkle; but the
+moisture squeezed out of the glands during moderate laughter or smiling
+may aid in giving them lustre; though this must be of altogether
+subordinate importance, as they become dull from grief, though they are
+then often moist. Their brightness seems to be chiefly due to their
+tenseness,<a href="#linknote-813" name="linknoteref-813"
+id="linknoteref-813">[813]</a> owing to the contraction of the orbicular
+muscles and to the pressure of the raised cheeks. But, according to Dr.
+Piderit, who has discussed this point more fully than any other writer,<a
+href="#linknote-814" name="linknoteref-814" id="linknoteref-814">[814]</a>
+the tenseness may be largely attributed to the eyeballs becoming filled
+with blood and other fluids, from the acceleration of the circulation,
+consequent on the excitement of pleasure. He remarks on the contrast in
+the appearance of the eyes of a hectic patient with a rapid circulation,
+and of a man suffering from cholera with almost all the fluids of his body
+drained from him. Any cause which lowers the circulation deadens the eye.
+I remember seeing a man utterly prostrated by prolonged and severe
+exertion during a very hot day, and a bystander compared his eyes to those
+of a boiled codfish.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To return to the sounds produced during laughter. We can see in a vague
+manner how the utterance of sounds of some kind would naturally become
+associated with a pleasurable state of mind; for throughout a large part
+of the animal kingdom vocal or instrumental sounds are employed either as
+a call or as a charm by one sex for the other. They are also employed as
+the means for a joyful meeting between the parents and their offspring,
+and between the attached members of the same social community. But why the
+sounds which man utters when he is pleased have the peculiar reiterated
+character of laughter we do not know. Nevertheless we can see that they
+would naturally be as different as possible from the screams or cries of
+distress; and as in the production of the latter, the expirations are
+prolonged and continuous, with the inspirations short and interrupted, so
+it might perhaps have been expected with the sounds uttered from joy, that
+the expirations would have been short and broken with the inspirations
+prolonged; and this is the case.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is an equally obscure point why the corners of the mouth are retracted
+and the upper lip raised during ordinary laughter. The mouth must not be
+opened to its utmost extent, for when this occurs during a paroxysm of
+excessive laughter hardly any sound is emitted; or it changes its tone and
+seems to come from deep down in the throat. The respiratory muscles, and
+even those of the limbs, are at the same time thrown into rapid vibratory
+movements. The lower jaw often partakes of this movement, and this would
+tend to prevent the mouth from being widely opened. But as a full volume
+of sound has to be poured forth, the orifice of the mouth must be large;
+and it is perhaps to gain this end that the corners are retracted and the
+upper lip raised. Although we can hardly account for the shape of the
+mouth during laughter, which leads to wrinkles being formed beneath the
+eyes, nor for the peculiar reiterated sound of laughter, nor for the
+quivering of the jaws, nevertheless we may infer that all these effects
+are due to some common cause. For they are all characteristic and
+expressive of a pleased state of mind in various kinds of monkeys.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A graduated series can be followed from violent to moderate laughter, to a
+broad smile, to a gentle smile, and to the expression of mere
+cheerfulness. During excessive laughter the whole body is often thrown
+backward and shakes, or is almost convulsed; the respiration is much
+disturbed; the head and face become gorged with blood, with the veins
+distended; and the orbicular muscles are spasmodically contracted in order
+to protect the eyes. Tears are freely shed. Hence, as formerly remarked,
+it is scarcely possible to point out any difference between the
+tear-stained face of a person after a paroxysm of excessive laughter and
+after a bitter crying-fit.<a href="#linknote-815" name="linknoteref-815"
+id="linknoteref-815">[815]</a> It is probably due to the close similarity
+of the spasmodic movements caused by these widely different emotions that
+hysteric patients alternately cry and laugh with violence, and that young
+children sometimes pass suddenly from the one to the other state. Mr.
+Swinhoe informs me that he has often seen the Chinese, when suffering from
+deep grief, burst out into hysterical fits of laughter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I was anxious to know whether tears are freely shed during excessive
+laughter by most of the races of men, and I hear from my correspondents
+that this is the case. One instance was observed with the Hindoos, and
+they themselves said that it often occurred. So it is with the Chinese.
+The women of a wild tribe of Malays in the Malacca peninsula, sometimes
+shed tears when they laugh heartily, though this seldom occurs. With the
+Dyaks of Borneo it must frequently be the case, at least with the women,
+for I hear from the Rajah C. Brooke that it is a common expression with
+them to say &ldquo;we nearly made tears from laughter.&rdquo; The aborigines of
+Australia express their emotions freely, and they are described by my
+correspondents as jumping about and clapping their hands for joy, and as
+often roaring with laughter. No less than four observers have seen their
+eyes freely watering on such occasions; and in one instance the tears
+rolled down their cheeks. Mr. Bulmer, a missionary in a remote part of
+Victoria, remarks, &ldquo;that they have a keen sense of the ridiculous; they
+are excellent mimics, and when one of them is able to imitate the
+peculiarities of some absent member of the tribe, it is very common to
+hear all in the camp convulsed with laughter.&rdquo; With Europeans hardly
+anything excites laughter so easily as mimicry; and it is rather curious
+to find the same fact with the savages of Australia, who constitute one of
+the most distinct races in the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In Southern Africa with two tribes of Kafirs, especially with the women,
+their eyes often fill with tears during laughter. Gaika, the brother of
+the chief Sandilli, answers my query on this head, with the words, &ldquo;Yes,
+that is their common practice.&rdquo; Sir Andrew Smith has seen the painted face
+of a Hottentot woman all furrowed with tears after a fit of laughter. In
+Northern Africa, with the Abyssinians, tears are secreted under the same
+circumstances. Lastly, in North America, the same fact has been observed
+in a remarkably savage and isolated tribe, but chiefly with the women; in
+another tribe it was observed only on a single occasion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Excessive laughter, as before remarked, graduates into moderate laughter.
+In this latter case the muscles round the eyes are much less contracted,
+and there is little or no frowning. Between a gentle laugh and a broad
+smile there is hardly any difference, excepting that in smiling no
+reiterated sound is uttered, though a single rather strong expiration, or
+slight noise&mdash;a rudiment of a laugh&mdash;may often be heard at the
+commencement of a smile. On a moderately smiling countenance the
+contraction of the upper orbicular muscles can still just be traced by a
+slight lowering of the eyebrows. The contraction of the lower orbicular
+and palpebral muscles is much plainer, and is shown by the wrinkling of
+the lower eyelids and of the skin beneath them, together with a slight
+drawing up of the upper lip. From the broadest smile we pass by the finest
+steps into the gentlest one. In this latter case the features are moved in
+a much less degree, and much more slowly, and the mouth is kept closed.
+The curvature of the naso-labial furrow is also slightly different in the
+two cases. We thus see that no abrupt line of demarcation can be drawn
+between the movement of the features during the most violent laughter and
+a very faint smile.<a href="#linknote-816" name="linknoteref-816"
+id="linknoteref-816">[816]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A smile, therefore, may be said to be the first stage in the development
+of a laugh. But a different and more probable view may be suggested;
+namely, that the habit of uttering load reiterated sounds from a sense of
+pleasure, first led to the retraction of the corners of the mouth and of
+the upper lip, and to the contraction of the orbicular muscles; and that
+now, through association and long-continued habit, the same muscles are
+brought into slight play whenever any cause excites in us a feeling which,
+if stronger, would have led to laughter; and the result is a smile.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Whether we look at laughter as the full development of a smile, or, as is
+more probable, at a gentle smile as the last trace of a habit, firmly
+fixed during many generations, of laughing whenever we are joyful, we can
+follow in our infants the gradual passage of the one into the other. It is
+well known to those who have the charge of young infants, that it is
+difficult to feel sure when certain movements about their mouths are
+really expressive; that is, when they really smile. Hence I carefully
+watched my own infants. One of them at the age of forty-five days, and
+being at the time in a happy frame of mind, smiled; that is, the corners
+of the mouth were retracted, and simultaneously the eyes became decidedly
+bright. I observed the same thing on the following day; but on the third
+day the child was not quite well and there was no trace of a smile, and
+this renders it probable that the previous smiles were real. Eight days
+subsequently and during the next succeeding week, it was remarkable how
+his eyes brightened whenever he smiled, and his nose became at the same
+time transversely wrinkled. This was now accompanied by a little bleating
+noise, which perhaps represented a laugh. At the age of 113 days these
+little noises, which were always made during expiration, assumed a
+slightly different character, and were more broken or interrupted, as in
+sobbing; and this was certainly incipient laughter. The change in tone
+seemed to me at the time to be connected with the greater lateral
+extension of the mouth as the smiles became broader.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In a second infant the first real smile was observed at about the same
+age, viz. forty-five days; and in a third, at a somewhat earlier age. The
+second infant, when sixty-five days old, smiled much more broadly and
+plainly than did the one first mentioned at the same age; and even at this
+early age uttered noises very like laughter. In this gradual acquirement,
+by infants, of the habit of laughing, we have a case in some degree
+analogous to that of weeping. As practice is requisite with the ordinary
+movements of the body, such as walking, so it seems to be with laughing
+and weeping. The art of screaming, on the other hand, from being of
+service to infants, has become finely developed from the earliest days.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>High spirits, cheerfulness</i>.&mdash;A man in high spirits, though he
+may not actually smile, commonly exhibits some tendency to the retraction
+of the corners of his mouth. From the excitement of pleasure, the
+circulation becomes more rapid; the eyes are bright, and the colour of the
+face rises. The brain, being stimulated by the increased flow of blood,
+reacts on the mental powers; lively ideas pass still more rapidly through
+the mind, and the affections are warmed. I heard a child, a little under
+four years old, when asked what was meant by being in good spirits,
+answer, &ldquo;It is laughing, talking, and kissing.&rdquo; It would be difficult to
+give a truer and more practical definition. A man in this state holds his
+body erect, his head upright, and his eyes open. There is no drooping of
+the features, and no contraction of the eyebrows. On the contrary, the
+frontal muscle, as Moreau observes,<a href="#linknote-817"
+name="linknoteref-817" id="linknoteref-817">[817]</a> tends to contract
+slightly; and this smooths the brow, removes every trace of a frown,
+arches the eyebrows a little, and raises the eyelids. Hence the Latin
+phrase, <i>exporrigere frontem</i>&mdash;to unwrinkle the brow&mdash;means,
+to be cheerful or merry. The whole expression of a man in good spirits is
+exactly the opposite of that of one suffering from sorrow. According to
+Sir C. Bell, &ldquo;In all the exhilarating emotions the eyebrows, eyelids, the
+nostrils, and the angles of the mouth are raised. In the depressing
+passions it is the reverse.&rdquo; Under the influence of the latter the brow is
+heavy, the eyelids, cheeks, mouth, and whole head droop; the eyes are
+dull; the countenance pallid, and the respiration slow. In joy the face
+expands, in grief it lengthens. Whether the principle of antithesis has
+here come into play in producing these opposite expressions, in aid of the
+direct causes which have been specified and which are sufficiently plain,
+I will not pretend to say.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With all the races of man the expression of good spirit appears to be the
+same, and is easily recognized. My informants, from various parts of the
+Old and New Worlds, answer in the affirmative to my queries on this head,
+and they give some particulars with respect to Hindoos, Malays, and New
+Zealanders. The brightness of the eyes of the Australians has struck four
+observers, and the same fact has been noticed with Hindoos, New
+Zealanders, and the Dyaks of Borneo.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Savages sometimes express their satisfaction not only by smiling, but by
+gestures derived from the pleasure of eating. Thus Mr. Wedgwood<a
+href="#linknote-818" name="linknoteref-818" id="linknoteref-818">[818]</a>
+quotes Petherick that the negroes on the Upper Nile began a general
+rubbing of their bellies when he displayed his beads; and Leichhardt says
+that the Australians smacked and clacked their mouths at the sight of his
+horses and bullocks, and more especially of his kangaroo dogs. The
+Greenlanders, &ldquo;when they affirm anything with pleasure, suck down air with
+a certain sound;&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-819" name="linknoteref-819"
+id="linknoteref-819">[819]</a> and this may be an imitation of the act of
+swallowing savoury food.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Laughter is suppressed by the firm contraction of the orbicular muscles of
+the mouth, which prevents the great zygomatic and other muscles from
+drawing the lips backwards and upwards. The lower lip is also sometimes
+held by the teeth, and this gives a roguish expression to the face, as was
+observed with the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman.<a href="#linknote-820"
+name="linknoteref-820" id="linknoteref-820">[820]</a> The great zygomatic
+muscle is sometimes variable in its course, and I have seen a young woman
+in whom the <i>depressores anguli oris</i> were brought into strong action
+in suppressing a smile; but this by no means gave to her countenance a
+melancholy expression, owing to the brightness of her eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Laughter is frequently employed in a forced manner to conceal or mask some
+other state of mind, even anger. We often see persons laughing in order to
+conceal their shame or shyness. When a person purses up his mouth, as if
+to prevent the possibility of a smile, though there is nothing to excite
+one, or nothing to prevent its free indulgence, an affected, solemn, or
+pedantic expression is given; but of such hybrid expressions nothing more
+need here be said. In the case of derision, a real or pretended smile or
+laugh is often blended with the expression proper to contempt, and this
+may pass into angry contempt or scorn. In such cases the meaning of the
+laugh or smile is to show the offending person that he excites only
+amusement.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Love, tender feelings, &amp;c</i>.&mdash;Although the emotion of love,
+for instance that of a mother for her infant, is one of the strongest of
+which the mind is capable, it can hardly be said to have any proper or
+peculiar means of expression; and this is intelligible, as it has not
+habitually led to any special line of action. No doubt, as affection is a
+pleasurable sensation, it generally causes a gentle smile and some
+brightening of the eyes. A strong desire to touch the beloved person is
+commonly felt; and love is expressed by this means more plainly than by
+any other.<a href="#linknote-821" name="linknoteref-821"
+id="linknoteref-821">[821]</a> Hence we long to clasp in our arms those
+whom we tenderly love. We probably owe this desire to inherited habit, in
+association with the nursing and tending of our children, and with the
+mutual caresses of lovers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With the lower animals we see the same principle of pleasure derived from
+contact in association with love. Dogs and cats manifestly take pleasure
+in rubbing against their masters and mistresses, and in being rubbed or
+patted by them. Many kinds of monkeys, as I am assured by the keepers in
+the Zoological Gardens, delight in fondling and being fondled by each
+other, and by persons to whom they are attached. Mr. Bartlett has
+described to me the behaviour of two chimpanzees, rather older animals
+than those generally imported into this country, when they were first
+brought together. They sat opposite, touching each other with their much
+protruded lips; and the one put his hand on the shoulder of the other.
+They then mutually folded each other in their arms. Afterwards they stood
+up, each with one arm on the shoulder of the other, lifted up their heads,
+opened their mouths, and yelled with delight.<a href="#linknote-822"
+name="linknoteref-822" id="linknoteref-822">[822]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We Europeans are so accustomed to kissing as a mark of affection, that it
+might be thought to be innate in mankind; but this is not the case. Steele
+was mistaken when he said &ldquo;Nature was its author, and it began with the
+first courtship.&rdquo; Jemmy Button, the Fuegian, told me that this practice
+was unknown in his land. It is equally unknown with the New Zealanders,
+Tahitians, Papuans, Australians, Somals of Africa, and the Esquimaux. But
+it is so far innate or natural that it apparently depends on pleasure from
+close contact with a beloved person; and it is replaced in various parts
+of the world, by the rubbing of noses, as with the New Zealanders and
+Laplanders, by the rubbing or patting of the arms, breasts, or stomachs,
+or by one man striking his own face with the hands or feet of another.
+Perhaps the practice of blowing, as a mark of affection, on various parts
+of the body may depend on the same principle.<a href="#linknote-823"
+name="linknoteref-823" id="linknoteref-823">[823]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The feelings which are called tender are difficult to analyse; they seem
+to be compounded of affection, joy, and especially of sympathy. These
+feelings are in themselves of a pleasurable nature, excepting when pity is
+too deep, or horror is aroused, as in hearing of a tortured man or animal.
+They are remarkable under our present point of view from so readily
+exciting the secretion of tears. Many a father and son have wept on
+meeting after a long separation, especially if the meeting has been
+unexpected. No doubt extreme joy by itself tends to act on the lacrymal
+glands; but on such occasions as the foregoing vague thoughts of the grief
+which would have been felt had the father and son never met, will probably
+have passed through their minds; and grief naturally leads to the
+secretion of tears. Thus on the return of Ulysses:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;Telemachus Rose, and clung weeping round his father&rsquo;s breast.<br/>
+There the pent grief rained o&rsquo;er them, yearning thus.<br/>
+*   *    *    *    *    *<br/>
+Thus piteously they wailed in sore unrest,<br/>
+And on their weepings had gone down the day,<br/>
+But that at last Telemachus found words to say.&rdquo;<br/>
+<i>Worsley&rsquo;s Translation of the Odyssey</i>, Book xvi. st. 27.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So again when Penelope at last recognized her husband:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;Then from her eyelids the quick tears did start<br/>
+And she ran to him from her place, and threw<br/>
+Her arms about his neck, and a warm dew<br/>
+Of kisses poured upon him, and thus spake:&rdquo;<br/>
+&mdash;Book xxiii.  st.  27.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The vivid recollection of our former home, or of long-past happy days,
+readily causes the eyes to be suffused with tears; but here, again, the
+thought naturally occurs that these days will never return. In such cases
+we may be said to sympathize with ourselves in our present, in comparison
+with our former, state. Sympathy with the distresses of others, even with
+the imaginary distresses of a heroine in a pathetic story, for whom we
+feel no affection, readily excites tears. So does sympathy with the
+happiness of others, as with that of a lover, at last successful after
+many hard trials in a well-told tale.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sympathy appears to constitute a separate or distinct emotion; and it is
+especially apt to excite the lacrymal glands. This holds good whether we
+give or receive sympathy. Every one must have noticed how readily children
+burst out crying if we pity them for some small hurt. With the melancholic
+insane, as Dr. Crichton Browne informs me, a kind word will often plunge
+them into unrestrained weeping. As soon as we express our pity for the
+grief of a friend, tears often come into our own eyes. The feeling of
+sympathy is commonly explained by assuming that, when we see or hear of
+suffering in another, the idea of suffering is called up so vividly in our
+own minds that we ourselves suffer. But this explanation is hardly
+sufficient, for it does not account for the intimate alliance between
+sympathy and affection. We undoubtedly sympathize far more deeply with a
+beloved than with an indifferent person; and the sympathy of the one gives
+us far more relief than that of the other. Yet assuredly we can sympathize
+with those for whom we feel no affection.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Why suffering, when actually experienced by ourselves, excites weeping,
+has been discussed in a former chapter. With respect to joy, its natural
+and universal expression is laughter; and with all the races of man loud
+laughter leads to the secretion of tears more freely than does any other
+cause excepting distress. The suffusion of the eyes with tears, which
+undoubtedly occurs under great joy, though there is no laughter, can, as
+it seems to me, be explained through habit and association on the same
+principles as the effusion of tears from grief, although there is no
+screaming. Nevertheless it is not a little remarkable that sympathy with
+the distresses of others should excite tears more freely than our own
+distress; and this certainly is the case. Many a man, from whose eyes no
+suffering of his own could wring a tear, has shed tears at the sufferings
+of a beloved friend. It is still more remarkable that sympathy with the
+happiness or good fortune of those whom we tenderly love should lead to
+the same result, whilst a similar happiness felt by ourselves would leave
+our eyes dry. We should, however, bear in mind that the long-continued
+habit of restraint which is so powerful in checking the free flow of tears
+from bodily pain, has not been brought into play in preventing a moderate
+effusion of tears in sympathy with the sufferings or happiness of others.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Music has a wonderful power, as I have elsewhere attempted to show,<a
+href="#linknote-824" name="linknoteref-824" id="linknoteref-824">[824]</a>
+of recalling in a vague and indefinite manner, those strong emotions which
+were felt during long-past ages, when, as is probable, our early
+progenitors courted each other by the aid of vocal tones. And as several
+of our strongest emotions&mdash;grief, great joy, love, and sympathy&mdash;lead
+to the free secretion of tears, it is not surprising that music should be
+apt to cause our eyes to become suffused with tears, especially when we
+are already softened by any of the tenderer feelings. Music often produces
+another peculiar effect. We know that every strong sensation, emotion, or
+excitement&mdash;extreme pain, rage, terror, joy, or the passion of love&mdash;all
+have a special tendency to cause the muscles to tremble; and the thrill or
+slight shiver which runs down the backbone and limbs of many persons when
+they are powerfully affected by music, seems to bear the same relation to
+the above trembling of the body, as a slight suffusion of tears from the
+power of music does to weeping from any strong and real emotion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Devotion</i>.&mdash;As devotion is, in some degree, related to
+affection, though mainly consisting of reverence, often combined with
+fear, the expression of this state of mind may here be briefly noticed.
+With some sects, both past and present, religion and love have been
+strangely combined; and it has even been maintained, lamentable as the
+fact may be, that the holy kiss of love differs but little from that which
+a man bestows on a woman, or a woman on a man.<a href="#linknote-825"
+name="linknoteref-825" id="linknoteref-825">[825]</a> Devotion is chiefly
+expressed by the face being directed towards the heavens, with the
+eyeballs upturned. Sir C. Bell remarks that, at the approach of sleep, or
+of a fainting-fit, or of death, the pupils are drawn upwards and inwards;
+and he believes that &ldquo;when we are wrapt in devotional feelings, and
+outward impressions are unheeded, the eyes are raised by an action neither
+taught nor acquired.&rdquo; and that this is due to the same cause as in the
+above cases.<a href="#linknote-826" name="linknoteref-826"
+id="linknoteref-826">[826]</a> That the eyes are upturned during sleep is,
+as I hear from Professor Donders, certain. With babies, whilst sucking
+their mother&rsquo;s breast, this movement of the eyeballs often gives to them
+an absurd appearance of ecstatic delight; and here it may be clearly
+perceived that a struggle is going on against the position naturally
+assumed during sleep. But Sir C. Bell&rsquo;s explanation of the fact, which
+rests on the assumption that certain muscles are more under the control of
+the will than others is, as I hear from Professor Donders, incorrect. As
+the eyes are often turned up in prayer, without the mind being so much
+absorbed in thought as to approach to the unconsciousness of sleep, the
+movement is probably a conventional one&mdash;the result of the common
+belief that Heaven, the source of Divine power to which we pray, is seated
+above us.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A humble kneeling posture, with the hands upturned and palms joined,
+appears to us, from long habit, a gesture so appropriate to devotion, that
+it might be thought to be innate; but I have not met with any evidence to
+this effect with the various extra-European races of mankind. During the
+classical period of Roman history it does not appear, as I hear from an
+excellent classic, that the hands were thus joined during prayer. Mr.
+Rensleigh Wedgwood has apparently given<a href="#linknote-827"
+name="linknoteref-827" id="linknoteref-827">[827]</a> the true
+explanation, though this implies that the attitude is one of slavish
+subjection. &ldquo;When the suppliant kneels and holds up his hands with the
+palms joined, he represents a captive who proves the completeness of his
+submission by offering up his hands to be bound by the victor. It is the
+pictorial representation of the Latin <i>dare manus</i>, to signify
+submission.&rdquo; Hence it is not probable that either the uplifting of the
+eyes or the joining of the open hands, under the influence of devotional
+feelings, are innate or truly expressive actions; and this could hardly
+have been expected, for it is very doubtful whether feelings, such as we
+should now rank as devotional, affected the hearts of men, whilst they
+remained during past ages in an uncivilized condition.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"></a>
+CHAPTER IX.<br/>REFLECTION&mdash;MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER&mdash;SULKINESS&mdash;DETERMINATION.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The act of frowning&mdash;Reflection with an effort, or with the
+perception of something difficult or disagreeable&mdash;Abstracted
+meditation&mdash;Ill-temper&mdash;Moroseness&mdash;Obstinacy Sulkiness and
+pouting&mdash;Decision or determination&mdash;The firm closure of the
+mouth.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+The corrugators, by their contraction, lower the eyebrows and bring them
+together, producing vertical furrows on the forehead&mdash;that is, a
+frown. Sir C. Bell, who erroneously thought that the corrugator was
+peculiar to man, ranks it as &ldquo;the most remarkable muscle of the human
+face. It knits the eyebrows with an energetic effort, which unaccountably,
+but irresistibly, conveys the idea of mind.&rdquo; Or, as he elsewhere says,
+&ldquo;when the eyebrows are knit, energy of mind is apparent, and there is the
+mingling of thought and emotion with the savage and brutal rage of the
+mere animal.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-901" name="linknoteref-901"
+id="linknoteref-901">[901]</a> There is much truth in these remarks, but
+hardly the whole truth. Dr. Duchenne has called the corrugator the muscle
+of reflection;<a href="#linknote-902" name="linknoteref-902"
+id="linknoteref-902">[902]</a> but this name, without some limitation,
+cannot be considered as quite correct.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A man may be absorbed in the deepest thought, and his brow will remain
+smooth until he encounters some obstacle in his train of reasoning, or is
+interrupted by some disturbance, and then a frown passes like a shadow
+over his brow. A half-starved man may think intently how to obtain food,
+but he probably will not frown unless he encounters either in thought or
+action some difficulty, or finds the food when obtained nauseous. I have
+noticed that almost everyone instantly frowns if he perceives a strange or
+bad taste in what he is eating. I asked several persons, without
+explaining my object, to listen intently to a very gentle tapping sound,
+the nature and source of which they all perfectly knew, and not one
+frowned; but a man who joined us, and who could not conceive what we were
+all doing in profound silence, when asked to listen, frowned much, though
+not in an ill-temper, and said he could not in the least understand what
+we all wanted. Dr. Piderit<a href="#linknote-903" name="linknoteref-903"
+id="linknoteref-903">[903]</a> who has published remarks to the same
+effect, adds that stammerers generally frown in speaking, and that a man
+in doing even so trifling a thing as pulling on a boot, frowns if he finds
+it too tight. Some persons are such habitual frowners, that the mere
+effort of speaking almost always causes their brows to contract.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Men of all races frown when they are in any way perplexed in thought, as I
+infer from the answers which I have received to my queries; but I framed
+them badly, confounding absorbed meditation with perplexed reflection.
+Nevertheless, it is clear that the Australians, Malays, Hindoos, and
+Kafirs of South Africa frown, when they are puzzled. Dobritzhoffer remarks
+that the Guaranies of South America on like occasions knit their brows.<a
+href="#linknote-904" name="linknoteref-904" id="linknoteref-904">[904]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From these considerations, we may conclude that frowning is not the
+expression of simple reflection, however profound, or of attention,
+however close, but of something difficult or displeasing encountered in a
+train of thought or in action. Deep reflection can, however, seldom be
+long carried on without some difficulty, so that it will generally be
+accompanied by a frown. Hence it is that frowning commonly gives to the
+countenance, as Sir C. Bell remarks, an aspect of intellectual energy. But
+in order that this effect may be produced, the eyes must be clear and
+steady, or they may be cast downwards, as often occurs in deep thought.
+The countenance must not be otherwise disturbed, as in the case of an
+ill-tempered or peevish man, or of one who shows the effects of prolonged
+suffering, with dulled eyes and drooping jaw, or who perceives a bad taste
+in his food, or who finds it difficult to perform some trifling act, such
+as threading a needle. In these cases a frown may often be seen, but it
+will be accompanied by some other expression, which will entirely prevent
+the countenance having an appearance of intellectual energy or of profound
+thought.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We may now inquire how it is that a frown should express the perception of
+something difficult or disagreeable, either in thought or action. In the
+same way as naturalists find it advisable to trace the embryological
+development of an organ in order fully to understand its structure, so
+with the movements of expression it is advisable to follow as nearly as
+possible the same plan. The earliest and almost sole expression seen
+during the first days of infancy, and then often exhibited is that
+displayed during the act of screaming; and screaming is excited, both at
+first and for some time afterwards, by every distressing or displeasing
+sensation and emotion,&mdash;by hunger, pain, anger, jealousy, fear, &amp;c.
+At such times the muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted; and
+this, as I believe, explains to a large extent the act of frowning during
+the remainder of our lives. I repeatedly observed my own infants, from
+under the age of one week to that of two or three months, and found that
+when a screaming-fit came on gradually, the first sign was the contraction
+of the corrugators, which produced a slight frown, quickly followed by the
+contraction of the other muscles round the eyes. When an infant is
+uncomfortable or unwell, little frowns&mdash;as I record in my notes&mdash;may
+be seen incessantly passing like shadows over its face; these being
+generally, but not always, followed sooner or later by a crying-fit. For
+instance, I watched for some time a baby, between seven and eight weeks
+old, sucking some milk which was cold, and therefore displeasing to him;
+and a steady little frown was maintained all the time. This was never
+developed into an actual crying-fit, though occasionally every stage of
+close approach could be observed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the habit of contracting the brows has been followed by infants during
+innumerable generations, at the commencement of every crying or screaming
+fit, it has become firmly associated with the incipient sense of something
+distressing or disagreeable. Hence under similar circumstances it would be
+apt to be continued during maturity, although never then developed into a
+crying-fit. Screaming or weeping begins to be voluntarily restrained at an
+early period of life, whereas frowning is hardly ever restrained at any
+age. It is perhaps worth notice that with children much given to weeping,
+anything which perplexes their minds, and which would cause most other
+children merely to frown, readily makes them weep. So with certain classes
+of the insane, any effort of mind, however slight, which with an habitual
+frowner would cause a slight frown, leads to their weeping in an
+unrestrained manner. It is not more surprising that the habit of
+contracting the brows at the first perception of something distressing,
+although gained during infancy, should be retained during the rest of our
+lives, than that many other associated habits acquired at an early age
+should be permanently retained both by man and the lower animals. For
+instance, full-grown cats, when feeling warm and comfortable, often retain
+the habit of alternately protruding their fore-feet with extended toes,
+which habit they practised for a definite purpose whilst sucking their
+mothers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another and distinct cause has probably strengthened the habit of
+frowning, whenever the mind is intent on any subject and encounters some
+difficulty. Vision is the most important of all the senses, and during
+primeval times the closest attention must have been incessantly: directed
+towards distant objects for the sake of obtaining prey and avoiding
+danger. I remember being struck, whilst travelling in parts of South
+America, which were dangerous from the presence of Indians, how
+incessantly, yet as it appeared unconsciously, the half-wild Gauchos
+closely scanned the whole horizon. Now, when any one with no covering on
+his head (as must have been aboriginally the case with mankind), strives
+to the utmost to distinguish in broad daylight, and especially if the sky
+is bright, a distant object, he almost invariably contracts his brows to
+prevent the entrance of too much light; the lower eyelids, cheeks, and
+upper lip being at the same time raised, so as to lessen the orifice of
+the eyes. I have purposely asked several persons, young and old, to look,
+under the above circumstances, at distant objects, making them believe
+that I only wished to test the power of their vision; and they all behaved
+in the manner just described. Some of them, also, put their open, flat
+hands over their eyes to keep out the excess of light. Gratiolet, after
+making some remarks to nearly the same effect,<a href="#linknote-905"
+name="linknoteref-905" id="linknoteref-905">[905]</a> says, &ldquo;Ce sont là
+des attitudes de vision difficile.&rdquo; He concludes that the muscles round
+the eyes contract partly for the sake of excluding too much light (which
+appears to me the more important end), and partly to prevent all rays
+striking the retina, except those which come direct from the object that
+is scrutinized. Mr. Bowman, whom I consulted on this point, thinks that
+the contraction of the surrounding muscles may, in addition, &ldquo;partly
+sustain the consensual movements of the two eyes, by giving a firmer
+support while the globes are brought to binocular vision by their own
+proper muscles.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the effort of viewing with care under a bright light a distant object
+is both difficult and irksome, and as this effort has been habitually
+accompanied, during numberless generations, by the contraction of the
+eyebrows, the habit of frowning will thus have been much strengthened;
+although it was originally practised during infancy from a quite
+independent cause, namely as the first step in the protection of the eyes
+during screaming. There is, indeed, much analogy, as far as the state of
+the mind is concerned, between intently scrutinizing a distant object, and
+following out an obscure train of thought, or performing some little and
+troublesome mechanical work. The belief that the habit of contracting the
+brows is continued when there is no need whatever to exclude too much
+light, receives support from the cases formerly alluded to, in which the
+eyebrows or eyelids are acted on under certain circumstances in a useless
+manner, from having been similarly used, under analogous circumstances,
+for a serviceable purpose. For instance, we voluntarily close our eyes
+when we do not wish to see any object, and we are apt to close them, when
+we reject a proposition, as if we could not or would not see it; or when
+we think about something horrible. We raise our eyebrows when we wish to
+see quickly all round us, and we often do the same, when we earnestly
+desire to remember something; acting as if we endeavoured to see it.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Abstraction. Meditation</i>.&mdash;When a person is lost in thought
+with his mind absent, or, as it is sometimes said, &ldquo;when he is in a brown
+study,&rdquo; he does not frown, but his eyes appear vacant. The lower eyelids
+are generally raised and wrinkled, in the same manner as when a
+short-sighted person tries to distinguish a distant object; and the upper
+orbicular muscles are at the same time slightly contracted. The wrinkling
+of the lower eyelids under these circumstances has been observed with some
+savages, as by Mr. Dyson Lacy with the Australians of Queensland, and
+several times by Mr. Geach with the Malays of the interior of Malacca.
+What the meaning or cause of this action may be, cannot at present be
+explained; but here we have another instance of movement round the eyes in
+relation to the state of the mind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The vacant expression of the eyes is very peculiar, and at once shows when
+a man is completely lost in thought. Professor Donders has, with his usual
+kindness, investigated this subject for me. He has observed others in this
+condition, and has been himself observed by Professor Engelmann. The eyes
+are not then fixed on any object, and therefore not, as I had imagined, on
+some distant object. The lines of vision of the two eyes even often become
+slightly divergent; the divergence, if the head be held vertically, with
+the plane of vision horizontal, amounting to an angle of 2° as a maximum.
+This was ascertained by observing the crossed double image of a distant
+object. When the head droops forward, as often occurs with a man absorbed
+in thought, owing to the general relaxation of his muscles, if the plane
+of vision be still horizontal, the eyes are necessarily a little turned
+upwards, and then the divergence is as much as 3°, or 3° 5&rsquo;: if the eyes
+are turned still more upwards, it amounts to between 6° and 7°.
+Professor Donders attributes this divergence to the almost complete
+relaxation of certain muscles of the eyes, which would be apt to follow
+from the mind being wholly absorbed.<a href="#linknote-906"
+name="linknoteref-906" id="linknoteref-906">[906]</a> The active condition
+of the muscles of the eyes is that of convergence; and Professor Donders
+remarks, as bearing on their divergence during a period of complete
+abstraction, that when one eye becomes blind, it almost always, after a
+short lapse of time, deviates outwards; for its muscles are no longer used
+in moving the eyeball inwards for the sake of binocular vision.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Perplexed reflection is often accompanied by certain movements or
+gestures. At such times we commonly raise our hands to our foreheads,
+mouths, or chins; but we do not act thus, as far as I have seen, when we
+are quite lost in meditation, and no difficulty is encountered. Plautus,
+describing in one of his plays<a href="#linknote-907"
+name="linknoteref-907" id="linknoteref-907">[907]</a> a puzzled man, says,
+&ldquo;Now look, he has pillared his chin upon his hand.&rdquo; Even so trifling and
+apparently unmeaning a gesture as the raising of the hand to the face has
+been observed with some savages. Mr. J. Mansel Weale has seen it with the
+Kafirs of South Africa; and the native chief Gaika adds, that men then
+&ldquo;sometimes pull their beards.&rdquo; Mr. Washington Matthews, who attended to
+some of the wildest tribes of Indians in the western regions of the United
+States, remarks that he has seen them when concentrating their thoughts,
+bring their &ldquo;hands, usually the thumb and index finger, in contact with
+some part of the face, commonly the upper lip.&rdquo; We can understand why the
+forehead should be pressed or rubbed, as deep thought tries the brain; but
+why the hand should be raised to the mouth or face is far from clear.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Ill-temper</i>.&mdash;We have seen that frowning is the natural
+expression of some difficulty encountered, or of something disagreeable
+experienced either in thought or action, and he whose mind is often and
+readily affected in this way, will be apt to be ill-tempered, or slightly
+angry, or peevish, and will commonly show it by frowning. But a cross
+expression, due to a frown, may be counteracted, if the mouth appears
+sweet, from being habitually drawn into a smile, and the eyes are bright
+and cheerful. So it will be if the eye is clear and steady, and there is
+the appearance of earnest reflection. Frowning, with some depression of
+the corners of the mouth, which is a sign of grief, gives an air of
+peevishness. If a child (see Plate IV., fig. 2)<a href="#linknote-908"
+name="linknoteref-908" id="linknoteref-908">[908]</a> frowns much whilst
+crying, but does not strongly contract in the usual manner the orbicular
+muscles, a well-marked expression of anger or even of rage, together with
+misery, is displayed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0021" id="linkimage-0021">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/plate-4.jpg" width="100%" alt="Ill-temper. Plate IV " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+If the whole frowning brow be drawn much downward by the contraction of
+the pyramidal muscles of the nose, which produces transverse wrinkles or
+folds across the base of the nose, the expression becomes one of
+moroseness. Duchenne believes that the contraction of this muscle, without
+any frowning, gives the appearance of extreme and aggressive hardness.<a
+href="#linknote-909" name="linknoteref-909" id="linknoteref-909">[909]</a>
+But I much doubt whether this is a true or natural expression. I have
+shown Duchenne&rsquo;s photograph of a young man, with this muscle strongly
+contracted by means of galvanism, to eleven persons, including some
+artists, and none of them could form an idea what was intended, except
+one, a girl, who answered correctly, &ldquo;surely reserve.&rdquo; When I first looked
+at this photograph, knowing what was intended, my imagination added, as I
+believe, what was necessary, namely, a frowning brow; and consequently the
+expression appeared to me true and extremely morose.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A firmly closed mouth, in addition to a lowered and frowning brow, gives
+determination to the expression, or may make it obstinate and sullen. How
+it comes that the firm closure of the mouth gives the appearance of
+determination will presently be discussed. An expression of sullen
+obstinacy has been clearly recognized by my informants, in the natives of
+six different regions of Australia. It is well marked, according to Mr.
+Scott, with the Hindoos. It has been recognized with the Malays, Chinese,
+Kafirs, Abyssinians, and in a conspicuous degree, according to Dr.
+Rothrock, with the wild Indians of North America, and according to Mr. D.
+Forbes, with the Aymaras of Bolivia. I have also observed it with the
+Araucanos of southern Chili. Mr. Dyson Lacy remarks that the natives of
+Australia, when in this frame of mind, sometimes fold their arms across
+their breasts, an attitude which may be seen with us. A firm
+determination, amounting to obstinacy, is, also, sometimes expressed by
+both shoulders being kept raised, the meaning of which gesture will be
+explained in the following chapter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With young children sulkiness is shown by pouting, or, as it is sometimes
+called, &ldquo;making a snout.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-910" name="linknoteref-910"
+id="linknoteref-910">[910]</a> When the corners of the mouth are much
+depressed, the lower lip is a little everted and protruded; and this is
+likewise called a pout. But the pouting here referred to, consists of the
+protrusion of both lips into a tubular form, sometimes to such an extent
+as to project as far as the end of the nose, if this be short. Pouting is
+generally accompanied by frowning, and sometimes by the utterance of a
+booing or whooing noise. This expression is remarkable, as almost the sole
+one, as far as I know, which is exhibited much more plainly during
+childhood, at least with Europeans, than during maturity. There is,
+however, some tendency to the protrusion of the lips with the adults of
+all races under the influence of great rage. Some children pout when they
+are shy, and they can then hardly be called sulky.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From inquiries which I have made in several large families, pouting does
+not seem very common with European children; but it prevails throughout
+the world, and must be both common and strongly marked with most savage
+races, as it has caught the attention of many observers. It has been
+noticed in eight different districts of Australia; and one of my
+informants remarks how greatly the lips of the children are then
+protruded. Two observers have seen pouting with the children of Hindoos;
+three, with those of the Kafirs and Fingoes of South Africa, and with the
+Hottentots; and two, with the children of the wild Indians of North
+America. Pouting has also been observed with the Chinese, Abyssinians,
+Malays of Malacca, Dyaks of Borneo, and often with the New Zealanders. Mr.
+Mansel Weale informs me that he has seen the lips much protruded, not only
+with the children of the Kafirs, but with the adults of both sexes when
+sulky; and Mr. Stack has sometimes observed the same thing with the men,
+and very frequently with the women of New Zealand. A trace of the same
+expression may occasionally be detected even with adult Europeans.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We thus see that the protrusion of the lips, especially with young
+children, is characteristic of sulkiness throughout the greater part of
+the world. This movement apparently results from the retention, chiefly
+during youth, of a primordial habit, or from an occasional reversion to
+it. Young orangs and chimpanzees protrude their lips to an extraordinary
+degree, as described in a former chapter, when they are discontented,
+somewhat angry, or sulky; also when they are surprised, a little
+frightened, and even when slightly pleased. Their mouths are protruded
+apparently for the sake of making the various noises proper to these
+several states of mind; and its shape, as I observed with the chimpanzee,
+differed slightly when the cry of pleasure and that of anger were uttered.
+As soon as these animals become enraged, the shape of the month wholly
+changes, and the teeth are exposed. The adult orang when wounded is said
+to emit &ldquo;a singular cry, consisting at first of high notes, which at
+length deepen into a low roar. While giving out the high notes he thrusts
+out his lips into a funnel shape, but in uttering the low notes he holds
+his mouth wide open.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-911" name="linknoteref-911"
+id="linknoteref-911">[911]</a> With the gorilla, the lower lip is said to
+be capable of great elongation. If then our semi-human progenitors
+protruded their lips when sulky or a little angered, in the same manner as
+do the existing anthropoid apes, it is not an anomalous, though a curious
+fact, that our children should exhibit, when similarly affected, a trace
+of the same expression, together with some tendency to utter a noise. For
+it is not at all unusual for animals to retain, more or less perfectly,
+during early youth, and subsequently to lose, characters which were
+aboriginally possessed by their adult progenitors, and which are still
+retained by distinct species, their near relations.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nor is it an anomalous fact that the children of savages should exhibit a
+stronger tendency to protrude their lips, when sulky, than the children of
+civilized Europeans; for the essence of savagery seems to consist in the
+retention of a primordial condition, and this occasionally holds good even
+with bodily peculiarities.<a href="#linknote-912" name="linknoteref-912"
+id="linknoteref-912">[912]</a> It may be objected to this view of the
+origin of pouting, that the anthropoid apes likewise protrude their lips
+when astonished and even when a little pleased; whilst with us this
+expression is generally confined to a sulky frame of mind. But we shall
+see in a future chapter that with men of various races surprise does
+sometimes lead to a slight protrusion of the lips, though great surprise
+or astonishment is more commonly shown by the mouth being widely opened.
+As when we smile or laugh we draw back the corners of the mouth, we have
+lost any tendency to protrude the lips, when pleased, if indeed our early
+progenitors thus expressed pleasure.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A little gesture made by sulky children may here be noticed, namely, their
+&ldquo;showing a cold shoulder.&rdquo; This has a different meaning, as, I believe,
+from the keeping both shoulders raised. A cross child, sitting on its
+parent&rsquo;s knee, will lift up the near shoulder, then jerk it away, as if
+from a caress, and afterwards give a backward push with it, as if to push
+away the offender. I have seen a child, standing at some distance from any
+one, clearly express its feelings by raising one shoulder, giving it a
+little backward movement, and then turning away its whole body.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Decision or determination</i>.&mdash;The firm closure of the mouth
+tends to give an expression of determination or decision to the
+countenance. No determined man probably ever had an habitually gaping
+mouth. Hence, also, a small and weak lower jaw, which seems to indicate
+that the mouth is not habitually and firmly closed, is commonly thought to
+be characteristic of feebleness of character. A prolonged effort of any
+kind, whether of body or mind, implies previous determination; and if it
+can be shown that the mouth is generally closed with firmness before and
+during a great and continued exertion of the muscular system, then,
+through the principle of association, the mouth would almost certainly be
+closed as soon as any determined resolution was taken. Now several
+observers have noticed that a man, in commencing any violent muscular
+effort, invariably first distends his lungs with air, and then compresses
+it by the strong contraction of the muscles of the chest; and to effect
+this the mouth must be firmly closed. Moreover, as soon as the man is
+compelled to draw breath, he still keeps his chest as much distended as
+possible.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Various causes have been assigned for this manner of acting. Sir C. Bell
+maintains<a href="#linknote-913" name="linknoteref-913"
+id="linknoteref-913">[913]</a> that the chest is distended with air, and
+is kept distended at such times, in order to give a fixed support to the
+muscles which are thereto attached. Hence, as he remarks, when two men are
+engaged in a deadly contest, a terrible silence prevails, broken only by
+hard stifled breathing. There is silence, because to expel the air in the
+utterance of any sound would be to relax the support for the muscles of
+the arms. If an outcry is heard, supposing the struggle to take place in
+the dark, we at once know that one of the two has given up in despair.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gratiolet admits<a href="#linknote-914" name="linknoteref-914"
+id="linknoteref-914">[914]</a> that when a man has to struggle with
+another to his utmost, or has to support a great weight, or to keep for a
+long time the same forced attitude, it is necessary for him first to make
+a deep inspiration, and then to cease breathing; but he thinks that Sir C.
+Bell&rsquo;s explanation is erroneous. He maintains that arrested respiration
+retards the circulation of the blood, of which I believe there is no
+doubt, and he adduces some curious evidence from the structure of the
+lower animals, showing, on the one hand, that a retarded circulation is
+necessary for prolonged muscular exertion, and, on the other hand, that a
+rapid circulation is necessary for rapid movements. According to this
+view, when we commence any great exertion, we close our mouths and stop
+breathing, in order to retard the circulation of the blood. Gratiolet sums
+up the subject by saying, &ldquo;C&rsquo;est là la vraie théorie de l&rsquo;effort continu;&rdquo;
+but how far this theory is admitted by other physiologists I do not know.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Piderit accounts<a href="#linknote-915" name="linknoteref-915"
+id="linknoteref-915">[915]</a> for the firm closure of the mouth during
+strong muscular exertion, on the principle that the influence of the will
+spreads to other muscles besides those necessarily brought into action in
+making any particular exertion; and it is natural that the muscles of
+respiration and of the mouth, from being so habitually used, should be
+especially liable to be thus acted on. It appears to me that there
+probably is some truth in this view, for we are apt to press the teeth
+hard together during violent exertion, and this is not requisite to
+prevent expiration, whilst the muscles of the chest are strongly
+contracted.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lastly, when a man has to perform some delicate and difficult operation,
+not requiring the exertion of any strength, he nevertheless generally
+closes his mouth and ceases for a time to breathe; but he acts thus in
+order that the movements of his chest may not disturb, those of his arms.
+A person, for instance, whilst threading a needle, may be seen to compress
+his lips and either to stop breathing, or to breathe as quietly as
+possible. So it was, as formerly stated, with a young and sick chimpanzee,
+whilst it amused itself by killing flies with its knuckles, as they buzzed
+about on the window-panes. To perform an action, however trifling, if
+difficult, implies some amount of previous determination.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There appears nothing improbable in all the above assigned causes having
+come into play in different degrees, either conjointly or separately, on
+various occasions. The result would be a well-established habit, now
+perhaps inherited, of firmly closing the mouth at the commencement of and
+during any violent and prolonged exertion, or any delicate operation.
+Through the principle of association there would also be a strong tendency
+towards this same habit, as soon as the mind had resolved on any
+particular action or line of conduct, even before there was any bodily
+exertion, or if none were requisite. The habitual and firm closure of the
+mouth would thus come to show decision of character; and decision readily
+passes into obstinacy.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"></a>
+CHAPTER X.<br/>HATRED AND ANGER.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+Hatred&mdash;Rage, effects of on the system&mdash;Uncovering of the teeth&mdash;Rage
+in the insane&mdash;Anger and indignation&mdash;As expressed by the
+various races of man&mdash;Sneering and defiance&mdash;The uncovering of
+the canine tooth on one side of the face.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+If we have suffered or expect to suffer some wilful injury from a man, or
+if he is in any way offensive to us, we dislike him; and dislike easily
+rises into hatred. Such feelings, if experienced in a moderate degree, are
+not clearly expressed by any movement of the body or features, excepting
+perhaps by a certain gravity of behaviour, or by some ill-temper. Few
+individuals, however, can long reflect about a hated person, without
+feeling and exhibiting signs of indignation or rage. But if the offending
+person be quite insignificant, we experience merely disdain or contempt.
+If, on the other hand, he is all-powerful, then hatred passes into terror,
+as when a slave thinks about a cruel master, or a savage about a
+bloodthirsty malignant deity.<a href="#linknote-1001"
+name="linknoteref-1001" id="linknoteref-1001">[1001]</a> Most of our
+emotions are so closely connected with their expression, that they hardly
+exist if the body remains passive&mdash;the nature of the expression
+depending in chief part on the nature of the actions which have been
+habitually performed under this particular state of the mind. A man, for
+instance, may know that his life is in the extremest peril, and may
+strongly desire to save if; yet, as Louis XVI. said, when surrounded by a
+fierce mob, &ldquo;Am I afraid? feel my pulse.&rdquo; So a man may intensely hate
+another, but until his bodily frame is affected, he cannot be said to be
+enraged.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Rage</i>.&mdash;I have already had occasion to treat of this emotion in
+the third chapter, when discussing the direct influence of the excited
+sensorium on the body, in combination with the effects of habitually
+associated actions. Rage exhibits itself in the most diversified manner.
+The heart and circulation are always affected; the face reddens or becomes
+purple, with the veins on the forehead and neck distended. The reddening
+of the skin has been observed with the copper-coloured Indians of South
+America,<a href="#linknote-1002" name="linknoteref-1002"
+id="linknoteref-1002">[1002]</a> and even, as it is said, on the white
+cicatrices left by old wounds on negroes.<a href="#linknote-1003"
+name="linknoteref-1003" id="linknoteref-1003">[1003]</a> Monkeys also
+redden from passion. With one of my own infants, under four months old, I
+repeatedly observed that the first symptom of an approaching passion was
+the rushing of the blood into his bare scalp. On the other hand, the
+action of the heart is sometimes so much impeded by great rage, that the
+countenance becomes pallid or livid,<a href="#linknote-1004"
+name="linknoteref-1004" id="linknoteref-1004">[1004]</a> and not a few men
+with heart-disease have dropped down dead under this powerful emotion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The respiration is likewise affected; the chest heaves, and the dilated
+nostrils quiver.<a href="#linknote-1005" name="linknoteref-1005"
+id="linknoteref-1005">[1005]</a> As Tennyson writes, &ldquo;sharp breaths of
+anger puffed her fairy nostrils out.&rdquo; Hence we have such expressions as
+&ldquo;breathing out vengeance,&rdquo; and &ldquo;fuming with anger.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1006"
+name="linknoteref-1006" id="linknoteref-1006">[1006]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The excited brain gives strength to the muscles, and at the same time
+energy to the will. The body is commonly held erect ready for instant
+action, but sometimes it is bent forward towards the offending person,
+with the limbs more or less rigid. The mouth is generally closed with
+firmness, showing fixed determination, and the teeth are clenched or
+ground together. Such gestures as the raising of the arms, with the fists
+clenched, as if to strike the offender, are common. Few men in a great
+passion, and telling some one to begone, can resist acting as if they
+intended to strike or push the man violently away. The desire, indeed, to
+strike often becomes so intolerably strong, that inanimate objects are
+struck or dashed to the ground; but the gestures frequently become
+altogether purposeless or frantic. Young children, when in a violent rage
+roll on the ground on their backs or bellies, screaming, kicking,
+scratching, or biting everything within reach. So it is, as I hear from
+Mr. Scott, with Hindoo children; and, as we have seen, with the young of
+the anthropomorphous apes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But the muscular system is often affected in a wholly different way; for
+trembling is a frequent consequence of extreme rage. The paralysed lips
+then refuse to obey the will, &ldquo;and the voice sticks in the throat;&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-1007" name="linknoteref-1007" id="linknoteref-1007">[1007]</a>
+or it is rendered loud, harsh, and discordant. If there be much and rapid
+speaking, the mouth froths. The hair sometimes bristles; but I shall
+return to this subject in another chapter, when I treat of the mingled
+emotions of rage and terror. There is in most cases a strongly-marked
+frown on the forehead; for this follows from the sense of anything
+displeasing or difficult, together with concentration of mind. But
+sometimes the brow, instead of being much contracted and lowered, remains
+smooth, with the glaring eyes kept widely open. The eyes are always
+bright, or may, as Homer expresses it, glisten with fire. They are
+sometimes bloodshot, and are said to protrude from their sockets&mdash;the
+result, no doubt, of the head being gorged with blood, as shown by the
+veins being distended. According to Gratiolet, &ldquo;the pupils are always
+contracted in rage,&rdquo; and I hear from Dr. Crichton Browne that this is the
+case in the fierce delirium of meningitis; but the movements of the iris
+under the influence of the different emotions is a very obscure subject.<a
+href="#linknote-1008" name="linknoteref-1008" id="linknoteref-1008">[1008]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Shakspeare sums up the chief characteristics of rage as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;In peace there&rsquo;s nothing so becomes a man,<br/>
+As modest stillness and humility;<br/>
+But when the blast of war blows in our ears,<br/>
+Then imitate the action of the tiger:<br/>
+Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood,<br/>
+Then lend the eye a terrible aspect;<br/>
+Now set the teeth, and stretch the nostril wide,<br/>
+Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit<br/>
+To his full height! On, on, you noblest English.&rdquo;<br/>
+<i>Henry V</i>., act iii. sc. 1.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The lips are sometimes protruded during rage in a manner, the meaning of
+which I do not understand, unless it depends on our descent from some
+ape-like animal. Instances have been observed, not only with Europeans,
+but with the Australians and Hindoos. The lips, however, are much more
+commonly retracted, the grinning or clenched teeth being thus exposed.
+This has been noticed by almost every one who has written on expression.<a
+href="#linknote-1009" name="linknoteref-1009" id="linknoteref-1009">[1009]</a>
+The appearance is as if the teeth were uncovered, ready for seizing or
+tearing an enemy, though there may be no intention of acting in this
+manner. Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen this grinning expression with the
+Australians, when quarrelling, and so has Gaika with the Kafirs of South
+America. Dickens,<a href="#linknote-1010" name="linknoteref-1010"
+id="linknoteref-1010">[1010]</a> in speaking of an atrocious murderer who
+had just been caught, and was surrounded by a furious mob, describes &ldquo;the
+people as jumping up one behind another, snarling with their teeth, and
+making at him like wild beasts.&rdquo; Every one who has had much to do with
+young children must have seen how naturally they take to biting, when in a
+passion. It seems as instinctive in them as in young crocodiles, who snap
+their little jaws as soon as they emerge from the egg.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A grinning expression and the protrusion of the lips appear sometimes to
+go together. A close observer says that he has seen many instances of
+intense hatred (which can hardly be distinguished from rage, more or less
+suppressed) in Orientals, and once in an elderly English woman. In all
+these cases there &ldquo;was a grin, not a scowl&mdash;the lips lengthening, the
+cheeks settling downwards, the eyes half-closed, whilst the brow remained
+perfectly calm.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1011" name="linknoteref-1011"
+id="linknoteref-1011">[1011]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This retraction of the lips and uncovering of the teeth during paroxysms
+of rage, as if to bite the offender, is so remarkable, considering how
+seldom the teeth are used by men in fighting, that I inquired from Dr. J.
+Crichton Browne whether the habit was common in the insane whose passions
+are unbridled. He informs me that he has repeatedly observed it both with
+the insane and idiotic, and has given me the following illustrations:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Shortly before receiving my letter, he witnessed an uncontrollable
+outbreak of anger and delusive jealousy in an insane lady. At first she
+vituperated her husband, and whilst doing so foamed at the mouth. Next she
+approached close to him with compressed lips, and a virulent set frown.
+Then she drew back her lips, especially the corners of the upper lip, and
+showed her teeth, at the same time aiming a vicious blow at him. A second
+case is that of an old soldier, who, when he is requested to conform to
+the rules of the establishment, gives way to discontent, terminating in
+fury. He commonly begins by asking Dr. Browne whether he is not ashamed to
+treat him in such a manner. He then swears and blasphemes, paces tip and
+down, tosses his arms wildly about, and menaces any one near him. At last,
+as his exasperation culminates, he rushes up towards Dr. Browne with a
+peculiar sidelong movement, shaking his doubled fist, and threatening
+destruction. Then his upper lip may be seen to be raised, especially at
+the corners, so that his huge canine teeth are exhibited. He hisses forth
+his curses through his set teeth, and his whole expression assumes the
+character of extreme ferocity. A similar description is applicable to
+another man, excepting that he generally foams at the mouth and spits,
+dancing and jumping about in a strange rapid manner, shrieking out his
+maledictions in a shrill falsetto voice.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Browne also informs me of the case of an epileptic idiot, incapable of
+independent movements, and who spends the whole day in playing with some
+toys; but his temper is morose and easily roused into fierceness. When any
+one touches his toys, he slowly raises his head from its habitual downward
+position, and fixes his eyes on the offender, with a tardy yet angry
+scowl. If the annoyance be repeated, he draws back his thick lips and
+reveals a prominent row of hideous fangs (large canines being especially
+noticeable), and then makes a quick and cruel clutch with his open hand at
+the offending person. The rapidity of this clutch, as Dr. Browne remarks,
+is marvellous in a being ordinarily so torpid that he takes about fifteen
+seconds, when attracted by any noise, to turn his head from one side to
+the other. If, when thus incensed, a handkerchief, book, or other article,
+be placed into his hands, he drags it to his mouth and bites it. Mr. Nicol
+has likewise described to me two cases of insane patients, whose lips are
+retracted during paroxysms of rage.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Maudsley, after detailing various strange animal-like traits in
+idiots, asks whether these are not due to the reappearance of primitive
+instincts&mdash;&ldquo;a faint echo from a far-distant past, testifying to a
+kinship which man has almost outgrown.&rdquo; He adds, that as every human brain
+passes, in the course of its development, through the same stages as those
+occurring in the lower vertebrate animals, and as the brain of an idiot is
+in an arrested condition, we may presume that it &ldquo;will manifest its most
+primitive functions, and no higher functions.&rdquo; Dr. Maudsley thinks that
+the same view may be extended to the brain in its degenerated condition in
+some insane patients; and asks, whence come &ldquo;the savage snarl, the
+destructive disposition, the obscene language, the wild howl, the
+offensive habits, displayed by some of the insane? Why should a human
+being, deprived of his reason, ever become so brutal in character, as some
+do, unless he has the brute nature within him?&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1012"
+name="linknoteref-1012" id="linknoteref-1012">[1012]</a> This question
+must, as it would appear, he answered in the affirmative.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Anger, Indignation</i>.&mdash;These states of the mind differ from rage
+only in degree, and there is no marked distinction in their characteristic
+signs. Under moderate anger the action of the heart is a little increased,
+the colour heightened, and the eyes become bright. The respiration is
+likewise a little hurried; and as all the muscles serving for this
+function act in association, the wings of the nostrils are somewhat raised
+to allow of a free indraught of air; and this is a highly characteristic
+sign of indignation. The mouth is commonly compressed, and there is almost
+always a frown on the brow. Instead of the frantic gestures of extreme
+rage, an indignant man unconsciously throws himself into an attitude ready
+for attacking or striking his enemy, whom he will perhaps scan from head
+to foot in defiance. He carries his head erect, with his chest well
+expanded, and the feet planted firmly on the ground. He holds his arms in
+various positions, with one or both elbows squared, or with the arms
+rigidly suspended by his sides. With Europeans the fists are commonly
+clenched.<a href="#linknote-1013" name="linknoteref-1013"
+id="linknoteref-1013">[1013]</a> The figures 1 and 2 in Plate VI. are
+fairly good representations of men simulating indignation. Any one may see
+in a mirror, if he will vividly imagine that he has been insulted and
+demands an explanation in an angry tone of voice, that he suddenly and
+unconsciously throws himself into some such attitude.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0022" id="linkimage-0022">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/plate-6.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Anger and Indignation.  Plate VI " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Rage, anger, and indignation are exhibited in nearly the same manner
+throughout the world; and the following descriptions may be worth giving
+as evidence of this, and as illustrations of some of the foregoing
+remarks. There is, however, an exception with respect to clenching the
+fists, which seems confined chiefly to the men who fight with their fists.
+With the Australians only one of my informants has seen the fists
+clenched. All agree about the body being held erect; and all, with two
+exceptions, state that the brows are heavily contracted. Some of them
+allude to the firmly-compressed mouth, the distended nostrils, and
+flashing eyes. According to the Rev. Mr. Taplin, rage, with the
+Australians, is expressed by the lips being protruded, the eyes being
+widely open; and in the case of the women by their dancing about and
+casting dust into the air. Another observer speaks of the native men, when
+enraged, throwing their arms wildly about.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have received similar accounts, except as to the clenching of the fists,
+in regard to the Malays of the Malacca peninsula, the Abyssinians, and the
+natives of South Africa. So it is with the Dakota Indians of North
+America; and, according to Mr. Matthews, they then hold their heads erect,
+frown, and often stalk away with long strides. Mr. Bridges states that the
+Fuegians, when enraged, frequently stamp on the ground, walk distractedly
+about, sometimes cry and grow pale. The Rev. Mr. Stack watched a New
+Zealand man and woman quarrelling, and made the following entry in his
+note-book: &ldquo;Eyes dilated, body swayed violently backwards and forwards,
+head inclined forwards, fists clenched, now thrown behind the body, now
+directed towards each other&rsquo;s faces.&rdquo; Mr. Swinhoe says that my description
+agrees with what he has seen of the Chinese, excepting that an angry man
+generally inclines his body towards his antagonist, and pointing at him,
+pours forth a volley of abuse.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lastly, with respect to the natives of India, Mr. J. Scott has sent me a
+full description of their gestures and expression when enraged. Two
+low-caste Bengalees disputed about a loan. At first they were calm, but
+soon grew furious and poured forth the grossest abuse on each other&rsquo;s
+relations and progenitors for many generations past. Their gestures were
+very different from those of Europeans; for though their chests were
+expanded and shoulders squared, their arms remained rigidly suspended,
+with the elbows turned inwards and the hands alternately clenched and
+opened. Their shoulders were often raised high, and then again lowered.
+They looked fiercely at each other from under their lowered and strongly
+wrinkled brows, and their protruded lips were firmly closed. They
+approached each other, with heads and necks stretched forwards, and
+pushed, scratched, and grasped at each other. This protrusion of the head
+and body seems a common gesture with the enraged; and I have noticed it
+with degraded English women whilst quarrelling violently in the streets.
+In such cases it may be presumed that neither party expects to receive a
+blow from the other.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A Bengalee employed in the Botanic Gardens was accused, in the presence of
+Mr. Scott, by the native overseer of having stolen a valuable plant. He
+listened silently and scornfully to the accusation; his attitude erect,
+chest expanded, mouth closed, lips protruding, eyes firmly set and
+penetrating. He then defiantly maintained his innocence, with upraised and
+clenched hands, his head being now pushed forwards, with the eyes widely
+open and eyebrows raised. Mr. Scott also watched two Mechis, in Sikhim,
+quarrelling about their share of payment. They soon got into a furious
+passion, and then their bodies became less erect, with their heads pushed
+forwards; they made grimaces at each other; their shoulders were raised;
+their arms rigidly bent inwards at the elbows, and their hands
+spasmodically closed, but not properly clenched. They continually
+approached and retreated from each other, and often raised their arms as
+if to strike, but their hands were open, and no blow was given. Mr. Scott
+made similar observations on the Lepchas whom he often saw quarrelling,
+and he noticed that they kept their arms rigid and almost parallel to
+their bodies, with the hands pushed somewhat backwards and partially
+closed, but not clenched.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Sneering, Defiance: Uncovering the canine tooth on one side</i>.&mdash;The
+expression which I wish here to consider differs but little from that
+already described, when the lips are retracted and the grinning teeth
+exposed. The difference consists solely in the upper lip being retracted
+in such a manner that the canine tooth on one side of the face alone is
+shown; the face itself being generally a little upturned and half averted
+from the person causing offence. The other signs of rage are not
+necessarily present. This expression may occasionally be observed in a
+person who sneers at or defies another, though there may be no real anger;
+as when any one is playfully accused of some fault, and answers, &ldquo;I scorn
+the imputation.&rdquo; The expression is not a common one, but I have seen it
+exhibited with perfect distinctness by a lady who was being quizzed by
+another person. It was described by Parsons as long ago as 1746, with an
+engraving, showing the uncovered canine on one side.<a
+href="#linknote-1014" name="linknoteref-1014" id="linknoteref-1014">[1014]</a>
+Mr. Rejlander, without my having made any allusion to the subject, asked
+me whether I had ever noticed this expression, as he had been much struck
+by it. He has photographed for me (Plate IV. fig 1) a lady, who sometimes
+unintentionally displays the canine on one side, and who can do so
+voluntarily with unusual distinctness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The expression of a half-playful sneer graduates into one of great
+ferocity when, together with a heavily frowning brow and fierce eye, the
+canine tooth is exposed. A Bengalee boy was accused before Mr. Scott of
+some misdeed. The delinquent did not dare to give vent to his wrath in
+words, but it was plainly shown on his countenance, sometimes by a defiant
+frown, and sometimes &ldquo;by a thoroughly canine snarl.&rdquo; When this was
+exhibited, &ldquo;the corner of the lip over the eye-tooth, which happened in
+this case to be large and projecting, was raised on the side of his
+accuser, a strong frown being still retained on the brow.&rdquo; Sir C. Bell
+states<a href="#linknote-1015" name="linknoteref-1015"
+id="linknoteref-1015">[1015]</a> that the actor Cooke could express the
+most determined hate &ldquo;when with the oblique cast of his eyes he drew up
+the outer part of the upper lip, and discovered a sharp angular tooth.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The uncovering of the canine tooth is the result of a double movement. The
+angle or corner of the mouth is drawn a little backwards, and at the same
+time a muscle which runs parallel to and near the nose draws up the outer
+part of the upper lip, and exposes the canine on this side of the face.
+The contraction of this muscle makes a distinct furrow on the cheek, and
+produces strong wrinkles under the eye, especially at its inner corner.
+The action is the same as that of a snarling dog; and a dog when
+pretending to fight often draws up the lip on one side alone, namely that
+facing his antagonist. Our word <i>sneer</i> is in fact the same as <i>snarl</i>,
+which was originally <i>snar</i>, the <i>l</i> &ldquo;being merely an element
+implying continuance of action.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1016"
+name="linknoteref-1016" id="linknoteref-1016">[1016]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I suspect that we see a trace of this same expression in what is called a
+derisive or sardonic smile. The lips are then kept joined or almost
+joined, but one corner of the mouth is retracted on the side towards the
+derided person; and this drawing back of the corner is part of a true
+sneer. Although some persons smile more on one side of their face than on
+the other, it is not easy to understand why in cases of derision the
+smile, if a real one, should so commonly be confined to one side. I have
+also on these occasions noticed a slight twitching of the muscle which
+draws up the outer part of the upper lip; and this movement, if fully
+carried out, would have uncovered the canine, and would have produced a
+true sneer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Bulmer, an Australian missionary in a remote part of Gipps&rsquo; Land,
+says, in answer to my query about the uncovering of the canine on one
+side, &ldquo;I find that the natives in snarling at each other speak with the
+teeth closed, the upper lip drawn to one side, and a general angry
+expression of face; but they look direct at the person addressed.&rdquo; Three
+other observers in Australia, one in Abyssinia, and one in China, answer
+my query on this head in the affirmative; but as the expression is rare,
+and as they enter into no details, I am afraid of implicitly trusting
+them. It is, however, by no means improbable that this animal-like
+expression may be more common with savages than with civilized races. Mr.
+Geach is an observer who may be fully trusted, and he has observed it on
+one occasion in a Malay in the interior of Malacca. The Rev. S. O. Glenie
+answers, &ldquo;We have observed this expression with the natives of Ceylon, but
+not often.&rdquo; Lastly, in North America, Dr. Rothrock has seen it with some
+wild Indians, and often in a tribe adjoining the Atnahs.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although the upper lip is certainly sometimes raised on one side alone in
+sneering at or defying any one, I do not know that this is always the
+case, for the face is commonly half averted, and the expression is often
+momentary. The movement being confined to one side may not be an essential
+part of the expression, but may depend on the proper muscles being
+incapable of movement excepting on one side. I asked four persons to
+endeavour to act voluntarily in this manner; two could expose the canine
+only on the left side, one only on the right side, and the fourth on
+neither side. Nevertheless it is by no means certain that these same
+persons, if defying any one in earnest, would not unconsciously have
+uncovered their canine tooth on the side, whichever it might be, towards
+the offender. For we have seen that some persons cannot voluntarily make
+their eyebrows oblique, yet instantly act in this manner when affected by
+any real, although most trifling, cause of distress. The power of
+voluntarily uncovering the canine on one side of the face being thus often
+wholly lost, indicates that it is a rarely used and almost abortive
+action. It is indeed a surprising fact that man should possess the power,
+or should exhibit any tendency to its use; for Mr. Sutton has never
+noticed a snarling action in our nearest allies, namely, the monkeys in
+the Zoological Gardens, and he is positive that the baboons, though
+furnished with great canines, never act thus, but uncover all their teeth
+when feeling savage and ready for an attack. Whether the adult
+anthropomorphous apes, in the males of whom the canines are much larger
+than in the females, uncover them when prepared to fight, is not known.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The expression here considered, whether that of a playful sneer or
+ferocious snarl, is one of the most curious which occurs in man. It
+reveals his animal descent; for no one, even if rolling on the ground in a
+deadly grapple with an enemy, and attempting to bite him, would try to use
+his canine teeth more than his other teeth. We may readily believe from
+our affinity to the anthropomorphous apes that our male semi-human
+progenitors possessed great canine teeth, and men are now occasionally
+born having them of unusually large size, with interspaces in the opposite
+jaw for their reception.<a href="#linknote-1017" name="linknoteref-1017"
+id="linknoteref-1017">[1017]</a> We may further suspect, notwithstanding
+that we have no support from analogy, that our semi-human progenitors
+uncovered their canine teeth when prepared for battle, as we still do when
+feeling ferocious, or when merely sneering at or defying some one, without
+any intention of making a real attack with our teeth.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"></a>
+CHAPTER XI.<br/>DISDAIN&mdash;CONTEMPT&mdash;DISGUST-GUILT&mdash;PRIDE,
+ETC.&mdash;HELPLESSNESS&mdash;PATIENCE&mdash;AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed&mdash;Derisive smile&mdash;Gestures
+expressive of contempt&mdash;Disgust&mdash;Guilt, deceit, pride, &amp;c.&mdash;Helplessness
+or impotence&mdash;Patience&mdash;Obstinacy&mdash;Shrugging the shoulders
+common to most of the races of man&mdash;Signs of affirmation and
+negation.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Scorn and disdain can hardly be distinguished from contempt, excepting
+that they imply a rather more angry frame of mind. Nor can they be clearly
+distinguished from the feelings discussed in the last chapter under the
+terms of sneering and defiance. Disgust is a sensation rather more
+distinct in its nature and refers to something revolting, primarily in
+relation to the sense of taste, as actually perceived or vividly imagined;
+and secondarily to anything which causes a similar feeling, through the
+sense of smell, touch, and even of eyesight. Nevertheless, extreme
+contempt, or as it is often called loathing contempt, hardly differs from
+disgust. These several conditions of the mind are, therefore, nearly
+related; and each of them may be exhibited in many different ways. Some
+writers have insisted chiefly on one mode of expression, and others on a
+different mode. From this circumstance M. Lemoine has argued<a
+href="#linknote-1101" name="linknoteref-1101" id="linknoteref-1101">[1101]</a>
+that their descriptions are not trustworthy. But we shall immediately see
+that it is natural that the feelings which we have here to consider should
+be expressed in many different ways, inasmuch as various habitual actions
+serve equally well, through the principle of association, for their
+expression.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Scorn and disdain, as well as sneering and defiance, may be displayed by a
+slight uncovering of the canine tooth on one side of the face; and this
+movement appears to graduate into one closely like a smile. Or the smile
+or laugh may be real, although one of derision; and this implies that the
+offender is so insignificant that he excites only amusement; but the
+amusement is generally a pretence. Gaika in his answers to my queries
+remarks, that contempt is commonly shown by his countrymen, the Kafirs, by
+smiling; and the Rajah Brooke makes the same observation with respect to
+the Dyaks of Borneo. As laughter is primarily the expression of simple
+joy, very young children do not, I believe, ever laugh in derision.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The partial closure of the eyelids, as Duchenne<a href="#linknote-1102"
+name="linknoteref-1102" id="linknoteref-1102">[1102]</a> insists, or the
+turning away of the eyes or of the whole body, are likewise highly
+expressive of disdain. These actions seem to declare that the despised
+person is not worth looking at or is disagreeable to behold. The
+accompanying photograph (Plate V. fig. 1) by Mr. Rejlander, shows this
+form of disdain. It represents a young lady, who is supposed to be tearing
+up the photograph of a despised lover.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0023" id="linkimage-0023">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/plate-5.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Scorn and Disdain.  Plate V " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The most common method of expressing contempt is by movements about the
+nose, or round the mouth; but the latter movements, when strongly
+pronounced, indicate disgust. The nose may be slightly turned up, which
+apparently follows from the turning up of the upper lip; or the movement
+may be abbreviated into the mere wrinkling of the nose. The nose is often
+slightly contracted, so as partly to close the passage;<a
+href="#linknote-1103" name="linknoteref-1103" id="linknoteref-1103">[1103]</a>
+and this is commonly accompanied by a slight snort or expiration. All
+these actions are the same with those which we employ when we perceive an
+offensive odour, and wish to exclude or expel it. In extreme cases, as Dr.
+Piderit remarks,<a href="#linknote-1104" name="linknoteref-1104"
+id="linknoteref-1104">[1104]</a> we protrude and raise both lips, or the
+upper lip alone, so as to close the nostrils as by a valve, the nose being
+thus turned up. We seem thus to say to the despised person that he smells
+offensively,<a href="#linknote-1105" name="linknoteref-1105"
+id="linknoteref-1105">[1105]</a> in nearly the same manner as we express
+to him by half-closing our eyelids, or turning away our faces, that he is
+not worth looking at. It must not, however, be supposed that such ideas
+actually pass through the mind when we exhibit our contempt; but as
+whenever we have perceived a disagreeable odour or seen a disagreeable
+sight, actions of this kind have been performed, they have become habitual
+or fixed, and are now employed under any analogous state of mind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Various odd little gestures likewise indicate contempt; for instance, <i>snapping
+one&rsquo;s fingers</i>. This, as Mr. Taylor remarks,<a href="#linknote-1106"
+name="linknoteref-1106" id="linknoteref-1106">[1106]</a> &ldquo;is not very
+intelligible as we generally see it; but when we notice that the same sign
+made quite gently, as if rolling some tiny object away between the finger
+and thumb, or the sign of flipping it away with the thumb-nail and
+forefinger, are usual and well-understood deaf-and-dumb gestures, denoting
+anything tiny, insignificant, contemptible, it seems as though we had
+exaggerated and conventionalized a perfectly natural action, so as to lose
+sight of its original meaning. There is a curious mention of this gesture
+by Strabo.&rdquo; Mr. Washington Matthews informs me that, with the Dakota
+Indians of North America, contempt is shown not only by movements of the
+face, such as those above described, but &ldquo;conventionally, by the hand
+being closed and held near the breast, then, as the forearm is suddenly
+extended, the hand is opened and the fingers separated from each other. If
+the person at whose expense the sign is made is present, the hand is moved
+towards him, and the head sometimes averted from him.&rdquo; This sudden
+extension and opening of the hand perhaps indicates the dropping or
+throwing away a valueless object.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The term &lsquo;disgust,&rsquo; in its simplest sense, means something offensive to
+the taste. It is curious how readily this feeling is excited by anything
+unusual in the appearance, odour, or nature of our food. In Tierra del
+Fuego a native touched with his finger some cold preserved meat which I
+was eating at our bivouac, and plainly showed utter disgust at its
+softness; whilst I felt utter disgust at my food being touched by a naked
+savage, though his hands did not appear dirty. A smear of soup on a man&rsquo;s
+beard looks disgusting, though there is of course nothing disgusting in
+the soup itself. I presume that this follows from the strong association
+in our minds between the sight of food, however circumstanced, and the
+idea of eating it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the sensation of disgust primarily arises in connection with the act of
+eating or tasting, it is natural that its expression should consist
+chiefly in movements round the mouth. But as disgust also causes
+annoyance, it is generally accompanied by a frown, and often by gestures
+as if to push away or to guard oneself against the offensive object. In
+the two photographs (figs. 2 and 3, on Plate V.) Mr. Rejlander has
+simulated this expression with some success. With respect to the face,
+moderate disgust is exhibited in various ways; by the mouth being widely
+opened, as if to let an offensive morsel drop out; by spitting; by blowing
+out of the protruded lips; or by a sound as of clearing the throat. Such
+guttural sounds are written <i>ach</i> or <i>ugh</i>; and their utterance
+is sometimes accompanied by a shudder, the arms being pressed close to the
+sides and the shoulders raised in the same manner as when horror is
+experienced.<a href="#linknote-1107" name="linknoteref-1107"
+id="linknoteref-1107">[1107]</a> Extreme disgust is expressed by movements
+round the month identical with those preparatory to the act of vomiting.
+The mouth is opened widely, with the upper lip strongly retracted, which
+wrinkles the sides of the nose, and with the lower lip protruded and
+everted as much as possible. This latter movement requires the contraction
+of the muscles which draw downwards the corners of the mouth.<a
+href="#linknote-1108" name="linknoteref-1108" id="linknoteref-1108">[1108]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is remarkable how readily and instantly retching or actual vomiting is
+induced in some persons by the mere idea of having partaken of any unusual
+food, as of an animal which is not commonly eaten; although there is
+nothing in such food to cause the stomach to reject it. When vomiting
+results, as a reflex action, from some real cause&mdash;as from too rich
+food, or tainted meat, or from an emetic&mdash;it does not ensue
+immediately, but generally after a considerable interval of time.
+Therefore, to account for retching or vomiting being so quickly and easily
+excited by a mere idea, the suspicion arises that our progenitors must
+formerly have had the power (like that possessed by ruminants and some
+other animals) of voluntarily rejecting food which disagreed with them, or
+which they thought would disagree with them; and now, though this power
+has been lost, as far as the will is concerned, it is called into
+involuntary action, through the force of a formerly well-established
+habit, whenever the mind revolts at the idea of having partaken of any
+kind of food, or at anything disgusting. This suspicion receives support
+from the fact, of which I am assured by Mr. Sutton, that the monkeys in
+the Zoological Gardens often vomit whilst in perfect health, which looks
+as if the act were voluntary. We can see that as man is able to
+communicate by language to his children and others, the knowledge of the
+kinds of food to be avoided, he would have little occasion to use the
+faculty of voluntary rejection; so that this power would tend to be lost
+through disuse.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the sense of smell is so intimately connected with that of taste, it is
+not surprising that an excessively bad odour should excite retching or
+vomiting in some persons, quite as readily as the thought of revolting
+food does; and that, as a further consequence, a moderately offensive
+odour should cause the various expressive movements of disgust. The
+tendency to retch from a fetid odour is immediately strengthened in a
+curious manner by some degree of habit, though soon lost by longer
+familiarity with the cause of offence and by voluntary restraint. For
+instance, I wished to clean the skeleton of a bird, which had not been
+sufficiently macerated, and the smell made my servant and myself (we not
+having had much experience in such work) retch so violently, that we were
+compelled to desist. During the previous days I had examined some other
+skeletons, which smelt slightly; yet the odour did not in the least affect
+me, but, subsequently for several days, whenever I handled these same
+skeletons, they made me retch.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the answers received from my correspondents it appears that the
+various movements, which have now been described as expressing contempt
+and disgust, prevail throughout a large part of the world. Dr. Rothrock,
+for instance, answers with a decided affirmative with respect to certain
+wild Indian tribes of North America. Crantz says that when a Greenlander
+denies anything with contempt or horror he turns up his nose, and gives a
+slight sound through it.<a href="#linknote-1109" name="linknoteref-1109"
+id="linknoteref-1109">[1109]</a> Mr. Scott has sent me a graphic
+description of the face of a young Hindoo at the sight of castor-oil,
+which he was compelled occasionally to take. Mr. Scott has also seen the
+same expression on the faces of high-caste natives who have approached
+close to some defiling object. Mr. Bridges says that the Fuegians &ldquo;express
+contempt by shooting out the lips and hissing through them, and by turning
+up the nose.&rdquo; The tendency either to snort through the nose, or to make a
+noise expressed by <i>ugh</i> or <i>ach</i>, is noticed by several of my
+correspondents.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Spitting seems an almost universal sign of contempt or disgust; and
+spitting obviously represents the rejection of anything offensive from the
+mouth. Shakspeare makes the Duke of Norfolk say, &ldquo;I spit at him&mdash;call
+him a slanderous coward and a villain.&rdquo; So, again, Falstaff says, &ldquo;Tell
+thee what, Hal,&mdash;if I tell thee a lie, spit in my face.&rdquo; Leichhardt
+remarks that the Australians &ldquo;interrupted their speeches by spitting, and
+uttering a noise like pooh! pooh! apparently expressive of their disgust.&rdquo;
+And Captain Burton speaks of certain negroes &ldquo;spitting with disgust upon
+the ground.&rdquo; Captain Speedy informs me that this is likewise the case with
+the Abyssinians. Mr. Geach says that with the Malays of Malacca the
+expression of disgust &ldquo;answers to spitting from the mouth;&rdquo; and with the
+Fuegians, according to Mr. Bridges &ldquo;to spit at one is the highest mark of
+contempt.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1110" name="linknoteref-1110"
+id="linknoteref-1110">[1110]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I never saw disgust more plainly expressed than on the face of one of my
+infants at the age of five months, when, for the first time, some cold
+water, and again a month afterwards, when a piece of ripe cherry was put
+into his mouth. This was shown by the lips and whole mouth assuming a
+shape which allowed the contents to run or fall quickly out; the tongue
+being likewise protruded. These movements were accompanied by a little
+shudder. It was all the more comical, as I doubt whether the child felt
+real disgust&mdash;the eyes and forehead expressing much surprise and
+consideration. The protrusion of the tongue in letting a nasty object fall
+out of the mouth, may explain how it is that lolling out the tongue
+universally serves as a sign of contempt and hatred.<a
+href="#linknote-1111" name="linknoteref-1111" id="linknoteref-1111">[1111]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have now seen that scorn, disdain, contempt, and disgust are expressed
+in many different ways, by movements of the features, and by various
+gestures; and that these are the same throughout the world. They all
+consist of actions representing the rejection or exclusion of some real
+object which we dislike or abhor, but which does not excite in us certain
+other strong emotions, such as rage or terror; and through the force of
+habit and association similar actions are performed, whenever any
+analogous sensation arises in our minds.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Jealousy, Envy, Avarice, Revenge, Suspicion, Deceit, Slyness, Guilt,
+Vanity, Conceit, Ambition, Pride, Humility, &amp;c</i>.&mdash;It is
+doubtful whether the greater number of the above complex states of mind
+are revealed by any fixed expression, sufficiently distinct to be
+described or delineated. When Shakspeare speaks of Envy as <i>lean-faced</i>,
+or <i>black</i>, or <i>pale</i>, and Jealousy as &ldquo;<i>the green-eyed
+monster</i>;&rdquo; and when Spenser describes Suspicion as &ldquo;<i>foul,
+ill-favoured, and grim</i>,&rdquo; they must have felt this difficulty.
+Nevertheless, the above feelings&mdash;at least many of them&mdash;can be
+detected by the eye; for instance, conceit; but we are often guided in a
+much greater degree than we suppose by our previous knowledge of the
+persons or circumstances.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+My correspondents almost unanimously answer in the affirmative to my
+query, whether the expression of guilt and deceit can be recognized
+amongst the various races of man; and I have confidence in their answers,
+as they generally deny that jealousy can thus be recognized. In the cases
+in which details are given, the eyes are almost always referred to. The
+guilty man is said to avoid looking at his accuser, or to give him stolen
+looks. The eyes are said &ldquo;to be turned askant,&rdquo; or &ldquo;to waver from side to
+side,&rdquo; or &ldquo;the eyelids to be lowered and partly closed.&rdquo; This latter
+remark is made by Mr. Hagenauer with respect to the Australians, and by
+Gaika with respect to the Kafirs. The restless movements of the eyes
+apparently follow, as will be explained when we treat of blushing, from
+the guilty man not enduring to meet the gaze of his accuser. I may add,
+that I have observed a guilty expression, without a shade of fear, in some
+of my own children at a very early age. In one instance the expression was
+unmistakably clear in a child two years and seven months old, and led to
+the detection of his little crime. It was shown, as I record in my notes
+made at the time, by an unnatural brightness in the eyes, and by an odd,
+affected manner, impossible to describe.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Slyness is also, I believe, exhibited chiefly by movements about the eyes;
+for these are less under the control of the will, owing to the force of
+long-continued habit, than are the movements of the body. Mr. Herbert
+Spencer remarks,<a href="#linknote-1112" name="linknoteref-1112"
+id="linknoteref-1112">[1112]</a> &ldquo;When there is a desire to see something
+on one side of the visual field without being supposed to see it, the
+tendency is to check the conspicuous movement of the head, and to make the
+required adjustment entirely with the eyes; which are, therefore, drawn
+very much to one side. Hence, when the eyes are turned to one side, while
+the face is not turned to the same side, we get the natural language of
+what is called slyness.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of all the above-named complex emotions, Pride, perhaps, is the most
+plainly expressed. A proud man exhibits his sense of superiority over
+others by holding his head and body erect. He is haughty (<i>haut</i>), or
+high, and makes himself appear as large as possible; so that
+metaphorically he is said to be swollen or puffed up with pride. A peacock
+or a turkey-cock strutting about with puffed-up feathers, is sometimes
+said to be an emblem of pride.<a href="#linknote-1113"
+name="linknoteref-1113" id="linknoteref-1113">[1113]</a> The arrogant man
+looks down on others, and with lowered eyelids hardly condescends to see
+them; or he may show his contempt by slight movements, such as those
+before described, about the nostrils or lips. Hence the muscle which
+everts the lower lip has been called the <i>musculus superbus</i>. In some
+photographs of patients affected by a monomania of pride, sent me by Dr.
+Crichton Browne, the head and body were held erect, and the mouth firmly
+closed. This latter action, expressive of decision, follows, I presume,
+from the proud man feeling perfect self-confidence in himself. The whole
+expression of pride stands in direct antithesis to that of humility; so
+that nothing need here be said of the latter state of mind.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Helplessness, Impotence: Shrugging the shoulders</i>.&mdash;When a man
+wishes to show that he cannot do something, or prevent something being
+done, he often raises with a quick movement both shoulders. At the same
+time, if the whole gesture is completed, he bends his elbows closely
+inwards, raises his open hands, turning them outwards, with the fingers
+separated. The head is often thrown a little on one side; the eyebrows are
+elevated, and this causes wrinkles across the forehead. The mouth is
+generally opened. I may mention, in order to show how unconsciously the
+features are thus acted on, that though I had often intentionally shrugged
+my shoulders to observe how my arms were placed, I was not at all aware
+that my eyebrows were raised and mouth opened, until I looked at myself in
+a glass; and since then I have noticed the same movements in the faces of
+others. In the accompanying Plate VI., figs. 3 and 4, Mr. Rejlander has
+successfully acted the gesture of shrugging the shoulders.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Englishmen are much less demonstrative than the men of most other European
+nations, and they shrug their shoulders far less frequently and
+energetically than Frenchmen or Italians do. The gesture varies in all
+degrees from the complex movement, just described, to only a momentary and
+scarcely perceptible raising of both shoulders; or, as I have noticed in a
+lady sitting in an arm-chair, to the mere turning slightly outwards of the
+open hands with separated fingers. I have never seen very young English
+children shrug their shoulders, but the following case was observed with
+care by a medical professor and excellent observer, and has been
+communicated to me by him. The father of this gentleman was a Parisian,
+and his mother a Scotch lady. His wife is of British extraction on both
+sides, and my informant does not believe that she ever shrugged her
+shoulders in her life. His children have been reared in England, and the
+nursemaid is a thorough Englishwoman, who has never been seen to shrug her
+shoulders. Now, his eldest daughter was observed to shrug her shoulders at
+the age of between sixteen and eighteen months; her mother exclaiming at
+the time, &ldquo;Look at the little French girl shrugging her shoulders!&rdquo; At
+first she often acted thus, sometimes throwing her head a little backwards
+and on one side, but she did not, as far as was observed, move her elbows
+and hands in the usual manner. The habit gradually wore away, and now,
+when she is a little over four years old, she is never seen to act thus.
+The father is told that he sometimes shrugs his shoulders, especially when
+arguing with any one; but it is extremely improbable that his daughter
+should have imitated him at so early an age; for, as he remarks, she could
+not possibly have often seen this gesture in him. Moreover, if the habit
+had been acquired through imitation, it is not probable that it would so
+soon have been spontaneously discontinued by this child, and, as we shall
+immediately see, by a second child, though the father still lived with his
+family. This little girl, it may be added, resembles her Parisian
+grandfather in countenance to an almost absurd degree. She also presents
+another and very curious resemblance to him, namely, by practising a
+singular trick. When she impatiently wants something, she holds out her
+little hand, and rapidly rubs the thumb against the index and middle
+finger: now this same trick was frequently performed under the same
+circumstances by her grandfather.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This gentleman&rsquo;s second daughter also shrugged her shoulders before the
+age of eighteen months, and afterwards discontinued the habit. It is of
+course possible that she may have imitated her elder sister; but she
+continued it after her sister had lost the habit. She at first resembled
+her Parisian grandfather in a less degree than did her sister at the same
+age, but now in a greater degree. She likewise practises to the present
+time the peculiar habit of rubbing together, when impatient, her thumb and
+two of her fore-fingers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In this latter case we have a good instance, like those given in a former
+chapter, of the inheritance of a trick or gesture; for no one, I presume,
+will attribute to mere coincidence so peculiar a habit as this, which was
+common to the grandfather and his two grandchildren who had never seen
+him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Considering all the circumstances with reference to these children
+shrugging their shoulders, it can hardly be doubted that they have
+inherited the habit from their French progenitors, although they have only
+one quarter French blood in their veins, and although their grandfather
+did not often shrug his shoulders. There is nothing very unusual, though
+the fact is interesting, in these children having gained by inheritance a
+habit during early youth, and then discontinuing it; for it is of frequent
+occurrence with many kinds of animals that certain characters are retained
+for a period by the young, and are then lost.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As it appeared to me at one time improbable in a high degree that so
+complex a gesture as shrugging the shoulders, together with the
+accompanying movements, should be innate, I was anxious to ascertain
+whether the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman, who could not have learnt the
+habit by imitation, practised it. And I have heard, through Dr. Innes,
+from a lady who has lately had charge of her, that she does shrug her
+shoulders, turn in her elbows, and raise her eyebrows in the same manner
+as other people, and under the same circumstances. I was also anxious to
+learn whether this gesture was practised by the various races of man,
+especially by those who never have had much intercourse with Europeans. We
+shall see that they act in this manner; but it appears that the gesture is
+sometimes confined to merely raising or shrugging the shoulders, without
+the other movements.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Scott has frequently seen this gesture in the Bengalees and Dhangars
+(the latter constituting a distinct race) who are employed in the Botanic
+Garden at Calcutta; when, for instance, they have declared that they could
+not do some work, such as lifting a heavy weight. He ordered a Bengalee to
+climb a lofty tree; but the man, with a shrug of his shoulders and a
+lateral shake of his head, said he could not. Mr. Scott knowing that the
+man was lazy, thought he could, and insisted on his trying. His face now
+became pale, his arms dropped to his sides, his mouth and eyes were widely
+opened, and again surveying the tree, he looked askant at Mr. Scott,
+shrugged his shoulders, inverted his elbows, extended his open hands, and
+with a few quick lateral shakes of the head declared his inability. Mr. H.
+Erskine has likewise seen the natives of India shrugging their shoulders;
+but he has never seen the elbows turned so much inwards as with us; and
+whilst shrugging their shoulders they sometimes lay their uncrossed hands
+on their breasts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With the wild Malays of the interior of Malacca, and with the Bugis (true
+Malays, though speaking a different language), Mr. Geach has often seen
+this gesture. I presume that it is complete, as, in answer to my query
+descriptive of the movements of the shoulders, arms, hands, and face, Mr.
+Geach remarks, &ldquo;it is performed in a beautiful style.&rdquo; I have lost an
+extract from a scientific voyage, in which shrugging the shoulders by some
+natives (Micronesians) of the Caroline Archipelago in the Pacific Ocean,
+was well described. Capt. Speedy informs me that the Abyssinians shrug
+their shoulders but enters into no details. Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab
+dragoman in Alexandria acting exactly as described in my query, when an
+old gentleman, on whom he attended, would not go in the proper direction
+which had been pointed out to him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Washington Matthews says, in reference to the wild Indian tribes of
+the western parts of the United States, &ldquo;I have on a few occasions
+detected men using a slight apologetic shrug, but the rest of the
+demonstration which you describe I have not witnessed.&rdquo; Fritz Müller
+informs me that he has seen the negroes in Brazil shrugging their
+shoulders; but it is of course possible that they may have learnt to do so
+by imitating the Portuguese. Mrs. Barber has never seen this gesture with
+the Kafirs of South Africa; and Gaika, judging from his answer, did not
+even understand what was meant by my description. Mr. Swinhoe is also
+doubtful about the Chinese; but he has seen them, under the circumstances
+which would make us shrug our shoulders, press their right elbow against
+their side, raise their eyebrows, lift up their hand with the palm
+directed towards the person addressed, and shake it from right to left.
+Lastly, with respect to the Australians, four of my informants answer by a
+simple negative, and one by a simple affirmative. Mr. Bunnett, who has had
+excellent opportunities for observation on the borders of the Colony of
+Victory, also answers by a &ldquo;yes,&rdquo; adding that the gesture is performed &ldquo;in
+a more subdued and less demonstrative manner than is the case with civilized
+nations.&rdquo; This circumstance may account for its not having been noticed by
+four of my informants.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These statements, relating to Europeans, Hindoos, the hill-tribes of
+India, Malays, Micronesians, Abyssinians, Arabs, Negroes, Indians of North
+America, and apparently to the Australians&mdash;many of these natives
+having had scarcely any intercourse with Europeans&mdash;are sufficient to
+show that shrugging the shoulders, accompanied in some cases by the other
+proper movements, is a gesture natural to mankind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This gesture implies an unintentional or unavoidable action on our own
+part, or one that we cannot perform; or an action performed by another
+person which we cannot prevent. It accompanies such speeches as, &ldquo;It was
+not my fault;&rdquo; &ldquo;It is impossible for me to grant this favour;&rdquo; &ldquo;He must
+follow his own course, I cannot stop him.&rdquo; Shrugging the shoulders
+likewise expresses patience, or the absence of any intention to resist.
+Hence the muscles which raise the shoulders are sometimes called, as I
+have been informed by an artist, the patience muscles. Shylock the Jew,
+says,
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;Signor Antonio, many a time and oft<br/>
+In the Rialto have you rated me<br/>
+About my monies and usances;<br/>
+Still have I borne it with a patient shrug.&rdquo;<br/>
+<i>Merchant of Venice</i>, act i. sc. 3.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sir C. Bell has given<a href="#linknote-1114" name="linknoteref-1114"
+id="linknoteref-1114">[1114]</a> a life-like figure of a man, who is
+shrinking back from some terrible danger, and is on the point of screaming
+out in abject terror. He is represented with his shoulders lifted up
+almost to his ears; and this at once declares that there is no thought of
+resistance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As shrugging the shoulders generally implies &ldquo;I cannot do this or that,&rdquo;
+so by a slight change, it sometimes implies &ldquo;I won&rsquo;t do it.&rdquo; The movement
+then expresses a dogged determination not to act. Olmsted describes<a
+href="#linknote-1115" name="linknoteref-1115" id="linknoteref-1115">[1115]</a>
+an Indian in Texas as giving a great shrug to his shoulders, when he was
+informed that a party of men were Germans and not Americans, thus
+expressing that he would have nothing to do with them. Sulky and obstinate
+children may be seen with both their shoulders raised high up; but this
+movement is not associated with the others which generally accompany a
+true shrug. An excellent observer<a href="#linknote-1116"
+name="linknoteref-1116" id="linknoteref-1116">[1116]</a> in describing a
+young man who was determined not to yield to his father&rsquo;s desire, says,
+&ldquo;He thrust his hands deep down into his pockets, and set up his shoulders
+to his ears, which was a good warning that, come right or wrong, this rock
+should fly from its firm base as soon as Jack would; and that any
+remonstrance on the subject was purely futile.&rdquo; As soon as the son got his
+own way, he &ldquo;put his shoulders into their natural position.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Resignation is sometimes shown by the open hands being placed, one over
+the other, on the lower part of the body. I should not have thought this
+little gesture worth even a passing notice, had not Dr. W. Ogle remarked
+to me that he had two or three times observed it in patients who were
+preparing for operations under chloroform. They exhibited no great fear,
+but seemed to declare by this posture of their hands, that they had made
+up their minds, and were resigned to the inevitable.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We may now inquire why men in all parts of the world when they feel,&mdash;whether
+or not they wish to show this feeling,&mdash;that they cannot or will not
+do something, or will not resist something if done by another, shrug their
+shoulders, at the same time often bending in their elbows, showing the
+palms of their hands with extended fingers, often throwing their heads a
+little on one side, raising their eyebrows, and opening their mouths.
+These states of the mind are either simply passive, or show a
+determination not to act. None of the above movements are of the least
+service. The explanation lies, I cannot doubt, in the principle of
+unconscious antithesis. This principle here seems to come into play as
+clearly as in the case of a dog, who, when feeling savage, puts himself in
+the proper attitude for attacking and for making himself appear terrible
+to his enemy; but as soon as he feels affectionate, throws his whole body
+into a directly opposite attitude, though this is of no direct use to him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Let it be observed how an indignant man, who resents, and will not submit
+to some injury, holds his head erect, squares his shoulders, and expands
+his chest. He often clenches his fists, and puts one or both arms in the
+proper position for attack or defence, with the muscles of his limbs
+rigid. He frowns,&mdash;that is, he contracts and lowers his brows,&mdash;and,
+being determined, closes his mouth. The actions and attitude of a helpless
+man are, in every one of these respects, exactly the reverse. In Plate VI.
+we may imagine one of the figures on the left side to have just said,
+&ldquo;What do you mean by insulting me?&rdquo; and one of the figures on the right
+side to answer, &ldquo;I really could not help it.&rdquo; The helpless man
+unconsciously contracts the muscles of his forehead which are antagonistic
+to those that cause a frown, and thus raises his eyebrows; at the same
+time he relaxes the muscles about the mouth, so that the lower jaw drops.
+The antithesis is complete in every detail, not only in the movements of
+the features, but in the position of the limbs and in the attitude of the
+whole body, as may be seen in the accompanying plate. As the helpless or
+apologetic man often wishes to show his state of mind, he then acts in a
+conspicuous or demonstrative manner.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In accordance with the fact that squaring the elbows and clenching the
+fists are gestures by no means universal with the men of all races, when
+they feel indignant and are prepared to attack their enemy, so it appears
+that a helpless or apologetic frame of mind is expressed in many parts of
+the world by merely shrugging the shoulders, without turning inwards the
+elbows and opening the hands. The man or child who is obstinate, or one
+who is resigned to some great misfortune, has in neither case any idea of
+resistance by active means; and he expresses this state of mind, by simply
+keeping his shoulders raised; or he may possibly fold his arms across his
+breast.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Signs of affirmation or approval, and of negation or disapproval:
+nodding and shaking the head</i>.&mdash;I was curious to ascertain how far
+the common signs used by us in affirmation and negation were general
+throughout the world. These signs are indeed to a certain extent
+expressive of our feelings, as we give a vertical nod of approval with a
+smile to our children, when we approve of their conduct; and shake our
+heads laterally with a frown, when we disapprove. With infants, the first
+act of denial consists in refusing food; and I repeatedly noticed with my
+own infants, that they did so by withdrawing their heads laterally from
+the breast, or from anything offered them in a spoon. In accepting food
+and taking it into their mouths, they incline their heads forwards. Since
+making these observations I have been informed that the same idea had
+occurred to Charma.<a href="#linknote-1117" name="linknoteref-1117"
+id="linknoteref-1117">[1117]</a> It deserves notice that in accepting or
+taking food, there is only a single movement forward, and a single nod
+implies an affirmation. On the other hand, in refusing food, especially if
+it be pressed on them, children frequently move their heads several times
+from side to side, as we do in shaking our heads in negation. Moreover, in
+the case of refusal, the head is not rarely thrown backwards, or the mouth
+is closed, so that these movements might likewise come to serve as signs
+of negation. Mr. Wedgwood remarks on this subject,<a href="#linknote-1118"
+name="linknoteref-1118" id="linknoteref-1118">[1118]</a> that &ldquo;when the
+voice is exerted with closed teeth or lips, it produces the sound of the
+letter <i>n</i> or <i>m</i>. Hence we may account for the use of the
+particle <i>ne</i> to signify negation, and possibly also of the Greek mh
+in the same sense.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+That these signs are innate or instinctive, at least with Anglo-Saxons, is
+rendered highly probable by the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman &ldquo;constantly
+accompanying her <i>yes</i> with the common affirmative nod, and her <i>no</i>
+with our negative shake of the head.&rdquo; Had not Mr. Lieber stated to the
+contrary,<a href="#linknote-1119" name="linknoteref-1119"
+id="linknoteref-1119">[1119]</a> I should have imagined that these
+gestures might have been acquired or learnt by her, considering her
+wonderful sense of touch and appreciation of the movements of others. With
+microcephalous idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn to speak,
+one of them is described by Vogt,<a href="#linknote-1120"
+name="linknoteref-1120" id="linknoteref-1120">[1120]</a> as answering,
+when asked whether he wished for more food or drink, by inclining or
+shaking his head. Schmalz, in his remarkable dissertation on the education
+of the deaf and dumb, as well as of children raised only one degree above
+idiotcy, assumes that they can always both make and understand the common
+signs of affirmation and negation.<a href="#linknote-1121"
+name="linknoteref-1121" id="linknoteref-1121">[1121]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nevertheless if we look to the various races of man, these signs are not
+so universally employed as I should have expected; yet they seem too
+general to be ranked as altogether conventional or artificial. My
+informants assert that both signs are used by the Malays, by the natives
+of Ceylon, the Chinese, the negroes of the Guinea coast, and, according to
+Gaika, by the Kafirs of South Africa, though with these latter people Mrs.
+Barber has never seen a lateral shake used as a negative. With respect to
+the Australians, seven observers agree that a nod is given in affirmation;
+five agree about a lateral shake in negation, accompanied or not by some
+word; but Mr. Dyson Lacy has never seen this latter sign in Queensland,
+and Mr. Bulmer says that in Gipps&rsquo; Land a negative is expressed by
+throwing the head a little backwards and putting out the tongue. At the
+northern extremity of the continent, near Torres Straits, the natives when
+uttering a negative &ldquo;don&rsquo;t shake the head with it, but holding up the
+right hand, shake it by turning it half round and back again two or three
+times.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1122" name="linknoteref-1122"
+id="linknoteref-1122">[1122]</a> The throwing back of the head with a
+cluck of the tongue is said to be used as a negative by the modern Greeks
+and Turks, the latter people expressing <i>yes</i> by a movement like that
+made by us when we shake our heads.<a href="#linknote-1123"
+name="linknoteref-1123" id="linknoteref-1123">[1123]</a> The Abyssinians,
+as I am informed by Captain Speedy, express a negative by jerking the head
+to the right shoulder, together with a slight cluck, the mouth being
+closed; an affirmation is expressed by the head being thrown backwards and
+the eyebrows raised for an instant. The Tagals of Luzon, in the Philippine
+Archipelago, as I hear from Dr. Adolf Meyer, when they say &ldquo;yes,&rdquo; also
+throw the head backwards. According to the Rajah Brooke, the Dyaks of
+Borneo express an affirmation by raising the eyebrows, and a negation by
+slightly contracting them, together with a peculiar look from the eyes.
+With the Arabs on the Nile, Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray concluded that
+nodding in affirmation was rare, whilst shaking the head in negation was
+never used, and was not even understood by them. With the Esquimaux<a
+href="#linknote-1124" name="linknoteref-1124" id="linknoteref-1124">[1124]</a>
+a nod means <i>yes</i> and a wink <i>no</i>. The New Zealanders &ldquo;elevate
+the head and chin in place of nodding acquiescence.&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-1125" name="linknoteref-1125" id="linknoteref-1125">[1125]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With the Hindoos Mr. H. Erskine concludes from inquiries made from
+experienced Europeans, and from native gentlemen, that the signs of
+affirmation and negation vary&mdash;a nod and a lateral shake being
+sometimes used as we do; but a negative is more commonly expressed by the
+head being thrown suddenly backwards and a little to one side, with a
+cluck of the tongue. What the meaning may be of this cluck of the tongue,
+which has been observed with various people, I cannot imagine. A native
+gentleman stated that affirmation is frequently shown by the head being
+thrown to the left. I asked Mr. Scott to attend particularly to this
+point, and, after repeated observations, he believes that a vertical nod
+is not commonly used by the natives in affirmation, but that the head is
+first thrown backwards either to the left or right, and then jerked
+obliquely forwards only once. This movement would perhaps have been
+described by a less careful observer as a lateral shake. He also states
+that in negation the head is usually held nearly upright, and shaken
+several times.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Bridges informs me that the Fuegians nod their heads vertically in
+affirmation, and shake them laterally in denial. With the wild Indians of
+North America, according to Mr. Washington Matthews, nodding and shaking
+the head have been learnt from Europeans, and are not naturally employed.
+They express affirmation by describing with the hand (all the fingers
+except the index being flexed) a curve downwards and outwards from the
+body, whilst negation is expressed by moving the open hand outwards, with
+the palm facing inwards. Other observers state that the sign of
+affirmation with these Indians is the forefinger being raised, and then
+lowered and pointed to the ground, or the hand is waved straight forward
+from the face; and that the sign of negation is the finger or whole hand
+shaken from side to side.<a href="#linknote-1126" name="linknoteref-1126"
+id="linknoteref-1126">[1126]</a> This latter movement probably represents
+in all cases the lateral shaking of the head. The Italians are said in
+like manner to move the lifted finger from right to left in negation, as
+indeed we English sometimes do.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On the whole we find considerable diversity in the signs of affirmation
+and negation in the different races of man. With respect to negation, if
+we admit that the shaking of the finger or hand from side to side is
+symbolic of the lateral movement of the head; and if we admit that the
+sudden backward movement of the head represents one of the actions often
+practised by young children in refusing food, then there is much
+uniformity throughout the world in the signs of negation, and we can see
+how they originated. The most marked exceptions are presented by the
+Arabs, Esquimaux, some Australian tribes, and Dyaks. With the latter a
+frown is the sign of negation, and with us frowning often accompanies a
+lateral shake of the head.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With respect to nodding in affirmation, the exceptions are rather more
+numerous, namely with some of the Hindoos, with the Turks, Abyssinians,
+Dyaks, Tagals, and New Zealanders. The eyebrows are sometimes raised in
+affirmation, and as a person in bending his head forwards and downwards
+naturally looks up to the person whom he addresses, he will be apt to
+raise his eyebrows, and this sign may thus have arisen as an abbreviation.
+So again with the New Zealanders, the lifting up the chin and head in
+affirmation may perhaps represent in an abbreviated form the upward
+movement of the head after it has been nodded forwards and downwards.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"></a>
+CHAPTER XII.<br/>SURPRISE&mdash;ASTONISHMENT&mdash;FEAR&mdash;HORROR.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+Surprise, astonishment&mdash;Elevation of the eyebrows&mdash;Opening the
+mouth&mdash;Protrusion of the lips&mdash;Gestures accompanying surprise&mdash;Admiration&mdash;Fear&mdash;Terror&mdash;Erection
+of the hair&mdash;Contraction of the platysma muscle&mdash;Dilatation of
+the pupils&mdash;Horror&mdash;Conclusion.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Attention, if sudden and close, graduates into surprise; and this into
+astonishment; and this into stupefied amazement. The latter frame of mind
+is closely akin to terror. Attention is shown by the eyebrows being
+slightly raised; and as this state increases into surprise, they are
+raised to a much greater extent, with the eyes and mouth widely open. The
+raising of the eyebrows is necessary in order that the eyes should be
+opened quickly and widely; and this movement produces transverse wrinkles
+across the forehead. The degree to which the eyes and mouth are opened
+corresponds with the degree of surprise felt; but these movements must be
+coordinated; for a widely opened mouth with eyebrows only slightly raised
+results in a meaningless grimace, as Dr. Duchenne has shown in one of his
+photographs.<a href="#linknote-1201" name="linknoteref-1201"
+id="linknoteref-1201">[1201]</a> On the other hand, a person may often be
+seen to pretend surprise by merely raising his eyebrows.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Duchenne has given a photograph of an old man with his eyebrows well
+elevated and arched by the galvanization of the frontal muscle; and with
+his mouth voluntarily opened. This figure expresses surprise with much
+truth. I showed it to twenty-four persons without a word of explanation,
+and one alone did not at all understand what was intended. A second person
+answered terror, which is not far wrong; some of the others, however,
+added to the words surprise or astonishment, the epithets horrified,
+woful, painful, or disgusted.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The eyes and mouth being widely open is an expression universally
+recognized as one of surprise or astonishment. Thus Shakespeare says, &ldquo;I
+saw a smith stand with open mouth swallowing a tailor&rsquo;s news.&rdquo; (&lsquo;King
+John,&rsquo; act iv. scene ii.) And again, &ldquo;They seemed almost, with staring on
+one another, to tear the cases of their eyes; there was speech in the
+dumbness, language in their very gesture; they looked as they had heard of
+a world destroyed.&rdquo; (&lsquo;Winter&rsquo;s Tale,&rsquo; act v. scene ii.)
+</p>
+
+<p>
+My informants answer with remarkable uniformity to the same effect, with
+respect to the various races of man; the above movements of the features
+being often accompanied by certain gestures and sounds, presently to be
+described. Twelve observers in different parts of Australia agree on this
+head. Mr. Winwood Reade has observed this expression with the negroes on
+the Guinea coast. The chief Gaika and others answer <i>yes</i> to my query
+with respect to the Kafirs of South Africa; and so do others emphatically
+with reference to the Abyssinians, Ceylonese, Chinese, Fuegians, various
+tribes of North America, and New Zealanders. With the latter, Mr. Stack
+states that the expression is more plainly shown by certain individuals
+than by others, though all endeavour as much as possible to conceal their
+feelings. The Dyaks of Borneo are said by the Rajah Brooke to open their
+eyes widely, when astonished, often swinging their heads to and fro, and
+beating their breasts. Mr. Scott informs me that the workmen in the
+Botanic Gardens at Calcutta are strictly ordered not to smoke; but they
+often disobey this order, and when suddenly surprised in the act, they
+first open their eyes and mouths widely. They then often slightly shrug
+their shoulders, as they perceive that discovery is inevitable, or frown
+and stamp on the ground from vexation. Soon they recover from their
+surprise, and abject fear is exhibited by the relaxation of all their
+muscles; their heads seem to sink between their shoulders; their fallen
+eyes wander to and fro; and they supplicate forgiveness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The well-known Australian explorer, Mr. Stuart, has given<a
+href="#linknote-1202" name="linknoteref-1202" id="linknoteref-1202">[1202]</a>
+a striking account of stupefied amazement together with terror in a native
+who had never before seen a man on horseback. Mr. Stuart approached unseen
+and called to him from a little distance. &ldquo;He turned round and saw me.
+What he imagined I was I do not know; but a finer picture of fear and
+astonishment I never saw. He stood incapable of moving a limb, riveted to
+the spot, mouth open and eyes staring.... He remained motionless until our
+black got within a few yards of him, when suddenly throwing down his
+waddies, he jumped into a mulga bush as high as he could get.&rdquo; He could
+not speak, and answered not a word to the inquiries made by the black,
+but, trembling from head to foot, &ldquo;waved with his hand for us to be off.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+That the eyebrows are raised by an innate or instinctive impulse may be
+inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman invariably acts thus when
+astonished, as I have been assured by the lady who has lately had charge
+of her. As surprise is excited by something unexpected or unknown, we
+naturally desire, when startled, to perceive the cause as quickly as
+possible; and we consequently open our eyes fully, so that the field of
+vision may be increased, and the eyeballs moved easily in any direction.
+But this hardly accounts for the eyebrows being so greatly raised as is
+the case, and for the wild staring of the open eyes. The explanation lies,
+I believe, in the impossibility of opening the eyes with great rapidity by
+merely raising the upper lids. To effect this the eyebrows must be lifted
+energetically. Any one who will try to open his eyes as quickly as
+possible before a mirror will find that he acts thus; and the energetic
+lifting up of the eyebrows opens the eyes so widely that they stare, the
+white being exposed all round the iris. Moreover, the elevation of the
+eyebrows is an advantage in looking upwards; for as long as they are
+lowered they impede our vision in this direction. Sir C. Bell gives<a
+href="#linknote-1203" name="linknoteref-1203" id="linknoteref-1203">[1203]</a>
+a curious little proof of the part which the eyebrows play in opening the
+eyelids. In a stupidly drunken man all the muscles are relaxed, and the
+eyelids consequently droop, in the same manner as when we are falling
+asleep. To counteract this tendency the drunkard raises his eyebrows; and
+this gives to him a puzzled, foolish look, as is well represented in one
+of Hogarth&rsquo;s drawings. The habit of raising the eyebrows having once been
+gained in order to see as quickly as possible all around us, the movement
+would follow from the force of association whenever astonishment was felt
+from any cause, even from a sudden sound or an idea.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With adult persons, when the eyebrows are raised, the whole forehead
+becomes much wrinkled in transverse lines; but with children this occurs
+only to a slight degree. The wrinkles run in lines concentric with each
+eyebrow, and are partially confluent in the middle. They are highly
+characteristic of the expression of surprise or astonishment. Each
+eyebrow, when raised, becomes also, as Duchenne remarks,<a
+href="#linknote-1204" name="linknoteref-1204" id="linknoteref-1204">[1204]</a>
+more arched than it was before.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The cause of the mouth being opened when astonishment is felt, is a much
+more complex affair; and several causes apparently concur in leading to
+this movement. It has often been supposed<a href="#linknote-1205"
+name="linknoteref-1205" id="linknoteref-1205">[1205]</a> that the sense of
+hearing is thus rendered more acute; but I have watched persons listening
+intently to a slight noise, the nature and source of which they knew
+perfectly, and they did not open their mouths. Therefore I at one time
+imagined that the open mouth might aid in distinguishing the direction
+whence a sound proceeded, by giving another channel for its entrance into
+the ear through the eustachian tube, But Dr. W. Ogle<a
+href="#linknote-1206" name="linknoteref-1206" id="linknoteref-1206">[1206]</a>
+has been so kind as to search the best recent authorities on the functions
+of the eustachian tube, and he informs me that it is almost conclusively
+proved that it remains closed except during the act of deglutition; and
+that in persons in whom the tube remains abnormally open, the sense of
+hearing, as far as external sounds are concerned, is by no means improved;
+on the contrary, it is impaired by the respiratory sounds being rendered
+more distinct. If a watch be placed within the mouth, but not allowed to
+touch the sides, the ticking is heard much less plainly than when held
+outside. In persons in whom from disease or a cold the eustachian tube is
+permanently or temporarily closed, the sense of hearing is injured; but
+this may be accounted for by mucus accumulating within the tube, and the
+consequent exclusion of air. We may therefore infer that the mouth is not
+kept open under the sense of astonishment for the sake of hearing sounds
+more distinctly; notwithstanding that most deaf people keep their mouths
+open.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Every sudden emotion, including astonishment, quickens the action of the
+heart, and with it the respiration. Now we can breathe, as Gratiolet
+remarks<a href="#linknote-1207" name="linknoteref-1207"
+id="linknoteref-1207">[1207]</a> and as appears to me to be the case, much
+more quietly through the open mouth than through the nostrils. Therefore,
+when we wish to listen intently to any sound, we either stop breathing, or
+breathe as quietly as possible, by opening our mouths, at the same time
+keeping our bodies motionless. One of my sons was awakened in the night by
+a noise under circumstances which naturally led to great care, and after a
+few minutes he perceived that his mouth was widely open. He then became
+conscious that he had opened it for the sake of breathing as quietly as
+possible. This view receives support from the reversed case which occurs
+with dogs. A dog when panting after exercise, or on a hot day, breathes
+loudly; but if his attention be suddenly aroused, he instantly pricks his
+ears to listen, shuts his mouth, and breathes quietly, as he is enabled to
+do, through his nostrils.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When the attention is concentrated for a length of time with fixed
+earnestness on any object or subject, all the organs of the body are
+forgotten and neglected;<a href="#linknote-1208" name="linknoteref-1208"
+id="linknoteref-1208">[1208]</a> and as the nervous energy of each
+individual is limited in amount, little is transmitted to any part of the
+system, excepting that which is at the time brought into energetic action.
+Therefore many of the muscles tend to become relaxed, and the jaw drops
+from its own weight. This will account for the dropping of the jaw and
+open mouth of a man stupefied with amazement, and perhaps when less
+strongly affected. I have noticed this appearance, as I find recorded in
+my notes, in very young children when they were only moderately surprised.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is still another and highly effective cause, leading to the mouth
+being opened, when we are astonished, and more especially when we are
+suddenly startled. We can draw a full and deep inspiration much more
+easily through the widely open mouth than through the nostrils. Now when
+we start at any sudden sound or sight, almost all the muscles of the body
+are involuntarily and momentarily thrown into strong action, for the sake
+of guarding ourselves against or jumping away from the danger, which we
+habitually associate with anything unexpected. But we always unconsciously
+prepare ourselves for any great exertion, as formerly explained, by first
+taking a deep and full inspiration, and we consequently open our mouths.
+If no exertion follows, and we still remain astonished, we cease for a
+time to breathe, or breathe as quietly as possible, in order that every
+sound may be distinctly heard. Or again, if our attention continues long
+and earnestly absorbed, all our muscles become relaxed, and the jaw, which
+was at first suddenly opened, remains dropped. Thus several causes concur
+towards this same movement, whenever surprise, astonishment, or amazement
+is felt.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although when thus affected, our mouths are generally opened, yet the lips
+are often a little protruded. This fact reminds us of the same movement,
+though in a much more strongly marked degree, in the chimpanzee and orang
+when astonished. As a strong expiration naturally follows the deep
+inspiration which accompanies the first sense of startled surprise, and as
+the lips are often protruded, the various sounds which are then commonly
+uttered can apparently be accounted for. But sometimes a strong expiration
+alone is heard; thus Laura Bridgman, when amazed, rounds and protrudes her
+lips, opens them, and breathes strongly.<a href="#linknote-1209"
+name="linknoteref-1209" id="linknoteref-1209">[1209]</a> One of the
+commonest sounds is a deep <i>Oh</i>; and this would naturally follow, as
+explained by Helmholtz, from the mouth being moderately opened and the
+lips protruded. On a quiet night some rockets were fired from the
+&lsquo;Beagle,&rsquo; in a little creek at Tahiti, to amuse the natives; and as each
+rocket, was let off there was absolute silence, but this was invariably
+followed by a deep groaning <i>Oh</i>, resounding all round the bay. Mr.
+Washington Matthews says that the North American Indians express
+astonishment by a groan; and the negroes on the West Coast of Africa,
+according to Mr. Winwood Reade, protrude their lips, and make a sound like
+<i>heigh, heigh</i>. If the mouth is not much opened, whilst the lips are
+considerably protruded, a blowing, hissing, or whistling noise is
+produced. Mr. R. Brough Smith informs me that an Australian from the
+interior was taken to the theatre to see an acrobat rapidly turning head
+over heels: &ldquo;he was greatly astonished, and protruded his lips, making a
+noise with his mouth as if blowing out a match.&rdquo; According to Mr. Bulmer
+the Australians, when surprised, utter the exclamation <i>korki</i>, &ldquo;and
+to do this the mouth is drawn out as if going to whistle.&rdquo; We Europeans
+often whistle as a sign of surprise; thus, in a recent novel<a
+href="#linknote-1210" name="linknoteref-1210" id="linknoteref-1210">[1210]</a>
+it is said, &ldquo;here the man expressed his astonishment and disapprobation by
+a prolonged whistle.&rdquo; A Kafir girl, as Mr. J. Mansel Weale informs me, &ldquo;on
+hearing of the high price of an article, raised her eyebrows and whistled
+just as a European would.&rdquo; Mr. Wedgwood remarks that such sounds are
+written down as <i>whew</i>, and they serve as interjections for surprise.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+According to three other observers, the Australians often evince
+astonishment by a clucking noise. Europeans also sometimes express gentle
+surprise by a little clicking noise of nearly the same kind. We have seen
+that when we are startled, the mouth is suddenly opened; and if the tongue
+happens to be then pressed closely against the palate, its sudden
+withdrawal will produce a sound of this kind, which might thus come to
+express surprise.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0024" id="linkimage-0024">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/plate-7.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Gestures of the Body. Plate VII " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Turning to gestures of the body. A surprised person often raises his
+opened hands high above his head, or by bending his arms only to the level
+of his face. The flat palms are directed towards the person who causes
+this feeling, and the straightened fingers are separated. This gesture is
+represented by Mr. Rejlander in Plate VII. fig. 1. In the &lsquo;Last Supper,&rsquo;
+by Leonardo da Vinci, two of the Apostles have their hands half uplifted,
+clearly expressive of their astonishment. A trustworthy observer told me
+that he had lately met his wife under most unexpected circumstances: &ldquo;She
+started, opened her mouth and eyes very widely, and threw up both her arms
+above her head.&rdquo; Several years ago I was surprised by seeing several of my
+young children earnestly doing something together on the ground; but the
+distance was too great for me to ask what they were about. Therefore I
+threw up my open hands with extended fingers above my head; and as soon as
+I had done this, I became conscious of the action. I then waited, without
+saying a word, to see if my children had understood this gesture; and as
+they came running to me they cried out, &ldquo;We saw that you were astonished
+at us.&rdquo; I do not know whether this gesture is common to the various races
+of man, as I neglected to make inquiries on this head. That it is innate
+or natural may be inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman, when amazed,
+&ldquo;spreads her arms and turns her hands with extended fingers upwards;&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-1211" name="linknoteref-1211" id="linknoteref-1211">[1211]</a>
+nor is it likely, considering that the feeling of surprise is generally a
+brief one, that she should have learnt this gesture through her keen sense
+of touch.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Huschke describes<a href="#linknote-1212" name="linknoteref-1212"
+id="linknoteref-1212">[1212]</a> a somewhat different yet allied gesture,
+which he says is exhibited by persons when astonished. They hold
+themselves erect, with the features as before described, but with the
+straightened arms extended backwards&mdash;the stretched fingers being
+separated from each other. I have never myself seen this gesture; but
+Huschke is probably correct; for a friend asked another man how he would
+express great astonishment, and he at once threw himself into this
+attitude.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These gestures are, I believe, explicable on the principle of antithesis.
+We have seen that an indignant man holds his head erect, squares his
+shoulders, turns out his elbows, often clenches his fist, frowns, and
+closes his mouth; whilst the attitude of a helpless man is in every one of
+these details the reverse. Now, a man in an ordinary frame of mind, doing
+nothing and thinking of nothing in particular, usually keeps his two arms
+suspended laxly by his sides, with his hands somewhat flexed, and the
+fingers near together. Therefore, to raise the arms suddenly, either the
+whole arms or the fore-arms, to open the palms flat, and to separate the
+fingers,&mdash;or, again, to straighten the arms, extending them backwards
+with separated fingers,&mdash;are movements in complete antithesis to
+those preserved under an indifferent frame of mind, and they are, in
+consequence, unconsciously assumed by an astonished man. There is, also,
+often a desire to display surprise in a conspicuous manner, and the above
+attitudes are well fitted for this purpose. It may be asked why should
+surprise, and only a few other states of the mind, be exhibited by
+movements in antithesis to others. But this principle will not be brought
+into play in the case of those emotions, such as terror, great joy,
+suffering, or rage, which naturally lead to certain lines of action and
+produce certain effects on the body, for the whole system is thus
+preoccupied; and these emotions are already thus expressed with the
+greatest plainness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is another little gesture, expressive of astonishment of which I can
+offer no explanation; namely, the hand being placed over the mouth or on
+some part of the head. This has been observed with so many races of man,
+that it must have some natural origin. A wild Australian was taken into a
+large room full of official papers, which surprised him greatly, and he
+cried out, <i>cluck, cluck, cluck</i>, putting the back of his hand
+towards his lips. Mrs. Barber says that the Kafirs and Fingoes express
+astonishment by a serious look and by placing the right hand upon the
+mouth, uttering the word <i>mawo</i>, which means &lsquo;wonderful.&rsquo; The
+Bushmen are said<a href="#linknote-1213" name="linknoteref-1213"
+id="linknoteref-1213">[1213]</a> to put their right hands to their necks,
+bending their heads backwards. Mr. Winwood Reade has observed that the
+negroes on the West Coast of Africa, when surprised, clap their hands to
+their mouths, saying at the same time, &ldquo;My mouth cleaves to me,&rdquo; i. e. to
+my hands; and he has heard that this is their usual gesture on such
+occasions. Captain Speedy informs me that the Abyssinians place their
+right hand to the forehead, with the palm outside. Lastly, Mr. Washington
+Matthews states that the conventional sign of astonishment with the wild
+tribes of the western parts of the United States &ldquo;is made by placing the
+half-closed hand over the mouth; in doing this, the head is often bent
+forwards, and words or low groans are sometimes uttered.&rdquo; Catlin<a
+href="#linknote-1214" name="linknoteref-1214" id="linknoteref-1214">[1214]</a>
+makes the same remark about the hand being pressed over the mouth by the
+Mandans and other Indian tribes.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Admiration</i>.&mdash;Little need be said on this head. Admiration
+apparently consists of surprise associated with some pleasure and a sense
+of approval. When vividly felt, the eyes are opened and the eyebrows
+raised; the eyes become bright, instead of remaining blank, as under
+simple astonishment; and the mouth, instead of gaping open, expands into a
+smile.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Fear, Terror</i>.&mdash;The word &lsquo;fear&rsquo; seems to be derived from what
+is sudden and dangerous;<a href="#linknote-1215" name="linknoteref-1215"
+id="linknoteref-1215">[1215]</a> and that of terror from the trembling of
+the vocal organs and body. I use the word &lsquo;terror&rsquo; for extreme fear; but
+some writers think it ought to be confined to cases in which the
+imagination is more particularly concerned. Fear is often preceded by
+astonishment, and is so far akin to it, that both lead to the senses of
+sight and hearing being instantly aroused. In both cases the eyes and
+mouth are widely opened, and the eyebrows raised. The frightened man at
+first stands like a statue motionless and breathless, or crouches down as
+if instinctively to escape observation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The heart beats quickly and violently, so that it palpitates or knocks
+against the ribs; but it is very doubtful whether it then works more
+efficiently than usual, so as to send a greater supply of blood to all
+parts of the body; for the skin instantly becomes pale, as during
+incipient faintness. This paleness of the surface, however, is probably in
+large part, or exclusively, due to the vasomotor centre being affected in
+such a manner as to cause the contraction of the small arteries of the
+skin. That the skin is much affected under the sense of great fear, we see
+in the marvellous and inexplicable manner in which perspiration
+immediately exudes from it. This exudation is all the more remarkable, as
+the surface is then cold, and hence the term a cold sweat; whereas, the
+sudorific glands are properly excited into action when the surface is
+heated. The hairs also on the skin stand erect; and the superficial
+muscles shiver. In connection with the disturbed action of the heart, the
+breathing is hurried. The salivary glands act imperfectly; the mouth
+becomes dry,<a href="#linknote-1216" name="linknoteref-1216"
+id="linknoteref-1216">[1216]</a> and is often opened and shut. I have also
+noticed that under slight fear there is a strong tendency to yawn. One of
+the best-marked symptoms is the trembling of all the muscles of the body;
+and this is often first seen in the lips. From this cause, and from the
+dryness of the mouth, the voice becomes husky or indistinct, or may
+altogether fail. &ldquo;Obstupui, steteruntque comae, et vox faucibus haesit.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of vague fear there is a well-known and grand description in Job:&mdash;&ldquo;In
+thoughts from the visions of the night, when deep sleep falleth on men,
+fear came upon me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake. Then a
+spirit passed before my face; the hair of my flesh stood up. It stood
+still, but I could not discern the form thereof: an image was before my
+eyes, there was silence, and I heard a voice, saying, Shall mortal man be
+more just than God? Shall a man be more pure than his Maker?&rdquo; (Job iv. 13)
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As fear increases into an agony of terror, we behold, as under all violent
+emotions, diversified results. The heart beats wildly, or may fail to act
+and faintness ensue; there is a death-like pallor; the breathing is
+laboured; the wings of the nostrils are wildly dilated; &ldquo;there is a
+gasping and convulsive motion of the lips, a tremor on the hollow cheek, a
+gulping and catching of the throat;&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1217"
+name="linknoteref-1217" id="linknoteref-1217">[1217]</a> the uncovered and
+protruding eyeballs are fixed on the object of terror; or they may roll
+restlessly from side to side, <i>huc illuc volvens oculos totumque
+pererrat</i>.<a href="#linknote-1218" name="linknoteref-1218"
+id="linknoteref-1218">[1218]</a> The pupils are said to be enormously
+dilated. All the muscles of the body may become rigid, or may be thrown
+into convulsive movements. The hands are alternately clenched and opened,
+often with a twitching movement. The arms may be protruded, as if to avert
+some dreadful danger, or may be thrown wildly over the head. The Rev. Mr.
+Hagenauer has seen this latter action in a terrified Australian. In other
+cases there is a sudden and uncontrollable tendency to headlong flight;
+and so strong is this, that the boldest soldiers may be seized with a
+sudden panic.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As fear rises to an extreme pitch, the dreadful scream of terror is heard.
+Great beads of sweat stand on the skin. All the muscles of the body are
+relaxed. Utter prostration soon follows, and the mental powers fail. The
+intestines are affected. The sphincter muscles cease to act, and no longer
+retain the contents of the body.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0025" id="linkimage-0025">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig19.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Photograph of an Insane Woman. Fig. 19 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Dr. J. Crichton Browne has given me so striking an account of intense fear
+in an insane woman, aged thirty-five, that the description though painful
+ought not to be omitted. When a paroxysm seizes her, she screams out,
+&ldquo;This is hell!&rdquo; &ldquo;There is a black woman!&rdquo; &ldquo;I can&rsquo;t get out!&rdquo;&mdash;and
+other such exclamations. When thus screaming, her movements are those of
+alternate tension and tremor. For one instant she clenches her hands,
+holds her arms out before her in a stiff semi-flexed position; then
+suddenly bends her body forwards, sways rapidly to and fro, draws her
+fingers through her hair, clutches at her neck, and tries to tear off her
+clothes. The sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles (which serve to bend the head
+on the chest) stand out prominently, as if swollen, and the skin in front
+of them is much wrinkled. Her hair, which is cut short at the back of her
+head, and is smooth when she is calm, now stands on end; that in front
+being dishevelled by the movements of her hands. The countenance expresses
+great mental agony. The skin is flushed over the face and neck, down to
+the clavicles, and the veins of the forehead and neck stand out like thick
+cords. The lower lip drops, and is somewhat everted. The mouth is kept
+half open, with the lower jaw projecting. The cheeks are hollow and deeply
+furrowed in curved lines running from the wings of the nostrils to the
+corners of the mouth. The nostrils themselves are raised and extended. The
+eyes are widely opened, and beneath them the skin appears swollen; the
+pupils are large. The forehead is wrinkled transversely in many folds, and
+at the inner extremities of the eyebrows it is strongly furrowed in
+diverging lines, produced by the powerful and persistent contraction of
+the corrugators.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0026" id="linkimage-0026">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig20.jpg" width="100%" alt="Terror. Fig. 20 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Bell has also described<a href="#linknote-1219" name="linknoteref-1219"
+id="linknoteref-1219">[1219]</a> an agony of terror and of despair, which
+he witnessed in a murderer, whilst carried to the place of execution in
+Turin. &ldquo;On each side of the car the officiating priests were seated; and
+in the centre sat the criminal himself. It was impossible to witness the
+condition of this unhappy wretch without terror; and yet, as if impelled
+by some strange infatuation, it was equally impossible not to gaze upon an
+object so wild, so full of horror. He seemed about thirty-five years of
+age; of large and muscular form; his countenance marked by strong and
+savage features; half naked, pale as death, agonized with terror, every
+limb strained in anguish, his hands clenched convulsively, the sweat
+breaking out on his bent and contracted brow, he kissed incessantly the
+figure of our Saviour, painted on the flag which was suspended before him;
+but with an agony of wildness and despair, of which nothing ever exhibited
+on the stage can give the slightest conception.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I will add only one other case, illustrative of a man utterly prostrated
+by terror. An atrocious murderer of two persons was brought into a
+hospital, under the mistaken impression that he had poisoned himself; and
+Dr. W. Ogle carefully watched him the next morning, while he was being
+handcuffed and taken away by the police. His pallor was extreme, and his
+prostration so great that he was hardly able to dress himself. His skin
+perspired; and his eyelids and head drooped so much that it was impossible
+to catch even a glimpse of his eyes. His lower jaw hung down. There was no
+contraction of any facial muscle, and Dr. Ogle is almost certain that the
+hair did not stand on end, for he observed it narrowly, as it had been
+dyed for the sake of concealment.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With respect to fear, as exhibited by the various races of man, my
+informants agree that the signs are the same as with Europeans. They are
+displayed in an exaggerated degree with the Hindoos and natives of Ceylon.
+Mr. Geach has seen Malays when terrified turn pale and shake; and Mr.
+Brough Smyth states that a native Australian &ldquo;being on one occasion much
+frightened, showed a complexion as nearly approaching to what we call
+paleness, as can well be conceived in the case of a very black man.&rdquo; Mr.
+Dyson Lacy has seen extreme fear shown in an Australian, by a nervous
+twitching of the hands, feet, and lips; and by the perspiration standing
+on the skin. Many savages do not repress the signs of fear so much as
+Europeans; and they often tremble greatly. With the Kafir, Gaika says, in
+his rather quaint English, the shaking &ldquo;of the body is much experienced,
+and the eyes are widely open.&rdquo; With savages, the sphincter muscles are
+often relaxed, just as may be observed in much frightened dogs, and as I
+have seen with monkeys when terrified by being caught.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>The erection of the hair</i>.&mdash;Some of the signs of fear deserve a
+little further consideration. Poets continually speak of the hair standing
+on end; Brutus says to the ghost of Caesar, &ldquo;that mak&rsquo;st my blood cold,
+and my hair to stare.&rdquo; And Cardinal Beaufort, after the murder of
+Gloucester exclaims, &ldquo;Comb down his hair; look, look, it stands upright.&rdquo;
+As I did not feel sure whether writers of fiction might not have applied
+to man what they had often observed in animals, I begged for information
+from Dr. Crichton Browne with respect to the insane. He states in answer
+that he has repeatedly seen their hair erected under the influence of
+sudden and extreme terror. For instance, it is occasionally necessary to
+inject morphia, under the skin of an insane woman, who dreads the
+operation extremely, though it causes very little pain; for she believes
+that poison is being introduced into her system, and that her bones will
+be softened, and her flesh turned into dust. She becomes deadly pale; her
+limbs are stiffened by a sort of tetanic spasm, and her hair is partially
+erected on the front of the head.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Browne further remarks that the bristling of the hair which is so
+common in the insane, is not always associated with terror. It is perhaps
+most frequently seen in chronic maniacs, who rave incoherently and have
+destructive impulses; but it is during their paroxysms of violence that
+the bristling is most observable. The fact of the hair becoming erect
+under the influence both of rage and fear agrees perfectly with what we
+have seen in the lower animals. Dr. Browne adduces several cases in
+evidence. Thus with a man now in the Asylum, before the recurrence of each
+maniacal paroxysm, &ldquo;the hair rises up from his forehead like the mane of a
+Shetland pony.&rdquo; He has sent me photographs of two women, taken in the
+intervals between their paroxysms, and he adds with respect to one of
+these women, &ldquo;that the state of her hair is a sure and convenient
+criterion of her mental condition.&rdquo; I have had one of these photographs
+copied, and the engraving gives, if viewed from a little distance, a
+faithful representation of the original, with the exception that the hair
+appears rather too coarse and too much curled. The extraordinary condition
+of the hair in the insane is due, not only to its erection, but to its
+dryness and harshness, consequent on the subcutaneous glands failing to
+act. Dr. Bucknill has said<a href="#linknote-1220" name="linknoteref-1220"
+id="linknoteref-1220">[1220]</a> that a lunatic &ldquo;is a lunatic to his
+finger&rsquo;s ends;&rdquo; he might have added, and often to the extremity of each
+particular hair.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Browne mentions as an empirical confirmation of the relation which
+exists in the insane between the state of their hair and minds, that the
+wife of a medical man, who has charge of a lady suffering from acute
+melancholia, with a strong fear of death, for herself, her husband and
+children, reported verbally to him the day before receiving my letter as
+follows, &ldquo;I think Mrs. &mdash;&mdash; will soon improve, for her hair is
+getting smooth; and I always notice that our patients get better whenever
+their hair ceases to be rough and unmanageable.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Browne attributes the persistently rough condition of the hair in many
+insane patients, in part to their minds being always somewhat disturbed,
+and in part to the effects of habit,&mdash;that is, to the hair being
+frequently and strongly erected during their many recurrent paroxysms. In
+patients in whom the bristling of the hair is extreme, the disease is
+generally permanent and mortal; but in others, in whom the bristling is
+moderate, as soon as they recover their health of mind the hair recovers
+its smoothness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In a previous chapter we have seen that with animals the hairs are erected
+by the contraction of minute, unstriped, and involuntary muscles, which
+run to each separate follicle. In addition to this action, Mr. J. Wood has
+clearly ascertained by experiment, as he informs me, that with man the
+hairs on the front of the head which slope forwards, and those on the back
+which slope backwards, are raised in opposite directions by the
+contraction of the occipito-frontalis or scalp muscle. So that this muscle
+seems to aid in the erection of the hairs on the head of man in the same
+manner as the homologous <i>panniculus carnosus</i> aids, or takes the
+greater part, in the erection of the spines on the backs of some of the
+lower animals.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Contraction of the platysma myoides muscle</i>.&mdash;This muscle is
+spread over the sides of the neck, extending downwards to a little beneath
+the collar-bones, and upwards to the lower part of the cheeks. A portion,
+called the risorius, is represented in the woodcut (M) fig. 2. The
+contraction of this muscle draws the corners of the mouth and the lower
+parts of the checks downwards and backwards. It produces at the same time
+divergent, longitudinal, prominent ridges on the sides of the neck in the
+young; and, in old thin persons, fine transverse wrinkles. This muscle is
+sometimes said not to be under the control of the will; but almost every
+one, if told to draw the corners of his mouth backwards and downwards with
+great force, brings it into action. I have, however, heard of a man who
+can voluntarily act on it only on one side of his neck.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sir C. Bell<a href="#linknote-1221" name="linknoteref-1221"
+id="linknoteref-1221">[1221]</a> and others have stated that this muscle
+is strongly contracted under the influence of fear; and Duchenne insists
+so strongly on its importance in the expression of this emotion, that he
+calls it the <i>muscle of fright</i>.<a href="#linknote-1222"
+name="linknoteref-1222" id="linknoteref-1222">[1222]</a> He admits,
+however, that its contraction is quite inexpressive unless associated with
+widely open eyes and mouth. He has given a photograph (copied and reduced
+in the accompanying woodcut) of the same old man as on former occasions,
+with his eyebrows strongly raised, his mouth opened, and the platysma
+contracted, all by means of galvanism. The original photograph was shown
+to twenty-four persons, and they were separately asked, without any
+explanation being given, what expression was intended: twenty instantly
+answered, &ldquo;intense fright&rdquo; or &ldquo;horror&rdquo;; three said pain, and one extreme
+discomfort. Dr. Duchenne has given another photograph of the same old man,
+with the platysma contracted, the eyes and mouth opened, and the eyebrows
+rendered oblique, by means of galvanism. The expression thus induced is
+very striking (see Plate VII. fig. 2); the obliquity of the eyebrows
+adding the appearance of great mental distress. The original was shown to
+fifteen persons; twelve answered terror or horror, and three agony or
+great suffering. From these cases, and from an examination of the other
+photographs given by Dr. Duchenne, together with his remarks thereon, I
+think there can be little doubt that the contraction of the platysma does
+add greatly to the expression of fear. Nevertheless this muscle ought
+hardly to be called that of fright, for its contraction is certainly not a
+necessary concomitant of this state of mind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A man may exhibit extreme terror in the plainest manner by death-like
+pallor, by drops of perspiration on his skin, and by utter prostration,
+with all the muscles of his body, including the platysma, completely
+relaxed. Although Dr. Browne has often seen this muscle quivering and
+contracting in the insane, he has not been able to connect its action with
+any emotional condition in them, though he carefully attended to patients
+suffering from great fear. Mr. Nicol, on the other hand, has observed
+three cases in which this muscle appeared to be more or less permanently
+contracted under the influence of melancholia, associated with much dread;
+but in one of these cases, various other muscles about the neck and head
+were subject to spasmodic contractions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. W. Ogle observed for me in one of the London hospitals about twenty
+patients, just before they were put under the influence of chloroform for
+operations. They exhibited some trepidation, but no great terror. In only
+four of the cases was the platysma visibly contracted; and it did not
+begin to contract until the patients began to cry. The muscle seemed to
+contract at the moment of each deep-drawn inspiration; so that it is very
+doubtful whether the contraction depended at all on the emotion of fear.
+In a fifth case, the patient, who was not chloroformed, was much
+terrified; and his platysma was more forcibly and persistently contracted
+than in the other cases. But even here there is room for doubt, for the
+muscle which appeared to be unusually developed, was seen by Dr. Ogle to
+contract as the man moved his head from the pillow, after the operation
+was over.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As I felt much perplexed why, in any case, a superficial muscle on the
+neck should be especially affected by fear, I applied to my many obliging
+correspondents for information about the contraction of this muscle under
+other circumstances. It would be superfluous to give all the answers which
+I have received. They show that this muscle acts, often in a variable
+manner and degree, under many different conditions. It is violently
+contracted in hydrophobia, and in a somewhat less degree in lockjaw;
+sometimes in a marked manner during the insensibility from chloroform. Dr.
+W. Ogle observed two male patients, suffering from such difficulty in
+breathing, that the trachea had to be opened, and in both the platysma was
+strongly contracted. One of these men overheard the conversation of the
+surgeons surrounding him, and when he was able to speak, declared that he
+had not been frightened. In some other cases of extreme difficulty of
+respiration, though not requiring tracheotomy, observed by Drs. Ogle and
+Langstaff, the platysma was not contracted.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. J. Wood, who has studied with such care the muscles of the human body,
+as shown by his various publications, has often seen the platysma
+contracted in vomiting, nausea, and disgust; also in children and adults
+under the influence of rage,&mdash;for instance, in Irishwomen,
+quarrelling and brawling together with angry gesticulations. This may
+possibly have been due to their high and angry tones; for I know a lady,
+an excellent musician, who, in singing certain high notes, always
+contracts her platysma. So does a young man, as I have observed, in
+sounding certain notes on the flute. Mr. J. Wood informs me that he has
+found the platysma best developed in persons with thick necks and broad
+shoulders; and that in families inheriting these peculiarities, its
+development is usually associated with much voluntary power over the
+homologous occipito-frontalis muscle, by which the scalp can be moved.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+None of the foregoing cases appear to throw any light on the contraction
+of the platysma from fear; but it is different, I think, with the
+following cases. The gentleman before referred to, who can voluntarily act
+on this muscle only on one side of his neck, is positive that it contracts
+on both sides whenever he is startled. Evidence has already been given
+showing that this muscle sometimes contracts, perhaps for the sake of
+opening the mouth widely, when the breathing is rendered difficult by
+disease, and during the deep inspirations of crying-fits before an
+operation. Now, whenever a person starts at any sudden sight or sound, he
+instantaneously draws a deep breath; and thus the contraction of the
+platysma may possibly have become associated with the sense of fear. But
+there is, I believe, a more efficient relation. The first sensation of
+fear, or the imagination of something dreadful, commonly excites a
+shudder. I have caught myself giving a little involuntary shudder at a
+painful thought, and I distinctly perceived that my platysma contracted;
+so it does if I simulate a shudder. I have asked others to act in this
+manner; and in some the muscle contracted, but not in others. One of my
+sons, whilst getting out of bed, shuddered from the cold, and, as he
+happened to have his hand on his neck, he plainly felt that this muscle
+strongly contracted. He then voluntarily shuddered, as he had done on
+former occasions, but the platysma was not then affected. Mr. J. Wood has
+also several times observed this muscle contracting in patients, when
+stripped for examination, and who were not frightened, but shivered
+slightly from the cold. Unfortunately I have not been able to ascertain
+whether, when the whole body shakes, as in the cold stage of an ague fit,
+the platysma contracts. But as it certainly often contracts during a
+shudder; and as a shudder or shiver often accompanies the first sensation
+of fear, we have, I think, a clue to its action in this latter case.<a
+href="#linknote-1223" name="linknoteref-1223" id="linknoteref-1223">[1223]</a>
+Its contraction, however, is not an invariable concomitant of fear; for it
+probably never acts under the influence of extreme, prostrating terror.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Dilatation of the Pupils</i>.&mdash;Gratiolet repeatedly insists<a
+href="#linknote-1224" name="linknoteref-1224" id="linknoteref-1224">[1224]</a>
+that the pupils are enormously dilated whenever terror is felt. I have no
+reason to doubt the accuracy of this statement, but have failed to obtain
+confirmatory evidence, excepting in the one instance before given of an
+insane woman suffering from great fear. When writers of fiction speak of
+the eyes being widely dilated, I presume that they refer to the eyelids.
+Munro&rsquo;s statement, that with parrots the iris is affected by the passions,
+independently of the amount of light, seems to bear on this question; but
+Professor Donders informs me, that he has often seen movements in the
+pupils of these birds which he thinks may be related to their power of
+accommodation to distance, in nearly the same manner as our own pupils
+contract when our eyes converge for near vision. Gratiolet remarks that
+the dilated pupils appear as if they were gazing into profound darkness.
+No doubt the fears of man have often been excited in the dark; but hardly
+so often or so exclusively, as to account for a fixed and associated habit
+having thus arisen. It seems more probable, assuming that Gratiolet&rsquo;s
+statement is correct, that the brain is directly affected by the powerful
+emotion of fear and reacts on the pupils; but Professor Donders informs me
+that this is an extremely complicated subject. I may add, as possibly
+throwing light on the subject, that Dr. Fyffe, of Netley Hospital, has
+observed in two patients that the pupils were distinctly dilated during
+the cold stage of an ague fit. Professor Donders has also often seen
+dilatation of the pupils in incipient faintness.<a href="#linknote-1225"
+name="linknoteref-1225" id="linknoteref-1225">[1225]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Horror</i>.&mdash;The state of mind expressed by this term implies
+terror, and is in some, cases almost synonymous with it. Many a man must
+have felt, before the blessed discovery of chloroform, great horror at the
+thought of an impending surgical operation. He who dreads, as well as
+hates a man, will feel, as Milton uses the word, a horror of him. We feel
+horror if we see any one, for instance a child, exposed to some instant
+and crushing danger. Almost every one would experience the same feeling in
+the highest degree in witnessing a man being tortured or going to be
+tortured. In these cases there is no danger to ourselves; but from the
+power of the imagination and of sympathy we put ourselves in the position
+of the sufferer, and feel something akin to fear.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0027" id="linkimage-0027">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig21.jpg" width="100%" alt="Horror and Agony. Fig. 21 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Sir C. Bell remarks,<a href="#linknote-1226" name="linknoteref-1226"
+id="linknoteref-1226">[1226]</a> that &ldquo;horror is full of energy; the body
+is in the utmost tension, not unnerved by fear.&rdquo; It is, therefore,
+probable that horror would generally be accompanied by the strong
+contraction of the brows; but as fear is one of the elements, the eyes and
+mouth would be opened, and the eyebrows would be raised, as far as the
+antagonistic action of the corrugators permitted this movement. Duchenne
+has given a photograph<a href="#linknote-1227" name="linknoteref-1227"
+id="linknoteref-1227">[1227]</a> (fig. 21) of the same old man as before,
+with his eyes somewhat staring, the eyebrows partially raised, and at the
+same time strongly contracted, the mouth opened, and the platysma in
+action, all effected by the means of galvanism. He considers that the
+expression thus produced shows extreme terror with horrible pain or
+torture. A tortured man, as long as his sufferings allowed him to feel any
+dread for the future, would probably exhibit horror in an extreme degree.
+I have shown the original of this photograph to twenty-three persons of
+both sexes and various ages; and thirteen immediately answered horror,
+great pain, torture, or agony; three answered extreme fright; so that
+sixteen answered nearly in accordance with Duchenne&rsquo;s belief. Six,
+however, said anger, guided no doubt, by the strongly contracted brows,
+and overlooking the peculiarly opened mouth. One said disgust. On the
+whole, the evidence indicates that we have here a fairly good
+representation of horror and agony. The photograph before referred to (Pl.
+VII. fig. 2) likewise exhibits horror; but in this the oblique eyebrows
+indicate great mental distress in place of energy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Horror is generally accompanied by various gestures, which differ in
+different individuals. Judging from pictures, the whole body is often
+turned away or shrinks; or the arms are violently protruded as if to push
+away some dreadful object. The most frequent gesture, as far as can be
+inferred from the action of persons who endeavour to express a
+vividly-imagined scene of horror, is the raising of both shoulders, with
+the bent arms pressed closely against the sides or chest. These movements
+are nearly the same with those commonly made when we feel very cold; and
+they are generally accompanied by a shudder, as well as by a deep
+expiration or inspiration, according as the chest happens at the time to
+be expanded or contracted. The sounds thus made are expressed by words
+like <i>uh</i> or <i>ugh</i>.<a href="#linknote-1228"
+name="linknoteref-1228" id="linknoteref-1228">[1228]</a> It is not,
+however, obvious why, when we feel cold or express a sense of horror, we
+press our bent arms against our bodies, raise our shoulders, and shudder.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Conclusion</i>.&mdash;I have now endeavoured to describe the
+diversified expressions of fear, in its gradations from mere attention to
+a start of surprise, into extreme terror and horror. Some of the signs may
+be accounted for through the principles of habit, association, and
+inheritance,&mdash;such as the wide opening of the mouth and eyes, with
+upraised eyebrows, so as to see as quickly as possible all around us, and
+to hear distinctly whatever sound may reach our ears. For we have thus
+habitually prepared ourselves to discover and encounter any danger. Some
+of the other signs of fear may likewise be accounted for, at least in
+part, through these same principles. Men, during numberless generations,
+have endeavoured to escape from their enemies or danger by headlong
+flight, or by violently struggling with them; and such great exertions
+will have caused the heart to beat rapidly, the breathing to be hurried,
+the chest to heave, and the nostrils to be dilated. As these exertions
+have often been prolonged to the last extremity, the final result will
+have been utter prostration, pallor, perspiration, trembling of all the
+muscles, or their complete relaxation. And now, whenever the emotion of
+fear is strongly felt, though it may not lead to any exertion, the same
+results tend to reappear, through the force of inheritance and
+association.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nevertheless, it is probable that many or most of the above symptoms of
+terror, such as the beating of the heart, the trembling of the muscles,
+cold perspiration, &amp;c., are in large part directly due to the
+disturbed or interrupted transmission of nerve-force from the
+cerebro-spinal system to various parts of the body, owing to the mind
+being so powerfully affected. We may confidently look to this cause,
+independently of habit and association, in such cases as the modified
+secretions of the intestinal canal, and the failure of certain glands to
+act. With respect to the involuntary bristling of the hair, we have good
+reason to believe that in the case of animals this action, however it may
+have originated, serves, together with certain voluntary movements, to
+make them appear terrible to their enemies; and as the same involuntary
+and voluntary actions are performed by animals nearly related to man, we
+are led to believe that man has retained through inheritance a relic of
+them, now become useless. It is certainly a remarkable fact, that the
+minute unstriped muscles, by which the hairs thinly scattered over man&rsquo;s
+almost naked body are erected, should have been preserved to the present
+day; and that they should still contract under the same emotions, namely,
+terror and rage, which cause the hairs to stand on end in the lower
+members of the Order to which man belongs.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"></a>
+CHAPTER XIII.<br/>SELF-ATTENTION&mdash;SHAME&mdash;SHYNESS&mdash;MODESTY:
+BLUSHING.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+Nature of a blush&mdash;Inheritance&mdash;The parts of the body most
+affected&mdash;Blushing in the various races of man&mdash;Accompanying
+gestures&mdash;Confusion of mind&mdash;Causes of blushing&mdash;Self-attention,
+the fundamental element&mdash;Shyness&mdash;Shame, from broken moral laws
+and conventional rules&mdash;Modesty&mdash;Theory of blushing&mdash;Recapitulation.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Blushing is the most peculiar and the most human of all expressions.
+Monkeys redden from passion, but it would require an overwhelming amount
+of evidence to make us believe that any animal could blush. The reddening
+of the face from a blush is due to the relaxation of the muscular coats of
+the small arteries, by which the capillaries become filled with blood; and
+this depends on the proper vaso-motor centre being affected. No doubt if
+there be at the same time much mental agitation, the general circulation
+will be affected; but it is not due to the action of the heart that the
+network of minute vessels covering the face becomes under a sense of shame
+gorged with blood. We can cause laughing by tickling the skin, weeping or
+frowning by a blow, trembling from the fear of pain, and so forth; but we
+cannot cause a blush, as Dr. Burgess remarks,<a href="#linknote-1301"
+name="linknoteref-1301" id="linknoteref-1301">[1301]</a> by any physical
+means,&mdash;that is by any action on the body. It is the mind which must
+be affected. Blushing is not only involuntary; but the wish to restrain
+it, by leading to self-attention actually increases the tendency.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The young blush much more freely than the old, but not during infancy,<a
+href="#linknote-1302" name="linknoteref-1302" id="linknoteref-1302">[1302]</a>
+which is remarkable, as we know that infants at a very early age redden
+from passion. I have received authentic accounts of two little girls
+blushing at the ages of between two and three years; and of another
+sensitive child, a year older, blushing, when reproved for a fault. Many
+children, at a somewhat more advanced age blush in a strongly marked
+manner. It appears that the mental powers of infants are not as yet
+sufficiently developed to allow of their blushing. Hence, also, it is that
+idiots rarely blush. Dr. Crichton Browne observed for me those under his
+care, but never saw a genuine blush, though he has seen their faces flush,
+apparently from joy, when food was placed before them, and from anger.
+Nevertheless some, if not utterly degraded, are capable of blushing. A
+microcephalous idiot, for instance, thirteen years old, whose eyes
+brightened a little when he was pleased or amused, has been described by
+Dr. Behn,<a href="#linknote-1303" name="linknoteref-1303"
+id="linknoteref-1303">[1303]</a> as blushing and turning to one side, when
+undressed for medical examination.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Women blush much more than men. It is rare to see an old man, but not
+nearly so rare to see an old woman blushing. The blind do not escape.
+Laura Bridgman, born in this condition, as well as completely deaf,
+blushes.<a href="#linknote-1304" name="linknoteref-1304"
+id="linknoteref-1304">[1304]</a> The Rev. R. H. Blair, Principal of the
+Worcester College, informs me that three children born blind, out of seven
+or eight then in the Asylum, are great blushers. The blind are not at
+first conscious that they are observed, and it is a most important part of
+their education, as Mr. Blair informs me, to impress this knowledge on
+their minds; and the impression thus gained would greatly strengthen the
+tendency to blush, by increasing the habit of self-attention.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The tendency to blush is inherited. Dr. Burgess gives the case<a
+href="#linknote-1305" name="linknoteref-1305" id="linknoteref-1305">[1305]</a>
+of a family consisting of a father, mother, and ten children, all of whom,
+without exception, were prone to blush to a most painful degree. The
+children were grown up; &ldquo;and some of them were sent to travel in order to
+wear away this diseased sensibility, but nothing was of the slightest
+avail.&rdquo; Even peculiarities in blushing seem to be inherited. Sir James
+Paget, whilst examining the spine of a girl, was struck at her singular
+manner of blushing; a big splash of red appeared first on one cheek, and
+then other splashes, variously scattered over the face and neck. He
+subsequently asked the mother whether her daughter always blushed in this
+peculiar manner; and was answered, &ldquo;Yes, she takes after me.&rdquo; Sir J. Paget
+then perceived that by asking this question he had caused the mother to
+blush; and she exhibited the same peculiarity as her daughter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In most cases the face, ears and neck are the sole parts which redden; but
+many persons, whilst blushing intensely, feel that their whole bodies grow
+hot and tingle; and this shows that the entire surface must be in some
+manner affected. Blushes are said sometimes to commence on the forehead,
+but more commonly on the cheeks, afterwards spreading to the ears and
+neck.<a href="#linknote-1306" name="linknoteref-1306" id="linknoteref-1306">[1306]</a>
+In two Albinos examined by Dr. Burgess, the blushes commenced by a small
+circumscribed spot on the cheeks, over the parotidean plexus of nerves,
+and then increased into a circle; between this blushing circle and the
+blush on the neck there was an evident line of demarcation; although both
+arose simultaneously. The retina, which is naturally red in the Albino,
+invariably increased at the same time in redness.<a href="#linknote-1307"
+name="linknoteref-1307" id="linknoteref-1307">[1307]</a> Every one must
+have noticed how easily after one blush fresh blushes chase each other
+over the face. Blushing is preceded by a peculiar sensation in the skin.
+According to Dr. Burgess the reddening of the skin is generally succeeded
+by a slight pallor, which shows that the capillary vessels contract after
+dilating. In some rare cases paleness instead of redness is caused under
+conditions which would naturally induce a blush. For instance, a young
+lady told me that in a large and crowded party she caught her hair so
+firmly on the button of a passing servant, that it took some time before
+she could be extricated; from her sensations she imagined that she had
+blushed crimson; but was assured by a friend that she had turned extremely
+pale.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I was desirous to learn how far down the body blushes extend; and Sir J.
+Paget, who necessarily has frequent opportunities for observation, has
+kindly attended to this point for me during two or three years. He finds
+that with women who blush intensely on the face, ears, and nape of neck,
+the blush does not commonly extend any lower down the body. It is rare to
+see it as low down as the collar-bones and shoulder-blades; and he has
+never himself seen a single instance in which it extended below the upper
+part of the chest. He has also noticed that blushes sometimes die away
+downwards, not gradually and insensibly, but by irregular ruddy blotches.
+Dr. Langstaff has likewise observed for me several women whose bodies did
+not in the least redden while their faces were crimsoned with blushes.
+With the insane, some of whom appear to be particularly liable to
+blushing, Dr. J. Crichton Browne has several times seen the blush extend
+as far down as the collar-bones, and in two instances to the breasts. He
+gives me the case of a married woman, aged twenty-seven, who suffered from
+epilepsy. On the morning after her arrival in the Asylum, Dr. Browne,
+together with his assistants, visited her whilst she was in bed. The
+moment that he approached, she blushed deeply over her cheeks and temples;
+and the blush spread quickly to her ears. She was much agitated and
+tremulous. He unfastened the collar of her chemise in order to examine the
+state of her lungs; and then a brilliant blush rushed over her chest, in
+an arched line over the upper third of each breast, and extended downwards
+between the breasts nearly to the ensiform cartilage of the sternum. This
+case is interesting, as the blush did not thus extend downwards until it
+became intense by her attention being drawn to this part of her person. As
+the examination proceeded she became composed, and the blush disappeared;
+but on several subsequent occasions the same phenomena were observed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The foregoing facts show that, as a general rule, with English women,
+blushing does not extend beneath the neck and upper part of the chest.
+Nevertheless Sir J. Paget informs me that he has lately heard of a case,
+on which he can fully rely, in which a little girl, shocked by what she
+imagined to be an act of indelicacy, blushed all over her abdomen and the
+upper parts of her legs. Moreau also<a href="#linknote-1308"
+name="linknoteref-1308" id="linknoteref-1308">[1308]</a> relates, on the
+authority of a celebrated painter, that the chest, shoulders, arms, and
+whole body of a girl, who unwillingly consented to serve as a model,
+reddened when she was first divested of her clothes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is a rather curious question why, in most cases the face, ears, and
+neck alone redden, inasmuch as the whole surface of the body often tingles
+and grows hot. This seems to depend, chiefly, on the face and adjoining
+parts of the skin having been habitually exposed to the air, light, and
+alternations of temperature, by which the small arteries not only have
+acquired the habit of readily dilating and contracting, but appear to have
+become unusually developed in comparison with other parts of the surface.<a
+href="#linknote-1309" name="linknoteref-1309" id="linknoteref-1309">[1309]</a>
+It is probably owing to this same cause, as M. Moreau and Dr. Burgess have
+remarked, that the face is so liable to redden under various
+circumstances, such as a fever-fit, ordinary heat, violent exertion,
+anger, a slight blow, &amp;c.; and on the other hand that it is liable to
+grow pale from cold and fear, and to be discoloured during pregnancy. The
+face is also particularly liable to be affected by cutaneous complaints,
+by small-pox, erysipelas, &amp;c. This view is likewise supported by the
+fact that the men of certain races, who habitually go nearly naked, often
+blush over their arms and chests and even down to their waists. A lady,
+who is a great blusher, informs Dr. Crichton Browne, that when she feels
+ashamed or is agitated, she blushes over her face, neck, wrists, and
+hands,&mdash;that is, over all the exposed portions of her skin.
+Nevertheless it may be doubted whether the habitual exposure of the skin
+of the face and neck, and its consequent power of reaction under
+stimulants of all kinds, is by itself sufficient to account for the much
+greater tendency in English women of these parts than of others to blush;
+for the hands are well supplied with nerves and small vessels, and have
+been as much exposed to the air as the face or neck, and yet the hands
+rarely blush. We shall presently see that the attention of the mind having
+been directed much more frequently and earnestly to the face than to any
+other part of the body, probably affords a sufficient explanation.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Blushing in the various races of man</i>.&mdash;The small vessels of
+the face become filled with blood, from the emotion of shame, in almost
+all the races of man, though in the very dark races no distinct change of
+colour can be perceived. Blushing is evident in all the Aryan nations of
+Europe, and to a certain extent with those of India. But Mr. Erskine has
+never noticed that the necks of the Hindoos are decidedly affected. With
+the Lepchas of Sikhim, Mr. Scott has often observed a faint blush on the
+cheeks, base of the ears, and sides of the neck, accompanied by sunken
+eyes and lowered head. This has occurred when he has detected them in a
+falsehood, or has accused them of ingratitude. The pale, sallow
+complexions of these men render a blush much more conspicuous than in most
+of the other natives of India. With the latter, shame, or it may be in
+part fear, is expressed, according to Mr. Scott, much more plainly by the
+head being averted or bent down, with the eyes wavering or turned askant,
+than by any change of colour in the skin.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Semitic races blush freely, as might have been expected, from their
+general similitude to the Aryans. Thus with the Jews, it is said in the
+Book of Jeremiah (chap. vi. 15), &ldquo;Nay, they were not at all ashamed,
+neither could they blush.&rdquo; Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab managing his boat
+clumsily on the Nile, and when laughed at by his companions, &ldquo;he blushed
+quite to the back of his neck.&rdquo; Lady Duff Gordon remarks that a young Arab
+blushed on coming into her presence.<a href="#linknote-1310"
+name="linknoteref-1310" id="linknoteref-1310">[1310]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Swinhoe has seen the Chinese blushing, but he thinks it is rare; yet
+they have the expression &ldquo;to redden with shame.&rdquo; Mr. Geach informs me that
+the Chinese settled in Malacca and the native Malays of the interior both
+blush. Some of these people go nearly naked, and he particularly attended
+to the downward extension of the blush. Omitting the cases in which the
+face alone was seen to blush, Mr. Geach observed that the face, arms, and
+breast of a Chinaman, aged 24 years, reddened from shame; and with another
+Chinese, when asked why he had not done his work in better style, the
+whole body was similarly affected. In two Malays<a href="#linknote-1311"
+name="linknoteref-1311" id="linknoteref-1311">[1311]</a> he saw the face,
+neck, breast, and arms blushing; and in a third Malay (a Bugis) the blush
+extended down to the waist.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Polynesians blush freely. The Rev. Mr. Stack has seen hundreds of
+instances with the New Zealanders. The following case is worth giving, as
+it relates to an old man who was unusually dark-coloured and partly
+tattooed. After having let his land to an Englishman for a small yearly
+rental, a strong passion seized him to buy a gig, which had lately become
+the fashion with the Maoris. He consequently wished to draw all the rent
+for four years from his tenant, and consulted Mr. Stack whether he could
+do so. The man was old, clumsy, poor, and ragged, and the idea of his
+driving himself about in his carriage for display amused Mr. Stack so much
+that he could not help bursting out into a laugh; and then &ldquo;the old man
+blushed up to the roots of his hair.&rdquo; Forster says that &ldquo;you may easily
+distinguish a spreading blush&rdquo; on the cheeks of the fairest women in
+Tahiti.<a href="#linknote-1312" name="linknoteref-1312"
+id="linknoteref-1312">[1312]</a> The natives also of several of the other
+archipelagoes in the Pacific have been seen to blush.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Washington Matthews has often seen a blush on the faces of the young
+squaws belonging to various wild Indian tribes of North America. At the
+opposite extremity of the continent in Tierra del Fuego, the natives,
+according to Mr. Bridges, &ldquo;blush much, but chiefly in regard to women; but
+they certainly blush also at their own personal appearance.&rdquo; This latter
+statement agrees with what I remember of the Fuegian, Jemmy Button, who
+blushed when he was quizzed about the care which he took in polishing his
+shoes, and in otherwise adorning himself. With respect to the Aymara
+Indians on the lofty plateaus of Bolivia, Mr. Forbes says,<a
+href="#linknote-1313" name="linknoteref-1313" id="linknoteref-1313">[1313]</a>
+that from the colour of their skins it is impossible that their blushes
+should be as clearly visible as in the white races; still under such
+circumstances as would raise a blush in us, &ldquo;there can always be seen the
+same expression of modesty or confusion; and even in the dark, a rise of
+temperature of the skin of the face can be felt, exactly as occurs in the
+European.&rdquo; With the Indians who inhabit the hot, equable, and damp parts
+of South America, the skin apparently does not answer to mental excitement
+so readily as with the natives of the northern and southern parts of the
+continent, who have long been exposed to great vicissitudes of climate;
+for Humboldt quotes without a protest the sneer of the Spaniard, &ldquo;How can
+those be trusted, who know not how to blush?&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1314"
+name="linknoteref-1314" id="linknoteref-1314">[1314]</a> Von Spix and
+Martius, in speaking of the aborigines of Brazil, assert that they cannot
+properly be said to blush; &ldquo;it was only after long intercourse with the
+whites, and after receiving some education, that we perceived in the
+Indians a change of colour expressive of the emotions of their minds.&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-1315" name="linknoteref-1315" id="linknoteref-1315">[1315]</a>
+It is, however, incredible that the power of blushing could have thus
+originated; but the habit of self-attention, consequent on their education
+and new course of life, would have much increased any innate tendency to
+blush.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Several trustworthy observers have assured me that they have seen on the
+faces of negroes an appearance resembling a blush, under circumstances
+which would have excited one in us, though their skins were of an
+ebony-black tint. Some describe it as blushing brown, but most say that
+the blackness becomes more intense. An increased supply of blood in the
+skin seems in some manner to increase its blackness; thus certain
+exanthematous diseases cause the affected places in the negro to appear
+blacker, instead of, as with us, redder.<a href="#linknote-1316"
+name="linknoteref-1316" id="linknoteref-1316">[1316]</a> The skin,
+perhaps, from being rendered more tense by the filling of the capillaries,
+would reflect a somewhat different tint to what it did before. That the
+capillaries of the face in the negro become filled with blood, under the
+emotion of shame, we may feel confident; because a perfectly characterized
+albino negress, described by Buffon,<a href="#linknote-1317"
+name="linknoteref-1317" id="linknoteref-1317">[1317]</a> showed a faint
+tinge of crimson on her cheeks when she exhibited herself naked.
+Cicatrices of the skin remain for a long time white in the negro, and Dr.
+Burgess, who had frequent opportunities of observing a scar of this kind
+on the face of a negress, distinctly saw that it &ldquo;invariably became red
+whenever she was abruptly spoken to, or charged with any trivial offence.&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-1318" name="linknoteref-1318" id="linknoteref-1318">[1318]</a>
+The blush could be seen proceeding from the circumference of the scar
+towards the middle, but it did not reach the centre. Mulattoes are often
+great blushers, blush succeeding blush over their faces. From these facts
+there can be no doubt that negroes blush, although no redness is visible
+on the skin.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I am assured by Gaika and by Mrs. Barber that the Kafirs of South Africa
+never blush; but this may only mean that no change of colour is
+distinguishable. Gaika adds that under the circumstances which would make
+a European blush, his countrymen &ldquo;look ashamed to keep their heads up.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is asserted by four of my informants that the Australians, who are
+almost as black as negroes, never blush. A fifth answers doubtfully,
+remarking that only a very strong blush could be seen, on account of the
+dirty state of their skins. Three observers state that they do blush;<a
+href="#linknote-1319" name="linknoteref-1319" id="linknoteref-1319">[1319]</a>
+Mr. S. Wilson adding that this is noticeable only under a strong emotion,
+and when the skin is not too dark from long exposure and want of
+cleanliness. Mr. Lang answers, &ldquo;I have noticed that shame almost always
+excites a blush, which frequently extends as low as the neck.&rdquo; Shame is
+also shown, as he adds, &ldquo;by the eyes being turned from side to side.&rdquo; As
+Mr. Lang was a teacher in a native school, it is probable that he chiefly
+observed children; and we know that they blush more than adults. Mr. G.
+Taplin has seen half-castes blushing, and he says that the aborigines have
+a word expressive of shame. Mr. Hagenauer, who is one of those who has
+never observed the Australians to blush, says that he has &ldquo;seen them
+looking down to the ground on account of shame;&rdquo; and the missionary, Mr.
+Bulmer, remarks that though &ldquo;I have not been able to detect anything like
+shame in the adult aborigines, I have noticed that the eyes of the
+children, when ashamed, present a restless, watery appearance, as if they
+did not know where to look.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The facts now given are sufficient to show that blushing, whether or not
+there is any change of colour, is common to most, probably to all, of the
+races of man.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Movements and gestures which accompany Blushing</i>.&mdash;Under a keen
+sense of shame there is a strong desire for concealment.<a
+href="#linknote-1320" name="linknoteref-1320" id="linknoteref-1320">[1320]</a>
+We turn away the whole body, more especially the face, which we endeavour
+in some manner to hide. An ashamed person can hardly endure to meet the
+gaze of those present, so that he almost invariably casts down his eyes or
+looks askant. As there generally exists at the same time a strong wish to
+avoid the appearance of shame, a vain attempt is made to look direct at
+the person who causes this feeling; and the antagonism between these
+opposite tendencies leads to various restless movements in the eyes. I
+have noticed two ladies who, whilst blushing, to which they are very
+liable, have thus acquired, as it appears, the oddest trick of incessantly
+blinking their eyelids with extraordinary rapidity. An intense blush is
+sometimes accompanied by a slight effusion of tears;<a
+href="#linknote-1321" name="linknoteref-1321" id="linknoteref-1321">[1321]</a>
+and this, I presume, is due to the lacrymal glands partaking of the
+increased supply of blood, which we know rushes into the capillaries of
+the adjoining parts, including the retina.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many writers, ancient and modern, have noticed the foregoing movements;
+and it has already been shown that the aborigines in various parts of the
+world often exhibit their shame by looking downwards or askant, or by
+restless movements of their eyes. Ezra cries out (ch. ix. 6), &ldquo;O, my God!
+I am ashamed, and blush to lift up my head to thee, my God.&rdquo; In Isaiah
+(ch. I. 6) we meet with the words, &ldquo;I hid not my face from shame.&rdquo; Seneca
+remarks (Epist. xi. 5) &ldquo;that the Roman players hang down their heads, fix
+their eyes on the ground and keep them lowered, but are unable to blush in
+acting shame.&rdquo; According to Macrobius, who lived in the filth century
+(&lsquo;Saturnalia,&rsquo; B. vii. C. 11), &ldquo;Natural philosophers assert that nature
+being moved by shame spreads the blood before herself as a veil, as we see
+any one blushing often puts his hands before his face.&rdquo; Shakspeare makes
+Marcus (&lsquo;Titus Andronicus,&rsquo; act ii, sc. 5) say to his niece, &ldquo;Ah! now thou
+turn&rsquo;st away thy face for shame.&rdquo; A lady informs me that she found in the
+Lock Hospital a girl whom she had formerly known, and who had become a
+wretched castaway, and the poor creature, when approached, hid her face
+under the bed-clothes, and could not be persuaded to uncover it. We often
+see little children, when shy or ashamed, turn away, and still standing
+up, bury their faces in their mother&rsquo;s gown; or they throw themselves face
+downwards on her lap.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Confusion of mind</i>.&mdash;Most persons, whilst blushing intensely,
+have their mental powers confused. This is recognized in such common
+expressions as &ldquo;she was covered with confusion.&rdquo; Persons in this condition
+lose their presence of mind, and utter singularly inappropriate remarks.
+They are often much distressed, stammer, and make awkward movements or
+strange grimaces. In certain cases involuntary twitchings of some of the
+facial muscles may be observed. I have been informed by a young lady, who
+blushes excessively, that at such times she does not even know what she is
+saying. When it was suggested to her that this might be due to her
+distress from the consciousness that her blushing was noticed, she
+answered that this could not be the case, &ldquo;as she had sometimes felt quite
+as stupid when blushing at a thought in her own room.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I will give an instance of the extreme disturbance of mind to which some
+sensitive men are liable. A gentleman, on whom I can rely, assured me that
+he had been an eye-witness of the following scene:&mdash;A small
+dinner-party was given in honour of an extremely shy man, who, when he
+rose to return thanks, rehearsed the speech, which he had evidently learnt
+by heart, in absolute silence, and did not utter a single word; but he
+acted as if he were speaking with much emphasis. His friends, perceiving
+how the case stood, loudly applauded the imaginary bursts of eloquence,
+whenever his gestures indicated a pause, and the man never discovered that
+he had remained the whole time completely silent. On the contrary, he
+afterwards remarked to my friend, with much satisfaction, that he thought
+he had succeeded uncommonly well.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When a person is much ashamed or very shy, and blushes intensely, his
+heart beats rapidly and his breathing is disturbed. This can hardly fail
+to affect the circulation of the blood within the brain, and perhaps the
+mental powers. It seems however doubtful, judging from the still more
+powerful influence of anger and fear on the circulation, whether we can
+thus satisfactorily account for the confused state of mind in persons
+whilst blushing intensely.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The true explanation apparently lies in the intimate sympathy which exists
+between the capillary circulation of the surface of the head and face, and
+that of the brain. On applying to Dr. J. Crichton Browne for information,
+he has given me various facts bearing on this subject. When the
+sympathetic nerve is divided on one side of the head, the capillaries on
+this side are relaxed and become filled with blood, causing the skin to
+redden and to grow hot, and at the same time the temperature within the
+cranium on the same side rises. Inflammation of the membranes of the brain
+leads to the engorgement of the face, ears, and eyes with blood. The first
+stage of an epileptic fit appears to be the contraction of the vessels of
+the brain, and the first outward manifestation is, an extreme pallor of
+countenance. Erysipelas of the head commonly induces delirium. Even the
+relief given to a severe headache by burning the skin with strong lotion,
+depends, I presume, on the same principle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Browne has often administered to his patients the vapour of the
+nitrite of amyl,<a href="#linknote-1322" name="linknoteref-1322"
+id="linknoteref-1322">[1322]</a> which has the singular property of
+causing vivid redness of the face in from thirty to sixty seconds. This
+flushing resembles blushing in almost every detail: it begins at several
+distinct points on the face, and spreads till it involves the whole
+surface of the head, neck, and front of the chest; but has been observed
+to extend only in one case to the abdomen. The arteries in the retina
+become enlarged; the eyes glisten, and in one instance there was a slight
+effusion of tears. The patients are at first pleasantly stimulated, but,
+as the flushing increases, they become confused and bewildered. One woman
+to whom the vapour had often been administered asserted that, as soon as
+she grew hot, she grew MUDDLED. With persons just commencing to blush it
+appears, judging from their bright eyes and lively behaviour, that their
+mental powers are somewhat stimulated. It is only when the blushing is
+excessive that the mind grows confused. Therefore it would seem that the
+capillaries of the face are affected, both during the inhalation of the
+nitrite of amyl and during blushing, before that part of the brain is
+affected on which the mental powers depend.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Conversely when the brain is primarily affected; the circulation of the
+skin is so in a secondary manner. Dr. Browne has frequently observed, as
+he informs me, scattered red blotches and mottlings on the chests of
+epileptic patients. In these cases, when the skin on the thorax or abdomen
+is gently rubbed with a pencil or other object, or, in strongly-marked
+cases, is merely touched by the finger, the surface becomes suffused in
+less than half a minute with bright red marks, which spread to some
+distance on each side of the touched point, and persist for several
+minutes. These are the <i>cerebral maculae</i> of Trousseau; and they
+indicate, as Dr. Browne remarks, a highly modified condition of the
+cutaneous vascular system. If, then, there exists, as cannot be doubted,
+an intimate sympathy between the capillary circulation in that part of the
+brain on which our mental powers depend, and in the skin of the face, it
+is not surprising that the moral causes which induce intense blushing
+should likewise induce, independently of their own disturbing influence,
+much confusion of mind.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>The Nature of the Mental States which induce Blushing</i>.&mdash;These
+consist of shyness, shame, and modesty; the essential element in all being
+self-attention. Many reasons can be assigned for believing that originally
+self-attention directed to personal appearance, in relation to the opinion
+of others, was the exciting cause; the same effect being subsequently
+produced, through the force of association, by self-attention in relation
+to moral conduct. It is not the simple act of reflecting on our own
+appearance, but the thinking what others think of us, which excites a
+blush. In absolute solitude the most sensitive person would be quite
+indifferent about his appearance. We feel blame or disapprobation more
+acutely than approbation; and consequently depreciatory remarks or
+ridicule, whether of our appearance or conduct, causes us to blush much
+more readily than does praise. But undoubtedly praise and admiration are
+highly efficient: a pretty girl blushes when a man gazes intently at her,
+though she may know perfectly well that he is not depreciating her. Many
+children, as well as old and sensitive persons blush, when they are much
+praised. Hereafter the question will be discussed, how it has arisen that
+the consciousness that others are attending to our personal appearance
+should have led to the capillaries, especially those of the face,
+instantly becoming filled with blood.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+My reasons for believing that attention directed to personal appearance,
+and not to moral conduct, has been the fundamental element in the
+acquirement of the habit of blushing, will now be given. They are
+separately light, but combined possess, as it appears to me, considerable
+weight. It is notorious that nothing makes a shy person blush so much as
+any remark, however slight, on his personal appearance. One cannot notice
+even the dress of a woman much given to blushing, without causing her face
+to crimson. It is sufficient to stare hard at some persons to make them,
+as Coleridge remarks, blush,&mdash;&ldquo;account for that he who can.&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-1323" name="linknoteref-1323" id="linknoteref-1323">[1323]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With the two albinos observed by Dr. Burgess,<a href="#linknote-1324"
+name="linknoteref-1324" id="linknoteref-1324">[1324]</a> &ldquo;the slightest
+attempt to examine their peculiarities invariably caused them to blush
+deeply.&rdquo; Women are much more sensitive about their personal appearance
+than men are, especially elderly women in comparison with elderly men, and
+they blush much more freely. The young of both sexes are much more
+sensitive on this same head than the old, and they also blush much more
+freely than the old. Children at a very early age do not blush; nor do
+they show those other signs of self-consciousness which generally
+accompany blushing; and it is one of their chief charms that they think
+nothing about what others think of them. At this early age they will stare
+at a stranger with a fixed gaze and un-blinking eyes, as on an inanimate
+object, in a manner which we elders cannot imitate.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is plain to every one that young men and women are highly sensitive to
+the opinion of each other with reference to their personal appearance; and
+they blush incomparably more in the presence of the opposite sex than in
+that of their own.<a href="#linknote-1325" name="linknoteref-1325"
+id="linknoteref-1325">[1325]</a> A young man, not very liable to blush,
+will blush intensely at any slight ridicule of his appearance from a girl
+whose judgment on any important subject he would disregard. No happy pair
+of young lovers, valuing each other&rsquo;s admiration and love more than
+anything else in the world, probably ever courted each other without many
+a blush. Even the barbarians of Tierra del Fuego, according to Mr.
+Bridges, blush &ldquo;chiefly in regard to women, but certainly also at their
+own personal appearance.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of all parts of the body, the face is most considered and regarded, as is
+natural from its being the chief seat of expression and the source of the
+voice. It is also the chief seat of beauty and of ugliness, and throughout
+the world is the most ornamented.<a href="#linknote-1326"
+name="linknoteref-1326" id="linknoteref-1326">[1326]</a> The face,
+therefore, will have been subjected during many generations to much closer
+and more earnest self-attention than any other part of the body; and in
+accordance with the principle here advanced we can understand why it
+should be the most liable to blush. Although exposure to alternations of
+temperature, &amp;c., has probably much increased the power of dilatation
+and contraction in the capillaries of the face and adjoining parts, yet
+this by itself will hardly account for these parts blushing much more than
+the rest of the body; for it does not explain the fact of the hands rarely
+blushing. With Europeans the whole body tingles slightly when the face
+blushes intensely; and with the races of men who habitually go nearly
+naked, the blushes extend over a much larger surface than with us. These
+facts are, to a certain extent, intelligible, as the self-attention of
+primeval man, as well as of the existing races which still go naked, will
+not have been so exclusively confined to their faces, as is the case with
+the people who now go clothed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have seen that in all parts of the world persons who feel shame for
+some moral delinquency, are apt to avert, bend down, or hide their faces,
+independently of any thought about their personal appearance. The object
+can hardly be to conceal their blushes, for the face is thus averted or
+hidden under circumstances which exclude any desire to conceal shame, as
+when guilt is fully confessed and repented of. It is, however, probable
+that primeval man before he had acquired much moral sensitiveness would
+have been highly sensitive about his personal appearance, at least in
+reference to the other sex, and he would consequently have felt distress
+at any depreciatory remarks about his appearance; and this is one form of
+shame. And as the face is the part of the body which is most regarded, it
+is intelligible that any one ashamed of his personal appearance would
+desire to conceal this part of his body. The habit having been thus
+acquired, would naturally be carried on when shame from strictly moral
+causes was felt; and it is not easy otherwise to see why under these
+circumstances there should be a desire to hide the face more than any
+other part of the body.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The habit, so general with every one who feels ashamed, of turning away,
+or lowering his eyes, or restlessly moving them from side to side,
+probably follows from each glance directed towards those present, bringing
+home the conviction that he is intently regarded; and he endeavours, by
+not looking at those present, and especially not at their eyes,
+momentarily to escape from this painful conviction.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Shyness</i>.&mdash;This odd state of mind, often called shamefacedness,
+or false shame, or <i>mauvaise honte</i>, appears to be one of the most
+efficient of all the causes of blushing. Shyness is, indeed, chiefly
+recognized by the face reddening, by the eyes being averted or cast down,
+and by awkward, nervous movements of the body. Many a woman blushes from
+this cause, a hundred, perhaps a thousand times, to once that she blushes
+from having done anything deserving blame, and of which she is truly
+ashamed. Shyness seems to depend on sensitiveness to the opinion, whether
+good or bad, of others, more especially with respect to external
+appearance. Strangers neither know nor care anything about our conduct or
+character, but they may, and often do, criticize our appearance: hence shy
+persons are particularly apt to be shy and to blush in the presence of
+strangers. The consciousness of anything peculiar, or even new, in the
+dress, or any slight blemish on the person, and more especially, on the
+face&mdash;points which are likely to attract the attention of strangers&mdash;makes
+the shy intolerably shy. On the other hand, in those cases in which
+conduct and not personal appearance is concerned, we are much more apt to
+be shy in the presence of acquaintances, whose judgment we in some degree
+value, than in that of strangers. A physician told me that a young man, a
+wealthy duke, with whom he had travelled as medical attendant, blushed
+like a girl, when he paid him his fee; yet this young man probably would
+not have blushed and been shy, had he been paying a bill to a tradesman.
+Some persons, however, are so sensitive, that the mere act of speaking to
+almost any one is sufficient to rouse their self-consciousness, and a
+slight blush is the result.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Disapprobation or ridicule, from our sensitiveness on this head, causes
+shyness and blushing much more readily than does approbation; though the
+latter with some persons is highly efficient. The conceited are rarely
+shy; for they value themselves much too highly to expect depreciation. Why
+a proud man is often shy, as appears to be the case, is not so obvious,
+unless it be that, with all his self-reliance, he really thinks much about
+the opinion of others although in a disdainful spirit. Persons who are
+exceedingly shy are rarely shy in the presence of those with whom they are
+quite familiar, and of whose good opinion and sympathy they are perfectly
+assured;&mdash;for instance, a girl in the presence of her mother. I
+neglected to inquire in my printed paper whether shyness can be detected
+in the different races of man; but a Hindoo gentleman assured Mr. Erskine
+that it is recognizable in his countrymen.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Shyness, as the derivation of the word indicates in several languages,<a
+href="#linknote-1327" name="linknoteref-1327" id="linknoteref-1327">[1327]</a>
+is closely related to fear; yet it is distinct from fear in the ordinary
+sense. A shy man no doubt dreads the notice of strangers, but can hardly
+be said to be afraid of them, he may be as bold as a hero in battle, and
+yet have no self-confidence about trifles in the presence of strangers.
+Almost every one is extremely nervous when first addressing a public
+assembly, and most men remain so throughout their lives; but this appears
+to depend on the consciousness of a great coming exertion, with its
+associated effects on the system, rather than on shyness;<a
+href="#linknote-1328" name="linknoteref-1328" id="linknoteref-1328">[1328]</a>
+although a timid or shy man no doubt suffers on such occasions infinitely
+more than another. With very young children it is difficult to distinguish
+between fear and shyness; but this latter feeling with them has often
+seemed to me to partake of the character of the wildness of an untamed
+animal. Shyness comes on at a very early age. In one of my own children,
+when two years and three months old, I saw a trace of what certainly
+appeared to be shyness, directed towards myself after an absence from home
+of only a week. This was shown not by a blush, but by the eyes being for a
+few minutes slightly averted from me. I have noticed on other occasions
+that shyness or shamefacedness and real shame are exhibited in the eyes of
+young children before they have acquired the power of blushing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As shyness apparently depends on self-attention, we can perceive how right
+are those who maintain that reprehending children for shyness, instead of
+doing them any good, does much harm, as it calls their attention still
+more closely to themselves. It has been well urged that &ldquo;nothing hurts
+young people more than to be watched continually about their feelings, to
+have their countenances scrutinized, and the degrees of their sensibility
+measured by the surveying eye of the unmerciful spectator. Under the
+constraint of such examinations they can think of nothing but that they
+are looked at, and feel nothing but shame or apprehension.&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-1329" name="linknoteref-1329" id="linknoteref-1329">[1329]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Moral causes: guilt</i>.&mdash;With respect to blushing from strictly
+moral causes, we meet with the same fundamental principle as before,
+namely, regard for the opinion of others. It is not the conscience which
+raises a blush, for a man may sincerely regret some slight fault committed
+in solitude, or he may suffer the deepest remorse for an undetected crime,
+but he will not blush. &ldquo;I blush,&rdquo; says Dr. Burgess,<a href="#linknote-1330"
+name="linknoteref-1330" id="linknoteref-1330">[1330]</a> &ldquo;in the presence
+of my accusers.&rdquo; It is not the sense of guilt, but the thought that others
+think or know us to be guilty which crimsons the face. A man may feel
+thoroughly ashamed at having told a small falsehood, without blushing; but
+if he even suspects that he is detected he will instantly blush,
+especially if detected by one whom he reveres.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On the other hand, a man may be convinced that God witnesses all his
+actions, and he may feel deeply conscious of some fault and pray for
+forgiveness; but this will not, as a lady who is a great blusher believes,
+ever excite a blush. The explanation of this difference between the
+knowledge by God and man of our actions lies, I presume, in man&rsquo;s
+disapprobation of immoral conduct being somewhat akin in nature to his
+depreciation of our personal appearance, so that through association both
+lead to similar results; whereas the disapprobation of God brings up no
+such association.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many a person has blushed intensely when accused of some crime, though
+completely innocent of it. Even the thought, as the lady before referred
+to has observed to me, that others think that we have made an unkind or
+stupid remark, is amply sufficient to cause a blush, although we know all
+the time that we have been completely misunderstood. An action may be
+meritorious or of an indifferent nature, but a sensitive person, if he
+suspects that others take a different view of it, will blush. For
+instance, a lady by herself may give money to a beggar without a trace of
+a blush, but if others are present, and she doubts whether they approve,
+or suspects that they think her influenced by display, she will blush. So
+it will be, if she offers to relieve the distress of a decayed
+gentlewoman, more particularly of one whom she had previously known under
+better circumstances, as she cannot then feel sure how her conduct will be
+viewed. But such cases as these blend into shyness.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Breaches of etiquette</i>.&mdash;The rules of <i>etiquette</i> always
+refer to conduct in the presence of, or towards others. They have no
+necessary connection with the moral sense, and are often meaningless.
+Nevertheless as they depend on the fixed custom of our equals and
+superiors, whose opinion we highly regard, they are considered almost as
+binding as are the laws of honour to a gentleman. Consequently the breach
+of the laws of etiquette, that is, any impoliteness or <i>gaucherie</i>,
+any impropriety, or an inappropriate remark, though quite accidental, will
+cause the most intense blushing of which a man is capable. Even the
+recollection of such an act, after an interval of many years, will make
+the whole body to tingle. So strong, also, is the power of sympathy that a
+sensitive person, as a lady has assured me, will sometimes blush at a
+flagrant breach of etiquette by a perfect stranger, though the act may in
+no way concern her.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Modesty</i>.&mdash;This is another powerful agent in exciting blushes;
+but the word modesty includes very different states of the mind. It
+implies humility, and we often judge of this by persons being greatly
+pleased and blushing at slight praise, or by being annoyed at praise which
+seems to them too high according to their own humble standard of
+themselves. Blushing here has the usual signification of regard for the
+opinion of others. But modesty frequently relates to acts of indelicacy;
+and indelicacy is an affair of etiquette, as we clearly see with the
+nations that go altogether or nearly naked. He who is modest, and blushes
+easily at acts of this nature, does so because they are breaches of a
+firmly and wisely established etiquette. This is indeed shown by the
+derivation of the word <i>modest</i> from <i>modus</i>, a measure or
+standard of behaviour. A blush due to this form of modesty is, moreover,
+apt to be intense, because it generally relates to the opposite sex; and
+we have seen how in all cases our liability to blush is thus increased. We
+apply the term &lsquo;modest,&rsquo; as it would appear, to those who have an humble
+opinion of themselves, and to those who are extremely sensitive about an
+indelicate word or deed, simply because in both cases blushes are readily
+excited, for these two frames of mind have nothing else in common. Shyness
+also, from this same cause, is often mistaken for modesty in the sense of
+humility.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Some persons flush up, as I have observed and have been assured, at any
+sudden and disagreeable recollection. The commonest cause seems to be the
+sudden remembrance of not having done something for another person which
+had been promised. In this case it may be that the thought passes half
+unconsciously through the mind, &ldquo;What will he think of me?&rdquo; and then the
+flush would partake of the nature of a true blush. But whether such
+flushes are in most cases due to the capillary circulation being affected,
+is very doubtful; for we must remember that almost every strong emotion,
+such as anger or great joy, acts on the heart, and causes the face to
+redden.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+The fact that blushes may be excited in absolute solitude seems opposed to
+the view here taken, namely that the habit originally arose from thinking
+about what others think of us. Several ladies, who are great blushers, are
+unanimous in regard to solitude; and some of them believe that they have
+blushed in the dark. From what Mr. Forbes has stated with respect to the
+Aymaras, and from my own sensations, I have no doubt that this latter
+statement is correct. Shakspeare, therefore, erred when he made Juliet,
+who was not even by herself, say to Romeo (act ii. sc. 2):&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;Thou know&rsquo;st the mask of night is on my face;<br/>
+Else would a maiden blush bepaint my cheek,<br/>
+For that which thou hast heard me speak to-night.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+But when a blush is excited in solitude, the cause almost always relates
+to the thoughts of others about us&mdash;to acts done in their presence,
+or suspected by them; or again when we reflect what others would have
+thought of us had they known of the act. Nevertheless one or two of my
+informants believe that they have blushed from shame at acts in no way
+relating to others. If this be so, we must attribute the result to the
+force of inveterate habit and association, under a state of mind closely
+analogous to that which ordinarily excites a blush; nor need we feel
+surprise at this, as even sympathy with another person who commits a
+flagrant breach of etiquette is believed, as we have just seen, sometimes
+to cause a blush.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Finally, then, I conclude that blushing,&mdash;whether due to shyness&mdash;to
+shame for a real crime&mdash;to shame from a breach of the laws of
+etiquette&mdash;to modesty from humility&mdash;to modesty from an
+indelicacy&mdash;depends in all cases on the same principle; this
+principle being a sensitive regard for the opinion, more particularly for
+the depreciation of others, primarily in relation to our personal
+appearance, especially of our faces; and secondarily, through the force of
+association and habit, in relation to the opinion of others on our
+conduct.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Theory of Blushing</i>.&mdash;We have now to consider, why should the
+thought that others are thinking about us affect our capillary
+circulation? Sir C. Bell insists<a href="#linknote-1331"
+name="linknoteref-1331" id="linknoteref-1331">[1331]</a> that blushing &ldquo;is
+a provision for expression, as may be inferred from the colour extending
+only to the surface of the face, neck, and breast, the parts most exposed.
+It is not acquired; it is from the beginning.&rdquo; Dr. Burgess believes that
+it was designed by the Creator in &ldquo;order that the soul might have
+sovereign power of displaying in the cheeks the various internal emotions
+of the moral feelings;&rdquo; so as to serve as a check on ourselves, and as a
+sign to others, that we were violating rules which ought to be held
+sacred. Gratiolet merely remarks,&mdash;&ldquo;Or, comme il est dans l&rsquo;ordre de
+la nature que l&rsquo;être social le plus intelligent soit aussi le plus
+intelligible, cette faculté de rougeur et de pâleur qui distingue l&rsquo;homme,
+est un signe naturel de sa haute perfection.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The belief that blushing was SPECIALLY designed by the Creator is opposed
+to the general theory of evolution, which is now so largely accepted; but
+it forms no part of my duty here to argue on the general question. Those
+who believe in design, will find it difficult to account for shyness being
+the most frequent and efficient of all the causes of blushing, as it makes
+the blusher to suffer and the beholder uncomfortable, without being of the
+least service to either of them. They will also find it difficult to
+account for negroes and other dark-coloured races blushing, in whom a
+change of colour in the skin is scarcely or not at all visible.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+No doubt a slight blush adds to the beauty of a maiden&rsquo;s face; and the
+Circassian women who are capable of blushing, invariably fetch a higher
+price in the seraolio of the Sultan than less susceptible women.<a
+href="#linknote-1332" name="linknoteref-1332" id="linknoteref-1332">[1332]</a>
+But the firmest believer in the efficacy of sexual selection will hardly
+suppose that blushing was acquired as a sexual ornament. This view would
+also be opposed to what has just been said about the dark-coloured races
+blushing in an invisible manner.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The hypothesis which appears to me the most probable, though it may at
+first seem rash, is that attention closely directed to any part of the
+body tends to interfere with the ordinary and tonic contraction of the
+small arteries of that part. These vessels, in consequence, become at such
+times more or less relaxed, and are instantly filled with arterial blood.
+This tendency will have been much strengthened, if frequent attention has
+been paid during many generations to the same part, owing to nerve-force
+readily flowing along accustomed channels, and by the power of
+inheritance. Whenever we believe that others are depreciating or even
+considering our personal appearance, our attention is vividly directed to
+the outer and visible parts of our bodies; and of all such parts we are
+most sensitive about our faces, as no doubt has been the case during many
+past generations. Therefore, assuming for the moment that the capillary
+vessels can be acted on by close attention, those of the face will have
+become eminently susceptible. Through the force of association, the same
+effects will tend to follow whenever we think that others are considering
+or censuring our actions or character.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the basis of this theory rests on mental attention having some power to
+influence the capillary circulation, it will be necessary to give a
+considerable body of details, bearing more or less directly on this
+subject. Several observers,<a href="#linknote-1333" name="linknoteref-1333"
+id="linknoteref-1333">[1333]</a> who from their wide experience and
+knowledge are eminently capable of forming a sound judgment, are convinced
+that attention or consciousness (which latter term Sir H. Holland thinks
+the more explicit) concentrated on almost any part of the body produces
+some direct physical effect on it. This applies to the movements of the
+involuntary muscles, and of the voluntary muscles when acting
+involuntarily,&mdash;to the secretion of the glands,&mdash;to the activity
+of the senses and sensations,&mdash;and even to the nutrition of parts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is known that the involuntary movements of the heart are affected if
+close attention be paid to them. Gratiolet<a href="#linknote-1334"
+name="linknoteref-1334" id="linknoteref-1334">[1334]</a> gives the case of
+a man, who by continually watching and counting his own pulse, at last
+caused one beat out of every six to intermit. On the other hand, my father
+told me of a careful observer, who certainly had heart-disease and died
+from it, and who positively stated that his pulse was habitually irregular
+to an extreme degree; yet to his great disappointment it invariably became
+regular as soon as my father entered the room. Sir H. Holland remarks,
+that &ldquo;the effect upon the circulation of a part from the consciousness
+suddenly directed and fixed upon it, is often obvious and immediate.&rdquo;
+Professor Laycock, who has particularly attended to phenomena of this
+nature, insists that &ldquo;when the attention is directed to any portion of the
+body, innervation and circulation are excited locally, and the functional
+activity of that portion developed.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is generally believed that the peristaltic movements of the intestines
+are influenced by attention being paid to them at fixed recurrent periods;
+and these movements depend on the contraction of unstriped and involuntary
+muscles. The abnormal action of the voluntary muscles in epilepsy, chorea,
+and hysteria is known to be influenced by the expectation of an attack,
+and by the sight of other patients similarly affected. So it is with the
+involuntary acts of yawning and laughing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Certain glands are much influenced by thinking of them, or of the
+conditions under which they have been habitually excited. This is familiar
+to every one in the increased flow of saliva, when the thought, for
+instance, of intensely acid fruit is kept before the mind. It was shown in
+our sixth chapter, that an earnest and long-continued desire either to
+repress, or to increase, the action of the lacrymal glands is effectual.
+Some curious cases have been recorded in the case of women, of the power
+of the mind on the mammary glands; and still more remarkable ones in
+relation to the uterine functions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+See Gratiolet on this subject, De la Phys. p. 287. Dr. J. Crichton Browne,
+from his observations on the insane, is convinced that attention directed
+for a prolonged period on any part or organ may ultimately influence its
+capillary circulation and nutrition. He has given me some extraordinary
+cases; one of these, which cannot here be related in full, refers to a
+married woman fifty years of age, who laboured under the firm and
+long-continued delusion that she was pregnant. When the expected period
+arrived, she acted precisely as if she had been really delivered of a
+child, and seemed to suffer extreme pain, so that the perspiration broke
+out on her forehead. The result was that a state of things returned,
+continuing for three days, which had ceased during the six previous years.
+Mr. Braid gives, in his &lsquo;Magic, Hypnotism,&rsquo; &amp;c., 1852, p. 95, and in
+his other works analogous cases, as well as other facts showing the great
+influence of the will on the mammary glands, even on one breast alone.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When we direct our whole attention to any one sense, its acuteness is
+increased;<a href="#linknote-1340" name="linknoteref-1340"
+id="linknoteref-1340">[1340]</a> and the continued habit of close
+attention, as with blind people to that of hearing, and with the blind and
+deaf to that of touch, appears to improve the sense in question
+permanently. There is, also, some reason to believe, judging from the
+capacities of different races of man, that the effects are inherited.
+Turning to ordinary sensations, it is well known that pain is increased by
+attending to it; and Sir B. Brodie goes so far as to believe that pain may
+be felt in any part of the body to which attention is closely drawn.<a
+href="#linknote-1341" name="linknoteref-1341" id="linknoteref-1341">[1341]</a>
+Sir H. Holland also remarks that we become not only conscious of the
+existence of a part subjected to concentrated attention, but we experience
+in it various odd sensations as of weight, heat, cold, tingling, or
+itching.<a href="#linknote-1342" name="linknoteref-1342"
+id="linknoteref-1342">[1342]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lastly, some physiologists maintain that the mind can influence the
+nutrition of parts. Sir J. Paget has given a curious instance of the
+power, not indeed of the mind, but of the nervous system, on the hair. A
+lady &ldquo;who is subject to attacks of what is called nervous headache, always
+finds in the morning after such an one, that some patches of her hair are
+white, as if powdered with starch. The change is effected in a night, and
+in a few days after, the hairs gradually regain their dark brownish
+colour.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1343" name="linknoteref-1343"
+id="linknoteref-1343">[1343]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We thus see that close attention certainly affects various parts and
+organs, which are not properly under the control of the will. By what
+means attention&mdash;perhaps the most wonderful of all the wondrous
+powers of the mind&mdash;is effected, is an extremely obscure subject.
+According to Müller,<a href="#linknote-1344" name="linknoteref-1344"
+id="linknoteref-1344">[1344]</a> the process by which the sensory cells of
+the brain are rendered, through the will, susceptible of receiving more
+intense and distinct impressions, is closely analogous to that by which
+the motor cells are excited to send nerve-force to the voluntary muscles.
+There are many points of analogy in the action of the sensory and motor
+nerve-cells; for instance, the familiar fact that close attention to any
+one sense causes fatigue, like the prolonged exertion of any one muscle.<a
+href="#linknote-1345" name="linknoteref-1345" id="linknoteref-1345">[1345]</a>
+When therefore we voluntarily concentrate our attention on any part of the
+body, the cells of the brain which receive impressions or sensations from
+that part are, it is probable, in some unknown manner stimulated into
+activity. This may account, without any local change in the part to which
+our attention is earnestly directed, for pain or odd sensations being
+there felt or increased.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+If, however, the part is furnished with muscles, we cannot feel sure, as
+Mr. Michael Foster has remarked to me, that some slight impulse may not be
+unconsciously sent to such muscles; and this would probably cause an
+obscure sensation in the part.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In a large number of cases, as with the salivary and lacrymal glands,
+intestinal canal, &amp;c., the power of attention seems to rest, either
+chiefly, or as some physiologists think, exclusively, on the vaso-motor
+system being affected in such a manner that more blood is allowed to flow
+into the capillaries of the part in question. This increased action of the
+capillaries may in some cases be combined with the simultaneously
+increased activity of the sensorium.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The manner in which the mind affects the vasomotor system may be conceived
+in the following manner. When we actually taste sour fruit, an impression
+is sent through the gustatory nerves to a certain part of the sensorium;
+this transmits nerve-force to the vasomotor centre, which consequently
+allows the muscular coats of the small arteries that permeate the salivary
+glands to relax. Hence more blood flows into these glands, and they
+secrete a copious supply of saliva. Now it does not seem an improbable
+assumption, that, when we reflect intently on a sensation, the same part
+of the sensorium, or a closely connected part of it, is brought into a
+state of activity, in the same manner as when we actually perceive the
+sensation. If so, the same cells in the brain will be excited, though,
+perhaps, in a less degree, by vividly thinking about a sour taste, as by
+perceiving it; and they will transmit in the one case, as in the other,
+nerve-force to the vaso-motor centre with the same results.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To give another, and, in some respects, more appropriate illustration. If
+a man stands before a hot fire, his face reddens. This appears to be due,
+as Mr. Michael Foster informs me, in part to the local action of the heat,
+and in part to a reflex action from the vaso-motor centres.<a
+href="#linknote-1346" name="linknoteref-1346" id="linknoteref-1346">[1346]</a>
+In this latter case, the heat affects the nerves of the face; these
+transmit an impression to the sensory cells of the brain, which act on the
+vaso-motor centre, and this reacts on the small arteries of the face,
+relaxing them and allowing them to become filled with blood. Here, again,
+it seems not improbable that if we were repeatedly to concentrate with
+great earnestness our attention on the recollection of our heated faces,
+the same part of the sensorium which gives us the consciousness of actual
+heat would be in some slight degree stimulated, and would in consequence
+tend to transmit some nerve-force to the vaso-motor centres, so as to
+relax the capillaries of the face. Now as men during endless generations
+have had their attention often and earnestly directed to their personal
+appearance, and especially to their faces, any incipient tendency in the
+facial capillaries to be thus affected will have become in the course of
+time greatly strengthened through the principles just referred to, namely,
+nerve-force passing readily along accustomed channels, and inherited
+habit. Thus, as it appears to me, a plausible explanation is afforded of
+the leading phenomena connected with the act of blushing.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Recapitulation</i>.&mdash;Men and women, and especially the young, have
+always valued, in a high degree, their personal appearance; and have
+likewise regarded the appearance of others. The face has been the chief
+object of attention, though, when man aboriginally went naked, the whole
+surface of his body would have been attended to. Our self-attention is
+excited almost exclusively by the opinion of others, for no person living
+in absolute solitude would care about his appearance. Every one feels
+blame more acutely than praise. Now, whenever we know, or suppose, that
+others are depreciating our personal appearance, our attention is strongly
+drawn towards ourselves, more especially to our faces. The probable effect
+of this will be, as has just been explained, to excite into activity that
+part of the sensorium, which receives the sensory nerves of the face; and
+this will react through the vaso-motor system on the facial capillaries.
+By frequent reiteration during numberless generations, the process will
+have become so habitual, in association with the belief that others are
+thinking of us, that even a suspicion of their depreciation suffices to
+relax the capillaries, without any conscious thought about our faces. With
+some sensitive persons it is enough even to notice their dress to produce
+the same effect. Through the force, also, of association and inheritance
+our capillaries are relaxed, whenever we know, or imagine, that any one is
+blaming, though in silence, our actions, thoughts, or character; and,
+again, when we are highly praised.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On this hypothesis we can understand how it is that the face blushes much
+more than any other part of the body, though the whole surface is somewhat
+affected, more especially with the races which still go nearly naked. It
+is not at all surprising that the dark-coloured races should blush, though
+no change of colour is visible in their skins. From the principle of
+inheritance it is not surprising that persons born blind should blush. We
+can understand why the young are much more affected than the old, and
+women more than men; and why the opposite sexes especially excite each
+other&rsquo;s blushes. It becomes obvious why personal remarks should be
+particularly liable to cause blushing, and why the most powerful of all
+the causes is shyness; for shyness relates to the presence and opinion of
+others, and the shy are always more or less self-conscious. With respect
+to real shame from moral delinquencies, we can perceive why it is not
+guilt, but the thought that others think us guilty, which raises a blush.
+A man reflecting on a crime committed in solitude, and stung by his
+conscience, does not blush; yet he will blush under the vivid recollection
+of a detected fault, or of one committed in the presence of others, the
+degree of blushing being closely related to the feeling of regard for
+those who have detected, witnessed, or suspected his fault. Breaches of
+conventional rules of conduct, if they are rigidly insisted on by our
+equals or superiors, often cause more intense blushes even than a detected
+crime, and an act which is really criminal, if not blamed by our equals,
+hardly raises a tinge of colour on our cheeks. Modesty from humility, or
+from an indelicacy, excites a vivid blush, as both relate to the judgment
+or fixed customs of others.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the intimate sympathy which exists between the capillary circulation
+of the surface of the head and of the brain, whenever there is intense
+blushing, there will be some, and often great, confusion of mind. This is
+frequently accompanied by awkward movements, and sometimes by the
+involuntary twitching of certain muscles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As blushing, according to this hypothesis, is an indirect result of
+attention, originally directed to our personal appearance, that is to the
+surface of the body, and more especially to the face, we can understand
+the meaning of the gestures which accompany blushing throughout the world.
+These consist in hiding the face, or turning it towards the ground, or to
+one side. The eyes are generally averted or are restless, for to look at
+the man who causes us to feel shame or shyness, immediately brings home in
+an intolerable manner the consciousness that his gaze is directed on us.
+Through the principle of associated habit, the same movements of the face
+and eyes are practised, and can, indeed, hardly be avoided, whenever we
+know or believe that, others are blaming, or too strongly praising, our
+moral conduct.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"></a>
+CHAPTER XIV.<br/>CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements of
+expression&mdash;Their inheritance&mdash;On the part which the will and
+intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions&mdash;The
+instinctive recognition of expression&mdash;The bearing of our subject on
+the specific unity of the races of man&mdash;On the successive acquirement
+of various expressions by the progenitors of man&mdash;The importance of
+expression&mdash;Conclusion.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+I have now described, to the best of my ability, the chief expressive
+actions in man, and in some few of the lower animals. I have also
+attempted to explain the origin or development of these actions through
+the three principles given in the first chapter. The first of these
+principles is, that movements which are serviceable in gratifying some
+desire, or in relieving some sensation, if often repeated, become so
+habitual that they are performed, whether or not of any service, whenever
+the same desire or sensation is felt, even in a very weak degree.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Our second principle is that of antithesis. The habit of voluntarily
+performing opposite movements under opposite impulses has become firmly
+established in us by the practice of our whole lives. Hence, if certain
+actions have been regularly performed, in accordance with our first
+principle, under a certain frame of mind, there will be a strong and
+involuntary tendency to the performance of directly opposite actions,
+whether or not these are of any use, under the excitement of an opposite
+frame of mind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Our third principle is the direct action of the excited nervous system on
+the body, independently of the will, and independently, in large part, of
+habit. Experience shows that nerve-force is generated and set free
+whenever the cerebro-spinal system is excited. The direction which this
+nerve-force follows is necessarily determined by the lines of connection
+between the nerve-cells, with each other and with various parts of the
+body. But the direction is likewise much influenced by habit; inasmuch as
+nerve-force passes readily along accustomed channels.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The frantic and senseless actions of an enraged man may be attributed in
+part to the undirected flow of nerve-force, and in part to the effects of
+habit, for these actions often vaguely represent the act of striking. They
+thus pass into gestures included under our first principle; as when an
+indignant man unconsciously throws himself into a fitting attitude for
+attacking his opponent, though without any intention of making an actual
+attack. We see also the influence of habit in all the emotions and
+sensations which are called exciting; for they have assumed this character
+from having habitually led to energetic action; and action affects, in an
+indirect manner, the respiratory and circulatory system; and the latter
+reacts on the brain. Whenever these emotions or sensations are even
+slightly felt by us, though they may not at the time lead to any exertion,
+our whole system is nevertheless disturbed through the force of habit and
+association. Other emotions and sensations are called depressing, because
+they have not habitually led to energetic action, excepting just at first,
+as in the case of extreme pain, fear, and grief, and they have ultimately
+caused complete exhaustion; they are consequently expressed chiefly by
+negative signs and by prostration. Again, there are other emotions, such
+as that of affection, which do not commonly lead to action of any kind,
+and consequently are not exhibited by any strongly marked outward signs.
+Affection indeed, in as far as it is a pleasurable sensation, excites the
+ordinary signs of pleasure.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On the other hand, many of the effects due to the excitement of the
+nervous system seem to be quite independent of the flow of nerve-force
+along the channels which have been rendered habitual by former exertions
+of the will. Such effects, which often reveal the state of mind of the
+person thus affected, cannot at present be explained; for instance, the
+change of colour in the hair from extreme terror or grief,&mdash;the cold
+sweat and the trembling of the muscles from fear,&mdash;the modified
+secretions of the intestinal canal,&mdash;and the failure of certain
+glands to act.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Notwithstanding that much remains unintelligible in our present subject,
+so many expressive movements and actions can be explained to a certain
+extent through the above three principles, that we may hope hereafter to
+see all explained by these or by closely analogous principles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Actions of all kinds, if regularly accompanying any state of the mind, are
+at once recognized as expressive. These may consist of movements of any
+part of the body, as the wagging of a dog&rsquo;s tail, the shrugging of a man&rsquo;s
+shoulders, the erection of the hair, the exudation of perspiration, the
+state of the capillary circulation, laboured breathing, and the use of the
+vocal or other sound-producing instruments. Even insects express anger,
+terror, jealousy, and love by their stridulation. With man the respiratory
+organs are of especial importance in expression, not only in a direct, but
+in a still higher degree in an indirect manner.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Few points are more interesting in our present subject than the
+extraordinarily complex chain of events which lead to certain expressive
+movements. Take, for instance, the oblique eyebrows of a man suffering
+from grief or anxiety. When infants scream loudly from hunger or pain, the
+circulation is affected, and the eyes tend to become gorged with blood:
+consequently the muscles surrounding the eyes are strongly contracted as a
+protection: this action, in the course of many generations, has become
+firmly fixed and inherited: but when, with advancing years and culture,
+the habit of screaming is partially repressed, the muscles round the eyes
+still tend to contract, whenever even slight distress is felt: of these
+muscles, the pyramidals of the nose are less under the control of the will
+than are the others and their contraction can be checked only by that of
+the central fasciae of the frontal muscle: these latter fasciae draw up
+the inner ends of the eyebrows, and wrinkle the forehead in a peculiar
+manner, which we instantly recognize as the expression of grief or
+anxiety. Slight movements, such as these just described, or the scarcely
+perceptible drawing down of the corners of the mouth, are the last
+remnants or rudiments of strongly marked and intelligible movements. They
+are as full of significance to us in regard to expression, as are ordinary
+rudiments to the naturalist in the classification and genealogy of organic
+beings.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+That the chief expressive actions, exhibited by man and by the lower
+animals, are now innate or inherited,&mdash;that is, have not been learnt
+by the individual,&mdash;is admitted by every one. So little has learning
+or imitation to do with several of them that they are from the earliest
+days and throughout life quite beyond our control; for instance, the
+relaxation of the arteries of the skin in blushing, and the increased
+action of the heart in anger. We may see children, only two or three years
+old, and even those born blind, blushing from shame; and the naked scalp
+of a very young infant reddens from passion. Infants scream from pain
+directly after birth, and all their features then assume the same form as
+during subsequent years. These facts alone suffice to show that many of
+our most important expressions have not been learnt; but it is remarkable
+that some, which are certainly innate, require practice in the individual,
+before they are performed in a full and perfect manner; for instance,
+weeping and laughing. The inheritance of most of our expressive actions
+explains the fact that those born blind display them, as I hear from the
+Rev. R. H. Blair, equally well with those gifted with eyesight. We can
+thus also understand the fact that the young and the old of widely
+different races, both with man and animals, express the same state of mind
+by the same movements.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We are so familiar with the fact of young and old animals displaying their
+feelings in the same manner, that we hardly perceive how remarkable it is
+that a young puppy should wag its tail when pleased, depress its ears and
+uncover its canine teeth when pretending to be savage, just like an old
+dog; or that a kitten should arch its little back and erect its hair when
+frightened and angry, like an old cat. When, however, we turn to less
+common gestures in ourselves, which we are accustomed to look at as
+artificial or conventional,&mdash;such as shrugging the shoulders, as a
+sign of impotence, or the raising the arms with open hands and extended
+fingers, as a sign of wonder,&mdash;we feel perhaps too much surprise at
+finding that they are innate. That these and some other gestures are
+inherited, we may infer from their being performed by very young children,
+by those born blind, and by the most widely distinct races of man. We
+should also bear in mind that new and highly peculiar tricks, in
+association with certain states of the mind, are known to have arisen in
+certain individuals, and to have been afterwards transmitted to their
+offspring, in some cases, for more than one generation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Certain other gestures, which seem to us so natural that we might easily
+imagine that they were innate, apparently have been learnt like the words
+of a language. This seems to be the case with the joining of the uplifted
+hands, and the turning up of the eyes, in prayer. So it is with kissing as
+a mark of affection; but this is innate, in so far as it depends on the
+pleasure derived from contact with a beloved person. The evidence with
+respect to the inheritance of nodding and shaking the head, as signs of
+affirmation and negation, is doubtful; for they are not universal, yet
+seem too general to have been independently acquired by all the
+individuals of so many races.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+We will now consider how far the will and consciousness have come into
+play in the development of the various movements of expression. As far as
+we can judge, only a few expressive movements, such as those just referred
+to, are learnt by each individual; that is, were consciously and
+voluntarily performed during the early years of life for some definite
+object, or in imitation of others, and then became habitual. The far
+greater number of the movements of expression, and all the more important
+ones, are, as we have seen, innate or inherited; and such cannot be said
+to depend on the will of the individual. Nevertheless, all those included
+under our first principle were at first voluntarily performed for a
+definite object,&mdash;namely, to escape some danger, to relieve some
+distress, or to gratify some desire. For instance, there can hardly be a
+doubt that the animals which fight with their teeth, have acquired the
+habit of drawing back their ears closely to their heads, when feeling
+savage, from their progenitors having voluntarily acted in this manner in
+order to protect their ears from being torn by their antagonists; for
+those animals which do not fight with their teeth do not thus express a
+savage state of mind. We may infer as highly probable that we ourselves
+have acquired the habit of contracting the muscles round the eyes, whilst
+crying gently, that is, without the utterance of any loud sound, from our
+progenitors, especially during infancy, having experienced, during the act
+of screaming, an uncomfortable sensation in their eyeballs. Again, some
+highly expressive movements result from the endeavour to cheek or prevent
+other expressive movements; thus the obliquity of the eyebrows and the
+drawing down of the corners of the mouth follow from the endeavour to
+prevent a screaming-fit from coming on, or to cheek it after it has come
+on. Here it is obvious that the consciousness and will must at first have
+come into play; not that we are conscious in these or in other such cases
+what muscles are brought into action, any more than when we perform the
+most ordinary voluntary movements.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With respect to the expressive movements due to the principle of
+antithesis, it is clear that the will has intervened, though in a remote
+and indirect manner. So again with the movements coming under our third
+principle; these, in as far as they are influenced by nerve-force readily
+passing along habitual channels, have been determined by former and
+repeated exertions of the will. The effects indirectly due to this latter
+agency are often combined in a complex manner, through the force of habit
+and association, with those directly resulting from the excitement of the
+cerebro-spinal system. This seems to be the case with the increased action
+of the heart under the influence of any strong emotion. When an animal
+erects its hair, assumes a threatening attitude, and utters fierce sounds,
+in order to terrify an enemy, we see a curious combination of movements
+which were originally voluntary with those that are involuntary. It is,
+however, possible that even strictly involuntary actions, such as the
+erection of the hair, may have been affected by the mysterious power of
+the will.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Some expressive movements may have arisen spontaneously, in association
+with certain states of the mind, like the tricks lately referred to, and
+afterwards been inherited. But I know of no evidence rendering this view
+probable.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The power of communication between the members of the same tribe by means
+of language has been of paramount importance in the development of man;
+and the force of language is much aided by the expressive movements of the
+face and body. We perceive this at once when we converse on an important
+subject with any person whose face is concealed. Nevertheless there are no
+grounds, as far as I can discover, for believing that any muscle has been
+developed or even modified exclusively for the sake of expression. The
+vocal and other sound-producing organs, by which various expressive noises
+are produced, seem to form a partial exception; but I have elsewhere
+attempted to show that these organs were first developed for sexual
+purposes, in order that one sex might call or charm the other. Nor can I
+discover grounds for believing that any inherited movement, which now
+serves as a means of expression, was at first voluntarily and consciously
+performed for this special purpose,&mdash;like some of the gestures and
+the finger-language used by the deaf and dumb. On the contrary, every true
+or inherited movement of expression seems to have had some natural and
+independent origin. But when once acquired, such movements may be
+voluntarily and consciously employed as a means of communication. Even
+infants, if carefully attended to, find out at a very early age that their
+screaming brings relief, and they soon voluntarily practise it. We may
+frequently see a person voluntarily raising his eyebrows to express
+surprise, or smiling to express pretended satisfaction and acquiescence. A
+man often wishes to make certain gestures conspicuous or demonstrative,
+and will raise his extended arms with widely opened fingers above his
+head, to show astonishment, or lift his shoulders to his ears, to show
+that he cannot or will not do something. The tendency to such movements
+will be strengthened or increased by their being thus voluntarily and
+repeatedly performed; and the effects may be inherited.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is perhaps worth consideration whether movements at first used only by
+one or a few individuals to express a certain state of mind may not
+sometimes have spread to others, and ultimately have become universal,
+through the power of conscious and unconscious imitation. That there
+exists in man a strong tendency to imitation, independently of the
+conscious will, is certain. This is exhibited in the most extraordinary
+manner in certain brain diseases, especially at the commencement of
+inflammatory softening of the brain, and has been called the &ldquo;echo sign.&rdquo;
+Patients thus affected imitate, without understanding every absurd gesture
+which is made, and every word which is uttered near them, even in a
+foreign language.<a href="#linknote-1401" name="linknoteref-1401"
+id="linknoteref-1401">[1401]</a> In the case of animals, the jackal and
+wolf have learnt under confinement to imitate the barking of the dog. How
+the barking of the dog, which serves to express various emotions and
+desires, and which is so remarkable from having been acquired since the
+animal was domesticated, and from being inherited in different degrees by
+different breeds, was first learnt we do not know; but may we not suspect
+that imitation has had something to do with its acquisition, owing to dogs
+having long lived in strict association with so loquacious an animal as
+man?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the course of the foregoing remarks and throughout this volume, I have
+often felt much difficulty about the proper application of the terms,
+will, consciousness, and intention. Actions, which were at first
+voluntary, soon became habitual, and at last hereditary, and may then be
+performed even in opposition to the will. Although they often reveal the
+state of the mind, this result was not at first either intended or
+expected. Even such words as that &ldquo;certain movements serve as a means of
+expression,&rdquo; are apt to mislead, as they imply that this was their primary
+purpose or object. This, however, seems rarely or never to have been the
+case; the movements having been at first either of some direct use, or the
+indirect effect of the excited state of the sensorium. An infant may
+scream either intentionally or instinctively to show that it wants food;
+but it has no wish or intention to draw its features into the peculiar
+form which so plainly indicates misery; yet some of the most
+characteristic expressions exhibited by man are derived from the act of
+screaming, as has been explained.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although most of our expressive actions are innate or instinctive, as is
+admitted by everyone, it is a different question whether we have any
+instinctive power of recognizing them. This has generally been assumed to
+be the case; but the assumption has been strongly controverted by M.
+Lemoine.<a href="#linknote-1402" name="linknoteref-1402"
+id="linknoteref-1402">[1402]</a> Monkeys soon learn to distinguish, not
+only the tones of voice of their masters, but the expression of their
+faces, as is asserted by a careful observer.<a href="#linknote-1403"
+name="linknoteref-1403" id="linknoteref-1403">[1403]</a> Dogs well know
+the difference between caressing and threatening gestures or tones; and
+they seem to recognize a compassionate tone. But as far as I can make out,
+after repeated trials, they do not understand any movement confined to the
+features, excepting a smile or laugh; and this they appear, at least in
+some cases, to recognize. This limited amount of knowledge has probably
+been gained, both by monkeys and dogs, through their associating harsh or
+kind treatment with our actions; and the knowledge certainly is not
+instinctive. Children, no doubt, would soon learn the movements of
+expression in their elders in the same manner as animals learn those of
+man. Moreover, when a child cries or laughs, he knows in a general manner
+what he is doing and what he feels; so that a very small exertion of
+reason would tell him what crying or laughing meant in others. But the
+question is, do our children acquire their knowledge of expression solely
+by experience through the power of association and reason?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As most of the movements of expression must have been gradually acquired,
+afterwards becoming instinctive, there seems to be some degree of <i>a
+priori</i> probability that their recognition would likewise have become
+instinctive. There is, at least, no greater difficulty in believing this
+than in admitting that, when a female quadruped first bears young, she
+knows the cry of distress of her offspring, or than in admitting that many
+animals instinctively recognize and fear their enemies; and of both these
+statements there can be no reasonable doubt. It is however extremely
+difficult to prove that our children instinctively recognize any
+expression. I attended to this point in my first-born infant, who could
+not have learnt anything by associating with other children, and I was
+convinced that he understood a smile and received pleasure from seeing
+one, answering it by another, at much too early an age to have learnt
+anything by experience. When this child was about four months old, I made
+in his presence many odd noises and strange grimaces, and tried to look
+savage; but the noises, if not too loud, as well as the grimaces, were all
+taken as good jokes; and I attributed this at the time to their being
+preceded or accompanied by smiles. When five months old, he seemed to
+understand a compassionate, expression and tone of voice. When a few days
+over six months old, his nurse pretended to cry, and I saw that his face
+instantly assumed a melancholy expression, with the corners of the mouth
+strongly depressed; now this child could rarely have seen any other child
+crying, and never a grown-up person crying, and I should doubt whether at
+so early an age he could have reasoned on the subject. Therefore it seems
+to me that an innate feeling must have told him that the pretended crying
+of his nurse expressed grief; and this through the instinct of sympathy
+excited grief in him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+M. Lemoine argues that, if man possessed an innate knowledge of
+expression, authors and artists would not have found it so difficult, as
+is notoriously the case, to describe and depict the characteristic signs
+of each particular state of mind. But this does not seem to me a valid
+argument. We may actually behold the expression changing in an
+unmistakable manner in a man or animal, and yet be quite unable, as I know
+from experience, to analyse the nature of the change. In the two
+photographs given by Duchenne of the same old man (Plate III. figs. 5 and
+6), almost every one recognized that the one represented a true, and the
+other a false smile; but I have found it very difficult to decide in what
+the whole amount of difference consists. It has often struck me as a
+curious fact that so many shades of expression are instantly recognized
+without any conscious process of analysis on our part. No one, I believe,
+can clearly describe a sullen or sly expression; yet many observers are
+unanimous that these expressions can be recognized in the various races of
+man. Almost everyone to whom I showed Duchenne&rsquo;s photograph of the young
+man with oblique eyebrows (Plate II. fig. 2) at once declared that it
+expressed grief or some such feeling; yet probably not one of these
+persons, or one out of a thousand persons, could beforehand have told
+anything precise about the obliquity of the eyebrows with their inner ends
+puckered, or about the rectangular furrows on the forehead. So it is with
+many other expressions, of which I have had practical experience in the
+trouble requisite in instructing others what points to observe. If, then,
+great ignorance of details does not prevent our recognizing with certainty
+and promptitude various expressions, I do not see how this ignorance can
+be advanced as an argument that our knowledge, though vague and general,
+is not innate.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have endeavoured to show in considerable detail that all the chief
+expressions exhibited by man are the same throughout the world. This fact
+is interesting, as it affords a new argument in favour of the several
+races being descended from a single parent-stock, which must have been
+almost completely human in structure, and to a large extent in mind,
+before the period at which the races diverged from each other. No doubt
+similar structures, adapted for the same purpose, have often been
+independently acquired through variation and natural selection by distinct
+species; but this view will not explain close similarity between distinct
+species in a multitude of unimportant details. Now if we bear in mind the
+numerous points of structure having no relation to expression, in which
+all the races of man closely agree, and then add to them the numerous
+points, some of the highest importance and many of the most trifling
+value, on which the movements of expression directly or indirectly depend,
+it seems to me improbable in the highest degree that so much similarity,
+or rather identity of structure, could have been acquired by independent
+means. Yet this must have been the case if the races of man are descended
+from several aboriginally distinct species. It is far more probable that
+the many points of close similarity in the various races are due to
+inheritance from a single parent-form, which had already assumed a human
+character.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is a curious, though perhaps an idle speculation, how early in the long
+line of our progenitors the various expressive movements, now exhibited by
+man, were successively acquired. The following remarks will at least serve
+to recall some of the chief points discussed in this volume. We may
+confidently believe that laughter, as a sign of pleasure or enjoyment, was
+practised by our progenitors long before they deserved to be called human;
+for very many kinds of monkeys, when pleased, utter a reiterated sound,
+clearly analogous to our laughter, often accompanied by vibratory
+movements of their jaws or lips, with the corners of the mouth drawn
+backwards and upwards, by the wrinkling of the cheeks, and even by the
+brightening of the eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We may likewise infer that fear was expressed from an extremely remote
+period, in almost the same manner as it now is by man; namely, by
+trembling, the erection of the hair, cold perspiration, pallor, widely
+opened eyes, the relaxation of most of the muscles, and by the whole body
+cowering downwards or held motionless.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Suffering, if great, will from the first have caused screams or groans to
+be uttered, the body to be contorted, and the teeth to be ground together.
+But our progenitors will not have exhibited those highly expressive
+movements of the features which accompany screaming and crying until their
+circulatory and respiratory organs, and the muscles surrounding the eyes,
+had acquired their present structure. The shedding of tears appears to
+have originated through reflex action from the spasmodic contraction of
+the eyelids, together perhaps with the eyeballs becoming gorged with blood
+during the act of screaming. Therefore weeping probably came on rather
+late in the line of our descent; and this conclusion agrees with the fact
+that our nearest allies, the anthropomorphous apes, do not weep. But we
+must here exercise some caution, for as certain monkeys, which are not
+closely related to man, weep, this habit might have been developed long
+ago in a sub-branch of the group from which man is derived. Our early
+progenitors, when suffering from grief or anxiety, would not have made
+their eyebrows oblique, or have drawn down the corners of their mouth,
+until they had acquired the habit of endeavouring to restrain their
+screams. The expression, therefore, of grief and anxiety is eminently
+human.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Rage will have been expressed at a very early period by threatening or
+frantic gestures, by the reddening of the skin, and by glaring eyes, but
+not by frowning. For the habit of frowning seems to have been acquired
+chiefly from the corrugators being the first muscles to contract round the
+eyes, whenever during infancy pain, anger, or distress is felt, and there
+consequently is a near approach to screaming; and partly from a frown
+serving as a shade in difficult and intent vision. It seems probable that
+this shading action would not have become habitual until man had assumed a
+completely upright position, for monkeys do not frown when exposed to a
+glaring light. Our early progenitors, when enraged, would probably have
+exposed their teeth more freely than does man, even when giving full vent
+to his rage, as with the insane. We may, also, feel almost certain that
+they would have protruded their lips, when sulky or disappointed, in a
+greater degree than is the case with our own children, or even with the
+children of existing savage races.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Our early progenitors, when indignant or moderately angry, would not have
+held their heads erect, opened their chests, squared their shoulders, and
+clenched their fists, until they had acquired the ordinary carriage and
+upright attitude of man, and had learnt to fight with their fists or
+clubs. Until this period had arrived the antithetical gesture of shrugging
+the shoulders, as a sign of impotence or of patience, would not have been
+developed. From the same reason astonishment would not then have been
+expressed by raising the arms with open hands and extended fingers. Nor,
+judging from the actions of monkeys, would astonishment have been
+exhibited by a widely opened mouth; but the eyes would have been opened
+and the eyebrows arched. Disgust would have been shown at a very early
+period by movements round the mouth, like those of vomiting,&mdash;that
+is, if the view which I have suggested respecting the source of the
+expression is correct, namely, that our progenitors had the power, and
+used it, of voluntarily and quickly rejecting any food from their stomachs
+which they disliked. But the more refined manner of showing contempt or
+disdain, by lowering the eyelids, or turning away the eyes and face, as if
+the despised person were not worth looking at, would not probably have
+been acquired until a much later period.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of all expressions, blushing seems to be the most strictly human; yet it
+is common to all or nearly all the races of man, whether or not any change
+of colour is visible in their skin. The relaxation of the small arteries
+of the surface, on which blushing depends, seems to have primarily
+resulted from earnest attention directed to the appearance of our own
+persons, especially of our faces, aided by habit, inheritance, and the
+ready flow of nerve-force along accustomed channels; and afterwards to
+have been extended by the power of association to self-attention directed
+to moral conduct. It can hardly be doubted that many animals are capable
+of appreciating beautiful colours and even forms, as is shown by the pains
+which the individuals of one sex take in displaying their beauty before
+those of the opposite sex. But it does not seem possible that any animal,
+until its mental powers had been developed to an equal or nearly equal
+degree with those of man, would have closely considered and been sensitive
+about its own personal appearance. Therefore we may conclude that blushing
+originated at a very late period in the long line of our descent.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the various facts just alluded to, and given in the course of this
+volume, it follows that, if the structure of our organs of respiration and
+circulation had differed in only a slight degree from the state in which
+they now exist, most of our expressions would have been wonderfully
+different. A very slight change in the course of the arteries and veins
+which run to the head, would probably have prevented the blood from
+accumulating in our eyeballs during violent expiration; for this occurs in
+extremely few quadrupeds. In this case we should not have displayed some
+of our most characteristic expressions. If man had breathed water by the
+aid of external branchiae (though the idea is hardly conceivable), instead
+of air through his mouth and nostrils, his features would not have
+expressed his feelings much more efficiently than now do his hands or
+limbs. Rage and disgust, however, would still have been shown by movements
+about the lips and mouth, and the eyes would have become brighter or
+duller according to the state of the circulation. If our ears had remained
+movable, their movements would have been highly expressive, as is the case
+with all the animals which fight with their teeth; and we may infer that
+our early progenitors thus fought, as we still uncover the canine tooth on
+one side when we sneer at or defy any one, and we uncover all our teeth
+when furiously enraged.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+The movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin
+may have been, are in themselves of much importance for our welfare. They
+serve as the first means of communication between the mother and her
+infant; she smiles approval, and thus encourages her child on the right
+path, or frowns disapproval. We readily perceive sympathy in others by
+their expression; our sufferings are thus mitigated and our pleasures
+increased; and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened. The movements of
+expression give vividness and energy to our spoken words. They reveal the
+thoughts and intentions of others more truly than do words, which may be
+falsified. Whatever amount of truth the so-called science of physiognomy
+may contain, appears to depend, as Haller long ago remarked,<a
+href="#linknote-1404" name="linknoteref-1404" id="linknoteref-1404">[1404]</a>
+on different persons bringing into frequent use different facial muscles,
+according to their dispositions; the development of these muscles being
+perhaps thus increased, and the lines or furrows on the face, due to their
+habitual contraction, being thus rendered deeper and more conspicuous. The
+free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the
+other hand, the repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward
+signs softens our emotions.<a href="#linknote-1405" name="linknoteref-1405"
+id="linknoteref-1405">[1405]</a> He who gives way to violent gestures will
+increase his rage; he who does not control the signs of fear will
+experience fear in a greater degree; and he who remains passive when
+overwhelmed with grief loses his best chance of recovering elasticity of
+mind. These results follow partly from the intimate relation which exists
+between almost all the emotions and their outward manifestations; and
+partly from the direct influence of exertion on the heart, and
+consequently on the brain. Even the simulation of an emotion tends to
+arouse it in our minds. Shakespeare, who from his wonderful knowledge of
+the human mind ought to be an excellent judge, says:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+Is it not monstrous that this player here,<br/>
+But in a fiction, in a dream of passion,<br/>
+Could force his soul so to his own conceit,<br/>
+That, from her working, all his visage wann&rsquo;d;<br/>
+Tears in his eyes, distraction in &rsquo;s aspect,<br/>
+A broken voice, and his whole function suiting<br/>
+With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing!<br/>
+<i>Hamlet</i>, act ii. sc. 2.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have seen that the study of the theory of expression confirms to a
+certain limited extent the conclusion that man is derived from some lower
+animal form, and supports the belief of the specific or sub-specific unity
+of the several races; but as far as my judgment serves, such confirmation
+was hardly needed. We have also seen that expression in itself, or the
+language of the emotions, as it has sometimes been called, is certainly of
+importance for the welfare of mankind. To understand, as far as possible,
+the source or origin of the various expressions which may be hourly seen
+on the faces of the men around us, not to mention our domesticated
+animals, ought to possess much interest for us. From these several causes,
+we may conclude that the philosophy of our subject has well deserved the
+attention which it has already received from several excellent observers,
+and that it deserves still further attention, especially from any able
+physiologist.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="link2H_FOOT" id="link2H_FOOT"></a>FOOTNOTES:</h2>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1" id="linknote-1">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1 (<a href="#linknoteref-1">return</a>)<br/> [ J. Parsons, in his paper in
+the Appendix to the &lsquo;Philosophical Transactions&rsquo; for 1746, p. 41, gives a
+list of forty-one old authors who have written on Expression.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-2" id="linknote-2">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+2 (<a href="#linknoteref-2">return</a>)<br/> [ Conférences sur
+l&rsquo;expression des différents Caractères des Passions.&rsquo; Paris, 4to, 1667. I
+always quote from the republication of the &lsquo;Conférences&rsquo; in the edition of
+Lavater, by Moreau, which appeared in 1820, as given in vol. ix. p. 257.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-3" id="linknote-3">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+3 (<a href="#linknoteref-3">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Discours par Pierre Camper
+sur le moyen de représenter les diverses passions,&rsquo; &amp;c. 1792. 1844]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-4" id="linknote-4">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+4 (<a href="#linknoteref-4">return</a>)<br/> [ I always quote from the
+third edition, 1844, which was published after the death of Sir C. Bell,
+and contains his latest corrections. The first edition of 1806 is much
+inferior in merit, and does not include some of his more important views.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-5" id="linknote-5">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+5 (<a href="#linknoteref-5">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie et de la
+Parole,&rsquo; par Albert Lemoine, 1865, p. 101.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-6" id="linknote-6">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+6 (<a href="#linknoteref-6">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;L&rsquo;Art de connaître les
+Hommes,&rsquo; &amp;c., par G. Lavater. The earliest edition of this work,
+referred to in the preface to the edition of 1820 in ten volumes, as containing
+the observations of M. Moreau, is said to have been published in 1807; and I
+have no doubt that this is correct, because the &lsquo;Notice sur
+Lavater&rsquo; at the commencement of volume i. is dated April 13, 1806. In
+some bibliographical works, however, the date of 1805&mdash;1809 is given, but
+it seems impossible that 1805 can be correct. Dr. Duchenne remarks
+(&lsquo;Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo;-8vo edit. 1862, p. 5, and
+&lsquo;Archives Générales de Médecine,&rsquo; Jan. et Fév. 1862) that M. Moreau
+&ldquo;<i>a composé pour son ouvrage un article important</i>,&rdquo; &amp;c.,
+in the year 1805; and I find in volume i. of the edition of 1820 passages
+bearing the dates of December 12, 1805, and another January 5, 1806, besides
+that of April 13, 1806, above referred to. In consequence of some of these
+passages having thus been <i>composed</i> in 1805, Dr. Duchenne assigns to M.
+Moreau the priority over Sir C. Bell, whose work, as we have seen, was
+published in 1806. This is a very unusual manner of determining the priority of
+scientific works; but such questions are of extremely little importance in
+comparison with their relative merits. The passages above quoted from M. Moreau
+and from Le Brun are taken in this and all other cases from the edition of 1820
+of Lavater, tom. iv. p. 228, and tom. ix. p. 279.]
+</p>
+
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-7" id="linknote-7">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+7 (<a href="#linknoteref-7">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Handbuch der
+Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.&rsquo; Band I. Dritte Abtheilung, 1858.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-8" id="linknote-8">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+8 (<a href="#linknoteref-8">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Senses and the
+Intellect,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1864, pp. 96 and 288. The preface to the first
+edition of this work is dated June, 1855. See also the 2nd edition of Mr.
+Bain&rsquo;s work on the &lsquo;Emotions and Will.&rsquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-9" id="linknote-9">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+9 (<a href="#linknoteref-9">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; 3rd edit. p. 121.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-10" id="linknote-10">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+10 (<a href="#linknoteref-10">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Essays, Scientific,
+Political, and Speculative,&rsquo; Second Series, 1863, p. 111. There is a
+discussion on Laughter in the First Series of Essays, which discussion
+seems to me of very inferior value.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-11" id="linknote-11">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+11 (<a href="#linknoteref-11">return</a>)<br/> [ Since the publication of
+the essay just referred to, Mr. Spencer has written another, on &ldquo;Morals
+and Moral Sentiments,&rdquo; in the &lsquo;Fortnightly Review,&rsquo; April 1, 1871, p. 426.
+He has, also, now published his final conclusions in vol. ii. of the
+second edit. of the &lsquo;Principles of Psychology,&rsquo; 1872, p. 539. I may state,
+in order that I may not be accused of trespassing on Mr. Spencer&rsquo;s domain,
+that I announced in my &lsquo;Descent of Man,&rsquo; that I had then written a part of
+the present volume: my first MS. notes on the subject of expression bear
+the date of the year 1838.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-12" id="linknote-12">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+12 (<a href="#linknoteref-12">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo;
+3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-13" id="linknote-13">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+13 (<a href="#linknoteref-13">return</a>)<br/> [ Professor Owen expressly
+states (Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1830, p. 28) that this is the case with respect
+to the Orang, and specifies all the more important muscles which are well
+known to serve with man for the expression of his feelings. See, also, a
+description of several of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof.
+Macalister, in &lsquo;Annals and Magazine of Natural History,&rsquo; vol. vii. May,
+1871, p. 342.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-14" id="linknote-14">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+14 (<a href="#linknoteref-14">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo;
+pp. 121, 138.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-15" id="linknote-15">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+15 (<a href="#linknoteref-15">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo; pp.
+12, 73.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-16" id="linknote-16">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+16 (<a href="#linknoteref-16">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo; 8vo edit. p. 31.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-17" id="linknote-17">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+17 (<a href="#linknoteref-17">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Elements of Physiology,&rsquo;
+English translation, vol. ii. p. 934.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-18" id="linknote-18">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+18 (<a href="#linknoteref-18">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo;
+3rd edit. p. 198.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-19" id="linknote-19">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+19 (<a href="#linknoteref-19">return</a>)<br/> [ See remarks to this
+effect in Lessing&rsquo;s &lsquo;Lacooon,&rsquo; translated by W. Ross, 1836, p. 19.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-20" id="linknote-20">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+20 (<a href="#linknoteref-20">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Partridge in Todd&rsquo;s
+&lsquo;Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology,&rsquo; vol. ii. p. 227.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-21" id="linknote-21">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+21 (<a href="#linknoteref-21">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;La Physionomie,&rsquo; par G.
+Lavater, tom. iv. 1820, p. 274. On the number of the facial muscles, see
+vol. iv. pp. 209-211.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-22" id="linknote-22">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+22 (<a href="#linknoteref-22">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mimik und Physiognomik,&rsquo;
+1867, s. 91.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-101" id="linknote-101">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+101 (<a href="#linknoteref-101">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Herbert Spencer
+(&lsquo;Essays,&rsquo; Second Series, 1863, p. 138) has drawn a clear distinction
+between emotions and sensations, the latter being &ldquo;generated in our
+corporeal framework.&rdquo; He classes as Feelings both emotions
+and-sensations.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-102" id="linknote-102">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+102 (<a href="#linknoteref-102">return</a>)<br/> [ Müller, &lsquo;Elements of
+Physiology,&rsquo; Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 939. See also Mr. H. Spencer&rsquo;s
+interesting speculations on the same subject, and on the genesis of
+nerves, in his &lsquo;Principles of Biology,&rsquo; vol. ii. p. 346; and in his
+&lsquo;Principles of Psychology,&rsquo; 2nd edit. pp. 511-557.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-103" id="linknote-103">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+103 (<a href="#linknoteref-103">return</a>)<br/> [ A remark to much the
+same effect was made long ago by Hippocrates and by the illustrious
+Harvey; for both assert that a young animal forgets in the course of a few
+days the art of sucking, and cannot without some difficulty again acquire
+it. I give these assertions on the authority of Dr. Darwin, &lsquo;Zoonomia,&rsquo;
+1794, vol. i. p. 140.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-104" id="linknote-104">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+104 (<a href="#linknoteref-104">return</a>)<br/> [ See for my authorities,
+and for various analogous facts, &lsquo;The Variation of Animals and Plants
+under Domestication,&rsquo; 1868, vol. ii. p. 304.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-105" id="linknote-105">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+105 (<a href="#linknoteref-105">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Senses and the
+Intellect,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1864, p. 332. Prof. Huxley remarks (&lsquo;Elementary
+Lessons in Physiology,&rsquo; 5th edit. 1872, p. 306), &ldquo;It may be laid down as a
+rule, that, if any two mental states be called up together, or in
+succession, with due frequency and vividness, the subsequent production of
+the one of them will suffice to call up the other, and that whether we
+desire it or not.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-106" id="linknote-106">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+106 (<a href="#linknoteref-106">return</a>)<br/> [ Gratiolet (&lsquo;De la
+Physionomie,&rsquo; p. 324), in his discussion on this subject, gives many
+analogous instances. See p. 42, on the opening and shutting of the eyes.
+Engel is quoted (p. 323) on the changed paces of a man, as his thoughts
+change.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-107" id="linknote-107">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+107 (<a href="#linknoteref-107">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo; 1862, p. 17.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-108" id="linknote-108">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+108 (<a href="#linknoteref-108">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Variation of
+Animals and Plants under Domestication,&rsquo; vol. ii. p. 6. The inheritance of
+habitual gestures is so important for us, that I gladly avail myself of
+Mr. F. Galton&rsquo;s permission to give in his own words the following
+remarkable case:&mdash;&ldquo;The following account of a habit occurring in
+individuals of three consecutive generations {footnote continues:} is of
+peculiar interest, because it occurs only during sound sleep, and
+therefore cannot be due to imitation, but must be altogether natural. The
+particulars are perfectly trustworthy, for I have enquired fully into
+them, and speak from abundant and independent evidence. A gentleman of
+considerable position was found by his wife to have the curious trick,
+when he lay fast asleep on his back in bed, of raising his right arm
+slowly in front of his face, up to his forehead, and then dropping it with
+a jerk, so that the wrist fell heavily on the bridge of his nose. The
+trick did not occur every night, but occasionally, and was independent of
+any ascertained cause. Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an hour
+or more. The gentleman&rsquo;s nose was prominent, and its bridge often became
+sore from the blows which it received. At one time an awkward sore was
+produced, that was long in healing, on account of the recurrence, night
+after night, of the blows which first caused it. His wife had to remove
+the button from the wrist of his night-gown as it made severe scratches,
+and some means were attempted of tying his arm.
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+&ldquo;Many years after his death, his son married a lady who had never heard of
+the family incident. She, however, observed precisely the same peculiarity
+in her husband; but his nose, from not being particularly prominent, has
+never as yet suffered from the blows. The trick does not occur when he is
+half-asleep, as, for example, when dozing in his arm-chair, but the moment
+he is fast asleep it is apt to begin. It is, as with his father,
+intermittent; sometimes ceasing for many nights, and sometimes almost
+incessant during a part of every night. It is performed, as it was by his
+father, with his right hand.
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+&ldquo;One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick. She performs
+it, likewise, with the right hand, but in a slightly modified form; for,
+after raising the arm, she does not allow the wrist to drop upon the
+bridge of the nose, but the palm of the half-closed hand falls over and
+down the nose, striking it rather rapidly. It is also very intermittent
+with this child, not occurring for periods of some months, but sometimes
+occurring almost incessantly.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-109" id="linknote-109">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+109 (<a href="#linknoteref-109">return</a>)<br/> [ Prof. Huxley remarks
+(&lsquo;Elementary Physiology,&rsquo; 5th edit. p. 305) that reflex actions proper to
+the spinal cord are <i>natural</i>; but, by the help of the brain, that is
+through habit, an infinity of <i>artificial</i> reflex actions may be acquired.
+Virchow admits (&lsquo;Sammlung wissenschaft. Vorträge,&rsquo; &amp;c., &ldquo;Ueber das
+Rückenmark,&rdquo; 1871, ss. 24, 31) that some reflex actions can hardly be
+distinguished from instincts; and, of the latter, it may be added, some
+cannot be distinguished from inherited habits.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-110" id="linknote-110">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+110 (<a href="#linknoteref-110">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Maudsley, &lsquo;Body and
+Mind,&rsquo; 1870, p. 8.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-111" id="linknote-111">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+111 (<a href="#linknoteref-111">return</a>)<br/> [ See the very
+interesting discussion on the whole subject by Claude Bernard, &lsquo;Tissus
+Vivants,&rsquo; 1866, p. 353-356.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-112" id="linknote-112">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+112 (<a href="#linknoteref-112">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Chapters on Mental
+Physiology,&rsquo; 1858, p. 85.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-113" id="linknote-113">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+113 (<a href="#linknoteref-113">return</a>)<br/> [ Müller remarks
+(&lsquo;Elements of Physiology,&rsquo; Eng. tr. vol. ii. p. 1311) on starting being
+always accompanied by the closure of the eyelids.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-114" id="linknote-114">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+114 (<a href="#linknoteref-114">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Maudsley remarks
+(&lsquo;Body and Mind,&rsquo; p. 10) that &ldquo;reflex movements which commonly effect a
+useful end may, under the changed circumstances of disease, do great
+mischief, becoming even the occasion of violent suffering and of a most
+painful death.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-115" id="linknote-115">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+115 (<a href="#linknoteref-115">return</a>)<br/> [ See Mr. F. H. Salvin&rsquo;s
+account of a tame jackal in &lsquo;Land and Water,&rsquo; October, 1869.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-116" id="linknote-116">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+116 (<a href="#linknoteref-116">return</a>)<br/> [ &ldquo;Dr. Darwin,
+&lsquo;Zoonomia,&rsquo; 1794, vol. i. p. 160. I find that the fact of cats protruding
+their feet when pleased is also noticed (p. 151) in this work.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-117" id="linknote-117">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+117 (<a href="#linknoteref-117">return</a>)<br/> [ Carpenter, &lsquo;Principles
+of Comparative Physiology,&rsquo; 1854, p. 690, and Müller&rsquo;s &lsquo;Elements of
+Physiology,&rsquo; Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 936.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-118" id="linknote-118">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+118 (<a href="#linknoteref-118">return</a>)<br/> [ Mowbray on &lsquo;Poultry,&rsquo;
+6th edit. 1830, p. 54.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-119" id="linknote-119">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+119 (<a href="#linknoteref-119">return</a>)<br/> [ See the account given
+by this excellent observer in &lsquo;Wild Sports of the Highlands,&rsquo; 1846, p.
+142.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-120" id="linknote-120">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+120 (<a href="#linknoteref-120">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Philosophical
+Translations,&rsquo; 1823, p. 182.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-201" id="linknote-201">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+201 (<a href="#linknoteref-201">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Naturgeschichte der
+Säugethiere von Paraguay,&rsquo; 1830, s. 55.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-202" id="linknote-202">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+202 (<a href="#linknoteref-202">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Tylor gives an
+account of the Cistercian gesture-language in his &lsquo;Early History of
+Mankind&rsquo; (2nd edit. 1870, p. 40), and makes some remarks on the principle
+of opposition in gestures.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-203" id="linknote-203">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+203 (<a href="#linknoteref-203">return</a>)<br/> [ See on this subject Dr.
+W. R. Scott&rsquo;s interesting work, &lsquo;The Deaf and Dumb,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1870, p.
+12. He says, &ldquo;This contracting of natural gestures into much shorter
+gestures than the natural expression requires, is very common amongst the
+deaf and dumb. This contracted gesture is frequently so shortened as
+nearly to lose all semblance of the natural one, but to the deaf and dumb
+who use it, it still has the force of the original expression.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-301" id="linknote-301">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+301 (<a href="#linknoteref-301">return</a>)<br/> [ See the interesting
+cases collected by M. G. Pouchet in the &lsquo;Revue des Deux Mondes,&rsquo; January
+1, 1872, p. 79. An instance was also brought some years ago before the
+British Association at Belfast.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-302" id="linknote-302">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+302 (<a href="#linknoteref-302">return</a>)<br/> [ Müller remarks
+(&lsquo;Elements of Physiology,&rsquo; Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 934) that when the
+feelings are very intense, &ldquo;all the spinal nerves become affected to the
+extent of imperfect paralysis, or the excitement of trembling of the whole
+body.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-303" id="linknote-303">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+303 (<a href="#linknoteref-303">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Leçons sur les Prop.
+des Tissus Vivants,&rsquo; 1866, pp. 457-466.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-304" id="linknote-304">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+304 (<a href="#linknoteref-304">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bartlett, &ldquo;Notes on
+the Birth of a Hippopotamus,&rdquo; Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1871, p. 255.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-305" id="linknote-305">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+305 (<a href="#linknoteref-305">return</a>)<br/> [ See, on this subject,
+Claude Bernard, &lsquo;Tissus Vivants,&rsquo; 1866, pp. 316, 337, 358. Virchow
+expresses himself to almost exactly the same effect in his essay &ldquo;Ueber
+das Rückenmark&rdquo; (Sammlung wissenschaft. Vorträge, 1871, s. 28).]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-306" id="linknote-306">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+306 (<a href="#linknoteref-306">return</a>)<br/> [ Müller (&lsquo;Elements of
+Physiology,&rsquo; Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 932) in speaking of the nerves,
+says, &ldquo;any sudden change of condition of whatever kind sets the nervous
+principle into action.&rdquo; See Virchow and Bernard on the same subject in
+passages in the two works referred to in my last foot-note.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-307" id="linknote-307">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+307 (<a href="#linknoteref-307">return</a>)<br/> [ H. Spencer, &lsquo;Essays,
+Scientific, Political,&rsquo; &amp;c., Second Series, 1863, pp. 109, 111.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-308" id="linknote-308">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+308 (<a href="#linknoteref-308">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir H. Holland, in
+speaking (&lsquo;Medical Notes and Reflexions,&rsquo; 1839, p. 328) of that curious
+state of body called the <i>fidgets</i>, remarks that it seems due to &ldquo;an
+accumulation of some cause of irritation which requires muscular action
+for its relief.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-309" id="linknote-309">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+309 (<a href="#linknoteref-309">return</a>)<br/> [ I am much indebted to
+Mr. A. H. Garrod for having informed me of M. Lorain&rsquo;s work on the pulse,
+in which a sphygmogram of a woman in a rage is given; and this shows much
+difference in the rate and other characters from that of the same woman in
+her ordinary state.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-310" id="linknote-310">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+310 (<a href="#linknoteref-310">return</a>)<br/> [ How powerfully intense
+joy excites the brain, and how the brain reacts on the body, is well shown
+in the rare cases of Psychical Intoxication. Dr. J. Crichton Browne
+(&lsquo;Medical Mirror,&rsquo; 1865) records the case of a young man of strongly
+nervous temperament, who, on hearing by a telegram that a fortune had been
+bequeathed him, first became pale, then exhilarated, and soon in the
+highest spirits, but flushed and very restless. He then took a walk with a
+friend for the sake of tranquillising himself, but returned staggering in
+his gait, uproariously laughing, yet irritable in temper, incessantly
+talking, and singing loudly in the public streets. It was positively
+ascertained that he had not touched any spirituous liquor, though every
+one thought that he was intoxicated. Vomiting after a time came on, and
+the half-digested contents of his stomach were examined, but no odour of
+alcohol could be detected. He then slept heavily, and on awaking was well,
+except that he suffered from headache, nausea, and prostration of
+strength.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-311" id="linknote-311">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+311 (<a href="#linknoteref-311">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Darwin, &lsquo;Zoonomia,&rsquo;
+1794, vol. i. p. 148.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-312" id="linknote-312">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+312 (<a href="#linknoteref-312">return</a>)<br/> [ Mrs. Oliphant, in her
+novel of &lsquo;Miss Majoribanks,&rsquo; p. 362. All this reacts on the brain, and
+prostration soon follows with collapsed muscles and dulled eyes. As
+associated habit no longer prompts the sufferer to action, he is urged by
+his friends to voluntary exertion, and not to give way to silent,
+motionless grief. Exertion stimulates the heart, and this reacts on the
+brain, and aids the mind to bear its heavy load.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-401" id="linknote-401">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+401 (<a href="#linknoteref-401">return</a>)<br/> [ See the evidence on
+this head in my &lsquo;Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,&rsquo;
+vol. i. p. 27. On the cooing of pigeons, vol. i. pp. 154, 155.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-402" id="linknote-402">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+402 (<a href="#linknoteref-402">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Essays, Scientific,
+Political, and Speculative,&rsquo; 1858. &lsquo;The Origin and Function of Music,&rsquo; p.
+359.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-403" id="linknote-403">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+403 (<a href="#linknoteref-403">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Descent of Man,&rsquo;
+1870, vol. ii. p. 332. The words quoted are from Professor Owen. It has
+lately been shown that some quadrupeds much lower in the scale than
+monkeys, namely Rodents, are able to produce correct musical tones: see
+the account of a singing Hesperomys, by the Rev. S. Lockwood, in the
+&lsquo;American Naturalist,&rsquo; vol. v. December, 1871, p. 761.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-404" id="linknote-404">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+404 (<a href="#linknoteref-404">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Tylor (&lsquo;Primitive
+Culture,&rsquo; 1871, vol. i. p. 166), in his discussion on this subject,
+alludes to the whining of the dog.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-405" id="linknote-405">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+405 (<a href="#linknoteref-405">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Naturgeschichte der
+Säugethiere von Paraguay,&rsquo; 1830, s. 46.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-406" id="linknote-406">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+406 (<a href="#linknoteref-406">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Gratiolet,
+&lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo; 1865, p. 115.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-407" id="linknote-407">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+407 (<a href="#linknoteref-407">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Théorie Physiologique
+de la Musique,&rsquo; Paris, 1868, P. 146. Helmholtz has also fully discussed in
+this profound work the relation of the form of the cavity of the mouth to
+the production of vowel-sounds.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-408" id="linknote-408">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+408 (<a href="#linknoteref-408">return</a>)<br/> [ I have given some
+details on this subject in my &lsquo;Descent of Man,&rsquo; vol. i. pp. 352, 384.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-409" id="linknote-409">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+409 (<a href="#linknoteref-409">return</a>)<br/> [ As quoted in Huxley&rsquo;s
+&lsquo;Evidence as to Man&rsquo;s Place in Nature,&rsquo; 1863, p. 52.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-410" id="linknote-410">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+410 (<a href="#linknoteref-410">return</a>)<br/> [ Illust. Thierleben,
+1864, B. i. s. 130.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-411" id="linknote-411">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+411 (<a href="#linknoteref-411">return</a>)<br/> [ The Hon. J. Caton,
+Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences, May, 1868, pp. 36, 40. For the <i>Capra,
+Ægagrus</i>, &lsquo;Land and Water,&rsquo; 1867, p. 37.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-412" id="linknote-412">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+412 (<a href="#linknoteref-412">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Land and Water,&rsquo; July
+20, 1867, p. 659.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-413" id="linknote-413">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+413 (<a href="#linknoteref-413">return</a>)<br/> [ <i>Phaeton rubricauda</i>:
+&lsquo;Ibis,&rsquo; vol. iii. 1861, p. 180.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-414" id="linknote-414">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+414 (<a href="#linknoteref-414">return</a>)<br/> [ On the <i>Strix flammea</i>,
+Audubon, &lsquo;Ornithological Biography,&rsquo; 1864, vol. ii. p. 407. I have
+observed other cases in the Zoological Gardens.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-415" id="linknote-415">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+415 (<a href="#linknoteref-415">return</a>)<br/> [ <i>Melopsittacus
+undulatus</i>. See an account of its habits by Gould, &lsquo;Handbook of Birds
+of Australia,&rsquo; 1865, vol. ii. p. 82.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-416" id="linknote-416">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+416 (<a href="#linknoteref-416">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for instance, the
+account which I have given (&lsquo;Descent of Man,&rsquo; vol. ii. p. 32) of an Anolis
+and Draco.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-417" id="linknote-417">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+417 (<a href="#linknoteref-417">return</a>)<br/> [ These muscles are
+described in his well-known works. I am greatly indebted to this
+distinguished observer for having given me in a letter information on this
+same subject.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-418" id="linknote-418">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+418 (<a href="#linknoteref-418">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Lehrbuch der
+Histologie des Menschen,&rsquo; 1857, s. 82. I owe to Prof. W. Turner&rsquo;s kindness
+an extract from this work.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-419" id="linknote-419">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+419 (<a href="#linknoteref-419">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Quarterly Journal of
+Microscopical Science,&rsquo; 1853, vol. i. p. 262.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-420" id="linknote-420">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+420 (<a href="#linknoteref-420">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Lehrbuch der
+Histologie,&rsquo; 1857, s. 82.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-421" id="linknote-421">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+421 (<a href="#linknoteref-421">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Dictionary of English
+Etymology,&rsquo; p. 403.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-422" id="linknote-422">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+422 (<a href="#linknoteref-422">return</a>)<br/> [ See the account of the
+habits of this animal by Dr. Cooper, as quoted in &lsquo;Nature,&rsquo; April 27,
+1871, p. 512.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-423" id="linknote-423">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+423 (<a href="#linknoteref-423">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Günther, &lsquo;Reptiles
+of British India,&rsquo; p. 262.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-424" id="linknote-424">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+424 (<a href="#linknoteref-424">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. J. Mansel Weale,
+&lsquo;Nature,&rsquo; April 27, 1871, p. 508.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-425" id="linknote-425">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+425 (<a href="#linknoteref-425">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Journal of Researches
+during the Voyage of the &ldquo;Beagle,&rdquo;&rsquo; 1845, p. 96. I have compared the
+rattling thus produced with that of the Rattle-snake.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-426" id="linknote-426">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+426 (<a href="#linknoteref-426">return</a>)<br/> [ See the account by Dr.
+Anderson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 196.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-427" id="linknote-427">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+427 (<a href="#linknoteref-427">return</a>)<br/> [ The &lsquo;American
+Naturalist,&rsquo; Jan. 1872, p. 32. I regret that I cannot follow Prof. Shaler
+in believing that the rattle has been developed, by the aid of natural
+selection, for the sake of producing sounds which deceive and attract
+birds, so that they may serve as prey to the snake. I do not, however,
+wish to doubt that the sounds may occasionally subserve this end. But the
+conclusion at which I have arrived, viz. that the rattling serves as a
+warning to would-be devourers, appears to me much more probable, as it
+connects together various classes of facts. If this snake had acquired its
+rattle and the habit of rattling, for the sake of attracting prey, it does
+not seem probable that it would have invariably used its instrument when
+angered or disturbed. Prof. Shaler takes nearly the same view as I do of
+the manner of development of the rattle; and I have always held this
+opinion since observing the Trigonocephalus in South America.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-428" id="linknote-428">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+428 (<a href="#linknoteref-428">return</a>)<br/> [ From the accounts
+lately collected, and given in the &lsquo;Journal of the Linnean Society,&rsquo; by
+Airs. Barber, on the habits of the snakes of South Africa; and from the
+accounts published by several writers, for instance by Lawson, of the
+rattle-snake in North America,&mdash;it does not seem improbable that the
+terrific appearance of snakes and the sounds produced by them, may
+likewise serve in procuring prey, by paralysing, or as it is sometimes
+called fascinating, the smaller animals.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-429" id="linknote-429">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+429 (<a href="#linknoteref-429">return</a>)<br/> [ See the account by Dr.
+R. Brown, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 39. He says that as soon as a pig
+sees a snake it rushes upon it; and a snake makes off immediately on the
+appearance of a pig.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-430" id="linknote-430">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+430 (<a href="#linknoteref-430">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Günther remarks
+(&lsquo;Reptiles of British India,&rsquo; p. 340) on the destruction of cobras by the
+ichneumon or herpestes, and whilst the cobras are young by the
+jungle-fowl. It is well known that the peacock also eagerly kills snakes.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-431" id="linknote-431">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+431 (<a href="#linknoteref-431">return</a>)<br/> [ Prof. Cope enumerates a
+number of kinds in his &lsquo;Method of Creation of Organic Types,&rsquo; read before
+the American Phil. Soc., December 15th, 1871, p. 20. Prof. Cope takes the
+same view as I do of the use of the gestures and sounds made by snakes. I
+briefly alluded to this subject in the last edition of my &lsquo;Origin of
+Species.&rsquo; Since the passages in the text above have been printed, I have
+been pleased to find that Mr. Henderson (&lsquo;The American Naturalist,&rsquo; May,
+1872, p. 260) also takes a similar view of the use of the rattle, namely
+&ldquo;in preventing an attack from being made.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-432" id="linknote-432">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+432 (<a href="#linknoteref-432">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. des Vœux, in Proc.
+Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 3.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-433" id="linknote-433">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+433 (<a href="#linknoteref-433">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Sportsman and
+Naturalist in Canada,&rsquo; 1866, p. 53. p. 53.{sic}]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-434" id="linknote-434">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+434 (<a href="#linknoteref-434">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Nile Tributaries
+of Abyssinia,&rsquo; 1867, p. 443.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-501" id="linknote-501">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+501 (<a href="#linknoteref-501">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; 1844, p. 190.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-502" id="linknote-502">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+502 (<a href="#linknoteref-502">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+1865, pp. 187, 218.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-503" id="linknote-503">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+503 (<a href="#linknoteref-503">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; 1844, p. 140.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-504" id="linknote-504">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+504 (<a href="#linknoteref-504">return</a>)<br/> [ Many particulars are
+given by Gueldenstädt in his account of the jackal in Nov. Comm. Acad. Sc.
+Imp. Petrop. 1775, tom. xx. p. 449. See also another excellent account of
+the manners of this animal and of its play, in &lsquo;Land and Water,&rsquo; October,
+1869. Lieut. Annesley, R. A., has also communicated to me some particulars
+with respect to the jackal. I have made many inquiries about wolves and
+jackals in the Zoological Gardens, and have observed them for myself.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-505" id="linknote-505">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+505 (<a href="#linknoteref-505">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Land and Water,&rsquo;
+November 6, 1869.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-506" id="linknote-506">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+506 (<a href="#linknoteref-506">return</a>)<br/> [ Azara, &lsquo;Quadrupèdes du
+Paraquay,&rsquo; 1801, tom. 1. p. 136.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-507" id="linknote-507">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+507 (<a href="#linknoteref-507">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Land and Water,&rsquo; 1867,
+p. 657. See also Azara on the Puma, in the work above quoted.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-508" id="linknote-508">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+508 (<a href="#linknoteref-508">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell, &lsquo;Anatomy
+of Expression,&rsquo; 3rd edit. p. 123. See also p. 126, on horses not breathing
+through their mouths, with reference to their distended nostrils.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-509" id="linknote-509">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+509 (<a href="#linknoteref-509">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Land and Water,&rsquo; 1869,
+p. 152.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-510" id="linknote-510">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+510 (<a href="#linknoteref-510">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Natural History of
+Mammalia,&rsquo; 1841, vol. 1. pp. 383, 410.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-511" id="linknote-511">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+511 (<a href="#linknoteref-511">return</a>)<br/> [ Rengger (&lsquo;Sagetheire
+von Paraquay&rsquo;, 1830, s. 46) kept these monkeys in confinement for seven
+years in their native country of Paraguay.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-512" id="linknote-512">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+512 (<a href="#linknoteref-512">return</a>)<br/> [ Rengger, ibid. s. 46.
+Humboldt, &lsquo;Personal Narrative, Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 527.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-513" id="linknote-513">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+513 (<a href="#linknoteref-513">return</a>)<br/> [ Nat. Hist. of Mammalia,
+1841, p. 351.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-514" id="linknote-514">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+514 (<a href="#linknoteref-514">return</a>)<br/> [ Brehm, &lsquo;Thierleben,&rsquo; B.
+i. s. 84. On baboons striking the ground, s. 61.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-515" id="linknote-515">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+515 (<a href="#linknoteref-515">return</a>)<br/> [ Brehm remarks
+(&lsquo;Thierleben,&rsquo; s. 68) that the eyebrows of the <i>Inuus ecaudatus</i> are
+frequently moved up and down when the animal is angered.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-516" id="linknote-516">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+516 (<a href="#linknoteref-516">return</a>)<br/> [ G. Bennett, &lsquo;Wanderings
+in New South Wales,&rsquo; &amp;c. vol. ii. 1834, p. 153. FIG. 18.-Chimpanzee
+disappointed and sulky. Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-517" id="linknote-517">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+517 (<a href="#linknoteref-517">return</a>)<br/> [ W. L. Martin, Nat.
+Hist. of Mamm. Animals, 1841, p. 405.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-518" id="linknote-518">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+518 (<a href="#linknoteref-518">return</a>)<br/> [ Prof. Owen on the
+Orang, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1830, p. 28. On the Chimpanzee, see Prof.
+Macalister, in Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. vii. 1871, p. 342, who
+states that the <i>corrugator supercilii</i> is inseparable from the <i>orbicularis
+palpebrarum</i>.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-519" id="linknote-519">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+519 (<a href="#linknoteref-519">return</a>)<br/> [ Boston Journal of Nat.
+Hist. 1845&mdash;-47, vol. v. p. 423. On the Chimpanzee, ibid. 1843-44,
+vol. iv. p. 365.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-520" id="linknote-520">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+520 (<a href="#linknoteref-520">return</a>)<br/> [ See on this subject,
+&lsquo;Descent of Man,&rsquo; vol. i. p. 20.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-521" id="linknote-521">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+521 (<a href="#linknoteref-521">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Descent of Man,&rsquo; vol,
+i. p, 43.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-522" id="linknote-522">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+522 (<a href="#linknoteref-522">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; 3rd edit. 1844, pp. 138, 121.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-601" id="linknote-601">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+601 (<a href="#linknoteref-601">return</a>)<br/> [ The best photographs in
+my collection are by Mr. Rejlander, of Victoria Street, London, and by
+Herr Kindermann, of Hamburg. Figs. 1, 3, 4, and 6 are by the former; and
+figs. 2 and 5, by the latter gentleman. Fig. 6 is given to show moderate
+crying in an older child.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-602" id="linknote-602">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+602 (<a href="#linknoteref-602">return</a>)<br/> [ Henle (&lsquo;Handbuch d.
+Syst. Anat. 1858, B. i. s. 139) agrees with Duchenne that this is the
+effect of the contraction of the <i>pyramidalis nasi</i>.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-603" id="linknote-603">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+603 (<a href="#linknoteref-603">return</a>)<br/> [ These consist of the <i>levator
+labii superioris alaeque nasi</i>, the <i>levator labii proprius</i>, the
+<i>malaris</i>, and the <i>zygomaticus minor</i>, or little zygomatic.
+This latter muscle runs parallel to and above the great zygomatic, and is
+attached to the outer part of the upper lip. It is represented in fig. 2
+(I. p. 24), but not in figs. 1 and 3. Dr. Duchenne first showed
+(&lsquo;Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo; Album, 1862, p. 39) the importance
+of the contraction of this muscle in the shape assumed by the features in
+crying. Henle considers the above-named muscles (excepting the <i>malaris</i>)
+as subdivisions of the <i>quadratus labii superioris</i>.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-604" id="linknote-604">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+604 (<a href="#linknoteref-604">return</a>)<br/> [ Although Dr. Duchenne
+has so carefully studied the contraction of the different muscles during
+the act of crying, and the furrows on the face thus produced, there seems
+to be something incomplete in his account; but what this is I cannot say.
+He has given a figure (Album, fig. 48) in which one half of the face is
+made, by galvanizing the proper muscles, to smile; whilst the other half
+is similarly made to begin crying. Almost all those (viz. nineteen out of
+twenty-one persons) to whom I showed the smiling half of the face
+instantly recognized the expression; but, with respect to the other half,
+only six persons out of twenty-one recognized it,&mdash;that is, if we
+accept such terms as &ldquo;grief,&rdquo; &ldquo;misery,&rdquo; &ldquo;annoyance,&rdquo; as correct;&mdash;whereas,
+fifteen persons were ludicrously mistaken; some of them saying the face
+expressed &ldquo;fun,&rdquo; &ldquo;satisfaction,&rdquo; &ldquo;cunning,&rdquo; &ldquo;disgust,&rdquo; &amp;c. We may
+infer from this that there is something wrong in the expression. Some of
+the fifteen persons may, however, have been partly misled by not expecting
+to see an old man crying, and by tears not being secreted. With respect to
+another figure by Dr. Duchenne (fig. 49), in which the muscles of half the
+face are galvanized in order to represent a man beginning to cry, with the
+eyebrow on the same side rendered oblique, which is characteristic of
+misery, the expression was recognized by a greater proportional number of
+persons. Out of twenty-three persons, fourteen answered correctly,
+&ldquo;sorrow,&rdquo; &ldquo;distress,&rdquo; &ldquo;grief,&rdquo; &ldquo;just going to cry,&rdquo; &ldquo;endurance of pain,&rdquo;
+&amp;c. On the other hand, nine persons either could form no opinion or
+were entirely wrong, answering, &ldquo;cunning leer,&rdquo; &ldquo;jocund,&rdquo; &ldquo;looking at an
+intense light,&rdquo; &ldquo;looking at a distant object,&rdquo; &amp;c.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-605" id="linknote-605">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+605 (<a href="#linknoteref-605">return</a>)<br/> [ Mrs. Gaskell, &lsquo;Mary
+Barton,&rsquo; new edit. p. 84.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-606" id="linknote-606">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+606 (<a href="#linknoteref-606">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mimik und
+Physiognomik,&rsquo; 1867, s. 102. Duchenne, Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine,
+Album, p. 34.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-607" id="linknote-607">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+607 (<a href="#linknoteref-607">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Duchenne makes this
+remark, ibid. p. 39.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-608" id="linknote-608">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+608 (<a href="#linknoteref-608">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Origin of
+Civilization,&rsquo; 1870, p. 355.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-609" id="linknote-609">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+609 (<a href="#linknoteref-609">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for instance, Mr.
+Marshall&rsquo;s account of an idiot in Philosoph. Transact. 1864, p. 526. With
+respect to cretins, see Dr. Piderit, &lsquo;Mimik und Physiognomik,&rsquo; 1867, s.
+61.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-610" id="linknote-610">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+610 (<a href="#linknoteref-610">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;New Zealand and its
+Inhabitants,&rsquo; 1855, p. 175.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-611" id="linknote-611">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+611 (<a href="#linknoteref-611">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+1865, p. 126.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-612" id="linknote-612">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+612 (<a href="#linknoteref-612">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; 1844, p. 106. See also his paper in the &lsquo;Philosophical
+Transactions,&rsquo; 1822, p. 284, ibid. 1823, pp. 166 and 289. Also &lsquo;The
+Nervous System of the Human Body,&rsquo; 3rd edit. 1836, p. 175.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-613" id="linknote-613">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+613 (<a href="#linknoteref-613">return</a>)<br/> [ See Dr. Brinton&rsquo;s
+account of the act of vomiting, in Todd&rsquo;s Cyclop. of Anatomy and
+Physiology, 1859, vol. v. Supplement, p. 318.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-614" id="linknote-614">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+614 (<a href="#linknoteref-614">return</a>)<br/> [ I am greatly indebted
+to Mr. Bowman for having introduced me to Prof. Donders, and for his aid
+in persuading this great physiologist to undertake the investigation of
+the present subject. I am likewise much indebted to Mr. Bowman for having
+given me, with the utmost kindness, information on many points.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-615" id="linknote-615">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+615 (<a href="#linknoteref-615">return</a>)<br/> [ This memoir first
+appeared in the &lsquo;Nederlandsch Archief voor Genees en Natuurkunde,&rsquo; Deel
+5, 1870. It has been translated by Dr. W. D. Moore, under the title of &ldquo;On
+the Action of the Eyelids in determination of Blood from expiratory
+effort,&rdquo; in &lsquo;Archives of Medicine,&rsquo; edited by Dr. L. S. Beale, 1870, vol.
+v. p. 20.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-616" id="linknote-616">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+616 (<a href="#linknoteref-616">return</a>)<br/> [ Prof. Donders remarks
+(ibid. p. 28), that, &ldquo;After injury to the eye, after operations, and in
+some forms of internal inflammation, we attach great value to the uniform
+support of the closed eyelids, and we increase this in many instances by
+the application of a bandage. In both cases we carefully endeavour to
+avoid great expiratory pressure, the disadvantage of which is well known.&rdquo;
+Mr. Bowman informs me that in the excessive photophobia, accompanying what
+is called scrofulous ophthalmia in children, when the light is so very
+painful that during weeks or months it is constantly excluded by the most
+forcible closure of the lids, he has often been struck on opening the lids
+by the paleness of the eye,&mdash;not an unnatural paleness, but an
+absence of the redness that might have been expected when the surface is
+somewhat inflamed, as is then usually the case; and this paleness he is
+inclined to attribute to the forcible closure of the eyelids.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-617" id="linknote-617">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+617 (<a href="#linknoteref-617">return</a>)<br/> [ Donders, ibid. p. 36.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-618" id="linknote-618">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+618 (<a href="#linknoteref-618">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood
+(Dict. of English Etymology, 1859, vol. i. p. 410) says, &ldquo;the verb to weep
+comes from Anglo-Saxon <i>wop</i>, the primary meaning of which is simply
+outcry.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-619" id="linknote-619">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+619 (<a href="#linknoteref-619">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+1865, p. 217.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-620" id="linknote-620">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+620 (<a href="#linknoteref-620">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Ceylon,&rsquo; 3rd edit.
+1859, vol. ii. pp. 364, 376. I applied to Mr. Thwaites, in Ceylon, for
+further information with respect to the weeping of the elephant; and in
+consequence received a letter from the Rev. Mr Glenie, who, with others,
+kindly observed for me a herd of recently captured elephants. These, when
+irritated, screamed violently; but it is remarkable that they never when
+thus screaming contracted the muscles round the eyes. Nor did they shed
+tears; and the native hunters asserted that they had never observed
+elephants weeping. Nevertheless, it appears to me impossible to doubt Sir
+E. Tennent&rsquo;s distinct details about their weeping, supported as they are
+by the positive assertion of the keeper in the Zoological Gardens. It is
+certain that the two elephants in the Gardens, when they began to trumpet
+loudly, invariably contracted their orbicular muscles. I can reconcile
+these conflicting statements only by supposing that the recently captured
+elephants in Ceylon, from being enraged or frightened, desired to observe
+their persecutors, and consequently did not contract their orbicular
+muscles, so that their vision might not be impeded. Those seen weeping by
+Sir E. Tennent were prostrate, and had given up the contest in despair.
+The elephants which trumpeted in the Zoological Gardens at the word of
+command, were, of course, neither alarmed nor enraged.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-621" id="linknote-621">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+621 (<a href="#linknoteref-621">return</a>)<br/> [ Bergeon, as quoted in
+the &lsquo;Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,&rsquo; Nov. 1871, p. 235.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-622" id="linknote-622">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+622 (<a href="#linknoteref-622">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for instance, a
+case given by Sir Charles Bell, &lsquo;Philosophical Transactions,&rsquo; 1823, p.
+177.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-623" id="linknote-623">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+623 (<a href="#linknoteref-623">return</a>)<br/> [ See, on these several
+points, Prof. Donders &lsquo;On the Anomalies of Accommodation and Refraction of
+the Eye,&rsquo; 1864, p. 573.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-624" id="linknote-624">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+624 (<a href="#linknoteref-624">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Sir J.
+Lubbock, &lsquo;Prehistoric Times,&rsquo; 1865, p. 458.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-701" id="linknote-701">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+701 (<a href="#linknoteref-701">return</a>)<br/> [ The above descriptive
+remarks are taken in part from my own observations, but chiefly from
+Gratiolet (&lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo; pp. 53, 337; on Sighing, 232), who has
+well treated this whole subject. See, also, Huschke, &lsquo;Mimices et
+Physiognomices, Fragmentum Physiologi-cum,&rsquo; 1821, p. 21. On the dulness of
+the eyes, Dr. Piderit, &lsquo;Mimik und Physiognomik,&rsquo; 1867, s. 65.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-702" id="linknote-702">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+702 (<a href="#linknoteref-702">return</a>)<br/> [ On the action of grief
+on the organs of respiration, see more especially Sir C. Bell, &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; 3rd edit. 1844, p. 151.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-703" id="linknote-703">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+703 (<a href="#linknoteref-703">return</a>)<br/> [ In the foregoing
+remarks on the manner in which the eyebrows are made oblique, I have
+followed what seems to be the universal opinion of all the anatomists,
+whose works I have consulted on the action of the above-named muscles, or
+with whom I have conversed. Hence throughout this work I shall take a
+similar view of the action of the corrugator supercilii, orbicularis,
+pyramidalis nasi, and frontalis muscles. Dr. Duchenne, however, believes,
+and every conclusion at which he arrives deserves serious consideration,
+that it is the corrugator, called by him the sourcilier, which raises the
+inner corner of the eyebrows and is antagonistic to the upper and inner
+part of the orbicular muscle, as well as to the pyramidalis nasi (see
+Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, 1862, folio, art. v., text and figures 19
+to 29: octavo edit. 1862, p. 43 text). He admits, however, that the
+corrugator draws together the eyebrows, causing vertical furrows above the
+base of the nose, or a frown. He further believes that towards the outer
+two-thirds of the eyebrow the corrugator acts in conjunction with the
+upper orbicular muscle; both here standing in antagonism to the frontal
+muscle. I am unable to understand, judging from Henle&rsquo;s drawings (woodcut,
+fig. 3), how the corrugator can act in the manner described by Duchenne.
+See, also, on this subject, Prof. Donders&rsquo; remarks in the &lsquo;Archives of
+Medicine,&rsquo; 1870, vol. v. p. 34. Mr. J. Wood, who is so well known for his
+careful study of the muscles of the human frame, informs me that he
+believes the account which I have given of the action of the corrugator to
+be correct. But this is not a point of any importance with respect to the
+expression which is caused by the obliquity of the eyebrows, nor of much
+importance to the theory of its origin.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-704" id="linknote-704">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+704 (<a href="#linknoteref-704">return</a>)<br/> [ I am greatly indebted
+to Dr. Duchenne for permission to have these two photographs (figs. 1 and
+2) reproduced by the heliotype process from his work in folio. Many of the
+foregoing remarks on the furrowing of the skin, when the eyebrows are
+rendered oblique, are taken from his excellent discussion on this
+subject.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-705" id="linknote-705">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+705 (<a href="#linknoteref-705">return</a>)<br/> [ Mécanisme de la Phys.
+Humaine, Album, p. 15.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-706" id="linknote-706">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+706 (<a href="#linknoteref-706">return</a>)<br/> [ Henle, Handbuch der
+Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s. 148, figs. 68 and 69.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-707" id="linknote-707">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+707 (<a href="#linknoteref-707">return</a>)<br/> [ See the account of the
+action of this muscle by Dr. Duchenne, &lsquo;Mécanisme de la Physionomie
+Humaine, Album (1862), viii. p. 34.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-801" id="linknote-801">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+801 (<a href="#linknoteref-801">return</a>)<br/> [ Herbert Spencer,
+&lsquo;Essays Scientific,&rsquo; &amp;c., 1858, p. 360.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-802" id="linknote-802">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+802 (<a href="#linknoteref-802">return</a>)<br/> [ F. Lieber on the vocal
+sounds of L. Bridgman, &lsquo;Smithsonian Contributions,&rsquo; 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-803" id="linknote-803">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+803 (<a href="#linknoteref-803">return</a>)<br/> [ See, also, Mr.
+Marshall, in Phil. Transact. 1864, p. 526.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-804" id="linknote-804">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+804 (<a href="#linknoteref-804">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bain (&lsquo;The Emotions
+and the Will,&rsquo; 1865, p. 247) has a long and interesting discussion on the
+Ludicrous. The quotation above given about the laughter of the gods is
+taken from this work. See, also, Mandeville, &lsquo;The Fable of the Bees,&rsquo; vol.
+ii. p. 168.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-805" id="linknote-805">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+805 (<a href="#linknoteref-805">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Physiology of
+Laughter,&rsquo; Essays, Second Series, 1863, p. 114.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-806" id="linknote-806">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+806 (<a href="#linknoteref-806">return</a>)<br/> [ J. Lister in &lsquo;Quarterly
+Journal of Microscopical Science,&rsquo; 1853, vol. 1. p. 266.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-807" id="linknote-807">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+807 (<a href="#linknoteref-807">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo; p.
+186.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-808" id="linknote-808">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+808 (<a href="#linknoteref-808">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell (Anat. of
+Expression, p. 147) makes some remarks on the movement of the diaphragm
+during laughter.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-809" id="linknote-809">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+809 (<a href="#linknoteref-809">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo; Album, Légende vi.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-810" id="linknote-810">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+810 (<a href="#linknoteref-810">return</a>)<br/> [ Handbuch der System.
+Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s. 144. See my woodcut (H. fig. 2).]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-811" id="linknote-811">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+811 (<a href="#linknoteref-811">return</a>)<br/> [ See, also, remarks to
+the same effect by Dr. J. Crichton Browne in &lsquo;Journal of Mental Science,&rsquo;
+April, 1871, p. 149.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-812" id="linknote-812">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+812 (<a href="#linknoteref-812">return</a>)<br/> [ C. Vogt, &lsquo;Mémoire sur
+les Microcéphales,&rsquo; 1867, p. 21.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-813" id="linknote-813">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+813 (<a href="#linknoteref-813">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell, &lsquo;Anatomy
+of Expression,&rsquo; p. 133.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-814" id="linknote-814">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+814 (<a href="#linknoteref-814">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mimik und
+Physiognomik,&rsquo; 1867, s. 63-67.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-815" id="linknote-815">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+815 (<a href="#linknoteref-815">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir T. Reynolds remarks
+(&lsquo;Discourses,&rsquo; xii. p. 100), &ldquo;it is curious to observe, and it is
+certainly true, that the extremes of contrary passions are, with very
+little variation, expressed by the same action.&rdquo; He gives as an instance
+the frantic joy of a Bacchante and the grief of a Mary Magdalen.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-816" id="linknote-816">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+816 (<a href="#linknoteref-816">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Piderit has come to
+the same conclusion, ibid. s. 99.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-817" id="linknote-817">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+817 (<a href="#linknoteref-817">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;La Physionomie,&rsquo; par
+G. Lavater, edit. of 1820, vol. iv. p. 224. See, also, Sir C. Bell,
+&lsquo;Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo; p. 172, for the quotation given below.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-818" id="linknote-818">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+818 (<a href="#linknoteref-818">return</a>)<br/> [ A &lsquo;Dictionary of
+English Etymology,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1872, Introduction, p. xliv.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-819" id="linknote-819">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+819 (<a href="#linknoteref-819">return</a>)<br/> [ Crantz, quoted by
+Tylor, &lsquo;Primitive Culture,&rsquo; 1871, Vol. i. P. 169.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-820" id="linknote-820">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+820 (<a href="#linknoteref-820">return</a>)<br/> [ F. Lieber, &lsquo;Smithsonian
+Contributions,&rsquo; 1851, vol. ii. p. 7.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-821" id="linknote-821">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+821 (<a href="#linknoteref-821">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bain remarks
+(&lsquo;Mental and Moral Science,&rsquo; 1868, p. 239), &ldquo;Tenderness is a pleasurable
+emotion, variously stimulated, whose effort is to draw human beings into
+mutual embrace.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-822" id="linknote-822">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+822 (<a href="#linknoteref-822">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir J. Lubbock,
+&lsquo;Prehistoric Times,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1869, p. 552, gives full authorities for
+these statements. The quotation from Steele is taken from this work.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-823" id="linknote-823">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+823 (<a href="#linknoteref-823">return</a>)<br/> [ See a full acount,{sic}
+with references, by E. B. Tylor, &lsquo;Researches into the Early History of
+Mankind,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1870, p. 51.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-824" id="linknote-824">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+824 (<a href="#linknoteref-824">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Descent of Man,&rsquo;
+vol. ii. p. 336.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-825" id="linknote-825">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+825 (<a href="#linknoteref-825">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Mandsley has a
+discussion to this effect in his &lsquo;Body and Mind,&rsquo; 1870, p. 85.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-826" id="linknote-826">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+826 (<a href="#linknoteref-826">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; p. 103, and &lsquo;Philosophical Transactions,&rsquo; 1823, p. 182.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-827" id="linknote-827">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+827 (<a href="#linknoteref-827">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Origin of
+Language,&rsquo; 1866, p. 146. Mr. Tylor (&lsquo;Early History of Mankind,&rsquo; 2nd edit.
+1870, p. 48) gives a more complex origin to the position of the hands
+during prayer.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-901" id="linknote-901">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+901 (<a href="#linknoteref-901">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; pp. 137, 139. It is not surprising that the corrugators
+should have become much more developed in man than in the anthropoid apes;
+for they are brought into incessant action by him under various
+circumstances, and will have been strengthened and modified by the
+inherited effects of use. We have seen how important a part they play,
+together with the orbiculares, in protecting the eyes from being too much
+gorged with blood during violent expiratory movements. When the eyes are
+closed as quickly and as forcibly as possible, to save them from being
+injured by a blow, the corrugators contract. With savages or other men
+whose heads are uncovered, the eyebrows are continually lowered and
+contracted to serve as a shade against a too strong light; and this is
+effected partly by the corrugators. This movement would have been more
+especially serviceable to man, as soon as his early progenitors held their
+heads erect. Lastly, Prof. Donders believes (&lsquo;Archives of Medicine,&rsquo; ed.
+by L. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 34), that the corrugators are brought into
+action in causing the eyeball to advance in accommodation for proximity in
+vision.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-902" id="linknote-902">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+902 (<a href="#linknoteref-902">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo; Album, Légende iii.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-903" id="linknote-903">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+903 (<a href="#linknoteref-903">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mimik und
+Physiognomik,&rsquo; s. 46.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-904" id="linknote-904">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+904 (<a href="#linknoteref-904">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;History of the
+Abipones,&rsquo; Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 59, as quoted by Lubbock, &lsquo;Origin of
+Civilisation,&rsquo; 1870, p. 355.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-905" id="linknote-905">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+905 (<a href="#linknoteref-905">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+pp. 15, 144, 146. Mr. Herbert Spencer accounts for frowning exclusively by
+the habit of contracting the brows as a shade to the eyes in a bright
+light: see &lsquo;Principles of Physiology,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1872, p. 546.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-906" id="linknote-906">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+906 (<a href="#linknoteref-906">return</a>)<br/> [ Gratiolet remarks (De
+la Phys. p. 35), &ldquo;Quand l&rsquo;attention est fixee sur quelque image
+interieure, l&rsquo;oeil regarde dons le vide et s&rsquo;associe automatiquement a la
+contemplation de l&rsquo;esprit.&rdquo; But this view hardly deserves to be called an
+explanation.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-907" id="linknote-907">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+907 (<a href="#linknoteref-907">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Miles Gloriosus,&rsquo; act
+ii. sc. 2.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-908" id="linknote-908">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+908 (<a href="#linknoteref-908">return</a>)<br/> [ The original photograph
+by Herr Kindermann is much more expressive than this copy, as it shows the
+frown on the brow more plainly.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-909" id="linknote-909">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+909 (<a href="#linknoteref-909">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo; Album, Légende iv. figs. 16-18.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-910" id="linknote-910">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+910 (<a href="#linknoteref-910">return</a>)<br/> [ Hensleigh Wedgwood on
+&lsquo;The Origin of Language,&rsquo; 1866, p. 78.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-911" id="linknote-911">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+911 (<a href="#linknoteref-911">return</a>)<br/> [ Müller, as quoted by
+Huxley, &lsquo;Man&rsquo;s Place in Nature,&rsquo; 1863, p. 38.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-912" id="linknote-912">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+912 (<a href="#linknoteref-912">return</a>)<br/> [ I have given several
+instances in my &lsquo;Descent of Man,&rsquo; vol. i. chap. iv.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-913" id="linknote-913">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+913 (<a href="#linknoteref-913">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression.&rsquo; p. 190.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-914" id="linknote-914">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+914 (<a href="#linknoteref-914">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+pp. 118-121.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-915" id="linknote-915">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+915 (<a href="#linknoteref-915">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mimik und
+Physiognomik,&rsquo; s. 79.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1001" id="linknote-1001">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1001 (<a href="#linknoteref-1001">return</a>)<br/> [ See some remarks to
+this effect by Mr. Bain, &lsquo;The Emotions and the Will,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1865, p.
+127.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1002" id="linknote-1002">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1002 (<a href="#linknoteref-1002">return</a>)<br/> [ Rengger, Naturgesch.
+der Säugethiere von Paraguay, 1830, s. 3.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1003" id="linknote-1003">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1003 (<a href="#linknoteref-1003">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell, &lsquo;Anatomy
+of Expression,&rsquo; p. 96. On the other hand, Dr. Burgess (&lsquo;Physiology of
+Blushing,&rsquo; 1839, p. 31) speaks of the reddening of a cicatrix in a negress
+as of the nature of a blush.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1004" id="linknote-1004">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1004 (<a href="#linknoteref-1004">return</a>)<br/> [ Moreau and Gratiolet
+have discussed the colour of the face under the influence of intense
+passion: see the edit. of 1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. pp. 282 and 300; and
+Gratiolet, &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo; p. 345.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1005" id="linknote-1005">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1005 (<a href="#linknoteref-1005">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell &lsquo;Anatomy
+of Expression,&rsquo; pp. 91, 107, has fully discussed this subject. Moreau
+remarks (in the edit. of 1820 of &lsquo;La Physionomie, par G. Lavater,&rsquo; vol.
+iv. p. 237), and quotes Portal in confirmation, that asthmatic patients
+acquire permanently expanded nostrils, owing to the habitual contraction
+of the elevatory muscles of the wings of the nose. The explanation by Dr.
+Piderit (&lsquo;Mimik und Physiognomik,&rsquo; s. 82) of the distension of the
+nostrils, namely, to allow free breathing whilst the mouth is closed and
+the teeth clenched, does not appear to be nearly so correct as that by Sir
+C. Bell, who attributes it to the sympathy (<i>i. e</i>. habitual
+co-action) of all the respiratory muscles. The nostrils of an angry man
+may be seen to become dilated, although his mouth is open.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1006" id="linknote-1006">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1006 (<a href="#linknoteref-1006">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Wedgwood, &lsquo;On the
+Origin of Language,&rsquo; 1866, p. 76. He also observes that the sound of hard
+breathing &ldquo;is represented by the syllables <i>puff, huff, whiff</i>,
+whence a <i>huff</i> is a fit of ill-temper.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1007" id="linknote-1007">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1007 (<a href="#linknoteref-1007">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell &lsquo;Anatomy
+of Expression,&rsquo; p. 95) has some excellent remarks on the expression of
+rage.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1008" id="linknote-1008">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1008 (<a href="#linknoteref-1008">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+1865, p. 346.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1009" id="linknote-1009">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1009 (<a href="#linknoteref-1009">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell, &lsquo;Anatomy
+of Expression,&rsquo; p. 177. Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 369) says, &lsquo;les dents se
+découvrent, et imitent symboliquement l&rsquo;action de déchirer et de mordre.&rsquo;I
+If, instead of using the vague term <i>symboliquement</i>, Gratiolet had
+said that the action was a remnant of a habit acquired during primeval
+times when our semi-human progenitors fought together with their teeth,
+like gorillas and orangs at the present day, he would have been more
+intelligible. Dr. Piderit (&lsquo;Mimik,&rsquo; &amp;c., s. 82) also speaks of the
+retraction of the upper lip during rage. In an engraving of one of
+Hogarth&rsquo;s wonderful pictures, passion is represented in the plainest
+manner by the open glaring eyes, frowning forehead, and exposed grinning
+teeth.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1010" id="linknote-1010">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1010 (<a href="#linknoteref-1010">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Oliver Twist,&rsquo; vol.
+iii. p. 245.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1011" id="linknote-1011">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1011 (<a href="#linknoteref-1011">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Spectator,&rsquo; July
+11, 1868, p. 810.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1012" id="linknote-1012">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1012 (<a href="#linknoteref-1012">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Body and Mind,&rsquo;
+1870, pp. 51-53.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1013" id="linknote-1013">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1013 (<a href="#linknoteref-1013">return</a>)<br/> [ Le Brun, in his
+well-known &lsquo;Conference sur l&rsquo;Expression&rsquo; (&lsquo;La Physionomie, par Lavater,&rsquo;
+edit. of 1820, vol. lx. p. 268), remarks that anger is expressed by the
+clenching of the fists. See, to the same effect, Huschke, &lsquo;Mimices et
+Physiognomices, Fragmentum Physiologicum,&rsquo; 1824, p. 20. Also Sir C. Bell,
+&lsquo;Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo; p. 219.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1014" id="linknote-1014">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1014 (<a href="#linknoteref-1014">return</a>)<br/> [ Transact. Philosoph.
+Soc., Appendix, 1746, p. 65.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1015" id="linknote-1015">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1015 (<a href="#linknoteref-1015">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; p. 136. Sir C. Bell calls (p. 131) the muscles which uncover
+the canines the snarling muscles.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1016" id="linknote-1016">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1016 (<a href="#linknoteref-1016">return</a>)<br/> [ Hensleigh Wedgwood,
+&lsquo;Dictionary of English Etymology,&rsquo; 1865, vol. iii. pp. 240, 243.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1017" id="linknote-1017">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1017 (<a href="#linknoteref-1017">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Descent of Man,&rsquo;
+1871, vol. L p. 126.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1101" id="linknote-1101">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1101 (<a href="#linknoteref-1101">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De In Physionomie et
+la Parole,&rsquo; 1865, p. 89.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1102" id="linknote-1102">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1102 (<a href="#linknoteref-1102">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Physionomie
+Humaine,&rsquo; Album, Légende viii. p. 35. Gratiolet also speaks (De la Phys.
+1865, p. 52) of the turning away of the eyes and body.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1103" id="linknote-1103">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1103 (<a href="#linknoteref-1103">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. W. Ogle, in an
+interesting paper on the Sense of Smell (&lsquo;Medico-Chirurgical
+Transactions,&rsquo; vol. liii. p. 268), shows that when we wish to smell
+carefully, instead of taking one deep nasal inspiration, we draw in the
+air by a succession of rapid short sniffs. If &ldquo;the nostrils be watched
+during this process, it will be seen that, so far from dilating, they
+actually contract at each sniff. The contraction does not include the
+whole anterior opening, but only the posterior portion.&rdquo; He then explains
+the cause of this movement. When, on the other hand, we wish to exclude
+any odour, the contraction, I presume, affects only the anterior part of
+the nostrils.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1104" id="linknote-1104">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1104 (<a href="#linknoteref-1104">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mimik und
+Physiognomik,&rsquo; ss. 84, 93. Gratiolet (ibid. p. 155) takes nearly the same
+view with Dr. Piderit respecting the expression of contempt and disgust.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1105" id="linknote-1105">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1105 (<a href="#linknoteref-1105">return</a>)<br/> [ Scorn implies a
+strong form of contempt; and one of the roots of the word &lsquo;scorn&rsquo; means,
+according to Mr. Wedgwood (Dict. of English Etymology, vol. iii. p. 125),
+ordure or dirt. A person who is scorned is treated like dirt.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1106" id="linknote-1106">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1106 (<a href="#linknoteref-1106">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Early History of
+Mankind,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1870, p. 45.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1107" id="linknote-1107">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1107 (<a href="#linknoteref-1107">return</a>)<br/> [ See, to this effect,
+Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood&rsquo;s Introduction to the &lsquo;Dictionary of English
+Etymology,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1872, p. xxxvii.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1108" id="linknote-1108">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1108 (<a href="#linknoteref-1108">return</a>)<br/> [ Duchenne believes
+that in the eversion of the lower lip, the corners are drawn downwards by
+the <i>depressores anguli oris</i>. Henle (Handbuch d. Anat. des Menschen,
+1858, B. i. s. 151) concludes that this is effected by the <i>musculus
+quadratus menti</i>.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1109" id="linknote-1109">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1109 (<a href="#linknoteref-1109">return</a>)<br/> [ As quoted by Tylor,
+&lsquo;Primitive Culture,&rsquo; 1871, vol. i. p. 169.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1110" id="linknote-1110">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1110 (<a href="#linknoteref-1110">return</a>)<br/> [ Both these quotations
+are given by Mr. H. Wedgwood, &lsquo;On the Origin of Language,&rsquo; 1866, p. 75.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1111" id="linknote-1111">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1111 (<a href="#linknoteref-1111">return</a>)<br/> [ This is stated to be
+the case by Mr. Tylor (Early Hist. of Mankind, 2nd edit. 1870, p. 52); and
+he adds, &ldquo;it is not clear why this should be so.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1112" id="linknote-1112">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1112 (<a href="#linknoteref-1112">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Principles of
+Psychology,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1872, p. 552.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1113" id="linknote-1113">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1113 (<a href="#linknoteref-1113">return</a>)<br/> [ Gratiolet (De la
+Phys. p. 351) makes this remark, and has some good observations on the
+expression of pride. See Sir C. Bell (&lsquo;Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo; p. 111) on
+the action of the <i>musculus superbus</i>.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1114" id="linknote-1114">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1114 (<a href="#linknoteref-1114">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; p. 166.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1115" id="linknote-1115">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1115 (<a href="#linknoteref-1115">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Journey through
+Texas,&rsquo; p. 352.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1116" id="linknote-1116">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1116 (<a href="#linknoteref-1116">return</a>)<br/> [ Mrs. Oliphant, &lsquo;The
+Brownlows,&rsquo; vol. ii. p. 206.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1117" id="linknote-1117">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1117 (<a href="#linknoteref-1117">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Essai sur le
+Langage,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1846. I am much indebted to Miss Wedgwood for having
+given me this information, with an extract from the work.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1118" id="linknote-1118">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1118 (<a href="#linknoteref-1118">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;On the Origin of
+Language,&rsquo; 1866, p. 91.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1119" id="linknote-1119">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1119 (<a href="#linknoteref-1119">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;On the Vocal Sounds
+of L. Bridgman;&rsquo; Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 11.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1120" id="linknote-1120">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1120 (<a href="#linknoteref-1120">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mémoire sur les
+Microcéphales,&rsquo; 1867, p. 27.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1121" id="linknote-1121">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1121 (<a href="#linknoteref-1121">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Tylor,
+&lsquo;Early History of Mankind,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1870, p. 38.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1122" id="linknote-1122">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1122 (<a href="#linknoteref-1122">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. J. B. Jukes,
+&lsquo;Letters and Extracts,&rsquo; &amp;c. 1871, p. 248.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1123" id="linknote-1123">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1123 (<a href="#linknoteref-1123">return</a>)<br/> [ F. Lieber, &lsquo;On the
+Vocal Sounds,&rsquo; &amp;c. p. 11. Tylor, ibid. p. 53.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1124" id="linknote-1124">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1124 (<a href="#linknoteref-1124">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. King, Edinburgh
+Phil. Journal, 1845, p. 313.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1125" id="linknote-1125">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1125 (<a href="#linknoteref-1125">return</a>)<br/> [ Tylor, &lsquo;Early History
+of Mankind,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1870, p. 53.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1126" id="linknote-1126">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1126 (<a href="#linknoteref-1126">return</a>)<br/> [ Lubbock, &lsquo;The Origin
+of Civilization,&rsquo; 1870, p. 277. Tylor, ibid. p. 38. Lieber (ibid. p. 11)
+remarks on the negative of the Italians.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1201" id="linknote-1201">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1201 (<a href="#linknoteref-1201">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie,&rsquo; Album, 1862, p. 42.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1202" id="linknote-1202">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1202 (<a href="#linknoteref-1202">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Polyglot News
+Letter,&rsquo; Melbourne, Dec. 1858, p. 2.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1203" id="linknote-1203">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1203 (<a href="#linknoteref-1203">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; p. 106.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1204" id="linknote-1204">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1204 (<a href="#linknoteref-1204">return</a>)<br/> [ Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie,&rsquo; Album, p. 6.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1205" id="linknote-1205">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1205 (<a href="#linknoteref-1205">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for instance,
+Dr. Piderit (&lsquo;Mimik und Physiognomik,&rsquo; s. 88), who has a good discussion
+on the expression of surprise.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1206" id="linknote-1206">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1206 (<a href="#linknoteref-1206">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Murie has also
+given me information leading to the same conclusion, derived in part from
+comparative anatomy.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1207" id="linknote-1207">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1207 (<a href="#linknoteref-1207">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+1865, p. 234.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1208" id="linknote-1208">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1208 (<a href="#linknoteref-1208">return</a>)<br/> [ See, on this subject,
+Gratiolet, ibid. p. 254.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1209" id="linknote-1209">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1209 (<a href="#linknoteref-1209">return</a>)<br/> [ Lieber, &lsquo;On the Vocal
+Sounds of Laura Bridgman,&rsquo; Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p.
+7.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1210" id="linknote-1210">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1210 (<a href="#linknoteref-1210">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Wenderholme,&rsquo; vol.
+ii. p. 91.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1211" id="linknote-1211">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1211 (<a href="#linknoteref-1211">return</a>)<br/> [ Lieber, &lsquo;On the Vocal
+Sounds,&rsquo; &amp;c., ibid. p. 7.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1212" id="linknote-1212">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1212 (<a href="#linknoteref-1212">return</a>)<br/> [ Huschke, &lsquo;Mimices et
+Physiognomices,&rsquo; 1821, p. 18. Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 255) gives a
+figure of a man in this attitude, which, however, seems to me expressive
+of fear combined with astonishment. Le Brun also refers (Lavater, vol. ix.
+p. 299) to the hands of an astonished man being opened.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1213" id="linknote-1213">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1213 (<a href="#linknoteref-1213">return</a>)<br/> [ Huschke, ibid. p.
+18.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1214" id="linknote-1214">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1214 (<a href="#linknoteref-1214">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;North American
+Indians,&rsquo; 3rd edit. 1842, vol. i. p. 105.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1215" id="linknote-1215">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1215 (<a href="#linknoteref-1215">return</a>)<br/> [ H. Wedgwood, Dict. of
+English Etymology, vol. ii. 1862, p. 35. See, also, Gratiolet (&lsquo;De la
+Physionomie,&rsquo; p. 135) on the sources of such words as &lsquo;terror, horror,
+rigidus, frigidus,&rsquo; &amp;c.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1216" id="linknote-1216">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1216 (<a href="#linknoteref-1216">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bain (&lsquo;The
+Emotions and the Will,&rsquo; 1865, p. 54) explains in the following manner the
+origin of the custom &ldquo;of subjecting criminals in India to the ordeal of
+the morsel of rice. The accused is made to take a mouthful of rice, and
+after a little time to throw it out. If the morsel is quite dry, the party
+is believed to be guilty,&mdash;his own evil conscience operating to
+paralyse the salivating organs.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1217" id="linknote-1217">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1217 (<a href="#linknoteref-1217">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell,
+Transactions of Royal Phil. Soc. 1822, p. 308. &lsquo;Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo; p.
+88 and pp. 164-469.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1218" id="linknote-1218">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1218 (<a href="#linknoteref-1218">return</a>)<br/> [ See Moreau on the
+rolling of the eyes, in the edit. of 1820 of Lavater, tome iv. p. 263.
+Also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 17.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1219" id="linknote-1219">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1219 (<a href="#linknoteref-1219">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Observations on
+Italy,&rsquo; 1825, p. 48, as quoted in &lsquo;The Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo; p. 168.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1220" id="linknote-1220">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1220 (<a href="#linknoteref-1220">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Dr.
+Maudsley, &lsquo;Body and Mind,&rsquo; 1870, p. 41.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1221" id="linknote-1221">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1221 (<a href="#linknoteref-1221">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; p. 168.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1222" id="linknote-1222">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1222 (<a href="#linknoteref-1222">return</a>)<br/> [ Mécanisme de la Phys.
+Humaine, Album, Légende xi.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1223" id="linknote-1223">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1223 (<a href="#linknoteref-1223">return</a>)<br/> [ Ducheinne takes, in
+fact, this view (ibid. p. 45), as he attributes the contraction of the
+platysma to the shivering of fear (<i>frisson de la peur</i>); but he
+elsewhere compares the action with that which causes the hair of
+frightened quadrupeds to stand erect; and this can hardly be considered as
+quite correct.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1224" id="linknote-1224">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1224 (<a href="#linknoteref-1224">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+pp. 51, 256, 346.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1225" id="linknote-1225">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1225 (<a href="#linknoteref-1225">return</a>)<br/> [ As quoted in White&rsquo;s
+&lsquo;Gradation in Man,&rsquo; p. 57.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1226" id="linknote-1226">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1226 (<a href="#linknoteref-1226">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; p. 169.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1227" id="linknote-1227">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1227 (<a href="#linknoteref-1227">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie,&rsquo; Album, pl. 65, pp. 44, 45.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1228" id="linknote-1228">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1228 (<a href="#linknoteref-1228">return</a>)<br/> [ See remarks to this
+effect by Mr. Wedgwood, in the Introduction to his &lsquo;Dictionary of English
+Etymology,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1872, p. xxxvii. He shows by intermediate forms that
+the sounds here referred to have probably given rise to many words, such
+as <i>ugly, huge</i>, &amp;c.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1301" id="linknote-1301">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1301 (<a href="#linknoteref-1301">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Physiology or
+Mechanism of Blushing,&rsquo; 1839, p. 156. I shall have occasion often to quote
+this work in the present chapter.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1302" id="linknote-1302">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1302 (<a href="#linknoteref-1302">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Burgess, ibid. p.
+56. At p. 33 he also remarks on women blushing more freely than men, as
+stated below.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1303" id="linknote-1303">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1303 (<a href="#linknoteref-1303">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Vogt,
+&lsquo;Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,&rsquo; 1867, p. 20. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 56)
+doubts whether idiots ever blush.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1304" id="linknote-1304">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1304 (<a href="#linknoteref-1304">return</a>)<br/> [ Lieber &lsquo;On the Vocal
+Sounds,&rsquo; &amp;c.; Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1305" id="linknote-1305">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1305 (<a href="#linknoteref-1305">return</a>)<br/> [ Ibid. p. 182.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1306" id="linknote-1306">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1306 (<a href="#linknoteref-1306">return</a>)<br/> [ Moreau, in edit. of
+1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. p. 303.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1307" id="linknote-1307">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1307 (<a href="#linknoteref-1307">return</a>)<br/> [ Burgess. ibid. p. 38,
+on paleness after blushing, p. 177.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1308" id="linknote-1308">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1308 (<a href="#linknoteref-1308">return</a>)<br/> [ See Lavater, edit. of
+1820, vol. iv. p. 303.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1309" id="linknote-1309">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1309 (<a href="#linknoteref-1309">return</a>)<br/> [ Burgess, ibid. pp.
+114, 122. Moreau in Lavater, ibid. vol. iv. p. 293.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1310" id="linknote-1310">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1310 (<a href="#linknoteref-1310">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Letters from Egypt,&rsquo;
+1865, p. 66. Lady Gordon is mistaken when she says Malays and Mulattoes
+never blush.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1311" id="linknote-1311">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1311 (<a href="#linknoteref-1311">return</a>)<br/> [ Capt. Osborn
+(&lsquo;Quedah,&rsquo; p. 199), in speaking of a Malay, whom he reproached for
+cruelty, says he was glad to see that the man blushed.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1312" id="linknote-1312">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1312 (<a href="#linknoteref-1312">return</a>)<br/> [ J. R. Forster,
+&lsquo;Observations during a Voyage round the World,&rsquo; 4to, 1778, p. 229. Waitz
+gives (&lsquo;Introduction to Anthropology,&rsquo; Eng. translat. 1863, vol. i. p.
+135) references for other islands in the Pacific. See, also, Dampier &lsquo;On
+the Blushing of the Tunquinese&rsquo; (vol. ii. p. 40); but I have not consulted
+this work. Waitz quotes Bergmann, that the Kalmucks do not blush, but this
+may be doubted after what we have seen with respect to the Chinese. He
+also quotes Roth, who denies that the Abyssinians are capable of blushing.
+Unfortunately, Capt. Speedy, who lived so long with the Abyssinians, has
+not answered my inquiry on this head. Lastly, I must add that the Rajah
+Brooke has never observed the least sign of a blush with the Dyaks of
+Borneo; on the contrary under circumstances which would excite a blush in
+us, they assert &ldquo;that they feel the blood drawn from their faces.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1313" id="linknote-1313">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1313 (<a href="#linknoteref-1313">return</a>)<br/> [ Transact. of the
+Ethnological Soc. 1870, vol. ii. p. 16.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1314" id="linknote-1314">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1314 (<a href="#linknoteref-1314">return</a>)<br/> [ Humboldt, &lsquo;Personal
+Narrative,&rsquo; Eng. translat. vol. iii. p. 229.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1315" id="linknote-1315">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1315 (<a href="#linknoteref-1315">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Prichard,
+Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit 1851, vol. i. p. 271.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1316" id="linknote-1316">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1316 (<a href="#linknoteref-1316">return</a>)<br/> [ See, on this head,
+Burgess, ibid. p. 32. Also Waitz, &lsquo;Introduction to Anthropology,&rsquo; Eng.
+edit. vol. i. p. 139. Moreau gives a detailed account (&lsquo;Lavater,&rsquo; 1820,
+tom. iv. p. 302) of the blushing of a Madagascar negress-slave when forced
+by her brutal master to exhibit her naked bosom.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1317" id="linknote-1317">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1317 (<a href="#linknoteref-1317">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Prichard,
+Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit. 1851, vol. i. p. 225.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1318" id="linknote-1318">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1318 (<a href="#linknoteref-1318">return</a>)<br/> [ Burgess, ibid. p. 31.
+On mulattoes blushing, see p. 33. I have received similar accounts with
+respect to, mulattoes.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1319" id="linknote-1319">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1319 (<a href="#linknoteref-1319">return</a>)<br/> [ Barrington also says
+that the Australians of New South Wales blush, as quoted by Waitz, ibid.
+p. 135.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1320" id="linknote-1320">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1320 (<a href="#linknoteref-1320">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Wedgwood says
+(Dict. of English Etymology, vol. iii. 1865, p. 155) that the word shame
+&ldquo;may well originate in the idea of shade or concealment, and may be
+illustrated by the Low German <i>scheme</i>, shade or shadow.&rdquo; Gratiolet
+(De la Phys. pp. 357-362) has a good discussion on the gestures
+accompanying shame; but some of his remarks seem to me rather fanciful.
+See, also, Burgess (ibid. pp. 69, 134) on the same subject.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1321" id="linknote-1321">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1321 (<a href="#linknoteref-1321">return</a>)<br/> [ Burgess, ibid. pp.
+181, 182. Boerhaave also noticed (as quoted by Gratiolet, ibid. p. 361)
+the tendency to the secretion of tears during intense blushing. Mr.
+Bulmer, as we have seen, speaks of the &ldquo;watery eyes&rdquo; of the children of
+the Australian aborigines when ashamed.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1322" id="linknote-1322">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1322 (<a href="#linknoteref-1322">return</a>)<br/> [ See also Dr. J.
+Crichton Browne&rsquo;s Memoir on this subject in the &lsquo;West Riding Lunatic
+Asylum Medical Report,&rsquo; 1871, pp. 95-98.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1323" id="linknote-1323">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1323 (<a href="#linknoteref-1323">return</a>)<br/> [ In a discussion on
+so-called animal magnetism in &lsquo;Table Talk,&rsquo; vol. i.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1324" id="linknote-1324">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1324 (<a href="#linknoteref-1324">return</a>)<br/> [ Ibid. p. 40.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1325" id="linknote-1325">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1325 (<a href="#linknoteref-1325">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bain (&lsquo;The
+Emotions and the Will,&rsquo; 1865, p. 65) remarks on &ldquo;the shyness of manners
+which is induced between the sexes.... from the influence of mutual
+regard, by the apprehension on either side of not standing well with the
+other.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1326" id="linknote-1326">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1326 (<a href="#linknoteref-1326">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for evidence on
+this subject, &lsquo;The Descent of Man,&rsquo; &amp;c., vol. ii. pp. 71, 341.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1327" id="linknote-1327">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1327 (<a href="#linknoteref-1327">return</a>)<br/> [ H. Wedgwood, Dict.
+English Etymology, vol. iii. 1865, p. 184. So with the Latin word <i>verecundus</i>.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1328" id="linknote-1328">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1328 (<a href="#linknoteref-1328">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bain (&lsquo;The
+Emotions and the Will,&rsquo; p. 64) has discussed the &ldquo;abashed&rdquo; feelings
+experienced on these occasions, as well as the <i>stage-fright</i> of
+actors unused to the stage. Mr. Bain apparently attributes these feelings
+to simple apprehension or dread.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1329" id="linknote-1329">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1329 (<a href="#linknoteref-1329">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Essays on Practical
+Education,&rsquo; by Maria and R. L. Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 38.
+Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 187) insists strongly to the same effect.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1330" id="linknote-1330">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1330 (<a href="#linknoteref-1330">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Essays on Practical
+Education,&rsquo; by Maria and R. L. Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 50.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1331" id="linknote-1331">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1331 (<a href="#linknoteref-1331">return</a>)<br/> [ Bell, &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; p. 95. Burgess, as quoted below, ibid. p. 49. Gratiolet, De
+la Phys. p. 94.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1332" id="linknote-1332">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1332 (<a href="#linknoteref-1332">return</a>)<br/> [ On the authority of
+Lady Mary Wortley Montague; see Burgess, ibid. p. 43.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1333" id="linknote-1333">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1333 (<a href="#linknoteref-1333">return</a>)<br/> [ In England, Sir H.
+Holland was, I believe, the first to consider the influence of mental
+attention on various parts of the body, in his &lsquo;Medical Notes and
+Reflections,&rsquo; 1839 p. 64. This essay, much enlarged, was reprinted by Sir
+H. Holland in his &lsquo;Chapters on Mental Physiology,&rsquo; 1858, p. 79, from which
+work I always quote. At nearly the same time, as well as subsequently,
+Prof. Laycock discussed the same subject: see &lsquo;Edinburgh Medical and
+Surgical Journal,&rsquo; 1839, July, pp. 17-22. Also his &lsquo;Treatise on the
+Nervous Diseases of Women,&rsquo; 1840, p. 110; and &lsquo;Mind and Brain,&rsquo; vol. ii.
+1860, p. 327. Dr. Carpenter&rsquo;s views on mesmerism have a nearly similar
+bearing. The great physiologist Müller treated (&lsquo;Elements of Physiology,&rsquo;
+Eng. translat. vol. ii. pp. 937, 1085) of the influence of the attention
+on the senses. Sir J. Paget discusses the influence of the mind on the
+nutrition of parts, in his &lsquo;Lectures on Surgical Pathology,&rsquo; 1853, vol. i.
+p. 39: 1 quote from the 3rd edit. revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, p. 28.
+See, also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. pp. 283-287.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1334" id="linknote-1334">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1334 (<a href="#linknoteref-1334">return</a>)<br/> [ De la Phys. p. 283.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1340" id="linknote-1340">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1340 (<a href="#linknoteref-1340">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Maudsley has
+given (&lsquo;The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1868, p. 105), on
+good authority, some curious statements with respect to the improvement of
+the sense of touch by practice and attention. It is remarkable that when
+this sense has thus been rendered more acute at any point of the body, for
+instance, in a finger, it is likewise improved at the corresponding point
+on the opposite side of the body.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1341" id="linknote-1341">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1341 (<a href="#linknoteref-1341">return</a>)<br/> [ The Lancet,&rsquo; 1838,
+pp. 39-40, as quoted by Prof. Laycock, &lsquo;Nervous Diseases of Women,&rsquo; 1840,
+p. 110.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1342" id="linknote-1342">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1342 (<a href="#linknoteref-1342">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Chapters on Mental
+Physiology,&rsquo; 1858, pp. 91-93.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1343" id="linknote-1343">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1343 (<a href="#linknoteref-1343">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Lectures on Surgical
+Pathology,&rsquo; 3rd edit. revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, pp. 28, 31.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1344" id="linknote-1344">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1344 (<a href="#linknoteref-1344">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Elements of
+Physiology,&rsquo; Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 938.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1345" id="linknote-1345">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1345 (<a href="#linknoteref-1345">return</a>)<br/> [ Prof. Laycock has
+discussed this point in a very interesting manner. See his &lsquo;Nervous
+Diseases of Women,&rsquo; 1840, p. 110.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1346" id="linknote-1346">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1346 (<a href="#linknoteref-1346">return</a>)<br/> [ See, also, Mr.
+Michael Foster, on the action of the vaso-motor system, in his interesting
+Lecture before the royal Institution, as translated in the &lsquo;Revue des
+Cours Scientifiques,&rsquo; Sept. 25, 1869, p. 683.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1401" id="linknote-1401">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1401 (<a href="#linknoteref-1401">return</a>)<br/> [ See the interesting
+facts given by Dr. Bateman on &lsquo;Aphasia,&rsquo; 1870, p. 110.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1402" id="linknote-1402">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1402 (<a href="#linknoteref-1402">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;La Physionomie et la
+Parole,&rsquo; 1865, pp. 103, 118.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1403" id="linknote-1403">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1403 (<a href="#linknoteref-1403">return</a>)<br/> [ Rengger,
+&lsquo;Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,&rsquo; 1830, s. 55.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1404" id="linknote-1404">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1404 (<a href="#linknoteref-1404">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Moreau, in
+his edition of Lavater, 1820, tom. iv. p. 211.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1405" id="linknote-1405">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1405 (<a href="#linknoteref-1405">return</a>)<br/> [ Gratiolet (&lsquo;De la
+Physionomie,&rsquo; 1865, p. 66) insists on the truth of this conclusion.]
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1227 ***</div>
+</body>
+
+</html>
+
+
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig1-2.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig1-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4acbc84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig1-2.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig10.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig10.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0ff3454
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig10.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig11.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig11.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..72a4e72
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig11.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig12.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig12.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..580c02e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig12.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig13.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig13.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca3ee0c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig13.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig14.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig14.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3a2450
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig14.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig15.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig15.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1542937
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig15.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig16-17.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig16-17.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc03550
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig16-17.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig18.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig18.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..02ae73a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig18.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig19.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig19.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f49ca68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig19.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig20.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig20.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ed8ee02
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig20.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig21.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig21.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d4ffde4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig21.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig3.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b9684a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig3.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig4.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig4.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5624d91
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig4.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig5.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig5.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..35a48e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig5.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig6.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig6.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b84500
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig6.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig7.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig7.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..43bf6dc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig7.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig8.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig8.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d2e2fea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig8.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/fig9.jpg b/1227-h/images/fig9.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..515b84e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/fig9.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/plate-1.jpg b/1227-h/images/plate-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d2694d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/plate-1.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/plate-2.jpg b/1227-h/images/plate-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..69d18a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/plate-2.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/plate-3.jpg b/1227-h/images/plate-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2fa47e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/plate-3.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/plate-4.jpg b/1227-h/images/plate-4.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f1b3bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/plate-4.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/plate-5.jpg b/1227-h/images/plate-5.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f4671ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/plate-5.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/plate-6.jpg b/1227-h/images/plate-6.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a0e4d2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/plate-6.jpg
diff --git a/1227-h/images/plate-7.jpg b/1227-h/images/plate-7.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..91becbb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/1227-h/images/plate-7.jpg
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..43b45cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #1227 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1227)
diff --git a/old/1227-0.txt b/old/1227-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a574a42
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11357 @@
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals, by
+Charles Darwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals
+
+Author: Charles Darwin
+
+Release Date: March, 1998 [EBook #1227]
+Last Updated: October 21, 2019
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMOTION IN MAN AND ANIMALS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Keller and David Widger
+
+
+
+
+THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS
+
+By Charles Darwin
+
+_With Photographic And Other Illustrations_
+
+New York
+
+D. Appleton And Company
+
+1899
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+ DETAILED CONTENTS.
+
+ ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS.
+
+ INTRODUCTION.
+
+ CHAPTER I. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
+
+ CHAPTER II. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—_continued_.
+
+ CHAPTER III. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—_concluded_.
+
+ CHAPTER IV. — MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN ANIMALS.
+
+ CHAPTER V. — SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.
+
+ CHAPTER VI. — SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.
+
+ CHAPTER VII. — LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.
+
+ CHAPTER VIII. — JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
+
+ CHAPTER IX. —
+ REFLECTION—MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER—SULKINESS—DETERMINATION.
+
+ CHAPTER X. — HATRED AND ANGER.
+
+ CHAPTER XI. — DISDAIN—CONTEMPT—DISGUST-GUILT—PRIDE, ETC.
+
+ CHAPTER XII. — SURPRISE—ASTONISHMENT—FEAR—HORROR.
+
+ CHAPTER XIII. — SELF-ATTENTION—SHAME—SHYNESS—MODESTY: BLUSHING.
+
+ CHAPTER XIV. — CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
+
+ FOOTNOTES
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+
+ Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 1-2
+
+ Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 3
+
+ Small Dog Watching a Cat on A Table. Figure 4
+
+ Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind. Fig. 5
+
+ Dog in a humble and Affectionate Frame of Mind. Fig. 6
+
+ Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind. Fig. 7
+
+ Dog Carressing his Master. Fig. 8
+
+ Cat, Savage, and Prepared to Fight. Fig. 9
+
+ Cat in an Affectionate Frame of Mind. Fig. 10
+
+ Sound Producing Quills from Tail of a Porcupine. Fig. 11
+
+ Hen Driving Away a Dog from Her Chickens. Fig. 12
+
+ Swan Driving Away an Intruder. Fig 13
+
+ Head of Snarling Dog. Fig 14
+
+ Cat Terrified at a Dog. Fig.15
+
+ Cynopithecus Niger, Pleased by Being Caressed. Fig.17
+
+ Chimpanzee Disappointed and Sulky. Fig. 18
+
+ Screaming Infants. Plate I.
+
+ Obliquity of the Eyebrows. Plate II
+
+ Moderate Laughter and Smiling. Plate III
+
+ Ill-temper. Plate IV
+
+ Anger and Indignation. Plate VI
+
+ Scorn and Disdain. Plate V
+
+ Gestures of the Body. Plate VII
+
+ Photograph of an Insane Woman. Fig. 19
+
+ Terror. Fig. 20
+
+ Horror and Agony. Fig. 21
+
+
+_N.B_.—Several of the figures in these seven Heliotype Plates have been
+reproduced from photographs, instead of from the original negatives;
+and they are in consequence somewhat indistinct. Nevertheless they are
+faithful copies, and are much superior for my purpose to any drawing,
+however carefully executed.
+
+
+DETAILED CONTENTS.
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+CHAP. I—GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
+The three chief principles stated—The first principle—Serviceable
+actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind,
+and are performed whether or not of service in each particular case—The
+force of habit—Inheritance—Associated habitual movements in man—Reflex
+actions—Passage of habits into reflex actions—Associated habitual
+movements in the lower animals—Concluding remarks
+
+CHAP. II—GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.—_continued_.
+The Principle of Antithesis—Instances in the dog and cat—Origin of the
+principle—Conventional signs—The principle of antithesis has not arisen
+from opposite actions being consciously performed under opposite
+impulses
+
+CHAP. III—GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.—_concluded_.
+The principle of the direct action of the excited nervous system on the
+body, independently of the will and in part of habit—Change of colour
+in the hair—Trembling of the muscles—Modified
+secretions—Perspiration—Expression of extreme pain—Of rage, great joy,
+and terror—Contrast between the emotions which cause and do not cause
+expressive movements—Exciting and depressing states of the mind—Summary
+
+CHAP. IV—MEANS OF EXPRESSION. IN ANIMALS.
+The emission of sounds—Vocal sounds—Sounds otherwise produced—Erection
+of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &c., under the emotions of
+anger and terror—The drawing back of the ears as a preparation for
+fighting, and as an expression of anger—Erection of the ears and
+raising the head, a sign of attention
+
+CHAP. V.—SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.
+The Dog, various expressive movements of—Cats—Horses—Ruminants—Monkeys,
+their expression of joy and affection—Of pain—Anger Astonishment and
+Terror
+
+CHAP. VI.—SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.
+The screaming and weeping of infants—Form of features—Age at which
+weeping commences—The effects of habitual restraint on
+weeping—Sobbing—Cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes
+during screaming—Cause of the secretion of tears
+
+CHAP. VII.—LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.
+General effect of grief on the system—Obliquity of the eyebrows under
+suffering—On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows—On the
+depression of the corners of the mouth
+
+CHAP. VIII.—JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
+Laughter primarily the expression of joy—Ludicrous ideas—Movements of
+the features during laughter—Nature of the sound produced—The secretion
+of tears during loud laughter—Gradation from loud laughter to gentle
+smiling—High spirits—The expression of love—Tender feelings—Devotion
+
+CHAP. IX.—REFLECTION—MEDITATION—ILL—TEMPER—SULKINESS DETERMINATION.
+The act of frowning—Reflection with an effort or with the perception of
+something difficult or disagreeable—Abstracted
+meditation—Ill-temper—Moroseness—Obstinacy—Sulkiness and
+pouting—Decision or determination—The firm closure of the mouth
+
+CHAP. X.—HATRED AND ANGER.
+Hatred—Rage, effects of on the system—Uncovering of the teeth—Rage in
+the insane—Anger and indignation—As expressed by the various races of
+man—Sneering and defiance—The uncovering of the canine teeth on one
+side of the face
+
+CHAP. XI.—DISDAIN—CONTEMPT—DISGUST—GUILT—PRIDE,
+ETC.—HELPLESSNESS—PATIENCE—AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.
+Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed—Derisive
+Smile—Gestures expressive of contempt—Disgust—Guilt, deceit, pride,
+etc.—Helplessness or impotence—Patience—Obstinacy—Shrugging the
+shoulders common to most of the races of man—Signs of affirmation and
+negation
+
+CHAP. XII.—SURPRISE—ASTONISHMENT—FEAR—HORROR.
+Surprise, astonishment—Elevation of the eyebrows—Opening the
+mouth—Protrusion of the lips—Gestures accompanying surprise—Admiration
+Fear—Terror—Erection of the hair—Contraction of the platysma
+muscle—Dilatation of the pupils—horror—Conclusion.
+
+CHAP. XIII.—SELF-ATTENTION—SHAME—SHYNESS—MODESTY: BLUSHING.
+Nature of a blush—Inheritance—The parts of the body most
+affected—Blushing in the various races of man—Accompanying
+gestures—Confusion of mind—Causes of blushing—Self-attention, the
+fundamental element—Shyness—Shame, from broken moral laws and
+conventional rules—Modesty—Theory of blushing—Recapitulation
+
+CHAP. XIV.—CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
+The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements
+of expression—Their inheritance—On the part which the will and
+intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions—The
+instinctive recognition of expression—The bearing of our subject on the
+specific unity of the races of man—On the successive acquirement of
+various expressions by the progenitors of man—The importance of
+expression—Conclusion
+
+
+
+
+ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Many works have been written on Expression, but a greater number on
+Physiognomy,—that is, on the recognition of character through the study
+of the permanent form of the features. With this latter subject I am
+not here concerned. The older treatises,[1] which I have consulted,
+have been of little or no service to me. The famous ‘Conférences’[2] of
+the painter Le Brun, published in 1667, is the best known ancient work,
+and contains some good remarks. Another somewhat old essay, namely, the
+‘Discours,’ delivered 1774-1782, by the well-known Dutch anatomist
+Camper,[3] can hardly be considered as having made any marked advance
+in the subject. The following works, on the contrary, deserve the
+fullest consideration.
+
+Sir Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in physiology,
+published in 1806 the first edition, and in the third edition of his
+‘Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression.’[4] He may with justice be said,
+not only to have laid the foundations of the subject as a branch of
+science, but to have built up a noble structure. His work is in every
+way deeply interesting; it includes graphic descriptions of the various
+emotions, and is admirably illustrated. It is generally admitted that
+his service consists chiefly in having shown the intimate relation
+which exists between the movements of expression and those of
+respiration. One of the most important points, small as it may at first
+appear, is that the muscles round the eyes are involuntarily contracted
+during violent expiratory efforts, in order to protect these delicate
+organs from the pressure of the blood. This fact, which has been fully
+investigated for me with the greatest kindness by Professors Donders of
+Utrecht, throws, as we shall hereafter see, a flood of light on several
+of the most important expressions of the human countenance. The merits
+of Sir C. Bell’s work have been undervalued or quite ignored by several
+foreign writers, but have been fully admitted by some, for instance by
+M. Lemoine,[5] who with great justice says:—“Le livre de Ch. Bell
+devrait être médité par quiconque essaye de faire parler le visage de
+l’homme, par les philosophes aussi bien que par les artistes, car, sous
+une apparence plus légère et sous le prétexte de l’esthétique, c’est un
+des plus beaux monuments de la science des rapports du physique et du
+moral.”
+
+From reasons which will presently be assigned, Sir C. Bell did not
+attempt to follow out his views as far as they might have been carried.
+He does not try to explain why different muscles are brought into
+action under different emotions; why, for instance, the inner ends of
+the eyebrows are raised, and the corners of the mouth depressed, by a
+person suffering from grief or anxiety.
+
+In 1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater on Physiognomy,[6] in
+which he incorporated several of his own essays, containing excellent
+descriptions of the movements of the facial muscles, together with many
+valuable remarks. He throws, however, very little light on the
+philosophy of the subject. For instance, M. Moreau, in speaking of the
+act of frowning, that is, of the contraction of the muscle called by
+French writers the _soucilier_ (_corrigator supercilii_), remarks with
+truth:—“Cette action des sourciliers est un des symptômes les plus
+tranchés de l’expression des affections pénibles ou concentrées.” He
+then adds that these muscles, from their attachment and position, are
+fitted “à resserrer, à concentrer les principaux traits de la _face_,
+comme il convient dans toutes ces passions vraiment oppressives ou
+profondes, dans ces affections dont le sentiment semble porter
+l’organisation à revenir sur elle-même, à se contracter et à
+_s’amoindrir_, comme pour offrir moins de prise et de surface à des
+impressions redoutables ou importunes.” He who thinks that remarks of
+this kind throw any light on the meaning or origin of the different
+expressions, takes a very different view of the subject to what I do.
+
+In the above passage there is but a slight, if any, advance in the
+philosophy of the subject, beyond that reached by the painter Le Brun,
+who, in 1667, in describing the expression of fright, says:—“Le sourcil
+qui est abaissé d’un côté et élevé de l’autre, fait voir que la partie
+élevée semble le vouloir joindre au cerveau pour le garantir du mal que
+l’âme aperçoit, et le côté qui est abaissé et qui paraît enflé,—nous
+fait trouver dans cet état par les esprits qui viennent du cerveau en
+abondance, comme polir couvrir l’âme et la défendre du mal qu’elle
+craint; la bouche fort ouverte fait voir le saisissement du cœur, par
+le sang qui se retire vers lui, ce qui l’oblige, voulant respirer, à
+faire un effort qui est cause que la bouche s’ouvre extrêmement, et
+qui, lorsqu’il passe par les organes de la voix, forme un son qui n’est
+point articulé; que si les muscles et les veines paraissent enflés, ce
+n’est que par les esprits que le cerveau envoie en ces parties-là.” I
+have thought the foregoing sentences worth quoting, as specimens of the
+surprising nonsense which has been written on the subject.
+
+‘The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,’ by Dr. Burgess, appeared in
+1839, and to this work I shall frequently refer in my thirteenth
+Chapter.
+
+In 1862 Dr. Duchenne published two editions, in folio and octavo, of
+his ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ in which he analyses by
+means of electricity, and illustrates by magnificent photographs, the
+movements of the facial muscles. He has generously permitted me to copy
+as many of his photographs as I desired. His works have been spoken
+lightly of, or quite passed over, by some of his countrymen. It is
+possible that Dr. Duchenne may have exaggerated the importance of the
+contraction of single muscles in giving expression; for, owing to the
+intimate manner in which the muscles are connected, as may be seen in
+Henle’s anatomical drawings[7]—the best I believe ever published it is
+difficult to believe in their separate action. Nevertheless, it is
+manifest that Dr. Duchenne clearly apprehended this and other sources
+of error, and as it is known that he was eminently successful in
+elucidating the physiology of the muscles of the hand by the aid of
+electricity, it is probable that he is generally in the right about the
+muscles of the face. In my opinion, Dr. Duchenne has greatly advanced
+the subject by his treatment of it. No one has more carefully studied
+the contraction of each separate muscle, and the consequent furrows
+produced on the skin. He has also, and this is a very important
+service, shown which muscles are least under the separate control of
+the will. He enters very little into theoretical considerations, and
+seldom attempts to explain why certain muscles and not others contract
+under the influence of certain emotions.
+
+A distinguished French anatomist, Pierre Gratiolet, gave a course of
+lectures on Expression at the Sorbonne, and his notes were published
+(1865) after his death, under the title of ‘De la Physionomie et des
+Mouvements d’Expression.’ This is a very interesting work, full of
+valuable observations. His theory is rather complex, and, as far as it
+can be given in a single sentence (p. 65), is as follows:—“Il résulte,
+de tous les faits que j’ai rappelés, que les sens, l’imagination et la
+pensée elle-même, si élevée, si abstraite qu’on la suppose, ne peuvent
+s’exercer sans éveiller un sentiment corrélatif, et que ce sentiment se
+traduit directement, sympathiquement, symboliquement ou
+métaphoriquement, dans toutes les sphères des organs extérieurs, qui la
+racontent tous, suivant leur mode d’action propre, comme si chacun
+d’eux avait été directement affecté.”
+
+Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit, and even to some extent
+habit in the individual; and therefore he fails, as it seems to me, to
+give the right explanation, or any explanation at all, of many gestures
+and expressions. As an illustration of what he calls symbolic
+movements, I will quote his remarks (p. 37), taken from M. Chevreul, on
+a man playing at billiards. “Si une bille dévie légèrement de la
+direction que le joueur prétend lui imprimer, ne l’avez-vous pas vu
+cent fois la pousser du regard, de la tête et même des épaules, comme
+si ces mouvements, purement symboliques, pouvaient rectifier son
+trajet? Des mouvements non moins significatifs se produisent quand la
+bille manque d’une impulsion suffisante. Et cliez les joueurs novices,
+ils sont quelquefois accusés au point d’éveiller le sourire sur les
+lèvres des spectateurs.” Such movements, as it appeirs to me, may be
+attributed simply to habit. As often as a man has wished to move an
+object to one side, he has always pushed it to that side when forwards,
+he has pushed it forwards; and if he has wished to arrest it, he has
+pulled backwards. Therefore, when a man sees his ball travelling in a
+wrong direction, and he intensely wishes it to go in another direction,
+he cannot avoid, from long habit, unconsciously performing movements
+which in other cases he has found effectual.
+
+As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet gives (p. 212) the
+following case:—“un jeune chien à oreilles droites, auquel son maître
+présente de loin quelque viande appétissante, fixe avec ardeur ses yeux
+sur cet objet dont il suit tous les mouvements, et pendant que les yeux
+regardent, les deux oreilles se portent en avant comme si cet objet
+pouvait être entendu.” Here, instead of speaking of sympathy between
+the ears and eyes, it appears to me more simple to believe, that as
+dogs during many generations have, whilst intently looking at any
+object, pricked their ears in order to perceive any sound; and
+conversely have looked intently in the direction of a sound to which
+they may have listened, the movements of these organs have become
+firmly associated together through long-continued habit.
+
+Dr. Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, which I have not
+seen, but in which, as he states, he forestalled Gratiolet in many of
+his views. In 1867 he published his ‘Wissenschaftliches System der
+Mimik und Physiognomik.’ It is hardly possible to give in a few
+sentences a fair notion of his views; perhaps the two following
+sentences will tell as much as can be briefly told: “the muscular
+movements of expression are in part related to imaginary objects, and
+in part to imaginary sensorial impressions. In this proposition lies
+the key to the comprehension of all expressive muscular movements.” (s.
+25) Again, “Expressive movements manifest themselves chiefly in the
+numerous and mobile muscles of the face, partly because the nerves by
+which they are set into motion originate in the most immediate vicinity
+of the mind-organ, but partly also because these muscles serve to
+support the organs of sense.” (s. 26.) If Dr. Piderit had studied Sir
+C. Bell’s work, he would probably not have said (s. 101) that violent
+laughter causes a frown from partaking of the nature of pain; or that
+with infants (s. 103) the tears irritate the eyes, and thus excite the
+contraction of the surrounding in muscles. Many good remarks are
+scattered throughout this volume, to which I shall hereafter refer.
+
+Short discussions on Expression may be found in various works, which
+need not here be particularised. Mr. Bain, however, in two of his works
+has treated the subject at some length. He says,[8] “I look upon the
+expression so-called as part and parcel of the feeling. I believe it to
+be a general law of the mind that along with the fact of inward feeling
+or consciousness, there is a diffusive action or excitement over the
+bodily members.” In another place he adds, “A very considerable number
+of the facts may be brought under the following principle: namely, that
+states of pleasure are connected with an increase, and states of pain
+with an abatement, of some, or all, of the vital functions.” But the
+above law of the diffusive action of feelings seems too general to
+throw much light on special expressions.
+
+Mr. Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in his ‘Principles of
+Psychology’ (1855), makes the following remarks:—“Fear, when strong,
+expresses itself in cries, in efforts to hide or escape, in
+palpitations and tremblings; and these are just the manifestations that
+would accompany an actual experience of the evil feared. The
+destructive passions are shown in a general tension of the muscular
+system, in gnashing of the teeth and protrusion of the claws, in
+dilated eyes and nostrils in growls; and these are weaker forms of the
+actions that accompany the killing of prey.” Here we have, as I
+believe, the true theory of a large number of expressions; but the
+chief interest and difficulty of the subject lies in following out the
+wonderfully complex results. I infer that some one (but who he is I
+have not been able to ascertain) formerly advanced a nearly similar
+view, for Sir C. Bell says,[9] “It has been maintained that what are
+called the external signs of passion, are only the concomitants of
+those voluntary movements which the structure renders necessary.” Mr.
+Spencer has also published[10] a valuable essay on the physiology of
+Laughter, in which he insists on “the general law that feeling passing
+a certain pitch, habitually vents itself in bodily action,” and that
+“an overflow of nerve-force undirected by any motive, will manifestly
+take first the most habitual routes; and if these do not suffice, will
+next overflow into the less habitual ones.” This law I believe to be of
+the highest importance in throwing light on our subject.’[11]
+
+All the authors who have written on Expression, with the exception of
+Mr. Spencer—the great expounder of the principle of Evolution—appear to
+have been firmly convinced that species, man of course included, came
+into existence in their present condition. Sir C. Bell, being thus
+convinced, maintains that many of our facial muscles are “purely
+instrumental in expression;” or are “a special provision” for this sole
+object.[12] But the simple fact that the anthropoid apes possess the
+same facial muscles as we do,[13] renders it very improbable that these
+muscles in our case serve exclusively for expression; for no one, I
+presume, would be inclined to admit that monkeys have been endowed with
+special muscles solely for exhibiting their hideous grimaces. Distinct
+uses, independently of expression, can indeed be assigned with much
+probability for almost all the facial muscles.
+
+Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a distinction as possible
+between man and the lower animals; and he consequently asserts that
+with “the lower creatures there is no expression but what may be
+referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary
+instincts.” He further maintains that their faces “seem chiefly capable
+of expressing rage and fear.”[14] But man himself cannot express love
+and humility by external signs, so plainly as does a dog, when with
+drooping ears, hanging lips, flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets
+his beloved master. Nor can these movements in the dog be explained by
+acts of volition or necessary instincts, any more than the beaming eyes
+and smiling cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir C. Bell
+had been questioned about the expression of affection in the dog, he
+would no doubt have answered that this animal had been created with
+special instincts, adapting him for association with man, and that all
+further enquiry on the subject was superfluous.
+
+Although Gratiolet emphatically denies[15] that any muscle has been
+developed solely for the sake of expression, he seems never to have
+reflected on the principle of evolution. He apparently looks at each
+species as a separate creation. So it is with the other writers on
+Expression. For instance, Dr. Duchenne, after speaking of the movements
+of the limbs, refers to those which give expression to the face, and
+remarks:[16] “Le créateur n’a donc pas eu à se préoccuper ici des
+besoins de la mécanique; il a pu, selon sa sagesse, ou—que l’on me
+pardonne cette manière de parler—par une divine fantaisie, mettre en
+action tel ou tel muscle, un seul ou plusieurs muscles à la fois,
+lorsqu’il a voulu que les signes caractéristiques des passions, même
+les plus fugaces, fussent écrits passagèrement sur la face de l’homme.
+Ce langage de la physionomie une fois créé, il lui a suffi, pour le
+rendre universel et immuable, de donner à tout être humain la faculté
+instinctive d’exprimer toujours ses sendments par la contraction des
+mêmes muscles.”
+
+Many writers consider the whole subject of Expression as inexplicable.
+Thus the illustrious physiologist Müller, says,[17] “The completely
+different expression of the features in different passions shows that,
+according to the kind of feeling excited, entirely different groups of
+the fibres of the facial nerve are acted on. Of the cause of this we
+are quite ignorant.”
+
+No doubt as long as man and all other animals are viewed as independent
+creations, an effectual stop is put to our natural desire to
+investigate as far as possible the causes of Expression. By this
+doctrine, anything and everything can be equally well explained; and it
+has proved as pernicious with respect to Expression as to every other
+branch of natural history. With mankind some expressions, such as the
+bristling of the hair under the influence of extreme terror, or the
+uncovering of the teeth under that of furious rage, can hardly be
+understood, except on the belief that man once existed in a much lower
+and animal-like condition. The community of certain expressions in
+distinct though allied species, as in the movements of the same facial
+muscles during laughter by man and by various monkeys, is rendered
+somewhat more intelligible, if we believe in their descent from a
+common progenitor. He who admits on general grounds that the structure
+and habits of all animals have been gradually evolved, will look at the
+whole subject of Expression in a new and interesting light.
+
+The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements being
+often extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature. A difference may be
+clearly perceived, and yet it may be impossible, at least I have found
+it so, to state in what the difference consists. When we witness any
+deep emotion, our sympathy is so strongly excited, that close
+observation is forgotten or rendered almost impossible; of which fact I
+have had many curious proofs. Our imagination is another and still more
+serious source of error; for if from the nature of the circumstances we
+expect to see any expression, we readily imagine its presence.
+Notwithstanding Dr. Duchenne’s great experience, he for a long time
+fancied, as he states, that several muscles contracted under certain
+emotions, whereas he ultimately convinced himself that the movement was
+confined to a single muscle.
+
+In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to ascertain,
+independently of common opinion, how far particular movements of the
+features and gestures are really expressive of certain states of the
+mind, I have found the following means the most serviceable. In the
+first place, to observe infants; for they exhibit many emotions, as Sir
+C. Bell remarks, “with extraordinary force;” whereas, in after life,
+some of our expressions “cease to have the pure and simple source from
+which they spring in infancy.”[18]
+
+In the second place, it occurred to me that the insane ought to be
+studied, as they are liable to the strongest passions, and give
+uncontrolled vent to them. I had, myself, no opportunity of doing this,
+so I applied to Dr. Maudsley and received from him an introduction to
+Dr. J. Crichton Browne, who has charge of an immense asylum near
+Wakefield, and who, as I found, had already attended to the subject.
+This excellent observer has with unwearied kindness sent me copious
+notes and descriptions, with valuable suggestions on many points; and I
+can hardly over-estimate the value of his assistance. I owe also, to
+the kindness of Mr. Patrick Nicol, of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum,
+interesting statements on two or three points.
+
+Thirdly Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already seen, certain
+muscles in the face of an old man, whose skin was little sensitive, and
+thus produced various expressions which were photographed on a large
+scale. It fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best
+plates, without a word of explanation, to above twenty educated persons
+of various ages and both sexes, asking them, in each case, by what
+emotion or feeling the old man was supposed to be agitated; and I
+recorded their answers in the words which they used. Several of the
+expressions were instantly recognised by almost everyone, though
+described in not exactly the same terms; and these may, I think, be
+relied on as truthful, and will hereafter be specified. On the other
+hand, the most widely different judgments were pronounced in regard to
+some of them. This exhibition was of use in another way, by convincing
+me how easily we may be misguided by our imagination; for when I first
+looked through Dr. Duchenne’s photographs, reading at the same time the
+text, and thus learning what was intended, I was struck with admiration
+at the truthfulness of all, with only a few exceptions. Nevertheless,
+if I had examined them without any explanation, no doubt I should have
+been as much perplexed, in some cases, as other persons have been.
+
+Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters in
+painting and sculpture, who are such close observers. Accordingly, I
+have looked at photographs and engravings of many well-known works;
+but, with a few exceptions, have not thus profited. The reason no doubt
+is, that in works of art, beauty is the chief object; and strongly
+contracted facial muscles destroy beauty.[19] The story of the
+composition is generally told with wonderful force and truth by
+skilfully given accessories.
+
+Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascertain whether the same
+expressions and gestures prevail, as has often been asserted without
+much evidence, with all the races of mankind, especially with those who
+have associated but little with Europeans. Whenever the same movements
+of the features or body express the same emotions in several distinct
+races of man, we may infer with much probability, that such expressions
+are true ones,—that is, are innate or instinctive. Conventional
+expressions or gestures, acquired by the individual during early life,
+would probably have differed in the different races, in the same manner
+as do their languages. Accordingly I circulated, early in the year
+1867, the following printed queries with a request, which has been
+fully responded to, that actual observations, and not memory, might be
+trusted. These queries were written after a considerable interval of
+time, during which my attention had been otherwise directed, and I can
+now see that they might have been greatly improved. To some of the
+later copies, I appended, in manuscript, a few additional remarks:—
+
+(1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide,
+and by the eyebrows being raised?
+
+(2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows it to
+be visible? and especially how low down the body does the blush extend?
+
+(3.) When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his body
+and head erect, square his shoulders and clench his fists?
+
+(4) When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to understand any
+puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids?
+
+(5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed, and
+the inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which the French
+call the “Grief muscle”? The eyebrow in this state becomes slightly
+oblique, with a little swelling at the Inner end; and the forehead is
+transversely wrinkled in the middle part, but not across the whole
+breadth, as when the eyebrows are raised in surprise.
+
+(6.) When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little
+wrinkled round and under them, and with the mouth a little drawn back
+at the corners?
+
+(7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the upper
+lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side facing the man whom
+he addresses?
+
+(8) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized, which is
+chiefly shown by the mouth being firmly closed, a lowering brow and a
+slight frown?
+
+(9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips and by
+turning up the nose, and with a slight expiration?
+
+(10) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down, the upper lip
+slightly raised, with a sudden expiration, something like incipient
+vomiting, or like something spit out of the mouth?
+
+(11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as with
+Europeans?
+
+(12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears
+into the eyes?
+
+(13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something being
+done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his shoulders, turn
+inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands and open the palms; with
+the eyebrows raised?
+
+(14) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the lips?
+
+(15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized? though
+I know not how these can be defined.
+
+(16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken
+laterally in negation?
+
+Observations on natives who have had little communication with
+Europeans would be of course the most valuable, though those made on
+any natives would be of much interest to me. General remarks on
+expression are of comparatively little value; and memory is so
+deceptive that I earnestly beg it may not be trusted. A definite
+description of the countenance under any emotion or frame of mind, with
+a statement of the circumstances under which it occurred, would possess
+much value.
+
+To these queries I have received thirty-six answers from different
+observers, several of them missionaries or protectors of the
+aborigines, to all of whom I am deeply indebted for the great trouble
+which they have taken, and for the valuable aid thus received. I will
+specify their names, &c., towards the close of this chapter, so as not
+to interrupt my present remarks. The answers relate to several of the
+most distinct and savage races of man. In many instances, the
+circumstances have been recorded under which each expression was
+observed, and the expression itself described. In such cases, much
+confidence may be placed in the answers. When the answers have been
+simply yes or no, I have always received them with caution. It follows,
+from the information thus acquired, that the same state of mind is
+expressed throughout the world with remarkable uniformity; and this
+fact is in itself interesting as evidence of the close similarity in
+bodily structure and mental disposition of all the races, of mankind.
+
+Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended as closely as I could, to the
+expression of the several passions in some of the commoner animals; and
+this I believe to be of paramount importance, not of course for
+deciding how far in man certain expressions are characteristic of
+certain states of mind, but as affording the safest basis for
+generalisation on the causes, or origin, of the various movements of
+Expression. In observing animals, we are not so likely to be biassed by
+our imagination; and we may feel safe that their expressions are not
+conventional.
+
+From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting nature of some
+expressions (the changes in the features being often extremely slight);
+our sympathy being easily aroused when we behold any strong emotion,
+and our attention thus distracted; our imagination deceiving us, from
+knowing in a vague manner what to expect, though certainly few of us
+know what the exact changes in the countenance are; and lastly, even
+our long familiarity with the subject,—from all these causes combined,
+the observation of Expression is by no means easy, as many persons,
+whom I have asked to observe certain points, have soon discovered.
+Hence it is difficult to determine, with certainty, what are the
+movements of the features and of the body, which commonly characterize
+certain states of the mind. Nevertheless, some of the doubts and
+difficulties have, as I hope, been cleared away by the observation of
+infants,—of the insane,—of the different races of man,—of works of
+art,—and lastly, of the facial muscles under the action of galvanism,
+as effected by Dr. Duchenne.
+
+But there remains the much greater difficulty of understanding the
+cause or origin of the several expressions, and of judging whether any
+theoretical explanation is trustworthy. Besides, judging as well as we
+can by our reason, without the aid of any rules, which of two or more
+explanations is the most satisfactory, or are quite unsatisfactory, I
+see only one way of testing our conclusions. This is to observe whether
+the same principle by which one expression can, as it appears, be
+explained, is applicable in other allied cases; and especially, whether
+the same general principles can be applied with satisfactory results,
+both to man and the lower animals. This latter method, I am inclined to
+think, is the most serviceable of all. The difficulty of judging of the
+truth of any theoretical explanation, and of testing it by some
+distinct line of investigation, is the great drawback to that interest
+which the study seems well fitted to excite.
+
+Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may state that they
+were commenced in the year 1838; and from that time to the present day,
+I have occasionally attended to the subject. At the above date, I was
+already inclined to believe in the principle of evolution, or of the
+derivation of species from other and lower forms. Consequently, when I
+read Sir C. Bell’s great work, his view, that man had been created with
+certain muscles specially adapted for the expression of his feelings,
+struck me as unsatisfactory. It seemed probable that the habit of
+expressing our feelings by certain movements, though now rendered
+innate, had been in some manner gradually acquired. But to discover how
+such habits had been acquired was perplexing in no small degree. The
+whole subject had to be viewed under a new aspect, and each expression
+demanded a rational explanation. This belief led me to attempt the
+present work, however imperfectly it may have been executed.
+
+
+I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, as I have said, I
+am deeply indebted for information in regard to the expressions
+exhibited by various races of man, and I will specify some of the
+circumstances under which the observations were in each case made.
+Owing to the great kindness and powerful influence of Mr. Wilson, of
+Hayes Place, Kent, I have received from Australia no less than thirteen
+sets of answers to my queries. This has been particularly fortunate, as
+the Australian aborigines rank amongst the most distinct of all the
+races of man. It will be seen that the observations have been chiefly
+made in the south, in the outlying parts of the colony of Victoria; but
+some excellent answers have been received from the north.
+
+Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valuable observations, made
+several hundred miles in the interior of Queensland. To Mr. R. Brough
+Smyth, of Melbourne, I am much indebted for observations made by
+himself, and for sending me several of the following letters,
+namely:—From the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer, of Lake Wellington, a missionary
+in Gippsland, Victoria, who has had much experience with the natives.
+From Mr. Samuel Wilson, a landowner, residing at Langerenong, Wimmera,
+Victoria. From the Rev. George Taplin, superintendent of the native
+Industrial Settlement at Port Macleay. From Mr. Archibald G. Lang, of
+Coranderik, Victoria, a teacher at a school where aborigines, old and
+young, are collected from all parts of the colony. From Mr. H. B. Lane,
+of Belfast, Victoria, a police magistrate and warden, whose
+observations, as I am assured, are highly trustworthy. From Mr.
+Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose station is on the borders of the
+colony of Victoria, and who has thus been able to observe many
+aborigines who have had little intercourse with white men. He compared
+his observations with those made by two other gentlemen long resident
+in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr. J. Bulmer, a missionary in a remote
+part of Gippsland, Victoria.
+
+I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr. Ferdinand Müller,
+of Victoria, for some observations made by himself, and for sending me
+others made by Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing
+letters.
+
+In regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Rev. J. W. Stack has
+answered only a few of my queries; but the answers have been remarkably
+full, clear, and distinct, with the circumstances recorded under which
+the observations were made.
+
+The Rajah Brooke has given me some information with respect to the
+Dyaks of Borneo.
+
+Respecting the Malays, I have been highly successful; for Mr. F. Geach
+(to whom I was introduced by Mr. Wallace), during his residence as a
+mining engineer in the interior of Malacca, observed many natives, who
+had never before associated with white men. He wrote me two long
+letters with admirable and detailed observations on their expression.
+He likewise observed the Chinese immigrants in the Malay archipelago.
+
+The well-known naturalist, H. M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, also observed for
+me the Chinese in their native country; and he made inquiries from
+others whom he could trust.
+
+In India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official capacity in
+the Admednugur District in the Bombay Presidency, attended to the
+expression of the inhabitants, but found much difficulty in arriving at
+any safe conclusions, owing to their habitual concealment of all
+emotions in the presence of Europeans. He also obtained information for
+me from Mr. West, the Judge in Canara, and he consulted some
+intelligent native gentlemen on certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J.
+Scott, curator of the Botanic Gardens, carefully observed the various
+tribes of men therein employed during a considerable period, and no one
+has sent me such full and valuable details. The habit of accurate
+observation, gained by his botanical studies, has been brought to bear
+on our present subject. For Ceylon I am much indebted to the Rev. S. O.
+Glenie for answers to some of my queries.
+
+Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with respect to the negroes,
+though Mr. Winwood Reade aided me as far as lay in his power. It would
+have been comparatively easy to have obtained information in regard to
+the negro slaves in America; but as they have long associated with
+white men, such observations would have possessed little value. In the
+southern parts of the continent Mrs. Barber observed the Kafirs and
+Fingoes, and sent me many distinct answers. Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale also
+made some observations on the natives, and procured for me a curious
+document, namely, the opinion, written in English, of Christian Gaika,
+brother of the Chief Sandilli, on the expressions of his
+fellow-countrymen. In the northern regions of Africa Captain Speedy,
+who long resided with the Abyssinians, answered my queries partly from
+memory and partly from observations made on the son of King Theodore,
+who was then under his charge. Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray attended to
+some points in the expressions of the natives, as observed by them
+whilst ascending the Nile.
+
+On the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a catechist residing with
+the Fuegians, answered some few questions about their expression,
+addressed to him many years ago. In the northern half of the continent
+Dr. Rothrock attended to the expressions of the wild Atnah and Espyox
+tribes on the Nasse River, in North-Western America. Mr. Washington
+Matthews Assistant-Surgeon in the United States Army, also observed
+with special care (after having seen my queries, as printed in the
+‘Smithsonian Report’) some of the wildest tribes in the Western parts
+of the United States, namely, the Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans, and
+Assinaboines; and his answers have proved of the highest value.
+
+Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I have collected
+some few facts incidentally given in books of travels.——
+
+
+
+Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 1-2
+
+
+
+Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 3
+
+As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the latter part of
+this volume, to the muscles of the human face, I have had a diagram
+(fig. 1) copied and reduced from Sir C. Bell’s work, and two others,
+with more accurate details (figs. 2 and 3), from Herde’s well-known
+‘Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.’ The same letters
+refer to the same muscles in all three figures, but the names are given
+of only the more important ones to which I shall have to allude. The
+facial muscles blend much together, and, as I am informed, hardly
+appear on a dissected face so distinct as they are here represented.
+Some writers consider that these muscles consist of nineteen pairs,
+with one unpaired;[20] but others make the number much larger,
+amounting even to fifty-five, according to Moreau. They are, as is
+admitted by everyone who has written on the subject, very variable in
+structure; and Moreau remarks that they are hardly alike in
+half-a-dozen subjects.[21] They are also variable in function. Thus the
+power of uncovering the canine tooth on one side differs much in
+different persons. The power of raising the wings of the nostrils is
+also, according to Dr. Piderit,[22] variable in a remarkable degree;
+and other such cases could be given.
+
+Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing my obligations to Mr.
+Rejlander for the trouble which he has taken in photographing for me
+various expressions and gestures. I am also indebted to Herr
+Kindermann, of Hamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of
+crying infants; and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one of a smiling
+girl. I have already expressed my obligations to Dr. Duchenne for
+generously permitting me to have some of his large photographs copied
+and reduced. All these photographs have been printed by the Heliotype
+process, and the accuracy of the copy is thus guaranteed. These plates
+are referred to by Roman numerals.
+
+I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme pains
+which he has taken in drawing from life the expressions of various
+animals. A distinguished artist, Mr. Riviere, has had the kindness to
+give me two drawings of dogs—one in a hostile and the other in a humble
+and caressing frame of mind. Mr. A. May has also given me two similar
+sketches of dogs. Mr. Cooper has taken much care in cutting the blocks.
+Some of the photographs and drawings, namely, those by Mr. May, and
+those by Mr. Wolf of the Cynopithecus, were first reproduced by Mr.
+Cooper on wood by means of photography, and then engraved: by this
+means almost complete fidelity is ensured.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
+
+The three chief principles stated—The first principle—Serviceable
+actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind,
+and are performed whether or not of service in each particular case—The
+force of habit—Inheritance—Associated habitual movements in man—Reflex
+actions—Passage of habits into reflex actions—Associated habitual
+movements in the lower animals—Concluding remarks.
+
+I will begin by giving the three Principles, which appear to me to
+account for most of the expressions and gestures involuntarily used by
+man and the lower animals, under the influence of various emotions and
+sensations.[101] I arrived, however, at these three Principles only at
+the close of my observations. They will be discussed in the present and
+two following chapters in a general manner. Facts observed both with
+man and the lower animals will here be made use of; but the latter
+facts are preferable, as less likely to deceive us. In the fourth and
+fifth chapters, I will describe the special expressions of some of the
+lower animals; and in the succeeding chapters those of man. Everyone
+will thus be able to judge for himself, how far my three principles
+throw light on the theory of the subject. It appears to me that so many
+expressions are thus explained in a fairly satisfactory manner, that
+probably all will hereafter be found to come under the same or closely
+analogous heads. I need hardly premise that movements or changes in any
+part of the body,—as the wagging of a dog’s tail, the drawing back of a
+horse’s ears, the shrugging of a man’s shoulders, or the dilatation of
+the capillary vessels of the skin,—may all equally well serve for
+expression. The three Principles are as follows.
+
+I. _The principle of serviceable associated Habits_.—Certain complex
+actions are of direct or indirect service under certain states of the
+mind, in order to relieve or gratify certain sensations, desires, &c.;
+and whenever the same state of mind is induced, however feebly, there
+is a tendency through the force of habit and association for the same
+movements to be performed, though they may not then be of the least
+use. Some actions ordinarily associated through habit with certain
+states of the mind may be partially repressed through the will, and in
+such cases the muscles which are least under the separate control of
+the will are the most liable still to act, causing movements which we
+recognize as expressive. In certain other cases the checking of one
+habitual movement requires other slight movements; and these are
+likewise expressive.
+
+II. _The principle of Antithesis_.—Certain states of the mind lead to
+certain habitual actions, which are of service, as under our first
+principle. Now when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, there
+is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements of
+a directly opposite nature, though these are of no use; and such
+movements are in some cases highly expressive.
+
+III. _The principle of actions due to the constitution of the Nervous
+System, independently from the first of the Will, and independently to
+a certain extent of Habit_.—When the sensorium is strongly excited,
+nerve-force is generated in excess, and is transmitted in certain
+definite directions, depending on the connection of the nerve-cells,
+and partly on habit: or the supply of nerve-force may, as it appears,
+be interrupted. Effects are thus produced which we recognize as
+expressive. This third principle may, for the sake of brevity, be
+called that of the direct action of the nervous system.
+
+With respect to our _first Principle_, it is notorious how powerful is
+the force of habit. The most complex and difficult movements can in
+time be performed without the least effort or consciousness. It is not
+positively known how it comes that habit is so efficient in
+facilitating complex movements; but physiologists admit[102] “that the
+conducting power of the nervous fibres increases with the frequency of
+their excitement.” This applies to the nerves of motion and sensation,
+as well as to those connected with the act of thinking. That some
+physical change is produced in the nerve-cells or nerves which are
+habitually used can hardly be doubted, for otherwise it is impossible
+to understand how the tendency to certain acquired movements is
+inherited. That they are inherited we see with horses in certain
+transmitted paces, such as cantering and ambling, which are not natural
+to them,—in the pointing of young pointers and the setting of young
+setters—in the peculiar manner of flight of certain breeds of the
+pigeon, &c. We have analogous cases with mankind in the inheritance of
+tricks or unusual gestures, to which we shall presently recur. To those
+who admit the gradual evolution of species, a most striking instance of
+the perfection with which the most difficult consensual movements can
+be transmitted, is afforded by the humming-bird Sphinx-moth
+(_Macroglossa_); for this moth, shortly after its emergence from the
+cocoon, as shown by the bloom on its unruffled scales, may be seen
+poised stationary in the air, with its long hair-like proboscis
+uncurled and inserted into the minute orifices of flowers; and no one,
+I believe, has ever seen this moth learning to perform its difficult
+task, which requires such unerring aim.
+
+When there exists an inherited or instinctive tendency to the
+performance of an action, or an inherited taste for certain kinds of
+food, some degree of habit in the individual is often or generally
+requisite. We find this in the paces of the horse, and to a certain
+extent in the pointing of dogs; although some young dogs point
+excellently the first time they are taken out, yet they often associate
+the proper inherited attitude with a wrong odour, and even with
+eyesight. I have heard it asserted that if a calf be allowed to suck
+its mother only once, it is much more difficult afterwards to rear it
+by hand.[103] Caterpillars which have been fed on the leaves of one
+kind of tree, have been known to perish from hunger rather than to eat
+the leaves of another tree, although this afforded them their proper
+food, under a state of nature;[104] and so it is in many other cases.
+
+The power of Association is admitted by everyone. Mr. Bain remarks,
+that “actions, sensations and states of feeling, occurring together or
+in close succession, tend to grow together, or cohere, in such a way
+that when any one of them is afterwards presented to the mind, the
+others are apt to be brought up in idea.”[105] It is so important for
+our purpose fully to recognize that actions readily become associated
+with other actions and with various states of the mind, that I will
+give a good many instances, in the first place relating to man, and
+afterwards to the lower animals. Some of the instances are of a very
+trifling nature, but they are as good for our purpose as more important
+habits. It is known to everyone how difficult, or even impossible it
+is, without repeated trials, to move the limbs in certain opposed
+directions which have never been practised. Analogous cases occur with
+sensations, as in the common experiment of rolling a marble beneath the
+tips of two crossed fingers, when it feels exactly like two marbles.
+Everyone protects himself when falling to the ground by extending his
+arms, and as Professor Alison has remarked, few can resist acting thus,
+when voluntarily falling on a soft bed. A man when going out of doors
+puts on his gloves quite unconsciously; and this may seem an extremely
+simple operation, but he who has taught a child to put on gloves, knows
+that this is by no means the case.
+
+When our minds are much affected, so are the movements of our bodies;
+but here another principle besides habit, namely the undirected
+overflow of nerve-force, partially comes into play. Norfolk, in
+speaking of Cardinal Wolsey, says—
+
+“Some strange commotion
+Is in his brain; he bites his lip and starts;
+Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground,
+Then, lays his finger on his temple: straight,
+Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again,
+Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he casts
+His eye against the moon: in most strange postures
+We have seen him set himself.”—_Hen. VIII_., act iii, sc. 2.
+
+
+A vulgar man often scratches his head when perplexed in mind; and I
+believe that he acts thus from habit, as if he experienced a slightly
+uncomfortable bodily sensation, namely, the itching of his head, to
+which he is particularly liable, and which he thus relieves. Another
+man rubs his eyes when perplexed, or gives a little cough when
+embarrassed, acting in either case as if he felt a slightly
+uncomfortable sensation in his eyes or windpipe.[106]
+
+From the continued use of the eyes, these organs are especially liable
+to be acted on through association under various states of the mind,
+although there is manifestly nothing to be seen. A man, as Gratiolet
+remarks, who vehemently rejects a proposition, will almost certainly
+shut his eyes or turn away his face; but if he accepts the proposition,
+he will nod his head in affirmation and open his eyes widely. The man
+acts in this latter case as if he clearly saw the thing, and in the
+former case as if he did not or would not see it. I have noticed that
+persons in describing a horrid sight often shut their eyes momentarily
+and firmly, or shake their heads, as if not to see or to drive away
+something disagreeable; and I have caught myself, when thinking in the
+dark of a horrid spectacle, closing my eyes firmly. In looking suddenly
+at any object, or in looking all around, everyone raises his eyebrows,
+so that the eyes may be quickly and widely opened; and Duchenne remarks
+that[107] a person in trying to remember something often raises his
+eyebrows, as if to see it. A Hindoo gentleman made exactly the same
+remark to Mr. Erskine in regard to his countrymen. I noticed a young
+lady earnestly trying to recollect a painter’s name, and she first
+looked to one corner of the ceiling and then to the opposite corner,
+arching the one eyebrow on that side; although, of course, there was
+nothing to be seen there.
+
+In most of the foregoing cases, we can understand how the associated
+movements were acquired through habit; but with some individuals,
+certain strange gestures or tricks have arisen in association with
+certain states of the mind, owing to wholly inexplicable causes, and
+are undoubtedly inherited. I have elsewhere given one instance from my
+own observation of an extraordinary and complex gesture, associated
+with pleasurable feelings, which was transmitted from a father to his
+daughter, as well as some other analogous facts.[108] Another curious
+instance of an odd inherited movement, associated with the wish to
+obtain an object, will be given in the course of this volume.
+
+There are other actions which are commonly performed under certain
+circumstances, independently of habit, and which seem to be due to
+imitation or some sort of sympathy. Thus persons cutting anything with
+a pair of scissors may be seen to move their jaws simultaneously with
+the blades of the scissors. Children learning to write often twist
+about their tongues as their fingers move, in a ridiculous fashion.
+When a public singer suddenly becomes a little hoarse, many of those
+present may be heard, as I have been assured by a gentleman on whom I
+can rely, to clear their throats; but here habit probably comes into
+play, as we clear our own throats under similar circumstances. I have
+also been told that at leaping matches, as the performer makes his
+spring, many of the spectators, generally men and boys, move their
+feet; but here again habit probably comes into play, for it is very
+doubtful whether women would thus act.
+
+_Reflex actions_—Reflex actions, in the strict sense of the term, are
+due to the excitement of a peripheral nerve, which transmits its
+influence to certain nerve-cells, and these in their turn excite
+certain muscles or glands into action; and all this may take place
+without any sensation or consciousness on our part, though often thus
+accompanied. As many reflex actions are highly expressive, the subject
+must here be noticed at some little length. We shall also see that some
+of them graduate into, and can hardly be distinguished from actions
+which have arisen through habit?[109] Coughing and sneezing are
+familiar instances of reflex actions. With infants the first act of
+respiration is often a sneeze, although this requires the co-ordinated
+movement of numerous muscles. Respiration is partly voluntary, but
+mainly reflex, and is performed in the most natural and best manner
+without the interference of the will. A vast number of complex
+movements are reflex. As good an instance as can be given is the
+often-quoted one of a decapitated frog, which cannot of course feel,
+and cannot consciously perform, any movement. Yet if a drop of acid be
+placed on the lower surface of the thigh of a frog in this state, it
+will rub off the drop with the upper surface of the foot of the same
+leg. If this foot be cut off, it cannot thus act. “After some fruitless
+efforts, therefore, it gives up trying in that way, seems restless, as
+though, says Pflüger, it was seeking some other way, and at last it
+makes use of the foot of the other leg and succeeds in rubbing off the
+acid. Notably we have here not merely contractions of muscles, but
+combined and harmonized contractions in due sequence for a special
+purpose. These are actions that have all the appearance of being guided
+by intelligence and instigated by will in an animal, the recognized
+organ of whose intelligence and will has been removed.”[110]
+
+We see the difference between reflex and voluntary movements in very
+young children not being able to perform, as I am informed by Sir Henry
+Holland, certain acts somewhat analogous to those of sneezing and
+coughing, namely, in their not being able to blow their noses (_i.e._
+to compress the nose and blow violently through the passage), and in
+their not being able to clear their throats of phlegm. They have to
+learn to perform these acts, yet they are performed by us, when a
+little older, almost as easily as reflex actions. Sneezing and
+coughing, however, can be controlled by the will only partially or not
+at all; whilst the clearing the throat and blowing the nose are
+completely under our command.
+
+When we are conscious of the presence of an irritating particle in our
+nostrils or windpipe—that is, when the same sensory nerve-cells are
+excited, as in the case of sneezing and coughing—we can voluntarily
+expel the particle by forcibly driving air through these passages; but
+we cannot do this with nearly the same force, rapidity, and precision,
+as by a reflex action. In this latter case the sensory nerve-cells
+apparently excite the motor nerve-cells without any waste of power by
+first communicating with the cerebral hemispheres—the seat of our
+consciousness and volition. In all cases there seems to exist a
+profound antagonism between the same movements, as directed by the will
+and by a reflex stimulant, in the force with which they are performed
+and in the facility with which they are excited. As Claude Bernard
+asserts, “L’influence du cerveau tend donc à entraver les mouvements
+réflexes, à limiter leur force et leur étendue.”[111]
+
+The conscious wish to perform a reflex action sometimes stops or
+interrupts its performance, though the proper sensory nerves may be
+stimulated. For instance, many years ago I laid a small wager with a
+dozen young men that they would not sneeze if they took snuff, although
+they all declared that they invariably did so; accordingly they all
+took a pinch, but from wishing much to succeed, not one sneezed, though
+their eyes watered, and all, without exception, had to pay me the
+wager. Sir H. Holland remarks[112] that attention paid to the act of
+swallowing interferes with the proper movements; from which it probably
+follows, at least in part, that some persons find it so difficult to
+swallow a pill.
+
+Another familiar instance of a reflex action is the involuntary closing
+of the eyelids when the surface of the eye is touched. A similar
+winking movement is caused when a blow is directed towards the face;
+but this is an habitual and not a strictly reflex action, as the
+stimulus is conveyed through the mind and not by the excitement of a
+peripheral nerve. The whole body and head are generally at the same
+time drawn suddenly backwards. These latter movements, however, can be
+prevented, if the danger does not appear to the imagination imminent;
+but our reason telling us that there is no danger does not suffice. I
+may mention a trifling fact, illustrating this point, and which at the
+time amused me. I put my face close to the thick glass-plate in front
+of a puff-adder in the Zoological Gardens, with the firm determination
+of not starting back if the snake struck at me; but, as soon as the
+blow was struck, my resolution went for nothing, and I jumped a yard or
+two backwards with astonishing rapidity. My will and reason were
+powerless against the imagination of a danger which had never been
+experienced.
+
+The violence of a start seems to depend partly on the vividness of the
+imagination, and partly on the condition, either habitual or temporary,
+of the nervous system. He who will attend to the starting of his horse,
+when tired and fresh, will perceive how perfect is the gradation from a
+mere glance at some unexpected object, with a momentary doubt whether
+it is dangerous, to a jump so rapid and violent, that the animal
+probably could not voluntarily whirl round in so rapid a manner. The
+nervous system of a fresh and highly-fed horse sends its order to the
+motory system so quickly, that no time is allowed for him to consider
+whether or not the danger is real. After one violent start, when he is
+excited and the blood flows freely through his brain, he is very apt to
+start again; and so it is, as I have noticed, with young infants.
+
+A start from a sudden noise, when the stimulus is conveyed through the
+auditory nerves, is always accompanied in grown-up persons by the
+winking of the eyelids.[113] I observed, however, that though my
+infants started at sudden sounds, when under a fortnight old, they
+certainly did not always wink their eyes, and I believe never did so.
+The start of an older infant apparently represents a vague catching
+hold of something to prevent falling. I shook a pasteboard box close
+before the eyes of one of my infants, when 114 days old, and it did not
+in the least wink; but when I put a few comfits into the box, holding
+it in the same position as before, and rattled them, the child blinked
+its eyes violently every time, and started a little. It was obviously
+impossible that a carefully-guarded infant could have learnt by
+experience that a rattling sound near its eyes indicated danger to
+them. But such experience will have been slowly gained at a later age
+during a long series of generations; and from what we know of
+inheritance, there is nothing improbable in the transmission of a habit
+to the offspring at an earlier age than that at which it was first
+acquired by the parents.
+
+From the foregoing remarks it seems probable that some actions, which
+were at first performed consciously, have become through habit and
+association converted into reflex actions, and are now so firmly fixed
+and inherited, that they are performed, even when not of the least
+use,[114] as often as the same causes arise, which originally excited
+them in us through the volition. In such cases the sensory nerve-cells
+excite the motor cells, without first communicating with those cells on
+which our consciousness and volition depend. It is probable that
+sneezing and coughing were originally acquired by the habit of
+expelling, as violently as possible, any irritating particle from the
+sensitive air-passages. As far as time is concerned, there has been
+more than enough for these habits to have become innate or converted
+into reflex actions; for they are common to most or all of the higher
+quadrupeds, and must therefore have been first acquired at a very
+remote period. Why the act of clearing the throat is not a reflex
+action, and has to be learnt by our children, I cannot pretend to say;
+but we can see why blowing the nose on a handkerchief has to be learnt.
+
+It is scarcely credible that the movements of a headless frog, when it
+wipes off a drop of acid or other object from its thigh, and which
+movements are so well coordinated for a special purpose, were not at
+first performed voluntarily, being afterwards rendered easy through
+long-continued habit so as at last to be performed unconsciously, or
+independently of the cerebral hemispheres.
+
+So again it appears probable that starting was originally acquired by
+the habit of jumping away as quickly as possible from danger, whenever
+any of our senses gave us warning. Starting, as we have seen, is
+accompanied by the blinking of the eyelids so as to protect the eyes,
+the most tender and sensitive organs of the body; and it is, I believe,
+always accompanied by a sudden and forcible inspiration, which is the
+natural preparation for any violent effort. But when a man or horse
+starts, his heart beats wildly against his ribs, and here it may be
+truly said we have an organ which has never been under the control of
+the will, partaking in the general reflex movements of the body. To
+this point, however, I shall return in a future chapter.
+
+The contraction of the iris, when the retina is stimulated by a bright
+light, is another instance of a movement, which it appears cannot
+possibly have been at first voluntarily performed and then fixed by
+habit; for the iris is not known to be under the conscious control of
+the will in any animal. In such cases some explanation, quite distinct
+from habit, will have to be discovered. The radiation of nerve-force
+from strongly-excited nerve-cells to other connected cells, as in the
+case of a bright light on the retina causing a sneeze, may perhaps aid
+us in understanding how some reflex actions originated. A radiation of
+nerve-force of this kind, if it caused a movement tending to lessen the
+primary irritation, as in the case of the contraction of the iris
+preventing too much light from falling on the retina, might afterwards
+have been taken advantage of and modified for this special purpose.
+
+It further deserves notice that reflex actions are in all probability
+liable to slight variations, as are all corporeal structures and
+instincts; and any variations which were beneficial and of sufficient
+importance, would tend to be preserved and inherited. Thus reflex
+actions, when once gained for one purpose, might afterwards be modified
+independently of the will or habit, so as to serve for some distinct
+purpose. Such cases would be parallel with those which, as we have
+every reason to believe, have occurred with many instincts; for
+although some instincts have been developed simply through
+long-continued and inherited habit, other highly complex ones have been
+developed through the preservation of variations of pre-existing
+instincts—that is, through natural selection.
+
+I have discussed at some little length, though as I am well aware, in a
+very imperfect manner, the acquirement of reflex actions, because they
+are often brought into play in connection with movements expressive of
+our emotions; and it was necessary to show that at least some of them
+might have been first acquired through the will in order to satisfy a
+desire, or to relieve a disagreeable sensation.
+
+_Associated habitual movements in the lower animals_.—I have already
+given in the case of Man several instances of movements associated with
+various states of the mind or body, which are now purposeless, but
+which were originally of use, and are still of use under certain
+circumstances. As this subject is very important for us, I will here
+give a considerable number of analogous facts, with reference to
+animals; although many of them are of a very trifling nature. My object
+is to show that certain movements were originally performed for a
+definite end, and that, under nearly the same circumstances, they are
+still pertinaciously performed through habit when not of the least use.
+That the tendency in most of the following cases is inherited, we may
+infer from such actions being performed in the same manner by all the
+individuals, young and old, of the same species. We shall also see that
+they are excited by the most diversified, often circuitous, and
+sometimes mistaken associations.
+
+Dogs, when they wish to go to sleep on a carpet or other hard surface,
+generally turn round and round and scratch the ground with their
+fore-paws in a senseless manner, as if they intended to trample down
+the grass and scoop out a hollow, as no doubt their wild parents did,
+when they lived on open grassy plains or in the woods. Jackals,
+fennecs, and other allied animals in the Zoological Gardens, treat
+their straw in this manner; but it is a rather odd circumstance that
+the keepers, after observing for some months, have never seen the
+wolves thus behave. A semi-idiotic dog—and an animal in this condition
+would be particularly liable to follow a senseless habit—was observed
+by a friend to turn completely round on a carpet thirteen times before
+going to sleep.
+
+Many carnivorous animals, as they crawl towards their prey and prepare
+to rush or spring on it, lower their heads and crouch, partly, as it
+would appear, to hide themselves, and partly to get ready for their
+rush; and this habit in an exaggerated form has become hereditary in
+our pointers and setters. Now I have noticed scores of times that when
+two strange dogs meet on an open road, the one which first sees the
+other, though at the distance of one or two hundred yards, after the
+first glance always lowers its bead, generally crouches a little, or
+even lies down; that is, he takes the proper attitude for concealing
+himself and for making a rush or spring although the road is quite open
+and the distance great. Again, dogs of all kinds when intently watching
+and slowly approaching their prey, frequently keep one of their
+fore-legs doubled up for a long time, ready for the next cautious step;
+and this is eminently characteristic of the pointer. But from habit
+they behave in exactly the same manner whenever their attention is
+aroused (fig. 4). I have seen a dog at the foot of a high wall,
+listening attentively to a sound on the opposite side, with one leg
+doubled up; and in this case there could have been no intention of
+making a cautious approach.
+
+
+
+Small Dog Watching a Cat on A Table. Figure 4
+
+{illust. caption = for making a rush or FIG. 4.—Small dog watching a
+cat on a table. From a photograph taken by Mr. Rejlander.}
+
+Dogs after voiding their excrement often make with all four feet a few
+scratches backwards, even on a bare stone pavement, as if for the
+purpose of covering up their excrement with earth, in nearly the same
+manner as do cats. Wolves and jackals behave in the Zoological Gardens
+in exactly the same manner, yet, as I am assured by the keepers,
+neither wolves, jackals, nor foxes, when they have the means of doing
+so, ever cover up their excrement, any more than do dogs. All these
+animals, however, bury superfluous food. Hence, if we rightly
+understand the meaning of the above cat-like habit, of which there can
+be little doubt, we have a purposeless remnant of an habitual movement,
+which was originally followed by some remote progenitor of the
+dog-genus for a definite purpose, and which has been retained for a
+prodigious length of time.
+
+Dogs and jackals[115] take much pleasure in rolling and rubbing their
+necks and backs on carrion. The odour seems delightful to them, though
+dogs at least do not eat carrion. Mr. Bartlett has observed wolves for
+me, and has given them carrion, but has never seen them roll on it. I
+have heard it remarked, and I believe it to be true, that the larger
+dogs, which are probably descended from wolves, do not so often roll in
+carrion as do smaller dogs, which are probably descended from jackals.
+When a piece of brown biscuit is offered to a terrier of mine and she
+is not hungry (and I have heard of similar instances), she first tosses
+it about and worries it, as if it were a rat or other prey; she then
+repeatedly rolls on it precisely as if it were a piece of carrion, and
+at last eats it. It would appear that an imaginary relish has to be
+given to the distasteful morsel; and to effect this the dog acts in his
+habitual manner, as if the biscuit was a live animal or smelt like
+carrion, though he knows better than we do that this is not the case. I
+have seen this same terrier act in the same manner after killing a
+little bird or mouse.
+
+Dogs scratch themselves by a rapid movement of one of their hind-feet;
+and when their backs are rubbed with a stick, so strong is the habit,
+that they cannot help rapidly scratching the air or the ground in a
+useless and ludicrous manner. The terrier just alluded to, when thus
+scratched with a stick, will sometimes show her delight by another
+habitual movement, namely, by licking the air as if it were my hand.
+
+Horses scratch themselves by nibbling those parts of their bodies which
+they can reach with their teeth; but more commonly one horse shows
+another where he wants to be scratched, and they then nibble each
+other. A friend whose attention I had called to the subject, observed
+that when he rubbed his horse’s neck, the animal protruded his head,
+uncovered his teeth, and moved his jaws, exactly as if nibbling another
+horse’s neck, for he could never have nibbled his own neck. If a horse
+is much tickled, as when curry-combed, his wish to bite something
+becomes so intolerably strong, that he will clatter his teeth together,
+and though not vicious, bite his groom. At the same time from habit he
+closely depresses his ears, so as to protect them from being bitten, as
+if he were fighting with another horse.
+
+A horse when eager to start on a journey makes the nearest approach
+which he can to the habitual movement of progression by pawing the
+ground. Now when horses in their stalls are about to be fed and are
+eager for their corn, they paw the pavement or the straw. Two of my
+horses thus behave when they see or hear the corn given to their
+neighbours. But here we have what may almost be called a true
+expression, as pawing the ground is universally recognized as a sign of
+eagerness.
+
+Cats cover up their excrements of both kinds with earth; and my
+grandfather[116] saw a kitten scraping ashes over a spoonful of pure
+water spilt on the hearth; so that here an habitual or instinctive
+action was falsely excited, not by a previous act or by odour, but by
+eyesight. It is well known that cats dislike wetting their feet, owing,
+it is probable, to their having aboriginally inhabited the dry country
+of Egypt; and when they wet their feet they shake them violently. My
+daughter poured some water into a glass close to the head of a kitten;
+and it immediately shook its feet in the usual manner; so that here we
+have an habitual movement falsely excited by an associated sound
+instead of by the sense of touch.
+
+Kittens, puppies, young pigs and probably many other young animals,
+alternately push with their forefeet against the mammary glands of
+their mothers, to excite a freer secretion of milk, or to make it flow.
+Now it is very common with young cats, and not at all rare with old
+cats of the common and Persian breeds (believed by some naturalists to
+be specifically extinct), when comfortably lying on a warm shawl or
+other soft substance, to pound it quietly and alternately with their
+fore-feet; their toes being spread out and claws slightly protruded,
+precisely as when sucking their mother. That it is the same movement is
+clearly shown by their often at the same time taking a bit of the shawl
+into their mouths and sucking it; generally closing their eyes and
+purring from delight. This curious movement is commonly excited only in
+association with the sensation of a warm soft surface; but I have seen
+an old cat, when pleased by having its back scratched, pounding the air
+with its feet in the same manner; so that this action has almost become
+the expression of a pleasurable sensation.
+
+Having referred to the act of sucking, I may add that this complex
+movement, as well as the alternate protrusion of the fore-feet, are
+reflex actions; for they are performed if a finger moistened with milk
+is placed in the mouth of a puppy, the front part of whose brain has
+been removed.[117] It has recently been stated in France, that the
+action of sucking is excited solely through the sense of smell, so that
+if the olfactory nerves of a puppy are destroyed, it never sucks. In
+like manner the wonderful power which a chicken possesses only a few
+hours after being hatched, of picking up small particles of food, seems
+to be started into action through the sense of hearing; for with
+chickens hatched by artificial heat, a good observer found that “making
+a noise with the finger-nail against a board, in imitation of the
+hen-mother, first taught them to peck at their meat.”[118]
+
+I will give only one other instance of an habitual and purposeless
+movement. The Sheldrake (_Tadorna_) feeds on the sands left uncovered
+by the tide, and when a worm-cast is discovered, “it begins patting the
+ground with its feet, dancing as it were, over the hole;” and this
+makes the worm come to the surface. Now Mr. St. John says, that when
+his tame Sheldrakes “came to ask for food, they patted the ground in an
+impatient and rapid manner.”[119] This therefore may almost be
+considered as their expression of hunger. Mr. Bartlett informs me that
+the Flamingo and the Kagu (_Rhinochetus jubatus_) when anxious to be
+fed, beat the ground with their feet in the same odd manner. So again
+Kingfishers, when they catch a fish, always beat it until it is killed;
+and in the Zoological Gardens they always beat the raw meat, with which
+they are sometimes fed, before devouring it.
+
+We have now, I think, sufficiently shown the truth of our first
+Principle, namely, that when any sensation, desire, dislike, &c., has
+led during a long series of generations to some voluntary movement,
+then a tendency to the performance of a similar movement will almost
+certainly be excited, whenever the same, or any analogous or associated
+sensation &c., although very weak, is experienced; notwithstanding that
+the movement in this case may not be of the least use. Such habitual
+movements are often, or generally inherited; and they then differ but
+little from reflex actions. When we treat of the special expressions of
+man, the latter part of our first Principle, as given at the
+commencement of this chapter, will be seen to hold good; namely, that
+when movements, associated through habit with certain states of the
+mind, are partially repressed by the will, the strictly involuntary
+muscles, as well as those which are least under the separate control of
+the will, are liable still to act; and their action is often highly
+expressive. Conversely, when the will is temporarily or permanently
+weakened, the voluntary muscles fail before the involuntary. It is a
+fact familiar to pathologists, as Sir C. Bell remarks,[120] “that when
+debility arises from affection of the brain, the influence is greatest
+on those muscles which are, in their natural condition, most under the
+command of the will.” We shall, also, in our future chapters, consider
+another proposition included in our first Principle; namely, that the
+checking of one habitual movement sometimes requires other slight
+movements; these latter serving as a means of expression.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—_continued_.
+
+The Principle of Antithesis—Instances in the dog and cat—Origin of the
+principle—Conventional signs—The principle of antithesis has not arisen
+from opposite actions being consciously performed under opposite
+impulses.
+
+We will now consider our second Principle, that of Antithesis. Certain
+states of the mind lead, as we have seen in the last chapter, to
+certain habitual movements which were primarily, or may still be, of
+service; and we shall find that when a directly opposite state of mind
+is induced, there is a strong and involuntary tendency to the
+performance of movements of a directly opposite nature, though these
+have never been of any service. A few striking instances of antithesis
+will be given, when we treat of the special expressions of man; but as,
+in these cases, we are particularly liable to confound conventional or
+artificial gestures and expressions with those which are innate or
+universal, and which alone deserve to rank as true expressions, I will
+in the present chapter almost confine myself to the lower animals.
+
+
+
+Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind.  Fig. 5
+
+
+
+  Fig. 6
+
+
+
+Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind.  Fig. 7
+
+When a dog approaches a strange dog or man in a savage or hostile frame
+of mind be walks upright and very stiffly; his head is slightly raised,
+or not much lowered; the tail is held erect, and quite rigid; the hairs
+bristle, especially along the neck and back; the pricked ears are
+directed forwards, and the eyes have a fixed stare: (see figs. 5 and
+7). These actions, as will hereafter be explained, follow from the
+dog’s intention to attack his enemy, and are thus to a large extent
+intelligible. As he prepares to spring with a savage growl on his
+enemy, the canine teeth are uncovered, and the ears are pressed close
+backwards on the head; but with these latter actions, we are not here
+concerned. Let us now suppose that the dog suddenly discovers that the
+man he is approaching, is not a stranger, but his master; and let it be
+observed how completely and instantaneously his whole bearing is
+reversed. Instead of walking upright, the body sinks downwards or even
+crouches, and is thrown into flexuous movements; his tail, instead of
+being held stiff and upright, is lowered and wagged from side to side;
+his hair instantly becomes smooth; his ears are depressed and drawn
+backwards, but not closely to the head; and his lips hang loosely. From
+the drawing back of the ears, the eyelids become elongated, and the
+eyes no longer appear round and staring. It should be added that the
+animal is at such times in an excited condition from joy; and
+nerve-force will be generated in excess, which naturally leads to
+action of some kind. Not one of the above movements, so clearly
+expressive of affection, are of the least direct service to the animal.
+They are explicable, as far as I can see, solely from being in complete
+opposition or antithesis to the attitude and movements which, from
+intelligible causes, are assumed when a dog intends to fight, and which
+consequently are expressive of anger. I request the reader to look at
+the four accompanying sketches, which have been given in order to
+recall vividly the appearance of a dog under these two states of mind.
+It is, however, not a little difficult to represent affection in a dog,
+whilst caressing his master and wagging his tail, as the essence of the
+expression lies in the continuous flexuous movements.
+
+
+
+Dog Carressing his Master.  Fig. 8
+
+We will now turn to the cat. When this animal is threatened by a dog,
+it arches its back in a surprising manner, erects its hair, opens its
+mouth and spits. But we are not here concerned with this well-known
+attitude, expressive of terror combined with anger; we are concerned
+only with that of rage or anger. This is not often seen, but may be
+observed when two cats are fighting together; and I have seen it well
+exhibited by a savage cat whilst plagued by a boy. The attitude is
+almost exactly the same as that of a tiger disturbed and growling over
+its food, which every one must have beheld in menageries. The animal
+assumes a crouching position, with the body extended; and the whole
+tail, or the tip alone, is lashed or curled from side to side. The hair
+is not in the least erect. Thus far, the attitude and movements are
+nearly the same as when the animal is prepared to spring on its prey,
+and when, no doubt, it feels savage. But when preparing to fight, there
+is this difference, that the ears are closely pressed backwards; the
+mouth is partially opened, showing the teeth; the fore feet are
+occasionally struck out with protruded claws; and the animal
+occasionally utters a fierce growl. (See figs. 9 and 10.) All, or
+almost all these actions naturally follow (as hereafter to be
+explained), from the cat’s manner and intention of attacking its enemy.
+
+
+
+Cat, Savage, and Prepared to Fight. Fig. 9
+
+
+
+Cat in an Affectionate Frame of Mind. Fig. 10
+
+Let us now look at a cat in a directly opposite frame of mind, whilst
+feeling affectionate and caressing her master; and mark how opposite is
+her attitude in every respect. She now stands upright with her back
+slightly arched, which makes the hair appear rather rough, but it does
+not bristle; her tail, instead of being extended and lashed from side
+to side, is held quite still and perpendicularly upwards; her ears are
+erect and pointed; her mouth is closed; and she rubs against her master
+with a purr instead of a growl. Let it further be observed how widely
+different is the whole bearing of an affectionate cat from that of a
+dog, when with his body crouching and flexuous, his tail lowered and
+wagging, and ears depressed, he caresses his master. This contrast in
+the attitudes and movements of these two carnivorous animals, under the
+same pleased and affectionate frame of mind, can be explained, as it
+appears to me, solely by their movements standing in complete
+antithesis to those which are naturally assumed, when these animals
+feel savage and are prepared either to fight or to seize their prey.
+
+In these cases of the dog and cat, there is every reason to believe
+that the gestures both of hostility and affection are innate or
+inherited; for they are almost identically the same in the different
+races of the species, and in all the individuals of the same race, both
+young and old.
+
+I will here give one other instance of antithesis in expression. I
+formerly possessed a large dog, who, like every other dog, was much
+pleased to go out walking. He showed his pleasure by trotting gravely
+before me with high steps, head much raised, moderately erected ears,
+and tail carried aloft but not stiffly. Not far from my house a path
+branches off to the right, leading to the hot-house, which I used often
+to visit for a few moments, to look at my experimental plants. This was
+always a great disappointment to the dog, as he did not know whether I
+should continue my walk; and the instantaneous and complete change of
+expression which came over him as soon as my body swerved in the least
+towards the path (and I sometimes tried this as an experiment) was
+laughable. His look of dejection was known to every member of the
+family, and was called his _hot-house face_. This consisted in the head
+drooping much, the whole body sinking a little and remaining
+motionless; the ears and tail falling suddenly down, but the tail was
+by no means wagged. With the falling of the ears and of his great
+chaps, the eyes became much changed in appearance, and I fancied that
+they looked less bright. His aspect was that of piteous, hopeless
+dejection; and it was, as I have said, laughable, as the cause was so
+slight. Every detail in his attitude was in complete opposition to his
+former joyful yet dignified bearing; and can be explained, as it
+appears to me, in no other way, except through the principle of
+antithesis. Had not the change been so instantaneous, I should have
+attributed it to his lowered spirits affecting, as in the case of man,
+the nervous system and circulation, and consequently the tone of his
+whole muscular frame; and this may have been in part the cause.
+
+We will now consider how the principle of antithesis in expression has
+arisen. With social animals, the power of intercommunication between
+the members of the same community,—and with other species, between the
+opposite sexes, as well as between the young and the old,—is of the
+highest importance to them. This is generally effected by means of the
+voice, but it is certain that gestures and expressions are to a certain
+extent mutually intelligible. Man not only uses inarticulate cries,
+gestures, and expressions, but has invented articulate language; if,
+indeed, the word INVENTED can be applied to a process, completed by
+innumerable steps, half-consciously made. Any one who has watched
+monkeys will not doubt that they perfectly understand each other’s
+gestures and expression, and to a large extent, as Rengger
+asserts,[201] those of man. An animal when going to attack another, or
+when afraid of another, often makes itself appear terrible, by erecting
+its hair, thus increasing the apparent bulk of its body, by showing its
+teeth, or brandishing its horns, or by uttering fierce sounds.
+
+As the power of intercommunication is certainly of high service to many
+animals, there is no _à priori_ improbability in the supposition, that
+gestures manifestly of an opposite nature to those by which certain
+feelings are already expressed, should at first have been voluntarily
+employed under the influence of an opposite state of feeling. The fact
+of the gestures being now innate, would be no valid objection to the
+belief that they were at first intentional; for if practised during
+many generations, they would probably at last be inherited.
+Nevertheless it is more than doubtful, as we shall immediately see,
+whether any of the cases which come under our present head of
+antithesis, have thus originated.
+
+With conventional signs which are not innate, such as those used by the
+deaf and dumb and by savages, the principle of opposition or antithesis
+has been partially brought into play. The Cistercian monks thought it
+sinful to speak, and as they could not avoid holding some
+communication, they invented a gesture language, in which the principle
+of opposition seems to have been employed.[202] Dr. Scott, of the
+Exeter Deaf and Dumb Institution, writes to me that “opposites are
+greatly used in teaching the deaf and dumb, who have a lively sense of
+them.” Nevertheless I have been surprised how few unequivocal instances
+can be adduced. This depends partly on all the signs having commonly
+had some natural origin; and partly on the practice of the deaf and
+dumb and of savages to contract their signs as much as possible for the
+sake of rapidity.[203] Hence their natural source or origin often
+becomes doubtful or is completely lost; as is likewise the case with
+articulate language.
+
+Many signs, moreover, which plainly stand in opposition to each other,
+appear to have had on both sides a significant origin. This seems to
+hold good with the signs used by the deal and dumb for light and
+darkness, for strength and weakness, &c. In a future chapter I shall
+endeavour to show that the opposite gestures of affirmation and
+negation, namely, vertically nodding and laterally shaking the head,
+have both probably had a natural beginning. The waving of the hand from
+right to left, which is used as a negative by some savages, may have
+been invented in imitation of shaking the head; but whether the
+opposite movement of waving the hand in a straight line from the face,
+which is used in affirmation, has arisen through antithesis or in some
+quite distinct manner, is doubtful.
+
+If we now turn to the gestures which are innate or common to all the
+individuals of the same species, and which come under the present head
+of antithesis, it is extremely doubtful, whether any of them were at
+first deliberately invented and consciously performed. With mankind the
+best instance of a gesture standing in direct opposition to other
+movements, naturally assumed under an opposite frame of mind, is that
+of shrugging the shoulders. This expresses impotence or an
+apology,—something which cannot be done, or cannot be avoided. The
+gesture is sometimes used consciously and voluntarily, but it is
+extremely improbable that it was at first deliberately invented, and
+afterwards fixed by habit; for not only do young children sometimes
+shrug their shoulders under the above states of mind, but the movement
+is accompanied, as will be shown in a future chapter, by various
+subordinate movements, which not one man in a thousand is aware of,
+unless he has specially attended to the subject.
+
+Dogs when approaching a strange dog, may find it useful to show by
+their movements that they are friendly, and do not wish to fight. When
+two young dogs in play are growling and biting each other’s faces and
+legs, it is obvious that they mutually understand each other’s gestures
+and manners. There seems, indeed, some degree of instinctive knowledge
+in puppies and kittens, that they must not use their sharp little teeth
+or claws too freely in their play, though this sometimes happens and a
+squeal is the result; otherwise they would often injure each other’s
+eyes. When my terrier bites my hand in play, often snarling at the same
+time, if he bites too hard and I say GENTLY, GENTLY, he goes on biting,
+but answers me by a few wags of the tail, which seems to say “Never
+mind, it is all fun.” Although dogs do thus express, and may wish to
+express, to other dogs and to man, that they are in a friendly state of
+mind, it is incredible that they could ever have deliberately thought
+of drawing back and depressing their ears, instead of holding them
+erect,—of lowering and wagging their tails, instead of keeping them
+stiff and upright, &c., because they knew that these movements stood in
+direct opposition to those assumed under an opposite and savage frame
+of mind.
+
+Again, when a cat, or rather when some early progenitor of the species,
+from feeling affectionate first slightly arched its back, held its tail
+perpendicularly upwards and pricked its ears, can it be believed that
+the animal consciously wished thus to show that its frame of mind was
+directly the reverse of that, when from being ready to fight or to
+spring on its prey, it assumed a crouching attitude, curled its tail
+from side to side and depressed its ears? Even still less can I believe
+that my dog voluntarily put on his dejected attitude and “_hot-house
+face_,” which formed so complete a contrast to his previous cheerful
+attitude and whole bearing. It cannot be supposed that he knew that I
+should understand his expression, and that he could thus soften my
+heart and make me give up visiting the hot-house.
+
+Hence for the development of the movements which come under the present
+head, some other principle, distinct from the will and consciousness,
+must have intervened. This principle appears to be that every movement
+which we have voluntarily performed throughout our lives has required
+the action of certain muscles; and when we have performed a directly
+opposite movement, an opposite set of muscles has been habitually
+brought into play,—as in turning to the right or to the left, in
+pushing away or pulling an object towards us, and in lifting or
+lowering a weight. So strongly are our intentions and movements
+associated together, that if we eagerly wish an object to move in any
+direction, we can hardly avoid moving our bodies in the same direction,
+although we may be perfectly aware that this can have no influence. A
+good illustration of this fact has already been given in the
+Introduction, namely, in the grotesque movements of a young and eager
+billiard-player, whilst watching the course of his ball. A man or child
+in a passion, if he tells any one in a loud voice to begone, generally
+moves his arm as if to push him away, although the offender may not be
+standing near, and although there may be not the least need to explain
+by a gesture what is meant. On the other hand, if we eagerly desire
+some one to approach us closely, we act as if pulling him towards us;
+and so in innumerable other instances.
+
+As the performance of ordinary movements of an opposite kind, under
+opposite impulses of the will, has become habitual in us and in the
+lower animals, so when actions of one kind have become firmly
+associated with any sensation or emotion, it appears natural that
+actions of a directly opposite kind, though of no use, should be
+unconsciously performed through habit and association, under the
+influence of a directly opposite sensation or emotion. On this
+principle alone can I understand how the gestures and expressions which
+come under the present head of antithesis have originated. If indeed
+they are serviceable to man or to any other animal, in aid of
+inarticulate cries or language, they will likewise be voluntarily
+employed, and the habit will thus be strengthened. But whether or not
+of service as a means of communication, the tendency to perform
+opposite movements under opposite sensations or emotions would, if we
+may judge by analogy, become hereditary through long practice; and
+there cannot be a doubt that several expressive movements due to the
+principle of antithesis are inherited.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—_concluded_.
+
+The principle of direct action of the excited nervous system on the
+body, independently of the will and in part of habit—Change of colour
+in the hair—Trembling of the muscles—Modified
+secretions—Perspiration—Expression of extreme pain—Of rage, great joy,
+and terror—Contrast between the emotions which cause and do not cause
+expressive movements—Exciting and depressing states of the
+mind—Summary.
+
+We now come to our third Principle, namely, that certain actions which
+we recognize as expressive of certain states of the mind, are the
+direct result of the constitution of the nervous system, and have been
+from the first independent of the will, and, to a large extent, of
+habit. When the sensorium is strongly excited nerve-force is generated
+in excess, and is transmitted in certain directions, dependent on the
+connection of the nerve-cells, and, as far as the muscular system is
+concerned, on the nature of the movements which have been habitually
+practised. Or the supply of nerve-force may, as it appears, be
+interrupted. Of course every movement which we make is determined by
+the constitution of the nervous system; but actions performed in
+obedience to the will, or through habit, or through the principle of
+antithesis, are here as far as possible excluded. Our present subject
+is very obscure, but, from its importance, must be discussed at some
+little length; and it is always advisable to perceive clearly our
+ignorance.
+
+The most striking case, though a rare and abnormal one, which can be
+adduced of the direct influence of the nervous system, when strongly
+affected, on the body, is the loss of colour in the hair, which has
+occasionally been observed after extreme terror or grief. One authentic
+instance has been recorded, in the case of a man brought out for
+execution in India, in which the change of colour was so rapid that it
+was perceptible to the eye.[301]
+
+Another good case is that of the trembling of the muscles, which is
+common to man and to many, or most, of the lower animals. Trembling is
+of no service, often of much disservice, and cannot have been at first
+acquired through the will, and then rendered habitual in association
+with any emotion. I am assured by an eminent authority that young
+children do not tremble, but go into convulsions under the
+circumstances which would induce excessive trembling in adults.
+Trembling is excited in different individuals in very different degrees
+and by the most diversified causes,—by cold to the surface, before
+fever-fits, although the temperature of the body is then above the
+normal standard; in blood-poisoning, delirium tremens, and other
+diseases; by general failure of power in old age; by exhaustion after
+excessive fatigue; locally from severe injuries, such as burns; and, in
+an especial manner, by the passage of a catheter. Of all emotions, fear
+notoriously is the most apt to induce trembling; but so do occasionally
+great anger and joy. I remember once seeing a boy who had just shot his
+first snipe on the wing, and his hands trembled to such a degree from
+delight, that he could not for some time reload his gun; and I have
+heard of an exactly similar case with an Australian savage, to whom a
+gun had been lent. Fine music, from the vague emotions thus excited,
+causes a shiver to run down the backs of some persons. There seems to
+be very little in common in the above several physical causes and
+emotions to account for trembling; and Sir J. Paget, to whom I am
+indebted for several of the above statements, informs me that the
+subject is a very obscure one. As trembling is sometimes caused by
+rage, long before exhaustion can have set in, and as it sometimes
+accompanies great joy, it would appear that any strong excitement of
+the nervous system interrupts the steady flow of nerve-force to the
+muscles.[302]
+
+The manner in which the secretions of the alimentary canal and of
+certain glands—as the liver, kidneys, or mammæ are affected by strong
+emotions, is another excellent instance of the direct action of the
+sensorium on these organs, independently of the will or of any
+serviceable associated habit. There is the greatest difference in
+different persons in the parts which are thus affected, and in the
+degree of their affection.
+
+The heart, which goes on uninterruptedly beating night and day in so
+wonderful a manner, is extremely sensitive to external stimulants. The
+great physiologist, Claude Bernard,[303] has shown how the least
+excitement of a sensitive nerve reacts on the heart; even when a nerve
+is touched so slightly that no pain can possibly be felt by the animal
+under experiment. Hence when the mind is strongly excited, we might
+expect that it would instantly affect in a direct manner the heart; and
+this is universally acknowledged and felt to be the case. Claude
+Bernard also repeatedly insists, and this deserves especial notice,
+that when the heart is affected it reacts on the brain; and the state
+of the brain again reacts through the pneumo-gastric nerve on the
+heart; so that under any excitement there will be much mutual action
+and reaction between these, the two most important organs of the body.
+
+The vaso-motor system, which regulates the diameter of the small
+arteries, is directly acted on by the sensorium, as we see when a man
+blushes from shame; but in this latter case the checked transmission of
+nerve-force to the vessels of the face can, I think, be partly
+explained in a curious manner through habit. We shall also be able to
+throw some light, though very little, on the involuntary erection of
+the hair under the emotions of terror and rage. The secretion of tears
+depends, no doubt, on the connection of certain nerve-cells; but here
+again we can trace some few of the steps by which the flow of
+nerve-force through the requisite channels has become habitual under
+certain emotions.
+
+A brief consideration of the outward signs of some of the stronger
+sensations and emotions will best serve to show us, although vaguely,
+in how complex a manner the principle under consideration of the direct
+action of the excited nervous system of the body, is combined with the
+principle of habitually associated, serviceable movements.
+
+When animals suffer from an agony of pain, they generally writhe about
+with frightful contortions; and those which habitually use their voices
+utter piercing cries or groans. Almost every muscle of the body is
+brought into strong action. With man the mouth may be closely
+compressed, or more commonly the lips are retracted, with the teeth
+clenched or ground together. There is said to be “gnashing of teeth” in
+hell; and I have plainly heard the grinding of the molar teeth of a cow
+which was suffering acutely from inflammation of the bowels. The female
+hippopotamus in the Zoological Gardens, when she produced her young,
+suffered greatly; she incessantly walked about, or rolled on her sides,
+opening and closing her jaws, and clattering her teeth together.[304]
+With man the eyes stare wildly as in horrified astonishment, or the
+brows are heavily contracted. Perspiration bathes the body, and drops
+trickle down the face. The circulation and respiration are much
+affected. Hence the nostrils are generally dilated and often quiver; or
+the breath may be held until the blood stagnates in the purple face. If
+the agony be severe and prolonged, these signs all change; utter
+prostration follows, with fainting or convulsions.
+
+A sensitive nerve when irritated transmits some influence to the
+nerve-cell, whence it proceeds; and this transmits its influence, first
+to the corresponding nerve-cell on the opposite side of the body, and
+then upwards and downwards along the cerebro-spinal column to other
+nerve-cells, to a greater or less extent, according to the strength of
+the excitement; so that, ultimately, the whole nervous system maybe
+affected.[305] This involuntary transmission of nerve-force may or may
+not be accompanied by consciousness. Why the irritation of a nerve-cell
+should generate or liberate nerve-force is not known; but that this is
+the case seems to be the conclusion arrived at by all the greatest
+physiologists, such as Müller, Virchow, Bernard, &c.[306] As Mr.
+Herbert Spencer remarks, it may be received as an “unquestionable truth
+that, at any moment, the existing quantity of liberated nerve-force,
+which in an inscrutable way produces in us the state we call feeling,
+MUST expend itself in some direction—MUST generate an equivalent
+manifestation of force somewhere;” so that, when the cerebro-spinal
+system is highly excited and nerve-force is liberated in excess, it may
+be expended in intense sensations, active thought, violent movements,
+or increased activity of the glands.[307] Mr. Spencer further maintains
+that an “overflow of nerve-force, undirected by any motive, will
+manifestly take the most habitual routes; and, if these do not suffice,
+will next overflow into the less habitual ones.” Consequently the
+facial and respiratory muscles, which are the most used, will be apt to
+be first brought into action; then those of the upper extremities, next
+those of the lower, and finally those of the whole body.[308]
+
+An emotion may be very strong, but it will have little tendency to
+induce movements of any kind, if it has not commonly led to voluntary
+action for its relief or gratification; and when movements are excited,
+their nature is, to a large extent, determined by those which have
+often and voluntarily been performed for some definite end under the
+same emotion. Great pain urges all animals, and has urged them during
+endless generations, to make the most violent and diversified efforts
+to escape from the cause of suffering. Even when a limb or other
+separate part of the body is hurt, we often see a tendency to shake it,
+as if to shake off the cause, though this may obviously be impossible.
+Thus a habit of exerting with the utmost force all the muscles will
+have been established, whenever great suffering is experienced. As the
+muscles of the chest and vocal organs are habitually used, these will
+be particularly liable to be acted on, and loud, harsh screams or cries
+will be uttered. But the advantage derived from outcries has here
+probably come into play in an important manner; for the young of most
+animals, when in distress or danger, call loudly to their parents for
+aid, as do the members of the same community for mutual aid.
+
+Another principle, namely, the internal consciousness that the power or
+capacity of the nervous system is limited, will have strengthened,
+though in a subordinate degree, the tendency to violent action under
+extreme suffering. A man cannot think deeply and exert his utmost
+muscular force. As Hippocrates long ago observed, if two pains are felt
+at the same time, the severer one dulls the other. Martyrs, in the
+ecstasy of their religious fervour have often, as it would appear, been
+insensible to the most horrid tortures. Sailors who are going to be
+flogged sometimes take a piece of lead into their mouths, in order to
+bite it with their utmost force, and thus to bear the pain. Parturient
+women prepare to exert their muscles to the utmost in order to relieve
+their sufferings.
+
+We thus see that the undirected radiation of nerve-force from the
+nerve-cells which are first affected—the long-continued habit of
+attempting by struggling to escape from the cause of suffering—and the
+consciousness that voluntary muscular exertion relieves pain, have all
+probably concurred in giving a tendency to the most violent, almost
+convulsive, movements under extreme suffering; and such movements,
+including those of the vocal organs, are universally recognized as
+highly expressive of this condition.
+
+As the mere touching of a sensitive nerve reacts in a direct manner on
+the heart, severe pain will obviously react on it in like manner, but
+far more energetically. Nevertheless, even in this case, we must not
+overlook the indirect effects of habit on the heart, as we shall see
+when we consider the signs of rage.
+
+When a man suffers from an agony of pain, the perspiration often
+trickles down his face; and I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon
+that he has frequently seen drops falling from the belly and running
+down the inside of the thighs of horses, and from the bodies of cattle,
+when thus suffering. He has observed this, when there has been no
+struggling which would account for the perspiration. The whole body of
+the female hippopotamus, before alluded to, was covered with
+red-coloured perspiration whilst giving birth to her young. So it is
+with extreme fear; the same veterinary has often seen horses sweating
+from this cause; as has Mr. Bartlett with the rhinoceros; and with man
+it is a well-known symptom. The cause of perspiration bursting forth in
+these cases is quite obscure; but it is thought by some physiologists
+to be connected with the failing power of the capillary circulation;
+and we know that the vasomotor system, which regulates the capillary
+circulation, is much influenced by the mind. With respect to the
+movements of certain muscles of the face under great suffering, as well
+as from other emotions, these will be best considered when we treat of
+the special expressions of man and of the lower animals.
+
+We will now turn to the characteristic symptoms of Rage. Under this
+powerful emotion the action of the heart is much accelerated,[309] or
+it may be much disturbed. The face reddens, or it becomes purple from
+the impeded return of the blood, or may turn deadly pale. The
+respiration is laboured, the chest heaves, and the dilated nostrils
+quiver. The whole body often trembles. The voice is affected. The teeth
+are clenched or ground together, and the muscular system is commonly
+stimulated to violent, almost frantic action. But the gestures of a man
+in this state usually differ from the purposeless writhings and
+struggles of one suffering from an agony of pain; for they represent
+more or less plainly the act of striking or fighting with an enemy.
+
+All these signs of rage are probably in large part, and some of them
+appear to be wholly, due to the direct action of the excited sensorium.
+But animals of all kinds, and their progenitors before them, when
+attacked or threatened by an enemy, have exerted their utmost powers in
+fighting and in defending themselves. Unless an animal does thus act,
+or has the intention, or at least the desire, to attack its enemy, it
+cannot properly be said to be enraged. An inherited habit of muscular
+exertion will thus have been gained in association with rage; and this
+will directly or indirectly affect various organs, in nearly the same
+manner as does great bodily suffering.
+
+The heart no doubt will likewise be affected in a direct manner; but it
+will also in all probability be affected through habit; and all the
+more so from not being under the control of the will. We know that any
+great exertion which we voluntarily make, affects the heart, through
+mechanical and other principles which need not here be considered; and
+it was shown in the first chapter that nerve-force flows readily
+through habitually used channels,—through the nerves of voluntary or
+involuntary movement, and through those of sensation. Thus even a
+moderate amount of exertion will tend to act on the heart; and on the
+principle of association, of which so many instances have been given,
+we may feel nearly sure that any sensation or emotion, as great pain or
+rage, which has habitually led to much muscular action, will
+immediately influence the flow of nerve-force to the heart, although
+there may not be at the time any muscular exertion.
+
+The heart, as I have said, will be all the more readily affected
+through habitual associations, as it is not under the control of the
+will. A man when moderately angry, or even when enraged, may command
+the movements of his body, but he cannot prevent his heart from beating
+rapidly. His chest will perhaps give a few heaves, and his nostrils
+just quiver, for the movements of respiration are only in part
+voluntary. In like manner those muscles of the face which are least
+obedient to the will, will sometimes alone betray a slight and passing
+emotion. The glands again are wholly independent of the will, and a man
+suffering from grief may command his features, but cannot always
+prevent the tears from coming into his eyes. A hungry man, if tempting
+food is placed before him, may not show his hunger by any outward
+gesture, but he cannot check the secretion of saliva.
+
+Under a transport of Joy or of vivid Pleasure, there is a strong
+tendency to various purposeless movements, and to the utterance of
+various sounds. We see this in our young children, in their loud
+laughter, clapping of hands, and jumping for joy; in the bounding and
+barking of a dog when going out to walk with his master; and in the
+frisking of a horse when turned out into an open field. Joy quickens
+the circulation, and this stimulates the brain, which again reacts on
+the whole body. The above purposeless movements and increased
+heart-action may be attributed in chief part to the excited state of
+the sensorium,[310] and to the consequent undirected overflow, as Mr.
+Herbert Spencer insists, of nerve-force. It deserves notice, that it is
+chiefly the anticipation of a pleasure, and not its actual enjoyment,
+which leads to purposeless and extravagant movements of the body, and
+to the utterance of various sounds. We see this in our children when
+they expect any great pleasure or treat; and dogs, which have been
+bounding about at the sight of a plate of food, when they get it do not
+show their delight by any outward sign, not even by wagging their
+tails. Now with animals of all kinds, the acquirement of almost all
+their pleasures, with the exception of those of warmth and rest, are
+associated, and have long been associated with active movements, as in
+the hunting or search for food, and in their courtship. Moreover, the
+mere exertion of the muscles after long rest or confinement is in
+itself a pleasure, as we ourselves feel, and as we see in the play of
+young animals. Therefore on this latter principle alone we might
+perhaps expect, that vivid pleasure would be apt to show itself
+conversely in muscular movements.
+
+With all or almost all animals, even with birds, Terror causes the body
+to tremble. The skin becomes pale, sweat breaks out, and the hair
+bristles. The secretions of the alimentary canal and of the kidneys are
+increased, and they are involuntarily voided, owing to the relaxation
+of the sphincter muscles, as is known to be the case with man, and as I
+have seen with cattle, dogs, cats, and monkeys. The breathing is
+hurried. The heart beats quickly, wildly, and violently; but whether it
+pumps the blood more efficiently through the body may be doubted, for
+the surface seems bloodless and the strength of the muscles soon fails.
+In a frightened horse I have felt through the saddle the beating of the
+heart so plainly that I could have counted the beats. The mental
+faculties are much disturbed. Utter prostration soon follows, and even
+fainting. A terrified canary-bird has been seen not only to tremble and
+to turn white about the base of the bill, but to faint;[311] and I once
+caught a robin in a room, which fainted so completely, that for a time
+I thought it dead.
+
+Most of these symptoms are probably the direct result, independently of
+habit, of the disturbed state of the sensorium; but it is doubtful
+whether they ought to be wholly thus accounted for. When an animal is
+alarmed it almost always stands motionless for a moment, in order to
+collect its senses and to ascertain the source of danger, and sometimes
+for the sake of escaping detection. But headlong flight soon follows,
+with no husbanding of the strength as in fighting, and the animal
+continues to fly as long as the danger lasts, until utter prostration,
+with failing respiration and circulation, with all the muscles
+quivering and profuse sweating, renders further flight impossible.
+Hence it does not seem improbable that the principle of associated
+habit may in part account for, or at least augment, some of the
+above-named characteristic symptoms of extreme terror.
+
+That the principle of associated habit has played an important part in
+causing the movements expressive of the foregoing several strong
+emotions and sensations, we may, I think, conclude from considering
+firstly, some other strong emotions which do not ordinarily require for
+their relief or gratification any voluntary movement; and secondly the
+contrast in nature between the so-called exciting and depressing states
+of the mind. No emotion is stronger than maternal love; but a mother
+may feel the deepest love for her helpless infant, and yet not show it
+by any outward sign; or only by slight caressing movements, with a
+gentle smile and tender eyes. But let any one intentionally injure her
+infant, and see what a change! how she starts up with threatening
+aspect, how her eyes sparkle and her face reddens, how her bosom
+heaves, nostrils dilate, and heart beats; for anger, and not maternal
+love, has habitually led to action. The love between the opposite sexes
+is widely different from maternal love; and when lovers meet, we know
+that their hearts beat quickly, their breathing is hurried, and their
+faces flush; for this love is not inactive like that of a mother for
+her infant.
+
+A man may have his mind filled with the blackest hatred or suspicion,
+or be corroded with envy or jealousy, but as these feelings do not at
+once lead to action, and as they commonly last for some time, they are
+not shown by any outward sign, excepting that a man in this state
+assuredly does not appear cheerful or good-tempered. If indeed these
+feelings break out into overt acts, rage takes their place, and will be
+plainly exhibited. Painters can hardly portray suspicion, jealousy,
+envy, &c., except by the aid of accessories which tell the tale; and
+poets use such vague and fanciful expressions as “green-eyed jealousy.”
+Spenser describes suspicion as “Foul, ill-favoured, and grim, under his
+eyebrows looking still askance,” &c.; Shakespeare speaks of envy “as
+lean-faced in her loathsome case;” and in another place he says, “no
+black envy shall make my grave;” and again as “above pale envy’s
+threatening reach.”
+
+Emotions and sensations have often been classed as exciting or
+depressing. When all the organs of the body and mind,—those of
+voluntary and involuntary movement, of perception, sensation, thought,
+&c.,—perform their functions more energetically and rapidly than usual,
+a man or animal may be said to be excited, and, under an opposite
+state, to be depressed. Anger and joy are from the first exciting
+emotions, and they naturally lead, more especially the former, to
+energetic movements, which react on the heart and this again on the
+brain. A physician once remarked to me as a proof of the exciting
+nature of anger, that a man when excessively jaded will sometimes
+invent imaginary offences and put himself into a passion, unconsciously
+for the sake of reinvigorating himself; and since hearing this remark,
+I have occasionally recognized its full truth.
+
+Several other states of mind appear to be at first exciting, but soon
+become depressing to an extreme degree. When a mother suddenly loses
+her child, sometimes she is frantic with grief, and must be considered
+to be in an excited state; she walks wildly about, tears her hair or
+clothes, and wrings her hands. This latter action is perhaps due to the
+principle of antithesis, betraying an inward sense of helplessness and
+that nothing can be done. The other wild and violent movements may be
+in part explained by the relief experienced through muscular exertion,
+and in part by the undirected overflow of nerve-force from the excited
+sensorium. But under the sudden loss of a beloved person, one of the
+first and commonest thoughts which occurs, is that something more might
+have been done to save the lost one. An excellent observer,[312] in
+describing the behaviour of a girl at the sudden death of her father,
+says she “went about the house wringing her hands like a creature
+demented, saying ‘It was her fault;’ ‘I should never have left him;’
+‘If I had only sat up with him,’” &c. With such ideas vividly present
+before the mind, there would arise, through the principle of associated
+habit, the strongest tendency to energetic action of some kind.
+
+As soon as the sufferer is fully conscious that nothing can be done,
+despair or deep sorrow takes the place of frantic grief. The sufferer
+sits motionless, or gently rocks to and fro; the circulation becomes
+languid; respiration is almost forgotten, and deep sighs are drawn. All
+this reacts on the brain, and prostration soon follows with collapsed
+muscles and dulled eyes. As associated habit no longer prompts the
+sufferer to action, he is urged by his friends to voluntary exertion,
+and not to give way to silent, motionless grief. Exertion stimulates
+the hear, and this reacts on the brain, and aids the mind to bear its
+heavy load.
+
+
+Pain, if severe, soon induces extreme depression or prostration; but it
+is at first a stimulant and excites to action, as we see when we whip a
+horse, and as is shown by the horrid tortures inflicted in foreign
+lands on exhausted dray-bullocks, to rouse them to renewed exertion.
+Fear again is the most depressing of all the emotions; and it soon
+induces utter, helpless prostration, as if in consequence of, or in
+association with, the most violent and prolonged attempts to escape
+from the danger, though no such attempts have actually been made.
+Nevertheless, even extreme fear often acts at first as a powerful
+stimulant. A man or animal driven through terror to desperation, is
+endowed with wonderful strength, and is notoriously dangerous in the
+highest degree.
+
+On the whole we may conclude that the principle of the direct action of
+the sensorium on the body, due to the constitution of the nervous
+system, and from the first independent of the will, has been highly
+influential in determining many expressions. Good instances are
+afforded by the trembling of the muscles, the sweating of the skin, the
+modified secretions of the alimentary canal and glands, under various
+emotions and sensations. But actions of this kind are often combined
+with others, which follow from our first principle, namely, that
+actions which have often been of direct or indirect service, under
+certain states of the mind, in order to gratify or relieve certain
+sensations, desires, &c., are still performed under analogous
+circumstances through mere habit although of no service. We have
+combinations of this kind, at least in part, in the frantic gestures of
+rage and in the writhings of extreme pain; and, perhaps, in the
+increased action of the heart and of the respiratory organs. Even when
+these and other emotions or sensations are aroused in a very feeble
+manner, there will still be a tendency to similar actions, owing to the
+force of long-associated habit; and those actions which are least under
+voluntary control will generally be longest retained. Our second
+principle of antithesis has likewise occasionally come into play.
+
+Finally, so many expressive movements can be explained, as I trust will
+be seen in the course of this volume, through the three principles
+which have now been discussed, that we may hope hereafter to see all
+thus explained, or by closely analogous principles. It is, however,
+often impossible to decide how much weight ought to be attributed, in
+each particular case, to one of our principles, and how much to
+another; and very many points in the theory of Expression remain
+inexplicable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN ANIMALS.
+
+The emission of Sounds—Vocal sounds—Sounds otherwise produced—Erection
+of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &c., under the emotions of
+anger and terror—The drawing back of the ears as a preparation for
+fighting, and as an expression of anger—Erection of the ears and
+raising the head, a sign of attention.
+
+In this and the following chapter I will describe, but only in
+sufficient detail to illustrate my subject, the expressive movements,
+under different states of the mind, of some few well-known animals. But
+before considering them in due succession, it will save much useless
+repetition to discuss certain means of expression common to most of
+them.
+
+_The emission of Sounds_.—With many kinds of animals, man included, the
+vocal organs are efficient in the highest degree as a means of
+expression. We have seen, in the last chapter, that when the sensorium
+is strongly excited, the muscles of the body are generally thrown into
+violent action; and as a consequence, loud sounds are uttered, however
+silent the animal may generally be, and although the sounds may be of
+no use. Hares and rabbits for instance, never, I believe, use their
+vocal organs except in the extremity of suffering; as, when a wounded
+hare is killed by the sportsman, or when a young rabbit is caught by a
+stoat. Cattle and horses suffer great pain in silence; but when this is
+excessive, and especially when associated with terror, they utter
+fearful sounds. I have often recognized, from a distance on the Pampas,
+the agonized death-bellow of the cattle, when caught by the lasso and
+hamstrung. It is said that horses, when attacked by wolves, utter loud
+and peculiar screams of distress.
+
+Involuntary and purposeless contractions of the muscles of the chest
+and glottis, excited in the above manner, may have first given rise to
+the emission of vocal sounds. But the voice is now largely used by many
+animals for various purposes; and habit seems to have played an
+important part in its employment under other circumstances. Naturalists
+have remarked, I believe with truth, that social animals, from
+habitually using their vocal organs as a means of intercommunication,
+use them on other occasions much more freely than other animals. But
+there are marked exceptions to this rule, for instance, with the
+rabbit. The principle, also, of association, which is so widely
+extended in its power, has likewise played its part. Hence it follows
+that the voice, from having been habitually employed as a serviceable
+aid under certain conditions, inducing pleasure, pain, rage, &c., is
+commonly used whenever the same sensations or emotions are excited,
+under quite different conditions, or in a lesser degree.
+
+The sexes of many animals incessantly call for each other during the
+breeding-season; and in not a few cases, the male endeavours thus to
+charm or excite the female. This, indeed, seems to have been the
+primeval use and means of development of the voice, as I have attempted
+to show in my ‘Descent of Man.’ Thus the use of the vocal organs will
+have become associated with the anticipation of the strongest pleasure
+which animals are capable of feeling. Animals which live in society
+often call to each other when separated, and evidently feel much joy at
+meeting; as we see with a horse, on the return of his companion, for
+whom he has been neighing. The mother calls incessantly for her lost
+young ones; for instance, a cow for her calf; and the young of many
+animals call for their mothers. When a flock of sheep is scattered, the
+ewes bleat incessantly for their lambs, and their mutual pleasure at
+coming together is manifest. Woe betide the man who meddles with the
+young of the larger and fiercer quadrupeds, if they hear the cry of
+distress from their young. Rage leads to the violent exertion of all
+the muscles, including those of the voice; and some animals, when
+enraged, endeavour to strike terror into their enemies by its power and
+harshness, as the lion does by roaring, and the dog by growling. I
+infer that their object is to strike terror, because the lion at the
+same time erects the hair of its mane, and the dog the hair along its
+back, and thus they make themselves appear as large and terrible as
+possible. Rival males try to excel and challenge each other by their
+voices, and this leads to deadly contests. Thus the use of the voice
+will have become associated with the emotion of anger, however it may
+be aroused. We have also seen that intense pain, like rage, leads to
+violent outcries, and the exertion of screaming by itself gives some
+relief; and thus the use of the voice will have become associated with
+suffering of any kind.
+
+The cause of widely different sounds being uttered under different
+emotions and sensations is a very obscure subject. Nor does the rule
+always hold good that there is any marked difference. For instance with
+the dog, the bark of anger and that of joy do not differ much, though
+they can be distinguished. It is not probable that any precise
+explanation of the cause or source of each particular sound, under
+different states of the mind, will ever be given. We know that some
+animals, after being domesticated, have acquired the habit of uttering
+sounds which were not natural to them.[401] Thus domestic dogs, and
+even tamed jackals, have learnt to bark, which is a noise not proper to
+any species of the genus, with the exception of the _Canis latrans_ of
+North America, which is said to bark. Some breeds, also, of the
+domestic pigeon have learnt to coo in a new and quite peculiar manner.
+
+The character of the human voice, under the influence of various
+emotions, has been discussed by Mr. Herbert Spencer[402] in his
+interesting essay on Music. He clearly shows that the voice alters much
+under different conditions, in loudness and in quality, that is, in
+resonance and _timbre_, in pitch and intervals. No one can listen to an
+eloquent orator or preacher, or to a man calling angrily to another, or
+to one expressing astonishment, without being struck with the truth of
+Mr. Spencer’s remarks. It is curious how early in life the modulation
+of the voice becomes expressive. With one of my children, under the age
+of two years, I clearly perceived that his humph of assent was rendered
+by a slight modulation strongly emphatic; and that by a peculiar whine
+his negative expressed obstinate determination. Mr. Spencer further
+shows that emotional speech, in all the above respects is intimately
+related to vocal music, and consequently to instrumental music; and he
+attempts to explain the characteristic qualities of both on
+physiological grounds—namely, on “the general law that a feeling is a
+stimulus to muscular action.” It may be admitted that the voice is
+affected through this law; but the explanation appears to me too
+general and vague to throw much light on the various differences, with
+the exception of that of loudness, between ordinary speech and
+emotional speech, or singing.
+
+This remark holds good, whether we believe that the various qualities
+of the voice originated in speaking under the excitement of strong
+feelings, and that these qualities have subsequently been transferred
+to vocal music; or whether we believe, as I maintain, that the habit of
+uttering musical sounds was first developed, as a means of courtship,
+in the early progenitors of man, and thus became associated with the
+strongest emotions of which they were capable,—namely, ardent love,
+rivalry and triumph. That animals utter musical notes is familiar to
+every one, as we may daily hear in the singing of birds. It is a more
+remarkable fact that an ape, one of the Gibbons, produces an exact
+octave of musical sounds, ascending and descending the scale by
+halftones; so that this monkey “alone of brute mammals may be said to
+sing.”[403] From this fact, and from the analogy of other animals, I
+have been led to infer that the progenitors of man probably uttered
+musical tones, before they had acquired the power of articulate speech;
+and that consequently, when the voice is used under any strong emotion,
+it tends to assume, through the principle of association, a musical
+character. We can plainly perceive, with some of the lower animals,
+that the males employ their voices to please the females, and that they
+themselves take pleasure in their own vocal utterances; but why
+particular sounds are uttered, and why these give pleasure cannot at
+present be explained.
+
+That the pitch of the voice bears some relation to certain states of
+feeling is tolerably clear. A person gently complaining of
+ill-treatment, or slightly suffering, almost always speaks in a
+high-pitched voice. Dogs, when a little impatient, often make a high
+piping note through their noses, which at once strikes us as
+plaintive;[404] but how difficult it is to know whether the sound is
+essentially plaintive, or only appears so in this particular case, from
+our having learnt by experience what it means! Rengger, states[405]
+that the monkeys (_Cebus azaræ_), which he kept in Paraguay, expressed
+astonishment by a half-piping, half-snarling noise; anger or
+impatience, by repeating the sound _hu hu_ in a deeper, grunting voice;
+and fright or pain, by shrill screams. On the other hand, with mankind,
+deep groans and high piercing screams equally express an agony of pain.
+Laughter maybe either high or low; so that, with adult men, as Haller
+long ago remarked,[406] the sound partakes of the character of the
+vowels (as pronounced in German) _O_ and _A_; whilst with children and
+women, it has more of the character of _E_ and _I_; and these latter
+vowel-sounds naturally have, as Helmholtz has shown, a higher pitch
+than the former; yet both tones of laughter equally express enjoyment
+or amusement.
+
+In considering the mode in which vocal utterances express emotion, we
+are naturally led to inquire into the cause of what is called
+“expression” in music. Upon this point Mr. Litchfield, who has long
+attended to the subject of music, has been so kind as to give me the
+following remarks:—“The question, what is the essence of musical
+‘expression’ involves a number of obscure points, which, so far as I am
+aware, are as yet unsolved enigmas. Up to a certain point, however, any
+law which is found to hold as to the expression of the emotions by
+simple sounds must apply to the more developed mode of expression in
+song, which may be taken as the primary type of all music. A great part
+of the emotional effect of a song depends on the character of the
+action by which the sounds are produced. In songs, for instance, which
+express great vehemence of passion, the effect often chiefly depends on
+the forcible utterance of some one or two characteristic passages which
+demand great exertion of vocal force; and it will be frequently noticed
+that a song of this character fails of its proper effect when sung by a
+voice of sufficient power and range to give the characteristic passages
+without much exertion. This is, no doubt, the secret of the loss of
+effect so often produced by the transposition of a song from one key to
+another. The effect is thus seen to depend not merely on the actual
+sounds, but also in part on the nature of the action which produces the
+sounds. Indeed it is obvious that whenever we feel the ‘expression’ of
+a song to be due to its quickness or slowness of movement—to smoothness
+of flow, loudness of utterance, and so on—we are, in fact, interpreting
+the muscular actions which produce sound, in the same way in which we
+interpret muscular action generally. But this leaves unexplained the
+more subtle and more specific effect which we call the _musical_
+expression of the song—the delight given by its melody, or even by the
+separate sounds which make up the melody. This is an effect indefinable
+in language—one which, so far as I am aware, no one has been able to
+analyse, and which the ingenious speculation of Mr. Herbert Spencer as
+to the origin of music leaves quite unexplained. For it is certain that
+the _melodic_ effect of a series of sounds does not depend in the least
+on their loudness or softness, or on their _absolute_ pitch. A tune is
+always the same tune, whether it is sung loudly or softly, by a child
+or a man; whether it is played on a flute or on a trombone. The purely
+musical effect of any sound depends on its place in what is technically
+called a ‘scale;’ the same sound producing absolutely different effects
+on the ear, according as it is heard in connection with one or another
+series of sounds.
+
+“It is on this _relative_ association of the sounds that all the
+essentially characteristic effects which are summed up in the phrase
+‘musical expression,’ depend. But why certain associations of sounds
+have such-and-such effects, is a problem which yet remains to be
+solved. These effects must indeed, in some way or other, be connected
+with the well-known arithmetical relations between the rates of
+vibration of the sounds which form a musical scale. And it is
+possible—but this is merely a suggestion—that the greater or less
+mechanical facility with which the vibrating apparatus of the human
+larynx passes from one state of vibration to another, may have been a
+primary cause of the greater or less pleasure produced by various
+sequences of sounds.”
+
+But leaving aside these complex questions and confining ourselves to
+the simpler sounds, we can, at least, see some reasons for the
+association of certain kinds of sounds with certain states of mind. A
+scream, for instance, uttered by a young animal, or by one of the
+members of a community, as a call for assistance, will naturally be
+loud, prolonged, and high, so as to penetrate to a distance. For
+Helmholtz has shown[407] that, owing to the shape of the internal
+cavity of the human ear and its consequent power of resonance, high
+notes produce a particularly strong impression. When male animals utter
+sounds in order to please the females, they would naturally employ
+those which are sweet to the ears of the species; and it appears that
+the same sounds are often pleasing to widely different animals, owing
+to the similarity of their nervous systems, as we ourselves perceive in
+the singing of birds and even in the chirping of certain tree-frogs
+giving us pleasure. On the other hand, sounds produced in order to
+strike terror into an enemy, would naturally be harsh or displeasing.
+
+Whether the principle of antithesis has come into play with sounds, as
+might perhaps have been expected, is doubtful. The interrupted,
+laughing or tittering sounds made by man and by various kinds of
+monkeys when pleased, are as different as possible from the prolonged
+screams of these animals when distressed. The deep grunt of
+satisfaction uttered by a pig, when pleased with its food, is widely
+different from its harsh scream of pain or terror. But with the dog, as
+lately remarked, the bark of anger and that of joy are sounds which by
+no means stand in opposition to each other; and so it is in some other
+cases.
+
+There is another obscure point, namely, whether the sounds which are
+produced under various states of the mind determine the shape of the
+mouth, or whether its shape is not determined by independent causes,
+and the sound thus modified. When young infants cry they open their
+mouths widely, and this, no doubt, is necessary for pouring forth a
+full volume of sound; but the mouth then assumes, from a quite distinct
+cause, an almost quadrangular shape, depending, as will hereafter be
+explained, on the firm closing of the eyelids, and consequent drawing
+up of the upper lip. How far this square shape of the mouth modifies
+the wailing or crying sound, I am not prepared to say; but we know from
+the researches of Helmholtz and others that the form of the cavity of
+the mouth and lips determines the nature and pitch of the vowel sounds
+which are produced.
+
+It will also be shown in a future chapter that, under the feeling of
+contempt or disgust, there is a tendency, from intelligible causes, to
+blow out of the mouth or nostrils, and this produces sounds like pooh
+or pish. When any one is startled or suddenly astonished, there is an
+instantaneous tendency, likewise from an intelligible cause, namely, to
+be ready for prolonged exertion, to open the mouth widely, so as to
+draw a deep and rapid inspiration. When the next full expiration
+follows, the mouth is slightly closed, and the lips, from causes
+hereafter to be discussed, are somewhat protruded; and this form of the
+mouth, if the voice be at all exerted, produces, according to
+Helmholtz, the sound of the vowel _O_. Certainly a deep sound of a
+prolonged _Oh!_ may be heard from a whole crowd of people immediately
+after witnessing any astonishing spectacle. If, together with surprise,
+pain be felt, there is a tendency to contract all the muscles of the
+body, including those of the face, and the lips will then be drawn
+back; and this will perhaps account for the sound becoming higher and
+assuming the character of _Ah!_ or _Ach!_ As fear causes all the
+muscles of the body to tremble, the voice naturally becomes tremulous,
+and at the same time husky from the dryness of the mouth, owing to the
+salivary glands failing to act. Why the laughter of man and the
+tittering of monkeys should be a rapidly reiterated sound, cannot be
+explained. During the utterance of these sounds, the mouth is
+transversely elongated by the corners being drawn backwards and
+upwards; and of this fact an explanation will be attempted in a future
+chapter. But the whole subject of the differences of the sounds
+produced under different states of the mind is so obscure, that I have
+succeeded in throwing hardly any light on it; and the remarks which I
+have made, have but little significance.
+
+
+
+Sound Producing Quills from Tail of a Porcupine. Fig. 11
+
+All the sounds hitherto noticed depend on the respiratory organs; but
+sounds produced by wholly different means are likewise expressive.
+Rabbits stamp loudly on the ground as a signal to their comrades; and
+if a man knows how to do so properly, he may on a quiet evening hear
+the rabbits answering him all around. These animals, as well as some
+others, also stamp on the ground when made angry. Porcupines rattle
+their quills and vibrate their tails when angered; and one behaved in
+this manner when a live snake was placed in its compartment. The quills
+on the tail are very different from those on the body: they are short,
+hollow, thin like a goose-quill, with their ends transversely
+truncated, so that they are open; they are supported on long, thin,
+elastic foot-stalks. Now, when the tail is rapidly shaken, these hollow
+quills strike against each other and produce, as I heard in the
+presence of Mr. Bartlett, a peculiar continuous sound. We can, I think,
+understand why porcupines have been provided, through the modification
+of their protective spines, with this special sound-producing
+instrument. They are nocturnal animals, and if they scented or heard a
+prowling beast of prey, it would be a great advantage to them in the
+dark to give warning to their enemy what they were, and that they were
+furnished with dangerous spines. They would thus escape being attacked.
+They are, as I may add, so fully conscious of the power of their
+weapons, that when enraged they will charge backwards with their spines
+erected, yet still inclined backwards.
+
+Many birds during their courtship produce diversified sounds by means
+of specially adapted feathers. Storks, when excited, make a loud
+clattering noise with their beaks. Some snakes produce a grating or
+rattling noise. Many insects stridulate by rubbing together specially
+modified parts of their hard integuments. This stridulation generally
+serves as a sexual charm or call; but it is likewise used to express
+different emotions.[408] Every one who has attended to bees knows that
+their humming changes when they are angry; and this serves as a warning
+that there is danger of being stung. I have made these few remarks
+because some writers have laid so much stress on the vocal and
+respiratory organs as having been specially adapted for expression,
+that it was advisable to show that sounds otherwise produced serve
+equally well for the same purpose.
+
+_Erection of the dermal appendages_.—Hardly any expressive movement is
+so general as the involuntary erection of the hairs, feathers and other
+dermal appendages; for it is common throughout three of the great
+vertebrate classes. These appendages are erected under the excitement
+of anger or terror; more especially when these emotions are combined,
+or quickly succeed each other. The action serves to make the animal
+appear larger and more frightful to its enemies or rivals, and is
+generally accompanied by various voluntary movements adapted for the
+same purpose, and by the utterance of savage sounds. Mr. Bartlett, who
+has had such wide experience with animals of all kinds, does not doubt
+that this is the case; but it is a different question whether the power
+of erection was primarily acquired for this special purpose.
+
+I will first give a considerable body of facts showing how general this
+action is with mammals, birds and reptiles; retaining what I have to
+say in regard to man for a future chapter. Mr. Sutton, the intelligent
+keeper in the Zoological Gardens, carefully observed for me the
+Chimpanzee and Orang; and he states that when they are suddenly
+frightened, as by a thunderstorm, or when they are made angry, as by
+being teased, their hair becomes erect. I saw a chimpanzee who was
+alarmed at the sight of a black coalheaver, and the hair rose all over
+his body; he made little starts forward as if to attack the man,
+without any real intention of doing so, but with the hope, as the
+keeper remarked, of frightening him. The Gorilla, when enraged, is
+described by Mr. Ford[409] as having his crest of hair “erect and
+projecting forward, his nostrils dilated, and his under lip thrown
+down; at the same time uttering his characteristic yell, designed, it
+would seem, to terrify his antagonists.” I saw the hair on the Anubis
+baboon, when angered bristling along the back, from the neck to the
+loins, but not on the rump or other parts of the body. I took a stuffed
+snake into the monkey-house, and the hair on several of the species
+instantly became erect; especially on their tails, as I particularly
+noticed with the _Cereopithecus nictitans_. Brehm states[410] that the
+_Midas œdipus_ (belonging to the American division) when excited erects
+its mane, in order, as he adds, to make itself as frightful as
+possible.
+
+With the Carnivora the erection of the hair seems to be almost
+universal, often accompanied by threatening movements, the uncovering
+of the teeth and the utterance of savage growls. In the Herpestes, I
+have seen the hair on end over nearly the whole body, including the
+tail; and the dorsal crest is erected in a conspicuous manner by the
+Hyaena and Proteles. The enraged lion erects his mane. The bristling of
+the hair along the neck and back of the dog, and over the whole body of
+the cat, especially on the tail, is familiar to every one. With the cat
+it apparently occurs only under fear; with the dog, under anger and
+fear; but not, as far as I have observed, under abject fear, as when a
+dog is going to be flogged by a severe gamekeeper. If, however, the dog
+shows fight, as sometimes happens, up goes his hair. I have often
+noticed that the hair of a dog is particularly liable to rise, if he is
+half angry and half afraid, as on beholding some object only
+indistinctly seen in the dusk.
+
+I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon that he has often seen the
+hair erected on horses and cattle, on which he had operated and was
+again going to operate. When I showed a stuffed snake to a Peccary, the
+hair rose in a wonderful manner along its back; and so it does with the
+boar when enraged. An Elk which gored a man to death in the United
+States, is described as first brandishing his antlers, squealing with
+rage and stamping on the ground; “at length his hair was seen to rise
+and stand on end,” and then he plunged forward to the attack.[411] The
+hair likewise becomes erect on goats, and, as I hear from Mr. Blyth, on
+some Indian antelopes. I have seen it erected on the hairy Ant-eater;
+and on the Agouti, one of the Rodents. A female Bat,[412] which reared
+her young under confinement, when any one looked into the cage “erected
+the fur on her back, and bit viciously at intruding fingers.”
+
+Birds belonging to all the chief Orders ruffle their feathers when
+angry or frightened. Every one must have seen two cocks, even quite
+young birds, preparing to fight with erected neck-hackles; nor can
+these feathers when erected serve as a means of defence, for
+cock-fighters have found by experience that it is advantageous to trim
+them. The male Ruff (_Machetes pugnæ_) likewise erects its collar of
+feathers when fighting. When a dog approaches a common hen with her
+chickens, she spreads out her wings, raises her tail, ruffles all her
+feathers, and looking as ferocious as possible, dashes at the intruder.
+The tail is not always held in exactly the same position; it is
+sometimes so much erected, that the central feathers, as in the
+accompanying drawing, almost touch the back. Swans, when angered,
+likewise raise their wings and tail, and erect their feathers. They
+open their beaks, and make by paddling little rapid starts forwards,
+against any one who approaches the water’s edge too closely. Tropic
+birds[413] when disturbed on their nests are said not to fly away, but
+“merely to stick out their feathers and scream.” The Barn-owl, when
+approached “instantly swells out its plumage, extends its wings and
+tail, hisses and clacks its mandibles with force and rapidity.”[414] So
+do other kinds of owls. Hawks, as I am informed by Mr. Jenner Weir,
+likewise ruffle their feathers, and spread out their wings and tail
+under similar circumstances. Some kinds of parrots erect their
+feathers; and I have seen this action in the Cassowary, when angered at
+the sight of an Ant-eater. Young cuckoos in the nest, raise their
+feathers, open their mouths widely, and make themselves as frightful as
+possible.
+
+
+
+Hen Driving Away a Dog from Her Chickens. Fig. 12
+
+{illust. caption = FIG. 12—Hen driving away a dog from her chickens.
+Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.}
+
+
+
+Swan Driving Away an Intruder. Fig 13
+
+{illust. caption = FIG. 13.—Swan driving away an intruder. Drawn from
+life by Mr. Wood.}
+
+Small birds, also, as I hear from Mr. Weir, such as various finches,
+buntings and warblers, when angry, ruffle all their feathers, or only
+those round the neck; or they spread out their wings and tail-feathers.
+With their plumage in this state, they rush at each other with open
+beaks and threatening gestures. Mr. Weir concludes from his large
+experience that the erection of the feathers is caused much more by
+anger than by fear. He gives as an instance a hybrid goldfinch of a
+most irascible disposition, which when approached too closely by a
+servant, instantly assumes the appearance of a ball of ruffled
+feathers. He believes that birds when frightened, as a general rule,
+closely adpress all their feathers, and their consequently diminished
+size is often astonishing. As soon as they recover from their fear or
+surprise, the first thing which they do is to shake out their feathers.
+The best instances of this adpression of the feathers and apparent
+shrinking of the body from fear, which Mr. Weir has noticed, has been
+in the quail and grass-parrakeet.[415] The habit is intelligible in
+these birds from their being accustomed, when in danger, either to
+squat on the ground or to sit motionless on a branch, so as to escape
+detection. Though, with birds, anger may be the chief and commonest
+cause of the erection of the feathers, it is probable that young
+cuckoos when looked at in the nest, and a hen with her chickens when
+approached by a dog, feel at least some terror. Mr. Tegetmeier informs
+me that with game-cocks, the erection of the feathers on the head has
+long been recognized in the cock-pit as a sign of cowardice.
+
+The males of some lizards, when fighting together during their
+courtship, expand their throat pouches or frills, and erect their
+dorsal crests.[416] But Dr. Günther does not believe that they can
+erect their separate spines or scales.
+
+We thus see how generally throughout the two higher vertebrate classes,
+and with some reptiles, the dermal appendages are erected under the
+influence of anger and fear. The movement is effected, as we know from
+Kolliker’s interesting discovery, by the contraction of minute,
+unstriped, involuntary muscles,[417] often called _arrectores pili_,
+which are attached to the capsules of the separate hairs, feathers, &c.
+By the contraction of these muscles the hairs can be instantly erected,
+as we see in a dog, being at the same time drawn a little out of their
+sockets; they are afterwards quickly depressed. The vast number of
+these minute muscles over the whole body of a hairy quadruped is
+astonishing. The erection of the hair is, however, aided in some cases,
+as with that on the head of a man, by the striped and voluntary muscles
+of the underlying _panniculus carnosus_. It is by the action of these
+latter muscles, that the hedgehog erects its spines. It appears, also,
+from the researches of Leydig[418] and others, that striped fibres
+extend from the panniculus to some of the larger hairs, such as the
+vibrissae of certain quadrupeds. The _arrectores pili_ contract not
+only under the above emotions, but from the application of cold to the
+surface. I remember that my mules and dogs, brought from a lower and
+warmer country, after spending a night on the bleak Cordillera, had the
+hair all over their bodies as erect as under the greatest terror. We
+see the same action in our own _goose-skin_ during the chill before a
+fever-fit. Mr. Lister has also found,[419] that tickling a neighbouring
+part of the skin causes the erection and protrusion of the hairs.
+
+From these facts it is manifest that the erection of the dermal
+appendages is a reflex action, independent of the will; and this action
+must be looked at, when, occurring under the influence of anger or
+fear, not as a power acquired for the sake of some advantage, but as an
+incidental result, at least to a large extent, of the sensorium being
+affected. The result, in as far as it is incidental, may be compared
+with the profuse sweating from an agony of pain or terror.
+Nevertheless, it is remarkable how slight an excitement often suffices
+to cause the hair to become erect; as when two dogs pretend to fight
+together in play. We have, also, seen in a large number of animals,
+belonging to widely distinct classes, that the erection of the hair or
+feathers is almost always accompanied by various voluntary movements—by
+threatening gestures, opening the mouth, uncovering the teeth,
+spreading out of the wings and tail by birds, and by the utterance of
+harsh sounds; and the purpose of these voluntary movements is
+unmistakable. Therefore it seems hardly credible that the co-ordinated
+erection of the dermal appendages, by which the animal is made to
+appear larger and more terrible to its enemies or rivals, should be
+altogether an incidental and purposeless result of the disturbance of
+the sensorium. This seems almost as incredible as that the erection by
+the hedgehog of its spines, or of the quills by the porcupine, or of
+the ornamental plumes by many birds during their courtship, should all
+be purposeless actions.
+
+We here encounter a great difficulty. How can the contraction of the
+unstriped and involuntary _arrectores pili_ have been co-ordinated with
+that of various voluntary muscles for the same special purpose? If we
+could believe that the arrectores primordially had been voluntary
+muscles, and had since lost their stripes and become involuntary, the
+case would be comparatively simple. I am not, however, aware that there
+is any evidence in favour of this view; although the reversed
+transition would not have presented any great difficulty, as the
+voluntary muscles are in an unstriped condition in the embryos of the
+higher animals, and in the larvae of some crustaceans. Moreover in the
+deeper layers of the skin of adult birds, the muscular network is,
+according to Leydig,[420] in a transitional condition; the fibres
+exhibiting only indications of transverse striation.
+
+Another explanation seems possible. We may admit that originally the
+_arrectores pili_ were slightly acted on in a direct manner, under the
+influence of rage and terror, by the disturbance of the nervous system;
+as is undoubtedly the case with our so-called _goose-skin_ before a
+fever-fit. Animals have been repeatedly excited by rage and terror
+during many generations; and consequently the direct effects of the
+disturbed nervous system on the dermal appendages will almost certainly
+have been increased through habit and through the tendency of
+nerve-force to pass readily along accustomed channels. We shall find
+this view of the force of habit strikingly confirmed in a future
+chapter, where it will be shown that the hair of the insane is affected
+in an extraordinary manner, owing to their repeated accesses of fury
+and terror. As soon as with animals the power of erection had thus been
+strengthened or increased, they must often have seen the hairs or
+feathers erected in rival and enraged males, and the bulk of their
+bodies thus increased. In this case it appears possible that they might
+have wished to make themselves appear larger and more terrible to their
+enemies, by voluntarily assuming a threatening attitude and uttering
+harsh cries; such attitudes and utterances after a time becoming
+through habit instinctive. In this manner actions performed by the
+contraction of voluntary muscles might have been combined for the same
+special purpose with those effected by involuntary muscles. It is even
+possible that animals, when excited and dimly conscious of some change
+in the state of their hair, might act on it by repeated exertions of
+their attention and will; for we have reason to believe that the will
+is able to influence in an obscure manner the action of some unstriped
+or involuntary muscles, as in the period of the peristaltic movements
+of the intestines, and in the contraction of the bladder. Nor must we
+overlook the part which variation and natural selection may have
+played; for the males which succeeded in making themselves appear the
+most terrible to their rivals, or to their other enemies, if not of
+overwhelming power, will on an average have left more offspring to
+inherit their characteristic qualities, whatever these may be and
+however first acquired, than have other males.
+
+_The inflation of the body, and other means of exciting fear in an
+enemy_.—Certain Amphibians and Reptiles, which either have no spines to
+erect, or no muscles by which they can be erected, enlarge themselves
+when alarmed or angry by inhaling air. This is well known to be the
+case with toads and frogs. The latter animal is made, in AEsop’s fable
+of the ‘Ox and the Frog,’ to blow itself up from vanity and envy until
+it burst. This action must have been observed during the most ancient
+times, as, according to Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood,[421] the word _toad_
+expresses in all the languages of Europe the habit of swelling. It has
+been observed with some of the exotic species in the Zoological
+Gardens; and Dr. Günther believes that it is general throughout the
+group. Judging from analogy, the primary purpose probably was to make
+the body appear as large and frightful as possible to an enemy; but
+another, and perhaps more important secondary advantage is thus gained.
+When frogs are seized by snakes, which are their chief enemies, they
+enlarge themselves wonderfully; so that if the snake be of small size,
+as Dr. Günther informs me, it cannot swallow the frog, which thus
+escapes being devoured.
+
+Chameleons and some other lizards inflate themselves when angry. Thus a
+species inhabiting Oregon, the _Tapaya Douglasii_, is slow in its
+movements and does not bite, but has a ferocious aspect; “when
+irritated it springs in a most threatening manner at anything pointed
+at it, at the same time opening its mouth wide and hissing audibly,
+after which it inflates its body, and shows other marks of anger.”[422]
+
+Several kinds of snakes likewise inflate themselves when irritated. The
+puff-adder (_Clotho arietans_) is remarkable in this respect; but I
+believe, after carefully watching these animals, that they do not act
+thus for the sake of increasing their apparent bulk, but simply for
+inhaling a large supply of air, so as to produce their surprisingly
+loud, harsh, and prolonged hissing sound. The Cobras-de-capello, when
+irritated, enlarge themselves a little, and hiss moderately; but, at
+the same time they lift their heads aloft, and dilate by means of their
+elongated anterior ribs, the skin on each side of the neck into a large
+flat disk,—the so-called hood. With their widely opened mouths, they
+then assume a terrific aspect. The benefit thus derived ought to be
+considerable, in order to compensate for the somewhat lessened rapidity
+(though this is still great) with which, when dilated, they can strike
+at their enemies or prey; on the same principle that a broad, thin
+piece of wood cannot be moved through the air so quickly as a small
+round stick. An innocuous snake, the _Trovidonotus macrophthalmus_, an
+inhabitant of India, likewise dilates its neck when irritated; and
+consequently is often mistaken for its compatriot, the deadly
+Cobra.[423] This resemblance perhaps serves as some protection to the
+Tropidonotus. Another innocuous species, the Dasypeltis of South
+Africa, blows itself out, distends its neck, hisses and darts at an
+intruder.[424] Many other snakes hiss under similar circumstances. They
+also rapidly vibrate their protruded tongues; and this may aid in
+increasing their terrific appearance.
+
+Snakes possess other means of producing sounds besides hissing. Many
+years ago I observed in South America that a venomous Trigonocephalus,
+when disturbed, rapidly vibrated the end of its tail, which striking
+against the dry grass and twigs produced a rattling noise that could be
+distinctly heard at the distance of six feet.[425] The deadly and
+fierce _Echis carinata_ of India produces “a curious prolonged, almost
+hissing sound in a very different manner, namely by rubbing the sides
+of the folds of its body against each other,” whilst the head remains
+in almost the same position. The scales on the sides, and not on other
+parts of the body, are strongly keeled, with the keels toothed like a
+saw; and as the coiled-up animal rubs its sides together, these grate
+against each other.[426] Lastly, we have the well-known case of the
+Rattle-snake. He who has merely shaken the rattle of a dead snake, can
+form no just idea of the sound produced by the living animal. Professor
+Shaler states that it is indistinguishable from that made by the male
+of a large Cicada (an Homopterous insect), which inhabits the same
+district.[427] In the Zoological Gardens, when the rattle-snakes and
+puff-adders were greatly excited at the same time, I was much struck at
+the similarity of the sound produced by them; and although that made by
+the rattle-snake is louder and shriller than the hissing of the
+puff-adder, yet when standing at some yards distance I could scarcely
+distinguish the two. For whatever purpose the sound is produced by the
+one species, I can hardly doubt that it serves for the same purpose in
+the other species; and I conclude from the threatening gestures made at
+the same time by many snakes, that their hissing,—the rattling of the
+rattle-snake and of the tail of the Trigonocephalus,—the grating of the
+scales of the Echis,—and the dilatation of the hood of the Cobra,—all
+subserve the same end, namely, to make them appear terrible to their
+enemies.[428]
+
+It seems at first a probable conclusion that venomous snakes, such as
+the foregoing, from being already so well defended by their
+poison-fangs, would never be attacked by any enemy; and consequently
+would have no need to excite additional terror. But this is far from
+being the case, for they are largely preyed on in all quarters of the
+world by many animals. It is well known that pigs are employed in the
+United States to clear districts infested with rattle-snakes, which
+they do most effectually.[429] In England the hedgehog attacks and
+devours the viper. In India, as I hear from Dr. Jerdon, several kinds
+of hawks, and at least one mammal, the Herpestes, kill cobras and other
+venomous species;[430] and so it is in South Africa. Therefore it is by
+no means improbable that any sounds or signs by which the venomous
+species could instantly make themselves recognized as dangerous, would
+be of more service to them than to the innocuous species which would
+not be able, if attacked, to inflict any real injury.
+
+Having said thus much about snakes, I am tempted to add a few remarks
+on the means by which the rattle of the rattle-snake was probably
+developed. Various animals, including some lizards, either curl or
+vibrate their tails when excited. This is the case with many kinds of
+snakes.[431] In the Zoological Gardens, an innocuous species, the
+_Coronella Sayi_, vibrates its tail so rapidly that it becomes almost
+invisible. The Trigonocephalus, before alluded to, has the same habit;
+and the extremity of its tail is a little enlarged, or ends in a bead.
+In the Lachesis, which is so closely allied to the rattle-snake that it
+was placed by Linnaeus in the same genus, the tail ends in a single,
+large, lancet-shaped point or scale. With some snakes the skin, as
+Professor Shaler remarks, “is more imperfectly detached from the region
+about the tail than at other parts of the body.” Now if we suppose that
+the end of the tail of some ancient American species was enlarged, and
+was covered by a single large scale, this could hardly have been cast
+off at the successive moults. In this case it would have been
+permanently retained, and at each period of growth, as the snake grew
+larger, a new scale, larger than the last, would have been formed above
+it, and would likewise have been retained. The foundation for the
+development of a rattle would thus have been laid; and it would have
+been habitually used, if the species, like so many others, vibrated its
+tail whenever it was irritated. That the rattle has since been
+specially developed to serve as an efficient sound-producing
+instrument, there can hardly be a doubt; for even the vertebrae
+included within the extremity of the tail have been altered in shape
+and cohere. But there is no greater improbability in various
+structures, such as the rattle of the rattle-snake,—the lateral scales
+of the Echis,—the neck with the included ribs of the Cobra,—and the
+whole body of the puff-adder,—having been modified for the sake of
+warning and frightening away their enemies, than in a bird, namely, the
+wonderful Secretary-hawk (_Gypogeranus_) having had its whole frame
+modified for the sake of killing snakes with impunity. It is highly
+probable, judging from what we have before seen, that this bird would
+ruffle its feathers whenever it attacked a snake; and it is certain
+that the Herpestes, when it eagerly rushes to attack a snake, erects
+the hair all over its body, and especially that on its tail.[432] We
+have also seen that some porcupines, when angered or alarmed at the
+sight of a snake, rapidly vibrate their tails, thus producing a
+peculiar sound by the striking together of the hollow quills. So that
+here both the attackers and the attacked endeavour to make themselves
+as dreadful as possible to each other; and both possess for this
+purpose specialised means, which, oddly enough, are nearly the same in
+some of these cases. Finally we can see that if, on the one hand, those
+individual snakes, which were best able to frighten away their enemies,
+escaped best from being devoured; and if, on the other hand, those
+individuals of the attacking enemy survived in larger numbers which
+were the best fitted for the dangerous task of killing and devouring
+venomous snakes;—then in the one case as in the other, beneficial
+variations, supposing the characters in question to vary, would
+commonly have been preserved through the survival of the fittest.
+
+_The Drawing back and pressure of the Ears to the Head_.—The ears
+through their movements are highly expressive in many animals; but in
+some, such as man, the higher apes, and many ruminants, they fail in
+this respect. A slight difference in position serves to express in the
+plainest manner a different state of mind, as we may daily see in the
+dog; but we are here concerned only with the ears being drawn closely
+backwards and pressed to the head. A savage frame of mind is thus
+shown, but only in the case of those animals which fight with their
+teeth; and the care which they take to prevent their ears being seized
+by their antagonists, accounts for this position. Consequently, through
+habit and association, whenever they feel slightly savage, or pretend
+in their play to be savage, their ears are drawn back. That this is the
+true explanation may be inferred from the relation which exists in very
+many animals between their manner of fighting and the retraction of
+their ears.
+
+All the Carnivora fight with their canine teeth, and all, as far as I
+have observed, draw their ears back when feeling savage. This may be
+continually seen with dogs when fighting in earnest, and with puppies
+fighting in play. The movement is different from the falling down and
+slight drawing back of the ears, when a dog feels pleased and is
+caressed by his master. The retraction of the ears may likewise be seen
+in kittens fighting together in their play, and in full-grown cats when
+really savage, as before illustrated in fig. 9 (p. 58). Although their
+ears are thus to a large extent protected, yet they often get much torn
+in old male cats during their mutual battles. The same movement is very
+striking in tigers, leopards, &c., whilst growling over their food in
+menageries. The lynx has remarkably long ears; and their retraction,
+when one of these animals is approached in its cage, is very
+conspicuous, and is eminently expressive of its savage disposition.
+Even one of the Eared Seals, the _Otariapusilla_, which has very small
+ears, draws them backwards, when it makes a savage rush at the legs of
+its keeper.
+
+When horses fight together they use their incisors for biting, and
+their fore-legs for striking, much more than they do their hind-legs
+for kicking backwards. This has been observed when stallions have
+broken loose and have fought together, and may likewise be inferred
+from the kind of wounds which they inflict on each other. Every one
+recognizes the vicious appearance which the drawing back of the ears
+gives to a horse. This movement is very different from that of
+listening to a sound behind. If an ill-tempered horse in a stall is
+inclined to kick backwards, his ears are retracted from habit, though
+he has no intention or power to bite. But when a horse throws up both
+hind-legs in play, as when entering an open field, or when just touched
+by the whip, he does not generally depress his ears, for he does not
+then feel vicious. Guanacoes fight savagely with their teeth; and they
+must do so frequently, for I found the hides of several which I shot in
+Patagonia deeply scored. So do camels; and both these animals, when
+savage, draw their ears closely backwards. Guanacoes, as I have
+noticed, when not intending to bite, but merely to spit their offensive
+saliva from a distance at an intruder, retract their ears. Even the
+hippopotamus, when threatening with its widely-open enormous mouth a
+comrade, draws back its small ears, just like a horse.
+
+Now what a contrast is presented between the foregoing animals and
+cattle, sheep, or goats, which never use their teeth in fighting, and
+never draw back their ears when enraged! Although sheep and goats
+appear such placid animals, the males often join in furious contests.
+As deer form a closely related family, and as I did not know that they
+ever fought with their teeth, I was much surprised at the account given
+by Major Ross King of the Moose-deer in Canada. He says, when“two males
+chance to meet, laying back their ears and gnashing their teeth
+together, they rush at each other with appalling fury.”[433] But Mr.
+Bartlett informs me that some species of deer fight savagely with their
+teeth, so that the drawing back of the ears by the moose accords with
+our rule. Several kinds of kangaroos, kept in the Zoological Gardens,
+fight by scratching with their fore-feet and by kicking with their
+hind-legs; but they never bite each other, and the keepers have never
+seen them draw back their ears when angered. Rabbits fight chiefly by
+kicking and scratching, but they likewise bite each other; and I have
+known one to bite off half the tail of its antagonist. At the
+commencement of their battles they lay back their ears, but afterwards,
+as they bound over and kick each other, they keep their ears erect, or
+move them much about.
+
+Mr. Bartlett watched a wild boar quarrelling rather savagely with his
+sow; and both had their mouths open and their ears drawn backwards. But
+this does not appear to be a common action with domestic pigs when
+quarrelling. Boars fight together by striking upwards with their tusks;
+and Mr. Bartlett doubts whether they then draw back their ears.
+Elephants, which in like manner fight with their tusks, do not retract
+their ears, but, on the contrary, erect them when rushing at each other
+or at an enemy.
+
+The rhinoceroses in the Zoological Gardens fight with their nasal
+horns, and have never been seen to attempt biting each other except in
+play; and the keepers are convinced that they do not draw back their
+ears, like horses and dogs, when feeling savage. The following
+statement, therefore, by Sir S. Baker[434] is inexplicable, namely,
+that a rhinoceros, which he shot in North Africa, “had no ears; they
+had been bitten off close to the head by another of the same species
+while fighting; and this mutilation is by no means uncommon.”
+
+Lastly, with respect to monkeys. Some kinds, which have moveable ears,
+and which fight with their teeth—for instance the _Cereopithecus
+ruber_—draw back their ears when irritated just like dogs; and they
+then have a very spiteful appearance. Other kinds, as the _Inuus
+ecaudatus_, apparently do not thus act. Again, other kinds—and this is
+a great anomaly in comparison with most other animals—retract their
+ears, show their teeth, and jabber, when they are pleased by being
+caressed. I observed this in two or three species of Macacus, and in
+the _Cynopithecus niger_. This expression, owing to our familiarity
+with dogs, would never be recognized as one of joy or pleasure by those
+unacquainted with monkeys.
+
+_Erection of the Ears_.—This movement requires hardly any notice. All
+animals which have the power of freely moving their ears, when they are
+startled, or when they closely observe any object, direct their ears to
+the point towards which they are looking, in order to hear any sound
+from this quarter. At the same time they generally raise their heads,
+as all their organs of sense are there situated, and some of the
+smaller animals rise on their hind-legs. Even those kinds which squat
+on the ground or instantly flee away to avoid danger, generally act
+momentarily in this manner, in order to ascertain the source and nature
+of the danger. The head being raised, with erected ears and eyes
+directed forwards, gives an unmistakable expression of close attention
+to any animal.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.
+
+The Dog, various expressive movements of—Cats—Horses—Ruminants—Monkeys,
+their expression of joy and affection—Of pain—Anger—Astonishment and
+Terror.
+
+_The Dog_.—I have already described (figs. 5 and 7) the appearance of a
+dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions, namely, with
+erected ears, eyes intently directed forwards, hair on the neck and
+back bristling, gait remarkably stiff, with the tail upright and rigid.
+So familiar is this appearance to us, that an angry man is sometimes
+said “to have his back up.” Of the above points, the stiff gait and
+upright tail alone require further discussion. Sir C. Bell remarks[501]
+that, when a tiger or wolf is struck by its keeper and is suddenly
+roused to ferocity, every muscle is in tension, and the limbs are in an
+attitude of strained exertion, prepared to spring. This tension of the
+muscles and consequent stiff gait may be accounted for on the principle
+of associated habit, for anger has continually led to fierce struggles,
+and consequently to all the muscles of the body having been violently
+exerted. There is also reason to suspect that the muscular system
+requires some short preparation, or some degree of innervation, before
+being brought into strong action. My own sensations lead me to this
+inference; but I cannot discover that it is a conclusion admitted by
+physiologists. Sir J. Paget, however, informs me that when muscles are
+suddenly contracted with the greatest force, without any preparation,
+they are liable to be ruptured, as when a man slips unexpectedly; but
+that this rarely occurs when an action, however violent, is
+deliberately performed.
+
+With respect to the upright position of the tail, it seems to depend
+(but whether this is really the case I know not) on the elevator
+muscles being more powerful than the depressors, so that when all the
+muscles of the hinder part of the body are in a state of tension, the
+tail is raised. A dog in cheerful spirits, and trotting before his
+master with high, elastic steps, generally carries his tail aloft,
+though it is not held nearly so stiffly as when he is angered. A horse
+when first turned out into an open field, may be seen to trot with long
+elastic strides, the head and tail being held high aloft. Even cows
+when they frisk about from pleasure, throw up their tails in a
+ridiculous fashion. So it is with various animals in the Zoological
+Gardens. The position of the tail, however, in certain cases, is
+determined by special circumstances; thus as soon as a horse breaks
+into a gallop, at full speed, he always lowers his tail, so that as
+little resistance as possible may be offered to the air.
+
+When a dog is on the point of springing on his antagonist, he utters a
+savage growl; the ears are pressed closely backwards, and the upper lip
+(fig. 14) is retracted out of the way of his teeth, especially of his
+canines. These movements may be observed with dogs and puppies in their
+play. But if a dog gets really savage in his play, his expression
+immediately changes. This, however, is simply due to the lips and ears
+being drawn back with much greater energy. If a dog only snarls at
+another, the lip is generally retracted on one side alone, namely
+towards his enemy.
+
+
+
+Head of Snarling Dog. Fig 14
+
+{illust. caption = FIG. 14.—Head of snarling Dog. From life, by Mr.
+Wood.
+
+The movements of a dog whilst exhibiting affection towards his master
+were described (figs. 6 and 8) in our second chapter. These consist in
+the head and whole body being lowered and thrown into flexuous
+movements, with the tail extended and wagged from side to side. The
+ears fall down and are drawn somewhat backwards, which causes the
+eyelids to be elongated, and alters the whole appearance of the face.
+The lips hang loosely, and the hair remains smooth. All these movements
+or gestures are explicable, as I believe, from their standing in
+complete antithesis to those naturally assumed by a savage dog under a
+directly opposite state of mind. When a man merely speaks to, or just
+notices, his dog, we see the last vestige of these movements in a
+slight wag of the tail, without any other movement of the body, and
+without even the ears being lowered. Dogs also exhibit their affection
+by desiring to rub against their masters, and to be rubbed or patted by
+them.
+
+Gratiolet explains the above gestures of affection in the following
+manner: and the reader can judge whether the explanation appears
+satisfactory. Speaking of animals in general, including the dog, he
+says,[502] “C’est toujours la partie la plus sensible de leurs corps
+qui recherche les caresses ou les donne. Lorsque toute la longueur des
+flancs et du corps est sensible, l’animal serpente et rampe sous les
+caresses; et ces ondulations se propageant le long des muscles
+analogues des segments jusqu’aux extrémités de la colonne vertébrale,
+la queue se ploie et s’agite.” Further on, he adds, that dogs, when
+feeling affectionate, lower their ears in order to exclude all sounds,
+so that their whole attention may be concentrated on the caresses of
+their master!
+
+Dogs have another and striking way of exhibiting their affection,
+namely, by licking the hands or faces of their masters. They sometimes
+lick other dogs, and then it is always their chops. I have also seen
+dogs licking cats with whom they were friends. This habit probably
+originated in the females carefully licking their puppies—the dearest
+object of their love—for the sake of cleansing them. They also often
+give their puppies, after a short absence, a few cursory licks,
+apparently from affection. Thus the habit will have become associated
+with the emotion of love, however it may afterwards be aroused. It is
+now so firmly inherited or innate, that it is transmitted equally to
+both sexes. A female terrier of mine lately had her puppies destroyed,
+and though at all times a very affectionate creature, I was much struck
+with the manner in which she then tried to satisfy her instinctive
+maternal love by expending it on me; and her desire to lick my hands
+rose to an insatiable passion.
+
+The same principle probably explains why dogs, when feeling
+affectionate, like rubbing against their masters and being rubbed or
+patted by them, for from the nursing of their puppies, contact with a
+beloved object has become firmly associated in their minds with the
+emotion of love.
+
+The feeling of affection of a dog towards his master is combined with a
+strong sense of submission, which is akin to fear. Hence dogs not only
+lower their bodies and crouch a little as they approach their masters,
+but sometimes throw themselves on the ground with their bellies
+upwards. This is a movement as completely opposite as is possible to
+any show of resistance. I formerly possessed a large dog who was not at
+all afraid to fight with other dogs; but a wolf-like shepherd-dog in
+the neighbourhood, though not ferocious and not so powerful as my dog,
+had a strange influence over him. When they met on the road, my dog
+used to run to meet him, with his tail partly tucked in between his
+legs and hair not erected; and then he would throw himself on the
+ground, belly upwards. By this action he seemed to say more plainly
+than by words, “Behold, I am your slave.”
+
+A pleasurable and excited state of mind, associated with affection, is
+exhibited by some dogs in a very peculiar manner, namely, by grinning.
+This was noticed long ago by Somerville, who says,
+
+“And with a courtly grin, the fawning hound
+Salutes thee cow’ring, his wide op’ning nose
+Upward he curls, and his large sloe-back eyes
+Melt in soft blandishments, and humble joy.”
+_The Chase_, book i.
+
+
+Sir W. Scott’s famous Scotch greyhound, Maida, had this habit, and it
+is common with terriers. I have also seen it in a Spitz and in a
+sheep-dog. Mr. Riviere, who has particularly attended to this
+expression, informs me that it is rarely displayed in a perfect manner,
+but is quite common in a lesser degree. The upper lip during the act of
+grinning is retracted, as in snarling, so that the canines are exposed,
+and the ears are drawn backwards; but the general appearance of the
+animal clearly shows that anger is not felt. Sir C. Bell[503] remarks
+“Dogs, in their expression of fondness, have a slight eversion of the
+lips, and grin and sniff amidst their gambols, in a way that resembles
+laughter.” Some persons speak of the grin as a smile, but if it had
+been really a smile, we should see a similar, though more pronounced,
+movement of the lips and ears, when dogs utter their bark of joy; but
+this is not the case, although a bark of joy often follows a grin. On
+the other hand, dogs, when playing with their comrades or masters,
+almost always pretend to bite each other; and they then retract, though
+not energetically, their lips and ears. Hence I suspect that there is a
+tendency in some dogs, whenever they feel lively pleasure combined with
+affection, to act through habit and association on the same muscles, as
+in playfully biting each other, or their masters’ hands.
+
+I have described, in the second chapter, the gait and appearance of a
+dog when cheerful, and the marked antithesis presented by the same
+animal when dejected and disappointed, with his head, ears, body, tail,
+and chops drooping, and eyes dull. Under the expectation of any great
+pleasure, dogs bound and jump about in an extravagant manner, and bark
+for joy. The tendency to bark under this state of mind is inherited, or
+runs in the breed: greyhounds rarely bark, whilst the Spitz-dog barks
+so incessantly on starting for a walk with his master that he becomes a
+nuisance.
+
+An agony of pain is expressed by dogs in nearly the same way as by many
+other animals, namely, by howling writhing, and contortions of the
+whole body.
+
+Attention is shown by the head being raised, with the ears erected, and
+eyes intently directed towards the object or quarter under observation.
+If it be a sound and the source is not known, the head is often turned
+obliquely from side to side in a most significant manner, apparently in
+order to judge with more exactness from what point the sound proceeds.
+But I have seen a dog greatly surprised at a new noise, turning, his
+head to one side through habit, though he clearly perceived the source
+of the noise. Dogs, as formerly remarked, when their attention is in
+any way aroused, whilst watching some object, or attending to some
+sound, often lift up one paw (fig. 4) and keep it doubled up, as if to
+make a slow and stealthy approach.
+
+A dog under extreme terror will throw himself down, howl, and void his
+excretions; but the hair, I believe, does not become erect unless some
+anger is felt. I have seen a dog much terrified at a band of musicians
+who were playing loudly outside the house, with every muscle of his
+body trembling, with his heart palpitating so quickly that the beats
+could hardly be counted, and panting for breath with widely open mouth,
+in the same manner as a terrified man does. Yet this dog had not
+exerted himself; he had only wandered slowly and restlessly about the
+room, and the day was cold.
+
+Even a very slight degree of fear is invariably shown by the tail being
+tucked in between the legs. This tucking in of the fail is accompanied
+by the ears being drawn backwards; but they are not pressed closely to
+the head, as in snarling, and they are not lowered, as when a dog is
+pleased or affectionate. When two young dogs chase each other in play,
+the one that runs away always keeps his tail tucked inwards. So it is
+when a dog, in the highest spirits, careers like a mad creature round
+and round his master in circles, or in figures of eight. He then acts
+as if another dog were chasing him. This curious kind of play, which
+must be familiar to every one who has attended to dogs, is particularly
+apt to be excited, after the animal has been a little startled or
+frightened, as by his master suddenly jumping out on him in the dusk.
+In this case, as well as when two young dogs are chasing each other in
+play, it appears as if the one that runs away was afraid of the other
+catching him by the tail; but as far as I can find out, dogs very
+rarely catch each other in this manner. I asked a gentleman, who had
+kept foxhounds all his life, and he applied to other experienced
+sportsmen, whether they had ever seen hounds thus seize a fox; but they
+never had. It appears that when a dog is chased, or when in danger of
+being struck behind, or of anything falling on him, in all these cases
+he wishes to withdraw as quickly as possible his whole hind-quarters,
+and that from some sympathy or connection between the muscles, the tail
+is then drawn closely inwards.
+
+A similarly connected movement between the hind-quarters and the tail
+may be observed in the hyaena. Mr. Bartlett informs me that when two of
+these animals fight together, they are mutually conscious of the
+wonderful power of each other’s jaws, and are extremely cautious. They
+well know that if one of their legs were seized, the bone would
+instantly be crushed into atoms; hence they approach each other
+kneeling, with their legs turned as much as possible inwards, and with
+their whole bodies bowed, so as not to present any salient point; the
+tail at the same time being closely tucked in between the legs. In this
+attitude they approach each other sideways, or even partly backwards.
+So again with deer, several of the species, when savage and fighting,
+tuck in their tails. When one horse in a field tries to bite the
+hind-quarters of another in play, or when a rough boy strikes a donkey
+from behind, the hind-quarters and the tail are drawn in, though it
+does not appear as if this were done merely to save the tail from being
+injured. We have also seen the reverse of these movements; for when an
+animal trots with high elastic steps, the tail is almost always carried
+aloft.
+
+As I have said, when a dog is chased and runs away, he keeps his ears
+directed backwards but still open; and this is clearly done for the
+sake of hearing the footsteps of his pursuer. From habit the ears are
+often held in this same position, and the tail tucked in, when the
+danger is obviously in front. I have repeatedly noticed, with a timid
+terrier of mine, that when she is afraid of some object in front, the
+nature of which she perfectly knows and does not need to reconnoitre,
+yet she will for a long time hold her ears and tail in this position,
+looking the image of discomfort. Discomfort, without any fear, is
+similarly expressed: thus, one day I went out of doors, just at the
+time when this same dog knew that her dinner would be brought. I did
+not call her, but she wished much to accompany me, and at the same time
+she wished much for her dinner; and there she stood, first looking one
+way and then the other, with her tail tucked in and ears drawn back,
+presenting an unmistakable appearance of perplexed discomfort.
+
+Almost all the expressive movements now described, with the exception
+of the grinning from joy, are innate or instinctive, for they are
+common to all the individuals, young and old, of all the breeds. Most
+of them are likewise common to the aboriginal parents of the dog,
+namely the wolf and jackal; and some of them to other species of the
+same group. Tamed wolves and jackals, when caressed by their masters,
+jump about for joy, wag their tails, lower their ears, lick their
+master’s hands, crouch down, and even throw themselves on the ground
+belly upwards.[504] I have seen a rather fox-like African jackal, from
+the Gaboon, depress its ears when caressed. Wolves and jackals, when
+frightened, certainly tuck in their tails; and a tamed jackal has been
+described as careering round his master in circles and figures of
+eight, like a dog, with his tail between his legs.
+
+It has been stated[505] that foxes, however tame, never display any of
+the above expressive movements; but this is not strictly accurate. Many
+years ago I observed in the Zoological Gardens, and recorded the fact
+at the time, that a very tame English fox, When caressed by the keeper,
+wagged its tail, depressed its ears, and then threw itself on the
+ground, belly upwards. The black fox of North America likewise
+depressed its ears in a slight degree. But I believe that foxes never
+lick the hands of their masters, and I have been assured that when
+frightened they never tuck in their tails. If the explanation which I
+have given of the expression of affection in dogs be admitted, then it
+would appear that animals which have never been domesticated—namely
+wolves, jackals, and even foxes—have nevertheless acquired, through the
+principle of antithesis, certain expressive gestures; for it is not
+probable that these animals, confined in cages, should have learnt them
+by imitating dogs.
+
+_Cats_.—I have already described the actions of a cat (fig. 9), when
+feeling savage and not terrified. She assumes a crouching attitude and
+occasionally protrudes her fore-feet, with the claws exserted ready for
+striking. The tail is extended, being curled or lashed from side to
+side. The hair is not erected—at least it was not so in the few cases
+observed by me. The ears are drawn closely backwards and the teeth are
+shown. Low savage growls are uttered. We can understand why the
+attitude assumed by a cat when preparing to fight with another cat, or
+in any way greatly irritated, is so widely different from that of a dog
+approaching another dog with hostile intentions; for the cat uses her
+fore-feet for striking, and this renders a crouching position
+convenient or necessary. She is also much more accustomed than a dog to
+lie concealed and suddenly spring on her prey. No cause can be assigned
+with certainty for the tail being lashed or curled from side to side.
+This habit is common to many other animals—for instance, to the puma,
+when prepared to spring;[506] but it is not common to dogs, or to
+foxes, as I infer from Mr. St. John’s account of a fox lying in wait
+and seizing a hare. We have already seen that some kinds of lizards and
+various snakes, when excited, rapidly vibrate the tips of their tails.
+It would appear as if, under strong excitement, there existed an
+uncontrollable desire for movement of some kind, owing to nerve-force
+being freely liberated from the excited sensorium; and that as the tail
+is left free, and as its movement does not disturb the general position
+of the body, it is curled or lashed about.
+
+All the movements of a cat, when feeling affectionate, are in complete
+antithesis to those just described. She now stands upright, with
+slightly arched back, tail perpendicularly raised, and ears erected;
+and she rubs her cheeks and flanks against her master or mistress. The
+desire to rub something is so strong in cats under this state of mind,
+that they may often be seen rubbing themselves against the legs of
+chairs or tables, or against door-posts. This manner of expressing
+affection probably originated through association, as in the case of
+dogs, from the mother nursing and fondling her young; and perhaps from
+the young themselves loving each other and playing together. Another
+and very different gesture, expressive of pleasure, has already been
+described, namely, the curious manner in which young and even old cats,
+when pleased, alternately protrude their fore-feet, with separated
+toes, as if pushing against and sucking their mother’s teats. This
+habit is so far analogous to that of rubbing against something, that
+both apparently are derived from actions performed during the nursing
+period. Why cats should show affection by rubbing so much more than do
+dogs, though the latter delight in contact with their masters, and why
+cats only occasionally lick the hands of their friends, whilst dogs
+always do so, I cannot say. Cats cleanse themselves by licking their
+own coats more regularly than do dogs. On the other hand, their tongues
+seem less well fitted for the work than the longer and more flexible
+tongues of dogs.
+
+
+
+Cat Terrified at a Dog.  Fig.15
+
+Cats, when terrified, stand at full height, and arch their backs in a
+well-known and ridiculous fashion. They spit, hiss, or growl. The hair
+over the whole body, and especially on the tail, becomes erect. In the
+instances observed by me the basal part of the tail was held upright,
+the terminal part being thrown on one side; but sometimes the tail (see
+fig. 15) is only a little raised, and is bent almost from the base to
+one side. The ears are drawn back, and the teeth exposed. When two
+kittens are playing together, the one often thus tries to frighten the
+other. From what we have seen in former chapters, all the above points
+of expression are intelligible, except the extreme arching of the back.
+I am inclined to believe that, in the same manner as many birds, whilst
+they ruffle their feathers, spread out their wings and tail, to make
+themselves look as big as possible, so cats stand upright at their full
+height, arch their backs, often raise the basal part of the tail, and
+erect their hair, for the same purpose. The lynx, when attacked, is
+said to arch its back, and is thus figured by Brehm. But the keepers in
+the Zoological Gardens have never seen any tendency to this action in
+the larger feline animals, such as tigers, lions, &c.; and these have
+little cause to be afraid of any other animal.
+
+Cats use their voices much as a means of expression, and they utter,
+under various emotions and desires, at least six or seven different
+sounds. The purr of satisfaction, which is made during both inspiration
+and expiration, is one of the most curious. The puma, cheetah, and
+ocelot likewise purr; but the tiger, when pleased, “emits a peculiar
+short snuffle, accompanied by the closure of the eyelids.”[507] It is
+said that the lion, jaguar, and leopard, do not purr.
+
+_Horses_.—Horses when savage draw their ears closely back, protrude
+their heads, and partially uncover their incisor teeth, ready for
+biting. When inclined to kick behind, they generally, through habit,
+draw back their ears; and their eyes are turned backwards in a peculiar
+manner.[508] When pleased, as when some coveted food is brought to them
+in the stable, they raise and draw in their heads, prick their ears,
+and looking intently towards their friend, often whinny. Impatience is
+expressed by pawing the ground.
+
+The actions of a horse when much startled are highly expressive. One
+day my horse was much frightened at a drilling machine, covered by a
+tarpaulin, and lying on an open field. He raised his head so high, that
+his neck became almost perpendicular; and this he did from habit, for
+the machine lay on a slope below, and could not have been seen with
+more distinctness through the raising of the head; nor if any sound had
+proceeded from it, could the sound have been more distinctly heard. His
+eyes and ears were directed intently forwards; and I could feel through
+the saddle the palpitations of his heart. With red dilated nostrils he
+snorted violently, and whirling round, would have dashed off at full
+speed, had I not prevented him. The distension of the nostrils is not
+for the sake of scenting the source of danger, for when a horse smells
+carefully at any object and is not alarmed, he does not dilate his
+nostrils. Owing to the presence of a valve in the throat, a horse when
+panting does not breathe through his open mouth, but through his
+nostrils; and these consequently have become endowed with great powers
+of expansion. This expansion of the nostrils, as well as the snorting,
+and the palpitations of the heart, are actions which have become firmly
+associated during a long series of generations with the emotion of
+terror; for terror has habitually led the horse to the most violent
+exertion in dashing away at full speed from the cause of danger.
+
+_Ruminants_.—Cattle and sheep are remarkable from displaying in so
+slight a degree their emotions or sensations, excepting that of extreme
+pain. A bull when enraged exhibits his rage only by the manner in which
+he holds his lowered head, with distended nostrils, and by bellowing.
+He also often paws the ground; but this pawing seems quite different
+from that of an impatient horse, for when the soil is loose, he throws
+up clouds of dust. I believe that bulls act in this manner when
+irritated by flies, for the sake of driving them away. The wilder
+breeds of sheep and the chamois when startled stamp on the ground, and
+whistle through their noses; and this serves as a danger-signal to
+their comrades. The musk-ox of the Arctic regions, when encountered,
+likewise stamps on the ground.[509] How this stamping action arose I
+cannot conjecture; for from inquiries which I have made it does not
+appear that any of these animals fight with their fore-legs.
+
+Some species of deer, when savage, display far more expression than do
+cattle, sheep, or goats, for, as has already been stated, they draw
+back their ears, grind their teeth, erect their hair, squeal, stamp on
+the ground, and brandish their horns. One day in the Zoological
+Gardens, the Formosan deer (_Cervus pseudaxis_) approached me in a
+curious attitude, with his muzzle raised high up, so that the horns
+were pressed back on his neck; the head being held rather obliquely.
+From the expression of his eye I felt sure that he was savage; he
+approached slowly, and as soon as he came close to the iron bars, he
+did not lower his head to butt at me, but suddenly bent it inwards, and
+struck his horns with great force against the railings. Mr. Bartlett
+informs me that some other species of deer place themselves in the same
+attitude when enraged.
+
+_Monkeys_.—The various species and genera of monkeys express their
+feelings in many different ways; and this fact is interesting, as in
+some degree bearing on the question, whether the so-called races of man
+should be ranked as distinct species or varieties; for, as we shall see
+in the following chapters, the different races of man express their
+emotions and sensations with remarkable uniformity throughout the
+world. Some of the expressive actions of monkeys are interesting in
+another way, namely from being closely analogous to those of man. As I
+have had no opportunity of observing any one species of the group under
+all circumstances, my miscellaneous remarks will be best arranged under
+different states of the mind.
+
+_Pleasure, joy, affection_—It is not possible to distinguish in
+monkeys, at least without more experience than I have had, the
+expression of pleasure or joy from that of affection. Young chimpanzees
+make a kind of barking noise, when pleased by the return of any one to
+whom they are attached. When this noise, which the keepers call a
+laugh, is uttered, the lips are protruded; but so they are under
+various other emotions. Nevertheless I could perceive that when they
+were pleased the form of the lips differed a little from that assumed
+when they were angered. If a young chimpanzee be tickled—and the
+armpits are particularly sensitive to tickling, as in the case of our
+children,—a more decided chuckling or laughing sound is uttered; though
+the laughter is sometimes noiseless. The corners of the mouth are then
+drawn backwards; and this sometimes causes the lower eyelids to be
+slightly wrinkled. But this wrinkling, which is so characteristic of
+our own laughter, is more plainly seen in some other monkeys. The teeth
+in the upper jaw in the chimpanzee are not exposed when they utter
+their laughing noise, in which respect they differ from us. But their
+eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as Mr. W. L. Martin,[510] who has
+particularly attended to their expression, states.
+
+Young Orangs, when tickled, likewise grin and make a chuckling sound;
+and Mr. Martin says that their eyes grow brighter. As soon as their
+laughter ceases, an expression may be detected passing over their
+faces, which, as Mr. Wallace remarked to me, may be called a smile. I
+have also noticed something of the same kind with the chimpanzee. Dr.
+Duchenne—and I cannot quote a better authority—informs me that he kept
+a very tame monkey in his house for a year; and when he gave it during
+meal-times some choice delicacy, he observed that the corners of its
+mouth were slightly raised; thus an expression of satisfaction,
+partaking of the nature of an incipient smile, and resembling that
+often seen on the face of main, could be plainly perceived in this
+animal.
+
+The _Cebus azaræ_,[511] when rejoiced at again seeing a beloved person,
+utters a peculiar tittering (_kichernden_) sound. It also expresses
+agreeable sensations, by drawing back the corners of its mouth, without
+producing any sound. Rengger calls this movement laughter, but it would
+be more appropriately called a smile. The form of the mouth is
+different when either pain or terror is expressed, and high shrieks are
+uttered. Another species of _Cebus_ in the Zoological Gardens (_C.
+hypoleucus_) when pleased, makes a reiterated shrill note, and likewise
+draws back the corners of its mouth, apparently through the contraction
+of the same muscles as with us. So does the Barbary ape (_Inuus
+ecaudatus_) to an extraordinary degree; and I observed in this monkey
+that the skin of the lower eyelids then became much wrinkled. At the
+same time it rapidly moved its lower jaw or lips in a spasmodic manner,
+the teeth being exposed; but the noise produced was hardly more
+distinct than that which we sometimes call silent laughter. Two of the
+keepers affirmed that this slight sound was the animal’s laughter, and
+when I expressed some doubt on this head (being at the time quite
+inexperienced), they made it attack or rather threaten a hated Entellus
+monkey, living in the same compartment. Instantly the whole expression
+of the face of the Inuus changed; the mouth was opened much more
+widely, the canine teeth were more fully exposed, and a hoarse barking
+noise was uttered.
+
+The Anubis baboon (_Cynocephalus anubis_) was first insulted and put
+into a furious rage, as was easily done, by his keeper, who then made
+friends with him and shook hands. As the reconciliation was effected
+the baboon rapidly moved up and down his jaws and lips, and looked
+pleased. When we laugh heartily, a similar movement, or quiver, may be
+observed more or less distinctly in our jaws; but with man the muscles
+of the chest are more particularly acted on, whilst with this baboon,
+and with some other monkeys, it is the muscles of the jaws and lips
+which are spasmodically affected.
+
+
+
+Cynopithecus Niger, in a Placid Condition. Fig.16-17
+
+I have already had occasion to remark on the curious manner in which
+two or three species of Alacacus and the _Cynopithecus niger_ draw back
+their ears and utter a slight jabbering noise, when they are pleased by
+being caressed. With the Cynopithecus (fig. 17), the corners of the
+mouth are at the same time drawn backwards and upwards, so that the
+teeth are exposed. Hence this expression would never be recognized by a
+stranger as one of pleasure. The crest of long hairs on the forehead is
+depressed, and apparently the whole skin of the head drawn backwards.
+The eyebrows are thus raised a little, and the eyes assume a staring
+appearance. The lower eyelids also become slightly wrinkled; but this
+wrinkling is not conspicuous, owing to the permanent transverse furrows
+on the face.
+
+_Painful emotions and sensations_.—With monkeys the expression of
+slight pain, or of any painful emotion, such as grief, vexation,
+jealousy, &c., is not easily distinguished from that of moderate anger;
+and these states of mind readily and quickly pass into each other.
+Grief, however, with some species is certainly exhibited by weeping. A
+woman, who sold a monkey to the Zoological Society, believed to have
+come from Borneo (_Macacus maurus_ or _M. inornatus_ of Gray), said
+that it often cried; and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the keeper Mr.
+Sutton, have repeatedly seen it, when grieved, or even when much
+pitied, weeping so copiously that the tears rolled down its cheeks.
+There is, however, something strange about this case, for two specimens
+subsequently kept in the Gardens, and believed to be the same species,
+have never been seen to weep, though they were carefully observed by
+the keeper and myself when much distressed and loudly screaming.
+Rengger states[512] that the eyes of the _Cebus azaræ_ fill with tears,
+but not sufficiently to overflow, when it is prevented getting some
+much desired object, or is much frightened. Humboldt also asserts that
+the eyes of the _Callithrix sciureus_ “instantly fill with tears when
+it is seized with fear;” but when this pretty little monkey in the
+Zoological Gardens was teased, so as to cry out loudly, this did not
+occur. I do not, however, wish to throw the least doubt on the accuracy
+of Humboldt’s statement.
+
+The appearance of dejection in young orangs and chimpanzees, when out
+of health, is as plain and almost as pathetic as in the case of our
+children. This state of mind and body is shown by their listless
+movements, fallen countenances, dull eyes, and changed complexion.
+
+_Anger_.—This emotion is often exhibited by many kinds of monkeys, and
+is expressed, as Mr. Martin remarks,[513] in many different ways. “Some
+species, when irritated, pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and savage
+glare on their foe, and make repeated short starts as if about to
+spring forward, uttering at the same time inward guttural sounds. Many
+display their anger by suddenly advancing, making abrupt starts, at the
+same time opening the mouth and pursing up the lips, so as to conceal
+the teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed on the enemy, as if in
+savage defiance. Some again, and principally the long-tailed monkeys,
+or Guenons, display their teeth, and accompany their malicious grins
+with a sharp, abrupt, reiterated cry.” Mr. Sutton confirms the
+statement that some species uncover their teeth when enraged, whilst
+others conceal them by the protrusion of their lips; and some kinds
+draw back their ears. The _Cynopithecus niger_, lately referred to,
+acts in this manner, at the same time depressing the crest of hair on
+its forehead, and showing its teeth; so that the movements of the
+features from anger are nearly the same as those from pleasure; and the
+two expressions can be distinguished only by those familiar with the
+animal.
+
+Baboons often show their passion and threaten their enemies in a very
+odd manner, namely, by opening their mouths widely as in the act of
+yawning. Mr. Bartlett has often seen two baboons, when first placed in
+the same compartment, sitting opposite to each other and thus
+alternately opening their mouths; and this action seems frequently to
+end in a real yawn. Mr. Bartlett believes that both animals wish to
+show to each other that they are provided with a formidable set of
+teeth, as is undoubtedly the case. As I could hardly credit the reality
+of this yawning gesture, Mr. Bartlett insulted an old baboon and put
+him into a violent passion; and he almost immediately thus acted. Some
+species of Macacus and of Cereopithecus[514] behave in the same manner.
+Baboons likewise show their anger, as was observed by Brehin with those
+which he kept alive in Abyssinia, in another manner, namely, by
+striking the ground with one hand, “like an angry man striking the
+table with his fist.” I have seen this movement with the baboons in the
+Zoological Gardens; but sometimes the action seems rather to represent
+the searching for a stone or other object in their beds of straw.
+
+Mr. Sutton has often observed the face of the _Macacus rhesus_, when
+much enraged, growing red. As he was mentioning this to me, another
+monkey attacked a _rhesus_, and I saw its face redden as plainly as
+that of a man in a violent passion. In the course of a few minutes,
+after the battle, the face of this monkey recovered its natural tint.
+At the same time that the face reddened, the naked posterior part of
+the body, which is always red, seemed to grow still redder; but I
+cannot positively assert that this was the case. When the Mandrill is
+in any way excited, the brilliantly coloured, naked parts of the skin
+are said to become still more vividly coloured.
+
+With several species of baboons the ridge of the forehead projects much
+over the eyes, and is studded with a few long hairs, representing our
+eyebrows. These animals are always looking about them, and in order to
+look upwards they raise their eyebrows. They have thus, as it would
+appear, acquired the habit of frequently moving their eyebrows. However
+this may be, many kinds of monkeys, especially the baboons, when
+angered or in any way excited, rapidly and incessantly move their
+eyebrows up and down, as well as the hairy skin of their
+foreheads.[515] As we associate in the case of man the raising and
+lowering of the eyebrows with definite states of the mind, the almost
+incessant movement of the eyebrows by monkeys gives them a senseless
+expression. I once observed a man who had a trick of continually
+raising his eyebrows without any corresponding emotion, and this gave
+to him a foolish appearance; so it is with some persons who keep the
+corners of their mouths a little drawn backwards and upwards, as if by
+an incipient smile, though at the time they are not amused or pleased.
+
+A young orang, made jealous by her keeper attending to another monkey,
+slightly uncovered her teeth, and, uttering a peevish noise like
+_tish-shist_, turned her back on him. Both orangs and chimpanzees, when
+a little more angered, protrude their lips greatly, and make a harsh
+barking noise. A young female chimpanzee, in a violent passion,
+presented a curious resemblance to a child in the same state. She
+screamed loudly with widely open mouth, the lips being retracted so
+that the teeth were fully exposed. She threw her arms wildly about,
+sometimes clasping them over her head. She rolled on the ground,
+sometimes on her back, sometimes on her belly, and bit everything
+within reach. A young gibbon (_Hylobates syndactylus_) in a passion has
+been described[516] as behaving in almost exactly the same manner.
+
+The lips of young orangs and chimpanzees are protruded, sometimes to a
+wonderful degree, under various circumstances. They act thus, not only
+when slightly angered, sulky, or disappointed, but when alarmed at
+anything—in one instance, at the sight of a turtle,[517]—and likewise
+when pleased. But neither the degree of protrusion nor the shape of the
+mouth is exactly the same, as I believe, in all cases; and the sounds
+which are then uttered are different. The accompanying drawing
+represents a chimpanzee made sulky by an orange having been offered
+him, and then taken away. A similar protrusion or pouting of the lips,
+though to a much slighter degree, may be seen in sulky children.
+
+
+
+Chimpanzee Disappointed and Sulky. Fig. 18
+
+Many years ago, in the Zoological Gardens, I placed a looking-glass on
+the floor before two young orangs, who, as far as it was known, had
+never before seen one. At first they gazed at their own images with the
+most steady surprise, and often changed their point of view. They then
+approached close and protruded their lips towards the image, as if to
+kiss it, in exactly the same manner as they had previously done towards
+each other, when first placed, a few days before, in the same room.
+They next made all sorts of grimaces, and put themselves in various
+attitudes before the mirror; they pressed and rubbed the surface; they
+placed their hands at different distances behind it; looked behind it;
+and finally seemed almost frightened, started a little, became cross,
+and refused to look any longer.
+
+When we try to perform some little action which is difficult and
+requires precision, for instance, to thread a needle, we generally
+close our lips firmly, for the sake, I presume, of not disturbing our
+movements by breathing; and I noticed the same action in a young Orang.
+The poor little creature was sick, and was amusing itself by trying to
+kill the flies on the window-panes with its knuckles; this was
+difficult as the flies buzzed about, and at each attempt the lips were
+firmly compressed, and at the same time slightly protruded.
+
+Although the countenances, and more especially the gestures, of orangs
+and chimpanzees are in some respects highly expressive, I doubt whether
+on the whole they are so expressive as those of some other kinds of
+monkeys. This may be attributed in part to their ears being immovable,
+and in part to the nakedness of their eyebrows, of which the movements
+are thus rendered less conspicuous. When, however, they raise their
+eyebrows their foreheads become, as with us, transversely wrinkled. In
+comparison with man, their faces are inexpressive, chiefly owing to
+their not frowning under any emotion of the mind—that is, as far as I
+have been able to observe, and I carefully attended to this point.
+Frowning, which is one of the most important of all the expressions in
+man, is due to the contraction of the corrugators by which the eyebrows
+are lowered and brought together, so that vertical furrows are formed
+on the forehead. Both the orang and chimpanzee are said[518] to possess
+this muscle, but it seems rarely brought into action, at least in a
+conspicuous manner. I made my hands into a sort of cage, and placing
+some tempting fruit within, allowed both a young orang and chimpanzee
+to try their utmost to get it out; but although they grew rather cross,
+they showed not a trace of a frown. Nor was there any frown when they
+were enraged. Twice I took two chimpanzees from their rather dark room
+suddenly into bright sunshine, which would certainly have caused us to
+frown; they blinked and winked their eyes, but only once did I see a
+very slight frown. On another occasion, I tickled the nose of a
+chimpanzee with a straw, and as it crumpled up its face, slight
+vertical furrows appeared between the eyebrows. I have never seen a
+frown on the forehead of the orang.
+
+The gorilla, when enraged, is described as erecting its crest of hair,
+throwing down its under lip, dilating its nostrils, and uttering
+terrific yells. Messrs. Savage and Wyman[519] state that the scalp can
+be freely moved backwards and forwards, and that when the animal is
+excited it is strongly contracted; but I presume that they mean by this
+latter expression that the scalp is lowered; for they likewise speak of
+the young chimpanzee, when crying out, as having the eyebrows strongly
+contracted. The great power of movement in the scalp of the gorilla, of
+many baboons and other monkeys, deserves notice in relation to the
+power possessed by some few men, either through reversion or
+persistence, of voluntarily moving their scalps.[520]
+
+_Astonishment, Terror_—A living fresh-water turtle was placed at my
+request in the same compartment in the Zoological Gardens with many
+monkeys; and they showed unbounded astonishment, as well as some fear.
+This was displayed by their remaining motionless, staring intently with
+widely opened eyes, their eyebrows being often moved up and down. Their
+faces seemed somewhat lengthened. They occasionally raised themselves
+on their hind-legs to get abetter view. They often retreated a few
+feet, and then turning their heads over one shoulder, again stared
+intently. It was curious to observe how much less afraid they were of
+the turtle than of a living snake which I had formerly placed in their
+compartment;[521] for in the course of a few minutes some of the
+monkeys ventured to approach and touch the turtle. On the other hand,
+some of the larger baboons were greatly terrified, and grinned as if on
+the point of screaming out. When I showed a little dressed-up doll to
+the _Cynopithecus niger_, it stood motionless, stared intently with
+widely opened eyes, and advanced its ears a little forwards. But when
+the turtle was placed in its compartment, this monkey also moved its
+lips in an odd, rapid, jabbering manner, which the keeper declared was
+meant to conciliate or please the turtle.
+
+I was never able clearly to perceive that the eyebrows of astonished
+monkeys were kept permanently raised, though they were frequently moved
+up and down. Attention, which precedes astonishment, is expressed by
+man by a slight raising of the eyebrows; and Dr. Duchenne informs me
+that when he gave to the monkey formerly mentioned some quite new
+article of food, it elevated its eyebrows a little, thus assuming an
+appearance of close attention. It then took the food in its fingers,
+and, with lowered or rectilinear eyebrows, scratched, smelt, and
+examined it,—an expression of reflection being thus exhibited.
+Sometimes it would throw back its head a little, and again with
+suddenly raised eyebrows re-examine and finally taste the food.
+
+In no case did any monkey keep its mouth open when it was astonished.
+Mr. Sutton observed for me a young orang and chimpanzee during a
+considerable length of time; and however much they were astonished, or
+whilst listening intently to some strange sound, they did not keep
+their mouths open. This fact is surprising, as with mankind hardly any
+expression is more general than a widely open mouth under the sense of
+astonishment. As far as I have been able to observe, monkeys breathe
+more freely through their nostrils than men do; and this may account
+for their not opening their mouths when they are astonished; for, as we
+shall see in a future chapter, man apparently acts in this manner when
+startled, at first for the sake of quickly drawing a full inspiration,
+and afterwards for the sake of breathing as quietly as possible.
+
+Terror is expressed by many kinds of monkeys by the utterance of shrill
+screams; the lips being drawn back, so that the teeth are exposed. The
+hair becomes erect, especially when some anger is likewise felt. Mr.
+Sutton has distinctly seen the face of the _Macacus rhesus_ grow pale
+from fear. Monkeys also tremble from fear; and sometimes they void
+their excretions. I have seen one which, when caught, almost fainted
+from an excess of terror.
+
+Sufficient facts have now been given with respect to the expressions of
+various animals. It is impossible to agree with Sir C. Bell when he
+says[522] that “the faces of animals seem chiefly capable of expressing
+rage and fear;” and again, when he says that all their expressions “may
+be referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or
+necessary instincts.” He who will look at a dog preparing to attack
+another dog or a man, and at the same animal when caressing his master,
+or will watch the countenance of a monkey when insulted, and when
+fondled by his keeper, will be forced to admit that the movements of
+their features and their gestures are almost as expressive as those of
+man. Although no explanation can be given of some of the expressions in
+the lower animals, the greater number are explicable in accordance with
+the three principles given at the commencement of the first chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.
+
+The screaming and weeping of infants—Forms of features—Age at which
+weeping commences—The effects of habitual restraint on
+weeping—Sobbing—Cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes
+during screaming—Cause of the secretion of tears.
+
+In this and the following chapters the expressions exhibited by Man
+under various states of the mind will be described and explained, as
+far as lies in my power. My observations will be arranged according to
+the order which I have found the most convenient; and this will
+generally lead to opposite emotions and sensations succeeding each
+other.
+
+_Suffering of the body and mind: weeping_.—I have already described in
+sufficient detail, in the third chapter, the signs of extreme pain, as
+shown by screams or groans, with the writhing of the whole body and the
+teeth clenched or ground together. These signs are often accompanied or
+followed by profuse sweating, pallor, trembling, utter prostration, or
+faintness. No suffering is greater than that from extreme fear or
+horror, but here a distinct emotion comes into play, and will be
+elsewhere considered. Prolonged suffering, especially of the mind,
+passes into low spirits, grief, dejection, and despair, and these
+states will be the subject of the following chapter. Here I shall
+almost confine myself to weeping or crying, more especially in
+children.
+
+Infants, when suffering even slight pain, moderate hunger, or
+discomfort, utter violent and prolonged screams. Whilst thus screaming
+their eyes are firmly closed, so that the skin round them is wrinkled,
+and the forehead contracted into a frown. The mouth is widely opened
+with the lips retracted in a peculiar manner, which causes it to assume
+a squarish form; the gums or teeth being more or less exposed. The
+breath is inhaled almost spasmodically. It is easy to observe infants
+whilst screaming; but I have found photographs made by the
+instantaneous process the best means for observation, as allowing more
+deliberation. I have collected twelve, most of them made purposely for
+me; and they all exhibit the same general characteristics. I have,
+therefore, had six of them[601] (Plate I.) reproduced by the heliotype
+process.
+
+
+
+Screaming Infants. Plate I.
+
+The firm closing of the eyelids and consequent compression of the
+eyeball,—and this is a most important element in various
+expressions,—serves to protect the eyes from becoming too much gorged
+with blood, as will presently be explained in detail. With respect to
+the order in which the several muscles contract in firmly compressing
+the eyes, I am indebted to Dr. Langstaff, of Southampton, for some
+observations, which I have since repeated. The best plan for observing
+the order is to make a person first raise his eyebrows, and this
+produces transverse wrinkles across the forehead; and then very
+gradually to contract all the muscles round the elves with as much
+force as possible. The reader who is unacquainted with the anatomy of
+the face, ought to refer to p. 24, and look at the woodcuts 1 to 3. The
+corrugators of the brow (_corrugator supercilii_) seem to be the first
+muscles to contract; and these draw the eyebrows downwards and inwards
+towards the base of the nose, causing vertical furrows, that is a
+frown, to appear between the eyebrows; at the same time they cause the
+disappearance of the transverse wrinkles across the forehead. The
+orbicular muscles contract almost simultaneously with the corrugators,
+and produce wrinkles all round the eyes; they appear, however, to be
+enabled to contract with greater force, as soon as the contraction of
+the corrugators has given them some support. Lastly, the pyramidal
+muscles of the nose contract; and these draw the eyebrows and the skin
+of the forehead still lower down, producing short transverse wrinkles
+across the base of the nose.[602] For the sake of brevity these muscles
+will generally be spoken of as the orbiculars, or as those surrounding
+the eyes.
+
+When these muscles are strongly contracted, those running to the upper
+lip[603] likewise contract and raise the upper lip. This might have
+been expected from the manner in which at least one of them, the
+_malaris_, is connected with the orbiculars. Any one who will gradually
+contract the muscles round his eyes, will feel, as he increases the
+force, that his upper lip and the wings of his nose (which are partly
+acted on by one of the same muscles) are almost always a little drawn
+up. If he keeps his mouth firmly shut whilst contracting the muscles
+round the eyes, and then suddenly relaxes his lips, he will feel that
+the pressure on his eyes immediately increases. So again when a person
+on a bright, glaring day wishes to look at a distant object, but is
+compelled partially to close his eyelids, the upper lip may almost
+always be observed to be somewhat raised. The mouths of some very
+short-sighted persons, who are forced habitually to reduce the aperture
+of their eyes, wear from this same reason a grinning expression.
+
+The raising of the upper lip draws upwards the flesh of the upper parts
+of the cheeks, and produces a strongly marked fold on each cheek,—the
+naso-labial fold,—which runs from near the wings of the nostrils to the
+corners of the mouth and below them. This fold or furrow may be seen in
+all the photographs, and is very characteristic of the expression of a
+crying child; though a nearly similar fold is produced in the act of
+laughing or smiling.[604]
+
+As the upper lip is much drawn up during the act of screaming, in the
+manner just explained, the depressor muscles of the angles of the mouth
+(see K in woodcuts 1 and 2) are strongly contracted in order to keep
+the mouth widely open, so that a full volume of sound may be poured
+forth. The action of these opposed muscles, above and below, tends to
+give to the mouth an oblong, almost squarish outline, as may be seen in
+the accompanying photographs. An excellent observer,[605] in describing
+a baby crying whilst being fed, says, “it made its mouth like a square,
+and let the porridge run out at all four corners.” I believe, but we
+shall return to this point in a future chapter, that the depressor
+muscles of the angles of the mouth are less under the separate control
+of the will than the adjoining muscles; so that if a young child is
+only doubtfully inclined to cry, this muscle is generally the first to
+contract, and is the last to cease contracting. When older children
+commence crying, the muscles which run to the upper lip are often the
+first to contract; and this may perhaps be due to older children not
+having so strong a tendency to scream loudly, and consequently to keep
+their mouths widely open; so that the above-named depressor muscles are
+not brought into such strong action.
+
+With one of my own infants, from his eighth day and for some time
+afterwards, I often observed that the first sign of a screaming-fit,
+when it could be observed coming on gradually, was a little frown,
+owing to the contraction of the corrugators of the brows; the
+capillaries of the naked head and face becoming at the same time
+reddened with blood. As soon as the screaming-fit actually began, all
+the muscles round the eyes were strongly contracted, and the mouth
+widely opened in the manner above described; so that at this early
+period the features assumed the same form as at a more advanced age.
+
+Dr. Piderit[606] lays great stress on the contraction of certain
+muscles which draw down the nose and narrow the nostrils, as eminently
+characteristic of a crying expression. The _depressores anguli oris_,
+as we have just seen, are usually contracted at the same time, and they
+indirectly tend, according to Dr. Duchenne, to act in this same manner
+on the nose. With children having bad colds a similar pinched
+appearance of the nose may be noticed, which is at least partly due, as
+remarked to me by Dr. Langstaff, to their constant snuffling, and the
+consequent pressure of the atmosphere on the two sides. The purpose of
+this contraction of the nostrils by children having bad colds, or
+whilst crying, seems to be to check the downward flow of the mucus and
+tears, and to prevent these fluids spreading over the upper lip.
+
+After a prolonged and severe screaming-fit, the scalp, face, and eyes
+are reddened, owing to the return of the blood from the head having
+been impeded by the violent expiratory efforts; but the redness of the
+stimulated eyes is chiefly due to the copious effusion of tears. The
+various muscles of the face which have been strongly contracted, still
+twitch a little, and the upper lip is still slightly drawn up or
+everted,[607] with the corners of the mouth still a little drawn
+downwards. I have myself felt, and have observed in other grown-up
+persons, that when tears are restrained with difficulty, as in reading
+a pathetic story, it is almost impossible to prevent the various
+muscles. which with young children are brought into strong action
+during their screaming-fits, from slightly twitching or trembling.
+
+Infants whilst young do not shed tears or weep, as is well known to
+nurses and medical men. This circumstance is not exclusively due to the
+lacrymal glands being as yet incapable of secreting tears. I first
+noticed this fact from having accidentally brushed with the cuff of my
+coat the open eye of one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old,
+causing this eye to water freely; and though the child screamed
+violently, the other eye remained dry, or was only slightly suffused
+with tears. A similar slight effusion occurred ten days previously in
+both eyes during a screaming-fit. The tears did not run over the
+eyelids and roll down the cheeks of this child, whilst screaming badly,
+when 122 days old. This first happened 17 days later, at the age of 139
+days. A few other children have been observed for me, and the period of
+free weeping appears to be very variable. In one case, the eyes became
+slightly suffused at the age of only 20 days; in another, at 62 days.
+With two other children, the tears did NOT run down the face at the
+ages of 84 and 110 days; but in a third child they did run down at the
+age of 104 days. In one instance, as I was positively assured, tears
+ran down at the unusually early age of 42 days. It would appear as if
+the lacrymal glands required some practice in the individual before
+they are easily excited into action, in somewhat the same manner as
+various inherited consensual movements and tastes require some exercise
+before they are fixed and perfected. This is all the more likely with a
+habit like weeping, which must have been acquired since the period when
+man branched off from the common progenitor of the genus Homo and of
+the non-weeping anthropomorphous apes.
+
+The fact of tears not being shed at a very early age from pain or any
+mental emotion is remarkable, as, later in life, no expression is more
+general or more strongly marked than weeping. When the habit has once
+been acquired by an infant, it expresses in the clearest manner
+suffering of all kinds, both bodily pain and mental distress, even
+though accompanied by other emotions, such as fear or rage. The
+character of the crying, however, changes at a very early age, as I
+noticed in my own infants,—the passionate cry differing from that of
+grief. A lady informs me that her child, nine months old, when in a
+passion screams loudly, but does not weep; tears, however, are shed
+when she is punished by her chair being turned with its back to the
+table. This difference may perhaps be attributed to weeping being
+restrained, as we shall immediately see, at a more advanced age, under
+most circumstances excepting grief; and to the influence of such
+restraint being transmitted to an earlier period of life, than that at
+which it was first practised.
+
+With adults, especially of the male sex, weeping soon ceases to be
+caused by, or to express, bodily pain. This may be accounted for by its
+being thought weak and unmanly by men, both of civilized and barbarous
+races, to exhibit bodily pain by any outward sign. With this exception,
+savages weep copiously from very slight causes, of which fact Sir J.
+Lubbock[608] has collected instances. A New Zealand chief “cried like a
+child because the sailors spoilt his favourite cloak by powdering it
+with flour.” I saw in Tierra del Fuego a native who had lately lost a
+brother, and who alternately cried with hysterical violence, and
+laughed heartily at anything which amused him. With the civilized
+nations of Europe there is also much difference in the frequency of
+weeping. Englishmen rarely cry, except under the pressure of the
+acutest grief; whereas in some parts of the Continent the men shed
+tears much more readily and freely.
+
+The insane notoriously give way to all their emotions with little or no
+restraint; and I am informed by Dr. J. Crichton Browne, that nothing is
+more characteristic of simple melancholia, even in the male sex, than a
+tendency to weep on the slightest occasions, or from no cause. They
+also weep disproportionately on the occurrence of any real cause of
+grief. The length of time during which some patients weep is
+astonishing, as well as the amount of tears which they shed. One
+melancholic girl wept for a whole day, and afterwards confessed to Dr.
+Browne, that it was because she remembered that she had once shaved off
+her eyebrows to promote their growth. Many patients in the asylum sit
+for a long time rocking themselves backwards and forwards; “and if
+spoken to, they stop their movements, purse up their eyes, depress the
+corners of the mouth, and burst out crying.” In some of these cases,
+the being spoken to or kindly greeted appears to suggest some fanciful
+and sorrowful notion; but in other cases an effort of any kind excites
+weeping, independently of any sorrowful idea. Patients suffering from
+acute mania likewise have paroxysms of violent crying or blubbering, in
+the midst of their incoherent ravings. We must not, however, lay too
+much stress on the copious shedding of tears by the insane, as being
+due to the lack of all restraint; for certain brain-diseases, as
+hemiplegia, brain-wasting, and senile decay, have a special tendency to
+induce weeping. Weeping is common in the insane, even after a complete
+state of fatuity has been reached and the power of speech lost. Persons
+born idiotic likewise weep;[609] but it is said that this is not the
+case with cretins.
+
+Weeping seems to be the primary and natural expression, as we see in
+children, of suffering of any kind, whether bodily pain short of
+extreme agony, or mental distress. But the foregoing facts and common
+experience show us that a frequently repeated effort to restrain
+weeping, in association with certain states of the mind, does much in
+checking the habit. On the other hand, it appears that the power of
+weeping can be increased through habit; thus the Rev. R. Taylor,[610]
+who long resided in New Zealand, asserts that the women can voluntarily
+shed tears in abundance; they meet for this purpose to mourn for the
+dead, and they take pride in crying “in the most affecting manner.”
+
+A single effort of repression brought to bear on the lacrymal glands
+does little, and indeed seems often to lead to an opposite result. An
+old and experienced physician told me that he had always found that the
+only means to check the occasional bitter weeping of ladies who
+consulted him, and who themselves wished to desist, was earnestly to
+beg them not to try, and to assure them that nothing would relieve them
+so much as prolonged and copious crying.
+
+The screaming of infants consists of prolonged expirations, with short
+and rapid, almost spasmodic inspirations, followed at a somewhat more
+advanced age by sobbing. According to Gratiolet,[611] the glottis is
+chiefly affected during the act of sobbing. This sound is heard “at the
+moment when the inspiration conquers the resistance of the glottis, and
+the air rushes into the chest.” But the whole act of respiration is
+likewise spasmodic and violent. The shoulders are at the same time
+generally raised, as by this movement respiration is rendered easier.
+With one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old, the inspirations
+were so rapid and strong that they approached in character to sobbing;
+when 138 days old I first noticed distinct sobbing, which subsequently
+followed every bad crying-fit. The respiratory movements are partly
+voluntary and partly involuntary, and I apprehend that sobbing is at
+least in part due to children having some power to command after early
+infancy their vocal organs and to stop their screams, but from having
+less power over their respiratory muscles, these continue for a time to
+act in an involuntary or spasmodic manner, after having been brought
+into violent action. Sobbing seems to be peculiar to the human species;
+for the keepers in the Zoological Gardens assure me that they have
+never heard a sob from any kind of monkey; though monkeys often scream
+loudly whilst being chased and caught, and then pant for a long time.
+We thus see that there is a close analogy between sobbing and the free
+shedding of tears; for with children, sobbing does not commence during
+early infancy, but afterwards comes on rather suddenly and then follows
+every bad crying-fit, until the habit is checked with advancing years.
+
+_On the cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during
+screaming_.—We have seen that infants and young children, whilst
+screaming, invariably close their eyes firmly, by the contraction of
+the surrounding muscles, so that the skin becomes wrinkled all around.
+With older children, and even with adults, whenever there is violent
+and unrestrained crying, a tendency to the contraction of these same
+muscles may be observed; though this is often checked in order not to
+interfere with vision.
+
+Sir C. Bell explains[612] this action in the following manner:—“During
+every violent act of expiration, whether in hearty laughter, weeping,
+coughing, or sneezing, the eyeball is firmly compressed by the fibres
+of the orbicularis; and this is a provision for supporting and
+defending the vascular system of the interior of the eye from a
+retrograde impulse communicated to the blood in the veins at that time.
+When we contract the chest and expel the air, there is a retardation of
+the blood in the veins of the neck and head; and in the more powerful
+acts of expulsion, the blood not only distends the vessels, but is even
+regurgitated into the minute branches. Were the eye not properly
+compressed at that time, and a resistance given to the shock,
+irreparable injury might be inflicted on the delicate textures of the
+interior of the eye.” He further adds, “If we separate the eyelids of a
+child to examine the eye, while it cries and struggles with passion, by
+taking off the natural support to the vascular system of the eye, and
+means of guarding it against the rush of blood then occurring, the
+conjunctiva becomes suddenly filled with blood, and the eyelids
+everted.”
+
+Not only are the muscles round the eyes strongly contracted, as Sir C.
+Bell states and as I have often observed, during screaming, loud
+laughter, coughing, and sneezing, but during several other analogous
+actions. A man contracts these muscles when he violently blows his
+nose. I asked one of my boys to shout as loudly as he possibly could,
+and as soon as he began, he firmly contracted his orbicular muscles; I
+observed this repeatedly, and on asking him why he had every time so
+firmly closed his eyes, I found that he was quite unaware of the fact:
+he had acted instinctively or unconsciously.
+
+It is not necessary, in order to lead to the contraction of these
+muscles, that air should actually be expelled from the chest; it
+suffices that the muscles of the chest and abdomen should contract with
+great force, whilst by the closure of the glottis no air escapes. In
+violent vomiting or retching the diaphragm is made to descend by the
+chest being filled with air; it is then held in this position by the
+closure of the glottis, “as well as by the contraction of its own
+fibres.”[613] The abdominal muscles now contract strongly upon the
+stomach, its proper muscles likewise contracting, and the contents are
+thus ejected. During each effort of vomiting “the head becomes greatly
+congested, so that the features are red and swollen, and the large
+veins of the face and temples visibly dilated.” At the same time, as I
+know from observation, the muscles round the eyes are strongly
+contracted. This is likewise the case when the abdominal muscles act
+downwards with unusual force in expelling the contents of the
+intestinal canal.
+
+The greatest exertion of the muscles of the body, if those of the chest
+are not brought into strong action in expelling or compressing the air
+within the lungs, does not lead to the contraction of the muscles round
+the eyes. I have observed my sons using great force in gymnastic
+exercises, as in repeatedly raising their suspended bodies by their
+arms alone, and in lifting heavy weights from the ground, but there was
+hardly any trace of contraction in the muscles round the eyes.
+
+As the contraction of these muscles for the protection of the eyes
+during violent expiration is indirectly, as we shall hereafter see, a
+fundamental element in several of our most important expressions, I was
+extremely anxious to ascertain how far Sir C. Bell’s view could be
+substantiated. Professor Donders, of Utrecht,[614] well known as one of
+the highest authorities in Europe on vision and on the structure of the
+eye, has most kindly undertaken for me this investigation with the aid
+of the many ingenious mechanisms of modern science, and has published
+the results.[615] He shows that during violent expiration the external,
+the intra-ocular, and the retro-ocular vessels of the eye are all
+affected in two ways, namely by the increased pressure of the blood in
+the arteries, and by the return of the blood in the veins being
+impeded. It is, therefore, certain that both the arteries and the veins
+of the eye are more or less distended during violent expiration. The
+evidence in detail may be found in Professor Donders’ valuable memoir.
+We see the effects on the veins of the head, in their prominence, and
+in the purple colour of the face of a man who coughs violently from
+being half choked. I may mention, on the same authority, that the whole
+eye certainly advances a little during each violent expiration. This is
+due to the dilatation of the retro-ocular vessels, and might have been
+expected from the intimate connection of the eye and brain; the brain
+being known to rise and fall with each respiration, when a portion of
+the skull has been removed; and as may be seen along the unclosed
+sutures of infants’ heads. This also, I presume, is the reason that the
+eyes of a strangled man appear as if they were starting from their
+sockets.
+
+With respect to the protection of the eye during violent expiratory
+efforts by the pressure of the eyelids, Professor Donders concludes
+from his various observations that this action certainly limits or
+entirely removes the dilatation of the vessels.[616] At such times, he
+adds, we not unfrequently see the hand involuntarily laid upon the
+eyelids, as if the better to support and defend the eyeball.
+
+Nevertheless much evidence cannot at present be advanced to prove that
+the eye actually suffers injury from the want of support during violent
+expiration; but there is some. It is “a fact that forcible expiratory
+efforts in violent coughing or vomiting, and especially in sneezing,
+sometimes give rise to ruptures of the little (external) vessels” of
+the eye.[617] With respect to the internal vessels, Dr. Gunning has
+lately recorded a case of exophthalmos in consequence of
+whooping-cough, which in his opinion depended on the rupture of the
+deeper vessels; and another analogous case has been recorded. But a
+mere sense of discomfort would probably suffice to lead to the
+associated habit of protecting the eyeball by the contraction of the
+surrounding muscles. Even the expectation or chance of injury would
+probably be sufficient, in the same manner as an object moving too near
+the eye induces involuntary winking of the eyelids. We may, therefore,
+safely conclude from Sir C. Bell’s observations, and more especially
+from the more careful investigations by Professor Donders, that the
+firm closure of the eyelids during the screaming of children is an
+action full of meaning and of real service.
+
+We have already seen that the contraction of the orbicular muscles
+leads to the drawing up of the upper lip, and consequently, if the
+mouth is kept widely open, to the drawing down of the corners by the
+contraction of the depressor muscles. The formation of the naso-labial
+fold on the cheeks likewise follows from the drawing up of the upper
+lip. Thus all the chief expressive movements of the face during crying
+apparently result from the contraction of the muscles round the eyes.
+We shall also find that the shedding of tears depends on, or at least
+stands in some connection with, the contraction of these same muscles.
+
+In some of the foregoing cases, especially in those of sneezing and
+coughing, it is possible that the contraction of the orbicular muscles
+may serve in addition to protect the eyes from too severe a jar or
+vibration. I think so, because dogs and cats, in crunching hard bones,
+always close their eyelids, and at least sometimes in sneezing; though
+dogs do not do so whilst barking loudly. Mr. Sutton carefully observed
+for me a young orang and chimpanzee, and he found that both always
+closed their eyes in sneezing and coughing, but not whilst screaming
+violently. I gave a small pinch of snuff to a monkey of the American
+division, namely, a Cebus, and it closed its eyelids whilst sneezing;
+but not on a subsequent occasion whilst uttering loud cries.
+
+_Cause of the secretion of tears_.—It is an important fact which must
+be considered in any theory of the secretion of tears from the mind
+being affected, that whenever the muscles round the eyes are strongly
+and involuntarily contracted in order to compress the blood-vessels and
+thus to protect the eyes, tears are secreted, often in sufficient
+abundance to roll down the cheeks. This occurs under the most opposite
+emotions, and under no emotion at all. The sole exception, and this is
+only a partial one, to the existence of a relation between the
+involuntary and strong contraction of these muscles and the secretion
+of tears is that of young infants, who, whilst screaming violently with
+their eyelids firmly closed, do not commonly weep until they have
+attained the age of from two to three or four months. Their eyes,
+however, become suffused with tears at a much earlier age. It would
+appear, as already remarked, that the lacrymal glands do not, from the
+want of practice or some other cause, come to full functional activity
+at a very early period of life. With children at a somewhat later age,
+crying out or wailing from any distress is so regularly accompanied by
+the shedding of tears, that weeping and crying are synonymous
+terms.[618]
+
+Under the opposite emotion of great joy or amusement, as long as
+laughter is moderate there is hardly any contraction of the muscles
+round the eyes, so that there is no frowning; but when peals of loud
+laughter are uttered, with rapid and violent spasmodic expirations,
+tears stream down the face. I have more than once noticed the face of a
+person, after a paroxysm of violent laughter, and I could see that the
+orbicular muscles and those running to the upper lip were still
+partially contracted, which together with the tear-stained cheeks gave
+to the upper half of the face an expression not to be distinguished
+from that of a child still blubbering from grief. The fact of tears
+streaming down the face during violent laughter is common to all the
+races of mankind, as we shall see in a future chapter.
+
+In violent coughing especially when a person is half-choked, the face
+becomes purple, the veins distended, the orbicular muscles strongly
+contracted, and tears run down the cheeks. Even after a fit of ordinary
+coughing, almost every one has to wipe his eyes. In violent vomiting or
+retching, as I have myself experienced and seen in others, the
+orbicular muscles are strongly contracted, and tears sometimes flow
+freely down the cheeks. It has been suggested to me that this may be
+due to irritating matter being injected into the nostrils, and causing
+by reflex action the secretion of tears. Accordingly I asked one of my
+informants, a surgeon, to attend to the effects of retching when
+nothing was thrown up from the stomach; and, by an odd coincidence, he
+himself suffered the next morning from an attack of retching, and three
+days subsequently observed a lady under a similar attack; and he is
+certain that in neither case an atom of matter was ejected from the
+stomach; yet the orbicular muscles were strongly contracted, and tears
+freely secreted. I can also speak positively to the energetic
+contraction of these same muscles round the eyes, and to the coincident
+free secretion of tears, when the abdominal muscles act with unusual
+force in a downward direction on the intestinal canal.
+
+Yawning commences with a deep inspiration, followed by a long and
+forcible expiration; and at the same time almost all the muscles of the
+body are strongly contracted, including those round the eyes. During
+this act tears are often secreted, and I have seen them even rolling
+down the cheeks.
+
+I have frequently observed that when persons scratch some point which
+itches intolerably, they forcibly close their eyelids; but they do not,
+as I believe, first draw a deep breath and then expel it with force;
+and I have never noticed that the eyes then become filled with tears;
+but I am not prepared to assert that this does not occur. The forcible
+closure of the eyelids is, perhaps, merely a part of that general
+action by which almost all the muscles of the body are at the same time
+rendered rigid. It is quite different from the gentle closure of the
+eyes which often accompanies, as Gratiolet remarks,[619] the smelling a
+delicious odour, or the tasting a delicious morsel, and which probably
+originates in the desire to shut out any disturbing impression through
+the eyes.
+
+Professor Donders writes to me to the following effect: “I have
+observed some cases of a very curious affection when, after a slight
+rub (_attouchement_), for example, from the friction of a coat, which
+caused neither a wound nor a contusion, spasms of the orbicular muscles
+occurred, with a very profuse flow of tears, lasting about one hour.
+Subsequently, sometimes after an interval of several weeks, violent
+spasms of the same muscles re-occurred, accompanied by the secretion of
+tears, together with primary or secondary redness of the eye.” Mr.
+Bowman informs me that he has occasionally observed closely analogous
+cases, and that, in some of these, there was no redness or inflammation
+of the eyes.
+
+I was anxious to ascertain whether there existed in any of the lower
+animals a similar relation between the contraction of the orbicular
+muscles during violent expiration and the secretion of tears; but there
+are very few animals which contract these muscles in a prolonged
+manner, or which shed tears. _The Macacus maurus_, which formerly wept
+so copiously in the Zoological Gardens, would have been a fine case for
+observation; but the two monkeys now there, and which are believed to
+belong to the same species, do not weep. Nevertheless they were
+carefully observed by Mr. Bartlett and myself, whilst screaming loudly,
+and they seemed to contract these muscles; but they moved about their
+cages so rapidly, that it was difficult to observe with certainty. No
+other monkey, as far as I have been able to ascertain, contracts its
+orbicular muscles whilst screaming.
+
+The Indian elephant is known sometimes to weep. Sir E. Tennent, in
+describing these which he saw captured and bound in Ceylon, says, some
+“lay motionless on the ground, with no other indication of suffering
+than the tears which suffused their eyes and flowed incessantly.”
+Speaking of another elephant he says, “When overpowered and made fast,
+his grief was most affecting; his violence sank to utter prostration,
+and he lay on the ground, uttering choking cries, with tears trickling
+down his cheeks.”[620] In the Zoological Gardens the keeper of the
+Indian elephants positively asserts that he has several times seen
+tears rolling down the face of the old female, when distressed by the
+removal of the young one. Hence I was extremely anxious to ascertain,
+as an extension of the relation between the contraction of the
+orbicular muscles and the shedding of tears in man, whether elephants
+when screaming or trumpeting loudly contract these muscles. At Mr.
+Bartlett’s desire the keeper ordered the old and the young elephant to
+trumpet; and we repeatedly saw in both animals that, just as the
+trumpeting began, the orbicular muscles, especially the lower ones,
+were distinctly contracted. On a subsequent occasion the keeper made
+the old elephant trumpet much more loudly, and invariably both the
+upper and lower orbicular muscles were strongly contracted, and now in
+an equal degree. It is a singular fact that the African elephant,
+which, however, is so different from the Indian species that it is
+placed by some naturalists in a distinct sub-genus, when made on two
+occasions to trumpet loudly, exhibited no trace of the contraction of
+the orbicular muscles.
+
+From the several foregoing cases with respect to Man, there can, I
+think, be no doubt that the contraction of the muscles round the eyes,
+during violent expiration or when the expanded chest is forcibly
+compressed, is, in some manner, intimately connected with the secretion
+of tears. This holds good under widely different emotions, and
+independently of any emotion. It is not, of course, meant that tears
+cannot be secreted without the contraction of these muscles; for it is
+notorious that they are often freely shed with the eyelids not closed,
+and with the brows unwrinkled. The contraction must be both involuntary
+and prolonged, as during a choking fit, or energetic, as during a
+sneeze. The mere involuntary winking of the eyelids, though often
+repeated, does not bring tears into the eyes. Nor does the voluntary
+and prolonged contraction of the several surrounding muscles suffice.
+As the lacrymal glands of children are easily excited, I persuaded my
+own and several other children of different ages to contract these
+muscles repeatedly with their utmost force, and to continue doing so as
+long as they possibly could; but this produced hardly any effect. There
+was sometimes a little moisture in the eyes, but not more than
+apparently could be accounted for by the squeezing out of the already
+secreted tears within the glands.
+
+The nature of the relation between the involuntary and energetic
+contraction of the muscles round the eyes, and the secretion of tears,
+cannot be positively ascertained, but a probable view may be suggested.
+The primary function of the secretion of tears, together with some
+mucus, is to lubricate the surface of the eye; and a secondary one, as
+some believe, is to keep the nostrils damp, so that the inhaled air may
+be moist,[621] and likewise to favour the power of smelling. But
+another, and at least equally important function of tears, is to wash
+out particles of dust or other minute objects which may get into the
+eyes. That this is of great importance is clear from the cases in which
+the cornea has been rendered opaque through inflammation, caused by
+particles of dust not being removed, in consequence of the eye and
+eyelid becoming immovable.[622] The secretion of tears from the
+irritation of any foreign body in the eye is a reflex action;—that is,
+the body irritates a peripheral nerve which sends an impression to
+certain sensory nerve-cells; these transmit an influence to other
+cells, and these again to the lacrymal glands. The influence
+transmitted to these glands causes, as there is good reason to believe,
+the relaxation of the muscular coats of the smaller arteries; this
+allows more blood to permeate the glandular tissue, and this induces a
+free secretion of tears. When the small arteries of the face, including
+those of the retina, are relaxed under very different circumstances,
+namely, during an intense blush, the lacrymal glands are sometimes
+affected in a like manner, for the eyes become suffused with tears.
+
+It is difficult to conjecture how many reflex actions have originated,
+but, in relation to the present case of the affection of the lacrymal
+glands through irritation of the surface of the eye, it may be worth
+remarking that, as soon as some primordial form became semi-terrestrial
+in its habits, and was liable to get particles of dust into its eyes,
+if these were not washed out they would cause much irritation; and on
+the principle of the radiation of nerve-force to adjoining nerve-cells,
+the lacrymal glands would be stimulated to secretion. As this would
+often recur, and as nerve-force readily passes along accustomed
+channels, a slight irritation would ultimately suffice to cause a free
+secretion of tears.
+
+As soon as by this, or by some other means, a reflex action of this
+nature had been established and rendered easy, other stimulants applied
+to the surface of the eye—such as a cold wind, slow inflammatory
+action, or a blow on the eyelids—would cause a copious secretion of
+tears, as we know to be the case. The glands are also excited into
+action through the irritation of adjoining parts. Thus when the
+nostrils are irritated by pungent vapours, though the eyelids may be
+kept firmly closed, tears are copiously secreted; and this likewise
+follows from a blow on the nose, for instance from a boxing-glove. A
+stinging switch on the face produces, as I have seen, the same effect.
+In these latter cases the secretion of tears is an incidental result,
+and of no direct service. As all these parts of the face, including the
+lacrymal glands, are supplied with branches of the same nerve, namely,
+the fifth, it is in some degree intelligible that the effects of the
+excitement of any one branch should spread to the nerve-cells or roots
+of the other branches.
+
+The internal parts of the eye likewise act, under certain conditions,
+in a reflex manner on the lacrymal glands. The following statements
+have been kindly communicated to me by Mr. Bowman; but the subject is a
+very intricate one, as all the parts of the eye are so intimately
+related together, and are so sensitive to various stimulants. A strong
+light acting on the retina, when in a normal condition, has very little
+tendency to cause lacrymation; but with unhealthy children having
+small, old-standing ulcers on the cornea, the retina becomes
+excessively sensitive to light, and exposure even to common daylight
+causes forcible and sustained closure of the lids, and a profuse flow
+of tears. When persons who ought to begin the use of convex glasses
+habitually strain the waning power of accommodation, an undue secretion
+of tears very often follows, and the retina is liable to become unduly
+sensitive to light. In general, morbid affections of the surface of the
+eye, and of the ciliary structures concerned in the accommodative act,
+are prone to be accompanied with excessive secretion of tears. Hardness
+of the eyeball, not rising to inflammation, but implying a want of
+balance between the fluids poured out and again taken up by the
+intra-ocular vessels, is not usually attended with any lacrymation.
+When the balance is on the other side, and the eye becomes too soft,
+there is a greater tendency to lacrymation. Finally, there are numerous
+morbid states and structural alterations of the eyes, and even terrible
+inflammations, which may be attended with little or no secretion of
+tears.
+
+It also deserves notice, as indirectly bearing on our subject, that the
+eye and adjoining parts are subject to an extraordinary number of
+reflex and associated movements, sensations, and actions, besides those
+relating to the lacrymal glands. When a bright light strikes the retina
+of one eye alone, the iris contracts, but the iris of the other eye
+moves after a measurable interval of time. The iris likewise moves in
+accommodation to near or distant vision, and when the two eyes are made
+to converge.[623] Every one knows how irresistibly the eyebrows are
+drawn down under an intensely bright light. The eyelids also
+involuntarily wink when an object is moved near the eyes, or a sound is
+suddenly heard. The well-known case of a bright light causing some
+persons to sneeze is even more curious; for nerve-force here radiates
+from certain nerve-cells in connection with the retina, to the sensory
+nerve-cells of the nose, causing it to tickle; and from these, to the
+cells which command the various respiratory muscles (the orbiculars
+included) which expel the air in so peculiar a manner that it rushes
+through the nostrils alone.
+
+To return to our point: why are tears secreted during a screaming-fit
+or other violent expiratory efforts? As a slight blow on the eyelids
+causes a copious secretion of tears, it is at least possible that the
+spasmodic contraction of the eyelids, by pressing strongly on the
+eyeball, should in a similar manner cause some secretion. This seems
+possible, although the voluntary contraction of the same muscles does
+not produce any such effect. We know that a man cannot voluntarily
+sneeze or cough with nearly the same force as he does automatically;
+and so it is with the contraction of the orbicular muscles: Sir C. Bell
+experimented on them, and found that by suddenly and forcibly closing
+the eyelids in the dark, sparks of light are seen, like those caused by
+tapping the eyelids with the fingers; “but in sneezing the compression
+is both more rapid and more forcible, and the sparks are more
+brilliant.” That these sparks are due to the contraction of the eyelids
+is clear, because if they “are held open during the act of sneezing, no
+sensation of light will be experienced.” In the peculiar cases referred
+to by Professor Donders and Mr. Bowman, we have seen that some weeks
+after the eye has been very slightly injured, spasmodic contractions of
+the eyelids ensue, and these are accompanied by a profuse flow of
+tears. In the act of yawning, the tears are apparently due solely to
+the spasmodic contraction of the muscles round the eyes.
+Notwithstanding these latter cases, it seems hardly credible that the
+pressure of the eyelids on the surface of the eye, although effected
+spasmodically and therefore with much greater force than can be done
+voluntarily, should be sufficient to cause by reflex action the
+secretion of tears in the many cases in which this occurs during
+violent expiratory efforts.
+
+Another cause may come conjointly into play. We have seen that the
+internal parts of the eye, under certain conditions act in a reflex
+manner on the lacrymal glands. We know that during violent expiratory
+efforts the pressure of the arterial blood within the vessels of the
+eye is increased, and that the return of the venous blood is impeded.
+It seems, therefore, not improbable that the distension of the ocular
+vessels, thus induced, might act by reflection on the lacrymal
+glands—the effects due to the spasmodic pressure of the eyelids on the
+surface of the eye being thus increased.
+
+In considering how far this view is probable, we should bear in mind
+that the eyes of infants have been acted on in this double manner
+during numberless generations, whenever they have screamed; and on the
+principle of nerve-force readily passing along accustomed channels,
+even a moderate compression of the eyeballs and a moderate distension
+of the ocular vessels would ultimately come, through habit, to act on
+the glands. We have an analogous case in the orbicular muscles being
+almost always contracted in some slight degree, even during a gentle
+crying-fit, when there can be no distension of the vessels and no
+uncomfortable sensation excited within the eyes.
+
+Moreover, when complex actions or movements have long been performed in
+strict association together, and these are from any cause at first
+voluntarily and afterwards habitually checked, then if the proper
+exciting conditions occur, any part of the action or movement which is
+least under the control of the will, will often still be involuntarily
+performed. The secretion by a gland is remarkably free from the
+influence of the will; therefore, when with the advancing age of the
+individual, or with the advancing culture of the race, the habit of
+crying out or screaming is restrained, and there is consequently no
+distension of the blood-vessels of the eye, it may nevertheless well
+happen that tears should still be secreted. We may see, as lately
+remarked, the muscles round the eyes of a person who reads a pathetic
+story, twitching or trembling in so slight a degree as hardly to be
+detected. In this case there has been no screaming and no distension of
+the blood-vessels, yet through habit certain nerve-cells send a small
+amount of nerve-force to the cells commanding the muscles round the
+eyes; and they likewise send some to the cells commanding the lacrymal
+glands, for the eyes often become at the same time just moistened with
+tears. If the twitching of the muscles round the eyes and the secretion
+of tears had been completely prevented, nevertheless it is almost
+certain that there would have been some tendency to transmit
+nerve-force in these same directions; and as the lacrymal glands are
+remarkably free from the control of the will, they would be eminently
+liable still to act, thus betraying, though there were no other outward
+signs, the pathetic thoughts which were passing through the person’s
+mind.
+
+As a further illustration of the view here advanced, I may remark that
+if, during an early period of life, when habits of all kinds are
+readily established, our infants, when pleased, had been accustomed to
+utter loud peals of laughter (during which the vessels of their eyes
+are distended) as often and as continuously as they have yielded when
+distressed to screaming-fits, then it is probable that in after life
+tears would have been as copiously and as regularly secreted under the
+one state of mind as under the other. Gentle laughter, or a smile, or
+even a pleasing thought, would have sufficed to cause a moderate
+secretion of tears. There does indeed exist an evident tendency in this
+direction, as will be seen in a future chapter, when we treat of the
+tender feelings. With the Sandwich Islanders, according to
+Freycinet,[624] tears are actually recognized as a sign of happiness;
+but we should require better evidence on this head than that of a
+passing voyager. So again if our infants, during many generations, and
+each of them during several years, had almost daily suffered from
+prolonged choking-fits, during which the vessels of the eye are
+distended and tears copiously secreted, then it is probable, such is
+the force of associated habit, that during after life the mere thought
+of a choke, without any distress of mind, would have sufficed to bring
+tears into our eyes.
+
+To sum up this chapter, weeping is probably the result of some such
+chain of events as follows. Children, when wanting food or suffering in
+any way, cry out loudly, like the young of most other animals, partly
+as a call to their parents for aid, and partly from any great exertion
+serving relief. Prolonged screaming inevitably leads to the gorging of
+the blood-vessels of the eye; and this will have led, at first
+consciously and at last habitually, to the contraction of the muscles
+round the eyes in order to protect them. At the same time the spasmodic
+pressure on the surface of the eye, and the distension of the vessels
+within the eye, without necessarily entailing any conscious sensation,
+will have affected, through reflex action, the lacrymal glands.
+Finally, through the three principles of nerve-force readily passing
+along accustomed channels—of association, which is so widely extended
+in its power—and of certain actions, being more under the control of
+the will than others—it has come to pass that suffering readily causes
+the secretion of tears, without being necessarily accompanied by any
+other action.
+
+Although in accordance with this view we must look at weeping as an
+incidental result, as purposeless as the secretion of tears from a blow
+outside the eye, or as a sneeze from the retina being affected by a
+bright light, yet this does not present any difficulty in our
+understanding how the secretion of tears serves as a relief to
+suffering. And by as much as the weeping is more violent or hysterical,
+by so much will the relief be greater,—on the same principle that the
+writhing of the whole body, the grinding of the teeth, and the uttering
+of piercing shrieks, all give relief under an agony of pain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.
+
+General effect of grief on the system—Obliquity of the eyebrows under
+suffering—On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows—On the
+depression of the corners of the mouth.
+
+After the mind has suffered from an acute paroxysm of grief, and the
+cause still continues, we fall into a state of low spirits; or we may
+be utterly cast down and dejected. Prolonged bodily pain, if not
+amounting to an agony, generally leads to the same state of mind. If we
+expect to suffer, we are anxious; if we have no hope of relief, we
+despair.
+
+Persons suffering from excessive grief often seek relief by violent and
+almost frantic movements, as described in a former chapter; but when
+their suffering is somewhat mitigated, yet prolonged, they no longer
+wish for action, but remain motionless and passive, or may occasionally
+rock themselves to and fro. The circulation becomes languid; the face
+pale; the muscles flaccid; the eyelids droop; the head hangs on the
+contracted chest; the lips, cheeks, and lower jaw all sink downwards
+from their own weight. Hence all the features are lengthened; and the
+face of a person who hears bad news is said to fall. A party of natives
+in Tierra del Fuego endeavoured to explain to us that their friend, the
+captain of a sealing vessel, was out of spirits, by pulling down their
+cheeks with both hands, so as to make their faces as long as possible.
+Mr. Bunnet informs me that the Australian aborigines when out of
+spirits have a chop-fallen appearance. After prolonged suffering the
+eyes become dull and lack expression, and are often slightly suffused
+with tears. The eyebrows not rarely are rendered oblique, which is due
+to their inner ends being raised. This produces peculiarly-formed
+wrinkles on the forehead, which are very different from those of a
+simple frown; though in some cases a frown alone may be present. The
+comers of the mouth are drawn downwards, which is so universally
+recognized as a sign of being out of spirits, that it is almost
+proverbial.
+
+The breathing becomes slow and feeble, and is often interrupted by deep
+sighs. As Gratiolet remarks, whenever our attention is long
+concentrated on any subject, we forget to breathe, and then relieve
+ourselves by a deep inspiration; but the sighs of a sorrowful person,
+owing to his slow respiration and languid circulation, are eminently
+characteristic.[701] As the grief of a person in this state
+occasionally recurs and increases into a paroxysm, spasms affect the
+respiratory muscles, and he feels as if something, the so-called
+_globus hystericus_, was rising in his throat. These spasmodic
+movements are clearly allied to the sobbing of children, and are
+remnants of those severer spasms which occur when a person is said to
+choke from excessive grief.[702]
+
+_Obliquity of the eyebrows_.—Two points alone in the above description
+require further elucidation, and these are very curious ones; namely,
+the raising of the inner ends of the eyebrows, and the drawing down of
+the corners of the mouth. With respect to the eyebrows, they may
+occasionally be seen to assume an oblique position in persons suffering
+from deep dejection or anxiety; for instance, I have observed this
+movement in a mother whilst speaking about her sick son; and it is
+sometimes excited by quite trifling or momentary causes of real or
+pretended distress. The eyebrows assume this position owing to the
+contraction of certain muscles (namely, the orbiculars, corrugators,
+and pyramidals of the nose, which together tend to lower and contract
+the eyebrows) being partially cheeked by the more powerful action of
+the central fasciæ of the frontal muscle. These latter fasciæ by their
+contraction raise the inner ends alone of the eyebrows; and as the
+corrugators at the same time draw the eyebrows together, their inner
+ends become puckered into a fold or lump. This fold is a highly
+characteristic point in the appearance of the eyebrows when rendered
+oblique, as may be seen in figs. 2 and 5, Plate II. The eyebrows are at
+the same time somewhat roughened, owing to the hairs being made to
+project. Dr. J. Crichton Browne has also often noticed in melancholic
+patients who keep their eyebrows persistently oblique, “a peculiar
+acute arching of the upper eyelid.” A trace of this may be observed by
+comparing the right and left eyelids of the young man in the photograph
+(fig. 2, Plate II.); for he was not able to act equally on both
+eyebrows. This is also shown by the unequal furrows on the two sides of
+his forehead. The acute arching of the eyelids depends, I believe, on
+the inner end alone of the eyebrows being raised; for when the whole
+eyebrow is elevated and arched, the upper eyelid follows in a slight
+degree the same movement.
+
+
+
+ Obliquity of the Eyebrows. Plate II
+
+But the most conspicuous result of the opposed contraction of the
+above-named muscles, is exhibited by the peculiar furrows formed on the
+forehead. These muscles, when thus in conjoint yet opposed action, may
+be called, for the sake of brevity, the grief-muscles. When a person
+elevates his eyebrows by the contraction of the whole frontal muscle,
+transverse wrinkles extend across the whole breadth of the forehead;
+but in the present case the middle fasciae alone are contracted;
+consequently, transverse furrows are formed across the middle part
+alone of the forehead. The skin over the exterior parts of both
+eyebrows is at the same time drawn downwards and smooth, by the
+contraction of the outer portions of the orbicular muscles. The
+eyebrows are likewise brought together through the simultaneous
+contraction of the corrugators;[703] and this latter action generates
+vertical furrows, separating the exterior and lowered part of the skin
+of the forehead from the central and raised part. The union of these
+vertical furrows with the central and transverse furrows (see figs. 2
+and 3) produces a mark on the forehead which has been compared to a
+horse-shoe; but the furrows more strictly form three sides of a
+quadrangle. They are often conspicuous on the foreheads of adult or
+nearly adult persons, when their eyebrows are made oblique; but with
+young children, owing to their skin not easily wrinkling, they are
+rarely seen, or mere traces of them can be detected.
+
+These peculiar furrows are best represented in fig. 3, Plate II., on
+the forehead of a young lady who has the power in an unusual degree of
+voluntarily acting on the requisite muscles. As she was absorbed in the
+attempt, whilst being photographed, her expression was not at all one
+of grief; I have therefore given the forehead alone. Fig. 1 on the same
+plate, copied from Dr. Duchenne’s work,[704] represents, on a reduced
+scale, the face, in its natural state, of a young man who was a good
+actor. In fig. 2 he is shown simulating grief, but the two eyebrows, as
+before remarked, are not equally acted on. That the expression is true,
+may be inferred from the fact that out of fifteen persons, to whom the
+original photograph was shown, without any clue to what was intended
+being given them, fourteen immediately answered, “despairing sorrow,”
+“suffering endurance,” “melancholy,” and so forth. The history of fig.
+5 is rather curious: I saw the photograph in a shop-window, and took it
+to Mr. Rejlander for the sake of finding out by whom it had been made;
+remarking to him how pathetic the expression was. He answered, “I made
+it, and it was likely to be pathetic, for the boy in a few minutes
+burst out crying.” He then showed me a photograph of the same boy in a
+placid state, which I have had (fig. 4) reproduced. In fig. 6, a trace
+of obliquity in the eyebrows may be detected; but this figure, as well
+as fig. 7, is given to show the depression of the corners of the mouth,
+to which subject I shall presently refer.
+
+Few persons, without some practice, can voluntarily act on their
+grief-muscles; but after repeated trials a considerable number succeed,
+whilst others never can. The degree of obliquity in the eyebrows,
+whether assumed voluntarily or unconsciously, differs much in different
+persons. With some who apparently have unusually strong pyramidal
+muscles, the contraction of the central fasciae of the frontal muscle,
+although it may be energetic, as shown by the quadrangular furrows on
+the forehead, does not raise the inner ends of the eyebrows, but only
+prevents their being so much lowered as they otherwise would have been.
+As far as I have been able to observe, the grief-muscles are brought
+into action much more frequently by children and women than by men.
+They are rarely acted on, at least with grown-up persons, from bodily
+pain, but almost exclusively from mental distress. Two persons who,
+after some practice, succeeded in acting on their grief-muscles, found
+by looking at a mirror that when they made their eyebrows oblique, they
+unintentionally at the same time depressed the corners of their mouths;
+and this is often the case when the expression is naturally assumed.
+
+The power to bring the grief-muscles freely into play appears to be
+hereditary, like almost every other human faculty. A lady belonging to
+a family famous for having produced an extraordinary number of great
+actors and actresses, and who can herself give this expression “with
+singular precision,” told Dr. Crichton Browne that all her family had
+possessed the power in a remarkable degree. The same hereditary
+tendency is said to have extended, as I likewise hear from Dr. Browne,
+to the last descendant of the family, which gave rise to Sir Walter
+Scott’s novel of ‘Red Gauntlet;’ but the hero is described as
+contracting his forehead into a horseshoe mark from any strong emotion.
+I have also seen a young woman whose forehead seemed almost habitually
+thus contracted, independently of any emotion being at the time felt.
+
+The grief-muscles are not very frequently brought into play; and as the
+action is often momentary, it easily escapes observation. Although the
+expression, when observed, is universally and instantly recognized as
+that of grief or anxiety, yet not one person out of a thousand who has
+never studied the subject, is able to say precisely what change passes
+over the sufferer’s face. Hence probably it is that this expression is
+not even alluded to, as far as I have noticed, in any work of fiction,
+with the exception of ‘Red Gauntlet’ and of one other novel; and the
+authoress of the latter, as I am informed, belongs to the famous family
+of actors just alluded to; so that her attention may have been
+specially called to the subject.
+
+The ancient Greek sculptors were familiar with the expression, as shown
+in the statues of the Laocoon and Arretino; but, as Duchenne remarks,
+they carried the transverse furrows across the whole breadth of the
+forehead, and thus committed a great anatomical mistake: this is
+likewise the case in some modern statues. It is, however, more probable
+that these wonderfully accurate observers intentionally sacrificed
+truth for the sake of beauty, than that they made a mistake; for
+rectangular furrows on the forehead would not have had a grand
+appearance on the marble. The expression, in its fully developed
+condition, is, as far as I can discover, not often represented in
+pictures by the old masters, no doubt owing to the same cause; but a
+lady who is perfectly familiar with this expression, informs me that in
+Fra Angelico’s ‘Descent from the Cross’ in Florence, it is clearly
+exhibited in one of the figures on the right-hand; and I could add a
+few other instances.
+
+Dr. Crichton Browne, at my request, closely attended to this expression
+in the numerous insane patients under his care in the West Riding
+Asylum; and he is familiar with Duchenne’s photographs of the action of
+the grief-muscles. He informs me that they may constantly be seen in
+energetic action in cases of melancholia, and especially of
+hypochondria; and that the persistent lines or furrows, due to their
+habitual contraction, are characteristic of the physiognomy of the
+insane belonging to these two classes. Dr. Browne carefully observed
+for me during a considerable period three cases of hypochondria, in
+which the grief-muscles were persistently contracted. In one of these,
+a widow, aged 51, fancied that she had lost all her viscera, and that
+her whole body was empty. She wore an expression of great distress, and
+beat her semi-closed hands rhythmically together for hours. The
+grief-muscles were permanently contracted, and the upper eyelids
+arched. This condition lasted for months; she then recovered, and her
+countenance resumed its natural expression. A second case presented
+nearly the same peculiarities, with the addition that the comers of the
+mouth were depressed.
+
+Mr. Patrick Nicol has also kindly observed for me several cases in the
+Sussex Lunatic Asylum, and has communicated to me full details with
+respect to three of them; but they need not here be given. From his
+observations on melancholic patients, Mr. Nicol concludes that the
+inner ends of the eyebrows are almost always more or less raised, with
+the wrinkles on the forehead more or less plainly marked. In the case
+of one young woman, these wrinkles were observed to be in constant
+slight play or movement. In some cases the comers of the mouth are
+depressed, but often only in a slight degree. Some amount of difference
+in the expression of the several melancholic patients could almost
+always be observed. The eyelids generally droop; and the skin near
+their outer comers and beneath them is wrinkled. The naso-labial fold,
+which runs from the wings of the nostrils to the comers of the mouth,
+and which is so conspicuous in blubbering children, is often plainly
+marked in these patients.
+
+Although with the insane the grief-muscles often act persistently; yet
+in ordinary cases they are sometimes brought unconsciously into
+momentary action by ludicrously slight causes. A gentleman rewarded a
+young lady by an absurdly small present; she pretended to be offended,
+and as she upbraided him, her eyebrows became extremely oblique, with
+the forehead properly wrinkled. Another young lady and a youth, both in
+the highest spirits, were eagerly talking together with extraordinary
+rapidity; and I noticed that, as often as the young lady was beaten,
+and could not get out her words fast enough, her eyebrows went
+obliquely upwards, and rectangular furrows were formed on her forehead.
+She thus each time hoisted a flag of distress; and this she did
+half-a-dozen times in the course of a few minutes. I made no remark on
+the subject, but on a subsequent occasion I asked her to act on her
+grief-muscles; another girl who was present, and who could do so
+voluntarily, showing her what was intended. She tried repeatedly, but
+utterly failed; yet so slight a cause of distress as not being able to
+talk quickly enough, sufficed to bring these muscles over and over
+again into energetic action.
+
+The expression of grief, due to the contraction of the grief-muscles,
+is by no means confined to Europeans, but appears to be common to all
+the races of mankind. I have, at least, received trustworthy accounts
+in regard to Hindoos, Dhangars (one of the aboriginal hill-tribes of
+India, and therefore belonging to a quite distinct race from the
+Hindoos), Malays, Negroes and Australians. With respect to the latter,
+two observers answer my query in the affirmative, but enter into no
+details. Mr. Taplin, however, appends to my descriptive remarks the
+words “this is exact.” With respect to negroes, the lady who told me of
+Fra Angelico’s picture, saw a negro towing a boat on the Nile, and as
+he encountered an obstruction, she observed his grief-muscles in strong
+action, with the middle of the forehead well wrinkled. Mr. Geach
+watched a Malay man in Malacca, with the comers of his mouth much
+depressed, the eyebrows oblique, with deep short grooves on the
+forehead. This expression lasted for a very short time; and Mr. Geach
+remarks it “was a strange one, very much like a person about to cry at
+some great loss.”
+
+In India Mr. H. Erskine found that the natives were familiar with this
+expression; and Mr. J. Scott, of the Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, has
+obligingly sent me a full description of two cases. He observed during
+some time, himself unseen, a very young Dhangar woman from Nagpore, the
+wife of one of the gardeners, nursing her baby who was at the point of
+death; and he distinctly saw the eyebrows raised at the inner comers,
+the eyelids drooping, the forehead wrinkled in the middle, the mouth
+slightly open, with the comers much depressed. He then came from behind
+a screen of plants and spoke to the poor woman, who started, burst into
+a bitter flood of tears, and besought him to cure her baby. The second
+case was that of a Hindustani man, who from illness and poverty was
+compelled to sell his favourite goat. After receiving the money, he
+repeatedly looked at the money in his hand and then at the goat, as if
+doubting whether he would not return it. He went to the goat, which was
+tied up ready to be led away, and the animal reared up and licked his
+hands. His eyes then wavered from side to side; his “mouth was
+partially closed, with the corners very decidedly depressed.” At last
+the poor man seemed to make up his mind that he must part with his
+goat, and then, as Mr. Scott saw, the eyebrows became slightly oblique,
+with the characteristic puckering or swelling at the inner ends, but
+the wrinkles on the forehead were not present. The man stood thus for a
+minute, then heaving a deep sigh, burst into tears, raised up his two
+hands, blessed the goat, turned round, and without looking again, went
+away.
+
+_On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows under suffering_.—During
+several years no expression seemed to me so utterly perplexing as this
+which we are here considering. Why should grief or anxiety cause the
+central fasciae alone of the frontal muscle together with those round
+the eyes, to contract? Here we seem to have a complex movement for the
+sole purpose of expressing grief; and yet it is a comparatively rare
+expression, and often overlooked. I believe the explanation is not so
+difficult as it at first appears. Dr. Duchenne gives a photograph of
+the young man before referred to, who, when looking upwards at a
+strongly illuminated surface, involuntarily contracted his
+grief-muscles in an exaggerated manner. I had entirely forgotten this
+photograph, when on a very bright day with the sun behind me, I met,
+whilst on horseback, a girl whose eyebrows, as she looked up at me,
+became extremely oblique, with the proper furrows on her forehead. I
+have observed the same movement under similar circumstances on several
+subsequent occasions. On my return home I made three of my children,
+without giving them any clue to my object, look as long and as
+attentively as they could, at the summit of a tall tree standing
+against an extremely bright sky. With all three, the orbicular,
+corrugator, and pyramidal muscles were energetically contracted,
+through reflex action, from the excitement of the retina, so that their
+eyes might be protected from the bright light. But they tried their
+utmost to look upwards; and now a curious struggle, with spasmodic
+twitchings, could be observed between the whole or only the central
+portion of the frontal muscle, and the several muscles which serve to
+lower the eyebrows and close the eyelids. The involuntary contraction
+of the pyramidal caused the basal part of their noses to be
+transversely and deeply wrinkled. In one of the three children, the
+whole eyebrows were momentarily raised and lowered by the alternate
+contraction of the whole frontal muscle and of the muscles surrounding
+the eyes, so that the whole breadth of the forehead was alternately
+wrinkled and smoothed. In the other two children the forehead became
+wrinkled in the middle part alone, rectangular furrows being thus
+produced; and the eyebrows were rendered oblique, with their inner
+extremities puckered and swollen,—in the one child in a slight degree,
+in the other in a strongly marked manner. This difference in the
+obliquity of the eyebrows apparently depended on a difference in their
+general mobility, and in the strength of the pyramidal muscles. In both
+these cases the eyebrows and forehead were acted on under the influence
+of a strong light, in precisely the same manner, in every
+characteristic detail, as under the influence of grief or anxiety.
+
+Duchenne states that the pyramidal muscle of the nose is less under the
+control of the will than are the other muscles round the eyes. He
+remarks that the young man who could so well act on his grief-muscles,
+as well as on most of his other facial muscles, could not contract the
+pyramidals.[705] This power, however, no doubt differs in different
+persons. The pyramidal muscle serves to draw down the skin of the
+forehead between the eyebrows, together with their inner extremities.
+The central fasciae of the frontal are the antagonists of the
+pyramidal; and if the action of the latter is to be specially checked,
+these central fasciae must be contracted. So that with persons having
+powerful pyramidal muscles, if there is under the influence of a bright
+light an unconscious desire to prevent the lowering of the eyebrows,
+the central fasciae of the frontal muscle must be brought into play;
+and their contraction, if sufficiently strong to overmaster the
+pyramidals, together with the contraction of the corrugator and
+orbicular muscles, will act in the manner just described on the
+eyebrows and forehead.
+
+When children scream or cry out, they contract, as we know, the
+orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal muscles, primarily for the sake of
+compressing their eyes, and thus protecting them from being gorged with
+blood, and secondarily through habit. I therefore expected to find with
+children, that when they endeavoured either to prevent a crying-fit
+from coming on, or to stop crying, they would cheek the contraction of
+the above-named muscles, in the same manner as when looking upwards at
+a bright light; and consequently that the central fasciae of the
+frontal muscle would often be brought into play. Accordingly, I began
+myself to observe children at such times, and asked others, including
+some medical men, to do the same. It is necessary to observe carefully,
+as the peculiar opposed action of these muscles is not nearly so plain
+in children, owing to their foreheads not easily wrinkling, as in
+adults. But I soon found that the grief-muscles were very frequently
+brought into distinct action on these occasions. It would be
+superfluous to give all the cases which have been observed; and I will
+specify only a few. A little girl, a year and a half old, was teased by
+some other children, and before bursting into tears her eyebrows became
+decidedly oblique. With an older girl the same obliquity was observed,
+with the inner ends of the eyebrows plainly puckered; and at the same
+time the corners of the mouth were drawn downwards. As soon as she
+burst into tears, the features all changed and this peculiar expression
+vanished. Again, after a little boy had been vaccinated, which made him
+scream and cry violently, the surgeon gave him an orange brought for
+the purpose, and this pleased the child much; as he stopped crying all
+the characteristic movements were observed, including the formation of
+rectangular wrinkles in the middle of the forehead. Lastly, I met on
+the road a little girl three or four years old, who had been frightened
+by a dog, and when I asked her what was the matter, she stopped
+whimpering, and her eyebrows instantly became oblique to an
+extraordinary degree.
+
+Here then, as I cannot doubt, we have the key to the problem why the
+central fasciae of the frontal muscle and the muscles round the eyes
+contract in opposition to each other under the influence of
+grief;—whether their contraction be prolonged, as with the melancholic
+insane, or momentary, from some trifling cause of distress. We have all
+of us, as infants, repeatedly contracted our orbicular, corrugator, and
+pyramidal muscles, in order to protect our eyes whilst screaming; our
+progenitors before us have done the same during many generations; and
+though with advancing years we easily prevent, when feeling distressed,
+the utterance of screams, we cannot from long habit always prevent a
+slight contraction of the above-named muscles; nor indeed do we observe
+their contraction in ourselves, or attempt to stop it, if slight. But
+the pyramidal muscles seem to be less under the command of the will
+than the other related muscles; and if they be well developed, their
+contraction can be checked only by the antagonistic contraction of the
+central fasciae of the frontal muscle. The result which necessarily
+follows, if these fasciae contract energetically, is the oblique
+drawing up of the eyebrows, the puckering of their inner ends, and the
+formation of rectangular furrows on the middle of the forehead. As
+children and women cry much more freely than men, and as grown-up
+persons of both sexes rarely weep except from mental distress, we can
+understand why the grief-muscles are more frequently seen in action, as
+I believe to be the case, with children and women than with men; and
+with adults of both sexes from mental distress alone. In some of the
+cases before recorded, as in that of the poor Dhangar woman and of the
+Hindustani man, the action of the grief-muscles was quickly followed by
+bitter weeping. In all cases of distress, whether great or small, our
+brains tend through long habit to send an order to certain muscles to
+contract, as if we were still infants on the point of screaming out;
+but this order we, by the wondrous power of the will, and through
+habit, are able partially to counteract; although this is effected
+unconsciously, as far as the means of counteraction are concerned.
+
+_On the depression of the corners of the mouth_.—This action is
+effected by the _depressores anguili oris_ (see letter K in figs. 1 and
+2). The fibres of this muscle diverge downwards, with the upper
+convergent ends attached round the angles of the mouth, and to the
+lower lip a little way within the angles.[706] Some of the fibres
+appear to be antagonistic to the great zygomatic muscle, and others to
+the several muscles running to the outer part of the upper lip. The
+contraction of this muscle draws downwards and outwards the corners of
+the mouth, including the outer part of the upper lip, and even in a
+slight degree the wings of the nostrils. When the mouth is closed and
+this muscle acts, the commissure or line of junction of the two lips
+forms a curved line with the concavity downwards,[707] and the lips
+themselves are generally somewhat protruded, especially the lower one.
+The mouth in this state is well represented in the two photographs
+(Plate II., figs. 6 and 7) by Mr. Rejlander. The upper boy (fig. 6) had
+just stopped crying, after receiving a slap on the face from another
+boy; and the right moment was seized for photographing him.
+
+The expression of low spirits, grief or dejection, due to the
+contraction of this muscle has been noticed by every one who has
+written on the subject. To say that a person “is down in the mouth,” is
+synonymous with saying that he is out of spirits. The depression of the
+corners may often be seen, as already stated on the authority of Dr.
+Crichton Browne and Mr. Nicol, with the melancholic insane, and was
+well exhibited in some photographs sent to me by the former gentleman,
+of patients with a strong tendency to suicide. It has been observed
+with men belonging to various races, namely with Hindoos, the dark
+hill-tribes of India, Malays, and, as the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer informs
+me, with the aborigines of Australia.
+
+When infants scream they firmly contract the muscles round their eyes,
+and this draws up the upper lip; and as they have to keep their mouths
+widely open, the depressor muscles running to the corners are likewise
+brought into strong action. This generally, but not invariably, causes
+a slight angular bend in the lower lip on both sides, near the corners
+of the mouth. The result of the upper and lower lip being thus acted on
+is that the mouth assumes a squarish outline. The contraction of the
+depressor muscle is best seen in infants when not screaming violently,
+and especially just before they begin, or when they cease to scream.
+Their little faces then acquire an extremely piteous expression, as I
+continually observed with my own infants between the ages of about six
+weeks and two or three months. Sometimes, when they are struggling
+against a crying-fit, the outline of the mouth is curved in so
+exaggerated a manner as to be like a horseshoe; and the expression of
+misery then becomes a ludicrous caricature.
+
+The explanation of the contraction of this muscle, under the influence
+of low spirits or dejection, apparently follows from the same general
+principles as in the case of the obliquity of the eyebrows. Dr.
+Duchenne informs me that he concludes from his observations, now
+prolonged during many years, that this is one of the facial muscles
+which is least under the control of the will. This fact may indeed be
+inferred from what has just been stated with respect to infants when
+doubtfully beginning to cry, or endeavouring to stop crying; for they
+then generally command all the other facial muscles more effectually
+than they do the depressors of the corners of the mouth. Two excellent
+observers who had no theory on the subject, one of them a surgeon,
+carefully watched for me some older children and women as with some
+opposed struggling they very gradually approached the point of bursting
+out into tears; and both observers felt sure that the depressors began
+to act before any of the other muscles. Now as the depressors have been
+repeatedly brought into strong action during infancy in many
+generations, nerve-force will tend to flow, on the principle of long
+associated habit, to these muscles as well as to various other facial
+muscles, whenever in after life even a slight feeling of distress is
+experienced. But as the depressors are somewhat less under the control
+of the will than most of the other muscles, we might expect that they
+would often slightly contract, whilst the others remained passive. It
+is remarkable how small a depression of the corners of the mouth gives
+to the countenance an expression of low spirits or dejection, so that
+an extremely slight contraction of these muscles would be sufficient to
+betray this state of mind.
+
+I may here mention a trifling observation, as it will serve to sum up
+our present subject. An old lady with a comfortable but absorbed
+expression sat nearly opposite to me in a railway carriage. Whilst I
+was looking at her, I saw that her _depressores anguli oris_ became
+very slightly, yet decidedly, contracted; but as her countenance
+remained as placid as ever, I reflected how meaningless was this
+contraction, and how easily one might be deceived. The thought had
+hardly occurred to me when I saw that her eyes suddenly became suffused
+with tears almost to overflowing, and her whole countenance fell. There
+could now be no doubt that some painful recollection, perhaps that of a
+long-lost child, was passing through her mind. As soon as her sensorium
+was thus affected, certain nerve-cells from long habit instantly
+transmitted an order to all the respiratory muscles, and to those round
+the mouth, to prepare for a fit of crying. But the order was
+countermanded by the will, or rather by a later acquired habit, and all
+the muscles were obedient, excepting in a slight degree the
+_depressores anguli oris_. The mouth was not even opened; the
+respiration was not hurried; and no muscle was affected except those
+which draw down the corners of the mouth.
+
+As soon as the mouth of this lady began, involuntarily and
+unconsciously on her part, to assume the proper form for a crying-fit,
+we may feel almost sure that some nerve-influence would have been
+transmitted through the long accustomed channels to the various
+respiratory muscles, as well as to those round the eyes, and to the
+vaso-motor centre which governs the supply of blood sent to the
+lacrymal glands. Of this latter fact we have indeed clear evidence in
+her eyes becoming slightly suffused with tears; and we can understand
+this, as the lacrymal glands are less under the control of the will
+than the facial muscles. No doubt there existed at the same time some
+tendency in the muscles round the eyes at contract, as if for the sake
+of protecting them from being gorged with blood, but this contraction
+was completely overmastered, and her brow remained unruffled. Had the
+pyramidal, corrugator, and orbicular muscles been as little obedient to
+the will, as they are in many persons, they would have been slightly
+acted on; and then the central fasciae of the frontal muscle would have
+contracted in antagonism, and her eyebrows would have become oblique,
+with rectangular furrows on her forehead. Her countenance would then
+have expressed still more plainly than it did a state of dejection, or
+rather one of grief.
+
+Through steps such as these we can understand how it is, that as soon
+as some melancholy thought passes through the brain, there occurs a
+just perceptible drawing down of the corners of the mouth, or a slight
+raising up of the inner ends of the eyebrows, or both movements
+combined, and immediately afterwards a slight suffusion of tears. A
+thrill of nerve-force is transmitted along several habitual channels,
+and produces an effect on any point where the will has not acquired
+through long habit much power of interference. The above actions may be
+considered as rudimental vestiges of the screaming-fits, which are so
+frequent and prolonged during infancy. In this case, as well as in many
+others, the links are indeed wonderful which connect cause and effect
+in giving rise to various expressions on the human countenance; and
+they explain to us the meaning of certain movements, which we
+involuntarily and unconsciously perform, whenever certain transitory
+emotions pass through our minds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
+
+Laughter primarily the expression of joy—Ludicrous ideas—Movements of
+the features during laughter—Nature of the sound produced—The secretion
+of tears during loud laughter—Gradation from loud laughter to gentle
+smiling—High spirits—The expression of love—Tender feelings—Devotion.
+
+Joy, when intense, leads to various purposeless movements—to dancing
+about, clapping the hands, stamping, &c., and to loud laughter.
+Laughter seems primarily to be the expression of mere joy or happiness.
+We clearly see this in children at play, who are almost incessantly
+laughing. With young persons past childhood, when they are in high
+spirits, there is always much meaningless laughter. The laughter of the
+gods is described by Homer as “the exuberance of their celestial joy
+after their daily banquet.” A man smiles—and smiling, as we shall see,
+graduates into laughter—at meeting an old friend in the street, as he
+does at any trifling pleasure, such as smelling a sweet perfume.[801]
+Laura Bridgman, from her blindness and deafness, could not have
+acquired any expression through imitation, yet when a letter from a
+beloved friend was communicated to her by gesture-language, she
+“laughed and clapped her hands, and the colour mounted to her cheeks.”
+On other occasions she has been seen to stamp for joy.[802]
+
+Idiots and imbecile persons likewise afford good evidence that laughter
+or smiling primarily expresses mere happiness or joy. Dr. Crichton
+Browne, to whom, as on so many other occasions, I am indebted for the
+results of his wide experience, informs me that with idiots laughter is
+the most prevalent and frequent of all the emotional expressions. Many
+idiots are morose, passionate, restless, in a painful state of mind, or
+utterly stolid, and these never laugh. Others frequently laugh in a
+quite senseless manner. Thus an idiot boy, incapable of speech,
+complained to Dr. Browne, by the aid of signs, that another boy in the
+asylum had given him a black eye; and this was accompanied by
+“explosions of laughter and with his face covered with the broadest
+smiles.” There is another large class of idiots who are persistently
+joyous and benign, and who are constantly laughing or smiling.[803]
+Their countenances often exhibit a stereotyped smile; their joyousness
+is increased, and they grin, chuckle, or giggle, whenever food is
+placed before them, or when they are caressed, are shown bright
+colours, or hear music. Some of them laugh more than usual when they
+walk about, or attempt any muscular exertion. The joyousness of most of
+these idiots cannot possibly be associated, as Dr. Browne remarks, with
+any distinct ideas: they simply feel pleasure, and express it by
+laughter or smiles. With imbeciles rather higher in the scale, personal
+vanity seems to be the commonest cause of laughter, and next to this,
+pleasure arising from the approbation of their conduct.
+
+With grown-up persons laughter is excited by causes considerably
+different from those which suffice during childhood; but this remark
+hardly applies to smiling. Laughter in this respect is analogous with
+weeping, which with adults is almost confined to mental distress,
+whilst with children it is excited by bodily pain or any suffering, as
+well as by fear or rage. Many curious discussions have been written on
+the causes of laughter with grown-up persons. The subject is extremely
+complex. Something incongruous or unaccountable, exciting surprise and
+some sense of superiority in the laugher, who must be in a happy frame
+of mind, seems to be the commonest cause.[804] The circumstances must
+not be of a momentous nature: no poor man would laugh or smile on
+suddenly hearing that a large fortune had been bequeathed to him. If
+the mind is strongly excited by pleasurable feelings, and any little
+unexpected event or thought occurs, then, as Mr. Herbert Spencer
+remarks,[805] “a large amount of nervous energy, instead of being
+allowed to expend itself in producing an equivalent amount of the new
+thoughts and emotion which were nascent, is suddenly checked in its
+flow.”... “The excess must discharge itself in some other direction,
+and there results an efflux through the motor nerves to various classes
+of the muscles, producing the half-convulsive actions we term
+laughter.” An observation, bearing on this point, was made by a
+correspondent during the recent siege of Paris, namely, that the German
+soldiers, after strong excitement from exposure to extreme danger, were
+particularly apt to burst out into loud laughter at the smallest joke.
+So again when young children are just beginning to cry, an unexpected
+event will sometimes suddenly turn their crying into laughter, which
+apparently serves equally well to expend their superfluous nervous
+energy.
+
+The imagination is sometimes said to be tickled by a ludicrous idea;
+and this so-called tickling of the mind is curiously analogous with
+that of the body. Every one knows how immoderately children laugh, and
+how their whole bodies are convulsed when they are tickled. The
+anthropoid apes, as we have seen, likewise utter a reiterated sound,
+corresponding with our laughter, when they are tickled, especially
+under the armpits. I touched with a bit of paper the sole of the foot
+of one of my infants, when only seven days old, and it was suddenly
+jerked away and the toes curled about, as in an older child. Such
+movements, as well as laughter from being tickled, are manifestly
+reflex actions; and this is likewise shown by the minute unstriped
+muscles, which serve to erect the separate hairs on the body,
+contracting near a tickled surface.[806] Yet laughter from a ludicrous
+idea, though involuntary, cannot be called a strictly reflex action. In
+this case, and in that of laughter from being tickled, the mind must be
+in a pleasurable condition; a young child, if tickled by a strange man,
+would scream from fear. The touch must be light, and an idea or event,
+to be ludicrous, must not be of grave import. The parts of the body
+which are most easily tickled are those which are not commonly touched,
+such as the armpits or between the toes, or parts such as the soles of
+the feet, which are habitually touched by a broad surface; but the
+surface on which we sit offers a marked exception to this rule.
+According to Gratiolet,[807] certain nerves are much more sensitive to
+tickling than others. From the fact that a child can hardly tickle
+itself, or in a much less degree than when tickled by another person,
+it seems that the precise point to be touched must not be known; so
+with the mind, something unexpected—a novel or incongruous idea which
+breaks through an habitual train of thought—appears to be a strong
+element in the ludicrous.
+
+The sound of laughter is produced by a deep inspiration followed by
+short, interrupted, spasmodic contractions of the chest, and especially
+of the diaphragm.[808] Hence we hear of “laughter holding both his
+sides.” From the shaking of the body, the head nods to and fro. The
+lower jaw often quivers up and down, as is likewise the case with some
+species of baboons, when they are much pleased.
+
+
+
+Moderate Laughter and Smiling. Plate III
+
+During laughter the mouth is opened more or less widely, with the
+corners drawn much backwards, as well as a little upwards; and the
+upper lip is somewhat raised. The drawing back of the corners is best
+seen in moderate laughter, and especially in a broad smile—the latter
+epithet showing how the mouth is widened. In the accompanying figs.
+1-3, Plate III., different degrees of moderate laughter and smiling
+have been photographed. The figure of the little girl, with the hat is
+by Dr. Wallich, and the expression was a genuine one; the other two are
+by Mr. Rejlander. Dr. Duchenne repeatedly insists[809] that, under the
+emotion of joy, the mouth is acted on exclusively by the great
+zygomatic muscles, which serve to draw the corners backwards and
+upwards; but judging from the manner in which the upper teeth are
+always exposed during laughter and broad smiling, as well as from my
+own sensations, I cannot doubt that some of the muscles running to the
+upper lip are likewise brought into moderate action. The upper and
+lower orbicular muscles of the eyes are at the same time more or less
+contracted; and there is an intimate connection, as explained in the
+chapter on weeping, between the orbiculars, especially the lower ones
+and some of the muscles running to the upper lip. Henle remarks[810] on
+this head, that when a man closely shuts one eye he cannot avoid
+retracting the upper lip on the same side; conversely, if any one will
+place his finger on his lower eyelid, and then uncover his upper
+incisors as much as possible, he will feel, as his upper lip is drawn
+strongly upwards, that the muscles of the lower eyelid contract. In
+Henle’s drawing, given in woodcut, fig. 2, the _musculus malaris_ (H)
+which runs to the upper lip may be seen to form an almost integral part
+of the lower orbicular muscle.
+
+Dr. Duchenne has given a large photograph of an old man (reduced on
+Plate III. fig 4), in his usual passive condition, and another of the
+same man (fig. 5), naturally smiling. The latter was instantly
+recognized by every one to whom it was shown as true to nature. He has
+also given, as an example of an unnatural or false smile, another
+photograph (fig. 6) of the same old man, with the corners of his mouth
+strongly retracted by the galvanization of the great zygomatic muscles.
+That the expression is not natural is clear, for I showed this
+photograph to twenty-four persons, of whom three could not in the least
+tell what was meant, whilst the others, though they perceived that the
+expression was of the nature of a smile, answered in such words as “a
+wicked joke,” “trying to laugh,” “grinning laughter.... half-amazed
+laughter,” &c. Dr. Duchenne attributes the falseness of the expression
+altogether to the orbicular muscles of the lower eyelids not being
+sufficiently contracted; for he justly lays great stress on their
+contraction in the expression of joy. No doubt there is much truth in
+this view, but not, as it appears to me, the whole truth. The
+contraction of the lower orbiculars is always accompanied, as we have
+seen, by the drawing up of the upper lip. Had the upper lip, in fig. 6,
+been thus acted on to a slight extent, its curvature would have been
+less rigid, the naso-labial farrow would have been slightly different,
+and the whole expression would, as I believe, have been more natural,
+independently of the more conspicuous effect from the stronger
+contraction of the lower eyelids. The corrugator muscle, moreover, in
+fig. 6, is too much contracted, causing a frown; and this muscle never
+acts under the influence of joy except during strongly pronounced or
+violent laughter.
+
+By the drawing backwards and upwards of the corners of the mouth,
+through the contraction of the great zygomatic muscles, and by the
+raising of the upper lip, the cheeks are drawn upwards. Wrinkles are
+thus formed under the eyes, and, with old people, at their outer ends;
+and these are highly characteristic of laughter or smiling. As a gentle
+smile increases into a strong one, or into a laugh, every one may feel
+and see, if he will attend to his own sensations and look at himself in
+a mirror, that as the upper lip is drawn up and the lower orbiculars
+contract, the wrinkles in the lower eyelids and those beneath the eyes
+are much strengthened or increased. At the same time, as I have
+repeatedly observed, the eyebrows are slightly lowered, which shows
+that the upper as well as the lower orbiculars contract at least to
+some degree, though this passes unperecived, as far as our sensations
+are concerned. If the original photograph of the old man, with his
+countenance in its usual placid state (fig. 4), be compared with that
+(fig. 5) in which he is naturally smiling, it may be seen that the
+eyebrows in the latter are a little lowered. I presume that this is
+owing to the upper orbiculars being impelled, through the force of
+long-associated habit, to act to a certain extent in concert with the
+lower orbiculars, which themselves contract in connection with the
+drawing up of the upper lip.
+
+The tendency in the zygomatic muscles to contract under pleasurable
+emotions is shown by a curious fact, communicated to me by Dr. Browne,
+with respect to patients suffering from GENERAL PARALYSIS OF THE
+INSANE.[811] “In this malady there is almost invariably
+optimism—delusions as to wealth, rank, grandeur—insane joyousness,
+benevolence, and profusion, while its very earliest physical symptom is
+trembling at the corners of the mouth and at the outer corners of the
+eyes. This is a well-recognized fact. Constant tremulous agitation of
+the inferior palpebral and great zygomatic muscles is pathognomic of
+the earlier stages of general paralysis. The countenance has a pleased
+and benevolent expression. As the disease advances other muscles become
+involved, but until complete fatuity is reached, the prevailing
+expression is that of feeble benevolence.”
+
+As in laughing and broadly smiling the cheeks and upper lip are much
+raised, the nose appears to be shortened, and the skin on the bridge
+becomes finely wrinkled in transverse lines, with other oblique
+longitudinal lines on the sides. The upper front teeth are commonly
+exposed. A well-marked naso-labial fold is formed, which runs from the
+wing of each nostril to the corner of the mouth; and this fold is often
+double in old persons.
+
+A bright and sparkling eye is as characteristic of a pleased or amused
+state of mind, as is the retraction of the corners of the mouth and
+upper lip with the wrinkles thus produced. Even the eyes of
+microcephalous idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn to
+speak, brighten slightly when they are pleased.[812] Under extreme
+laughter the eyes are too much suffused with tears to sparkle; but the
+moisture squeezed out of the glands during moderate laughter or smiling
+may aid in giving them lustre; though this must be of altogether
+subordinate importance, as they become dull from grief, though they are
+then often moist. Their brightness seems to be chiefly due to their
+tenseness,[813] owing to the contraction of the orbicular muscles and
+to the pressure of the raised cheeks. But, according to Dr. Piderit,
+who has discussed this point more fully than any other writer,[814] the
+tenseness may be largely attributed to the eyeballs becoming filled
+with blood and other fluids, from the acceleration of the circulation,
+consequent on the excitement of pleasure. He remarks on the contrast in
+the appearance of the eyes of a hectic patient with a rapid
+circulation, and of a man suffering from cholera with almost all the
+fluids of his body drained from him. Any cause which lowers the
+circulation deadens the eye. I remember seeing a man utterly prostrated
+by prolonged and severe exertion during a very hot day, and a bystander
+compared his eyes to those of a boiled codfish.
+
+To return to the sounds produced during laughter. We can see in a vague
+manner how the utterance of sounds of some kind would naturally become
+associated with a pleasurable state of mind; for throughout a large
+part of the animal kingdom vocal or instrumental sounds are employed
+either as a call or as a charm by one sex for the other. They are also
+employed as the means for a joyful meeting between the parents and
+their offspring, and between the attached members of the same social
+community. But why the sounds which man utters when he is pleased have
+the peculiar reiterated character of laughter we do not know.
+Nevertheless we can see that they would naturally be as different as
+possible from the screams or cries of distress; and as in the
+production of the latter, the expirations are prolonged and continuous,
+with the inspirations short and interrupted, so it might perhaps have
+been expected with the sounds uttered from joy, that the expirations
+would have been short and broken with the inspirations prolonged; and
+this is the case.
+
+It is an equally obscure point why the corners of the mouth are
+retracted and the upper lip raised during ordinary laughter. The mouth
+must not be opened to its utmost extent, for when this occurs during a
+paroxysm of excessive laughter hardly any sound is emitted; or it
+changes its tone and seems to come from deep down in the throat. The
+respiratory muscles, and even those of the limbs, are at the same time
+thrown into rapid vibratory movements. The lower jaw often partakes of
+this movement, and this would tend to prevent the mouth from being
+widely opened. But as a full volume of sound has to be poured forth,
+the orifice of the mouth must be large; and it is perhaps to gain this
+end that the corners are retracted and the upper lip raised. Although
+we can hardly account for the shape of the mouth during laughter, which
+leads to wrinkles being formed beneath the eyes, nor for the peculiar
+reiterated sound of laughter, nor for the quivering of the jaws,
+nevertheless we may infer that all these effects are due to some common
+cause. For they are all characteristic and expressive of a pleased
+state of mind in various kinds of monkeys.
+
+A graduated series can be followed from violent to moderate laughter,
+to a broad smile, to a gentle smile, and to the expression of mere
+cheerfulness. During excessive laughter the whole body is often thrown
+backward and shakes, or is almost convulsed; the respiration is much
+disturbed; the head and face become gorged with blood, with the veins
+distended; and the orbicular muscles are spasmodically contracted in
+order to protect the eyes. Tears are freely shed. Hence, as formerly
+remarked, it is scarcely possible to point out any difference between
+the tear-stained face of a person after a paroxysm of excessive
+laughter and after a bitter crying-fit.[815] It is probably due to the
+close similarity of the spasmodic movements caused by these widely
+different emotions that hysteric patients alternately cry and laugh
+with violence, and that young children sometimes pass suddenly from the
+one to the other state. Mr. Swinhoe informs me that he has often seen
+the Chinese, when suffering from deep grief, burst out into hysterical
+fits of laughter.
+
+I was anxious to know whether tears are freely shed during excessive
+laughter by most of the races of men, and I hear from my correspondents
+that this is the case. One instance was observed with the Hindoos, and
+they themselves said that it often occurred. So it is with the Chinese.
+The women of a wild tribe of Malays in the Malacca peninsula, sometimes
+shed tears when they laugh heartily, though this seldom occurs. With
+the Dyaks of Borneo it must frequently be the case, at least with the
+women, for I hear from the Rajah C. Brooke that it is a common
+expression with them to say “we nearly made tears from laughter.” The
+aborigines of Australia express their emotions freely, and they are
+described by my correspondents as jumping about and clapping their
+hands for joy, and as often roaring with laughter. No less than four
+observers have seen their eyes freely watering on such occasions; and
+in one instance the tears rolled down their cheeks. Mr. Bulmer, a
+missionary in a remote part of Victoria, remarks, “that they have a
+keen sense of the ridiculous; they are excellent mimics, and when one
+of them is able to imitate the peculiarities of some absent member of
+the tribe, it is very common to hear all in the camp convulsed with
+laughter.” With Europeans hardly anything excites laughter so easily as
+mimicry; and it is rather curious to find the same fact with the
+savages of Australia, who constitute one of the most distinct races in
+the world.
+
+In Southern Africa with two tribes of Kafirs, especially with the
+women, their eyes often fill with tears during laughter. Gaika, the
+brother of the chief Sandilli, answers my query on this head, with the
+words, “Yes, that is their common practice.” Sir Andrew Smith has seen
+the painted face of a Hottentot woman all furrowed with tears after a
+fit of laughter. In Northern Africa, with the Abyssinians, tears are
+secreted under the same circumstances. Lastly, in North America, the
+same fact has been observed in a remarkably savage and isolated tribe,
+but chiefly with the women; in another tribe it was observed only on a
+single occasion.
+
+Excessive laughter, as before remarked, graduates into moderate
+laughter. In this latter case the muscles round the eyes are much less
+contracted, and there is little or no frowning. Between a gentle laugh
+and a broad smile there is hardly any difference, excepting that in
+smiling no reiterated sound is uttered, though a single rather strong
+expiration, or slight noise—a rudiment of a laugh—may often be heard at
+the commencement of a smile. On a moderately smiling countenance the
+contraction of the upper orbicular muscles can still just be traced by
+a slight lowering of the eyebrows. The contraction of the lower
+orbicular and palpebral muscles is much plainer, and is shown by the
+wrinkling of the lower eyelids and of the skin beneath them, together
+with a slight drawing up of the upper lip. From the broadest smile we
+pass by the finest steps into the gentlest one. In this latter case the
+features are moved in a much less degree, and much more slowly, and the
+mouth is kept closed. The curvature of the naso-labial furrow is also
+slightly different in the two cases. We thus see that no abrupt line of
+demarcation can be drawn between the movement of the features during
+the most violent laughter and a very faint smile.[816]
+
+A smile, therefore, may be said to be the first stage in the
+development of a laugh. But a different and more probable view may be
+suggested; namely, that the habit of uttering load reiterated sounds
+from a sense of pleasure, first led to the retraction of the corners of
+the mouth and of the upper lip, and to the contraction of the orbicular
+muscles; and that now, through association and long-continued habit,
+the same muscles are brought into slight play whenever any cause
+excites in us a feeling which, if stronger, would have led to laughter;
+and the result is a smile.
+
+Whether we look at laughter as the full development of a smile, or, as
+is more probable, at a gentle smile as the last trace of a habit,
+firmly fixed during many generations, of laughing whenever we are
+joyful, we can follow in our infants the gradual passage of the one
+into the other. It is well known to those who have the charge of young
+infants, that it is difficult to feel sure when certain movements about
+their mouths are really expressive; that is, when they really smile.
+Hence I carefully watched my own infants. One of them at the age of
+forty-five days, and being at the time in a happy frame of mind,
+smiled; that is, the corners of the mouth were retracted, and
+simultaneously the eyes became decidedly bright. I observed the same
+thing on the following day; but on the third day the child was not
+quite well and there was no trace of a smile, and this renders it
+probable that the previous smiles were real. Eight days subsequently
+and during the next succeeding week, it was remarkable how his eyes
+brightened whenever he smiled, and his nose became at the same time
+transversely wrinkled. This was now accompanied by a little bleating
+noise, which perhaps represented a laugh. At the age of 113 days these
+little noises, which were always made during expiration, assumed a
+slightly different character, and were more broken or interrupted, as
+in sobbing; and this was certainly incipient laughter. The change in
+tone seemed to me at the time to be connected with the greater lateral
+extension of the mouth as the smiles became broader.
+
+In a second infant the first real smile was observed at about the same
+age, viz. forty-five days; and in a third, at a somewhat earlier age.
+The second infant, when sixty-five days old, smiled much more broadly
+and plainly than did the one first mentioned at the same age; and even
+at this early age uttered noises very like laughter. In this gradual
+acquirement, by infants, of the habit of laughing, we have a case in
+some degree analogous to that of weeping. As practice is requisite with
+the ordinary movements of the body, such as walking, so it seems to be
+with laughing and weeping. The art of screaming, on the other hand,
+from being of service to infants, has become finely developed from the
+earliest days.
+
+_High spirits, cheerfulness_.—A man in high spirits, though he may not
+actually smile, commonly exhibits some tendency to the retraction of
+the corners of his mouth. From the excitement of pleasure, the
+circulation becomes more rapid; the eyes are bright, and the colour of
+the face rises. The brain, being stimulated by the increased flow of
+blood, reacts on the mental powers; lively ideas pass still more
+rapidly through the mind, and the affections are warmed. I heard a
+child, a little under four years old, when asked what was meant by
+being in good spirits, answer, “It is laughing, talking, and kissing.”
+It would be difficult to give a truer and more practical definition. A
+man in this state holds his body erect, his head upright, and his eyes
+open. There is no drooping of the features, and no contraction of the
+eyebrows. On the contrary, the frontal muscle, as Moreau observes,[817]
+tends to contract slightly; and this smooths the brow, removes every
+trace of a frown, arches the eyebrows a little, and raises the eyelids.
+Hence the Latin phrase, _exporrigere frontem_—to unwrinkle the
+brow—means, to be cheerful or merry. The whole expression of a man in
+good spirits is exactly the opposite of that of one suffering from
+sorrow. According to Sir C. Bell, “In all the exhilarating emotions the
+eyebrows, eyelids, the nostrils, and the angles of the mouth are
+raised. In the depressing passions it is the reverse.” Under the
+influence of the latter the brow is heavy, the eyelids, cheeks, mouth,
+and whole head droop; the eyes are dull; the countenance pallid, and
+the respiration slow. In joy the face expands, in grief it lengthens.
+Whether the principle of antithesis has here come into play in
+producing these opposite expressions, in aid of the direct causes which
+have been specified and which are sufficiently plain, I will not
+pretend to say.
+
+With all the races of man the expression of good spirit appears to be
+the same, and is easily recognized. My informants, from various parts
+of the Old and New Worlds, answer in the affirmative to my queries on
+this head, and they give some particulars with respect to Hindoos,
+Malays, and New Zealanders. The brightness of the eyes of the
+Australians has struck four observers, and the same fact has been
+noticed with Hindoos, New Zealanders, and the Dyaks of Borneo.
+
+Savages sometimes express their satisfaction not only by smiling, but
+by gestures derived from the pleasure of eating. Thus Mr. Wedgwood[818]
+quotes Petherick that the negroes on the Upper Nile began a general
+rubbing of their bellies when he displayed his beads; and Leichhardt
+says that the Australians smacked and clacked their mouths at the sight
+of his horses and bullocks, and more especially of his kangaroo dogs.
+The Greenlanders, “when they affirm anything with pleasure, suck down
+air with a certain sound;”[819] and this may be an imitation of the act
+of swallowing savoury food.
+
+Laughter is suppressed by the firm contraction of the orbicular muscles
+of the mouth, which prevents the great zygomatic and other muscles from
+drawing the lips backwards and upwards. The lower lip is also sometimes
+held by the teeth, and this gives a roguish expression to the face, as
+was observed with the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman.[820] The great
+zygomatic muscle is sometimes variable in its course, and I have seen a
+young woman in whom the _depressores anguli oris_ were brought into
+strong action in suppressing a smile; but this by no means gave to her
+countenance a melancholy expression, owing to the brightness of her
+eyes.
+
+Laughter is frequently employed in a forced manner to conceal or mask
+some other state of mind, even anger. We often see persons laughing in
+order to conceal their shame or shyness. When a person purses up his
+mouth, as if to prevent the possibility of a smile, though there is
+nothing to excite one, or nothing to prevent its free indulgence, an
+affected, solemn, or pedantic expression is given; but of such hybrid
+expressions nothing more need here be said. In the case of derision, a
+real or pretended smile or laugh is often blended with the expression
+proper to contempt, and this may pass into angry contempt or scorn. In
+such cases the meaning of the laugh or smile is to show the offending
+person that he excites only amusement.
+
+_Love, tender feelings, &c_.—Although the emotion of love, for instance
+that of a mother for her infant, is one of the strongest of which the
+mind is capable, it can hardly be said to have any proper or peculiar
+means of expression; and this is intelligible, as it has not habitually
+led to any special line of action. No doubt, as affection is a
+pleasurable sensation, it generally causes a gentle smile and some
+brightening of the eyes. A strong desire to touch the beloved person is
+commonly felt; and love is expressed by this means more plainly than by
+any other.[821] Hence we long to clasp in our arms those whom we
+tenderly love. We probably owe this desire to inherited habit, in
+association with the nursing and tending of our children, and with the
+mutual caresses of lovers.
+
+With the lower animals we see the same principle of pleasure derived
+from contact in association with love. Dogs and cats manifestly take
+pleasure in rubbing against their masters and mistresses, and in being
+rubbed or patted by them. Many kinds of monkeys, as I am assured by the
+keepers in the Zoological Gardens, delight in fondling and being
+fondled by each other, and by persons to whom they are attached. Mr.
+Bartlett has described to me the behaviour of two chimpanzees, rather
+older animals than those generally imported into this country, when
+they were first brought together. They sat opposite, touching each
+other with their much protruded lips; and the one put his hand on the
+shoulder of the other. They then mutually folded each other in their
+arms. Afterwards they stood up, each with one arm on the shoulder of
+the other, lifted up their heads, opened their mouths, and yelled with
+delight.[822]
+
+We Europeans are so accustomed to kissing as a mark of affection, that
+it might be thought to be innate in mankind; but this is not the case.
+Steele was mistaken when he said “Nature was its author, and it began
+with the first courtship.” Jemmy Button, the Fuegian, told me that this
+practice was unknown in his land. It is equally unknown with the New
+Zealanders, Tahitians, Papuans, Australians, Somals of Africa, and the
+Esquimaux. But it is so far innate or natural that it apparently
+depends on pleasure from close contact with a beloved person; and it is
+replaced in various parts of the world, by the rubbing of noses, as
+with the New Zealanders and Laplanders, by the rubbing or patting of
+the arms, breasts, or stomachs, or by one man striking his own face
+with the hands or feet of another. Perhaps the practice of blowing, as
+a mark of affection, on various parts of the body may depend on the
+same principle.[823]
+
+The feelings which are called tender are difficult to analyse; they
+seem to be compounded of affection, joy, and especially of sympathy.
+These feelings are in themselves of a pleasurable nature, excepting
+when pity is too deep, or horror is aroused, as in hearing of a
+tortured man or animal. They are remarkable under our present point of
+view from so readily exciting the secretion of tears. Many a father and
+son have wept on meeting after a long separation, especially if the
+meeting has been unexpected. No doubt extreme joy by itself tends to
+act on the lacrymal glands; but on such occasions as the foregoing
+vague thoughts of the grief which would have been felt had the father
+and son never met, will probably have passed through their minds; and
+grief naturally leads to the secretion of tears. Thus on the return of
+Ulysses:—
+
+“Telemachus Rose, and clung weeping round his father’s breast.
+There the pent grief rained o’er them, yearning thus.
+*   *    *    *    *    *
+Thus piteously they wailed in sore unrest,
+And on their weepings had gone down the day,
+But that at last Telemachus found words to say.”
+_Worsley’s Translation of the Odyssey_, Book xvi. st. 27.
+
+
+So again when Penelope at last recognized her husband:—
+
+“Then from her eyelids the quick tears did start
+And she ran to him from her place, and threw
+Her arms about his neck, and a warm dew
+Of kisses poured upon him, and thus spake:”
+—Book xxiii.  st.  27.
+
+
+The vivid recollection of our former home, or of long-past happy days,
+readily causes the eyes to be suffused with tears; but here, again, the
+thought naturally occurs that these days will never return. In such
+cases we may be said to sympathize with ourselves in our present, in
+comparison with our former, state. Sympathy with the distresses of
+others, even with the imaginary distresses of a heroine in a pathetic
+story, for whom we feel no affection, readily excites tears. So does
+sympathy with the happiness of others, as with that of a lover, at last
+successful after many hard trials in a well-told tale.
+
+Sympathy appears to constitute a separate or distinct emotion; and it
+is especially apt to excite the lacrymal glands. This holds good
+whether we give or receive sympathy. Every one must have noticed how
+readily children burst out crying if we pity them for some small hurt.
+With the melancholic insane, as Dr. Crichton Browne informs me, a kind
+word will often plunge them into unrestrained weeping. As soon as we
+express our pity for the grief of a friend, tears often come into our
+own eyes. The feeling of sympathy is commonly explained by assuming
+that, when we see or hear of suffering in another, the idea of
+suffering is called up so vividly in our own minds that we ourselves
+suffer. But this explanation is hardly sufficient, for it does not
+account for the intimate alliance between sympathy and affection. We
+undoubtedly sympathize far more deeply with a beloved than with an
+indifferent person; and the sympathy of the one gives us far more
+relief than that of the other. Yet assuredly we can sympathize with
+those for whom we feel no affection.
+
+Why suffering, when actually experienced by ourselves, excites weeping,
+has been discussed in a former chapter. With respect to joy, its
+natural and universal expression is laughter; and with all the races of
+man loud laughter leads to the secretion of tears more freely than does
+any other cause excepting distress. The suffusion of the eyes with
+tears, which undoubtedly occurs under great joy, though there is no
+laughter, can, as it seems to me, be explained through habit and
+association on the same principles as the effusion of tears from grief,
+although there is no screaming. Nevertheless it is not a little
+remarkable that sympathy with the distresses of others should excite
+tears more freely than our own distress; and this certainly is the
+case. Many a man, from whose eyes no suffering of his own could wring a
+tear, has shed tears at the sufferings of a beloved friend. It is still
+more remarkable that sympathy with the happiness or good fortune of
+those whom we tenderly love should lead to the same result, whilst a
+similar happiness felt by ourselves would leave our eyes dry. We
+should, however, bear in mind that the long-continued habit of
+restraint which is so powerful in checking the free flow of tears from
+bodily pain, has not been brought into play in preventing a moderate
+effusion of tears in sympathy with the sufferings or happiness of
+others.
+
+Music has a wonderful power, as I have elsewhere attempted to
+show,[824] of recalling in a vague and indefinite manner, those strong
+emotions which were felt during long-past ages, when, as is probable,
+our early progenitors courted each other by the aid of vocal tones. And
+as several of our strongest emotions—grief, great joy, love, and
+sympathy—lead to the free secretion of tears, it is not surprising that
+music should be apt to cause our eyes to become suffused with tears,
+especially when we are already softened by any of the tenderer
+feelings. Music often produces another peculiar effect. We know that
+every strong sensation, emotion, or excitement—extreme pain, rage,
+terror, joy, or the passion of love—all have a special tendency to
+cause the muscles to tremble; and the thrill or slight shiver which
+runs down the backbone and limbs of many persons when they are
+powerfully affected by music, seems to bear the same relation to the
+above trembling of the body, as a slight suffusion of tears from the
+power of music does to weeping from any strong and real emotion.
+
+_Devotion_.—As devotion is, in some degree, related to affection,
+though mainly consisting of reverence, often combined with fear, the
+expression of this state of mind may here be briefly noticed. With some
+sects, both past and present, religion and love have been strangely
+combined; and it has even been maintained, lamentable as the fact may
+be, that the holy kiss of love differs but little from that which a man
+bestows on a woman, or a woman on a man.[825] Devotion is chiefly
+expressed by the face being directed towards the heavens, with the
+eyeballs upturned. Sir C. Bell remarks that, at the approach of sleep,
+or of a fainting-fit, or of death, the pupils are drawn upwards and
+inwards; and he believes that “when we are wrapt in devotional
+feelings, and outward impressions are unheeded, the eyes are raised by
+an action neither taught nor acquired.” and that this is due to the
+same cause as in the above cases.[826] That the eyes are upturned
+during sleep is, as I hear from Professor Donders, certain. With
+babies, whilst sucking their mother’s breast, this movement of the
+eyeballs often gives to them an absurd appearance of ecstatic delight;
+and here it may be clearly perceived that a struggle is going on
+against the position naturally assumed during sleep. But Sir C. Bell’s
+explanation of the fact, which rests on the assumption that certain
+muscles are more under the control of the will than others is, as I
+hear from Professor Donders, incorrect. As the eyes are often turned up
+in prayer, without the mind being so much absorbed in thought as to
+approach to the unconsciousness of sleep, the movement is probably a
+conventional one—the result of the common belief that Heaven, the
+source of Divine power to which we pray, is seated above us.
+
+A humble kneeling posture, with the hands upturned and palms joined,
+appears to us, from long habit, a gesture so appropriate to devotion,
+that it might be thought to be innate; but I have not met with any
+evidence to this effect with the various extra-European races of
+mankind. During the classical period of Roman history it does not
+appear, as I hear from an excellent classic, that the hands were thus
+joined during prayer. Mr. Rensleigh Wedgwood has apparently given[827]
+the true explanation, though this implies that the attitude is one of
+slavish subjection. “When the suppliant kneels and holds up his hands
+with the palms joined, he represents a captive who proves the
+completeness of his submission by offering up his hands to be bound by
+the victor. It is the pictorial representation of the Latin _dare
+manus_, to signify submission.” Hence it is not probable that either
+the uplifting of the eyes or the joining of the open hands, under the
+influence of devotional feelings, are innate or truly expressive
+actions; and this could hardly have been expected, for it is very
+doubtful whether feelings, such as we should now rank as devotional,
+affected the hearts of men, whilst they remained during past ages in an
+uncivilized condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. REFLECTION—MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER—SULKINESS—DETERMINATION.
+
+The act of frowning—Reflection with an effort, or with the perception
+of something difficult or disagreeable—Abstracted
+meditation—Ill-temper—Moroseness—Obstinacy Sulkiness and
+pouting—Decision or determination—The firm closure of the mouth.
+
+The corrugators, by their contraction, lower the eyebrows and bring
+them together, producing vertical furrows on the forehead—that is, a
+frown. Sir C. Bell, who erroneously thought that the corrugator was
+peculiar to man, ranks it as “the most remarkable muscle of the human
+face. It knits the eyebrows with an energetic effort, which
+unaccountably, but irresistibly, conveys the idea of mind.” Or, as he
+elsewhere says, “when the eyebrows are knit, energy of mind is
+apparent, and there is the mingling of thought and emotion with the
+savage and brutal rage of the mere animal.”[901] There is much truth in
+these remarks, but hardly the whole truth. Dr. Duchenne has called the
+corrugator the muscle of reflection;[902] but this name, without some
+limitation, cannot be considered as quite correct.
+
+A man may be absorbed in the deepest thought, and his brow will remain
+smooth until he encounters some obstacle in his train of reasoning, or
+is interrupted by some disturbance, and then a frown passes like a
+shadow over his brow. A half-starved man may think intently how to
+obtain food, but he probably will not frown unless he encounters either
+in thought or action some difficulty, or finds the food when obtained
+nauseous. I have noticed that almost everyone instantly frowns if he
+perceives a strange or bad taste in what he is eating. I asked several
+persons, without explaining my object, to listen intently to a very
+gentle tapping sound, the nature and source of which they all perfectly
+knew, and not one frowned; but a man who joined us, and who could not
+conceive what we were all doing in profound silence, when asked to
+listen, frowned much, though not in an ill-temper, and said he could
+not in the least understand what we all wanted. Dr. Piderit[903] who
+has published remarks to the same effect, adds that stammerers
+generally frown in speaking, and that a man in doing even so trifling a
+thing as pulling on a boot, frowns if he finds it too tight. Some
+persons are such habitual frowners, that the mere effort of speaking
+almost always causes their brows to contract.
+
+Men of all races frown when they are in any way perplexed in thought,
+as I infer from the answers which I have received to my queries; but I
+framed them badly, confounding absorbed meditation with perplexed
+reflection. Nevertheless, it is clear that the Australians, Malays,
+Hindoos, and Kafirs of South Africa frown, when they are puzzled.
+Dobritzhoffer remarks that the Guaranies of South America on like
+occasions knit their brows.[904]
+
+From these considerations, we may conclude that frowning is not the
+expression of simple reflection, however profound, or of attention,
+however close, but of something difficult or displeasing encountered in
+a train of thought or in action. Deep reflection can, however, seldom
+be long carried on without some difficulty, so that it will generally
+be accompanied by a frown. Hence it is that frowning commonly gives to
+the countenance, as Sir C. Bell remarks, an aspect of intellectual
+energy. But in order that this effect may be produced, the eyes must be
+clear and steady, or they may be cast downwards, as often occurs in
+deep thought. The countenance must not be otherwise disturbed, as in
+the case of an ill-tempered or peevish man, or of one who shows the
+effects of prolonged suffering, with dulled eyes and drooping jaw, or
+who perceives a bad taste in his food, or who finds it difficult to
+perform some trifling act, such as threading a needle. In these cases a
+frown may often be seen, but it will be accompanied by some other
+expression, which will entirely prevent the countenance having an
+appearance of intellectual energy or of profound thought.
+
+We may now inquire how it is that a frown should express the perception
+of something difficult or disagreeable, either in thought or action. In
+the same way as naturalists find it advisable to trace the
+embryological development of an organ in order fully to understand its
+structure, so with the movements of expression it is advisable to
+follow as nearly as possible the same plan. The earliest and almost
+sole expression seen during the first days of infancy, and then often
+exhibited is that displayed during the act of screaming; and screaming
+is excited, both at first and for some time afterwards, by every
+distressing or displeasing sensation and emotion,—by hunger, pain,
+anger, jealousy, fear, &c. At such times the muscles round the eyes are
+strongly contracted; and this, as I believe, explains to a large extent
+the act of frowning during the remainder of our lives. I repeatedly
+observed my own infants, from under the age of one week to that of two
+or three months, and found that when a screaming-fit came on gradually,
+the first sign was the contraction of the corrugators, which produced a
+slight frown, quickly followed by the contraction of the other muscles
+round the eyes. When an infant is uncomfortable or unwell, little
+frowns—as I record in my notes—may be seen incessantly passing like
+shadows over its face; these being generally, but not always, followed
+sooner or later by a crying-fit. For instance, I watched for some time
+a baby, between seven and eight weeks old, sucking some milk which was
+cold, and therefore displeasing to him; and a steady little frown was
+maintained all the time. This was never developed into an actual
+crying-fit, though occasionally every stage of close approach could be
+observed.
+
+As the habit of contracting the brows has been followed by infants
+during innumerable generations, at the commencement of every crying or
+screaming fit, it has become firmly associated with the incipient sense
+of something distressing or disagreeable. Hence under similar
+circumstances it would be apt to be continued during maturity, although
+never then developed into a crying-fit. Screaming or weeping begins to
+be voluntarily restrained at an early period of life, whereas frowning
+is hardly ever restrained at any age. It is perhaps worth notice that
+with children much given to weeping, anything which perplexes their
+minds, and which would cause most other children merely to frown,
+readily makes them weep. So with certain classes of the insane, any
+effort of mind, however slight, which with an habitual frowner would
+cause a slight frown, leads to their weeping in an unrestrained manner.
+It is not more surprising that the habit of contracting the brows at
+the first perception of something distressing, although gained during
+infancy, should be retained during the rest of our lives, than that
+many other associated habits acquired at an early age should be
+permanently retained both by man and the lower animals. For instance,
+full-grown cats, when feeling warm and comfortable, often retain the
+habit of alternately protruding their fore-feet with extended toes,
+which habit they practised for a definite purpose whilst sucking their
+mothers.
+
+Another and distinct cause has probably strengthened the habit of
+frowning, whenever the mind is intent on any subject and encounters
+some difficulty. Vision is the most important of all the senses, and
+during primeval times the closest attention must have been incessantly:
+directed towards distant objects for the sake of obtaining prey and
+avoiding danger. I remember being struck, whilst travelling in parts of
+South America, which were dangerous from the presence of Indians, how
+incessantly, yet as it appeared unconsciously, the half-wild Gauchos
+closely scanned the whole horizon. Now, when any one with no covering
+on his head (as must have been aboriginally the case with mankind),
+strives to the utmost to distinguish in broad daylight, and especially
+if the sky is bright, a distant object, he almost invariably contracts
+his brows to prevent the entrance of too much light; the lower eyelids,
+cheeks, and upper lip being at the same time raised, so as to lessen
+the orifice of the eyes. I have purposely asked several persons, young
+and old, to look, under the above circumstances, at distant objects,
+making them believe that I only wished to test the power of their
+vision; and they all behaved in the manner just described. Some of
+them, also, put their open, flat hands over their eyes to keep out the
+excess of light. Gratiolet, after making some remarks to nearly the
+same effect,[905] says, “Ce sont là des attitudes de vision difficile.”
+He concludes that the muscles round the eyes contract partly for the
+sake of excluding too much light (which appears to me the more
+important end), and partly to prevent all rays striking the retina,
+except those which come direct from the object that is scrutinized. Mr.
+Bowman, whom I consulted on this point, thinks that the contraction of
+the surrounding muscles may, in addition, “partly sustain the
+consensual movements of the two eyes, by giving a firmer support while
+the globes are brought to binocular vision by their own proper
+muscles.”
+
+As the effort of viewing with care under a bright light a distant
+object is both difficult and irksome, and as this effort has been
+habitually accompanied, during numberless generations, by the
+contraction of the eyebrows, the habit of frowning will thus have been
+much strengthened; although it was originally practised during infancy
+from a quite independent cause, namely as the first step in the
+protection of the eyes during screaming. There is, indeed, much
+analogy, as far as the state of the mind is concerned, between intently
+scrutinizing a distant object, and following out an obscure train of
+thought, or performing some little and troublesome mechanical work. The
+belief that the habit of contracting the brows is continued when there
+is no need whatever to exclude too much light, receives support from
+the cases formerly alluded to, in which the eyebrows or eyelids are
+acted on under certain circumstances in a useless manner, from having
+been similarly used, under analogous circumstances, for a serviceable
+purpose. For instance, we voluntarily close our eyes when we do not
+wish to see any object, and we are apt to close them, when we reject a
+proposition, as if we could not or would not see it; or when we think
+about something horrible. We raise our eyebrows when we wish to see
+quickly all round us, and we often do the same, when we earnestly
+desire to remember something; acting as if we endeavoured to see it.
+
+_Abstraction. Meditation_.—When a person is lost in thought with his
+mind absent, or, as it is sometimes said, “when he is in a brown
+study,” he does not frown, but his eyes appear vacant. The lower
+eyelids are generally raised and wrinkled, in the same manner as when a
+short-sighted person tries to distinguish a distant object; and the
+upper orbicular muscles are at the same time slightly contracted. The
+wrinkling of the lower eyelids under these circumstances has been
+observed with some savages, as by Mr. Dyson Lacy with the Australians
+of Queensland, and several times by Mr. Geach with the Malays of the
+interior of Malacca. What the meaning or cause of this action may be,
+cannot at present be explained; but here we have another instance of
+movement round the eyes in relation to the state of the mind.
+
+The vacant expression of the eyes is very peculiar, and at once shows
+when a man is completely lost in thought. Professor Donders has, with
+his usual kindness, investigated this subject for me. He has observed
+others in this condition, and has been himself observed by Professor
+Engelmann. The eyes are not then fixed on any object, and therefore
+not, as I had imagined, on some distant object. The lines of vision of
+the two eyes even often become slightly divergent; the divergence, if
+the head be held vertically, with the plane of vision horizontal,
+amounting to an angle of 2° as a maximum. This was ascertained by
+observing the crossed double image of a distant object. When the head
+droops forward, as often occurs with a man absorbed in thought, owing
+to the general relaxation of his muscles, if the plane of vision be
+still horizontal, the eyes are necessarily a little turned upwards, and
+then the divergence is as much as 3°, or 3° 5’: if the eyes are turned
+still more upwards, it amounts to between 6° and 7°. Professor Donders
+attributes this divergence to the almost complete relaxation of certain
+muscles of the eyes, which would be apt to follow from the mind being
+wholly absorbed.[906] The active condition of the muscles of the eyes
+is that of convergence; and Professor Donders remarks, as bearing on
+their divergence during a period of complete abstraction, that when one
+eye becomes blind, it almost always, after a short lapse of time,
+deviates outwards; for its muscles are no longer used in moving the
+eyeball inwards for the sake of binocular vision.
+
+Perplexed reflection is often accompanied by certain movements or
+gestures. At such times we commonly raise our hands to our foreheads,
+mouths, or chins; but we do not act thus, as far as I have seen, when
+we are quite lost in meditation, and no difficulty is encountered.
+Plautus, describing in one of his plays[907] a puzzled man, says, “Now
+look, he has pillared his chin upon his hand.” Even so trifling and
+apparently unmeaning a gesture as the raising of the hand to the face
+has been observed with some savages. Mr. J. Mansel Weale has seen it
+with the Kafirs of South Africa; and the native chief Gaika adds, that
+men then “sometimes pull their beards.” Mr. Washington Matthews, who
+attended to some of the wildest tribes of Indians in the western
+regions of the United States, remarks that he has seen them when
+concentrating their thoughts, bring their “hands, usually the thumb and
+index finger, in contact with some part of the face, commonly the upper
+lip.” We can understand why the forehead should be pressed or rubbed,
+as deep thought tries the brain; but why the hand should be raised to
+the mouth or face is far from clear.
+
+_Ill-temper_.—We have seen that frowning is the natural expression of
+some difficulty encountered, or of something disagreeable experienced
+either in thought or action, and he whose mind is often and readily
+affected in this way, will be apt to be ill-tempered, or slightly
+angry, or peevish, and will commonly show it by frowning. But a cross
+expression, due to a frown, may be counteracted, if the mouth appears
+sweet, from being habitually drawn into a smile, and the eyes are
+bright and cheerful. So it will be if the eye is clear and steady, and
+there is the appearance of earnest reflection. Frowning, with some
+depression of the corners of the mouth, which is a sign of grief, gives
+an air of peevishness. If a child (see Plate IV., fig. 2)[908] frowns
+much whilst crying, but does not strongly contract in the usual manner
+the orbicular muscles, a well-marked expression of anger or even of
+rage, together with misery, is displayed.
+
+
+
+Ill-temper. Plate IV
+
+If the whole frowning brow be drawn much downward by the contraction of
+the pyramidal muscles of the nose, which produces transverse wrinkles
+or folds across the base of the nose, the expression becomes one of
+moroseness. Duchenne believes that the contraction of this muscle,
+without any frowning, gives the appearance of extreme and aggressive
+hardness.[909] But I much doubt whether this is a true or natural
+expression. I have shown Duchenne’s photograph of a young man, with
+this muscle strongly contracted by means of galvanism, to eleven
+persons, including some artists, and none of them could form an idea
+what was intended, except one, a girl, who answered correctly, “surely
+reserve.” When I first looked at this photograph, knowing what was
+intended, my imagination added, as I believe, what was necessary,
+namely, a frowning brow; and consequently the expression appeared to me
+true and extremely morose.
+
+A firmly closed mouth, in addition to a lowered and frowning brow,
+gives determination to the expression, or may make it obstinate and
+sullen. How it comes that the firm closure of the mouth gives the
+appearance of determination will presently be discussed. An expression
+of sullen obstinacy has been clearly recognized by my informants, in
+the natives of six different regions of Australia. It is well marked,
+according to Mr. Scott, with the Hindoos. It has been recognized with
+the Malays, Chinese, Kafirs, Abyssinians, and in a conspicuous degree,
+according to Dr. Rothrock, with the wild Indians of North America, and
+according to Mr. D. Forbes, with the Aymaras of Bolivia. I have also
+observed it with the Araucanos of southern Chili. Mr. Dyson Lacy
+remarks that the natives of Australia, when in this frame of mind,
+sometimes fold their arms across their breasts, an attitude which may
+be seen with us. A firm determination, amounting to obstinacy, is,
+also, sometimes expressed by both shoulders being kept raised, the
+meaning of which gesture will be explained in the following chapter.
+
+With young children sulkiness is shown by pouting, or, as it is
+sometimes called, “making a snout.”[910] When the corners of the mouth
+are much depressed, the lower lip is a little everted and protruded;
+and this is likewise called a pout. But the pouting here referred to,
+consists of the protrusion of both lips into a tubular form, sometimes
+to such an extent as to project as far as the end of the nose, if this
+be short. Pouting is generally accompanied by frowning, and sometimes
+by the utterance of a booing or whooing noise. This expression is
+remarkable, as almost the sole one, as far as I know, which is
+exhibited much more plainly during childhood, at least with Europeans,
+than during maturity. There is, however, some tendency to the
+protrusion of the lips with the adults of all races under the influence
+of great rage. Some children pout when they are shy, and they can then
+hardly be called sulky.
+
+From inquiries which I have made in several large families, pouting
+does not seem very common with European children; but it prevails
+throughout the world, and must be both common and strongly marked with
+most savage races, as it has caught the attention of many observers. It
+has been noticed in eight different districts of Australia; and one of
+my informants remarks how greatly the lips of the children are then
+protruded. Two observers have seen pouting with the children of
+Hindoos; three, with those of the Kafirs and Fingoes of South Africa,
+and with the Hottentots; and two, with the children of the wild Indians
+of North America. Pouting has also been observed with the Chinese,
+Abyssinians, Malays of Malacca, Dyaks of Borneo, and often with the New
+Zealanders. Mr. Mansel Weale informs me that he has seen the lips much
+protruded, not only with the children of the Kafirs, but with the
+adults of both sexes when sulky; and Mr. Stack has sometimes observed
+the same thing with the men, and very frequently with the women of New
+Zealand. A trace of the same expression may occasionally be detected
+even with adult Europeans.
+
+We thus see that the protrusion of the lips, especially with young
+children, is characteristic of sulkiness throughout the greater part of
+the world. This movement apparently results from the retention, chiefly
+during youth, of a primordial habit, or from an occasional reversion to
+it. Young orangs and chimpanzees protrude their lips to an
+extraordinary degree, as described in a former chapter, when they are
+discontented, somewhat angry, or sulky; also when they are surprised, a
+little frightened, and even when slightly pleased. Their mouths are
+protruded apparently for the sake of making the various noises proper
+to these several states of mind; and its shape, as I observed with the
+chimpanzee, differed slightly when the cry of pleasure and that of
+anger were uttered. As soon as these animals become enraged, the shape
+of the month wholly changes, and the teeth are exposed. The adult orang
+when wounded is said to emit “a singular cry, consisting at first of
+high notes, which at length deepen into a low roar. While giving out
+the high notes he thrusts out his lips into a funnel shape, but in
+uttering the low notes he holds his mouth wide open.”[911] With the
+gorilla, the lower lip is said to be capable of great elongation. If
+then our semi-human progenitors protruded their lips when sulky or a
+little angered, in the same manner as do the existing anthropoid apes,
+it is not an anomalous, though a curious fact, that our children should
+exhibit, when similarly affected, a trace of the same expression,
+together with some tendency to utter a noise. For it is not at all
+unusual for animals to retain, more or less perfectly, during early
+youth, and subsequently to lose, characters which were aboriginally
+possessed by their adult progenitors, and which are still retained by
+distinct species, their near relations.
+
+Nor is it an anomalous fact that the children of savages should exhibit
+a stronger tendency to protrude their lips, when sulky, than the
+children of civilized Europeans; for the essence of savagery seems to
+consist in the retention of a primordial condition, and this
+occasionally holds good even with bodily peculiarities.[912] It may be
+objected to this view of the origin of pouting, that the anthropoid
+apes likewise protrude their lips when astonished and even when a
+little pleased; whilst with us this expression is generally confined to
+a sulky frame of mind. But we shall see in a future chapter that with
+men of various races surprise does sometimes lead to a slight
+protrusion of the lips, though great surprise or astonishment is more
+commonly shown by the mouth being widely opened. As when we smile or
+laugh we draw back the corners of the mouth, we have lost any tendency
+to protrude the lips, when pleased, if indeed our early progenitors
+thus expressed pleasure.
+
+A little gesture made by sulky children may here be noticed, namely,
+their “showing a cold shoulder.” This has a different meaning, as, I
+believe, from the keeping both shoulders raised. A cross child, sitting
+on its parent’s knee, will lift up the near shoulder, then jerk it
+away, as if from a caress, and afterwards give a backward push with it,
+as if to push away the offender. I have seen a child, standing at some
+distance from any one, clearly express its feelings by raising one
+shoulder, giving it a little backward movement, and then turning away
+its whole body.
+
+_Decision or determination_.—The firm closure of the mouth tends to
+give an expression of determination or decision to the countenance. No
+determined man probably ever had an habitually gaping mouth. Hence,
+also, a small and weak lower jaw, which seems to indicate that the
+mouth is not habitually and firmly closed, is commonly thought to be
+characteristic of feebleness of character. A prolonged effort of any
+kind, whether of body or mind, implies previous determination; and if
+it can be shown that the mouth is generally closed with firmness before
+and during a great and continued exertion of the muscular system, then,
+through the principle of association, the mouth would almost certainly
+be closed as soon as any determined resolution was taken. Now several
+observers have noticed that a man, in commencing any violent muscular
+effort, invariably first distends his lungs with air, and then
+compresses it by the strong contraction of the muscles of the chest;
+and to effect this the mouth must be firmly closed. Moreover, as soon
+as the man is compelled to draw breath, he still keeps his chest as
+much distended as possible.
+
+Various causes have been assigned for this manner of acting. Sir C.
+Bell maintains[913] that the chest is distended with air, and is kept
+distended at such times, in order to give a fixed support to the
+muscles which are thereto attached. Hence, as he remarks, when two men
+are engaged in a deadly contest, a terrible silence prevails, broken
+only by hard stifled breathing. There is silence, because to expel the
+air in the utterance of any sound would be to relax the support for the
+muscles of the arms. If an outcry is heard, supposing the struggle to
+take place in the dark, we at once know that one of the two has given
+up in despair.
+
+Gratiolet admits[914] that when a man has to struggle with another to
+his utmost, or has to support a great weight, or to keep for a long
+time the same forced attitude, it is necessary for him first to make a
+deep inspiration, and then to cease breathing; but he thinks that Sir
+C. Bell’s explanation is erroneous. He maintains that arrested
+respiration retards the circulation of the blood, of which I believe
+there is no doubt, and he adduces some curious evidence from the
+structure of the lower animals, showing, on the one hand, that a
+retarded circulation is necessary for prolonged muscular exertion, and,
+on the other hand, that a rapid circulation is necessary for rapid
+movements. According to this view, when we commence any great exertion,
+we close our mouths and stop breathing, in order to retard the
+circulation of the blood. Gratiolet sums up the subject by saying,
+“C’est là la vraie théorie de l’effort continu;” but how far this
+theory is admitted by other physiologists I do not know.
+
+Dr. Piderit accounts[915] for the firm closure of the mouth during
+strong muscular exertion, on the principle that the influence of the
+will spreads to other muscles besides those necessarily brought into
+action in making any particular exertion; and it is natural that the
+muscles of respiration and of the mouth, from being so habitually used,
+should be especially liable to be thus acted on. It appears to me that
+there probably is some truth in this view, for we are apt to press the
+teeth hard together during violent exertion, and this is not requisite
+to prevent expiration, whilst the muscles of the chest are strongly
+contracted.
+
+Lastly, when a man has to perform some delicate and difficult
+operation, not requiring the exertion of any strength, he nevertheless
+generally closes his mouth and ceases for a time to breathe; but he
+acts thus in order that the movements of his chest may not disturb,
+those of his arms. A person, for instance, whilst threading a needle,
+may be seen to compress his lips and either to stop breathing, or to
+breathe as quietly as possible. So it was, as formerly stated, with a
+young and sick chimpanzee, whilst it amused itself by killing flies
+with its knuckles, as they buzzed about on the window-panes. To perform
+an action, however trifling, if difficult, implies some amount of
+previous determination.
+
+There appears nothing improbable in all the above assigned causes
+having come into play in different degrees, either conjointly or
+separately, on various occasions. The result would be a
+well-established habit, now perhaps inherited, of firmly closing the
+mouth at the commencement of and during any violent and prolonged
+exertion, or any delicate operation. Through the principle of
+association there would also be a strong tendency towards this same
+habit, as soon as the mind had resolved on any particular action or
+line of conduct, even before there was any bodily exertion, or if none
+were requisite. The habitual and firm closure of the mouth would thus
+come to show decision of character; and decision readily passes into
+obstinacy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X. HATRED AND ANGER.
+
+Hatred—Rage, effects of on the system—Uncovering of the teeth—Rage in
+the insane—Anger and indignation—As expressed by the various races of
+man—Sneering and defiance—The uncovering of the canine tooth on one
+side of the face.
+
+If we have suffered or expect to suffer some wilful injury from a man,
+or if he is in any way offensive to us, we dislike him; and dislike
+easily rises into hatred. Such feelings, if experienced in a moderate
+degree, are not clearly expressed by any movement of the body or
+features, excepting perhaps by a certain gravity of behaviour, or by
+some ill-temper. Few individuals, however, can long reflect about a
+hated person, without feeling and exhibiting signs of indignation or
+rage. But if the offending person be quite insignificant, we experience
+merely disdain or contempt. If, on the other hand, he is all-powerful,
+then hatred passes into terror, as when a slave thinks about a cruel
+master, or a savage about a bloodthirsty malignant deity.[1001] Most of
+our emotions are so closely connected with their expression, that they
+hardly exist if the body remains passive—the nature of the expression
+depending in chief part on the nature of the actions which have been
+habitually performed under this particular state of the mind. A man,
+for instance, may know that his life is in the extremest peril, and may
+strongly desire to save if; yet, as Louis XVI. said, when surrounded by
+a fierce mob, “Am I afraid? feel my pulse.” So a man may intensely hate
+another, but until his bodily frame is affected, he cannot be said to
+be enraged.
+
+_Rage_.—I have already had occasion to treat of this emotion in the
+third chapter, when discussing the direct influence of the excited
+sensorium on the body, in combination with the effects of habitually
+associated actions. Rage exhibits itself in the most diversified
+manner. The heart and circulation are always affected; the face reddens
+or becomes purple, with the veins on the forehead and neck distended.
+The reddening of the skin has been observed with the copper-coloured
+Indians of South America,[1002] and even, as it is said, on the white
+cicatrices left by old wounds on negroes.[1003] Monkeys also redden
+from passion. With one of my own infants, under four months old, I
+repeatedly observed that the first symptom of an approaching passion
+was the rushing of the blood into his bare scalp. On the other hand,
+the action of the heart is sometimes so much impeded by great rage,
+that the countenance becomes pallid or livid,[1004] and not a few men
+with heart-disease have dropped down dead under this powerful emotion.
+
+The respiration is likewise affected; the chest heaves, and the dilated
+nostrils quiver.[1005] As Tennyson writes, “sharp breaths of anger
+puffed her fairy nostrils out.” Hence we have such expressions as
+“breathing out vengeance,” and “fuming with anger.”[1006]
+
+The excited brain gives strength to the muscles, and at the same time
+energy to the will. The body is commonly held erect ready for instant
+action, but sometimes it is bent forward towards the offending person,
+with the limbs more or less rigid. The mouth is generally closed with
+firmness, showing fixed determination, and the teeth are clenched or
+ground together. Such gestures as the raising of the arms, with the
+fists clenched, as if to strike the offender, are common. Few men in a
+great passion, and telling some one to begone, can resist acting as if
+they intended to strike or push the man violently away. The desire,
+indeed, to strike often becomes so intolerably strong, that inanimate
+objects are struck or dashed to the ground; but the gestures frequently
+become altogether purposeless or frantic. Young children, when in a
+violent rage roll on the ground on their backs or bellies, screaming,
+kicking, scratching, or biting everything within reach. So it is, as I
+hear from Mr. Scott, with Hindoo children; and, as we have seen, with
+the young of the anthropomorphous apes.
+
+But the muscular system is often affected in a wholly different way;
+for trembling is a frequent consequence of extreme rage. The paralysed
+lips then refuse to obey the will, “and the voice sticks in the
+throat;”[1007] or it is rendered loud, harsh, and discordant. If there
+be much and rapid speaking, the mouth froths. The hair sometimes
+bristles; but I shall return to this subject in another chapter, when I
+treat of the mingled emotions of rage and terror. There is in most
+cases a strongly-marked frown on the forehead; for this follows from
+the sense of anything displeasing or difficult, together with
+concentration of mind. But sometimes the brow, instead of being much
+contracted and lowered, remains smooth, with the glaring eyes kept
+widely open. The eyes are always bright, or may, as Homer expresses it,
+glisten with fire. They are sometimes bloodshot, and are said to
+protrude from their sockets—the result, no doubt, of the head being
+gorged with blood, as shown by the veins being distended. According to
+Gratiolet, “the pupils are always contracted in rage,” and I hear from
+Dr. Crichton Browne that this is the case in the fierce delirium of
+meningitis; but the movements of the iris under the influence of the
+different emotions is a very obscure subject.[1008]
+
+Shakspeare sums up the chief characteristics of rage as follows:—
+
+“In peace there’s nothing so becomes a man,
+As modest stillness and humility;
+But when the blast of war blows in our ears,
+Then imitate the action of the tiger:
+Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood,
+Then lend the eye a terrible aspect;
+Now set the teeth, and stretch the nostril wide,
+Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit
+To his full height! On, on, you noblest English.”
+_Henry V_., act iii. sc. 1.
+
+
+The lips are sometimes protruded during rage in a manner, the meaning
+of which I do not understand, unless it depends on our descent from
+some ape-like animal. Instances have been observed, not only with
+Europeans, but with the Australians and Hindoos. The lips, however, are
+much more commonly retracted, the grinning or clenched teeth being thus
+exposed. This has been noticed by almost every one who has written on
+expression.[1009] The appearance is as if the teeth were uncovered,
+ready for seizing or tearing an enemy, though there may be no intention
+of acting in this manner. Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen this grinning
+expression with the Australians, when quarrelling, and so has Gaika
+with the Kafirs of South America. Dickens,[1010] in speaking of an
+atrocious murderer who had just been caught, and was surrounded by a
+furious mob, describes “the people as jumping up one behind another,
+snarling with their teeth, and making at him like wild beasts.” Every
+one who has had much to do with young children must have seen how
+naturally they take to biting, when in a passion. It seems as
+instinctive in them as in young crocodiles, who snap their little jaws
+as soon as they emerge from the egg.
+
+A grinning expression and the protrusion of the lips appear sometimes
+to go together. A close observer says that he has seen many instances
+of intense hatred (which can hardly be distinguished from rage, more or
+less suppressed) in Orientals, and once in an elderly English woman. In
+all these cases there “was a grin, not a scowl—the lips lengthening,
+the cheeks settling downwards, the eyes half-closed, whilst the brow
+remained perfectly calm.”[1011]
+
+This retraction of the lips and uncovering of the teeth during
+paroxysms of rage, as if to bite the offender, is so remarkable,
+considering how seldom the teeth are used by men in fighting, that I
+inquired from Dr. J. Crichton Browne whether the habit was common in
+the insane whose passions are unbridled. He informs me that he has
+repeatedly observed it both with the insane and idiotic, and has given
+me the following illustrations:—
+
+Shortly before receiving my letter, he witnessed an uncontrollable
+outbreak of anger and delusive jealousy in an insane lady. At first she
+vituperated her husband, and whilst doing so foamed at the mouth. Next
+she approached close to him with compressed lips, and a virulent set
+frown. Then she drew back her lips, especially the corners of the upper
+lip, and showed her teeth, at the same time aiming a vicious blow at
+him. A second case is that of an old soldier, who, when he is requested
+to conform to the rules of the establishment, gives way to discontent,
+terminating in fury. He commonly begins by asking Dr. Browne whether he
+is not ashamed to treat him in such a manner. He then swears and
+blasphemes, paces tip and down, tosses his arms wildly about, and
+menaces any one near him. At last, as his exasperation culminates, he
+rushes up towards Dr. Browne with a peculiar sidelong movement, shaking
+his doubled fist, and threatening destruction. Then his upper lip may
+be seen to be raised, especially at the corners, so that his huge
+canine teeth are exhibited. He hisses forth his curses through his set
+teeth, and his whole expression assumes the character of extreme
+ferocity. A similar description is applicable to another man, excepting
+that he generally foams at the mouth and spits, dancing and jumping
+about in a strange rapid manner, shrieking out his maledictions in a
+shrill falsetto voice.
+
+Dr. Browne also informs me of the case of an epileptic idiot, incapable
+of independent movements, and who spends the whole day in playing with
+some toys; but his temper is morose and easily roused into fierceness.
+When any one touches his toys, he slowly raises his head from its
+habitual downward position, and fixes his eyes on the offender, with a
+tardy yet angry scowl. If the annoyance be repeated, he draws back his
+thick lips and reveals a prominent row of hideous fangs (large canines
+being especially noticeable), and then makes a quick and cruel clutch
+with his open hand at the offending person. The rapidity of this
+clutch, as Dr. Browne remarks, is marvellous in a being ordinarily so
+torpid that he takes about fifteen seconds, when attracted by any
+noise, to turn his head from one side to the other. If, when thus
+incensed, a handkerchief, book, or other article, be placed into his
+hands, he drags it to his mouth and bites it. Mr. Nicol has likewise
+described to me two cases of insane patients, whose lips are retracted
+during paroxysms of rage.
+
+Dr. Maudsley, after detailing various strange animal-like traits in
+idiots, asks whether these are not due to the reappearance of primitive
+instincts—“a faint echo from a far-distant past, testifying to a
+kinship which man has almost outgrown.” He adds, that as every human
+brain passes, in the course of its development, through the same stages
+as those occurring in the lower vertebrate animals, and as the brain of
+an idiot is in an arrested condition, we may presume that it “will
+manifest its most primitive functions, and no higher functions.” Dr.
+Maudsley thinks that the same view may be extended to the brain in its
+degenerated condition in some insane patients; and asks, whence come
+“the savage snarl, the destructive disposition, the obscene language,
+the wild howl, the offensive habits, displayed by some of the insane?
+Why should a human being, deprived of his reason, ever become so brutal
+in character, as some do, unless he has the brute nature within
+him?”[1012] This question must, as it would appear, he answered in the
+affirmative.
+
+_Anger, Indignation_.—These states of the mind differ from rage only in
+degree, and there is no marked distinction in their characteristic
+signs. Under moderate anger the action of the heart is a little
+increased, the colour heightened, and the eyes become bright. The
+respiration is likewise a little hurried; and as all the muscles
+serving for this function act in association, the wings of the nostrils
+are somewhat raised to allow of a free indraught of air; and this is a
+highly characteristic sign of indignation. The mouth is commonly
+compressed, and there is almost always a frown on the brow. Instead of
+the frantic gestures of extreme rage, an indignant man unconsciously
+throws himself into an attitude ready for attacking or striking his
+enemy, whom he will perhaps scan from head to foot in defiance. He
+carries his head erect, with his chest well expanded, and the feet
+planted firmly on the ground. He holds his arms in various positions,
+with one or both elbows squared, or with the arms rigidly suspended by
+his sides. With Europeans the fists are commonly clenched.[1013] The
+figures 1 and 2 in Plate VI. are fairly good representations of men
+simulating indignation. Any one may see in a mirror, if he will vividly
+imagine that he has been insulted and demands an explanation in an
+angry tone of voice, that he suddenly and unconsciously throws himself
+into some such attitude.
+
+
+
+Anger and Indignation.  Plate VI
+
+Rage, anger, and indignation are exhibited in nearly the same manner
+throughout the world; and the following descriptions may be worth
+giving as evidence of this, and as illustrations of some of the
+foregoing remarks. There is, however, an exception with respect to
+clenching the fists, which seems confined chiefly to the men who fight
+with their fists. With the Australians only one of my informants has
+seen the fists clenched. All agree about the body being held erect; and
+all, with two exceptions, state that the brows are heavily contracted.
+Some of them allude to the firmly-compressed mouth, the distended
+nostrils, and flashing eyes. According to the Rev. Mr. Taplin, rage,
+with the Australians, is expressed by the lips being protruded, the
+eyes being widely open; and in the case of the women by their dancing
+about and casting dust into the air. Another observer speaks of the
+native men, when enraged, throwing their arms wildly about.
+
+I have received similar accounts, except as to the clenching of the
+fists, in regard to the Malays of the Malacca peninsula, the
+Abyssinians, and the natives of South Africa. So it is with the Dakota
+Indians of North America; and, according to Mr. Matthews, they then
+hold their heads erect, frown, and often stalk away with long strides.
+Mr. Bridges states that the Fuegians, when enraged, frequently stamp on
+the ground, walk distractedly about, sometimes cry and grow pale. The
+Rev. Mr. Stack watched a New Zealand man and woman quarrelling, and
+made the following entry in his note-book: “Eyes dilated, body swayed
+violently backwards and forwards, head inclined forwards, fists
+clenched, now thrown behind the body, now directed towards each other’s
+faces.” Mr. Swinhoe says that my description agrees with what he has
+seen of the Chinese, excepting that an angry man generally inclines his
+body towards his antagonist, and pointing at him, pours forth a volley
+of abuse.
+
+Lastly, with respect to the natives of India, Mr. J. Scott has sent me
+a full description of their gestures and expression when enraged. Two
+low-caste Bengalees disputed about a loan. At first they were calm, but
+soon grew furious and poured forth the grossest abuse on each other’s
+relations and progenitors for many generations past. Their gestures
+were very different from those of Europeans; for though their chests
+were expanded and shoulders squared, their arms remained rigidly
+suspended, with the elbows turned inwards and the hands alternately
+clenched and opened. Their shoulders were often raised high, and then
+again lowered. They looked fiercely at each other from under their
+lowered and strongly wrinkled brows, and their protruded lips were
+firmly closed. They approached each other, with heads and necks
+stretched forwards, and pushed, scratched, and grasped at each other.
+This protrusion of the head and body seems a common gesture with the
+enraged; and I have noticed it with degraded English women whilst
+quarrelling violently in the streets. In such cases it may be presumed
+that neither party expects to receive a blow from the other.
+
+A Bengalee employed in the Botanic Gardens was accused, in the presence
+of Mr. Scott, by the native overseer of having stolen a valuable plant.
+He listened silently and scornfully to the accusation; his attitude
+erect, chest expanded, mouth closed, lips protruding, eyes firmly set
+and penetrating. He then defiantly maintained his innocence, with
+upraised and clenched hands, his head being now pushed forwards, with
+the eyes widely open and eyebrows raised. Mr. Scott also watched two
+Mechis, in Sikhim, quarrelling about their share of payment. They soon
+got into a furious passion, and then their bodies became less erect,
+with their heads pushed forwards; they made grimaces at each other;
+their shoulders were raised; their arms rigidly bent inwards at the
+elbows, and their hands spasmodically closed, but not properly
+clenched. They continually approached and retreated from each other,
+and often raised their arms as if to strike, but their hands were open,
+and no blow was given. Mr. Scott made similar observations on the
+Lepchas whom he often saw quarrelling, and he noticed that they kept
+their arms rigid and almost parallel to their bodies, with the hands
+pushed somewhat backwards and partially closed, but not clenched.
+
+_Sneering, Defiance: Uncovering the canine tooth on one side_.—The
+expression which I wish here to consider differs but little from that
+already described, when the lips are retracted and the grinning teeth
+exposed. The difference consists solely in the upper lip being
+retracted in such a manner that the canine tooth on one side of the
+face alone is shown; the face itself being generally a little upturned
+and half averted from the person causing offence. The other signs of
+rage are not necessarily present. This expression may occasionally be
+observed in a person who sneers at or defies another, though there may
+be no real anger; as when any one is playfully accused of some fault,
+and answers, “I scorn the imputation.” The expression is not a common
+one, but I have seen it exhibited with perfect distinctness by a lady
+who was being quizzed by another person. It was described by Parsons as
+long ago as 1746, with an engraving, showing the uncovered canine on
+one side.[1014] Mr. Rejlander, without my having made any allusion to
+the subject, asked me whether I had ever noticed this expression, as he
+had been much struck by it. He has photographed for me (Plate IV. fig
+1) a lady, who sometimes unintentionally displays the canine on one
+side, and who can do so voluntarily with unusual distinctness.
+
+The expression of a half-playful sneer graduates into one of great
+ferocity when, together with a heavily frowning brow and fierce eye,
+the canine tooth is exposed. A Bengalee boy was accused before Mr.
+Scott of some misdeed. The delinquent did not dare to give vent to his
+wrath in words, but it was plainly shown on his countenance, sometimes
+by a defiant frown, and sometimes “by a thoroughly canine snarl.” When
+this was exhibited, “the corner of the lip over the eye-tooth, which
+happened in this case to be large and projecting, was raised on the
+side of his accuser, a strong frown being still retained on the brow.”
+Sir C. Bell states[1015] that the actor Cooke could express the most
+determined hate “when with the oblique cast of his eyes he drew up the
+outer part of the upper lip, and discovered a sharp angular tooth.”
+
+The uncovering of the canine tooth is the result of a double movement.
+The angle or corner of the mouth is drawn a little backwards, and at
+the same time a muscle which runs parallel to and near the nose draws
+up the outer part of the upper lip, and exposes the canine on this side
+of the face. The contraction of this muscle makes a distinct furrow on
+the cheek, and produces strong wrinkles under the eye, especially at
+its inner corner. The action is the same as that of a snarling dog; and
+a dog when pretending to fight often draws up the lip on one side
+alone, namely that facing his antagonist. Our word _sneer_ is in fact
+the same as _snarl_, which was originally _snar_, the _l_ “being merely
+an element implying continuance of action.”[1016]
+
+I suspect that we see a trace of this same expression in what is called
+a derisive or sardonic smile. The lips are then kept joined or almost
+joined, but one corner of the mouth is retracted on the side towards
+the derided person; and this drawing back of the corner is part of a
+true sneer. Although some persons smile more on one side of their face
+than on the other, it is not easy to understand why in cases of
+derision the smile, if a real one, should so commonly be confined to
+one side. I have also on these occasions noticed a slight twitching of
+the muscle which draws up the outer part of the upper lip; and this
+movement, if fully carried out, would have uncovered the canine, and
+would have produced a true sneer.
+
+Mr. Bulmer, an Australian missionary in a remote part of Gipps’ Land,
+says, in answer to my query about the uncovering of the canine on one
+side, “I find that the natives in snarling at each other speak with the
+teeth closed, the upper lip drawn to one side, and a general angry
+expression of face; but they look direct at the person addressed.”
+Three other observers in Australia, one in Abyssinia, and one in China,
+answer my query on this head in the affirmative; but as the expression
+is rare, and as they enter into no details, I am afraid of implicitly
+trusting them. It is, however, by no means improbable that this
+animal-like expression may be more common with savages than with
+civilized races. Mr. Geach is an observer who may be fully trusted, and
+he has observed it on one occasion in a Malay in the interior of
+Malacca. The Rev. S. O. Glenie answers, “We have observed this
+expression with the natives of Ceylon, but not often.” Lastly, in North
+America, Dr. Rothrock has seen it with some wild Indians, and often in
+a tribe adjoining the Atnahs.
+
+Although the upper lip is certainly sometimes raised on one side alone
+in sneering at or defying any one, I do not know that this is always
+the case, for the face is commonly half averted, and the expression is
+often momentary. The movement being confined to one side may not be an
+essential part of the expression, but may depend on the proper muscles
+being incapable of movement excepting on one side. I asked four persons
+to endeavour to act voluntarily in this manner; two could expose the
+canine only on the left side, one only on the right side, and the
+fourth on neither side. Nevertheless it is by no means certain that
+these same persons, if defying any one in earnest, would not
+unconsciously have uncovered their canine tooth on the side, whichever
+it might be, towards the offender. For we have seen that some persons
+cannot voluntarily make their eyebrows oblique, yet instantly act in
+this manner when affected by any real, although most trifling, cause of
+distress. The power of voluntarily uncovering the canine on one side of
+the face being thus often wholly lost, indicates that it is a rarely
+used and almost abortive action. It is indeed a surprising fact that
+man should possess the power, or should exhibit any tendency to its
+use; for Mr. Sutton has never noticed a snarling action in our nearest
+allies, namely, the monkeys in the Zoological Gardens, and he is
+positive that the baboons, though furnished with great canines, never
+act thus, but uncover all their teeth when feeling savage and ready for
+an attack. Whether the adult anthropomorphous apes, in the males of
+whom the canines are much larger than in the females, uncover them when
+prepared to fight, is not known.
+
+The expression here considered, whether that of a playful sneer or
+ferocious snarl, is one of the most curious which occurs in man. It
+reveals his animal descent; for no one, even if rolling on the ground
+in a deadly grapple with an enemy, and attempting to bite him, would
+try to use his canine teeth more than his other teeth. We may readily
+believe from our affinity to the anthropomorphous apes that our male
+semi-human progenitors possessed great canine teeth, and men are now
+occasionally born having them of unusually large size, with interspaces
+in the opposite jaw for their reception.[1017] We may further suspect,
+notwithstanding that we have no support from analogy, that our
+semi-human progenitors uncovered their canine teeth when prepared for
+battle, as we still do when feeling ferocious, or when merely sneering
+at or defying some one, without any intention of making a real attack
+with our teeth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI. DISDAIN—CONTEMPT—DISGUST-GUILT—PRIDE,
+ETC.—HELPLESSNESS—PATIENCE—AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.
+
+Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed—Derisive
+smile—Gestures expressive of contempt—Disgust—Guilt, deceit, pride,
+&c.—Helplessness or impotence—Patience—Obstinacy—Shrugging the
+shoulders common to most of the races of man—Signs of affirmation and
+negation.
+
+Scorn and disdain can hardly be distinguished from contempt, excepting
+that they imply a rather more angry frame of mind. Nor can they be
+clearly distinguished from the feelings discussed in the last chapter
+under the terms of sneering and defiance. Disgust is a sensation rather
+more distinct in its nature and refers to something revolting,
+primarily in relation to the sense of taste, as actually perceived or
+vividly imagined; and secondarily to anything which causes a similar
+feeling, through the sense of smell, touch, and even of eyesight.
+Nevertheless, extreme contempt, or as it is often called loathing
+contempt, hardly differs from disgust. These several conditions of the
+mind are, therefore, nearly related; and each of them may be exhibited
+in many different ways. Some writers have insisted chiefly on one mode
+of expression, and others on a different mode. From this circumstance
+M. Lemoine has argued[1101] that their descriptions are not
+trustworthy. But we shall immediately see that it is natural that the
+feelings which we have here to consider should be expressed in many
+different ways, inasmuch as various habitual actions serve equally
+well, through the principle of association, for their expression.
+
+Scorn and disdain, as well as sneering and defiance, may be displayed
+by a slight uncovering of the canine tooth on one side of the face; and
+this movement appears to graduate into one closely like a smile. Or the
+smile or laugh may be real, although one of derision; and this implies
+that the offender is so insignificant that he excites only amusement;
+but the amusement is generally a pretence. Gaika in his answers to my
+queries remarks, that contempt is commonly shown by his countrymen, the
+Kafirs, by smiling; and the Rajah Brooke makes the same observation
+with respect to the Dyaks of Borneo. As laughter is primarily the
+expression of simple joy, very young children do not, I believe, ever
+laugh in derision.
+
+The partial closure of the eyelids, as Duchenne[1102] insists, or the
+turning away of the eyes or of the whole body, are likewise highly
+expressive of disdain. These actions seem to declare that the despised
+person is not worth looking at or is disagreeable to behold. The
+accompanying photograph (Plate V. fig. 1) by Mr. Rejlander, shows this
+form of disdain. It represents a young lady, who is supposed to be
+tearing up the photograph of a despised lover.
+
+
+
+Scorn and Disdain.  Plate V
+
+The most common method of expressing contempt is by movements about the
+nose, or round the mouth; but the latter movements, when strongly
+pronounced, indicate disgust. The nose may be slightly turned up, which
+apparently follows from the turning up of the upper lip; or the
+movement may be abbreviated into the mere wrinkling of the nose. The
+nose is often slightly contracted, so as partly to close the
+passage;[1103] and this is commonly accompanied by a slight snort or
+expiration. All these actions are the same with those which we employ
+when we perceive an offensive odour, and wish to exclude or expel it.
+In extreme cases, as Dr. Piderit remarks,[1104] we protrude and raise
+both lips, or the upper lip alone, so as to close the nostrils as by a
+valve, the nose being thus turned up. We seem thus to say to the
+despised person that he smells offensively,[1105] in nearly the same
+manner as we express to him by half-closing our eyelids, or turning
+away our faces, that he is not worth looking at. It must not, however,
+be supposed that such ideas actually pass through the mind when we
+exhibit our contempt; but as whenever we have perceived a disagreeable
+odour or seen a disagreeable sight, actions of this kind have been
+performed, they have become habitual or fixed, and are now employed
+under any analogous state of mind.
+
+Various odd little gestures likewise indicate contempt; for instance,
+_snapping one’s fingers_. This, as Mr. Taylor remarks,[1106] “is not
+very intelligible as we generally see it; but when we notice that the
+same sign made quite gently, as if rolling some tiny object away
+between the finger and thumb, or the sign of flipping it away with the
+thumb-nail and forefinger, are usual and well-understood deaf-and-dumb
+gestures, denoting anything tiny, insignificant, contemptible, it seems
+as though we had exaggerated and conventionalized a perfectly natural
+action, so as to lose sight of its original meaning. There is a curious
+mention of this gesture by Strabo.” Mr. Washington Matthews informs me
+that, with the Dakota Indians of North America, contempt is shown not
+only by movements of the face, such as those above described, but
+“conventionally, by the hand being closed and held near the breast,
+then, as the forearm is suddenly extended, the hand is opened and the
+fingers separated from each other. If the person at whose expense the
+sign is made is present, the hand is moved towards him, and the head
+sometimes averted from him.” This sudden extension and opening of the
+hand perhaps indicates the dropping or throwing away a valueless
+object.
+
+The term ‘disgust,’ in its simplest sense, means something offensive to
+the taste. It is curious how readily this feeling is excited by
+anything unusual in the appearance, odour, or nature of our food. In
+Tierra del Fuego a native touched with his finger some cold preserved
+meat which I was eating at our bivouac, and plainly showed utter
+disgust at its softness; whilst I felt utter disgust at my food being
+touched by a naked savage, though his hands did not appear dirty. A
+smear of soup on a man’s beard looks disgusting, though there is of
+course nothing disgusting in the soup itself. I presume that this
+follows from the strong association in our minds between the sight of
+food, however circumstanced, and the idea of eating it.
+
+As the sensation of disgust primarily arises in connection with the act
+of eating or tasting, it is natural that its expression should consist
+chiefly in movements round the mouth. But as disgust also causes
+annoyance, it is generally accompanied by a frown, and often by
+gestures as if to push away or to guard oneself against the offensive
+object. In the two photographs (figs. 2 and 3, on Plate V.) Mr.
+Rejlander has simulated this expression with some success. With respect
+to the face, moderate disgust is exhibited in various ways; by the
+mouth being widely opened, as if to let an offensive morsel drop out;
+by spitting; by blowing out of the protruded lips; or by a sound as of
+clearing the throat. Such guttural sounds are written _ach_ or _ugh_;
+and their utterance is sometimes accompanied by a shudder, the arms
+being pressed close to the sides and the shoulders raised in the same
+manner as when horror is experienced.[1107] Extreme disgust is
+expressed by movements round the month identical with those preparatory
+to the act of vomiting. The mouth is opened widely, with the upper lip
+strongly retracted, which wrinkles the sides of the nose, and with the
+lower lip protruded and everted as much as possible. This latter
+movement requires the contraction of the muscles which draw downwards
+the corners of the mouth.[1108]
+
+It is remarkable how readily and instantly retching or actual vomiting
+is induced in some persons by the mere idea of having partaken of any
+unusual food, as of an animal which is not commonly eaten; although
+there is nothing in such food to cause the stomach to reject it. When
+vomiting results, as a reflex action, from some real cause—as from too
+rich food, or tainted meat, or from an emetic—it does not ensue
+immediately, but generally after a considerable interval of time.
+Therefore, to account for retching or vomiting being so quickly and
+easily excited by a mere idea, the suspicion arises that our
+progenitors must formerly have had the power (like that possessed by
+ruminants and some other animals) of voluntarily rejecting food which
+disagreed with them, or which they thought would disagree with them;
+and now, though this power has been lost, as far as the will is
+concerned, it is called into involuntary action, through the force of a
+formerly well-established habit, whenever the mind revolts at the idea
+of having partaken of any kind of food, or at anything disgusting. This
+suspicion receives support from the fact, of which I am assured by Mr.
+Sutton, that the monkeys in the Zoological Gardens often vomit whilst
+in perfect health, which looks as if the act were voluntary. We can see
+that as man is able to communicate by language to his children and
+others, the knowledge of the kinds of food to be avoided, he would have
+little occasion to use the faculty of voluntary rejection; so that this
+power would tend to be lost through disuse.
+
+As the sense of smell is so intimately connected with that of taste, it
+is not surprising that an excessively bad odour should excite retching
+or vomiting in some persons, quite as readily as the thought of
+revolting food does; and that, as a further consequence, a moderately
+offensive odour should cause the various expressive movements of
+disgust. The tendency to retch from a fetid odour is immediately
+strengthened in a curious manner by some degree of habit, though soon
+lost by longer familiarity with the cause of offence and by voluntary
+restraint. For instance, I wished to clean the skeleton of a bird,
+which had not been sufficiently macerated, and the smell made my
+servant and myself (we not having had much experience in such work)
+retch so violently, that we were compelled to desist. During the
+previous days I had examined some other skeletons, which smelt
+slightly; yet the odour did not in the least affect me, but,
+subsequently for several days, whenever I handled these same skeletons,
+they made me retch.
+
+From the answers received from my correspondents it appears that the
+various movements, which have now been described as expressing contempt
+and disgust, prevail throughout a large part of the world. Dr.
+Rothrock, for instance, answers with a decided affirmative with respect
+to certain wild Indian tribes of North America. Crantz says that when a
+Greenlander denies anything with contempt or horror he turns up his
+nose, and gives a slight sound through it.[1109] Mr. Scott has sent me
+a graphic description of the face of a young Hindoo at the sight of
+castor-oil, which he was compelled occasionally to take. Mr. Scott has
+also seen the same expression on the faces of high-caste natives who
+have approached close to some defiling object. Mr. Bridges says that
+the Fuegians “express contempt by shooting out the lips and hissing
+through them, and by turning up the nose.” The tendency either to snort
+through the nose, or to make a noise expressed by _ugh_ or _ach_, is
+noticed by several of my correspondents.
+
+Spitting seems an almost universal sign of contempt or disgust; and
+spitting obviously represents the rejection of anything offensive from
+the mouth. Shakspeare makes the Duke of Norfolk say, “I spit at
+him—call him a slanderous coward and a villain.” So, again, Falstaff
+says, “Tell thee what, Hal,—if I tell thee a lie, spit in my face.”
+Leichhardt remarks that the Australians “interrupted their speeches by
+spitting, and uttering a noise like pooh! pooh! apparently expressive
+of their disgust.” And Captain Burton speaks of certain negroes
+“spitting with disgust upon the ground.” Captain Speedy informs me that
+this is likewise the case with the Abyssinians. Mr. Geach says that
+with the Malays of Malacca the expression of disgust “answers to
+spitting from the mouth;” and with the Fuegians, according to Mr.
+Bridges “to spit at one is the highest mark of contempt.”[1110]
+
+I never saw disgust more plainly expressed than on the face of one of
+my infants at the age of five months, when, for the first time, some
+cold water, and again a month afterwards, when a piece of ripe cherry
+was put into his mouth. This was shown by the lips and whole mouth
+assuming a shape which allowed the contents to run or fall quickly out;
+the tongue being likewise protruded. These movements were accompanied
+by a little shudder. It was all the more comical, as I doubt whether
+the child felt real disgust—the eyes and forehead expressing much
+surprise and consideration. The protrusion of the tongue in letting a
+nasty object fall out of the mouth, may explain how it is that lolling
+out the tongue universally serves as a sign of contempt and
+hatred.[1111]
+
+We have now seen that scorn, disdain, contempt, and disgust are
+expressed in many different ways, by movements of the features, and by
+various gestures; and that these are the same throughout the world.
+They all consist of actions representing the rejection or exclusion of
+some real object which we dislike or abhor, but which does not excite
+in us certain other strong emotions, such as rage or terror; and
+through the force of habit and association similar actions are
+performed, whenever any analogous sensation arises in our minds.
+
+_Jealousy, Envy, Avarice, Revenge, Suspicion, Deceit, Slyness, Guilt,
+Vanity, Conceit, Ambition, Pride, Humility, &c_.—It is doubtful whether
+the greater number of the above complex states of mind are revealed by
+any fixed expression, sufficiently distinct to be described or
+delineated. When Shakspeare speaks of Envy as _lean-faced_, or _black_,
+or _pale_, and Jealousy as “_the green-eyed monster_;” and when Spenser
+describes Suspicion as “_foul, ill-favoured, and grim_,” they must have
+felt this difficulty. Nevertheless, the above feelings—at least many of
+them—can be detected by the eye; for instance, conceit; but we are
+often guided in a much greater degree than we suppose by our previous
+knowledge of the persons or circumstances.
+
+My correspondents almost unanimously answer in the affirmative to my
+query, whether the expression of guilt and deceit can be recognized
+amongst the various races of man; and I have confidence in their
+answers, as they generally deny that jealousy can thus be recognized.
+In the cases in which details are given, the eyes are almost always
+referred to. The guilty man is said to avoid looking at his accuser, or
+to give him stolen looks. The eyes are said “to be turned askant,” or
+“to waver from side to side,” or “the eyelids to be lowered and partly
+closed.” This latter remark is made by Mr. Hagenauer with respect to
+the Australians, and by Gaika with respect to the Kafirs. The restless
+movements of the eyes apparently follow, as will be explained when we
+treat of blushing, from the guilty man not enduring to meet the gaze of
+his accuser. I may add, that I have observed a guilty expression,
+without a shade of fear, in some of my own children at a very early
+age. In one instance the expression was unmistakably clear in a child
+two years and seven months old, and led to the detection of his little
+crime. It was shown, as I record in my notes made at the time, by an
+unnatural brightness in the eyes, and by an odd, affected manner,
+impossible to describe.
+
+Slyness is also, I believe, exhibited chiefly by movements about the
+eyes; for these are less under the control of the will, owing to the
+force of long-continued habit, than are the movements of the body. Mr.
+Herbert Spencer remarks,[1112] “When there is a desire to see something
+on one side of the visual field without being supposed to see it, the
+tendency is to check the conspicuous movement of the head, and to make
+the required adjustment entirely with the eyes; which are, therefore,
+drawn very much to one side. Hence, when the eyes are turned to one
+side, while the face is not turned to the same side, we get the natural
+language of what is called slyness.”
+
+Of all the above-named complex emotions, Pride, perhaps, is the most
+plainly expressed. A proud man exhibits his sense of superiority over
+others by holding his head and body erect. He is haughty (_haut_), or
+high, and makes himself appear as large as possible; so that
+metaphorically he is said to be swollen or puffed up with pride. A
+peacock or a turkey-cock strutting about with puffed-up feathers, is
+sometimes said to be an emblem of pride.[1113] The arrogant man looks
+down on others, and with lowered eyelids hardly condescends to see
+them; or he may show his contempt by slight movements, such as those
+before described, about the nostrils or lips. Hence the muscle which
+everts the lower lip has been called the _musculus superbus_. In some
+photographs of patients affected by a monomania of pride, sent me by
+Dr. Crichton Browne, the head and body were held erect, and the mouth
+firmly closed. This latter action, expressive of decision, follows, I
+presume, from the proud man feeling perfect self-confidence in himself.
+The whole expression of pride stands in direct antithesis to that of
+humility; so that nothing need here be said of the latter state of
+mind.
+
+_Helplessness, Impotence: Shrugging the shoulders_.—When a man wishes
+to show that he cannot do something, or prevent something being done,
+he often raises with a quick movement both shoulders. At the same time,
+if the whole gesture is completed, he bends his elbows closely inwards,
+raises his open hands, turning them outwards, with the fingers
+separated. The head is often thrown a little on one side; the eyebrows
+are elevated, and this causes wrinkles across the forehead. The mouth
+is generally opened. I may mention, in order to show how unconsciously
+the features are thus acted on, that though I had often intentionally
+shrugged my shoulders to observe how my arms were placed, I was not at
+all aware that my eyebrows were raised and mouth opened, until I looked
+at myself in a glass; and since then I have noticed the same movements
+in the faces of others. In the accompanying Plate VI., figs. 3 and 4,
+Mr. Rejlander has successfully acted the gesture of shrugging the
+shoulders.
+
+Englishmen are much less demonstrative than the men of most other
+European nations, and they shrug their shoulders far less frequently
+and energetically than Frenchmen or Italians do. The gesture varies in
+all degrees from the complex movement, just described, to only a
+momentary and scarcely perceptible raising of both shoulders; or, as I
+have noticed in a lady sitting in an arm-chair, to the mere turning
+slightly outwards of the open hands with separated fingers. I have
+never seen very young English children shrug their shoulders, but the
+following case was observed with care by a medical professor and
+excellent observer, and has been communicated to me by him. The father
+of this gentleman was a Parisian, and his mother a Scotch lady. His
+wife is of British extraction on both sides, and my informant does not
+believe that she ever shrugged her shoulders in her life. His children
+have been reared in England, and the nursemaid is a thorough
+Englishwoman, who has never been seen to shrug her shoulders. Now, his
+eldest daughter was observed to shrug her shoulders at the age of
+between sixteen and eighteen months; her mother exclaiming at the time,
+“Look at the little French girl shrugging her shoulders!” At first she
+often acted thus, sometimes throwing her head a little backwards and on
+one side, but she did not, as far as was observed, move her elbows and
+hands in the usual manner. The habit gradually wore away, and now, when
+she is a little over four years old, she is never seen to act thus. The
+father is told that he sometimes shrugs his shoulders, especially when
+arguing with any one; but it is extremely improbable that his daughter
+should have imitated him at so early an age; for, as he remarks, she
+could not possibly have often seen this gesture in him. Moreover, if
+the habit had been acquired through imitation, it is not probable that
+it would so soon have been spontaneously discontinued by this child,
+and, as we shall immediately see, by a second child, though the father
+still lived with his family. This little girl, it may be added,
+resembles her Parisian grandfather in countenance to an almost absurd
+degree. She also presents another and very curious resemblance to him,
+namely, by practising a singular trick. When she impatiently wants
+something, she holds out her little hand, and rapidly rubs the thumb
+against the index and middle finger: now this same trick was frequently
+performed under the same circumstances by her grandfather.
+
+This gentleman’s second daughter also shrugged her shoulders before the
+age of eighteen months, and afterwards discontinued the habit. It is of
+course possible that she may have imitated her elder sister; but she
+continued it after her sister had lost the habit. She at first
+resembled her Parisian grandfather in a less degree than did her sister
+at the same age, but now in a greater degree. She likewise practises to
+the present time the peculiar habit of rubbing together, when
+impatient, her thumb and two of her fore-fingers.
+
+In this latter case we have a good instance, like those given in a
+former chapter, of the inheritance of a trick or gesture; for no one, I
+presume, will attribute to mere coincidence so peculiar a habit as
+this, which was common to the grandfather and his two grandchildren who
+had never seen him.
+
+Considering all the circumstances with reference to these children
+shrugging their shoulders, it can hardly be doubted that they have
+inherited the habit from their French progenitors, although they have
+only one quarter French blood in their veins, and although their
+grandfather did not often shrug his shoulders. There is nothing very
+unusual, though the fact is interesting, in these children having
+gained by inheritance a habit during early youth, and then
+discontinuing it; for it is of frequent occurrence with many kinds of
+animals that certain characters are retained for a period by the young,
+and are then lost.
+
+As it appeared to me at one time improbable in a high degree that so
+complex a gesture as shrugging the shoulders, together with the
+accompanying movements, should be innate, I was anxious to ascertain
+whether the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman, who could not have learnt
+the habit by imitation, practised it. And I have heard, through Dr.
+Innes, from a lady who has lately had charge of her, that she does
+shrug her shoulders, turn in her elbows, and raise her eyebrows in the
+same manner as other people, and under the same circumstances. I was
+also anxious to learn whether this gesture was practised by the various
+races of man, especially by those who never have had much intercourse
+with Europeans. We shall see that they act in this manner; but it
+appears that the gesture is sometimes confined to merely raising or
+shrugging the shoulders, without the other movements.
+
+Mr. Scott has frequently seen this gesture in the Bengalees and
+Dhangars (the latter constituting a distinct race) who are employed in
+the Botanic Garden at Calcutta; when, for instance, they have declared
+that they could not do some work, such as lifting a heavy weight. He
+ordered a Bengalee to climb a lofty tree; but the man, with a shrug of
+his shoulders and a lateral shake of his head, said he could not. Mr.
+Scott knowing that the man was lazy, thought he could, and insisted on
+his trying. His face now became pale, his arms dropped to his sides,
+his mouth and eyes were widely opened, and again surveying the tree, he
+looked askant at Mr. Scott, shrugged his shoulders, inverted his
+elbows, extended his open hands, and with a few quick lateral shakes of
+the head declared his inability. Mr. H. Erskine has likewise seen the
+natives of India shrugging their shoulders; but he has never seen the
+elbows turned so much inwards as with us; and whilst shrugging their
+shoulders they sometimes lay their uncrossed hands on their breasts.
+
+With the wild Malays of the interior of Malacca, and with the Bugis
+(true Malays, though speaking a different language), Mr. Geach has
+often seen this gesture. I presume that it is complete, as, in answer
+to my query descriptive of the movements of the shoulders, arms, hands,
+and face, Mr. Geach remarks, “it is performed in a beautiful style.” I
+have lost an extract from a scientific voyage, in which shrugging the
+shoulders by some natives (Micronesians) of the Caroline Archipelago in
+the Pacific Ocean, was well described. Capt. Speedy informs me that the
+Abyssinians shrug their shoulders but enters into no details. Mrs. Asa
+Gray saw an Arab dragoman in Alexandria acting exactly as described in
+my query, when an old gentleman, on whom he attended, would not go in
+the proper direction which had been pointed out to him.
+
+Mr. Washington Matthews says, in reference to the wild Indian tribes of
+the western parts of the United States, “I have on a few occasions
+detected men using a slight apologetic shrug, but the rest of the
+demonstration which you describe I have not witnessed.” Fritz Müller
+informs me that he has seen the negroes in Brazil shrugging their
+shoulders; but it is of course possible that they may have learnt to do
+so by imitating the Portuguese. Mrs. Barber has never seen this gesture
+with the Kafirs of South Africa; and Gaika, judging from his answer,
+did not even understand what was meant by my description. Mr. Swinhoe
+is also doubtful about the Chinese; but he has seen them, under the
+circumstances which would make us shrug our shoulders, press their
+right elbow against their side, raise their eyebrows, lift up their
+hand with the palm directed towards the person addressed, and shake it
+from right to left. Lastly, with respect to the Australians, four of my
+informants answer by a simple negative, and one by a simple
+affirmative. Mr. Bunnett, who has had excellent opportunities for
+observation on the borders of the Colony of Victory, also answers by a
+“yes,” adding that the gesture is performed “in a more subdued and less
+demonstrative manner than is the case with civilized nations.” This
+circumstance may account for its not having been noticed by four of my
+informants.
+
+These statements, relating to Europeans, Hindoos, the hill-tribes of
+India, Malays, Micronesians, Abyssinians, Arabs, Negroes, Indians of
+North America, and apparently to the Australians—many of these natives
+having had scarcely any intercourse with Europeans—are sufficient to
+show that shrugging the shoulders, accompanied in some cases by the
+other proper movements, is a gesture natural to mankind.
+
+This gesture implies an unintentional or unavoidable action on our own
+part, or one that we cannot perform; or an action performed by another
+person which we cannot prevent. It accompanies such speeches as, “It
+was not my fault;” “It is impossible for me to grant this favour;” “He
+must follow his own course, I cannot stop him.” Shrugging the shoulders
+likewise expresses patience, or the absence of any intention to resist.
+Hence the muscles which raise the shoulders are sometimes called, as I
+have been informed by an artist, the patience muscles. Shylock the Jew,
+says,
+
+“Signor Antonio, many a time and oft
+In the Rialto have you rated me
+About my monies and usances;
+Still have I borne it with a patient shrug.”
+_Merchant of Venice_, act i. sc. 3.
+
+
+Sir C. Bell has given[1114] a life-like figure of a man, who is
+shrinking back from some terrible danger, and is on the point of
+screaming out in abject terror. He is represented with his shoulders
+lifted up almost to his ears; and this at once declares that there is
+no thought of resistance.
+
+As shrugging the shoulders generally implies “I cannot do this or
+that,” so by a slight change, it sometimes implies “I won’t do it.” The
+movement then expresses a dogged determination not to act. Olmsted
+describes[1115] an Indian in Texas as giving a great shrug to his
+shoulders, when he was informed that a party of men were Germans and
+not Americans, thus expressing that he would have nothing to do with
+them. Sulky and obstinate children may be seen with both their
+shoulders raised high up; but this movement is not associated with the
+others which generally accompany a true shrug. An excellent
+observer[1116] in describing a young man who was determined not to
+yield to his father’s desire, says, “He thrust his hands deep down into
+his pockets, and set up his shoulders to his ears, which was a good
+warning that, come right or wrong, this rock should fly from its firm
+base as soon as Jack would; and that any remonstrance on the subject
+was purely futile.” As soon as the son got his own way, he “put his
+shoulders into their natural position.”
+
+Resignation is sometimes shown by the open hands being placed, one over
+the other, on the lower part of the body. I should not have thought
+this little gesture worth even a passing notice, had not Dr. W. Ogle
+remarked to me that he had two or three times observed it in patients
+who were preparing for operations under chloroform. They exhibited no
+great fear, but seemed to declare by this posture of their hands, that
+they had made up their minds, and were resigned to the inevitable.
+
+We may now inquire why men in all parts of the world when they
+feel,—whether or not they wish to show this feeling,—that they cannot
+or will not do something, or will not resist something if done by
+another, shrug their shoulders, at the same time often bending in their
+elbows, showing the palms of their hands with extended fingers, often
+throwing their heads a little on one side, raising their eyebrows, and
+opening their mouths. These states of the mind are either simply
+passive, or show a determination not to act. None of the above
+movements are of the least service. The explanation lies, I cannot
+doubt, in the principle of unconscious antithesis. This principle here
+seems to come into play as clearly as in the case of a dog, who, when
+feeling savage, puts himself in the proper attitude for attacking and
+for making himself appear terrible to his enemy; but as soon as he
+feels affectionate, throws his whole body into a directly opposite
+attitude, though this is of no direct use to him.
+
+Let it be observed how an indignant man, who resents, and will not
+submit to some injury, holds his head erect, squares his shoulders, and
+expands his chest. He often clenches his fists, and puts one or both
+arms in the proper position for attack or defence, with the muscles of
+his limbs rigid. He frowns,—that is, he contracts and lowers his
+brows,—and, being determined, closes his mouth. The actions and
+attitude of a helpless man are, in every one of these respects, exactly
+the reverse. In Plate VI. we may imagine one of the figures on the left
+side to have just said, “What do you mean by insulting me?” and one of
+the figures on the right side to answer, “I really could not help it.”
+The helpless man unconsciously contracts the muscles of his forehead
+which are antagonistic to those that cause a frown, and thus raises his
+eyebrows; at the same time he relaxes the muscles about the mouth, so
+that the lower jaw drops. The antithesis is complete in every detail,
+not only in the movements of the features, but in the position of the
+limbs and in the attitude of the whole body, as may be seen in the
+accompanying plate. As the helpless or apologetic man often wishes to
+show his state of mind, he then acts in a conspicuous or demonstrative
+manner.
+
+In accordance with the fact that squaring the elbows and clenching the
+fists are gestures by no means universal with the men of all races,
+when they feel indignant and are prepared to attack their enemy, so it
+appears that a helpless or apologetic frame of mind is expressed in
+many parts of the world by merely shrugging the shoulders, without
+turning inwards the elbows and opening the hands. The man or child who
+is obstinate, or one who is resigned to some great misfortune, has in
+neither case any idea of resistance by active means; and he expresses
+this state of mind, by simply keeping his shoulders raised; or he may
+possibly fold his arms across his breast.
+
+_Signs of affirmation or approval, and of negation or disapproval:
+nodding and shaking the head_.—I was curious to ascertain how far the
+common signs used by us in affirmation and negation were general
+throughout the world. These signs are indeed to a certain extent
+expressive of our feelings, as we give a vertical nod of approval with
+a smile to our children, when we approve of their conduct; and shake
+our heads laterally with a frown, when we disapprove. With infants, the
+first act of denial consists in refusing food; and I repeatedly noticed
+with my own infants, that they did so by withdrawing their heads
+laterally from the breast, or from anything offered them in a spoon. In
+accepting food and taking it into their mouths, they incline their
+heads forwards. Since making these observations I have been informed
+that the same idea had occurred to Charma.[1117] It deserves notice
+that in accepting or taking food, there is only a single movement
+forward, and a single nod implies an affirmation. On the other hand, in
+refusing food, especially if it be pressed on them, children frequently
+move their heads several times from side to side, as we do in shaking
+our heads in negation. Moreover, in the case of refusal, the head is
+not rarely thrown backwards, or the mouth is closed, so that these
+movements might likewise come to serve as signs of negation. Mr.
+Wedgwood remarks on this subject,[1118] that “when the voice is exerted
+with closed teeth or lips, it produces the sound of the letter _n_ or
+_m_. Hence we may account for the use of the particle _ne_ to signify
+negation, and possibly also of the Greek mh in the same sense.”
+
+That these signs are innate or instinctive, at least with Anglo-Saxons,
+is rendered highly probable by the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman
+“constantly accompanying her _yes_ with the common affirmative nod, and
+her _no_ with our negative shake of the head.” Had not Mr. Lieber
+stated to the contrary,[1119] I should have imagined that these
+gestures might have been acquired or learnt by her, considering her
+wonderful sense of touch and appreciation of the movements of others.
+With microcephalous idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn
+to speak, one of them is described by Vogt,[1120] as answering, when
+asked whether he wished for more food or drink, by inclining or shaking
+his head. Schmalz, in his remarkable dissertation on the education of
+the deaf and dumb, as well as of children raised only one degree above
+idiotcy, assumes that they can always both make and understand the
+common signs of affirmation and negation.[1121]
+
+Nevertheless if we look to the various races of man, these signs are
+not so universally employed as I should have expected; yet they seem
+too general to be ranked as altogether conventional or artificial. My
+informants assert that both signs are used by the Malays, by the
+natives of Ceylon, the Chinese, the negroes of the Guinea coast, and,
+according to Gaika, by the Kafirs of South Africa, though with these
+latter people Mrs. Barber has never seen a lateral shake used as a
+negative. With respect to the Australians, seven observers agree that a
+nod is given in affirmation; five agree about a lateral shake in
+negation, accompanied or not by some word; but Mr. Dyson Lacy has never
+seen this latter sign in Queensland, and Mr. Bulmer says that in Gipps’
+Land a negative is expressed by throwing the head a little backwards
+and putting out the tongue. At the northern extremity of the continent,
+near Torres Straits, the natives when uttering a negative “don’t shake
+the head with it, but holding up the right hand, shake it by turning it
+half round and back again two or three times.”[1122] The throwing back
+of the head with a cluck of the tongue is said to be used as a negative
+by the modern Greeks and Turks, the latter people expressing _yes_ by a
+movement like that made by us when we shake our heads.[1123] The
+Abyssinians, as I am informed by Captain Speedy, express a negative by
+jerking the head to the right shoulder, together with a slight cluck,
+the mouth being closed; an affirmation is expressed by the head being
+thrown backwards and the eyebrows raised for an instant. The Tagals of
+Luzon, in the Philippine Archipelago, as I hear from Dr. Adolf Meyer,
+when they say “yes,” also throw the head backwards. According to the
+Rajah Brooke, the Dyaks of Borneo express an affirmation by raising the
+eyebrows, and a negation by slightly contracting them, together with a
+peculiar look from the eyes. With the Arabs on the Nile, Professor and
+Mrs. Asa Gray concluded that nodding in affirmation was rare, whilst
+shaking the head in negation was never used, and was not even
+understood by them. With the Esquimaux[1124] a nod means _yes_ and a
+wink _no_. The New Zealanders “elevate the head and chin in place of
+nodding acquiescence.”[1125]
+
+With the Hindoos Mr. H. Erskine concludes from inquiries made from
+experienced Europeans, and from native gentlemen, that the signs of
+affirmation and negation vary—a nod and a lateral shake being sometimes
+used as we do; but a negative is more commonly expressed by the head
+being thrown suddenly backwards and a little to one side, with a cluck
+of the tongue. What the meaning may be of this cluck of the tongue,
+which has been observed with various people, I cannot imagine. A native
+gentleman stated that affirmation is frequently shown by the head being
+thrown to the left. I asked Mr. Scott to attend particularly to this
+point, and, after repeated observations, he believes that a vertical
+nod is not commonly used by the natives in affirmation, but that the
+head is first thrown backwards either to the left or right, and then
+jerked obliquely forwards only once. This movement would perhaps have
+been described by a less careful observer as a lateral shake. He also
+states that in negation the head is usually held nearly upright, and
+shaken several times.
+
+Mr. Bridges informs me that the Fuegians nod their heads vertically in
+affirmation, and shake them laterally in denial. With the wild Indians
+of North America, according to Mr. Washington Matthews, nodding and
+shaking the head have been learnt from Europeans, and are not naturally
+employed. They express affirmation by describing with the hand (all the
+fingers except the index being flexed) a curve downwards and outwards
+from the body, whilst negation is expressed by moving the open hand
+outwards, with the palm facing inwards. Other observers state that the
+sign of affirmation with these Indians is the forefinger being raised,
+and then lowered and pointed to the ground, or the hand is waved
+straight forward from the face; and that the sign of negation is the
+finger or whole hand shaken from side to side.[1126] This latter
+movement probably represents in all cases the lateral shaking of the
+head. The Italians are said in like manner to move the lifted finger
+from right to left in negation, as indeed we English sometimes do.
+
+On the whole we find considerable diversity in the signs of affirmation
+and negation in the different races of man. With respect to negation,
+if we admit that the shaking of the finger or hand from side to side is
+symbolic of the lateral movement of the head; and if we admit that the
+sudden backward movement of the head represents one of the actions
+often practised by young children in refusing food, then there is much
+uniformity throughout the world in the signs of negation, and we can
+see how they originated. The most marked exceptions are presented by
+the Arabs, Esquimaux, some Australian tribes, and Dyaks. With the
+latter a frown is the sign of negation, and with us frowning often
+accompanies a lateral shake of the head.
+
+With respect to nodding in affirmation, the exceptions are rather more
+numerous, namely with some of the Hindoos, with the Turks, Abyssinians,
+Dyaks, Tagals, and New Zealanders. The eyebrows are sometimes raised in
+affirmation, and as a person in bending his head forwards and downwards
+naturally looks up to the person whom he addresses, he will be apt to
+raise his eyebrows, and this sign may thus have arisen as an
+abbreviation. So again with the New Zealanders, the lifting up the chin
+and head in affirmation may perhaps represent in an abbreviated form
+the upward movement of the head after it has been nodded forwards and
+downwards.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII. SURPRISE—ASTONISHMENT—FEAR—HORROR.
+
+Surprise, astonishment—Elevation of the eyebrows—Opening the
+mouth—Protrusion of the lips—Gestures accompanying
+surprise—Admiration—Fear—Terror—Erection of the hair—Contraction of the
+platysma muscle—Dilatation of the pupils—Horror—Conclusion.
+
+Attention, if sudden and close, graduates into surprise; and this into
+astonishment; and this into stupefied amazement. The latter frame of
+mind is closely akin to terror. Attention is shown by the eyebrows
+being slightly raised; and as this state increases into surprise, they
+are raised to a much greater extent, with the eyes and mouth widely
+open. The raising of the eyebrows is necessary in order that the eyes
+should be opened quickly and widely; and this movement produces
+transverse wrinkles across the forehead. The degree to which the eyes
+and mouth are opened corresponds with the degree of surprise felt; but
+these movements must be coordinated; for a widely opened mouth with
+eyebrows only slightly raised results in a meaningless grimace, as Dr.
+Duchenne has shown in one of his photographs.[1201] On the other hand,
+a person may often be seen to pretend surprise by merely raising his
+eyebrows.
+
+Dr. Duchenne has given a photograph of an old man with his eyebrows
+well elevated and arched by the galvanization of the frontal muscle;
+and with his mouth voluntarily opened. This figure expresses surprise
+with much truth. I showed it to twenty-four persons without a word of
+explanation, and one alone did not at all understand what was intended.
+A second person answered terror, which is not far wrong; some of the
+others, however, added to the words surprise or astonishment, the
+epithets horrified, woful, painful, or disgusted.
+
+The eyes and mouth being widely open is an expression universally
+recognized as one of surprise or astonishment. Thus Shakespeare says,
+“I saw a smith stand with open mouth swallowing a tailor’s news.”
+(‘King John,’ act iv. scene ii.) And again, “They seemed almost, with
+staring on one another, to tear the cases of their eyes; there was
+speech in the dumbness, language in their very gesture; they looked as
+they had heard of a world destroyed.” (‘Winter’s Tale,’ act v. scene
+ii.)
+
+My informants answer with remarkable uniformity to the same effect,
+with respect to the various races of man; the above movements of the
+features being often accompanied by certain gestures and sounds,
+presently to be described. Twelve observers in different parts of
+Australia agree on this head. Mr. Winwood Reade has observed this
+expression with the negroes on the Guinea coast. The chief Gaika and
+others answer _yes_ to my query with respect to the Kafirs of South
+Africa; and so do others emphatically with reference to the
+Abyssinians, Ceylonese, Chinese, Fuegians, various tribes of North
+America, and New Zealanders. With the latter, Mr. Stack states that the
+expression is more plainly shown by certain individuals than by others,
+though all endeavour as much as possible to conceal their feelings. The
+Dyaks of Borneo are said by the Rajah Brooke to open their eyes widely,
+when astonished, often swinging their heads to and fro, and beating
+their breasts. Mr. Scott informs me that the workmen in the Botanic
+Gardens at Calcutta are strictly ordered not to smoke; but they often
+disobey this order, and when suddenly surprised in the act, they first
+open their eyes and mouths widely. They then often slightly shrug their
+shoulders, as they perceive that discovery is inevitable, or frown and
+stamp on the ground from vexation. Soon they recover from their
+surprise, and abject fear is exhibited by the relaxation of all their
+muscles; their heads seem to sink between their shoulders; their fallen
+eyes wander to and fro; and they supplicate forgiveness.
+
+The well-known Australian explorer, Mr. Stuart, has given[1202] a
+striking account of stupefied amazement together with terror in a
+native who had never before seen a man on horseback. Mr. Stuart
+approached unseen and called to him from a little distance. “He turned
+round and saw me. What he imagined I was I do not know; but a finer
+picture of fear and astonishment I never saw. He stood incapable of
+moving a limb, riveted to the spot, mouth open and eyes staring.... He
+remained motionless until our black got within a few yards of him, when
+suddenly throwing down his waddies, he jumped into a mulga bush as high
+as he could get.” He could not speak, and answered not a word to the
+inquiries made by the black, but, trembling from head to foot, “waved
+with his hand for us to be off.”
+
+That the eyebrows are raised by an innate or instinctive impulse may be
+inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman invariably acts thus when
+astonished, as I have been assured by the lady who has lately had
+charge of her. As surprise is excited by something unexpected or
+unknown, we naturally desire, when startled, to perceive the cause as
+quickly as possible; and we consequently open our eyes fully, so that
+the field of vision may be increased, and the eyeballs moved easily in
+any direction. But this hardly accounts for the eyebrows being so
+greatly raised as is the case, and for the wild staring of the open
+eyes. The explanation lies, I believe, in the impossibility of opening
+the eyes with great rapidity by merely raising the upper lids. To
+effect this the eyebrows must be lifted energetically. Any one who will
+try to open his eyes as quickly as possible before a mirror will find
+that he acts thus; and the energetic lifting up of the eyebrows opens
+the eyes so widely that they stare, the white being exposed all round
+the iris. Moreover, the elevation of the eyebrows is an advantage in
+looking upwards; for as long as they are lowered they impede our vision
+in this direction. Sir C. Bell gives[1203] a curious little proof of
+the part which the eyebrows play in opening the eyelids. In a stupidly
+drunken man all the muscles are relaxed, and the eyelids consequently
+droop, in the same manner as when we are falling asleep. To counteract
+this tendency the drunkard raises his eyebrows; and this gives to him a
+puzzled, foolish look, as is well represented in one of Hogarth’s
+drawings. The habit of raising the eyebrows having once been gained in
+order to see as quickly as possible all around us, the movement would
+follow from the force of association whenever astonishment was felt
+from any cause, even from a sudden sound or an idea.
+
+With adult persons, when the eyebrows are raised, the whole forehead
+becomes much wrinkled in transverse lines; but with children this
+occurs only to a slight degree. The wrinkles run in lines concentric
+with each eyebrow, and are partially confluent in the middle. They are
+highly characteristic of the expression of surprise or astonishment.
+Each eyebrow, when raised, becomes also, as Duchenne remarks,[1204]
+more arched than it was before.
+
+The cause of the mouth being opened when astonishment is felt, is a
+much more complex affair; and several causes apparently concur in
+leading to this movement. It has often been supposed[1205] that the
+sense of hearing is thus rendered more acute; but I have watched
+persons listening intently to a slight noise, the nature and source of
+which they knew perfectly, and they did not open their mouths.
+Therefore I at one time imagined that the open mouth might aid in
+distinguishing the direction whence a sound proceeded, by giving
+another channel for its entrance into the ear through the eustachian
+tube, But Dr. W. Ogle[1206] has been so kind as to search the best
+recent authorities on the functions of the eustachian tube, and he
+informs me that it is almost conclusively proved that it remains closed
+except during the act of deglutition; and that in persons in whom the
+tube remains abnormally open, the sense of hearing, as far as external
+sounds are concerned, is by no means improved; on the contrary, it is
+impaired by the respiratory sounds being rendered more distinct. If a
+watch be placed within the mouth, but not allowed to touch the sides,
+the ticking is heard much less plainly than when held outside. In
+persons in whom from disease or a cold the eustachian tube is
+permanently or temporarily closed, the sense of hearing is injured; but
+this may be accounted for by mucus accumulating within the tube, and
+the consequent exclusion of air. We may therefore infer that the mouth
+is not kept open under the sense of astonishment for the sake of
+hearing sounds more distinctly; notwithstanding that most deaf people
+keep their mouths open.
+
+Every sudden emotion, including astonishment, quickens the action of
+the heart, and with it the respiration. Now we can breathe, as
+Gratiolet remarks[1207] and as appears to me to be the case, much more
+quietly through the open mouth than through the nostrils. Therefore,
+when we wish to listen intently to any sound, we either stop breathing,
+or breathe as quietly as possible, by opening our mouths, at the same
+time keeping our bodies motionless. One of my sons was awakened in the
+night by a noise under circumstances which naturally led to great care,
+and after a few minutes he perceived that his mouth was widely open. He
+then became conscious that he had opened it for the sake of breathing
+as quietly as possible. This view receives support from the reversed
+case which occurs with dogs. A dog when panting after exercise, or on a
+hot day, breathes loudly; but if his attention be suddenly aroused, he
+instantly pricks his ears to listen, shuts his mouth, and breathes
+quietly, as he is enabled to do, through his nostrils.
+
+When the attention is concentrated for a length of time with fixed
+earnestness on any object or subject, all the organs of the body are
+forgotten and neglected;[1208] and as the nervous energy of each
+individual is limited in amount, little is transmitted to any part of
+the system, excepting that which is at the time brought into energetic
+action. Therefore many of the muscles tend to become relaxed, and the
+jaw drops from its own weight. This will account for the dropping of
+the jaw and open mouth of a man stupefied with amazement, and perhaps
+when less strongly affected. I have noticed this appearance, as I find
+recorded in my notes, in very young children when they were only
+moderately surprised.
+
+There is still another and highly effective cause, leading to the mouth
+being opened, when we are astonished, and more especially when we are
+suddenly startled. We can draw a full and deep inspiration much more
+easily through the widely open mouth than through the nostrils. Now
+when we start at any sudden sound or sight, almost all the muscles of
+the body are involuntarily and momentarily thrown into strong action,
+for the sake of guarding ourselves against or jumping away from the
+danger, which we habitually associate with anything unexpected. But we
+always unconsciously prepare ourselves for any great exertion, as
+formerly explained, by first taking a deep and full inspiration, and we
+consequently open our mouths. If no exertion follows, and we still
+remain astonished, we cease for a time to breathe, or breathe as
+quietly as possible, in order that every sound may be distinctly heard.
+Or again, if our attention continues long and earnestly absorbed, all
+our muscles become relaxed, and the jaw, which was at first suddenly
+opened, remains dropped. Thus several causes concur towards this same
+movement, whenever surprise, astonishment, or amazement is felt.
+
+Although when thus affected, our mouths are generally opened, yet the
+lips are often a little protruded. This fact reminds us of the same
+movement, though in a much more strongly marked degree, in the
+chimpanzee and orang when astonished. As a strong expiration naturally
+follows the deep inspiration which accompanies the first sense of
+startled surprise, and as the lips are often protruded, the various
+sounds which are then commonly uttered can apparently be accounted for.
+But sometimes a strong expiration alone is heard; thus Laura Bridgman,
+when amazed, rounds and protrudes her lips, opens them, and breathes
+strongly.[1209] One of the commonest sounds is a deep _Oh_; and this
+would naturally follow, as explained by Helmholtz, from the mouth being
+moderately opened and the lips protruded. On a quiet night some rockets
+were fired from the ‘Beagle,’ in a little creek at Tahiti, to amuse the
+natives; and as each rocket, was let off there was absolute silence,
+but this was invariably followed by a deep groaning _Oh_, resounding
+all round the bay. Mr. Washington Matthews says that the North American
+Indians express astonishment by a groan; and the negroes on the West
+Coast of Africa, according to Mr. Winwood Reade, protrude their lips,
+and make a sound like _heigh, heigh_. If the mouth is not much opened,
+whilst the lips are considerably protruded, a blowing, hissing, or
+whistling noise is produced. Mr. R. Brough Smith informs me that an
+Australian from the interior was taken to the theatre to see an acrobat
+rapidly turning head over heels: “he was greatly astonished, and
+protruded his lips, making a noise with his mouth as if blowing out a
+match.” According to Mr. Bulmer the Australians, when surprised, utter
+the exclamation _korki_, “and to do this the mouth is drawn out as if
+going to whistle.” We Europeans often whistle as a sign of surprise;
+thus, in a recent novel[1210] it is said, “here the man expressed his
+astonishment and disapprobation by a prolonged whistle.” A Kafir girl,
+as Mr. J. Mansel Weale informs me, “on hearing of the high price of an
+article, raised her eyebrows and whistled just as a European would.”
+Mr. Wedgwood remarks that such sounds are written down as _whew_, and
+they serve as interjections for surprise.
+
+According to three other observers, the Australians often evince
+astonishment by a clucking noise. Europeans also sometimes express
+gentle surprise by a little clicking noise of nearly the same kind. We
+have seen that when we are startled, the mouth is suddenly opened; and
+if the tongue happens to be then pressed closely against the palate,
+its sudden withdrawal will produce a sound of this kind, which might
+thus come to express surprise.
+
+
+
+Gestures of the Body. Plate VII
+
+Turning to gestures of the body. A surprised person often raises his
+opened hands high above his head, or by bending his arms only to the
+level of his face. The flat palms are directed towards the person who
+causes this feeling, and the straightened fingers are separated. This
+gesture is represented by Mr. Rejlander in Plate VII. fig. 1. In the
+‘Last Supper,’ by Leonardo da Vinci, two of the Apostles have their
+hands half uplifted, clearly expressive of their astonishment. A
+trustworthy observer told me that he had lately met his wife under most
+unexpected circumstances: “She started, opened her mouth and eyes very
+widely, and threw up both her arms above her head.” Several years ago I
+was surprised by seeing several of my young children earnestly doing
+something together on the ground; but the distance was too great for me
+to ask what they were about. Therefore I threw up my open hands with
+extended fingers above my head; and as soon as I had done this, I
+became conscious of the action. I then waited, without saying a word,
+to see if my children had understood this gesture; and as they came
+running to me they cried out, “We saw that you were astonished at us.”
+I do not know whether this gesture is common to the various races of
+man, as I neglected to make inquiries on this head. That it is innate
+or natural may be inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman, when
+amazed, “spreads her arms and turns her hands with extended fingers
+upwards;”[1211] nor is it likely, considering that the feeling of
+surprise is generally a brief one, that she should have learnt this
+gesture through her keen sense of touch.
+
+Huschke describes[1212] a somewhat different yet allied gesture, which
+he says is exhibited by persons when astonished. They hold themselves
+erect, with the features as before described, but with the straightened
+arms extended backwards—the stretched fingers being separated from each
+other. I have never myself seen this gesture; but Huschke is probably
+correct; for a friend asked another man how he would express great
+astonishment, and he at once threw himself into this attitude.
+
+These gestures are, I believe, explicable on the principle of
+antithesis. We have seen that an indignant man holds his head erect,
+squares his shoulders, turns out his elbows, often clenches his fist,
+frowns, and closes his mouth; whilst the attitude of a helpless man is
+in every one of these details the reverse. Now, a man in an ordinary
+frame of mind, doing nothing and thinking of nothing in particular,
+usually keeps his two arms suspended laxly by his sides, with his hands
+somewhat flexed, and the fingers near together. Therefore, to raise the
+arms suddenly, either the whole arms or the fore-arms, to open the
+palms flat, and to separate the fingers,—or, again, to straighten the
+arms, extending them backwards with separated fingers,—are movements in
+complete antithesis to those preserved under an indifferent frame of
+mind, and they are, in consequence, unconsciously assumed by an
+astonished man. There is, also, often a desire to display surprise in a
+conspicuous manner, and the above attitudes are well fitted for this
+purpose. It may be asked why should surprise, and only a few other
+states of the mind, be exhibited by movements in antithesis to others.
+But this principle will not be brought into play in the case of those
+emotions, such as terror, great joy, suffering, or rage, which
+naturally lead to certain lines of action and produce certain effects
+on the body, for the whole system is thus preoccupied; and these
+emotions are already thus expressed with the greatest plainness.
+
+There is another little gesture, expressive of astonishment of which I
+can offer no explanation; namely, the hand being placed over the mouth
+or on some part of the head. This has been observed with so many races
+of man, that it must have some natural origin. A wild Australian was
+taken into a large room full of official papers, which surprised him
+greatly, and he cried out, _cluck, cluck, cluck_, putting the back of
+his hand towards his lips. Mrs. Barber says that the Kafirs and Fingoes
+express astonishment by a serious look and by placing the right hand
+upon the mouth, uttering the word _mawo_, which means ‘wonderful.’ The
+Bushmen are said[1213] to put their right hands to their necks, bending
+their heads backwards. Mr. Winwood Reade has observed that the negroes
+on the West Coast of Africa, when surprised, clap their hands to their
+mouths, saying at the same time, “My mouth cleaves to me,” i. e. to my
+hands; and he has heard that this is their usual gesture on such
+occasions. Captain Speedy informs me that the Abyssinians place their
+right hand to the forehead, with the palm outside. Lastly, Mr.
+Washington Matthews states that the conventional sign of astonishment
+with the wild tribes of the western parts of the United States “is made
+by placing the half-closed hand over the mouth; in doing this, the head
+is often bent forwards, and words or low groans are sometimes uttered.”
+Catlin[1214] makes the same remark about the hand being pressed over
+the mouth by the Mandans and other Indian tribes.
+
+_Admiration_.—Little need be said on this head. Admiration apparently
+consists of surprise associated with some pleasure and a sense of
+approval. When vividly felt, the eyes are opened and the eyebrows
+raised; the eyes become bright, instead of remaining blank, as under
+simple astonishment; and the mouth, instead of gaping open, expands
+into a smile.
+
+_Fear, Terror_.—The word ‘fear’ seems to be derived from what is sudden
+and dangerous;[1215] and that of terror from the trembling of the vocal
+organs and body. I use the word ‘terror’ for extreme fear; but some
+writers think it ought to be confined to cases in which the imagination
+is more particularly concerned. Fear is often preceded by astonishment,
+and is so far akin to it, that both lead to the senses of sight and
+hearing being instantly aroused. In both cases the eyes and mouth are
+widely opened, and the eyebrows raised. The frightened man at first
+stands like a statue motionless and breathless, or crouches down as if
+instinctively to escape observation.
+
+The heart beats quickly and violently, so that it palpitates or knocks
+against the ribs; but it is very doubtful whether it then works more
+efficiently than usual, so as to send a greater supply of blood to all
+parts of the body; for the skin instantly becomes pale, as during
+incipient faintness. This paleness of the surface, however, is probably
+in large part, or exclusively, due to the vasomotor centre being
+affected in such a manner as to cause the contraction of the small
+arteries of the skin. That the skin is much affected under the sense of
+great fear, we see in the marvellous and inexplicable manner in which
+perspiration immediately exudes from it. This exudation is all the more
+remarkable, as the surface is then cold, and hence the term a cold
+sweat; whereas, the sudorific glands are properly excited into action
+when the surface is heated. The hairs also on the skin stand erect; and
+the superficial muscles shiver. In connection with the disturbed action
+of the heart, the breathing is hurried. The salivary glands act
+imperfectly; the mouth becomes dry,[1216] and is often opened and shut.
+I have also noticed that under slight fear there is a strong tendency
+to yawn. One of the best-marked symptoms is the trembling of all the
+muscles of the body; and this is often first seen in the lips. From
+this cause, and from the dryness of the mouth, the voice becomes husky
+or indistinct, or may altogether fail. “Obstupui, steteruntque comae,
+et vox faucibus haesit.”
+
+Of vague fear there is a well-known and grand description in Job:—“In
+thoughts from the visions of the night, when deep sleep falleth on men,
+fear came upon me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake.
+Then a spirit passed before my face; the hair of my flesh stood up. It
+stood still, but I could not discern the form thereof: an image was
+before my eyes, there was silence, and I heard a voice, saying, Shall
+mortal man be more just than God? Shall a man be more pure than his
+Maker?” (Job iv. 13)
+
+As fear increases into an agony of terror, we behold, as under all
+violent emotions, diversified results. The heart beats wildly, or may
+fail to act and faintness ensue; there is a death-like pallor; the
+breathing is laboured; the wings of the nostrils are wildly dilated;
+“there is a gasping and convulsive motion of the lips, a tremor on the
+hollow cheek, a gulping and catching of the throat;”[1217] the
+uncovered and protruding eyeballs are fixed on the object of terror; or
+they may roll restlessly from side to side, _huc illuc volvens oculos
+totumque pererrat_.[1218] The pupils are said to be enormously dilated.
+All the muscles of the body may become rigid, or may be thrown into
+convulsive movements. The hands are alternately clenched and opened,
+often with a twitching movement. The arms may be protruded, as if to
+avert some dreadful danger, or may be thrown wildly over the head. The
+Rev. Mr. Hagenauer has seen this latter action in a terrified
+Australian. In other cases there is a sudden and uncontrollable
+tendency to headlong flight; and so strong is this, that the boldest
+soldiers may be seized with a sudden panic.
+
+As fear rises to an extreme pitch, the dreadful scream of terror is
+heard. Great beads of sweat stand on the skin. All the muscles of the
+body are relaxed. Utter prostration soon follows, and the mental powers
+fail. The intestines are affected. The sphincter muscles cease to act,
+and no longer retain the contents of the body.
+
+
+
+Photograph of an Insane Woman. Fig. 19
+
+Dr. J. Crichton Browne has given me so striking an account of intense
+fear in an insane woman, aged thirty-five, that the description though
+painful ought not to be omitted. When a paroxysm seizes her, she
+screams out, “This is hell!” “There is a black woman!” “I can’t get
+out!”—and other such exclamations. When thus screaming, her movements
+are those of alternate tension and tremor. For one instant she clenches
+her hands, holds her arms out before her in a stiff semi-flexed
+position; then suddenly bends her body forwards, sways rapidly to and
+fro, draws her fingers through her hair, clutches at her neck, and
+tries to tear off her clothes. The sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles (which
+serve to bend the head on the chest) stand out prominently, as if
+swollen, and the skin in front of them is much wrinkled. Her hair,
+which is cut short at the back of her head, and is smooth when she is
+calm, now stands on end; that in front being dishevelled by the
+movements of her hands. The countenance expresses great mental agony.
+The skin is flushed over the face and neck, down to the clavicles, and
+the veins of the forehead and neck stand out like thick cords. The
+lower lip drops, and is somewhat everted. The mouth is kept half open,
+with the lower jaw projecting. The cheeks are hollow and deeply
+furrowed in curved lines running from the wings of the nostrils to the
+corners of the mouth. The nostrils themselves are raised and extended.
+The eyes are widely opened, and beneath them the skin appears swollen;
+the pupils are large. The forehead is wrinkled transversely in many
+folds, and at the inner extremities of the eyebrows it is strongly
+furrowed in diverging lines, produced by the powerful and persistent
+contraction of the corrugators.
+
+
+
+Terror. Fig. 20
+
+Mr. Bell has also described[1219] an agony of terror and of despair,
+which he witnessed in a murderer, whilst carried to the place of
+execution in Turin. “On each side of the car the officiating priests
+were seated; and in the centre sat the criminal himself. It was
+impossible to witness the condition of this unhappy wretch without
+terror; and yet, as if impelled by some strange infatuation, it was
+equally impossible not to gaze upon an object so wild, so full of
+horror. He seemed about thirty-five years of age; of large and muscular
+form; his countenance marked by strong and savage features; half naked,
+pale as death, agonized with terror, every limb strained in anguish,
+his hands clenched convulsively, the sweat breaking out on his bent and
+contracted brow, he kissed incessantly the figure of our Saviour,
+painted on the flag which was suspended before him; but with an agony
+of wildness and despair, of which nothing ever exhibited on the stage
+can give the slightest conception.”
+
+I will add only one other case, illustrative of a man utterly
+prostrated by terror. An atrocious murderer of two persons was brought
+into a hospital, under the mistaken impression that he had poisoned
+himself; and Dr. W. Ogle carefully watched him the next morning, while
+he was being handcuffed and taken away by the police. His pallor was
+extreme, and his prostration so great that he was hardly able to dress
+himself. His skin perspired; and his eyelids and head drooped so much
+that it was impossible to catch even a glimpse of his eyes. His lower
+jaw hung down. There was no contraction of any facial muscle, and Dr.
+Ogle is almost certain that the hair did not stand on end, for he
+observed it narrowly, as it had been dyed for the sake of concealment.
+
+With respect to fear, as exhibited by the various races of man, my
+informants agree that the signs are the same as with Europeans. They
+are displayed in an exaggerated degree with the Hindoos and natives of
+Ceylon. Mr. Geach has seen Malays when terrified turn pale and shake;
+and Mr. Brough Smyth states that a native Australian “being on one
+occasion much frightened, showed a complexion as nearly approaching to
+what we call paleness, as can well be conceived in the case of a very
+black man.” Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen extreme fear shown in an
+Australian, by a nervous twitching of the hands, feet, and lips; and by
+the perspiration standing on the skin. Many savages do not repress the
+signs of fear so much as Europeans; and they often tremble greatly.
+With the Kafir, Gaika says, in his rather quaint English, the shaking
+“of the body is much experienced, and the eyes are widely open.” With
+savages, the sphincter muscles are often relaxed, just as may be
+observed in much frightened dogs, and as I have seen with monkeys when
+terrified by being caught.
+
+_The erection of the hair_.—Some of the signs of fear deserve a little
+further consideration. Poets continually speak of the hair standing on
+end; Brutus says to the ghost of Caesar, “that mak’st my blood cold,
+and my hair to stare.” And Cardinal Beaufort, after the murder of
+Gloucester exclaims, “Comb down his hair; look, look, it stands
+upright.” As I did not feel sure whether writers of fiction might not
+have applied to man what they had often observed in animals, I begged
+for information from Dr. Crichton Browne with respect to the insane. He
+states in answer that he has repeatedly seen their hair erected under
+the influence of sudden and extreme terror. For instance, it is
+occasionally necessary to inject morphia, under the skin of an insane
+woman, who dreads the operation extremely, though it causes very little
+pain; for she believes that poison is being introduced into her system,
+and that her bones will be softened, and her flesh turned into dust.
+She becomes deadly pale; her limbs are stiffened by a sort of tetanic
+spasm, and her hair is partially erected on the front of the head.
+
+Dr. Browne further remarks that the bristling of the hair which is so
+common in the insane, is not always associated with terror. It is
+perhaps most frequently seen in chronic maniacs, who rave incoherently
+and have destructive impulses; but it is during their paroxysms of
+violence that the bristling is most observable. The fact of the hair
+becoming erect under the influence both of rage and fear agrees
+perfectly with what we have seen in the lower animals. Dr. Browne
+adduces several cases in evidence. Thus with a man now in the Asylum,
+before the recurrence of each maniacal paroxysm, “the hair rises up
+from his forehead like the mane of a Shetland pony.” He has sent me
+photographs of two women, taken in the intervals between their
+paroxysms, and he adds with respect to one of these women, “that the
+state of her hair is a sure and convenient criterion of her mental
+condition.” I have had one of these photographs copied, and the
+engraving gives, if viewed from a little distance, a faithful
+representation of the original, with the exception that the hair
+appears rather too coarse and too much curled. The extraordinary
+condition of the hair in the insane is due, not only to its erection,
+but to its dryness and harshness, consequent on the subcutaneous glands
+failing to act. Dr. Bucknill has said[1220] that a lunatic “is a
+lunatic to his finger’s ends;” he might have added, and often to the
+extremity of each particular hair.
+
+Dr. Browne mentions as an empirical confirmation of the relation which
+exists in the insane between the state of their hair and minds, that
+the wife of a medical man, who has charge of a lady suffering from
+acute melancholia, with a strong fear of death, for herself, her
+husband and children, reported verbally to him the day before receiving
+my letter as follows, “I think Mrs. —— will soon improve, for her hair
+is getting smooth; and I always notice that our patients get better
+whenever their hair ceases to be rough and unmanageable.”
+
+Dr. Browne attributes the persistently rough condition of the hair in
+many insane patients, in part to their minds being always somewhat
+disturbed, and in part to the effects of habit,—that is, to the hair
+being frequently and strongly erected during their many recurrent
+paroxysms. In patients in whom the bristling of the hair is extreme,
+the disease is generally permanent and mortal; but in others, in whom
+the bristling is moderate, as soon as they recover their health of mind
+the hair recovers its smoothness.
+
+In a previous chapter we have seen that with animals the hairs are
+erected by the contraction of minute, unstriped, and involuntary
+muscles, which run to each separate follicle. In addition to this
+action, Mr. J. Wood has clearly ascertained by experiment, as he
+informs me, that with man the hairs on the front of the head which
+slope forwards, and those on the back which slope backwards, are raised
+in opposite directions by the contraction of the occipito-frontalis or
+scalp muscle. So that this muscle seems to aid in the erection of the
+hairs on the head of man in the same manner as the homologous
+_panniculus carnosus_ aids, or takes the greater part, in the erection
+of the spines on the backs of some of the lower animals.
+
+_Contraction of the platysma myoides muscle_.—This muscle is spread
+over the sides of the neck, extending downwards to a little beneath the
+collar-bones, and upwards to the lower part of the cheeks. A portion,
+called the risorius, is represented in the woodcut (M) fig. 2. The
+contraction of this muscle draws the corners of the mouth and the lower
+parts of the checks downwards and backwards. It produces at the same
+time divergent, longitudinal, prominent ridges on the sides of the neck
+in the young; and, in old thin persons, fine transverse wrinkles. This
+muscle is sometimes said not to be under the control of the will; but
+almost every one, if told to draw the corners of his mouth backwards
+and downwards with great force, brings it into action. I have, however,
+heard of a man who can voluntarily act on it only on one side of his
+neck.
+
+Sir C. Bell[1221] and others have stated that this muscle is strongly
+contracted under the influence of fear; and Duchenne insists so
+strongly on its importance in the expression of this emotion, that he
+calls it the _muscle of fright_.[1222] He admits, however, that its
+contraction is quite inexpressive unless associated with widely open
+eyes and mouth. He has given a photograph (copied and reduced in the
+accompanying woodcut) of the same old man as on former occasions, with
+his eyebrows strongly raised, his mouth opened, and the platysma
+contracted, all by means of galvanism. The original photograph was
+shown to twenty-four persons, and they were separately asked, without
+any explanation being given, what expression was intended: twenty
+instantly answered, “intense fright” or “horror”; three said pain, and
+one extreme discomfort. Dr. Duchenne has given another photograph of
+the same old man, with the platysma contracted, the eyes and mouth
+opened, and the eyebrows rendered oblique, by means of galvanism. The
+expression thus induced is very striking (see Plate VII. fig. 2); the
+obliquity of the eyebrows adding the appearance of great mental
+distress. The original was shown to fifteen persons; twelve answered
+terror or horror, and three agony or great suffering. From these cases,
+and from an examination of the other photographs given by Dr. Duchenne,
+together with his remarks thereon, I think there can be little doubt
+that the contraction of the platysma does add greatly to the expression
+of fear. Nevertheless this muscle ought hardly to be called that of
+fright, for its contraction is certainly not a necessary concomitant of
+this state of mind.
+
+A man may exhibit extreme terror in the plainest manner by death-like
+pallor, by drops of perspiration on his skin, and by utter prostration,
+with all the muscles of his body, including the platysma, completely
+relaxed. Although Dr. Browne has often seen this muscle quivering and
+contracting in the insane, he has not been able to connect its action
+with any emotional condition in them, though he carefully attended to
+patients suffering from great fear. Mr. Nicol, on the other hand, has
+observed three cases in which this muscle appeared to be more or less
+permanently contracted under the influence of melancholia, associated
+with much dread; but in one of these cases, various other muscles about
+the neck and head were subject to spasmodic contractions.
+
+Dr. W. Ogle observed for me in one of the London hospitals about twenty
+patients, just before they were put under the influence of chloroform
+for operations. They exhibited some trepidation, but no great terror.
+In only four of the cases was the platysma visibly contracted; and it
+did not begin to contract until the patients began to cry. The muscle
+seemed to contract at the moment of each deep-drawn inspiration; so
+that it is very doubtful whether the contraction depended at all on the
+emotion of fear. In a fifth case, the patient, who was not
+chloroformed, was much terrified; and his platysma was more forcibly
+and persistently contracted than in the other cases. But even here
+there is room for doubt, for the muscle which appeared to be unusually
+developed, was seen by Dr. Ogle to contract as the man moved his head
+from the pillow, after the operation was over.
+
+As I felt much perplexed why, in any case, a superficial muscle on the
+neck should be especially affected by fear, I applied to my many
+obliging correspondents for information about the contraction of this
+muscle under other circumstances. It would be superfluous to give all
+the answers which I have received. They show that this muscle acts,
+often in a variable manner and degree, under many different conditions.
+It is violently contracted in hydrophobia, and in a somewhat less
+degree in lockjaw; sometimes in a marked manner during the
+insensibility from chloroform. Dr. W. Ogle observed two male patients,
+suffering from such difficulty in breathing, that the trachea had to be
+opened, and in both the platysma was strongly contracted. One of these
+men overheard the conversation of the surgeons surrounding him, and
+when he was able to speak, declared that he had not been frightened. In
+some other cases of extreme difficulty of respiration, though not
+requiring tracheotomy, observed by Drs. Ogle and Langstaff, the
+platysma was not contracted.
+
+Mr. J. Wood, who has studied with such care the muscles of the human
+body, as shown by his various publications, has often seen the platysma
+contracted in vomiting, nausea, and disgust; also in children and
+adults under the influence of rage,—for instance, in Irishwomen,
+quarrelling and brawling together with angry gesticulations. This may
+possibly have been due to their high and angry tones; for I know a
+lady, an excellent musician, who, in singing certain high notes, always
+contracts her platysma. So does a young man, as I have observed, in
+sounding certain notes on the flute. Mr. J. Wood informs me that he has
+found the platysma best developed in persons with thick necks and broad
+shoulders; and that in families inheriting these peculiarities, its
+development is usually associated with much voluntary power over the
+homologous occipito-frontalis muscle, by which the scalp can be moved.
+
+None of the foregoing cases appear to throw any light on the
+contraction of the platysma from fear; but it is different, I think,
+with the following cases. The gentleman before referred to, who can
+voluntarily act on this muscle only on one side of his neck, is
+positive that it contracts on both sides whenever he is startled.
+Evidence has already been given showing that this muscle sometimes
+contracts, perhaps for the sake of opening the mouth widely, when the
+breathing is rendered difficult by disease, and during the deep
+inspirations of crying-fits before an operation. Now, whenever a person
+starts at any sudden sight or sound, he instantaneously draws a deep
+breath; and thus the contraction of the platysma may possibly have
+become associated with the sense of fear. But there is, I believe, a
+more efficient relation. The first sensation of fear, or the
+imagination of something dreadful, commonly excites a shudder. I have
+caught myself giving a little involuntary shudder at a painful thought,
+and I distinctly perceived that my platysma contracted; so it does if I
+simulate a shudder. I have asked others to act in this manner; and in
+some the muscle contracted, but not in others. One of my sons, whilst
+getting out of bed, shuddered from the cold, and, as he happened to
+have his hand on his neck, he plainly felt that this muscle strongly
+contracted. He then voluntarily shuddered, as he had done on former
+occasions, but the platysma was not then affected. Mr. J. Wood has also
+several times observed this muscle contracting in patients, when
+stripped for examination, and who were not frightened, but shivered
+slightly from the cold. Unfortunately I have not been able to ascertain
+whether, when the whole body shakes, as in the cold stage of an ague
+fit, the platysma contracts. But as it certainly often contracts during
+a shudder; and as a shudder or shiver often accompanies the first
+sensation of fear, we have, I think, a clue to its action in this
+latter case.[1223] Its contraction, however, is not an invariable
+concomitant of fear; for it probably never acts under the influence of
+extreme, prostrating terror.
+
+_Dilatation of the Pupils_.—Gratiolet repeatedly insists[1224] that the
+pupils are enormously dilated whenever terror is felt. I have no reason
+to doubt the accuracy of this statement, but have failed to obtain
+confirmatory evidence, excepting in the one instance before given of an
+insane woman suffering from great fear. When writers of fiction speak
+of the eyes being widely dilated, I presume that they refer to the
+eyelids. Munro’s statement, that with parrots the iris is affected by
+the passions, independently of the amount of light, seems to bear on
+this question; but Professor Donders informs me, that he has often seen
+movements in the pupils of these birds which he thinks may be related
+to their power of accommodation to distance, in nearly the same manner
+as our own pupils contract when our eyes converge for near vision.
+Gratiolet remarks that the dilated pupils appear as if they were gazing
+into profound darkness. No doubt the fears of man have often been
+excited in the dark; but hardly so often or so exclusively, as to
+account for a fixed and associated habit having thus arisen. It seems
+more probable, assuming that Gratiolet’s statement is correct, that the
+brain is directly affected by the powerful emotion of fear and reacts
+on the pupils; but Professor Donders informs me that this is an
+extremely complicated subject. I may add, as possibly throwing light on
+the subject, that Dr. Fyffe, of Netley Hospital, has observed in two
+patients that the pupils were distinctly dilated during the cold stage
+of an ague fit. Professor Donders has also often seen dilatation of the
+pupils in incipient faintness.[1225]
+
+_Horror_.—The state of mind expressed by this term implies terror, and
+is in some, cases almost synonymous with it. Many a man must have felt,
+before the blessed discovery of chloroform, great horror at the thought
+of an impending surgical operation. He who dreads, as well as hates a
+man, will feel, as Milton uses the word, a horror of him. We feel
+horror if we see any one, for instance a child, exposed to some instant
+and crushing danger. Almost every one would experience the same feeling
+in the highest degree in witnessing a man being tortured or going to be
+tortured. In these cases there is no danger to ourselves; but from the
+power of the imagination and of sympathy we put ourselves in the
+position of the sufferer, and feel something akin to fear.
+
+
+
+Horror and Agony. Fig. 21
+
+Sir C. Bell remarks,[1226] that “horror is full of energy; the body is
+in the utmost tension, not unnerved by fear.” It is, therefore,
+probable that horror would generally be accompanied by the strong
+contraction of the brows; but as fear is one of the elements, the eyes
+and mouth would be opened, and the eyebrows would be raised, as far as
+the antagonistic action of the corrugators permitted this movement.
+Duchenne has given a photograph[1227] (fig. 21) of the same old man as
+before, with his eyes somewhat staring, the eyebrows partially raised,
+and at the same time strongly contracted, the mouth opened, and the
+platysma in action, all effected by the means of galvanism. He
+considers that the expression thus produced shows extreme terror with
+horrible pain or torture. A tortured man, as long as his sufferings
+allowed him to feel any dread for the future, would probably exhibit
+horror in an extreme degree. I have shown the original of this
+photograph to twenty-three persons of both sexes and various ages; and
+thirteen immediately answered horror, great pain, torture, or agony;
+three answered extreme fright; so that sixteen answered nearly in
+accordance with Duchenne’s belief. Six, however, said anger, guided no
+doubt, by the strongly contracted brows, and overlooking the peculiarly
+opened mouth. One said disgust. On the whole, the evidence indicates
+that we have here a fairly good representation of horror and agony. The
+photograph before referred to (Pl. VII. fig. 2) likewise exhibits
+horror; but in this the oblique eyebrows indicate great mental distress
+in place of energy.
+
+Horror is generally accompanied by various gestures, which differ in
+different individuals. Judging from pictures, the whole body is often
+turned away or shrinks; or the arms are violently protruded as if to
+push away some dreadful object. The most frequent gesture, as far as
+can be inferred from the action of persons who endeavour to express a
+vividly-imagined scene of horror, is the raising of both shoulders,
+with the bent arms pressed closely against the sides or chest. These
+movements are nearly the same with those commonly made when we feel
+very cold; and they are generally accompanied by a shudder, as well as
+by a deep expiration or inspiration, according as the chest happens at
+the time to be expanded or contracted. The sounds thus made are
+expressed by words like _uh_ or _ugh_.[1228] It is not, however,
+obvious why, when we feel cold or express a sense of horror, we press
+our bent arms against our bodies, raise our shoulders, and shudder.
+
+_Conclusion_.—I have now endeavoured to describe the diversified
+expressions of fear, in its gradations from mere attention to a start
+of surprise, into extreme terror and horror. Some of the signs may be
+accounted for through the principles of habit, association, and
+inheritance,—such as the wide opening of the mouth and eyes, with
+upraised eyebrows, so as to see as quickly as possible all around us,
+and to hear distinctly whatever sound may reach our ears. For we have
+thus habitually prepared ourselves to discover and encounter any
+danger. Some of the other signs of fear may likewise be accounted for,
+at least in part, through these same principles. Men, during numberless
+generations, have endeavoured to escape from their enemies or danger by
+headlong flight, or by violently struggling with them; and such great
+exertions will have caused the heart to beat rapidly, the breathing to
+be hurried, the chest to heave, and the nostrils to be dilated. As
+these exertions have often been prolonged to the last extremity, the
+final result will have been utter prostration, pallor, perspiration,
+trembling of all the muscles, or their complete relaxation. And now,
+whenever the emotion of fear is strongly felt, though it may not lead
+to any exertion, the same results tend to reappear, through the force
+of inheritance and association.
+
+Nevertheless, it is probable that many or most of the above symptoms of
+terror, such as the beating of the heart, the trembling of the muscles,
+cold perspiration, &c., are in large part directly due to the disturbed
+or interrupted transmission of nerve-force from the cerebro-spinal
+system to various parts of the body, owing to the mind being so
+powerfully affected. We may confidently look to this cause,
+independently of habit and association, in such cases as the modified
+secretions of the intestinal canal, and the failure of certain glands
+to act. With respect to the involuntary bristling of the hair, we have
+good reason to believe that in the case of animals this action, however
+it may have originated, serves, together with certain voluntary
+movements, to make them appear terrible to their enemies; and as the
+same involuntary and voluntary actions are performed by animals nearly
+related to man, we are led to believe that man has retained through
+inheritance a relic of them, now become useless. It is certainly a
+remarkable fact, that the minute unstriped muscles, by which the hairs
+thinly scattered over man’s almost naked body are erected, should have
+been preserved to the present day; and that they should still contract
+under the same emotions, namely, terror and rage, which cause the hairs
+to stand on end in the lower members of the Order to which man belongs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII. SELF-ATTENTION—SHAME—SHYNESS—MODESTY: BLUSHING.
+
+Nature of a blush—Inheritance—The parts of the body most
+affected—Blushing in the various races of man—Accompanying
+gestures—Confusion of mind—Causes of blushing—Self-attention, the
+fundamental element—Shyness—Shame, from broken moral laws and
+conventional rules—Modesty—Theory of blushing—Recapitulation.
+
+Blushing is the most peculiar and the most human of all expressions.
+Monkeys redden from passion, but it would require an overwhelming
+amount of evidence to make us believe that any animal could blush. The
+reddening of the face from a blush is due to the relaxation of the
+muscular coats of the small arteries, by which the capillaries become
+filled with blood; and this depends on the proper vaso-motor centre
+being affected. No doubt if there be at the same time much mental
+agitation, the general circulation will be affected; but it is not due
+to the action of the heart that the network of minute vessels covering
+the face becomes under a sense of shame gorged with blood. We can cause
+laughing by tickling the skin, weeping or frowning by a blow, trembling
+from the fear of pain, and so forth; but we cannot cause a blush, as
+Dr. Burgess remarks,[1301] by any physical means,—that is by any action
+on the body. It is the mind which must be affected. Blushing is not
+only involuntary; but the wish to restrain it, by leading to
+self-attention actually increases the tendency.
+
+The young blush much more freely than the old, but not during
+infancy,[1302] which is remarkable, as we know that infants at a very
+early age redden from passion. I have received authentic accounts of
+two little girls blushing at the ages of between two and three years;
+and of another sensitive child, a year older, blushing, when reproved
+for a fault. Many children, at a somewhat more advanced age blush in a
+strongly marked manner. It appears that the mental powers of infants
+are not as yet sufficiently developed to allow of their blushing.
+Hence, also, it is that idiots rarely blush. Dr. Crichton Browne
+observed for me those under his care, but never saw a genuine blush,
+though he has seen their faces flush, apparently from joy, when food
+was placed before them, and from anger. Nevertheless some, if not
+utterly degraded, are capable of blushing. A microcephalous idiot, for
+instance, thirteen years old, whose eyes brightened a little when he
+was pleased or amused, has been described by Dr. Behn,[1303] as
+blushing and turning to one side, when undressed for medical
+examination.
+
+Women blush much more than men. It is rare to see an old man, but not
+nearly so rare to see an old woman blushing. The blind do not escape.
+Laura Bridgman, born in this condition, as well as completely deaf,
+blushes.[1304] The Rev. R. H. Blair, Principal of the Worcester
+College, informs me that three children born blind, out of seven or
+eight then in the Asylum, are great blushers. The blind are not at
+first conscious that they are observed, and it is a most important part
+of their education, as Mr. Blair informs me, to impress this knowledge
+on their minds; and the impression thus gained would greatly strengthen
+the tendency to blush, by increasing the habit of self-attention.
+
+The tendency to blush is inherited. Dr. Burgess gives the case[1305] of
+a family consisting of a father, mother, and ten children, all of whom,
+without exception, were prone to blush to a most painful degree. The
+children were grown up; “and some of them were sent to travel in order
+to wear away this diseased sensibility, but nothing was of the
+slightest avail.” Even peculiarities in blushing seem to be inherited.
+Sir James Paget, whilst examining the spine of a girl, was struck at
+her singular manner of blushing; a big splash of red appeared first on
+one cheek, and then other splashes, variously scattered over the face
+and neck. He subsequently asked the mother whether her daughter always
+blushed in this peculiar manner; and was answered, “Yes, she takes
+after me.” Sir J. Paget then perceived that by asking this question he
+had caused the mother to blush; and she exhibited the same peculiarity
+as her daughter.
+
+In most cases the face, ears and neck are the sole parts which redden;
+but many persons, whilst blushing intensely, feel that their whole
+bodies grow hot and tingle; and this shows that the entire surface must
+be in some manner affected. Blushes are said sometimes to commence on
+the forehead, but more commonly on the cheeks, afterwards spreading to
+the ears and neck.[1306] In two Albinos examined by Dr. Burgess, the
+blushes commenced by a small circumscribed spot on the cheeks, over the
+parotidean plexus of nerves, and then increased into a circle; between
+this blushing circle and the blush on the neck there was an evident
+line of demarcation; although both arose simultaneously. The retina,
+which is naturally red in the Albino, invariably increased at the same
+time in redness.[1307] Every one must have noticed how easily after one
+blush fresh blushes chase each other over the face. Blushing is
+preceded by a peculiar sensation in the skin. According to Dr. Burgess
+the reddening of the skin is generally succeeded by a slight pallor,
+which shows that the capillary vessels contract after dilating. In some
+rare cases paleness instead of redness is caused under conditions which
+would naturally induce a blush. For instance, a young lady told me that
+in a large and crowded party she caught her hair so firmly on the
+button of a passing servant, that it took some time before she could be
+extricated; from her sensations she imagined that she had blushed
+crimson; but was assured by a friend that she had turned extremely
+pale.
+
+I was desirous to learn how far down the body blushes extend; and Sir
+J. Paget, who necessarily has frequent opportunities for observation,
+has kindly attended to this point for me during two or three years. He
+finds that with women who blush intensely on the face, ears, and nape
+of neck, the blush does not commonly extend any lower down the body. It
+is rare to see it as low down as the collar-bones and shoulder-blades;
+and he has never himself seen a single instance in which it extended
+below the upper part of the chest. He has also noticed that blushes
+sometimes die away downwards, not gradually and insensibly, but by
+irregular ruddy blotches. Dr. Langstaff has likewise observed for me
+several women whose bodies did not in the least redden while their
+faces were crimsoned with blushes. With the insane, some of whom appear
+to be particularly liable to blushing, Dr. J. Crichton Browne has
+several times seen the blush extend as far down as the collar-bones,
+and in two instances to the breasts. He gives me the case of a married
+woman, aged twenty-seven, who suffered from epilepsy. On the morning
+after her arrival in the Asylum, Dr. Browne, together with his
+assistants, visited her whilst she was in bed. The moment that he
+approached, she blushed deeply over her cheeks and temples; and the
+blush spread quickly to her ears. She was much agitated and tremulous.
+He unfastened the collar of her chemise in order to examine the state
+of her lungs; and then a brilliant blush rushed over her chest, in an
+arched line over the upper third of each breast, and extended downwards
+between the breasts nearly to the ensiform cartilage of the sternum.
+This case is interesting, as the blush did not thus extend downwards
+until it became intense by her attention being drawn to this part of
+her person. As the examination proceeded she became composed, and the
+blush disappeared; but on several subsequent occasions the same
+phenomena were observed.
+
+The foregoing facts show that, as a general rule, with English women,
+blushing does not extend beneath the neck and upper part of the chest.
+Nevertheless Sir J. Paget informs me that he has lately heard of a
+case, on which he can fully rely, in which a little girl, shocked by
+what she imagined to be an act of indelicacy, blushed all over her
+abdomen and the upper parts of her legs. Moreau also[1308] relates, on
+the authority of a celebrated painter, that the chest, shoulders, arms,
+and whole body of a girl, who unwillingly consented to serve as a
+model, reddened when she was first divested of her clothes.
+
+It is a rather curious question why, in most cases the face, ears, and
+neck alone redden, inasmuch as the whole surface of the body often
+tingles and grows hot. This seems to depend, chiefly, on the face and
+adjoining parts of the skin having been habitually exposed to the air,
+light, and alternations of temperature, by which the small arteries not
+only have acquired the habit of readily dilating and contracting, but
+appear to have become unusually developed in comparison with other
+parts of the surface.[1309] It is probably owing to this same cause, as
+M. Moreau and Dr. Burgess have remarked, that the face is so liable to
+redden under various circumstances, such as a fever-fit, ordinary heat,
+violent exertion, anger, a slight blow, &c.; and on the other hand that
+it is liable to grow pale from cold and fear, and to be discoloured
+during pregnancy. The face is also particularly liable to be affected
+by cutaneous complaints, by small-pox, erysipelas, &c. This view is
+likewise supported by the fact that the men of certain races, who
+habitually go nearly naked, often blush over their arms and chests and
+even down to their waists. A lady, who is a great blusher, informs Dr.
+Crichton Browne, that when she feels ashamed or is agitated, she
+blushes over her face, neck, wrists, and hands,—that is, over all the
+exposed portions of her skin. Nevertheless it may be doubted whether
+the habitual exposure of the skin of the face and neck, and its
+consequent power of reaction under stimulants of all kinds, is by
+itself sufficient to account for the much greater tendency in English
+women of these parts than of others to blush; for the hands are well
+supplied with nerves and small vessels, and have been as much exposed
+to the air as the face or neck, and yet the hands rarely blush. We
+shall presently see that the attention of the mind having been directed
+much more frequently and earnestly to the face than to any other part
+of the body, probably affords a sufficient explanation.
+
+_Blushing in the various races of man_.—The small vessels of the face
+become filled with blood, from the emotion of shame, in almost all the
+races of man, though in the very dark races no distinct change of
+colour can be perceived. Blushing is evident in all the Aryan nations
+of Europe, and to a certain extent with those of India. But Mr. Erskine
+has never noticed that the necks of the Hindoos are decidedly affected.
+With the Lepchas of Sikhim, Mr. Scott has often observed a faint blush
+on the cheeks, base of the ears, and sides of the neck, accompanied by
+sunken eyes and lowered head. This has occurred when he has detected
+them in a falsehood, or has accused them of ingratitude. The pale,
+sallow complexions of these men render a blush much more conspicuous
+than in most of the other natives of India. With the latter, shame, or
+it may be in part fear, is expressed, according to Mr. Scott, much more
+plainly by the head being averted or bent down, with the eyes wavering
+or turned askant, than by any change of colour in the skin.
+
+The Semitic races blush freely, as might have been expected, from their
+general similitude to the Aryans. Thus with the Jews, it is said in the
+Book of Jeremiah (chap. vi. 15), “Nay, they were not at all ashamed,
+neither could they blush.” Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab managing his boat
+clumsily on the Nile, and when laughed at by his companions, “he
+blushed quite to the back of his neck.” Lady Duff Gordon remarks that a
+young Arab blushed on coming into her presence.[1310]
+
+Mr. Swinhoe has seen the Chinese blushing, but he thinks it is rare;
+yet they have the expression “to redden with shame.” Mr. Geach informs
+me that the Chinese settled in Malacca and the native Malays of the
+interior both blush. Some of these people go nearly naked, and he
+particularly attended to the downward extension of the blush. Omitting
+the cases in which the face alone was seen to blush, Mr. Geach observed
+that the face, arms, and breast of a Chinaman, aged 24 years, reddened
+from shame; and with another Chinese, when asked why he had not done
+his work in better style, the whole body was similarly affected. In two
+Malays[1311] he saw the face, neck, breast, and arms blushing; and in a
+third Malay (a Bugis) the blush extended down to the waist.
+
+The Polynesians blush freely. The Rev. Mr. Stack has seen hundreds of
+instances with the New Zealanders. The following case is worth giving,
+as it relates to an old man who was unusually dark-coloured and partly
+tattooed. After having let his land to an Englishman for a small yearly
+rental, a strong passion seized him to buy a gig, which had lately
+become the fashion with the Maoris. He consequently wished to draw all
+the rent for four years from his tenant, and consulted Mr. Stack
+whether he could do so. The man was old, clumsy, poor, and ragged, and
+the idea of his driving himself about in his carriage for display
+amused Mr. Stack so much that he could not help bursting out into a
+laugh; and then “the old man blushed up to the roots of his hair.”
+Forster says that “you may easily distinguish a spreading blush” on the
+cheeks of the fairest women in Tahiti.[1312] The natives also of
+several of the other archipelagoes in the Pacific have been seen to
+blush.
+
+Mr. Washington Matthews has often seen a blush on the faces of the
+young squaws belonging to various wild Indian tribes of North America.
+At the opposite extremity of the continent in Tierra del Fuego, the
+natives, according to Mr. Bridges, “blush much, but chiefly in regard
+to women; but they certainly blush also at their own personal
+appearance.” This latter statement agrees with what I remember of the
+Fuegian, Jemmy Button, who blushed when he was quizzed about the care
+which he took in polishing his shoes, and in otherwise adorning
+himself. With respect to the Aymara Indians on the lofty plateaus of
+Bolivia, Mr. Forbes says,[1313] that from the colour of their skins it
+is impossible that their blushes should be as clearly visible as in the
+white races; still under such circumstances as would raise a blush in
+us, “there can always be seen the same expression of modesty or
+confusion; and even in the dark, a rise of temperature of the skin of
+the face can be felt, exactly as occurs in the European.” With the
+Indians who inhabit the hot, equable, and damp parts of South America,
+the skin apparently does not answer to mental excitement so readily as
+with the natives of the northern and southern parts of the continent,
+who have long been exposed to great vicissitudes of climate; for
+Humboldt quotes without a protest the sneer of the Spaniard, “How can
+those be trusted, who know not how to blush?”[1314] Von Spix and
+Martius, in speaking of the aborigines of Brazil, assert that they
+cannot properly be said to blush; “it was only after long intercourse
+with the whites, and after receiving some education, that we perceived
+in the Indians a change of colour expressive of the emotions of their
+minds.”[1315] It is, however, incredible that the power of blushing
+could have thus originated; but the habit of self-attention, consequent
+on their education and new course of life, would have much increased
+any innate tendency to blush.
+
+Several trustworthy observers have assured me that they have seen on
+the faces of negroes an appearance resembling a blush, under
+circumstances which would have excited one in us, though their skins
+were of an ebony-black tint. Some describe it as blushing brown, but
+most say that the blackness becomes more intense. An increased supply
+of blood in the skin seems in some manner to increase its blackness;
+thus certain exanthematous diseases cause the affected places in the
+negro to appear blacker, instead of, as with us, redder.[1316] The
+skin, perhaps, from being rendered more tense by the filling of the
+capillaries, would reflect a somewhat different tint to what it did
+before. That the capillaries of the face in the negro become filled
+with blood, under the emotion of shame, we may feel confident; because
+a perfectly characterized albino negress, described by Buffon,[1317]
+showed a faint tinge of crimson on her cheeks when she exhibited
+herself naked. Cicatrices of the skin remain for a long time white in
+the negro, and Dr. Burgess, who had frequent opportunities of observing
+a scar of this kind on the face of a negress, distinctly saw that it
+“invariably became red whenever she was abruptly spoken to, or charged
+with any trivial offence.”[1318] The blush could be seen proceeding
+from the circumference of the scar towards the middle, but it did not
+reach the centre. Mulattoes are often great blushers, blush succeeding
+blush over their faces. From these facts there can be no doubt that
+negroes blush, although no redness is visible on the skin.
+
+I am assured by Gaika and by Mrs. Barber that the Kafirs of South
+Africa never blush; but this may only mean that no change of colour is
+distinguishable. Gaika adds that under the circumstances which would
+make a European blush, his countrymen “look ashamed to keep their heads
+up.”
+
+It is asserted by four of my informants that the Australians, who are
+almost as black as negroes, never blush. A fifth answers doubtfully,
+remarking that only a very strong blush could be seen, on account of
+the dirty state of their skins. Three observers state that they do
+blush;[1319] Mr. S. Wilson adding that this is noticeable only under a
+strong emotion, and when the skin is not too dark from long exposure
+and want of cleanliness. Mr. Lang answers, “I have noticed that shame
+almost always excites a blush, which frequently extends as low as the
+neck.” Shame is also shown, as he adds, “by the eyes being turned from
+side to side.” As Mr. Lang was a teacher in a native school, it is
+probable that he chiefly observed children; and we know that they blush
+more than adults. Mr. G. Taplin has seen half-castes blushing, and he
+says that the aborigines have a word expressive of shame. Mr.
+Hagenauer, who is one of those who has never observed the Australians
+to blush, says that he has “seen them looking down to the ground on
+account of shame;” and the missionary, Mr. Bulmer, remarks that though
+“I have not been able to detect anything like shame in the adult
+aborigines, I have noticed that the eyes of the children, when ashamed,
+present a restless, watery appearance, as if they did not know where to
+look.”
+
+The facts now given are sufficient to show that blushing, whether or
+not there is any change of colour, is common to most, probably to all,
+of the races of man.
+
+_Movements and gestures which accompany Blushing_.—Under a keen sense
+of shame there is a strong desire for concealment.[1320] We turn away
+the whole body, more especially the face, which we endeavour in some
+manner to hide. An ashamed person can hardly endure to meet the gaze of
+those present, so that he almost invariably casts down his eyes or
+looks askant. As there generally exists at the same time a strong wish
+to avoid the appearance of shame, a vain attempt is made to look direct
+at the person who causes this feeling; and the antagonism between these
+opposite tendencies leads to various restless movements in the eyes. I
+have noticed two ladies who, whilst blushing, to which they are very
+liable, have thus acquired, as it appears, the oddest trick of
+incessantly blinking their eyelids with extraordinary rapidity. An
+intense blush is sometimes accompanied by a slight effusion of
+tears;[1321] and this, I presume, is due to the lacrymal glands
+partaking of the increased supply of blood, which we know rushes into
+the capillaries of the adjoining parts, including the retina.
+
+Many writers, ancient and modern, have noticed the foregoing movements;
+and it has already been shown that the aborigines in various parts of
+the world often exhibit their shame by looking downwards or askant, or
+by restless movements of their eyes. Ezra cries out (ch. ix. 6), “O, my
+God! I am ashamed, and blush to lift up my head to thee, my God.” In
+Isaiah (ch. I. 6) we meet with the words, “I hid not my face from
+shame.” Seneca remarks (Epist. xi. 5) “that the Roman players hang down
+their heads, fix their eyes on the ground and keep them lowered, but
+are unable to blush in acting shame.” According to Macrobius, who lived
+in the filth century (‘Saturnalia,’ B. vii. C. 11), “Natural
+philosophers assert that nature being moved by shame spreads the blood
+before herself as a veil, as we see any one blushing often puts his
+hands before his face.” Shakspeare makes Marcus (‘Titus Andronicus,’
+act ii, sc. 5) say to his niece, “Ah! now thou turn’st away thy face
+for shame.” A lady informs me that she found in the Lock Hospital a
+girl whom she had formerly known, and who had become a wretched
+castaway, and the poor creature, when approached, hid her face under
+the bed-clothes, and could not be persuaded to uncover it. We often see
+little children, when shy or ashamed, turn away, and still standing up,
+bury their faces in their mother’s gown; or they throw themselves face
+downwards on her lap.
+
+_Confusion of mind_.—Most persons, whilst blushing intensely, have
+their mental powers confused. This is recognized in such common
+expressions as “she was covered with confusion.” Persons in this
+condition lose their presence of mind, and utter singularly
+inappropriate remarks. They are often much distressed, stammer, and
+make awkward movements or strange grimaces. In certain cases
+involuntary twitchings of some of the facial muscles may be observed. I
+have been informed by a young lady, who blushes excessively, that at
+such times she does not even know what she is saying. When it was
+suggested to her that this might be due to her distress from the
+consciousness that her blushing was noticed, she answered that this
+could not be the case, “as she had sometimes felt quite as stupid when
+blushing at a thought in her own room.”
+
+I will give an instance of the extreme disturbance of mind to which
+some sensitive men are liable. A gentleman, on whom I can rely, assured
+me that he had been an eye-witness of the following scene:—A small
+dinner-party was given in honour of an extremely shy man, who, when he
+rose to return thanks, rehearsed the speech, which he had evidently
+learnt by heart, in absolute silence, and did not utter a single word;
+but he acted as if he were speaking with much emphasis. His friends,
+perceiving how the case stood, loudly applauded the imaginary bursts of
+eloquence, whenever his gestures indicated a pause, and the man never
+discovered that he had remained the whole time completely silent. On
+the contrary, he afterwards remarked to my friend, with much
+satisfaction, that he thought he had succeeded uncommonly well.
+
+When a person is much ashamed or very shy, and blushes intensely, his
+heart beats rapidly and his breathing is disturbed. This can hardly
+fail to affect the circulation of the blood within the brain, and
+perhaps the mental powers. It seems however doubtful, judging from the
+still more powerful influence of anger and fear on the circulation,
+whether we can thus satisfactorily account for the confused state of
+mind in persons whilst blushing intensely.
+
+The true explanation apparently lies in the intimate sympathy which
+exists between the capillary circulation of the surface of the head and
+face, and that of the brain. On applying to Dr. J. Crichton Browne for
+information, he has given me various facts bearing on this subject.
+When the sympathetic nerve is divided on one side of the head, the
+capillaries on this side are relaxed and become filled with blood,
+causing the skin to redden and to grow hot, and at the same time the
+temperature within the cranium on the same side rises. Inflammation of
+the membranes of the brain leads to the engorgement of the face, ears,
+and eyes with blood. The first stage of an epileptic fit appears to be
+the contraction of the vessels of the brain, and the first outward
+manifestation is, an extreme pallor of countenance. Erysipelas of the
+head commonly induces delirium. Even the relief given to a severe
+headache by burning the skin with strong lotion, depends, I presume, on
+the same principle.
+
+Dr. Browne has often administered to his patients the vapour of the
+nitrite of amyl,[1322] which has the singular property of causing vivid
+redness of the face in from thirty to sixty seconds. This flushing
+resembles blushing in almost every detail: it begins at several
+distinct points on the face, and spreads till it involves the whole
+surface of the head, neck, and front of the chest; but has been
+observed to extend only in one case to the abdomen. The arteries in the
+retina become enlarged; the eyes glisten, and in one instance there was
+a slight effusion of tears. The patients are at first pleasantly
+stimulated, but, as the flushing increases, they become confused and
+bewildered. One woman to whom the vapour had often been administered
+asserted that, as soon as she grew hot, she grew MUDDLED. With persons
+just commencing to blush it appears, judging from their bright eyes and
+lively behaviour, that their mental powers are somewhat stimulated. It
+is only when the blushing is excessive that the mind grows confused.
+Therefore it would seem that the capillaries of the face are affected,
+both during the inhalation of the nitrite of amyl and during blushing,
+before that part of the brain is affected on which the mental powers
+depend.
+
+Conversely when the brain is primarily affected; the circulation of the
+skin is so in a secondary manner. Dr. Browne has frequently observed,
+as he informs me, scattered red blotches and mottlings on the chests of
+epileptic patients. In these cases, when the skin on the thorax or
+abdomen is gently rubbed with a pencil or other object, or, in
+strongly-marked cases, is merely touched by the finger, the surface
+becomes suffused in less than half a minute with bright red marks,
+which spread to some distance on each side of the touched point, and
+persist for several minutes. These are the _cerebral maculae_ of
+Trousseau; and they indicate, as Dr. Browne remarks, a highly modified
+condition of the cutaneous vascular system. If, then, there exists, as
+cannot be doubted, an intimate sympathy between the capillary
+circulation in that part of the brain on which our mental powers
+depend, and in the skin of the face, it is not surprising that the
+moral causes which induce intense blushing should likewise induce,
+independently of their own disturbing influence, much confusion of
+mind.
+
+_The Nature of the Mental States which induce Blushing_.—These consist
+of shyness, shame, and modesty; the essential element in all being
+self-attention. Many reasons can be assigned for believing that
+originally self-attention directed to personal appearance, in relation
+to the opinion of others, was the exciting cause; the same effect being
+subsequently produced, through the force of association, by
+self-attention in relation to moral conduct. It is not the simple act
+of reflecting on our own appearance, but the thinking what others think
+of us, which excites a blush. In absolute solitude the most sensitive
+person would be quite indifferent about his appearance. We feel blame
+or disapprobation more acutely than approbation; and consequently
+depreciatory remarks or ridicule, whether of our appearance or conduct,
+causes us to blush much more readily than does praise. But undoubtedly
+praise and admiration are highly efficient: a pretty girl blushes when
+a man gazes intently at her, though she may know perfectly well that he
+is not depreciating her. Many children, as well as old and sensitive
+persons blush, when they are much praised. Hereafter the question will
+be discussed, how it has arisen that the consciousness that others are
+attending to our personal appearance should have led to the
+capillaries, especially those of the face, instantly becoming filled
+with blood.
+
+My reasons for believing that attention directed to personal
+appearance, and not to moral conduct, has been the fundamental element
+in the acquirement of the habit of blushing, will now be given. They
+are separately light, but combined possess, as it appears to me,
+considerable weight. It is notorious that nothing makes a shy person
+blush so much as any remark, however slight, on his personal
+appearance. One cannot notice even the dress of a woman much given to
+blushing, without causing her face to crimson. It is sufficient to
+stare hard at some persons to make them, as Coleridge remarks,
+blush,—“account for that he who can.”[1323]
+
+With the two albinos observed by Dr. Burgess,[1324] “the slightest
+attempt to examine their peculiarities invariably caused them to blush
+deeply.” Women are much more sensitive about their personal appearance
+than men are, especially elderly women in comparison with elderly men,
+and they blush much more freely. The young of both sexes are much more
+sensitive on this same head than the old, and they also blush much more
+freely than the old. Children at a very early age do not blush; nor do
+they show those other signs of self-consciousness which generally
+accompany blushing; and it is one of their chief charms that they think
+nothing about what others think of them. At this early age they will
+stare at a stranger with a fixed gaze and un-blinking eyes, as on an
+inanimate object, in a manner which we elders cannot imitate.
+
+It is plain to every one that young men and women are highly sensitive
+to the opinion of each other with reference to their personal
+appearance; and they blush incomparably more in the presence of the
+opposite sex than in that of their own.[1325] A young man, not very
+liable to blush, will blush intensely at any slight ridicule of his
+appearance from a girl whose judgment on any important subject he would
+disregard. No happy pair of young lovers, valuing each other’s
+admiration and love more than anything else in the world, probably ever
+courted each other without many a blush. Even the barbarians of Tierra
+del Fuego, according to Mr. Bridges, blush “chiefly in regard to women,
+but certainly also at their own personal appearance.”
+
+Of all parts of the body, the face is most considered and regarded, as
+is natural from its being the chief seat of expression and the source
+of the voice. It is also the chief seat of beauty and of ugliness, and
+throughout the world is the most ornamented.[1326] The face, therefore,
+will have been subjected during many generations to much closer and
+more earnest self-attention than any other part of the body; and in
+accordance with the principle here advanced we can understand why it
+should be the most liable to blush. Although exposure to alternations
+of temperature, &c., has probably much increased the power of
+dilatation and contraction in the capillaries of the face and adjoining
+parts, yet this by itself will hardly account for these parts blushing
+much more than the rest of the body; for it does not explain the fact
+of the hands rarely blushing. With Europeans the whole body tingles
+slightly when the face blushes intensely; and with the races of men who
+habitually go nearly naked, the blushes extend over a much larger
+surface than with us. These facts are, to a certain extent,
+intelligible, as the self-attention of primeval man, as well as of the
+existing races which still go naked, will not have been so exclusively
+confined to their faces, as is the case with the people who now go
+clothed.
+
+We have seen that in all parts of the world persons who feel shame for
+some moral delinquency, are apt to avert, bend down, or hide their
+faces, independently of any thought about their personal appearance.
+The object can hardly be to conceal their blushes, for the face is thus
+averted or hidden under circumstances which exclude any desire to
+conceal shame, as when guilt is fully confessed and repented of. It is,
+however, probable that primeval man before he had acquired much moral
+sensitiveness would have been highly sensitive about his personal
+appearance, at least in reference to the other sex, and he would
+consequently have felt distress at any depreciatory remarks about his
+appearance; and this is one form of shame. And as the face is the part
+of the body which is most regarded, it is intelligible that any one
+ashamed of his personal appearance would desire to conceal this part of
+his body. The habit having been thus acquired, would naturally be
+carried on when shame from strictly moral causes was felt; and it is
+not easy otherwise to see why under these circumstances there should be
+a desire to hide the face more than any other part of the body.
+
+The habit, so general with every one who feels ashamed, of turning
+away, or lowering his eyes, or restlessly moving them from side to
+side, probably follows from each glance directed towards those present,
+bringing home the conviction that he is intently regarded; and he
+endeavours, by not looking at those present, and especially not at
+their eyes, momentarily to escape from this painful conviction.
+
+_Shyness_.—This odd state of mind, often called shamefacedness, or
+false shame, or _mauvaise honte_, appears to be one of the most
+efficient of all the causes of blushing. Shyness is, indeed, chiefly
+recognized by the face reddening, by the eyes being averted or cast
+down, and by awkward, nervous movements of the body. Many a woman
+blushes from this cause, a hundred, perhaps a thousand times, to once
+that she blushes from having done anything deserving blame, and of
+which she is truly ashamed. Shyness seems to depend on sensitiveness to
+the opinion, whether good or bad, of others, more especially with
+respect to external appearance. Strangers neither know nor care
+anything about our conduct or character, but they may, and often do,
+criticize our appearance: hence shy persons are particularly apt to be
+shy and to blush in the presence of strangers. The consciousness of
+anything peculiar, or even new, in the dress, or any slight blemish on
+the person, and more especially, on the face—points which are likely to
+attract the attention of strangers—makes the shy intolerably shy. On
+the other hand, in those cases in which conduct and not personal
+appearance is concerned, we are much more apt to be shy in the presence
+of acquaintances, whose judgment we in some degree value, than in that
+of strangers. A physician told me that a young man, a wealthy duke,
+with whom he had travelled as medical attendant, blushed like a girl,
+when he paid him his fee; yet this young man probably would not have
+blushed and been shy, had he been paying a bill to a tradesman. Some
+persons, however, are so sensitive, that the mere act of speaking to
+almost any one is sufficient to rouse their self-consciousness, and a
+slight blush is the result.
+
+Disapprobation or ridicule, from our sensitiveness on this head, causes
+shyness and blushing much more readily than does approbation; though
+the latter with some persons is highly efficient. The conceited are
+rarely shy; for they value themselves much too highly to expect
+depreciation. Why a proud man is often shy, as appears to be the case,
+is not so obvious, unless it be that, with all his self-reliance, he
+really thinks much about the opinion of others although in a disdainful
+spirit. Persons who are exceedingly shy are rarely shy in the presence
+of those with whom they are quite familiar, and of whose good opinion
+and sympathy they are perfectly assured;—for instance, a girl in the
+presence of her mother. I neglected to inquire in my printed paper
+whether shyness can be detected in the different races of man; but a
+Hindoo gentleman assured Mr. Erskine that it is recognizable in his
+countrymen.
+
+Shyness, as the derivation of the word indicates in several
+languages,[1327] is closely related to fear; yet it is distinct from
+fear in the ordinary sense. A shy man no doubt dreads the notice of
+strangers, but can hardly be said to be afraid of them, he may be as
+bold as a hero in battle, and yet have no self-confidence about trifles
+in the presence of strangers. Almost every one is extremely nervous
+when first addressing a public assembly, and most men remain so
+throughout their lives; but this appears to depend on the consciousness
+of a great coming exertion, with its associated effects on the system,
+rather than on shyness;[1328] although a timid or shy man no doubt
+suffers on such occasions infinitely more than another. With very young
+children it is difficult to distinguish between fear and shyness; but
+this latter feeling with them has often seemed to me to partake of the
+character of the wildness of an untamed animal. Shyness comes on at a
+very early age. In one of my own children, when two years and three
+months old, I saw a trace of what certainly appeared to be shyness,
+directed towards myself after an absence from home of only a week. This
+was shown not by a blush, but by the eyes being for a few minutes
+slightly averted from me. I have noticed on other occasions that
+shyness or shamefacedness and real shame are exhibited in the eyes of
+young children before they have acquired the power of blushing.
+
+As shyness apparently depends on self-attention, we can perceive how
+right are those who maintain that reprehending children for shyness,
+instead of doing them any good, does much harm, as it calls their
+attention still more closely to themselves. It has been well urged that
+“nothing hurts young people more than to be watched continually about
+their feelings, to have their countenances scrutinized, and the degrees
+of their sensibility measured by the surveying eye of the unmerciful
+spectator. Under the constraint of such examinations they can think of
+nothing but that they are looked at, and feel nothing but shame or
+apprehension.”[1329]
+
+_Moral causes: guilt_.—With respect to blushing from strictly moral
+causes, we meet with the same fundamental principle as before, namely,
+regard for the opinion of others. It is not the conscience which raises
+a blush, for a man may sincerely regret some slight fault committed in
+solitude, or he may suffer the deepest remorse for an undetected crime,
+but he will not blush. “I blush,” says Dr. Burgess,[1330] “in the
+presence of my accusers.” It is not the sense of guilt, but the thought
+that others think or know us to be guilty which crimsons the face. A
+man may feel thoroughly ashamed at having told a small falsehood,
+without blushing; but if he even suspects that he is detected he will
+instantly blush, especially if detected by one whom he reveres.
+
+On the other hand, a man may be convinced that God witnesses all his
+actions, and he may feel deeply conscious of some fault and pray for
+forgiveness; but this will not, as a lady who is a great blusher
+believes, ever excite a blush. The explanation of this difference
+between the knowledge by God and man of our actions lies, I presume, in
+man’s disapprobation of immoral conduct being somewhat akin in nature
+to his depreciation of our personal appearance, so that through
+association both lead to similar results; whereas the disapprobation of
+God brings up no such association.
+
+Many a person has blushed intensely when accused of some crime, though
+completely innocent of it. Even the thought, as the lady before
+referred to has observed to me, that others think that we have made an
+unkind or stupid remark, is amply sufficient to cause a blush, although
+we know all the time that we have been completely misunderstood. An
+action may be meritorious or of an indifferent nature, but a sensitive
+person, if he suspects that others take a different view of it, will
+blush. For instance, a lady by herself may give money to a beggar
+without a trace of a blush, but if others are present, and she doubts
+whether they approve, or suspects that they think her influenced by
+display, she will blush. So it will be, if she offers to relieve the
+distress of a decayed gentlewoman, more particularly of one whom she
+had previously known under better circumstances, as she cannot then
+feel sure how her conduct will be viewed. But such cases as these blend
+into shyness.
+
+_Breaches of etiquette_.—The rules of _etiquette_ always refer to
+conduct in the presence of, or towards others. They have no necessary
+connection with the moral sense, and are often meaningless.
+Nevertheless as they depend on the fixed custom of our equals and
+superiors, whose opinion we highly regard, they are considered almost
+as binding as are the laws of honour to a gentleman. Consequently the
+breach of the laws of etiquette, that is, any impoliteness or
+_gaucherie_, any impropriety, or an inappropriate remark, though quite
+accidental, will cause the most intense blushing of which a man is
+capable. Even the recollection of such an act, after an interval of
+many years, will make the whole body to tingle. So strong, also, is the
+power of sympathy that a sensitive person, as a lady has assured me,
+will sometimes blush at a flagrant breach of etiquette by a perfect
+stranger, though the act may in no way concern her.
+
+_Modesty_.—This is another powerful agent in exciting blushes; but the
+word modesty includes very different states of the mind. It implies
+humility, and we often judge of this by persons being greatly pleased
+and blushing at slight praise, or by being annoyed at praise which
+seems to them too high according to their own humble standard of
+themselves. Blushing here has the usual signification of regard for the
+opinion of others. But modesty frequently relates to acts of
+indelicacy; and indelicacy is an affair of etiquette, as we clearly see
+with the nations that go altogether or nearly naked. He who is modest,
+and blushes easily at acts of this nature, does so because they are
+breaches of a firmly and wisely established etiquette. This is indeed
+shown by the derivation of the word _modest_ from _modus_, a measure or
+standard of behaviour. A blush due to this form of modesty is,
+moreover, apt to be intense, because it generally relates to the
+opposite sex; and we have seen how in all cases our liability to blush
+is thus increased. We apply the term ‘modest,’ as it would appear, to
+those who have an humble opinion of themselves, and to those who are
+extremely sensitive about an indelicate word or deed, simply because in
+both cases blushes are readily excited, for these two frames of mind
+have nothing else in common. Shyness also, from this same cause, is
+often mistaken for modesty in the sense of humility.
+
+Some persons flush up, as I have observed and have been assured, at any
+sudden and disagreeable recollection. The commonest cause seems to be
+the sudden remembrance of not having done something for another person
+which had been promised. In this case it may be that the thought passes
+half unconsciously through the mind, “What will he think of me?” and
+then the flush would partake of the nature of a true blush. But whether
+such flushes are in most cases due to the capillary circulation being
+affected, is very doubtful; for we must remember that almost every
+strong emotion, such as anger or great joy, acts on the heart, and
+causes the face to redden.
+
+The fact that blushes may be excited in absolute solitude seems opposed
+to the view here taken, namely that the habit originally arose from
+thinking about what others think of us. Several ladies, who are great
+blushers, are unanimous in regard to solitude; and some of them believe
+that they have blushed in the dark. From what Mr. Forbes has stated
+with respect to the Aymaras, and from my own sensations, I have no
+doubt that this latter statement is correct. Shakspeare, therefore,
+erred when he made Juliet, who was not even by herself, say to Romeo
+(act ii. sc. 2):—
+
+“Thou know’st the mask of night is on my face;
+Else would a maiden blush bepaint my cheek,
+For that which thou hast heard me speak to-night.”
+
+
+But when a blush is excited in solitude, the cause almost always
+relates to the thoughts of others about us—to acts done in their
+presence, or suspected by them; or again when we reflect what others
+would have thought of us had they known of the act. Nevertheless one or
+two of my informants believe that they have blushed from shame at acts
+in no way relating to others. If this be so, we must attribute the
+result to the force of inveterate habit and association, under a state
+of mind closely analogous to that which ordinarily excites a blush; nor
+need we feel surprise at this, as even sympathy with another person who
+commits a flagrant breach of etiquette is believed, as we have just
+seen, sometimes to cause a blush.
+
+Finally, then, I conclude that blushing,—whether due to shyness—to
+shame for a real crime—to shame from a breach of the laws of
+etiquette—to modesty from humility—to modesty from an
+indelicacy—depends in all cases on the same principle; this principle
+being a sensitive regard for the opinion, more particularly for the
+depreciation of others, primarily in relation to our personal
+appearance, especially of our faces; and secondarily, through the force
+of association and habit, in relation to the opinion of others on our
+conduct.
+
+_Theory of Blushing_.—We have now to consider, why should the thought
+that others are thinking about us affect our capillary circulation? Sir
+C. Bell insists[1331] that blushing “is a provision for expression, as
+may be inferred from the colour extending only to the surface of the
+face, neck, and breast, the parts most exposed. It is not acquired; it
+is from the beginning.” Dr. Burgess believes that it was designed by
+the Creator in “order that the soul might have sovereign power of
+displaying in the cheeks the various internal emotions of the moral
+feelings;” so as to serve as a check on ourselves, and as a sign to
+others, that we were violating rules which ought to be held sacred.
+Gratiolet merely remarks,—“Or, comme il est dans l’ordre de la nature
+que l’être social le plus intelligent soit aussi le plus intelligible,
+cette faculté de rougeur et de pâleur qui distingue l’homme, est un
+signe naturel de sa haute perfection.”
+
+The belief that blushing was SPECIALLY designed by the Creator is
+opposed to the general theory of evolution, which is now so largely
+accepted; but it forms no part of my duty here to argue on the general
+question. Those who believe in design, will find it difficult to
+account for shyness being the most frequent and efficient of all the
+causes of blushing, as it makes the blusher to suffer and the beholder
+uncomfortable, without being of the least service to either of them.
+They will also find it difficult to account for negroes and other
+dark-coloured races blushing, in whom a change of colour in the skin is
+scarcely or not at all visible.
+
+No doubt a slight blush adds to the beauty of a maiden’s face; and the
+Circassian women who are capable of blushing, invariably fetch a higher
+price in the seraolio of the Sultan than less susceptible women.[1332]
+But the firmest believer in the efficacy of sexual selection will
+hardly suppose that blushing was acquired as a sexual ornament. This
+view would also be opposed to what has just been said about the
+dark-coloured races blushing in an invisible manner.
+
+The hypothesis which appears to me the most probable, though it may at
+first seem rash, is that attention closely directed to any part of the
+body tends to interfere with the ordinary and tonic contraction of the
+small arteries of that part. These vessels, in consequence, become at
+such times more or less relaxed, and are instantly filled with arterial
+blood. This tendency will have been much strengthened, if frequent
+attention has been paid during many generations to the same part, owing
+to nerve-force readily flowing along accustomed channels, and by the
+power of inheritance. Whenever we believe that others are depreciating
+or even considering our personal appearance, our attention is vividly
+directed to the outer and visible parts of our bodies; and of all such
+parts we are most sensitive about our faces, as no doubt has been the
+case during many past generations. Therefore, assuming for the moment
+that the capillary vessels can be acted on by close attention, those of
+the face will have become eminently susceptible. Through the force of
+association, the same effects will tend to follow whenever we think
+that others are considering or censuring our actions or character.
+
+As the basis of this theory rests on mental attention having some power
+to influence the capillary circulation, it will be necessary to give a
+considerable body of details, bearing more or less directly on this
+subject. Several observers,[1333] who from their wide experience and
+knowledge are eminently capable of forming a sound judgment, are
+convinced that attention or consciousness (which latter term Sir H.
+Holland thinks the more explicit) concentrated on almost any part of
+the body produces some direct physical effect on it. This applies to
+the movements of the involuntary muscles, and of the voluntary muscles
+when acting involuntarily,—to the secretion of the glands,—to the
+activity of the senses and sensations,—and even to the nutrition of
+parts.
+
+It is known that the involuntary movements of the heart are affected if
+close attention be paid to them. Gratiolet[1334] gives the case of a
+man, who by continually watching and counting his own pulse, at last
+caused one beat out of every six to intermit. On the other hand, my
+father told me of a careful observer, who certainly had heart-disease
+and died from it, and who positively stated that his pulse was
+habitually irregular to an extreme degree; yet to his great
+disappointment it invariably became regular as soon as my father
+entered the room. Sir H. Holland remarks, that “the effect upon the
+circulation of a part from the consciousness suddenly directed and
+fixed upon it, is often obvious and immediate.” Professor Laycock, who
+has particularly attended to phenomena of this nature, insists that
+“when the attention is directed to any portion of the body, innervation
+and circulation are excited locally, and the functional activity of
+that portion developed.”
+
+It is generally believed that the peristaltic movements of the
+intestines are influenced by attention being paid to them at fixed
+recurrent periods; and these movements depend on the contraction of
+unstriped and involuntary muscles. The abnormal action of the voluntary
+muscles in epilepsy, chorea, and hysteria is known to be influenced by
+the expectation of an attack, and by the sight of other patients
+similarly affected. So it is with the involuntary acts of yawning and
+laughing.
+
+Certain glands are much influenced by thinking of them, or of the
+conditions under which they have been habitually excited. This is
+familiar to every one in the increased flow of saliva, when the
+thought, for instance, of intensely acid fruit is kept before the mind.
+It was shown in our sixth chapter, that an earnest and long-continued
+desire either to repress, or to increase, the action of the lacrymal
+glands is effectual. Some curious cases have been recorded in the case
+of women, of the power of the mind on the mammary glands; and still
+more remarkable ones in relation to the uterine functions.
+
+See Gratiolet on this subject, De la Phys. p. 287. Dr. J. Crichton
+Browne, from his observations on the insane, is convinced that
+attention directed for a prolonged period on any part or organ may
+ultimately influence its capillary circulation and nutrition. He has
+given me some extraordinary cases; one of these, which cannot here be
+related in full, refers to a married woman fifty years of age, who
+laboured under the firm and long-continued delusion that she was
+pregnant. When the expected period arrived, she acted precisely as if
+she had been really delivered of a child, and seemed to suffer extreme
+pain, so that the perspiration broke out on her forehead. The result
+was that a state of things returned, continuing for three days, which
+had ceased during the six previous years. Mr. Braid gives, in his
+‘Magic, Hypnotism,’ &c., 1852, p. 95, and in his other works analogous
+cases, as well as other facts showing the great influence of the will
+on the mammary glands, even on one breast alone.
+
+When we direct our whole attention to any one sense, its acuteness is
+increased;[1340] and the continued habit of close attention, as with
+blind people to that of hearing, and with the blind and deaf to that of
+touch, appears to improve the sense in question permanently. There is,
+also, some reason to believe, judging from the capacities of different
+races of man, that the effects are inherited. Turning to ordinary
+sensations, it is well known that pain is increased by attending to it;
+and Sir B. Brodie goes so far as to believe that pain may be felt in
+any part of the body to which attention is closely drawn.[1341] Sir H.
+Holland also remarks that we become not only conscious of the existence
+of a part subjected to concentrated attention, but we experience in it
+various odd sensations as of weight, heat, cold, tingling, or
+itching.[1342]
+
+Lastly, some physiologists maintain that the mind can influence the
+nutrition of parts. Sir J. Paget has given a curious instance of the
+power, not indeed of the mind, but of the nervous system, on the hair.
+A lady “who is subject to attacks of what is called nervous headache,
+always finds in the morning after such an one, that some patches of her
+hair are white, as if powdered with starch. The change is effected in a
+night, and in a few days after, the hairs gradually regain their dark
+brownish colour.”[1343]
+
+We thus see that close attention certainly affects various parts and
+organs, which are not properly under the control of the will. By what
+means attention—perhaps the most wonderful of all the wondrous powers
+of the mind—is effected, is an extremely obscure subject. According to
+Müller,[1344] the process by which the sensory cells of the brain are
+rendered, through the will, susceptible of receiving more intense and
+distinct impressions, is closely analogous to that by which the motor
+cells are excited to send nerve-force to the voluntary muscles. There
+are many points of analogy in the action of the sensory and motor
+nerve-cells; for instance, the familiar fact that close attention to
+any one sense causes fatigue, like the prolonged exertion of any one
+muscle.[1345] When therefore we voluntarily concentrate our attention
+on any part of the body, the cells of the brain which receive
+impressions or sensations from that part are, it is probable, in some
+unknown manner stimulated into activity. This may account, without any
+local change in the part to which our attention is earnestly directed,
+for pain or odd sensations being there felt or increased.
+
+If, however, the part is furnished with muscles, we cannot feel sure,
+as Mr. Michael Foster has remarked to me, that some slight impulse may
+not be unconsciously sent to such muscles; and this would probably
+cause an obscure sensation in the part.
+
+In a large number of cases, as with the salivary and lacrymal glands,
+intestinal canal, &c., the power of attention seems to rest, either
+chiefly, or as some physiologists think, exclusively, on the vaso-motor
+system being affected in such a manner that more blood is allowed to
+flow into the capillaries of the part in question. This increased
+action of the capillaries may in some cases be combined with the
+simultaneously increased activity of the sensorium.
+
+The manner in which the mind affects the vasomotor system may be
+conceived in the following manner. When we actually taste sour fruit,
+an impression is sent through the gustatory nerves to a certain part of
+the sensorium; this transmits nerve-force to the vasomotor centre,
+which consequently allows the muscular coats of the small arteries that
+permeate the salivary glands to relax. Hence more blood flows into
+these glands, and they secrete a copious supply of saliva. Now it does
+not seem an improbable assumption, that, when we reflect intently on a
+sensation, the same part of the sensorium, or a closely connected part
+of it, is brought into a state of activity, in the same manner as when
+we actually perceive the sensation. If so, the same cells in the brain
+will be excited, though, perhaps, in a less degree, by vividly thinking
+about a sour taste, as by perceiving it; and they will transmit in the
+one case, as in the other, nerve-force to the vaso-motor centre with
+the same results.
+
+To give another, and, in some respects, more appropriate illustration.
+If a man stands before a hot fire, his face reddens. This appears to be
+due, as Mr. Michael Foster informs me, in part to the local action of
+the heat, and in part to a reflex action from the vaso-motor
+centres.[1346] In this latter case, the heat affects the nerves of the
+face; these transmit an impression to the sensory cells of the brain,
+which act on the vaso-motor centre, and this reacts on the small
+arteries of the face, relaxing them and allowing them to become filled
+with blood. Here, again, it seems not improbable that if we were
+repeatedly to concentrate with great earnestness our attention on the
+recollection of our heated faces, the same part of the sensorium which
+gives us the consciousness of actual heat would be in some slight
+degree stimulated, and would in consequence tend to transmit some
+nerve-force to the vaso-motor centres, so as to relax the capillaries
+of the face. Now as men during endless generations have had their
+attention often and earnestly directed to their personal appearance,
+and especially to their faces, any incipient tendency in the facial
+capillaries to be thus affected will have become in the course of time
+greatly strengthened through the principles just referred to, namely,
+nerve-force passing readily along accustomed channels, and inherited
+habit. Thus, as it appears to me, a plausible explanation is afforded
+of the leading phenomena connected with the act of blushing.
+
+_Recapitulation_.—Men and women, and especially the young, have always
+valued, in a high degree, their personal appearance; and have likewise
+regarded the appearance of others. The face has been the chief object
+of attention, though, when man aboriginally went naked, the whole
+surface of his body would have been attended to. Our self-attention is
+excited almost exclusively by the opinion of others, for no person
+living in absolute solitude would care about his appearance. Every one
+feels blame more acutely than praise. Now, whenever we know, or
+suppose, that others are depreciating our personal appearance, our
+attention is strongly drawn towards ourselves, more especially to our
+faces. The probable effect of this will be, as has just been explained,
+to excite into activity that part of the sensorium, which receives the
+sensory nerves of the face; and this will react through the vaso-motor
+system on the facial capillaries. By frequent reiteration during
+numberless generations, the process will have become so habitual, in
+association with the belief that others are thinking of us, that even a
+suspicion of their depreciation suffices to relax the capillaries,
+without any conscious thought about our faces. With some sensitive
+persons it is enough even to notice their dress to produce the same
+effect. Through the force, also, of association and inheritance our
+capillaries are relaxed, whenever we know, or imagine, that any one is
+blaming, though in silence, our actions, thoughts, or character; and,
+again, when we are highly praised.
+
+On this hypothesis we can understand how it is that the face blushes
+much more than any other part of the body, though the whole surface is
+somewhat affected, more especially with the races which still go nearly
+naked. It is not at all surprising that the dark-coloured races should
+blush, though no change of colour is visible in their skins. From the
+principle of inheritance it is not surprising that persons born blind
+should blush. We can understand why the young are much more affected
+than the old, and women more than men; and why the opposite sexes
+especially excite each other’s blushes. It becomes obvious why personal
+remarks should be particularly liable to cause blushing, and why the
+most powerful of all the causes is shyness; for shyness relates to the
+presence and opinion of others, and the shy are always more or less
+self-conscious. With respect to real shame from moral delinquencies, we
+can perceive why it is not guilt, but the thought that others think us
+guilty, which raises a blush. A man reflecting on a crime committed in
+solitude, and stung by his conscience, does not blush; yet he will
+blush under the vivid recollection of a detected fault, or of one
+committed in the presence of others, the degree of blushing being
+closely related to the feeling of regard for those who have detected,
+witnessed, or suspected his fault. Breaches of conventional rules of
+conduct, if they are rigidly insisted on by our equals or superiors,
+often cause more intense blushes even than a detected crime, and an act
+which is really criminal, if not blamed by our equals, hardly raises a
+tinge of colour on our cheeks. Modesty from humility, or from an
+indelicacy, excites a vivid blush, as both relate to the judgment or
+fixed customs of others.
+
+From the intimate sympathy which exists between the capillary
+circulation of the surface of the head and of the brain, whenever there
+is intense blushing, there will be some, and often great, confusion of
+mind. This is frequently accompanied by awkward movements, and
+sometimes by the involuntary twitching of certain muscles.
+
+As blushing, according to this hypothesis, is an indirect result of
+attention, originally directed to our personal appearance, that is to
+the surface of the body, and more especially to the face, we can
+understand the meaning of the gestures which accompany blushing
+throughout the world. These consist in hiding the face, or turning it
+towards the ground, or to one side. The eyes are generally averted or
+are restless, for to look at the man who causes us to feel shame or
+shyness, immediately brings home in an intolerable manner the
+consciousness that his gaze is directed on us. Through the principle of
+associated habit, the same movements of the face and eyes are
+practised, and can, indeed, hardly be avoided, whenever we know or
+believe that, others are blaming, or too strongly praising, our moral
+conduct.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
+
+The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements
+of expression—Their inheritance—On the part which the will and
+intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions—The
+instinctive recognition of expression—The bearing of our subject on the
+specific unity of the races of man—On the successive acquirement of
+various expressions by the progenitors of man—The importance of
+expression—Conclusion.
+
+I have now described, to the best of my ability, the chief expressive
+actions in man, and in some few of the lower animals. I have also
+attempted to explain the origin or development of these actions through
+the three principles given in the first chapter. The first of these
+principles is, that movements which are serviceable in gratifying some
+desire, or in relieving some sensation, if often repeated, become so
+habitual that they are performed, whether or not of any service,
+whenever the same desire or sensation is felt, even in a very weak
+degree.
+
+Our second principle is that of antithesis. The habit of voluntarily
+performing opposite movements under opposite impulses has become firmly
+established in us by the practice of our whole lives. Hence, if certain
+actions have been regularly performed, in accordance with our first
+principle, under a certain frame of mind, there will be a strong and
+involuntary tendency to the performance of directly opposite actions,
+whether or not these are of any use, under the excitement of an
+opposite frame of mind.
+
+Our third principle is the direct action of the excited nervous system
+on the body, independently of the will, and independently, in large
+part, of habit. Experience shows that nerve-force is generated and set
+free whenever the cerebro-spinal system is excited. The direction which
+this nerve-force follows is necessarily determined by the lines of
+connection between the nerve-cells, with each other and with various
+parts of the body. But the direction is likewise much influenced by
+habit; inasmuch as nerve-force passes readily along accustomed
+channels.
+
+The frantic and senseless actions of an enraged man may be attributed
+in part to the undirected flow of nerve-force, and in part to the
+effects of habit, for these actions often vaguely represent the act of
+striking. They thus pass into gestures included under our first
+principle; as when an indignant man unconsciously throws himself into a
+fitting attitude for attacking his opponent, though without any
+intention of making an actual attack. We see also the influence of
+habit in all the emotions and sensations which are called exciting; for
+they have assumed this character from having habitually led to
+energetic action; and action affects, in an indirect manner, the
+respiratory and circulatory system; and the latter reacts on the brain.
+Whenever these emotions or sensations are even slightly felt by us,
+though they may not at the time lead to any exertion, our whole system
+is nevertheless disturbed through the force of habit and association.
+Other emotions and sensations are called depressing, because they have
+not habitually led to energetic action, excepting just at first, as in
+the case of extreme pain, fear, and grief, and they have ultimately
+caused complete exhaustion; they are consequently expressed chiefly by
+negative signs and by prostration. Again, there are other emotions,
+such as that of affection, which do not commonly lead to action of any
+kind, and consequently are not exhibited by any strongly marked outward
+signs. Affection indeed, in as far as it is a pleasurable sensation,
+excites the ordinary signs of pleasure.
+
+On the other hand, many of the effects due to the excitement of the
+nervous system seem to be quite independent of the flow of nerve-force
+along the channels which have been rendered habitual by former
+exertions of the will. Such effects, which often reveal the state of
+mind of the person thus affected, cannot at present be explained; for
+instance, the change of colour in the hair from extreme terror or
+grief,—the cold sweat and the trembling of the muscles from fear,—the
+modified secretions of the intestinal canal,—and the failure of certain
+glands to act.
+
+Notwithstanding that much remains unintelligible in our present
+subject, so many expressive movements and actions can be explained to a
+certain extent through the above three principles, that we may hope
+hereafter to see all explained by these or by closely analogous
+principles.
+
+Actions of all kinds, if regularly accompanying any state of the mind,
+are at once recognized as expressive. These may consist of movements of
+any part of the body, as the wagging of a dog’s tail, the shrugging of
+a man’s shoulders, the erection of the hair, the exudation of
+perspiration, the state of the capillary circulation, laboured
+breathing, and the use of the vocal or other sound-producing
+instruments. Even insects express anger, terror, jealousy, and love by
+their stridulation. With man the respiratory organs are of especial
+importance in expression, not only in a direct, but in a still higher
+degree in an indirect manner.
+
+Few points are more interesting in our present subject than the
+extraordinarily complex chain of events which lead to certain
+expressive movements. Take, for instance, the oblique eyebrows of a man
+suffering from grief or anxiety. When infants scream loudly from hunger
+or pain, the circulation is affected, and the eyes tend to become
+gorged with blood: consequently the muscles surrounding the eyes are
+strongly contracted as a protection: this action, in the course of many
+generations, has become firmly fixed and inherited: but when, with
+advancing years and culture, the habit of screaming is partially
+repressed, the muscles round the eyes still tend to contract, whenever
+even slight distress is felt: of these muscles, the pyramidals of the
+nose are less under the control of the will than are the others and
+their contraction can be checked only by that of the central fasciae of
+the frontal muscle: these latter fasciae draw up the inner ends of the
+eyebrows, and wrinkle the forehead in a peculiar manner, which we
+instantly recognize as the expression of grief or anxiety. Slight
+movements, such as these just described, or the scarcely perceptible
+drawing down of the corners of the mouth, are the last remnants or
+rudiments of strongly marked and intelligible movements. They are as
+full of significance to us in regard to expression, as are ordinary
+rudiments to the naturalist in the classification and genealogy of
+organic beings.
+
+That the chief expressive actions, exhibited by man and by the lower
+animals, are now innate or inherited,—that is, have not been learnt by
+the individual,—is admitted by every one. So little has learning or
+imitation to do with several of them that they are from the earliest
+days and throughout life quite beyond our control; for instance, the
+relaxation of the arteries of the skin in blushing, and the increased
+action of the heart in anger. We may see children, only two or three
+years old, and even those born blind, blushing from shame; and the
+naked scalp of a very young infant reddens from passion. Infants scream
+from pain directly after birth, and all their features then assume the
+same form as during subsequent years. These facts alone suffice to show
+that many of our most important expressions have not been learnt; but
+it is remarkable that some, which are certainly innate, require
+practice in the individual, before they are performed in a full and
+perfect manner; for instance, weeping and laughing. The inheritance of
+most of our expressive actions explains the fact that those born blind
+display them, as I hear from the Rev. R. H. Blair, equally well with
+those gifted with eyesight. We can thus also understand the fact that
+the young and the old of widely different races, both with man and
+animals, express the same state of mind by the same movements.
+
+We are so familiar with the fact of young and old animals displaying
+their feelings in the same manner, that we hardly perceive how
+remarkable it is that a young puppy should wag its tail when pleased,
+depress its ears and uncover its canine teeth when pretending to be
+savage, just like an old dog; or that a kitten should arch its little
+back and erect its hair when frightened and angry, like an old cat.
+When, however, we turn to less common gestures in ourselves, which we
+are accustomed to look at as artificial or conventional,—such as
+shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence, or the raising the
+arms with open hands and extended fingers, as a sign of wonder,—we feel
+perhaps too much surprise at finding that they are innate. That these
+and some other gestures are inherited, we may infer from their being
+performed by very young children, by those born blind, and by the most
+widely distinct races of man. We should also bear in mind that new and
+highly peculiar tricks, in association with certain states of the mind,
+are known to have arisen in certain individuals, and to have been
+afterwards transmitted to their offspring, in some cases, for more than
+one generation.
+
+Certain other gestures, which seem to us so natural that we might
+easily imagine that they were innate, apparently have been learnt like
+the words of a language. This seems to be the case with the joining of
+the uplifted hands, and the turning up of the eyes, in prayer. So it is
+with kissing as a mark of affection; but this is innate, in so far as
+it depends on the pleasure derived from contact with a beloved person.
+The evidence with respect to the inheritance of nodding and shaking the
+head, as signs of affirmation and negation, is doubtful; for they are
+not universal, yet seem too general to have been independently acquired
+by all the individuals of so many races.
+
+We will now consider how far the will and consciousness have come into
+play in the development of the various movements of expression. As far
+as we can judge, only a few expressive movements, such as those just
+referred to, are learnt by each individual; that is, were consciously
+and voluntarily performed during the early years of life for some
+definite object, or in imitation of others, and then became habitual.
+The far greater number of the movements of expression, and all the more
+important ones, are, as we have seen, innate or inherited; and such
+cannot be said to depend on the will of the individual. Nevertheless,
+all those included under our first principle were at first voluntarily
+performed for a definite object,—namely, to escape some danger, to
+relieve some distress, or to gratify some desire. For instance, there
+can hardly be a doubt that the animals which fight with their teeth,
+have acquired the habit of drawing back their ears closely to their
+heads, when feeling savage, from their progenitors having voluntarily
+acted in this manner in order to protect their ears from being torn by
+their antagonists; for those animals which do not fight with their
+teeth do not thus express a savage state of mind. We may infer as
+highly probable that we ourselves have acquired the habit of
+contracting the muscles round the eyes, whilst crying gently, that is,
+without the utterance of any loud sound, from our progenitors,
+especially during infancy, having experienced, during the act of
+screaming, an uncomfortable sensation in their eyeballs. Again, some
+highly expressive movements result from the endeavour to cheek or
+prevent other expressive movements; thus the obliquity of the eyebrows
+and the drawing down of the corners of the mouth follow from the
+endeavour to prevent a screaming-fit from coming on, or to cheek it
+after it has come on. Here it is obvious that the consciousness and
+will must at first have come into play; not that we are conscious in
+these or in other such cases what muscles are brought into action, any
+more than when we perform the most ordinary voluntary movements.
+
+With respect to the expressive movements due to the principle of
+antithesis, it is clear that the will has intervened, though in a
+remote and indirect manner. So again with the movements coming under
+our third principle; these, in as far as they are influenced by
+nerve-force readily passing along habitual channels, have been
+determined by former and repeated exertions of the will. The effects
+indirectly due to this latter agency are often combined in a complex
+manner, through the force of habit and association, with those directly
+resulting from the excitement of the cerebro-spinal system. This seems
+to be the case with the increased action of the heart under the
+influence of any strong emotion. When an animal erects its hair,
+assumes a threatening attitude, and utters fierce sounds, in order to
+terrify an enemy, we see a curious combination of movements which were
+originally voluntary with those that are involuntary. It is, however,
+possible that even strictly involuntary actions, such as the erection
+of the hair, may have been affected by the mysterious power of the
+will.
+
+Some expressive movements may have arisen spontaneously, in association
+with certain states of the mind, like the tricks lately referred to,
+and afterwards been inherited. But I know of no evidence rendering this
+view probable.
+
+The power of communication between the members of the same tribe by
+means of language has been of paramount importance in the development
+of man; and the force of language is much aided by the expressive
+movements of the face and body. We perceive this at once when we
+converse on an important subject with any person whose face is
+concealed. Nevertheless there are no grounds, as far as I can discover,
+for believing that any muscle has been developed or even modified
+exclusively for the sake of expression. The vocal and other
+sound-producing organs, by which various expressive noises are
+produced, seem to form a partial exception; but I have elsewhere
+attempted to show that these organs were first developed for sexual
+purposes, in order that one sex might call or charm the other. Nor can
+I discover grounds for believing that any inherited movement, which now
+serves as a means of expression, was at first voluntarily and
+consciously performed for this special purpose,—like some of the
+gestures and the finger-language used by the deaf and dumb. On the
+contrary, every true or inherited movement of expression seems to have
+had some natural and independent origin. But when once acquired, such
+movements may be voluntarily and consciously employed as a means of
+communication. Even infants, if carefully attended to, find out at a
+very early age that their screaming brings relief, and they soon
+voluntarily practise it. We may frequently see a person voluntarily
+raising his eyebrows to express surprise, or smiling to express
+pretended satisfaction and acquiescence. A man often wishes to make
+certain gestures conspicuous or demonstrative, and will raise his
+extended arms with widely opened fingers above his head, to show
+astonishment, or lift his shoulders to his ears, to show that he cannot
+or will not do something. The tendency to such movements will be
+strengthened or increased by their being thus voluntarily and
+repeatedly performed; and the effects may be inherited.
+
+It is perhaps worth consideration whether movements at first used only
+by one or a few individuals to express a certain state of mind may not
+sometimes have spread to others, and ultimately have become universal,
+through the power of conscious and unconscious imitation. That there
+exists in man a strong tendency to imitation, independently of the
+conscious will, is certain. This is exhibited in the most extraordinary
+manner in certain brain diseases, especially at the commencement of
+inflammatory softening of the brain, and has been called the “echo
+sign.” Patients thus affected imitate, without understanding every
+absurd gesture which is made, and every word which is uttered near
+them, even in a foreign language.[1401] In the case of animals, the
+jackal and wolf have learnt under confinement to imitate the barking of
+the dog. How the barking of the dog, which serves to express various
+emotions and desires, and which is so remarkable from having been
+acquired since the animal was domesticated, and from being inherited in
+different degrees by different breeds, was first learnt we do not know;
+but may we not suspect that imitation has had something to do with its
+acquisition, owing to dogs having long lived in strict association with
+so loquacious an animal as man?
+
+In the course of the foregoing remarks and throughout this volume, I
+have often felt much difficulty about the proper application of the
+terms, will, consciousness, and intention. Actions, which were at first
+voluntary, soon became habitual, and at last hereditary, and may then
+be performed even in opposition to the will. Although they often reveal
+the state of the mind, this result was not at first either intended or
+expected. Even such words as that “certain movements serve as a means
+of expression,” are apt to mislead, as they imply that this was their
+primary purpose or object. This, however, seems rarely or never to have
+been the case; the movements having been at first either of some direct
+use, or the indirect effect of the excited state of the sensorium. An
+infant may scream either intentionally or instinctively to show that it
+wants food; but it has no wish or intention to draw its features into
+the peculiar form which so plainly indicates misery; yet some of the
+most characteristic expressions exhibited by man are derived from the
+act of screaming, as has been explained.
+
+Although most of our expressive actions are innate or instinctive, as
+is admitted by everyone, it is a different question whether we have any
+instinctive power of recognizing them. This has generally been assumed
+to be the case; but the assumption has been strongly controverted by M.
+Lemoine.[1402] Monkeys soon learn to distinguish, not only the tones of
+voice of their masters, but the expression of their faces, as is
+asserted by a careful observer.[1403] Dogs well know the difference
+between caressing and threatening gestures or tones; and they seem to
+recognize a compassionate tone. But as far as I can make out, after
+repeated trials, they do not understand any movement confined to the
+features, excepting a smile or laugh; and this they appear, at least in
+some cases, to recognize. This limited amount of knowledge has probably
+been gained, both by monkeys and dogs, through their associating harsh
+or kind treatment with our actions; and the knowledge certainly is not
+instinctive. Children, no doubt, would soon learn the movements of
+expression in their elders in the same manner as animals learn those of
+man. Moreover, when a child cries or laughs, he knows in a general
+manner what he is doing and what he feels; so that a very small
+exertion of reason would tell him what crying or laughing meant in
+others. But the question is, do our children acquire their knowledge of
+expression solely by experience through the power of association and
+reason?
+
+As most of the movements of expression must have been gradually
+acquired, afterwards becoming instinctive, there seems to be some
+degree of _a priori_ probability that their recognition would likewise
+have become instinctive. There is, at least, no greater difficulty in
+believing this than in admitting that, when a female quadruped first
+bears young, she knows the cry of distress of her offspring, or than in
+admitting that many animals instinctively recognize and fear their
+enemies; and of both these statements there can be no reasonable doubt.
+It is however extremely difficult to prove that our children
+instinctively recognize any expression. I attended to this point in my
+first-born infant, who could not have learnt anything by associating
+with other children, and I was convinced that he understood a smile and
+received pleasure from seeing one, answering it by another, at much too
+early an age to have learnt anything by experience. When this child was
+about four months old, I made in his presence many odd noises and
+strange grimaces, and tried to look savage; but the noises, if not too
+loud, as well as the grimaces, were all taken as good jokes; and I
+attributed this at the time to their being preceded or accompanied by
+smiles. When five months old, he seemed to understand a compassionate,
+expression and tone of voice. When a few days over six months old, his
+nurse pretended to cry, and I saw that his face instantly assumed a
+melancholy expression, with the corners of the mouth strongly
+depressed; now this child could rarely have seen any other child
+crying, and never a grown-up person crying, and I should doubt whether
+at so early an age he could have reasoned on the subject. Therefore it
+seems to me that an innate feeling must have told him that the
+pretended crying of his nurse expressed grief; and this through the
+instinct of sympathy excited grief in him.
+
+M. Lemoine argues that, if man possessed an innate knowledge of
+expression, authors and artists would not have found it so difficult,
+as is notoriously the case, to describe and depict the characteristic
+signs of each particular state of mind. But this does not seem to me a
+valid argument. We may actually behold the expression changing in an
+unmistakable manner in a man or animal, and yet be quite unable, as I
+know from experience, to analyse the nature of the change. In the two
+photographs given by Duchenne of the same old man (Plate III. figs. 5
+and 6), almost every one recognized that the one represented a true,
+and the other a false smile; but I have found it very difficult to
+decide in what the whole amount of difference consists. It has often
+struck me as a curious fact that so many shades of expression are
+instantly recognized without any conscious process of analysis on our
+part. No one, I believe, can clearly describe a sullen or sly
+expression; yet many observers are unanimous that these expressions can
+be recognized in the various races of man. Almost everyone to whom I
+showed Duchenne’s photograph of the young man with oblique eyebrows
+(Plate II. fig. 2) at once declared that it expressed grief or some
+such feeling; yet probably not one of these persons, or one out of a
+thousand persons, could beforehand have told anything precise about the
+obliquity of the eyebrows with their inner ends puckered, or about the
+rectangular furrows on the forehead. So it is with many other
+expressions, of which I have had practical experience in the trouble
+requisite in instructing others what points to observe. If, then, great
+ignorance of details does not prevent our recognizing with certainty
+and promptitude various expressions, I do not see how this ignorance
+can be advanced as an argument that our knowledge, though vague and
+general, is not innate.
+
+I have endeavoured to show in considerable detail that all the chief
+expressions exhibited by man are the same throughout the world. This
+fact is interesting, as it affords a new argument in favour of the
+several races being descended from a single parent-stock, which must
+have been almost completely human in structure, and to a large extent
+in mind, before the period at which the races diverged from each other.
+No doubt similar structures, adapted for the same purpose, have often
+been independently acquired through variation and natural selection by
+distinct species; but this view will not explain close similarity
+between distinct species in a multitude of unimportant details. Now if
+we bear in mind the numerous points of structure having no relation to
+expression, in which all the races of man closely agree, and then add
+to them the numerous points, some of the highest importance and many of
+the most trifling value, on which the movements of expression directly
+or indirectly depend, it seems to me improbable in the highest degree
+that so much similarity, or rather identity of structure, could have
+been acquired by independent means. Yet this must have been the case if
+the races of man are descended from several aboriginally distinct
+species. It is far more probable that the many points of close
+similarity in the various races are due to inheritance from a single
+parent-form, which had already assumed a human character.
+
+It is a curious, though perhaps an idle speculation, how early in the
+long line of our progenitors the various expressive movements, now
+exhibited by man, were successively acquired. The following remarks
+will at least serve to recall some of the chief points discussed in
+this volume. We may confidently believe that laughter, as a sign of
+pleasure or enjoyment, was practised by our progenitors long before
+they deserved to be called human; for very many kinds of monkeys, when
+pleased, utter a reiterated sound, clearly analogous to our laughter,
+often accompanied by vibratory movements of their jaws or lips, with
+the corners of the mouth drawn backwards and upwards, by the wrinkling
+of the cheeks, and even by the brightening of the eyes.
+
+We may likewise infer that fear was expressed from an extremely remote
+period, in almost the same manner as it now is by man; namely, by
+trembling, the erection of the hair, cold perspiration, pallor, widely
+opened eyes, the relaxation of most of the muscles, and by the whole
+body cowering downwards or held motionless.
+
+Suffering, if great, will from the first have caused screams or groans
+to be uttered, the body to be contorted, and the teeth to be ground
+together. But our progenitors will not have exhibited those highly
+expressive movements of the features which accompany screaming and
+crying until their circulatory and respiratory organs, and the muscles
+surrounding the eyes, had acquired their present structure. The
+shedding of tears appears to have originated through reflex action from
+the spasmodic contraction of the eyelids, together perhaps with the
+eyeballs becoming gorged with blood during the act of screaming.
+Therefore weeping probably came on rather late in the line of our
+descent; and this conclusion agrees with the fact that our nearest
+allies, the anthropomorphous apes, do not weep. But we must here
+exercise some caution, for as certain monkeys, which are not closely
+related to man, weep, this habit might have been developed long ago in
+a sub-branch of the group from which man is derived. Our early
+progenitors, when suffering from grief or anxiety, would not have made
+their eyebrows oblique, or have drawn down the corners of their mouth,
+until they had acquired the habit of endeavouring to restrain their
+screams. The expression, therefore, of grief and anxiety is eminently
+human.
+
+Rage will have been expressed at a very early period by threatening or
+frantic gestures, by the reddening of the skin, and by glaring eyes,
+but not by frowning. For the habit of frowning seems to have been
+acquired chiefly from the corrugators being the first muscles to
+contract round the eyes, whenever during infancy pain, anger, or
+distress is felt, and there consequently is a near approach to
+screaming; and partly from a frown serving as a shade in difficult and
+intent vision. It seems probable that this shading action would not
+have become habitual until man had assumed a completely upright
+position, for monkeys do not frown when exposed to a glaring light. Our
+early progenitors, when enraged, would probably have exposed their
+teeth more freely than does man, even when giving full vent to his
+rage, as with the insane. We may, also, feel almost certain that they
+would have protruded their lips, when sulky or disappointed, in a
+greater degree than is the case with our own children, or even with the
+children of existing savage races.
+
+Our early progenitors, when indignant or moderately angry, would not
+have held their heads erect, opened their chests, squared their
+shoulders, and clenched their fists, until they had acquired the
+ordinary carriage and upright attitude of man, and had learnt to fight
+with their fists or clubs. Until this period had arrived the
+antithetical gesture of shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence
+or of patience, would not have been developed. From the same reason
+astonishment would not then have been expressed by raising the arms
+with open hands and extended fingers. Nor, judging from the actions of
+monkeys, would astonishment have been exhibited by a widely opened
+mouth; but the eyes would have been opened and the eyebrows arched.
+Disgust would have been shown at a very early period by movements round
+the mouth, like those of vomiting,—that is, if the view which I have
+suggested respecting the source of the expression is correct, namely,
+that our progenitors had the power, and used it, of voluntarily and
+quickly rejecting any food from their stomachs which they disliked. But
+the more refined manner of showing contempt or disdain, by lowering the
+eyelids, or turning away the eyes and face, as if the despised person
+were not worth looking at, would not probably have been acquired until
+a much later period.
+
+Of all expressions, blushing seems to be the most strictly human; yet
+it is common to all or nearly all the races of man, whether or not any
+change of colour is visible in their skin. The relaxation of the small
+arteries of the surface, on which blushing depends, seems to have
+primarily resulted from earnest attention directed to the appearance of
+our own persons, especially of our faces, aided by habit, inheritance,
+and the ready flow of nerve-force along accustomed channels; and
+afterwards to have been extended by the power of association to
+self-attention directed to moral conduct. It can hardly be doubted that
+many animals are capable of appreciating beautiful colours and even
+forms, as is shown by the pains which the individuals of one sex take
+in displaying their beauty before those of the opposite sex. But it
+does not seem possible that any animal, until its mental powers had
+been developed to an equal or nearly equal degree with those of man,
+would have closely considered and been sensitive about its own personal
+appearance. Therefore we may conclude that blushing originated at a
+very late period in the long line of our descent.
+
+From the various facts just alluded to, and given in the course of this
+volume, it follows that, if the structure of our organs of respiration
+and circulation had differed in only a slight degree from the state in
+which they now exist, most of our expressions would have been
+wonderfully different. A very slight change in the course of the
+arteries and veins which run to the head, would probably have prevented
+the blood from accumulating in our eyeballs during violent expiration;
+for this occurs in extremely few quadrupeds. In this case we should not
+have displayed some of our most characteristic expressions. If man had
+breathed water by the aid of external branchiae (though the idea is
+hardly conceivable), instead of air through his mouth and nostrils, his
+features would not have expressed his feelings much more efficiently
+than now do his hands or limbs. Rage and disgust, however, would still
+have been shown by movements about the lips and mouth, and the eyes
+would have become brighter or duller according to the state of the
+circulation. If our ears had remained movable, their movements would
+have been highly expressive, as is the case with all the animals which
+fight with their teeth; and we may infer that our early progenitors
+thus fought, as we still uncover the canine tooth on one side when we
+sneer at or defy any one, and we uncover all our teeth when furiously
+enraged.
+
+The movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin
+may have been, are in themselves of much importance for our welfare.
+They serve as the first means of communication between the mother and
+her infant; she smiles approval, and thus encourages her child on the
+right path, or frowns disapproval. We readily perceive sympathy in
+others by their expression; our sufferings are thus mitigated and our
+pleasures increased; and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened. The
+movements of expression give vividness and energy to our spoken words.
+They reveal the thoughts and intentions of others more truly than do
+words, which may be falsified. Whatever amount of truth the so-called
+science of physiognomy may contain, appears to depend, as Haller long
+ago remarked,[1404] on different persons bringing into frequent use
+different facial muscles, according to their dispositions; the
+development of these muscles being perhaps thus increased, and the
+lines or furrows on the face, due to their habitual contraction, being
+thus rendered deeper and more conspicuous. The free expression by
+outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the
+repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward signs softens
+our emotions.[1405] He who gives way to violent gestures will increase
+his rage; he who does not control the signs of fear will experience
+fear in a greater degree; and he who remains passive when overwhelmed
+with grief loses his best chance of recovering elasticity of mind.
+These results follow partly from the intimate relation which exists
+between almost all the emotions and their outward manifestations; and
+partly from the direct influence of exertion on the heart, and
+consequently on the brain. Even the simulation of an emotion tends to
+arouse it in our minds. Shakespeare, who from his wonderful knowledge
+of the human mind ought to be an excellent judge, says:—
+
+Is it not monstrous that this player here,
+But in a fiction, in a dream of passion,
+Could force his soul so to his own conceit,
+That, from her working, all his visage wann’d;
+Tears in his eyes, distraction in ’s aspect,
+A broken voice, and his whole function suiting
+With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing!
+_Hamlet_, act ii. sc. 2.
+
+
+We have seen that the study of the theory of expression confirms to a
+certain limited extent the conclusion that man is derived from some
+lower animal form, and supports the belief of the specific or
+sub-specific unity of the several races; but as far as my judgment
+serves, such confirmation was hardly needed. We have also seen that
+expression in itself, or the language of the emotions, as it has
+sometimes been called, is certainly of importance for the welfare of
+mankind. To understand, as far as possible, the source or origin of the
+various expressions which may be hourly seen on the faces of the men
+around us, not to mention our domesticated animals, ought to possess
+much interest for us. From these several causes, we may conclude that
+the philosophy of our subject has well deserved the attention which it
+has already received from several excellent observers, and that it
+deserves still further attention, especially from any able
+physiologist.
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+
+1 (return) [ J. Parsons, in his paper in the Appendix to the
+‘Philosophical Transactions’ for 1746, p. 41, gives a list of forty-one
+old authors who have written on Expression.]
+
+2 (return) [ Conférences sur l’expression des différents Caractères des
+Passions.’ Paris, 4to, 1667. I always quote from the republication of
+the ‘Conférences’ in the edition of Lavater, by Moreau, which appeared
+in 1820, as given in vol. ix. p. 257.]
+
+3 (return) [ ‘Discours par Pierre Camper sur le moyen de représenter
+les diverses passions,’ &c. 1792. 1844]
+
+4 (return) [ I always quote from the third edition, 1844, which was
+published after the death of Sir C. Bell, and contains his latest
+corrections. The first edition of 1806 is much inferior in merit, and
+does not include some of his more important views.]
+
+5 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie et de la Parole,’ par Albert Lemoine,
+1865, p. 101.]
+
+6 (return) [ ‘L’Art de connaître les Hommes,’ &c., par G. Lavater. The
+earliest edition of this work, referred to in the preface to the
+edition of 1820 in ten volumes, as containing the observations of M.
+Moreau, is said to have been published in 1807; and I have no doubt
+that this is correct, because the ‘Notice sur Lavater’ at the
+commencement of volume i. is dated April 13, 1806. In some
+bibliographical works, however, the date of 1805—1809 is given, but it
+seems impossible that 1805 can be correct. Dr. Duchenne remarks
+(‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’-8vo edit. 1862, p. 5, and
+‘Archives Générales de Médecine,’ Jan. et Fév. 1862) that M. Moreau “_a
+composé pour son ouvrage un article important_,” &c., in the year 1805;
+and I find in volume i. of the edition of 1820 passages bearing the
+dates of December 12, 1805, and another January 5, 1806, besides that
+of April 13, 1806, above referred to. In consequence of some of these
+passages having thus been _composed_ in 1805, Dr. Duchenne assigns to
+M. Moreau the priority over Sir C. Bell, whose work, as we have seen,
+was published in 1806. This is a very unusual manner of determining the
+priority of scientific works; but such questions are of extremely
+little importance in comparison with their relative merits. The
+passages above quoted from M. Moreau and from Le Brun are taken in this
+and all other cases from the edition of 1820 of Lavater, tom. iv. p.
+228, and tom. ix. p. 279.]
+
+
+7 (return) [ ‘Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.’ Band
+I. Dritte Abtheilung, 1858.]
+
+8 (return) [ ‘The Senses and the Intellect,’ 2nd edit. 1864, pp. 96 and
+288. The preface to the first edition of this work is dated June, 1855.
+See also the 2nd edition of Mr. Bain’s work on the ‘Emotions and
+Will.’]
+
+9 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. p. 121.]
+
+10 (return) [ ‘Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,’ Second
+Series, 1863, p. 111. There is a discussion on Laughter in the First
+Series of Essays, which discussion seems to me of very inferior value.]
+
+11 (return) [ Since the publication of the essay just referred to, Mr.
+Spencer has written another, on “Morals and Moral Sentiments,” in the
+‘Fortnightly Review,’ April 1, 1871, p. 426. He has, also, now
+published his final conclusions in vol. ii. of the second edit. of the
+‘Principles of Psychology,’ 1872, p. 539. I may state, in order that I
+may not be accused of trespassing on Mr. Spencer’s domain, that I
+announced in my ‘Descent of Man,’ that I had then written a part of the
+present volume: my first MS. notes on the subject of expression bear
+the date of the year 1838.]
+
+12 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131.]
+
+13 (return) [ Professor Owen expressly states (Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1830,
+p. 28) that this is the case with respect to the Orang, and specifies
+all the more important muscles which are well known to serve with man
+for the expression of his feelings. See, also, a description of several
+of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof. Macalister, in
+‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History,’ vol. vii. May, 1871, p. 342.]
+
+14 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ pp. 121, 138.]
+
+15 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ pp. 12, 73.]
+
+16 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ 8vo edit. p. 31.]
+
+17 (return) [ ‘Elements of Physiology,’ English translation, vol. ii.
+p. 934.]
+
+18 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. p. 198.]
+
+19 (return) [ See remarks to this effect in Lessing’s ‘Lacooon,’
+translated by W. Ross, 1836, p. 19.]
+
+20 (return) [ Mr. Partridge in Todd’s ‘Cyclopædia of Anatomy and
+Physiology,’ vol. ii. p. 227.]
+
+21 (return) [ ‘La Physionomie,’ par G. Lavater, tom. iv. 1820, p. 274.
+On the number of the facial muscles, see vol. iv. pp. 209-211.]
+
+22 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 91.]
+
+101 (return) [ Mr. Herbert Spencer (‘Essays,’ Second Series, 1863, p.
+138) has drawn a clear distinction between emotions and sensations, the
+latter being “generated in our corporeal framework.” He classes as
+Feelings both emotions and-sensations.]
+
+102 (return) [ Müller, ‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol.
+ii. p. 939. See also Mr. H. Spencer’s interesting speculations on the
+same subject, and on the genesis of nerves, in his ‘Principles of
+Biology,’ vol. ii. p. 346; and in his ‘Principles of Psychology,’ 2nd
+edit. pp. 511-557.]
+
+103 (return) [ A remark to much the same effect was made long ago by
+Hippocrates and by the illustrious Harvey; for both assert that a young
+animal forgets in the course of a few days the art of sucking, and
+cannot without some difficulty again acquire it. I give these
+assertions on the authority of Dr. Darwin, ‘Zoonomia,’ 1794, vol. i. p.
+140.]
+
+104 (return) [ See for my authorities, and for various analogous facts,
+‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ 1868, vol.
+ii. p. 304.]
+
+105 (return) [ ‘The Senses and the Intellect,’ 2nd edit. 1864, p. 332.
+Prof. Huxley remarks (‘Elementary Lessons in Physiology,’ 5th edit.
+1872, p. 306), “It may be laid down as a rule, that, if any two mental
+states be called up together, or in succession, with due frequency and
+vividness, the subsequent production of the one of them will suffice to
+call up the other, and that whether we desire it or not.”]
+
+106 (return) [ Gratiolet (‘De la Physionomie,’ p. 324), in his
+discussion on this subject, gives many analogous instances. See p. 42,
+on the opening and shutting of the eyes. Engel is quoted (p. 323) on
+the changed paces of a man, as his thoughts change.]
+
+107 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ 1862, p. 17.]
+
+108 (return) [ ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 6. The inheritance of habitual gestures is
+so important for us, that I gladly avail myself of Mr. F. Galton’s
+permission to give in his own words the following remarkable case:—“The
+following account of a habit occurring in individuals of three
+consecutive generations {footnote continues:} is of peculiar interest,
+because it occurs only during sound sleep, and therefore cannot be due
+to imitation, but must be altogether natural. The particulars are
+perfectly trustworthy, for I have enquired fully into them, and speak
+from abundant and independent evidence. A gentleman of considerable
+position was found by his wife to have the curious trick, when he lay
+fast asleep on his back in bed, of raising his right arm slowly in
+front of his face, up to his forehead, and then dropping it with a
+jerk, so that the wrist fell heavily on the bridge of his nose. The
+trick did not occur every night, but occasionally, and was independent
+of any ascertained cause. Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an
+hour or more. The gentleman’s nose was prominent, and its bridge often
+became sore from the blows which it received. At one time an awkward
+sore was produced, that was long in healing, on account of the
+recurrence, night after night, of the blows which first caused it. His
+wife had to remove the button from the wrist of his night-gown as it
+made severe scratches, and some means were attempted of tying his arm.
+
+“Many years after his death, his son married a lady who had never heard
+of the family incident. She, however, observed precisely the same
+peculiarity in her husband; but his nose, from not being particularly
+prominent, has never as yet suffered from the blows. The trick does not
+occur when he is half-asleep, as, for example, when dozing in his
+arm-chair, but the moment he is fast asleep it is apt to begin. It is,
+as with his father, intermittent; sometimes ceasing for many nights,
+and sometimes almost incessant during a part of every night. It is
+performed, as it was by his father, with his right hand.
+
+“One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick. She
+performs it, likewise, with the right hand, but in a slightly modified
+form; for, after raising the arm, she does not allow the wrist to drop
+upon the bridge of the nose, but the palm of the half-closed hand falls
+over and down the nose, striking it rather rapidly. It is also very
+intermittent with this child, not occurring for periods of some months,
+but sometimes occurring almost incessantly.”]
+
+109 (return) [ Prof. Huxley remarks (‘Elementary Physiology,’ 5th edit.
+p. 305) that reflex actions proper to the spinal cord are _natural_;
+but, by the help of the brain, that is through habit, an infinity of
+_artificial_ reflex actions may be acquired. Virchow admits (‘Sammlung
+wissenschaft. Vorträge,’ &c., “Ueber das Rückenmark,” 1871, ss. 24, 31)
+that some reflex actions can hardly be distinguished from instincts;
+and, of the latter, it may be added, some cannot be distinguished from
+inherited habits.]
+
+110 (return) [ Dr. Maudsley, ‘Body and Mind,’ 1870, p. 8.]
+
+111 (return) [ See the very interesting discussion on the whole subject
+by Claude Bernard, ‘Tissus Vivants,’ 1866, p. 353-356.]
+
+112 (return) [ ‘Chapters on Mental Physiology,’ 1858, p. 85.]
+
+113 (return) [ Müller remarks (‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. tr. vol.
+ii. p. 1311) on starting being always accompanied by the closure of the
+eyelids.]
+
+114 (return) [ Dr. Maudsley remarks (‘Body and Mind,’ p. 10) that
+“reflex movements which commonly effect a useful end may, under the
+changed circumstances of disease, do great mischief, becoming even the
+occasion of violent suffering and of a most painful death.”]
+
+115 (return) [ See Mr. F. H. Salvin’s account of a tame jackal in ‘Land
+and Water,’ October, 1869.]
+
+116 (return) [ “Dr. Darwin, ‘Zoonomia,’ 1794, vol. i. p. 160. I find
+that the fact of cats protruding their feet when pleased is also
+noticed (p. 151) in this work.]
+
+117 (return) [ Carpenter, ‘Principles of Comparative Physiology,’ 1854,
+p. 690, and Müller’s ‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol. ii.
+p. 936.]
+
+118 (return) [ Mowbray on ‘Poultry,’ 6th edit. 1830, p. 54.]
+
+119 (return) [ See the account given by this excellent observer in
+‘Wild Sports of the Highlands,’ 1846, p. 142.]
+
+120 (return) [ ‘Philosophical Translations,’ 1823, p. 182.]
+
+201 (return) [ ‘Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s.
+55.]
+
+202 (return) [ Mr. Tylor gives an account of the Cistercian
+gesture-language in his ‘Early History of Mankind’ (2nd edit. 1870, p.
+40), and makes some remarks on the principle of opposition in
+gestures.]
+
+203 (return) [ See on this subject Dr. W. R. Scott’s interesting work,
+‘The Deaf and Dumb,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 12. He says, “This contracting
+of natural gestures into much shorter gestures than the natural
+expression requires, is very common amongst the deaf and dumb. This
+contracted gesture is frequently so shortened as nearly to lose all
+semblance of the natural one, but to the deaf and dumb who use it, it
+still has the force of the original expression.”]
+
+301 (return) [ See the interesting cases collected by M. G. Pouchet in
+the ‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’ January 1, 1872, p. 79. An instance was
+also brought some years ago before the British Association at Belfast.]
+
+302 (return) [ Müller remarks (‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat.
+vol. ii. p. 934) that when the feelings are very intense, “all the
+spinal nerves become affected to the extent of imperfect paralysis, or
+the excitement of trembling of the whole body.”]
+
+303 (return) [ ‘Leçons sur les Prop. des Tissus Vivants,’ 1866, pp.
+457-466.]
+
+304 (return) [ Mr. Bartlett, “Notes on the Birth of a Hippopotamus,”
+Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1871, p. 255.]
+
+305 (return) [ See, on this subject, Claude Bernard, ‘Tissus Vivants,’
+1866, pp. 316, 337, 358. Virchow expresses himself to almost exactly
+the same effect in his essay “Ueber das Rückenmark” (Sammlung
+wissenschaft. Vorträge, 1871, s. 28).]
+
+306 (return) [ Müller (‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol.
+ii. p. 932) in speaking of the nerves, says, “any sudden change of
+condition of whatever kind sets the nervous principle into action.” See
+Virchow and Bernard on the same subject in passages in the two works
+referred to in my last foot-note.]
+
+307 (return) [ H. Spencer, ‘Essays, Scientific, Political,’ &c., Second
+Series, 1863, pp. 109, 111.]
+
+308 (return) [ Sir H. Holland, in speaking (‘Medical Notes and
+Reflexions,’ 1839, p. 328) of that curious state of body called the
+_fidgets_, remarks that it seems due to “an accumulation of some cause
+of irritation which requires muscular action for its relief.”]
+
+309 (return) [ I am much indebted to Mr. A. H. Garrod for having
+informed me of M. Lorain’s work on the pulse, in which a sphygmogram of
+a woman in a rage is given; and this shows much difference in the rate
+and other characters from that of the same woman in her ordinary
+state.]
+
+310 (return) [ How powerfully intense joy excites the brain, and how
+the brain reacts on the body, is well shown in the rare cases of
+Psychical Intoxication. Dr. J. Crichton Browne (‘Medical Mirror,’ 1865)
+records the case of a young man of strongly nervous temperament, who,
+on hearing by a telegram that a fortune had been bequeathed him, first
+became pale, then exhilarated, and soon in the highest spirits, but
+flushed and very restless. He then took a walk with a friend for the
+sake of tranquillising himself, but returned staggering in his gait,
+uproariously laughing, yet irritable in temper, incessantly talking,
+and singing loudly in the public streets. It was positively ascertained
+that he had not touched any spirituous liquor, though every one thought
+that he was intoxicated. Vomiting after a time came on, and the
+half-digested contents of his stomach were examined, but no odour of
+alcohol could be detected. He then slept heavily, and on awaking was
+well, except that he suffered from headache, nausea, and prostration of
+strength.]
+
+311 (return) [ Dr. Darwin, ‘Zoonomia,’ 1794, vol. i. p. 148.]
+
+312 (return) [ Mrs. Oliphant, in her novel of ‘Miss Majoribanks,’ p.
+362. All this reacts on the brain, and prostration soon follows with
+collapsed muscles and dulled eyes. As associated habit no longer
+prompts the sufferer to action, he is urged by his friends to voluntary
+exertion, and not to give way to silent, motionless grief. Exertion
+stimulates the heart, and this reacts on the brain, and aids the mind
+to bear its heavy load.]
+
+401 (return) [ See the evidence on this head in my ‘Variation of
+Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 27. On the cooing
+of pigeons, vol. i. pp. 154, 155.]
+
+402 (return) [ ‘Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,’ 1858.
+‘The Origin and Function of Music,’ p. 359.]
+
+403 (return) [ ‘The Descent of Man,’ 1870, vol. ii. p. 332. The words
+quoted are from Professor Owen. It has lately been shown that some
+quadrupeds much lower in the scale than monkeys, namely Rodents, are
+able to produce correct musical tones: see the account of a singing
+Hesperomys, by the Rev. S. Lockwood, in the ‘American Naturalist,’ vol.
+v. December, 1871, p. 761.]
+
+404 (return) [ Mr. Tylor (‘Primitive Culture,’ 1871, vol. i. p. 166),
+in his discussion on this subject, alludes to the whining of the dog.]
+
+405 (return) [ ‘Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s.
+46.]
+
+406 (return) [ Quoted by Gratiolet, ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 115.]
+
+407 (return) [ ‘Théorie Physiologique de la Musique,’ Paris, 1868, P.
+146. Helmholtz has also fully discussed in this profound work the
+relation of the form of the cavity of the mouth to the production of
+vowel-sounds.]
+
+408 (return) [ I have given some details on this subject in my ‘Descent
+of Man,’ vol. i. pp. 352, 384.]
+
+409 (return) [ As quoted in Huxley’s ‘Evidence as to Man’s Place in
+Nature,’ 1863, p. 52.]
+
+410 (return) [ Illust. Thierleben, 1864, B. i. s. 130.]
+
+411 (return) [ The Hon. J. Caton, Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences, May,
+1868, pp. 36, 40. For the _Capra, Ægagrus_, ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p.
+37.]
+
+412 (return) [ ‘Land and Water,’ July 20, 1867, p. 659.]
+
+413 (return) [ _Phaeton rubricauda_: ‘Ibis,’ vol. iii. 1861, p. 180.]
+
+414 (return) [ On the _Strix flammea_, Audubon, ‘Ornithological
+Biography,’ 1864, vol. ii. p. 407. I have observed other cases in the
+Zoological Gardens.]
+
+415 (return) [ _Melopsittacus undulatus_. See an account of its habits
+by Gould, ‘Handbook of Birds of Australia,’ 1865, vol. ii. p. 82.]
+
+416 (return) [ See, for instance, the account which I have given
+(‘Descent of Man,’ vol. ii. p. 32) of an Anolis and Draco.]
+
+417 (return) [ These muscles are described in his well-known works. I
+am greatly indebted to this distinguished observer for having given me
+in a letter information on this same subject.]
+
+418 (return) [ ‘Lehrbuch der Histologie des Menschen,’ 1857, s. 82. I
+owe to Prof. W. Turner’s kindness an extract from this work.]
+
+419 (return) [ ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,’ 1853, vol.
+i. p. 262.]
+
+420 (return) [ ‘Lehrbuch der Histologie,’ 1857, s. 82.]
+
+421 (return) [ ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’ p. 403.]
+
+422 (return) [ See the account of the habits of this animal by Dr.
+Cooper, as quoted in ‘Nature,’ April 27, 1871, p. 512.]
+
+423 (return) [ Dr. Günther, ‘Reptiles of British India,’ p. 262.]
+
+424 (return) [ Mr. J. Mansel Weale, ‘Nature,’ April 27, 1871, p. 508.]
+
+425 (return) [ ‘Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the
+“Beagle,”’ 1845, p. 96. I have compared the rattling thus produced with
+that of the Rattle-snake.]
+
+426 (return) [ See the account by Dr. Anderson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871,
+p. 196.]
+
+427 (return) [ The ‘American Naturalist,’ Jan. 1872, p. 32. I regret
+that I cannot follow Prof. Shaler in believing that the rattle has been
+developed, by the aid of natural selection, for the sake of producing
+sounds which deceive and attract birds, so that they may serve as prey
+to the snake. I do not, however, wish to doubt that the sounds may
+occasionally subserve this end. But the conclusion at which I have
+arrived, viz. that the rattling serves as a warning to would-be
+devourers, appears to me much more probable, as it connects together
+various classes of facts. If this snake had acquired its rattle and the
+habit of rattling, for the sake of attracting prey, it does not seem
+probable that it would have invariably used its instrument when angered
+or disturbed. Prof. Shaler takes nearly the same view as I do of the
+manner of development of the rattle; and I have always held this
+opinion since observing the Trigonocephalus in South America.]
+
+428 (return) [ From the accounts lately collected, and given in the
+‘Journal of the Linnean Society,’ by Airs. Barber, on the habits of the
+snakes of South Africa; and from the accounts published by several
+writers, for instance by Lawson, of the rattle-snake in North
+America,—it does not seem improbable that the terrific appearance of
+snakes and the sounds produced by them, may likewise serve in procuring
+prey, by paralysing, or as it is sometimes called fascinating, the
+smaller animals.]
+
+429 (return) [ See the account by Dr. R. Brown, in Proc. Zool. Soc.
+1871, p. 39. He says that as soon as a pig sees a snake it rushes upon
+it; and a snake makes off immediately on the appearance of a pig.]
+
+430 (return) [ Dr. Günther remarks (‘Reptiles of British India,’ p.
+340) on the destruction of cobras by the ichneumon or herpestes, and
+whilst the cobras are young by the jungle-fowl. It is well known that
+the peacock also eagerly kills snakes.]
+
+431 (return) [ Prof. Cope enumerates a number of kinds in his ‘Method
+of Creation of Organic Types,’ read before the American Phil. Soc.,
+December 15th, 1871, p. 20. Prof. Cope takes the same view as I do of
+the use of the gestures and sounds made by snakes. I briefly alluded to
+this subject in the last edition of my ‘Origin of Species.’ Since the
+passages in the text above have been printed, I have been pleased to
+find that Mr. Henderson (‘The American Naturalist,’ May, 1872, p. 260)
+also takes a similar view of the use of the rattle, namely “in
+preventing an attack from being made.”]
+
+432 (return) [ Mr. des Vœux, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 3.]
+
+433 (return) [ ‘The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada,’ 1866, p. 53.
+p. 53.{sic}]
+
+434 (return) [ ‘The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,’ 1867, p. 443.]
+
+501 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ 1844, p. 190.]
+
+502 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, pp. 187, 218.]
+
+503 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ 1844, p. 140.]
+
+504 (return) [ Many particulars are given by Gueldenstädt in his
+account of the jackal in Nov. Comm. Acad. Sc. Imp. Petrop. 1775, tom.
+xx. p. 449. See also another excellent account of the manners of this
+animal and of its play, in ‘Land and Water,’ October, 1869. Lieut.
+Annesley, R. A., has also communicated to me some particulars with
+respect to the jackal. I have made many inquiries about wolves and
+jackals in the Zoological Gardens, and have observed them for myself.]
+
+505 (return) [ ‘Land and Water,’ November 6, 1869.]
+
+506 (return) [ Azara, ‘Quadrupèdes du Paraquay,’ 1801, tom. 1. p. 136.]
+
+507 (return) [ ‘Land and Water,’ 1867, p. 657. See also Azara on the
+Puma, in the work above quoted.]
+
+508 (return) [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. p. 123.
+See also p. 126, on horses not breathing through their mouths, with
+reference to their distended nostrils.]
+
+509 (return) [ ‘Land and Water,’ 1869, p. 152.]
+
+510 (return) [ ‘Natural History of Mammalia,’ 1841, vol. 1. pp. 383,
+410.]
+
+511 (return) [ Rengger (‘Sagetheire von Paraquay’, 1830, s. 46) kept
+these monkeys in confinement for seven years in their native country of
+Paraguay.]
+
+512 (return) [ Rengger, ibid. s. 46. Humboldt, ‘Personal Narrative,
+Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 527.]
+
+513 (return) [ Nat. Hist. of Mammalia, 1841, p. 351.]
+
+514 (return) [ Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. s. 84. On baboons striking
+the ground, s. 61.]
+
+515 (return) [ Brehm remarks (‘Thierleben,’ s. 68) that the eyebrows of
+the _Inuus ecaudatus_ are frequently moved up and down when the animal
+is angered.]
+
+516 (return) [ G. Bennett, ‘Wanderings in New South Wales,’ &c. vol.
+ii. 1834, p. 153. FIG. 18.-Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky. Drawn
+from life by Mr. Wood.]
+
+517 (return) [ W. L. Martin, Nat. Hist. of Mamm. Animals, 1841, p.
+405.]
+
+518 (return) [ Prof. Owen on the Orang, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1830, p. 28.
+On the Chimpanzee, see Prof. Macalister, in Annals and Mag. of Nat.
+Hist. vol. vii. 1871, p. 342, who states that the _corrugator
+supercilii_ is inseparable from the _orbicularis palpebrarum_.]
+
+519 (return) [ Boston Journal of Nat. Hist. 1845—-47, vol. v. p. 423.
+On the Chimpanzee, ibid. 1843-44, vol. iv. p. 365.]
+
+520 (return) [ See on this subject, ‘Descent of Man,’ vol. i. p. 20.]
+
+521 (return) [ ‘Descent of Man,’ vol, i. p, 43.]
+
+522 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. 1844, pp. 138, 121.]
+
+601 (return) [ The best photographs in my collection are by Mr.
+Rejlander, of Victoria Street, London, and by Herr Kindermann, of
+Hamburg. Figs. 1, 3, 4, and 6 are by the former; and figs. 2 and 5, by
+the latter gentleman. Fig. 6 is given to show moderate crying in an
+older child.]
+
+602 (return) [ Henle (‘Handbuch d. Syst. Anat. 1858, B. i. s. 139)
+agrees with Duchenne that this is the effect of the contraction of the
+_pyramidalis nasi_.]
+
+603 (return) [ These consist of the _levator labii superioris alaeque
+nasi_, the _levator labii proprius_, the _malaris_, and the
+_zygomaticus minor_, or little zygomatic. This latter muscle runs
+parallel to and above the great zygomatic, and is attached to the outer
+part of the upper lip. It is represented in fig. 2 (I. p. 24), but not
+in figs. 1 and 3. Dr. Duchenne first showed (‘Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, 1862, p. 39) the importance of the
+contraction of this muscle in the shape assumed by the features in
+crying. Henle considers the above-named muscles (excepting the
+_malaris_) as subdivisions of the _quadratus labii superioris_.]
+
+604 (return) [ Although Dr. Duchenne has so carefully studied the
+contraction of the different muscles during the act of crying, and the
+furrows on the face thus produced, there seems to be something
+incomplete in his account; but what this is I cannot say. He has given
+a figure (Album, fig. 48) in which one half of the face is made, by
+galvanizing the proper muscles, to smile; whilst the other half is
+similarly made to begin crying. Almost all those (viz. nineteen out of
+twenty-one persons) to whom I showed the smiling half of the face
+instantly recognized the expression; but, with respect to the other
+half, only six persons out of twenty-one recognized it,—that is, if we
+accept such terms as “grief,” “misery,” “annoyance,” as
+correct;—whereas, fifteen persons were ludicrously mistaken; some of
+them saying the face expressed “fun,” “satisfaction,” “cunning,”
+“disgust,” &c. We may infer from this that there is something wrong in
+the expression. Some of the fifteen persons may, however, have been
+partly misled by not expecting to see an old man crying, and by tears
+not being secreted. With respect to another figure by Dr. Duchenne
+(fig. 49), in which the muscles of half the face are galvanized in
+order to represent a man beginning to cry, with the eyebrow on the same
+side rendered oblique, which is characteristic of misery, the
+expression was recognized by a greater proportional number of persons.
+Out of twenty-three persons, fourteen answered correctly, “sorrow,”
+“distress,” “grief,” “just going to cry,” “endurance of pain,” &c. On
+the other hand, nine persons either could form no opinion or were
+entirely wrong, answering, “cunning leer,” “jocund,” “looking at an
+intense light,” “looking at a distant object,” &c.]
+
+605 (return) [ Mrs. Gaskell, ‘Mary Barton,’ new edit. p. 84.]
+
+606 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 102. Duchenne,
+Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, p. 34.]
+
+607 (return) [ Dr. Duchenne makes this remark, ibid. p. 39.]
+
+608 (return) [ ‘The Origin of Civilization,’ 1870, p. 355.]
+
+609 (return) [ See, for instance, Mr. Marshall’s account of an idiot in
+Philosoph. Transact. 1864, p. 526. With respect to cretins, see Dr.
+Piderit, ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 61.]
+
+610 (return) [ ‘New Zealand and its Inhabitants,’ 1855, p. 175.]
+
+611 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 126.]
+
+612 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ 1844, p. 106. See also his
+paper in the ‘Philosophical Transactions,’ 1822, p. 284, ibid. 1823,
+pp. 166 and 289. Also ‘The Nervous System of the Human Body,’ 3rd edit.
+1836, p. 175.]
+
+613 (return) [ See Dr. Brinton’s account of the act of vomiting, in
+Todd’s Cyclop. of Anatomy and Physiology, 1859, vol. v. Supplement, p.
+318.]
+
+614 (return) [ I am greatly indebted to Mr. Bowman for having
+introduced me to Prof. Donders, and for his aid in persuading this
+great physiologist to undertake the investigation of the present
+subject. I am likewise much indebted to Mr. Bowman for having given me,
+with the utmost kindness, information on many points.]
+
+615 (return) [ This memoir first appeared in the ‘Nederlandsch Archief
+voor Genees en Natuurkunde,’ Deel 5, 1870. It has been translated by
+Dr. W. D. Moore, under the title of “On the Action of the Eyelids in
+determination of Blood from expiratory effort,” in ‘Archives of
+Medicine,’ edited by Dr. L. S. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 20.]
+
+616 (return) [ Prof. Donders remarks (ibid. p. 28), that, “After injury
+to the eye, after operations, and in some forms of internal
+inflammation, we attach great value to the uniform support of the
+closed eyelids, and we increase this in many instances by the
+application of a bandage. In both cases we carefully endeavour to avoid
+great expiratory pressure, the disadvantage of which is well known.”
+Mr. Bowman informs me that in the excessive photophobia, accompanying
+what is called scrofulous ophthalmia in children, when the light is so
+very painful that during weeks or months it is constantly excluded by
+the most forcible closure of the lids, he has often been struck on
+opening the lids by the paleness of the eye,—not an unnatural paleness,
+but an absence of the redness that might have been expected when the
+surface is somewhat inflamed, as is then usually the case; and this
+paleness he is inclined to attribute to the forcible closure of the
+eyelids.]
+
+617 (return) [ Donders, ibid. p. 36.]
+
+618 (return) [ Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood (Dict. of English Etymology,
+1859, vol. i. p. 410) says, “the verb to weep comes from Anglo-Saxon
+_wop_, the primary meaning of which is simply outcry.”]
+
+619 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 217.]
+
+620 (return) [ ‘Ceylon,’ 3rd edit. 1859, vol. ii. pp. 364, 376. I
+applied to Mr. Thwaites, in Ceylon, for further information with
+respect to the weeping of the elephant; and in consequence received a
+letter from the Rev. Mr Glenie, who, with others, kindly observed for
+me a herd of recently captured elephants. These, when irritated,
+screamed violently; but it is remarkable that they never when thus
+screaming contracted the muscles round the eyes. Nor did they shed
+tears; and the native hunters asserted that they had never observed
+elephants weeping. Nevertheless, it appears to me impossible to doubt
+Sir E. Tennent’s distinct details about their weeping, supported as
+they are by the positive assertion of the keeper in the Zoological
+Gardens. It is certain that the two elephants in the Gardens, when they
+began to trumpet loudly, invariably contracted their orbicular muscles.
+I can reconcile these conflicting statements only by supposing that the
+recently captured elephants in Ceylon, from being enraged or
+frightened, desired to observe their persecutors, and consequently did
+not contract their orbicular muscles, so that their vision might not be
+impeded. Those seen weeping by Sir E. Tennent were prostrate, and had
+given up the contest in despair. The elephants which trumpeted in the
+Zoological Gardens at the word of command, were, of course, neither
+alarmed nor enraged.]
+
+621 (return) [ Bergeon, as quoted in the ‘Journal of Anatomy and
+Physiology,’ Nov. 1871, p. 235.]
+
+622 (return) [ See, for instance, a case given by Sir Charles Bell,
+‘Philosophical Transactions,’ 1823, p. 177.]
+
+623 (return) [ See, on these several points, Prof. Donders ‘On the
+Anomalies of Accommodation and Refraction of the Eye,’ 1864, p. 573.]
+
+624 (return) [ Quoted by Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 1865, p.
+458.]
+
+701 (return) [ The above descriptive remarks are taken in part from my
+own observations, but chiefly from Gratiolet (‘De la Physionomie,’ pp.
+53, 337; on Sighing, 232), who has well treated this whole subject.
+See, also, Huschke, ‘Mimices et Physiognomices, Fragmentum
+Physiologi-cum,’ 1821, p. 21. On the dulness of the eyes, Dr. Piderit,
+‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 65.]
+
+702 (return) [ On the action of grief on the organs of respiration, see
+more especially Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ 3rd edit. 1844,
+p. 151.]
+
+703 (return) [ In the foregoing remarks on the manner in which the
+eyebrows are made oblique, I have followed what seems to be the
+universal opinion of all the anatomists, whose works I have consulted
+on the action of the above-named muscles, or with whom I have
+conversed. Hence throughout this work I shall take a similar view of
+the action of the corrugator supercilii, orbicularis, pyramidalis nasi,
+and frontalis muscles. Dr. Duchenne, however, believes, and every
+conclusion at which he arrives deserves serious consideration, that it
+is the corrugator, called by him the sourcilier, which raises the inner
+corner of the eyebrows and is antagonistic to the upper and inner part
+of the orbicular muscle, as well as to the pyramidalis nasi (see
+Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, 1862, folio, art. v., text and figures
+19 to 29: octavo edit. 1862, p. 43 text). He admits, however, that the
+corrugator draws together the eyebrows, causing vertical furrows above
+the base of the nose, or a frown. He further believes that towards the
+outer two-thirds of the eyebrow the corrugator acts in conjunction with
+the upper orbicular muscle; both here standing in antagonism to the
+frontal muscle. I am unable to understand, judging from Henle’s
+drawings (woodcut, fig. 3), how the corrugator can act in the manner
+described by Duchenne. See, also, on this subject, Prof. Donders’
+remarks in the ‘Archives of Medicine,’ 1870, vol. v. p. 34. Mr. J.
+Wood, who is so well known for his careful study of the muscles of the
+human frame, informs me that he believes the account which I have given
+of the action of the corrugator to be correct. But this is not a point
+of any importance with respect to the expression which is caused by the
+obliquity of the eyebrows, nor of much importance to the theory of its
+origin.]
+
+704 (return) [ I am greatly indebted to Dr. Duchenne for permission to
+have these two photographs (figs. 1 and 2) reproduced by the heliotype
+process from his work in folio. Many of the foregoing remarks on the
+furrowing of the skin, when the eyebrows are rendered oblique, are
+taken from his excellent discussion on this subject.]
+
+705 (return) [ Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, p. 15.]
+
+706 (return) [ Henle, Handbuch der Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s.
+148, figs. 68 and 69.]
+
+707 (return) [ See the account of the action of this muscle by Dr.
+Duchenne, ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine, Album (1862), viii. p.
+34.]
+
+801 (return) [ Herbert Spencer, ‘Essays Scientific,’ &c., 1858, p.
+360.]
+
+802 (return) [ F. Lieber on the vocal sounds of L. Bridgman,
+‘Smithsonian Contributions,’ 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.]
+
+803 (return) [ See, also, Mr. Marshall, in Phil. Transact. 1864, p.
+526.]
+
+804 (return) [ Mr. Bain (‘The Emotions and the Will,’ 1865, p. 247) has
+a long and interesting discussion on the Ludicrous. The quotation above
+given about the laughter of the gods is taken from this work. See,
+also, Mandeville, ‘The Fable of the Bees,’ vol. ii. p. 168.]
+
+805 (return) [ ‘The Physiology of Laughter,’ Essays, Second Series,
+1863, p. 114.]
+
+806 (return) [ J. Lister in ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
+Science,’ 1853, vol. 1. p. 266.]
+
+807 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ p. 186.]
+
+808 (return) [ Sir C. Bell (Anat. of Expression, p. 147) makes some
+remarks on the movement of the diaphragm during laughter.]
+
+809 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, Légende
+vi.]
+
+810 (return) [ Handbuch der System. Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s.
+144. See my woodcut (H. fig. 2).]
+
+811 (return) [ See, also, remarks to the same effect by Dr. J. Crichton
+Browne in ‘Journal of Mental Science,’ April, 1871, p. 149.]
+
+812 (return) [ C. Vogt, ‘Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,’ 1867, p. 21.]
+
+813 (return) [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 133.]
+
+814 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ 1867, s. 63-67.]
+
+815 (return) [ Sir T. Reynolds remarks (‘Discourses,’ xii. p. 100), “it
+is curious to observe, and it is certainly true, that the extremes of
+contrary passions are, with very little variation, expressed by the
+same action.” He gives as an instance the frantic joy of a Bacchante
+and the grief of a Mary Magdalen.]
+
+816 (return) [ Dr. Piderit has come to the same conclusion, ibid. s.
+99.]
+
+817 (return) [ ‘La Physionomie,’ par G. Lavater, edit. of 1820, vol.
+iv. p. 224. See, also, Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 172,
+for the quotation given below.]
+
+818 (return) [ A ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’ 2nd edit. 1872,
+Introduction, p. xliv.]
+
+819 (return) [ Crantz, quoted by Tylor, ‘Primitive Culture,’ 1871, Vol.
+i. P. 169.]
+
+820 (return) [ F. Lieber, ‘Smithsonian Contributions,’ 1851, vol. ii.
+p. 7.]
+
+821 (return) [ Mr. Bain remarks (‘Mental and Moral Science,’ 1868, p.
+239), “Tenderness is a pleasurable emotion, variously stimulated, whose
+effort is to draw human beings into mutual embrace.”]
+
+822 (return) [ Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 2nd edit. 1869, p.
+552, gives full authorities for these statements. The quotation from
+Steele is taken from this work.]
+
+823 (return) [ See a full acount,{sic} with references, by E. B. Tylor,
+‘Researches into the Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 51.]
+
+824 (return) [ ‘The Descent of Man,’ vol. ii. p. 336.]
+
+825 (return) [ Dr. Mandsley has a discussion to this effect in his
+‘Body and Mind,’ 1870, p. 85.]
+
+826 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 103, and ‘Philosophical
+Transactions,’ 1823, p. 182.]
+
+827 (return) [ ‘The Origin of Language,’ 1866, p. 146. Mr. Tylor
+(‘Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 48) gives a more
+complex origin to the position of the hands during prayer.]
+
+901 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ pp. 137, 139. It is not
+surprising that the corrugators should have become much more developed
+in man than in the anthropoid apes; for they are brought into incessant
+action by him under various circumstances, and will have been
+strengthened and modified by the inherited effects of use. We have seen
+how important a part they play, together with the orbiculares, in
+protecting the eyes from being too much gorged with blood during
+violent expiratory movements. When the eyes are closed as quickly and
+as forcibly as possible, to save them from being injured by a blow, the
+corrugators contract. With savages or other men whose heads are
+uncovered, the eyebrows are continually lowered and contracted to serve
+as a shade against a too strong light; and this is effected partly by
+the corrugators. This movement would have been more especially
+serviceable to man, as soon as his early progenitors held their heads
+erect. Lastly, Prof. Donders believes (‘Archives of Medicine,’ ed. by
+L. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 34), that the corrugators are brought into
+action in causing the eyeball to advance in accommodation for proximity
+in vision.]
+
+902 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, Légende
+iii.]
+
+903 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ s. 46.]
+
+904 (return) [ ‘History of the Abipones,’ Eng. translat. vol. ii. p.
+59, as quoted by Lubbock, ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, p. 355.]
+
+905 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ pp. 15, 144, 146. Mr. Herbert
+Spencer accounts for frowning exclusively by the habit of contracting
+the brows as a shade to the eyes in a bright light: see ‘Principles of
+Physiology,’ 2nd edit. 1872, p. 546.]
+
+906 (return) [ Gratiolet remarks (De la Phys. p. 35), “Quand
+l’attention est fixee sur quelque image interieure, l’oeil regarde dons
+le vide et s’associe automatiquement a la contemplation de l’esprit.”
+But this view hardly deserves to be called an explanation.]
+
+907 (return) [ ‘Miles Gloriosus,’ act ii. sc. 2.]
+
+908 (return) [ The original photograph by Herr Kindermann is much more
+expressive than this copy, as it shows the frown on the brow more
+plainly.]
+
+909 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, Légende
+iv. figs. 16-18.]
+
+910 (return) [ Hensleigh Wedgwood on ‘The Origin of Language,’ 1866, p.
+78.]
+
+911 (return) [ Müller, as quoted by Huxley, ‘Man’s Place in Nature,’
+1863, p. 38.]
+
+912 (return) [ I have given several instances in my ‘Descent of Man,’
+vol. i. chap. iv.]
+
+913 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression.’ p. 190.]
+
+914 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ pp. 118-121.]
+
+915 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ s. 79.]
+
+1001 (return) [ See some remarks to this effect by Mr. Bain, ‘The
+Emotions and the Will,’ 2nd edit. 1865, p. 127.]
+
+1002 (return) [ Rengger, Naturgesch. der Säugethiere von Paraguay,
+1830, s. 3.]
+
+1003 (return) [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 96. On the
+other hand, Dr. Burgess (‘Physiology of Blushing,’ 1839, p. 31) speaks
+of the reddening of a cicatrix in a negress as of the nature of a
+blush.]
+
+1004 (return) [ Moreau and Gratiolet have discussed the colour of the
+face under the influence of intense passion: see the edit. of 1820 of
+Lavater, vol. iv. pp. 282 and 300; and Gratiolet, ‘De la Physionomie,’
+p. 345.]
+
+1005 (return) [ Sir C. Bell ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ pp. 91, 107, has
+fully discussed this subject. Moreau remarks (in the edit. of 1820 of
+‘La Physionomie, par G. Lavater,’ vol. iv. p. 237), and quotes Portal
+in confirmation, that asthmatic patients acquire permanently expanded
+nostrils, owing to the habitual contraction of the elevatory muscles of
+the wings of the nose. The explanation by Dr. Piderit (‘Mimik und
+Physiognomik,’ s. 82) of the distension of the nostrils, namely, to
+allow free breathing whilst the mouth is closed and the teeth clenched,
+does not appear to be nearly so correct as that by Sir C. Bell, who
+attributes it to the sympathy (_i. e_. habitual co-action) of all the
+respiratory muscles. The nostrils of an angry man may be seen to become
+dilated, although his mouth is open.]
+
+1006 (return) [ Mr. Wedgwood, ‘On the Origin of Language,’ 1866, p. 76.
+He also observes that the sound of hard breathing “is represented by
+the syllables _puff, huff, whiff_, whence a _huff_ is a fit of
+ill-temper.”]
+
+1007 (return) [ Sir C. Bell ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 95) has some
+excellent remarks on the expression of rage.]
+
+1008 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 346.]
+
+1009 (return) [ Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 177. Gratiolet
+(De la Phys. p. 369) says, ‘les dents se découvrent, et imitent
+symboliquement l’action de déchirer et de mordre.’I If, instead of
+using the vague term _symboliquement_, Gratiolet had said that the
+action was a remnant of a habit acquired during primeval times when our
+semi-human progenitors fought together with their teeth, like gorillas
+and orangs at the present day, he would have been more intelligible.
+Dr. Piderit (‘Mimik,’ &c., s. 82) also speaks of the retraction of the
+upper lip during rage. In an engraving of one of Hogarth’s wonderful
+pictures, passion is represented in the plainest manner by the open
+glaring eyes, frowning forehead, and exposed grinning teeth.]
+
+1010 (return) [ ‘Oliver Twist,’ vol. iii. p. 245.]
+
+1011 (return) [ ‘The Spectator,’ July 11, 1868, p. 810.]
+
+1012 (return) [ ‘Body and Mind,’ 1870, pp. 51-53.]
+
+1013 (return) [ Le Brun, in his well-known ‘Conference sur
+l’Expression’ (‘La Physionomie, par Lavater,’ edit. of 1820, vol. lx.
+p. 268), remarks that anger is expressed by the clenching of the fists.
+See, to the same effect, Huschke, ‘Mimices et Physiognomices,
+Fragmentum Physiologicum,’ 1824, p. 20. Also Sir C. Bell, ‘Anatomy of
+Expression,’ p. 219.]
+
+1014 (return) [ Transact. Philosoph. Soc., Appendix, 1746, p. 65.]
+
+1015 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 136. Sir C. Bell calls (p.
+131) the muscles which uncover the canines the snarling muscles.]
+
+1016 (return) [ Hensleigh Wedgwood, ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’
+1865, vol. iii. pp. 240, 243.]
+
+1017 (return) [ ‘The Descent of Man,’ 1871, vol. L p. 126.]
+
+1101 (return) [ ‘De In Physionomie et la Parole,’ 1865, p. 89.]
+
+1102 (return) [ ‘Physionomie Humaine,’ Album, Légende viii. p. 35.
+Gratiolet also speaks (De la Phys. 1865, p. 52) of the turning away of
+the eyes and body.]
+
+1103 (return) [ Dr. W. Ogle, in an interesting paper on the Sense of
+Smell (‘Medico-Chirurgical Transactions,’ vol. liii. p. 268), shows
+that when we wish to smell carefully, instead of taking one deep nasal
+inspiration, we draw in the air by a succession of rapid short sniffs.
+If “the nostrils be watched during this process, it will be seen that,
+so far from dilating, they actually contract at each sniff. The
+contraction does not include the whole anterior opening, but only the
+posterior portion.” He then explains the cause of this movement. When,
+on the other hand, we wish to exclude any odour, the contraction, I
+presume, affects only the anterior part of the nostrils.]
+
+1104 (return) [ ‘Mimik und Physiognomik,’ ss. 84, 93. Gratiolet (ibid.
+p. 155) takes nearly the same view with Dr. Piderit respecting the
+expression of contempt and disgust.]
+
+1105 (return) [ Scorn implies a strong form of contempt; and one of the
+roots of the word ‘scorn’ means, according to Mr. Wedgwood (Dict. of
+English Etymology, vol. iii. p. 125), ordure or dirt. A person who is
+scorned is treated like dirt.]
+
+1106 (return) [ ‘Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p. 45.]
+
+1107 (return) [ See, to this effect, Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood’s
+Introduction to the ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’ 2nd edit. 1872,
+p. xxxvii.]
+
+1108 (return) [ Duchenne believes that in the eversion of the lower
+lip, the corners are drawn downwards by the _depressores anguli oris_.
+Henle (Handbuch d. Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s. 151) concludes
+that this is effected by the _musculus quadratus menti_.]
+
+1109 (return) [ As quoted by Tylor, ‘Primitive Culture,’ 1871, vol. i.
+p. 169.]
+
+1110 (return) [ Both these quotations are given by Mr. H. Wedgwood, ‘On
+the Origin of Language,’ 1866, p. 75.]
+
+1111 (return) [ This is stated to be the case by Mr. Tylor (Early Hist.
+of Mankind, 2nd edit. 1870, p. 52); and he adds, “it is not clear why
+this should be so.”]
+
+1112 (return) [ ‘Principles of Psychology,’ 2nd edit. 1872, p. 552.]
+
+1113 (return) [ Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 351) makes this remark, and
+has some good observations on the expression of pride. See Sir C. Bell
+(‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 111) on the action of the _musculus
+superbus_.]
+
+1114 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 166.]
+
+1115 (return) [ ‘Journey through Texas,’ p. 352.]
+
+1116 (return) [ Mrs. Oliphant, ‘The Brownlows,’ vol. ii. p. 206.]
+
+1117 (return) [ ‘Essai sur le Langage,’ 2nd edit. 1846. I am much
+indebted to Miss Wedgwood for having given me this information, with an
+extract from the work.]
+
+1118 (return) [ ‘On the Origin of Language,’ 1866, p. 91.]
+
+1119 (return) [ ‘On the Vocal Sounds of L. Bridgman;’ Smithsonian
+Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 11.]
+
+1120 (return) [ ‘Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,’ 1867, p. 27.]
+
+1121 (return) [ Quoted by Tylor, ‘Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit.
+1870, p. 38.]
+
+1122 (return) [ Mr. J. B. Jukes, ‘Letters and Extracts,’ &c. 1871, p.
+248.]
+
+1123 (return) [ F. Lieber, ‘On the Vocal Sounds,’ &c. p. 11. Tylor,
+ibid. p. 53.]
+
+1124 (return) [ Dr. King, Edinburgh Phil. Journal, 1845, p. 313.]
+
+1125 (return) [ Tylor, ‘Early History of Mankind,’ 2nd edit. 1870, p.
+53.]
+
+1126 (return) [ Lubbock, ‘The Origin of Civilization,’ 1870, p. 277.
+Tylor, ibid. p. 38. Lieber (ibid. p. 11) remarks on the negative of the
+Italians.]
+
+1201 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie,’ Album, 1862, p. 42.]
+
+1202 (return) [ ‘The Polyglot News Letter,’ Melbourne, Dec. 1858, p.
+2.]
+
+1203 (return) [ ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 106.]
+
+1204 (return) [ Mécanisme de la Physionomie,’ Album, p. 6.]
+
+1205 (return) [ See, for instance, Dr. Piderit (‘Mimik und
+Physiognomik,’ s. 88), who has a good discussion on the expression of
+surprise.]
+
+1206 (return) [ Dr. Murie has also given me information leading to the
+same conclusion, derived in part from comparative anatomy.]
+
+1207 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 234.]
+
+1208 (return) [ See, on this subject, Gratiolet, ibid. p. 254.]
+
+1209 (return) [ Lieber, ‘On the Vocal Sounds of Laura Bridgman,’
+Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 7.]
+
+1210 (return) [ ‘Wenderholme,’ vol. ii. p. 91.]
+
+1211 (return) [ Lieber, ‘On the Vocal Sounds,’ &c., ibid. p. 7.]
+
+1212 (return) [ Huschke, ‘Mimices et Physiognomices,’ 1821, p. 18.
+Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 255) gives a figure of a man in this
+attitude, which, however, seems to me expressive of fear combined with
+astonishment. Le Brun also refers (Lavater, vol. ix. p. 299) to the
+hands of an astonished man being opened.]
+
+1213 (return) [ Huschke, ibid. p. 18.]
+
+1214 (return) [ ‘North American Indians,’ 3rd edit. 1842, vol. i. p.
+105.]
+
+1215 (return) [ H. Wedgwood, Dict. of English Etymology, vol. ii. 1862,
+p. 35. See, also, Gratiolet (‘De la Physionomie,’ p. 135) on the
+sources of such words as ‘terror, horror, rigidus, frigidus,’ &c.]
+
+1216 (return) [ Mr. Bain (‘The Emotions and the Will,’ 1865, p. 54)
+explains in the following manner the origin of the custom “of
+subjecting criminals in India to the ordeal of the morsel of rice. The
+accused is made to take a mouthful of rice, and after a little time to
+throw it out. If the morsel is quite dry, the party is believed to be
+guilty,—his own evil conscience operating to paralyse the salivating
+organs.”]
+
+1217 (return) [ Sir C. Bell, Transactions of Royal Phil. Soc. 1822, p.
+308. ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 88 and pp. 164-469.]
+
+1218 (return) [ See Moreau on the rolling of the eyes, in the edit. of
+1820 of Lavater, tome iv. p. 263. Also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 17.]
+
+1219 (return) [ ‘Observations on Italy,’ 1825, p. 48, as quoted in ‘The
+Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 168.]
+
+1220 (return) [ Quoted by Dr. Maudsley, ‘Body and Mind,’ 1870, p. 41.]
+
+1221 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 168.]
+
+1222 (return) [ Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, Légende xi.]
+
+1223 (return) [ Ducheinne takes, in fact, this view (ibid. p. 45), as
+he attributes the contraction of the platysma to the shivering of fear
+(_frisson de la peur_); but he elsewhere compares the action with that
+which causes the hair of frightened quadrupeds to stand erect; and this
+can hardly be considered as quite correct.]
+
+1224 (return) [ ‘De la Physionomie,’ pp. 51, 256, 346.]
+
+1225 (return) [ As quoted in White’s ‘Gradation in Man,’ p. 57.]
+
+1226 (return) [ ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 169.]
+
+1227 (return) [ ‘Mécanisme de la Physionomie,’ Album, pl. 65, pp. 44,
+45.]
+
+1228 (return) [ See remarks to this effect by Mr. Wedgwood, in the
+Introduction to his ‘Dictionary of English Etymology,’ 2nd edit. 1872,
+p. xxxvii. He shows by intermediate forms that the sounds here referred
+to have probably given rise to many words, such as _ugly, huge_, &c.]
+
+1301 (return) [ ‘The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,’ 1839, p.
+156. I shall have occasion often to quote this work in the present
+chapter.]
+
+1302 (return) [ Dr. Burgess, ibid. p. 56. At p. 33 he also remarks on
+women blushing more freely than men, as stated below.]
+
+1303 (return) [ Quoted by Vogt, ‘Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,’ 1867,
+p. 20. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 56) doubts whether idiots ever blush.]
+
+1304 (return) [ Lieber ‘On the Vocal Sounds,’ &c.; Smithsonian
+Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.]
+
+1305 (return) [ Ibid. p. 182.]
+
+1306 (return) [ Moreau, in edit. of 1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. p. 303.]
+
+1307 (return) [ Burgess. ibid. p. 38, on paleness after blushing, p.
+177.]
+
+1308 (return) [ See Lavater, edit. of 1820, vol. iv. p. 303.]
+
+1309 (return) [ Burgess, ibid. pp. 114, 122. Moreau in Lavater, ibid.
+vol. iv. p. 293.]
+
+1310 (return) [ ‘Letters from Egypt,’ 1865, p. 66. Lady Gordon is
+mistaken when she says Malays and Mulattoes never blush.]
+
+1311 (return) [ Capt. Osborn (‘Quedah,’ p. 199), in speaking of a
+Malay, whom he reproached for cruelty, says he was glad to see that the
+man blushed.]
+
+1312 (return) [ J. R. Forster, ‘Observations during a Voyage round the
+World,’ 4to, 1778, p. 229. Waitz gives (‘Introduction to Anthropology,’
+Eng. translat. 1863, vol. i. p. 135) references for other islands in
+the Pacific. See, also, Dampier ‘On the Blushing of the Tunquinese’
+(vol. ii. p. 40); but I have not consulted this work. Waitz quotes
+Bergmann, that the Kalmucks do not blush, but this may be doubted after
+what we have seen with respect to the Chinese. He also quotes Roth, who
+denies that the Abyssinians are capable of blushing. Unfortunately,
+Capt. Speedy, who lived so long with the Abyssinians, has not answered
+my inquiry on this head. Lastly, I must add that the Rajah Brooke has
+never observed the least sign of a blush with the Dyaks of Borneo; on
+the contrary under circumstances which would excite a blush in us, they
+assert “that they feel the blood drawn from their faces.”]
+
+1313 (return) [ Transact. of the Ethnological Soc. 1870, vol. ii. p.
+16.]
+
+1314 (return) [ Humboldt, ‘Personal Narrative,’ Eng. translat. vol.
+iii. p. 229.]
+
+1315 (return) [ Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit
+1851, vol. i. p. 271.]
+
+1316 (return) [ See, on this head, Burgess, ibid. p. 32. Also Waitz,
+‘Introduction to Anthropology,’ Eng. edit. vol. i. p. 139. Moreau gives
+a detailed account (‘Lavater,’ 1820, tom. iv. p. 302) of the blushing
+of a Madagascar negress-slave when forced by her brutal master to
+exhibit her naked bosom.]
+
+1317 (return) [ Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit.
+1851, vol. i. p. 225.]
+
+1318 (return) [ Burgess, ibid. p. 31. On mulattoes blushing, see p. 33.
+I have received similar accounts with respect to, mulattoes.]
+
+1319 (return) [ Barrington also says that the Australians of New South
+Wales blush, as quoted by Waitz, ibid. p. 135.]
+
+1320 (return) [ Mr. Wedgwood says (Dict. of English Etymology, vol.
+iii. 1865, p. 155) that the word shame “may well originate in the idea
+of shade or concealment, and may be illustrated by the Low German
+_scheme_, shade or shadow.” Gratiolet (De la Phys. pp. 357-362) has a
+good discussion on the gestures accompanying shame; but some of his
+remarks seem to me rather fanciful. See, also, Burgess (ibid. pp. 69,
+134) on the same subject.]
+
+1321 (return) [ Burgess, ibid. pp. 181, 182. Boerhaave also noticed (as
+quoted by Gratiolet, ibid. p. 361) the tendency to the secretion of
+tears during intense blushing. Mr. Bulmer, as we have seen, speaks of
+the “watery eyes” of the children of the Australian aborigines when
+ashamed.]
+
+1322 (return) [ See also Dr. J. Crichton Browne’s Memoir on this
+subject in the ‘West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Report,’ 1871, pp.
+95-98.]
+
+1323 (return) [ In a discussion on so-called animal magnetism in ‘Table
+Talk,’ vol. i.]
+
+1324 (return) [ Ibid. p. 40.]
+
+1325 (return) [ Mr. Bain (‘The Emotions and the Will,’ 1865, p. 65)
+remarks on “the shyness of manners which is induced between the
+sexes.... from the influence of mutual regard, by the apprehension on
+either side of not standing well with the other.”]
+
+1326 (return) [ See, for evidence on this subject, ‘The Descent of
+Man,’ &c., vol. ii. pp. 71, 341.]
+
+1327 (return) [ H. Wedgwood, Dict. English Etymology, vol. iii. 1865,
+p. 184. So with the Latin word _verecundus_.]
+
+1328 (return) [ Mr. Bain (‘The Emotions and the Will,’ p. 64) has
+discussed the “abashed” feelings experienced on these occasions, as
+well as the _stage-fright_ of actors unused to the stage. Mr. Bain
+apparently attributes these feelings to simple apprehension or dread.]
+
+1329 (return) [ ‘Essays on Practical Education,’ by Maria and R. L.
+Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 38. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 187)
+insists strongly to the same effect.]
+
+1330 (return) [ ‘Essays on Practical Education,’ by Maria and R. L.
+Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 50.]
+
+1331 (return) [ Bell, ‘Anatomy of Expression,’ p. 95. Burgess, as
+quoted below, ibid. p. 49. Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 94.]
+
+1332 (return) [ On the authority of Lady Mary Wortley Montague; see
+Burgess, ibid. p. 43.]
+
+1333 (return) [ In England, Sir H. Holland was, I believe, the first to
+consider the influence of mental attention on various parts of the
+body, in his ‘Medical Notes and Reflections,’ 1839 p. 64. This essay,
+much enlarged, was reprinted by Sir H. Holland in his ‘Chapters on
+Mental Physiology,’ 1858, p. 79, from which work I always quote. At
+nearly the same time, as well as subsequently, Prof. Laycock discussed
+the same subject: see ‘Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,’ 1839,
+July, pp. 17-22. Also his ‘Treatise on the Nervous Diseases of Women,’
+1840, p. 110; and ‘Mind and Brain,’ vol. ii. 1860, p. 327. Dr.
+Carpenter’s views on mesmerism have a nearly similar bearing. The great
+physiologist Müller treated (‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat.
+vol. ii. pp. 937, 1085) of the influence of the attention on the
+senses. Sir J. Paget discusses the influence of the mind on the
+nutrition of parts, in his ‘Lectures on Surgical Pathology,’ 1853, vol.
+i. p. 39: 1 quote from the 3rd edit. revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, p.
+28. See, also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. pp. 283-287.]
+
+1334 (return) [ De la Phys. p. 283.]
+
+1340 (return) [ Dr. Maudsley has given (‘The Physiology and Pathology
+of Mind,’ 2nd edit. 1868, p. 105), on good authority, some curious
+statements with respect to the improvement of the sense of touch by
+practice and attention. It is remarkable that when this sense has thus
+been rendered more acute at any point of the body, for instance, in a
+finger, it is likewise improved at the corresponding point on the
+opposite side of the body.]
+
+1341 (return) [ The Lancet,’ 1838, pp. 39-40, as quoted by Prof.
+Laycock, ‘Nervous Diseases of Women,’ 1840, p. 110.]
+
+1342 (return) [ ‘Chapters on Mental Physiology,’ 1858, pp. 91-93.]
+
+1343 (return) [ ‘Lectures on Surgical Pathology,’ 3rd edit. revised by
+Prof. Turner, 1870, pp. 28, 31.]
+
+1344 (return) [ ‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat. vol. ii. p.
+938.]
+
+1345 (return) [ Prof. Laycock has discussed this point in a very
+interesting manner. See his ‘Nervous Diseases of Women,’ 1840, p. 110.]
+
+1346 (return) [ See, also, Mr. Michael Foster, on the action of the
+vaso-motor system, in his interesting Lecture before the royal
+Institution, as translated in the ‘Revue des Cours Scientifiques,’
+Sept. 25, 1869, p. 683.]
+
+1401 (return) [ See the interesting facts given by Dr. Bateman on
+‘Aphasia,’ 1870, p. 110.]
+
+1402 (return) [ ‘La Physionomie et la Parole,’ 1865, pp. 103, 118.]
+
+1403 (return) [ Rengger, ‘Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von
+Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 55.]
+
+1404 (return) [ Quoted by Moreau, in his edition of Lavater, 1820, tom.
+iv. p. 211.]
+
+1405 (return) [ Gratiolet (‘De la Physionomie,’ 1865, p. 66) insists on
+the truth of this conclusion.]
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Expression of Emotion in Man and
+Animals, by Charles Darwin
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMOTION IN MAN AND ANIMALS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 1227-0.txt or 1227-0.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/2/1227/
+
+Produced by Charles Keller and David Widger
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
+be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
+law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
+so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
+States without permission and without paying copyright
+royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
+of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
+concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
+and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
+specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
+eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
+for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
+performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
+away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
+not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
+trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
+
+START: FULL LICENSE
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
+Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
+www.gutenberg.org/license.
+
+Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+
+1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
+destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
+possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
+Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
+by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
+person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
+1.E.8.
+
+1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
+paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
+agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
+Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
+of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
+works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
+States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
+United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
+claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
+displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
+all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
+that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
+free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
+works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
+Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
+comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
+same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
+you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
+in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
+check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
+agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
+distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
+other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
+representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
+country outside the United States.
+
+1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
+immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
+prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
+on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
+performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
+
+  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
+  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
+  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
+  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
+  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
+  are located before using this ebook.
+
+1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
+derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
+contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
+copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
+the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
+redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
+either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
+obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
+trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
+additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
+will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
+posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
+beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
+any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
+to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
+other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
+version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
+(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
+to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
+of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
+Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
+full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+provided that
+
+* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
+  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
+  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
+  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
+  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
+  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
+  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
+  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
+  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
+  Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
+  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
+  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
+  works.
+
+* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
+  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
+  receipt of the work.
+
+* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
+are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
+from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
+Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
+Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
+contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
+or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
+intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
+other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
+cannot be read by your equipment.
+
+1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
+with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
+with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
+lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
+or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
+opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
+the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
+without further opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
+OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
+damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
+violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
+agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
+limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
+unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
+remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
+accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
+production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
+including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
+the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
+or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
+additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
+Defect you cause.
+
+Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
+computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
+exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
+from people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
+generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
+Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
+www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
+U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
+mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
+volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
+locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
+Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
+date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
+official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
+
+For additional contact information:
+
+    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+    Chief Executive and Director
+    gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
+DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
+state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
+donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
+freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
+distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
+volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
+the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
+necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
+edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
+facility: www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
diff --git a/old/1227-0.zip b/old/1227-0.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..39541df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-0.zip
diff --git a/old/1227-h.zip b/old/1227-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d200890
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h.zip
diff --git a/old/1227-h/1227-h.htm b/old/1227-h/1227-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a09950e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/1227-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,14908 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" />
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" />
+<title>The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals, by Charles Darwin</title>
+
+<style type="text/css">
+
+body { margin-left: 20%;
+       margin-right: 20%;
+       text-align: justify }
+
+h1, h2, h3, h4, h5 {text-align: center; font-style: normal; font-weight:
+normal; line-height: 1.5; margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em;}
+
+h1 {font-size: 300%;
+    margin-top: 0.6em;
+    margin-bottom: 0.6em;
+    letter-spacing: 0.12em;
+    word-spacing: 0.2em;
+    text-indent: 0em;}
+h2 {font-size: 150%; }
+h3 {font-size: 130%; }
+h4 {font-size: 120%;}
+h5 {font-size: 110%;}
+
+hr {width: 80%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;}
+
+div.chapter {page-break-before: always; margin-top: 4em;}
+
+p {text-indent: 1em;
+   margin-top: 0.25em;
+   margin-bottom: 0.25em; }
+
+.p2 {margin-top: 2em;}
+
+p.poem {text-indent: 0%;
+        margin-left: 10%;
+        font-size: 90%;
+        margin-top: 1em;
+        margin-bottom: 1em; }
+
+p.letter {text-indent: 0%;
+          margin-left: 10%;
+          margin-right: 10%;
+          margin-top: 1em;
+          margin-bottom: 1em; }
+
+p.noindent {text-indent: 0% }
+
+p.center  {text-align: center;
+           text-indent: 0em;
+           margin-top: 1em;
+           margin-bottom: 1em; }
+
+p.right {text-align: right;
+         margin-right: 10%;
+         margin-top: 1em;
+         margin-bottom: 1em; }
+
+p.footnote {font-size: 90%;
+           text-indent: 0%;
+           margin-left: 10%;
+           margin-right: 10%;
+           margin-top: 1em;
+           margin-bottom: 1em; }
+
+div.fig { display:block;
+          margin:0 auto;
+          text-align:center; }
+
+a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none}
+a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none}
+a:hover {color:red}
+
+</style>
+
+</head>
+
+<body>
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals, by
+Charles Darwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals
+
+Author: Charles Darwin
+
+Release Date: March, 1998 [EBook #1227]
+Last Updated: October 21, 2019
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMOTION IN MAN AND ANIMALS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Keller and David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<h1>
+THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS
+</h1>
+
+<h2>
+By Charles Darwin
+</h2>
+
+<h3>
+<i>With Photographic And Other Illustrations</i>
+<br/><br/>
+New York
+<br/>
+D. Appleton And Company
+<br/><br/>
+1899
+</h3>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="toc">
+<big><b>CONTENTS</b></big>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<br/>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2H_4_0001"> DETAILED CONTENTS. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2H_4_0003"> <big><b>ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN
+AND ANIMALS.</b></big> </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2H_INTR"> INTRODUCTION. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. &mdash; GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
+EXPRESSION. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. &mdash; GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
+EXPRESSION&mdash;<i>continued</i>. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. &mdash; GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
+EXPRESSION&mdash;<i>concluded</i>. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. &mdash; MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN
+ANIMALS. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. &mdash; SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF
+ANIMALS. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. &mdash; SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN:
+SUFFERING AND WEEPING. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. &mdash; LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF,
+DEJECTION, DESPAIR. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. &mdash; JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE,
+TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. &mdash; REFLECTION&mdash;MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER&mdash;SULKINESS&mdash;DETERMINATION.
+</a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. &mdash; HATRED AND ANGER. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. &mdash; DISDAIN&mdash;CONTEMPT&mdash;DISGUST-GUILT&mdash;PRIDE,
+ETC. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. &mdash; SURPRISE&mdash;ASTONISHMENT&mdash;FEAR&mdash;HORROR.
+</a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. &mdash; SELF-ATTENTION&mdash;SHAME&mdash;SHYNESS&mdash;MODESTY:
+BLUSHING. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV. &mdash; CONCLUDING REMARKS AND
+SUMMARY. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#link2H_FOOT"> FOOTNOTES </a>
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="toc">
+<big><b>ILLUSTRATIONS</b></big>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<br/>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0001"> Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 1-2 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0002"> Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 3 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0003"> Small Dog Watching a Cat on A Table. Figure 4
+</a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0004"> Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind. Fig. 5 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0005"> Dog in a humble and Affectionate Frame of Mind.
+Fig. 6 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0006"> Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind. Fig. 7 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0007"> Dog Carressing his Master. Fig. 8 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0008"> Cat, Savage, and Prepared to Fight. Fig. 9 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0009"> Cat in an Affectionate Frame of Mind. Fig. 10
+</a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0010"> Sound Producing Quills from Tail of a
+Porcupine. Fig. 11 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0011"> Hen Driving Away a Dog from Her Chickens. Fig.
+12 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0012"> Swan Driving Away an Intruder. Fig 13 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0013"> Head of Snarling Dog. Fig 14 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0014"> Cat Terrified at a Dog. Fig.15 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0016"> Cynopithecus Niger, Pleased by Being Caressed.
+Fig.17 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0017"> Chimpanzee Disappointed and Sulky. Fig. 18 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0018"> Screaming Infants. Plate I. </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0019"> Obliquity of the Eyebrows. Plate II </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0020"> Moderate Laughter and Smiling. Plate III </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0021"> Ill-temper. Plate IV </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0022"> Anger and Indignation. Plate VI </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0023"> Scorn and Disdain. Plate V </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0024"> Gestures of the Body. Plate VII </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0025"> Photograph of an Insane Woman. Fig. 19 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0026"> Terror. Fig. 20 </a>
+</p>
+<p class="toc">
+<a href="#linkimage-0027"> Horror and Agony. Fig. 21 </a>
+</p>
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<i>N.B</i>.&mdash;Several of the figures in these seven Heliotype
+Plates have been reproduced from photographs, instead of from the
+original negatives; and they are in consequence somewhat indistinct.
+Nevertheless they are faithful copies, and are much superior for my
+purpose to any drawing, however carefully executed.
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"></a>DETAILED CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2H_INTR">INTRODUCTION</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0001">CHAP. I&mdash;GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.</a><br/>
+The three chief principles stated&mdash;The first principle&mdash;Serviceable
+actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind, and are
+performed whether or not of service in each particular case&mdash;The force of
+habit&mdash;Inheritance&mdash;Associated habitual movements in man&mdash;Reflex
+actions&mdash;Passage of habits into reflex actions&mdash;Associated habitual
+movements in the lower animals&mdash;Concluding remarks
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0002">CHAP. II&mdash;GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.</a>&mdash;<i>continued</i>.<br/>
+The Principle of Antithesis&mdash;Instances in the dog and cat&mdash;Origin of
+the principle&mdash;Conventional signs&mdash;The principle of antithesis has
+not arisen from opposite actions being consciously performed under opposite
+impulses
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0003">CHAP. III&mdash;GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.</a>&mdash;<i>concluded</i>.<br/>
+The principle of the direct action of the excited nervous system on the
+body, independently of the will and in part of habit&mdash;Change of
+colour in the hair&mdash;Trembling of the muscles&mdash;Modified
+secretions&mdash;Perspiration&mdash;Expression of extreme pain&mdash;Of
+rage, great joy, and terror&mdash;Contrast between the emotions which
+cause and do not cause expressive movements&mdash;Exciting and depressing
+states of the mind&mdash;Summary
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0004">CHAP. IV&mdash;MEANS OF EXPRESSION. IN ANIMALS.</a><br/>
+The emission of sounds&mdash;Vocal sounds&mdash;Sounds otherwise
+produced&mdash;Erection of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &amp;c.,
+under the emotions of anger and terror&mdash;The drawing back of the ears as a
+preparation for fighting, and as an expression of anger&mdash;Erection of the
+ears and raising the head, a sign of attention
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0005">CHAP. V.&mdash;SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.</a><br/>
+The Dog, various expressive movements
+of&mdash;Cats&mdash;Horses&mdash;Ruminants&mdash;Monkeys, their expression of
+joy and affection&mdash;Of pain&mdash;Anger Astonishment and Terror
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0006">CHAP. VI.&mdash;SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.</a><br/>
+The screaming and weeping of infants&mdash;Form of features&mdash;Age at which
+weeping commences&mdash;The effects of habitual restraint on
+weeping&mdash;Sobbing&mdash;Cause of the contraction of the muscles round the
+eyes during screaming&mdash;Cause of the secretion of tears
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0007">CHAP. VII.&mdash;LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.</a><br/>
+General effect of grief on the system&mdash;Obliquity of the eyebrows under
+suffering&mdash;On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows&mdash;On the
+depression of the corners of the mouth
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0008">CHAP. VIII.&mdash;JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.</a><br/>
+Laughter primarily the expression of joy&mdash;Ludicrous ideas&mdash;Movements
+of the features during laughter&mdash;Nature of the sound produced&mdash;The
+secretion of tears during loud laughter&mdash;Gradation from loud laughter
+to gentle smiling&mdash;High spirits&mdash;The expression of love&mdash;Tender
+feelings&mdash;Devotion
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0009">CHAP. IX.&mdash;REFLECTION&mdash;MEDITATION&mdash;ILL&mdash;TEMPER&mdash;SULKINESS
+DETERMINATION.</a><br/>
+The act of frowning&mdash;Reflection with an effort or with the perception of
+something difficult or disagreeable&mdash;Abstracted
+meditation&mdash;Ill-temper&mdash;Moroseness&mdash;Obstinacy&mdash;Sulkiness
+and pouting&mdash;Decision or determination&mdash;The firm closure of the mouth
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0010">CHAP. X.&mdash;HATRED AND ANGER.</a><br/>
+Hatred&mdash;Rage, effects of on the system&mdash;Uncovering of the
+teeth&mdash;Rage in the insane&mdash;Anger and indignation&mdash;As expressed
+by the various races of man&mdash;Sneering and defiance&mdash;The uncovering of
+the canine teeth on one side of the face
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0011">CHAP. XI.&mdash;DISDAIN&mdash;CONTEMPT&mdash;DISGUST&mdash;GUILT&mdash;PRIDE,
+ETC.&mdash;HELPLESSNESS&mdash;PATIENCE&mdash;AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.</a><br/>
+Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed&mdash;Derisive Smile&mdash;Gestures
+expressive of contempt&mdash;Disgust&mdash;Guilt, deceit, pride, etc.&mdash;Helplessness
+or impotence&mdash;Patience&mdash;Obstinacy&mdash;Shrugging the shoulders
+common to most of the races of man&mdash;Signs of affirmation and negation
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0012">CHAP. XII.&mdash;SURPRISE&mdash;ASTONISHMENT&mdash;FEAR&mdash;HORROR.</a><br/>
+Surprise, astonishment&mdash;Elevation of the eyebrows&mdash;Opening the
+mouth&mdash;Protrusion of the lips&mdash;Gestures accompanying
+surprise&mdash;Admiration Fear&mdash;Terror&mdash;Erection of the
+hair&mdash;Contraction of the platysma muscle&mdash;Dilatation of the
+pupils&mdash;horror&mdash;Conclusion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0013">CHAP. XIII.&mdash;SELF-ATTENTION&mdash;SHAME&mdash;SHYNESS&mdash;MODESTY:
+BLUSHING.</a><br/>
+Nature of a blush&mdash;Inheritance&mdash;The parts of the body most
+affected&mdash;Blushing in the various races of man&mdash;Accompanying
+gestures&mdash;Confusion of mind&mdash;Causes of blushing&mdash;Self-attention,
+the fundamental element&mdash;Shyness&mdash;Shame, from broken moral laws and
+conventional rules&mdash;Modesty&mdash;Theory of blushing&mdash;Recapitulation
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a href="#link2HCH0014">CHAP. XIV.&mdash;CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.</a><br/>
+The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements of
+expression&mdash;Their inheritance&mdash;On the part which the will and
+intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions&mdash;The
+instinctive recognition of expression&mdash;The bearing of our subject on the
+specific unity of the races of man&mdash;On the successive acquirement of
+various expressions by the progenitors of man&mdash;The importance of
+expression&mdash;Conclusion
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"></a>
+ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS.
+</h2>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2H_INTR" id="link2H_INTR"></a>
+INTRODUCTION.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+Many works have been written on Expression, but a greater number on
+Physiognomy,&mdash;that is, on the recognition of character through the
+study of the permanent form of the features. With this latter subject I am
+not here concerned. The older treatises,<a href="#linknote-1"
+name="linknoteref-1" id="linknoteref-1">[1]</a> which I have consulted,
+have been of little or no service to me. The famous &lsquo;Conférences&rsquo;<a
+href="#linknote-2" name="linknoteref-2" id="linknoteref-2">[2]</a> of the
+painter Le Brun, published in 1667, is the best known ancient work, and
+contains some good remarks. Another somewhat old essay, namely, the
+&lsquo;Discours,&rsquo; delivered 1774-1782, by the well-known Dutch anatomist Camper,<a
+href="#linknote-3" name="linknoteref-3" id="linknoteref-3">[3]</a> can
+hardly be considered as having made any marked advance in the subject. The
+following works, on the contrary, deserve the fullest consideration.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sir Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in physiology,
+published in 1806 the first edition, and in the third edition of his
+&lsquo;Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression.&rsquo;<a href="#linknote-4"
+name="linknoteref-4" id="linknoteref-4">[4]</a> He may with justice be
+said, not only to have laid the foundations of the subject as a branch of
+science, but to have built up a noble structure. His work is in every way
+deeply interesting; it includes graphic descriptions of the various
+emotions, and is admirably illustrated. It is generally admitted that his
+service consists chiefly in having shown the intimate relation which
+exists between the movements of expression and those of respiration. One
+of the most important points, small as it may at first appear, is that the
+muscles round the eyes are involuntarily contracted during violent
+expiratory efforts, in order to protect these delicate organs from the
+pressure of the blood. This fact, which has been fully investigated for me
+with the greatest kindness by Professors Donders of Utrecht, throws, as we
+shall hereafter see, a flood of light on several of the most important
+expressions of the human countenance. The merits of Sir C. Bell&rsquo;s work
+have been undervalued or quite ignored by several foreign writers, but
+have been fully admitted by some, for instance by M. Lemoine,<a
+href="#linknote-5" name="linknoteref-5" id="linknoteref-5">[5]</a> who
+with great justice says:&mdash;&ldquo;Le livre de Ch. Bell devrait être médité
+par quiconque essaye de faire parler le visage de l&rsquo;homme, par les
+philosophes aussi bien que par les artistes, car, sous une apparence plus
+légère et sous le prétexte de l&rsquo;esthétique, c&rsquo;est un des plus beaux
+monuments de la science des rapports du physique et du moral.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From reasons which will presently be assigned, Sir C. Bell did not attempt
+to follow out his views as far as they might have been carried. He does
+not try to explain why different muscles are brought into action under
+different emotions; why, for instance, the inner ends of the eyebrows are
+raised, and the corners of the mouth depressed, by a person suffering from
+grief or anxiety.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater on Physiognomy,<a
+href="#linknote-6" name="linknoteref-6" id="linknoteref-6">[6]</a> in
+which he incorporated several of his own essays, containing excellent
+descriptions of the movements of the facial muscles, together with many
+valuable remarks. He throws, however, very little light on the philosophy
+of the subject. For instance, M. Moreau, in speaking of the act of
+frowning, that is, of the contraction of the muscle called by French
+writers the <i>soucilier</i> (<i>corrigator supercilii</i>), remarks with
+truth:&mdash;&ldquo;Cette action des sourciliers est un des symptômes les plus
+tranchés de l&rsquo;expression des affections pénibles ou concentrées.&rdquo; He then
+adds that these muscles, from their attachment and position, are fitted &ldquo;à
+resserrer, à concentrer les principaux traits de la <i>face</i>, comme il
+convient dans toutes ces passions vraiment oppressives ou profondes, dans
+ces affections dont le sentiment semble porter l&rsquo;organisation à revenir
+sur elle-même, à se contracter et à <i>s&rsquo;amoindrir</i>, comme pour offrir
+moins de prise et de surface à des impressions redoutables ou importunes.&rdquo;
+He who thinks that remarks of this kind throw any light on the meaning or
+origin of the different expressions, takes a very different view of the
+subject to what I do.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the above passage there is but a slight, if any, advance in the philosophy
+of the subject, beyond that reached by the painter Le Brun, who, in 1667, in
+describing the expression of fright, says:&mdash;&ldquo;Le sourcil qui est
+abaissé d&rsquo;un côté et élevé de l&rsquo;autre, fait voir que la partie
+élevée semble le vouloir joindre au cerveau pour le garantir du mal que
+l&rsquo;âme aperçoit, et le côté qui est abaissé et qui paraît
+enflé,&mdash;nous fait trouver dans cet état par les esprits qui viennent du
+cerveau en abondance, comme polir couvrir l&rsquo;âme et la défendre du mal
+qu&rsquo;elle craint; la bouche fort ouverte fait voir le saisissement du
+cœur, par le sang qui se retire vers lui, ce qui l&rsquo;oblige, voulant
+respirer, à faire un effort qui est cause que la bouche s&rsquo;ouvre
+extrêmement, et qui, lorsqu&rsquo;il passe par les organes de la voix, forme un
+son qui n&rsquo;est point articulé; que si les muscles et les veines paraissent
+enflés, ce n&rsquo;est que par les esprits que le cerveau envoie en ces
+parties-là.&rdquo; I have thought the foregoing sentences worth quoting, as
+specimens of the surprising nonsense which has been written on the subject.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&lsquo;The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,&rsquo; by Dr. Burgess, appeared in
+1839, and to this work I shall frequently refer in my thirteenth Chapter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In 1862 Dr. Duchenne published two editions, in folio and octavo, of his
+&lsquo;Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo; in which he analyses by means of
+electricity, and illustrates by magnificent photographs, the movements of
+the facial muscles. He has generously permitted me to copy as many of his
+photographs as I desired. His works have been spoken lightly of, or quite
+passed over, by some of his countrymen. It is possible that Dr. Duchenne
+may have exaggerated the importance of the contraction of single muscles
+in giving expression; for, owing to the intimate manner in which the
+muscles are connected, as may be seen in Henle&rsquo;s anatomical drawings<a
+href="#linknote-7" name="linknoteref-7" id="linknoteref-7">[7]</a>&mdash;the
+best I believe ever published it is difficult to believe in their separate
+action. Nevertheless, it is manifest that Dr. Duchenne clearly apprehended
+this and other sources of error, and as it is known that he was eminently
+successful in elucidating the physiology of the muscles of the hand by the
+aid of electricity, it is probable that he is generally in the right about
+the muscles of the face. In my opinion, Dr. Duchenne has greatly advanced
+the subject by his treatment of it. No one has more carefully studied the
+contraction of each separate muscle, and the consequent furrows produced
+on the skin. He has also, and this is a very important service, shown
+which muscles are least under the separate control of the will. He enters
+very little into theoretical considerations, and seldom attempts to
+explain why certain muscles and not others contract under the influence of
+certain emotions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A distinguished French anatomist, Pierre Gratiolet, gave a course of lectures
+on Expression at the Sorbonne, and his notes were published (1865) after his
+death, under the title of &lsquo;De la Physionomie et des Mouvements
+d&rsquo;Expression.&rsquo; This is a very interesting work, full of valuable
+observations. His theory is rather complex, and, as far as it can be given in a
+single sentence (p. 65), is as follows:&mdash;&ldquo;Il résulte, de tous les
+faits que j&rsquo;ai rappelés, que les sens, l&rsquo;imagination et la pensée
+elle-même, si élevée, si abstraite qu&rsquo;on la suppose, ne peuvent
+s&rsquo;exercer sans éveiller un sentiment corrélatif, et que ce sentiment se
+traduit directement, sympathiquement, symboliquement ou métaphoriquement, dans
+toutes les sphères des organs extérieurs, qui la racontent tous, suivant leur
+mode d&rsquo;action propre, comme si chacun d&rsquo;eux avait été directement
+affecté.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit, and even to some extent
+habit in the individual; and therefore he fails, as it seems to me, to
+give the right explanation, or any explanation at all, of many gestures
+and expressions. As an illustration of what he calls symbolic movements, I
+will quote his remarks (p. 37), taken from M. Chevreul, on a man playing
+at billiards. &ldquo;Si une bille dévie légèrement de la direction que le joueur
+prétend lui imprimer, ne l&rsquo;avez-vous pas vu cent fois la pousser du
+regard, de la tête et même des épaules, comme si ces mouvements, purement
+symboliques, pouvaient rectifier son trajet? Des mouvements non moins
+significatifs se produisent quand la bille manque d&rsquo;une impulsion
+suffisante. Et cliez les joueurs novices, ils sont quelquefois accusés au
+point d&rsquo;éveiller le sourire sur les lèvres des spectateurs.&rdquo; Such
+movements, as it appeirs to me, may be attributed simply to habit. As
+often as a man has wished to move an object to one side, he has always
+pushed it to that side when forwards, he has pushed it forwards; and if he
+has wished to arrest it, he has pulled backwards. Therefore, when a man
+sees his ball travelling in a wrong direction, and he intensely wishes it
+to go in another direction, he cannot avoid, from long habit,
+unconsciously performing movements which in other cases he has found
+effectual.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet gives (p. 212) the
+following case:&mdash;&ldquo;un jeune chien à oreilles droites, auquel son
+maître présente de loin quelque viande appétissante, fixe avec ardeur ses
+yeux sur cet objet dont il suit tous les mouvements, et pendant que les
+yeux regardent, les deux oreilles se portent en avant comme si cet objet
+pouvait être entendu.&rdquo; Here, instead of speaking of sympathy between the
+ears and eyes, it appears to me more simple to believe, that as dogs
+during many generations have, whilst intently looking at any object,
+pricked their ears in order to perceive any sound; and conversely have
+looked intently in the direction of a sound to which they may have
+listened, the movements of these organs have become firmly associated
+together through long-continued habit.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, which I have not
+seen, but in which, as he states, he forestalled Gratiolet in many of his
+views. In 1867 he published his &lsquo;Wissenschaftliches System der Mimik und
+Physiognomik.&rsquo; It is hardly possible to give in a few sentences a fair
+notion of his views; perhaps the two following sentences will tell as much
+as can be briefly told: &ldquo;the muscular movements of expression are in part
+related to imaginary objects, and in part to imaginary sensorial
+impressions. In this proposition lies the key to the comprehension of all
+expressive muscular movements.&rdquo; (s. 25) Again, &ldquo;Expressive movements
+manifest themselves chiefly in the numerous and mobile muscles of the
+face, partly because the nerves by which they are set into motion
+originate in the most immediate vicinity of the mind-organ, but partly
+also because these muscles serve to support the organs of sense.&rdquo; (s. 26.)
+If Dr. Piderit had studied Sir C. Bell&rsquo;s work, he would probably not have
+said (s. 101) that violent laughter causes a frown from partaking of the
+nature of pain; or that with infants (s. 103) the tears irritate the eyes,
+and thus excite the contraction of the surrounding in muscles. Many good
+remarks are scattered throughout this volume, to which I shall hereafter
+refer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Short discussions on Expression may be found in various works, which need
+not here be particularised. Mr. Bain, however, in two of his works has
+treated the subject at some length. He says,<a href="#linknote-8"
+name="linknoteref-8" id="linknoteref-8">[8]</a> &ldquo;I look upon the
+expression so-called as part and parcel of the feeling. I believe it to be
+a general law of the mind that along with the fact of inward feeling or
+consciousness, there is a diffusive action or excitement over the bodily
+members.&rdquo; In another place he adds, &ldquo;A very considerable number of the
+facts may be brought under the following principle: namely, that states of
+pleasure are connected with an increase, and states of pain with an
+abatement, of some, or all, of the vital functions.&rdquo; But the above law of
+the diffusive action of feelings seems too general to throw much light on
+special expressions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in his &lsquo;Principles of
+Psychology&rsquo; (1855), makes the following remarks:&mdash;&ldquo;Fear, when strong,
+expresses itself in cries, in efforts to hide or escape, in palpitations
+and tremblings; and these are just the manifestations that would accompany
+an actual experience of the evil feared. The destructive passions are
+shown in a general tension of the muscular system, in gnashing of the
+teeth and protrusion of the claws, in dilated eyes and nostrils in growls;
+and these are weaker forms of the actions that accompany the killing of
+prey.&rdquo; Here we have, as I believe, the true theory of a large number of
+expressions; but the chief interest and difficulty of the subject lies in
+following out the wonderfully complex results. I infer that some one (but
+who he is I have not been able to ascertain) formerly advanced a nearly
+similar view, for Sir C. Bell says,<a href="#linknote-9"
+name="linknoteref-9" id="linknoteref-9">[9]</a> &ldquo;It has been maintained
+that what are called the external signs of passion, are only the
+concomitants of those voluntary movements which the structure renders
+necessary.&rdquo; Mr. Spencer has also published<a href="#linknote-10"
+name="linknoteref-10" id="linknoteref-10">[10]</a> a valuable essay on the
+physiology of Laughter, in which he insists on &ldquo;the general law that
+feeling passing a certain pitch, habitually vents itself in bodily
+action,&rdquo; and that &ldquo;an overflow of nerve-force undirected by any motive,
+will manifestly take first the most habitual routes; and if these do not
+suffice, will next overflow into the less habitual ones.&rdquo; This law I
+believe to be of the highest importance in throwing light on our subject.&rsquo;<a
+href="#linknote-11" name="linknoteref-11" id="linknoteref-11">[11]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All the authors who have written on Expression, with the exception of Mr.
+Spencer&mdash;the great expounder of the principle of Evolution&mdash;appear
+to have been firmly convinced that species, man of course included, came
+into existence in their present condition. Sir C. Bell, being thus
+convinced, maintains that many of our facial muscles are &ldquo;purely
+instrumental in expression;&rdquo; or are &ldquo;a special provision&rdquo; for this sole
+object.<a href="#linknote-12" name="linknoteref-12" id="linknoteref-12">[12]</a>
+But the simple fact that the anthropoid apes possess the same facial
+muscles as we do,<a href="#linknote-13" name="linknoteref-13"
+id="linknoteref-13">[13]</a> renders it very improbable that these muscles
+in our case serve exclusively for expression; for no one, I presume, would
+be inclined to admit that monkeys have been endowed with special muscles
+solely for exhibiting their hideous grimaces. Distinct uses, independently
+of expression, can indeed be assigned with much probability for almost all
+the facial muscles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a distinction as possible
+between man and the lower animals; and he consequently asserts that with
+&ldquo;the lower creatures there is no expression but what may be referred, more
+or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary instincts.&rdquo; He
+further maintains that their faces &ldquo;seem chiefly capable of expressing
+rage and fear.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-14" name="linknoteref-14"
+id="linknoteref-14">[14]</a> But man himself cannot express love and
+humility by external signs, so plainly as does a dog, when with drooping
+ears, hanging lips, flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets his beloved
+master. Nor can these movements in the dog be explained by acts of
+volition or necessary instincts, any more than the beaming eyes and
+smiling cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir C. Bell had
+been questioned about the expression of affection in the dog, he would no
+doubt have answered that this animal had been created with special
+instincts, adapting him for association with man, and that all further
+enquiry on the subject was superfluous.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although Gratiolet emphatically denies<a href="#linknote-15"
+name="linknoteref-15" id="linknoteref-15">[15]</a> that any muscle has
+been developed solely for the sake of expression, he seems never to have
+reflected on the principle of evolution. He apparently looks at each
+species as a separate creation. So it is with the other writers on
+Expression. For instance, Dr. Duchenne, after speaking of the movements of
+the limbs, refers to those which give expression to the face, and remarks:<a
+href="#linknote-16" name="linknoteref-16" id="linknoteref-16">[16]</a> &ldquo;Le
+créateur n&rsquo;a donc pas eu à se préoccuper ici des besoins de la mécanique;
+il a pu, selon sa sagesse, ou&mdash;que l&rsquo;on me pardonne cette manière de
+parler&mdash;par une divine fantaisie, mettre en action tel ou tel muscle,
+un seul ou plusieurs muscles à la fois, lorsqu&rsquo;il a voulu que les signes
+caractéristiques des passions, même les plus fugaces, fussent écrits
+passagèrement sur la face de l&rsquo;homme. Ce langage de la physionomie une
+fois créé, il lui a suffi, pour le rendre universel et immuable, de donner
+à tout être humain la faculté instinctive d&rsquo;exprimer toujours ses
+sendments par la contraction des mêmes muscles.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many writers consider the whole subject of Expression as inexplicable.
+Thus the illustrious physiologist Müller, says,<a href="#linknote-17"
+name="linknoteref-17" id="linknoteref-17">[17]</a> &ldquo;The completely
+different expression of the features in different passions shows that,
+according to the kind of feeling excited, entirely different groups of the
+fibres of the facial nerve are acted on. Of the cause of this we are quite
+ignorant.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+No doubt as long as man and all other animals are viewed as independent
+creations, an effectual stop is put to our natural desire to investigate
+as far as possible the causes of Expression. By this doctrine, anything
+and everything can be equally well explained; and it has proved as
+pernicious with respect to Expression as to every other branch of natural
+history. With mankind some expressions, such as the bristling of the hair
+under the influence of extreme terror, or the uncovering of the teeth
+under that of furious rage, can hardly be understood, except on the belief
+that man once existed in a much lower and animal-like condition. The
+community of certain expressions in distinct though allied species, as in
+the movements of the same facial muscles during laughter by man and by
+various monkeys, is rendered somewhat more intelligible, if we believe in
+their descent from a common progenitor. He who admits on general grounds
+that the structure and habits of all animals have been gradually evolved,
+will look at the whole subject of Expression in a new and interesting
+light.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements being often
+extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature. A difference may be clearly
+perceived, and yet it may be impossible, at least I have found it so, to
+state in what the difference consists. When we witness any deep emotion,
+our sympathy is so strongly excited, that close observation is forgotten
+or rendered almost impossible; of which fact I have had many curious
+proofs. Our imagination is another and still more serious source of error;
+for if from the nature of the circumstances we expect to see any
+expression, we readily imagine its presence. Notwithstanding Dr.
+Duchenne&rsquo;s great experience, he for a long time fancied, as he states,
+that several muscles contracted under certain emotions, whereas he
+ultimately convinced himself that the movement was confined to a single
+muscle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to ascertain,
+independently of common opinion, how far particular movements of the
+features and gestures are really expressive of certain states of the mind,
+I have found the following means the most serviceable. In the first place,
+to observe infants; for they exhibit many emotions, as Sir C. Bell
+remarks, &ldquo;with extraordinary force;&rdquo; whereas, in after life, some of our
+expressions &ldquo;cease to have the pure and simple source from which they
+spring in infancy.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-18" name="linknoteref-18"
+id="linknoteref-18">[18]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the second place, it occurred to me that the insane ought to be
+studied, as they are liable to the strongest passions, and give
+uncontrolled vent to them. I had, myself, no opportunity of doing this, so
+I applied to Dr. Maudsley and received from him an introduction to Dr. J.
+Crichton Browne, who has charge of an immense asylum near Wakefield, and
+who, as I found, had already attended to the subject. This excellent
+observer has with unwearied kindness sent me copious notes and
+descriptions, with valuable suggestions on many points; and I can hardly
+over-estimate the value of his assistance. I owe also, to the kindness of
+Mr. Patrick Nicol, of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, interesting statements on
+two or three points.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Thirdly Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already seen, certain muscles
+in the face of an old man, whose skin was little sensitive, and thus
+produced various expressions which were photographed on a large scale. It
+fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best plates, without a
+word of explanation, to above twenty educated persons of various ages and
+both sexes, asking them, in each case, by what emotion or feeling the old
+man was supposed to be agitated; and I recorded their answers in the words
+which they used. Several of the expressions were instantly recognised by
+almost everyone, though described in not exactly the same terms; and these
+may, I think, be relied on as truthful, and will hereafter be specified.
+On the other hand, the most widely different judgments were pronounced in
+regard to some of them. This exhibition was of use in another way, by
+convincing me how easily we may be misguided by our imagination; for when
+I first looked through Dr. Duchenne&rsquo;s photographs, reading at the same
+time the text, and thus learning what was intended, I was struck with
+admiration at the truthfulness of all, with only a few exceptions.
+Nevertheless, if I had examined them without any explanation, no doubt I
+should have been as much perplexed, in some cases, as other persons have
+been.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters in
+painting and sculpture, who are such close observers. Accordingly, I have
+looked at photographs and engravings of many well-known works; but, with a
+few exceptions, have not thus profited. The reason no doubt is, that in
+works of art, beauty is the chief object; and strongly contracted facial
+muscles destroy beauty.<a href="#linknote-19" name="linknoteref-19"
+id="linknoteref-19">[19]</a> The story of the composition is generally
+told with wonderful force and truth by skilfully given accessories.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascertain whether the same
+expressions and gestures prevail, as has often been asserted without much
+evidence, with all the races of mankind, especially with those who have
+associated but little with Europeans. Whenever the same movements of the
+features or body express the same emotions in several distinct races of
+man, we may infer with much probability, that such expressions are true
+ones,&mdash;that is, are innate or instinctive. Conventional expressions
+or gestures, acquired by the individual during early life, would probably
+have differed in the different races, in the same manner as do their
+languages. Accordingly I circulated, early in the year 1867, the following
+printed queries with a request, which has been fully responded to, that
+actual observations, and not memory, might be trusted. These queries were
+written after a considerable interval of time, during which my attention
+had been otherwise directed, and I can now see that they might have been
+greatly improved. To some of the later copies, I appended, in manuscript,
+a few additional remarks:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide,
+and by the eyebrows being raised?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows it to be
+visible? and especially how low down the body does the blush extend?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(3.) When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his body and
+head erect, square his shoulders and clench his fists?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(4) When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to understand any
+puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed, and the
+inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which the French call
+the &ldquo;Grief muscle&rdquo;? The eyebrow in this state becomes slightly oblique,
+with a little swelling at the Inner end; and the forehead is transversely
+wrinkled in the middle part, but not across the whole breadth, as when the
+eyebrows are raised in surprise.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(6.) When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little wrinkled
+round and under them, and with the mouth a little drawn back at the corners?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the upper
+lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side facing the man whom he
+addresses?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(8) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized, which is chiefly
+shown by the mouth being firmly closed, a lowering brow and a slight
+frown?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips and by
+turning up the nose, and with a slight expiration?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(10) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down, the upper lip
+slightly raised, with a sudden expiration, something like incipient
+vomiting, or like something spit out of the mouth?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as with
+Europeans?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears into
+the eyes?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something being
+done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his shoulders, turn
+inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands and open the palms; with the
+eyebrows raised?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(14) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the lips?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized? though I
+know not how these can be defined.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+(16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken laterally
+in negation?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Observations on natives who have had little communication with Europeans
+would be of course the most valuable, though those made on any natives
+would be of much interest to me. General remarks on expression are of
+comparatively little value; and memory is so deceptive that I earnestly
+beg it may not be trusted. A definite description of the countenance under
+any emotion or frame of mind, with a statement of the circumstances under
+which it occurred, would possess much value.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To these queries I have received thirty-six answers from different
+observers, several of them missionaries or protectors of the aborigines,
+to all of whom I am deeply indebted for the great trouble which they have
+taken, and for the valuable aid thus received. I will specify their names,
+&amp;c., towards the close of this chapter, so as not to interrupt my
+present remarks. The answers relate to several of the most distinct and
+savage races of man. In many instances, the circumstances have been
+recorded under which each expression was observed, and the expression
+itself described. In such cases, much confidence may be placed in the
+answers. When the answers have been simply yes or no, I have always
+received them with caution. It follows, from the information thus
+acquired, that the same state of mind is expressed throughout the world
+with remarkable uniformity; and this fact is in itself interesting as
+evidence of the close similarity in bodily structure and mental
+disposition of all the races, of mankind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended as closely as I could, to the
+expression of the several passions in some of the commoner animals; and
+this I believe to be of paramount importance, not of course for deciding
+how far in man certain expressions are characteristic of certain states of
+mind, but as affording the safest basis for generalisation on the causes,
+or origin, of the various movements of Expression. In observing animals,
+we are not so likely to be biassed by our imagination; and we may feel
+safe that their expressions are not conventional.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting nature of some
+expressions (the changes in the features being often extremely slight);
+our sympathy being easily aroused when we behold any strong emotion, and
+our attention thus distracted; our imagination deceiving us, from knowing
+in a vague manner what to expect, though certainly few of us know what the
+exact changes in the countenance are; and lastly, even our long
+familiarity with the subject,&mdash;from all these causes combined, the
+observation of Expression is by no means easy, as many persons, whom I
+have asked to observe certain points, have soon discovered. Hence it is
+difficult to determine, with certainty, what are the movements of the
+features and of the body, which commonly characterize certain states of
+the mind. Nevertheless, some of the doubts and difficulties have, as I
+hope, been cleared away by the observation of infants,&mdash;of the
+insane,&mdash;of the different races of man,&mdash;of works of art,&mdash;and
+lastly, of the facial muscles under the action of galvanism, as effected
+by Dr. Duchenne.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But there remains the much greater difficulty of understanding the cause
+or origin of the several expressions, and of judging whether any
+theoretical explanation is trustworthy. Besides, judging as well as we can
+by our reason, without the aid of any rules, which of two or more
+explanations is the most satisfactory, or are quite unsatisfactory, I see
+only one way of testing our conclusions. This is to observe whether the
+same principle by which one expression can, as it appears, be explained,
+is applicable in other allied cases; and especially, whether the same
+general principles can be applied with satisfactory results, both to man
+and the lower animals. This latter method, I am inclined to think, is the
+most serviceable of all. The difficulty of judging of the truth of any
+theoretical explanation, and of testing it by some distinct line of
+investigation, is the great drawback to that interest which the study
+seems well fitted to excite.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may state that they were
+commenced in the year 1838; and from that time to the present day, I have
+occasionally attended to the subject. At the above date, I was already
+inclined to believe in the principle of evolution, or of the derivation of
+species from other and lower forms. Consequently, when I read Sir C.
+Bell&rsquo;s great work, his view, that man had been created with certain
+muscles specially adapted for the expression of his feelings, struck me as
+unsatisfactory. It seemed probable that the habit of expressing our
+feelings by certain movements, though now rendered innate, had been in
+some manner gradually acquired. But to discover how such habits had been
+acquired was perplexing in no small degree. The whole subject had to be
+viewed under a new aspect, and each expression demanded a rational
+explanation. This belief led me to attempt the present work, however
+imperfectly it may have been executed.
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>
+I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, as I have said, I am
+deeply indebted for information in regard to the expressions exhibited by
+various races of man, and I will specify some of the circumstances under
+which the observations were in each case made. Owing to the great kindness
+and powerful influence of Mr. Wilson, of Hayes Place, Kent, I have
+received from Australia no less than thirteen sets of answers to my
+queries. This has been particularly fortunate, as the Australian
+aborigines rank amongst the most distinct of all the races of man. It will
+be seen that the observations have been chiefly made in the south, in the
+outlying parts of the colony of Victoria; but some excellent answers have
+been received from the north.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valuable observations, made
+several hundred miles in the interior of Queensland. To Mr. R. Brough
+Smyth, of Melbourne, I am much indebted for observations made by himself,
+and for sending me several of the following letters, namely:&mdash;From
+the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer, of Lake Wellington, a missionary in Gippsland,
+Victoria, who has had much experience with the natives. From Mr. Samuel
+Wilson, a landowner, residing at Langerenong, Wimmera, Victoria. From the
+Rev. George Taplin, superintendent of the native Industrial Settlement at
+Port Macleay. From Mr. Archibald G. Lang, of Coranderik, Victoria, a
+teacher at a school where aborigines, old and young, are collected from
+all parts of the colony. From Mr. H. B. Lane, of Belfast, Victoria, a
+police magistrate and warden, whose observations, as I am assured, are
+highly trustworthy. From Mr. Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose station
+is on the borders of the colony of Victoria, and who has thus been able to
+observe many aborigines who have had little intercourse with white men. He
+compared his observations with those made by two other gentlemen long
+resident in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr. J. Bulmer, a missionary in a
+remote part of Gippsland, Victoria.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr. Ferdinand Müller, of
+Victoria, for some observations made by himself, and for sending me others
+made by Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing letters.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Rev. J. W. Stack has answered
+only a few of my queries; but the answers have been remarkably full,
+clear, and distinct, with the circumstances recorded under which the
+observations were made.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Rajah Brooke has given me some information with respect to the Dyaks
+of Borneo.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Respecting the Malays, I have been highly successful; for Mr. F. Geach (to
+whom I was introduced by Mr. Wallace), during his residence as a mining
+engineer in the interior of Malacca, observed many natives, who had never
+before associated with white men. He wrote me two long letters with
+admirable and detailed observations on their expression. He likewise
+observed the Chinese immigrants in the Malay archipelago.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The well-known naturalist, H. M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, also observed for me
+the Chinese in their native country; and he made inquiries from others
+whom he could trust.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official capacity in the
+Admednugur District in the Bombay Presidency, attended to the expression
+of the inhabitants, but found much difficulty in arriving at any safe
+conclusions, owing to their habitual concealment of all emotions in the
+presence of Europeans. He also obtained information for me from Mr. West,
+the Judge in Canara, and he consulted some intelligent native gentlemen on
+certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J. Scott, curator of the Botanic Gardens,
+carefully observed the various tribes of men therein employed during a
+considerable period, and no one has sent me such full and valuable
+details. The habit of accurate observation, gained by his botanical
+studies, has been brought to bear on our present subject. For Ceylon I am
+much indebted to the Rev. S. O. Glenie for answers to some of my queries.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with respect to the negroes,
+though Mr. Winwood Reade aided me as far as lay in his power. It would
+have been comparatively easy to have obtained information in regard to the
+negro slaves in America; but as they have long associated with white men,
+such observations would have possessed little value. In the southern parts
+of the continent Mrs. Barber observed the Kafirs and Fingoes, and sent me
+many distinct answers. Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale also made some observations
+on the natives, and procured for me a curious document, namely, the
+opinion, written in English, of Christian Gaika, brother of the Chief
+Sandilli, on the expressions of his fellow-countrymen. In the northern
+regions of Africa Captain Speedy, who long resided with the Abyssinians,
+answered my queries partly from memory and partly from observations made
+on the son of King Theodore, who was then under his charge. Professor and
+Mrs. Asa Gray attended to some points in the expressions of the natives,
+as observed by them whilst ascending the Nile.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a catechist residing with the
+Fuegians, answered some few questions about their expression, addressed to
+him many years ago. In the northern half of the continent Dr. Rothrock
+attended to the expressions of the wild Atnah and Espyox tribes on the
+Nasse River, in North-Western America. Mr. Washington Matthews
+Assistant-Surgeon in the United States Army, also observed with special
+care (after having seen my queries, as printed in the &lsquo;Smithsonian
+Report&rsquo;) some of the wildest tribes in the Western parts of the United
+States, namely, the Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans, and Assinaboines; and
+his answers have proved of the highest value.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I have collected
+some few facts incidentally given in books of travels.&mdash;&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig1-2.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 1-2 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig3.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Muscles of the Human Face. Fig 3 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the latter part of this
+volume, to the muscles of the human face, I have had a diagram (fig. 1)
+copied and reduced from Sir C. Bell&rsquo;s work, and two others, with more
+accurate details (figs. 2 and 3), from Herde&rsquo;s well-known &lsquo;Handbuch der
+Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.&rsquo; The same letters refer to the same
+muscles in all three figures, but the names are given of only the more
+important ones to which I shall have to allude. The facial muscles blend
+much together, and, as I am informed, hardly appear on a dissected face so
+distinct as they are here represented. Some writers consider that these
+muscles consist of nineteen pairs, with one unpaired;<a href="#linknote-20"
+name="linknoteref-20" id="linknoteref-20">[20]</a> but others make the
+number much larger, amounting even to fifty-five, according to Moreau.
+They are, as is admitted by everyone who has written on the subject, very
+variable in structure; and Moreau remarks that they are hardly alike in
+half-a-dozen subjects.<a href="#linknote-21" name="linknoteref-21"
+id="linknoteref-21">[21]</a> They are also variable in function. Thus the
+power of uncovering the canine tooth on one side differs much in different
+persons. The power of raising the wings of the nostrils is also, according
+to Dr. Piderit,<a href="#linknote-22" name="linknoteref-22"
+id="linknoteref-22">[22]</a> variable in a remarkable degree; and other
+such cases could be given.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing my obligations to Mr.
+Rejlander for the trouble which he has taken in photographing for me
+various expressions and gestures. I am also indebted to Herr Kindermann,
+of Hamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of crying infants;
+and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one of a smiling girl. I have already
+expressed my obligations to Dr. Duchenne for generously permitting me to
+have some of his large photographs copied and reduced. All these
+photographs have been printed by the Heliotype process, and the accuracy
+of the copy is thus guaranteed. These plates are referred to by Roman
+numerals.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme pains which
+he has taken in drawing from life the expressions of various animals. A
+distinguished artist, Mr. Riviere, has had the kindness to give me two
+drawings of dogs&mdash;one in a hostile and the other in a humble and
+caressing frame of mind. Mr. A. May has also given me two similar sketches
+of dogs. Mr. Cooper has taken much care in cutting the blocks. Some of the
+photographs and drawings, namely, those by Mr. May, and those by Mr. Wolf
+of the Cynopithecus, were first reproduced by Mr. Cooper on wood by means
+of photography, and then engraved: by this means almost complete fidelity
+is ensured.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"></a>
+CHAPTER I.<br/>GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The three chief principles stated&mdash;The first principle&mdash;Serviceable
+actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind,
+and are performed whether or not of service in each particular case&mdash;The
+force of habit&mdash;Inheritance&mdash;Associated habitual movements in
+man&mdash;Reflex actions&mdash;Passage of habits into reflex actions&mdash;Associated
+habitual movements in the lower animals&mdash;Concluding remarks.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+I will begin by giving the three Principles, which appear to me to account
+for most of the expressions and gestures involuntarily used by man and the
+lower animals, under the influence of various emotions and sensations.<a
+href="#linknote-101" name="linknoteref-101" id="linknoteref-101">[101]</a>
+I arrived, however, at these three Principles only at the close of my
+observations. They will be discussed in the present and two following
+chapters in a general manner. Facts observed both with man and the lower
+animals will here be made use of; but the latter facts are preferable, as
+less likely to deceive us. In the fourth and fifth chapters, I will
+describe the special expressions of some of the lower animals; and in the
+succeeding chapters those of man. Everyone will thus be able to judge for
+himself, how far my three principles throw light on the theory of the
+subject. It appears to me that so many expressions are thus explained in a
+fairly satisfactory manner, that probably all will hereafter be found to
+come under the same or closely analogous heads. I need hardly premise that
+movements or changes in any part of the body,&mdash;as the wagging of a
+dog&rsquo;s tail, the drawing back of a horse&rsquo;s ears, the shrugging of a man&rsquo;s
+shoulders, or the dilatation of the capillary vessels of the skin,&mdash;may
+all equally well serve for expression. The three Principles are as
+follows.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I. <i>The principle of serviceable associated Habits</i>.&mdash;Certain
+complex actions are of direct or indirect service under certain states of
+the mind, in order to relieve or gratify certain sensations, desires,
+&amp;c.; and whenever the same state of mind is induced, however feebly,
+there is a tendency through the force of habit and association for the
+same movements to be performed, though they may not then be of the least
+use. Some actions ordinarily associated through habit with certain states
+of the mind may be partially repressed through the will, and in such cases
+the muscles which are least under the separate control of the will are the
+most liable still to act, causing movements which we recognize as
+expressive. In certain other cases the checking of one habitual movement
+requires other slight movements; and these are likewise expressive.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+II. <i>The principle of Antithesis</i>.&mdash;Certain states of the mind
+lead to certain habitual actions, which are of service, as under our first
+principle. Now when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, there is
+a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements of a
+directly opposite nature, though these are of no use; and such movements
+are in some cases highly expressive.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+III. <i>The principle of actions due to the constitution of the Nervous
+System, independently from the first of the Will, and independently to a
+certain extent of Habit</i>.&mdash;When the sensorium is strongly excited,
+nerve-force is generated in excess, and is transmitted in certain definite
+directions, depending on the connection of the nerve-cells, and partly on
+habit: or the supply of nerve-force may, as it appears, be interrupted.
+Effects are thus produced which we recognize as expressive. This third
+principle may, for the sake of brevity, be called that of the direct
+action of the nervous system.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+With respect to our <i>first Principle</i>, it is notorious how powerful
+is the force of habit. The most complex and difficult movements can in
+time be performed without the least effort or consciousness. It is not
+positively known how it comes that habit is so efficient in facilitating
+complex movements; but physiologists admit<a href="#linknote-102"
+name="linknoteref-102" id="linknoteref-102">[102]</a> &ldquo;that the conducting
+power of the nervous fibres increases with the frequency of their
+excitement.&rdquo; This applies to the nerves of motion and sensation, as well
+as to those connected with the act of thinking. That some physical change
+is produced in the nerve-cells or nerves which are habitually used can
+hardly be doubted, for otherwise it is impossible to understand how the
+tendency to certain acquired movements is inherited. That they are
+inherited we see with horses in certain transmitted paces, such as
+cantering and ambling, which are not natural to them,&mdash;in the
+pointing of young pointers and the setting of young setters&mdash;in the
+peculiar manner of flight of certain breeds of the pigeon, &amp;c. We have
+analogous cases with mankind in the inheritance of tricks or unusual
+gestures, to which we shall presently recur. To those who admit the
+gradual evolution of species, a most striking instance of the perfection
+with which the most difficult consensual movements can be transmitted, is
+afforded by the humming-bird Sphinx-moth (<i>Macroglossa</i>); for this
+moth, shortly after its emergence from the cocoon, as shown by the bloom
+on its unruffled scales, may be seen poised stationary in the air, with
+its long hair-like proboscis uncurled and inserted into the minute
+orifices of flowers; and no one, I believe, has ever seen this moth
+learning to perform its difficult task, which requires such unerring aim.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When there exists an inherited or instinctive tendency to the performance
+of an action, or an inherited taste for certain kinds of food, some degree
+of habit in the individual is often or generally requisite. We find this
+in the paces of the horse, and to a certain extent in the pointing of
+dogs; although some young dogs point excellently the first time they are
+taken out, yet they often associate the proper inherited attitude with a
+wrong odour, and even with eyesight. I have heard it asserted that if a
+calf be allowed to suck its mother only once, it is much more difficult
+afterwards to rear it by hand.<a href="#linknote-103"
+name="linknoteref-103" id="linknoteref-103">[103]</a> Caterpillars which
+have been fed on the leaves of one kind of tree, have been known to perish
+from hunger rather than to eat the leaves of another tree, although this
+afforded them their proper food, under a state of nature;<a
+href="#linknote-104" name="linknoteref-104" id="linknoteref-104">[104]</a>
+and so it is in many other cases.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The power of Association is admitted by everyone. Mr. Bain remarks, that
+&ldquo;actions, sensations and states of feeling, occurring together or in close
+succession, tend to grow together, or cohere, in such a way that when any
+one of them is afterwards presented to the mind, the others are apt to be
+brought up in idea.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-105" name="linknoteref-105"
+id="linknoteref-105">[105]</a> It is so important for our purpose fully to
+recognize that actions readily become associated with other actions and
+with various states of the mind, that I will give a good many instances,
+in the first place relating to man, and afterwards to the lower animals.
+Some of the instances are of a very trifling nature, but they are as good
+for our purpose as more important habits. It is known to everyone how
+difficult, or even impossible it is, without repeated trials, to move the
+limbs in certain opposed directions which have never been practised.
+Analogous cases occur with sensations, as in the common experiment of
+rolling a marble beneath the tips of two crossed fingers, when it feels
+exactly like two marbles. Everyone protects himself when falling to the
+ground by extending his arms, and as Professor Alison has remarked, few
+can resist acting thus, when voluntarily falling on a soft bed. A man when
+going out of doors puts on his gloves quite unconsciously; and this may
+seem an extremely simple operation, but he who has taught a child to put
+on gloves, knows that this is by no means the case.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When our minds are much affected, so are the movements of our bodies; but
+here another principle besides habit, namely the undirected overflow of
+nerve-force, partially comes into play. Norfolk, in speaking of Cardinal
+Wolsey, says&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;Some strange commotion<br/>
+Is in his brain; he bites his lip and starts;<br/>
+Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground,<br/>
+Then, lays his finger on his temple: straight,<br/>
+Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again,<br/>
+Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he casts<br/>
+His eye against the moon: in most strange postures<br/>
+We have seen him set himself.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Hen. VIII</i>., act iii, sc. 2.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A vulgar man often scratches his head when perplexed in mind; and I
+believe that he acts thus from habit, as if he experienced a slightly
+uncomfortable bodily sensation, namely, the itching of his head, to which
+he is particularly liable, and which he thus relieves. Another man rubs
+his eyes when perplexed, or gives a little cough when embarrassed, acting
+in either case as if he felt a slightly uncomfortable sensation in his
+eyes or windpipe.<a href="#linknote-106" name="linknoteref-106"
+id="linknoteref-106">[106]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the continued use of the eyes, these organs are especially liable to
+be acted on through association under various states of the mind, although
+there is manifestly nothing to be seen. A man, as Gratiolet remarks, who
+vehemently rejects a proposition, will almost certainly shut his eyes or
+turn away his face; but if he accepts the proposition, he will nod his
+head in affirmation and open his eyes widely. The man acts in this latter
+case as if he clearly saw the thing, and in the former case as if he did
+not or would not see it. I have noticed that persons in describing a
+horrid sight often shut their eyes momentarily and firmly, or shake their
+heads, as if not to see or to drive away something disagreeable; and I
+have caught myself, when thinking in the dark of a horrid spectacle,
+closing my eyes firmly. In looking suddenly at any object, or in looking
+all around, everyone raises his eyebrows, so that the eyes may be quickly
+and widely opened; and Duchenne remarks that<a href="#linknote-107"
+name="linknoteref-107" id="linknoteref-107">[107]</a> a person in trying
+to remember something often raises his eyebrows, as if to see it. A Hindoo
+gentleman made exactly the same remark to Mr. Erskine in regard to his
+countrymen. I noticed a young lady earnestly trying to recollect a
+painter&rsquo;s name, and she first looked to one corner of the ceiling and then
+to the opposite corner, arching the one eyebrow on that side; although, of
+course, there was nothing to be seen there.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In most of the foregoing cases, we can understand how the associated movements
+were acquired through habit; but with some individuals, certain strange
+gestures or tricks have arisen in association with certain states of the mind,
+owing to wholly inexplicable causes, and are undoubtedly inherited. I have
+elsewhere given one instance from my own observation of an extraordinary and
+complex gesture, associated with pleasurable feelings, which was transmitted
+from a father to his daughter, as well as some other analogous facts.<a
+href="#linknote-108" name="linknoteref-108" id="linknoteref-108">[108]</a>
+Another curious instance of an odd inherited movement, associated with the wish
+to obtain an object, will be given in the course of this volume.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There are other actions which are commonly performed under certain
+circumstances, independently of habit, and which seem to be due to
+imitation or some sort of sympathy. Thus persons cutting anything with a
+pair of scissors may be seen to move their jaws simultaneously with the
+blades of the scissors. Children learning to write often twist about their
+tongues as their fingers move, in a ridiculous fashion. When a public
+singer suddenly becomes a little hoarse, many of those present may be
+heard, as I have been assured by a gentleman on whom I can rely, to clear
+their throats; but here habit probably comes into play, as we clear our
+own throats under similar circumstances. I have also been told that at
+leaping matches, as the performer makes his spring, many of the
+spectators, generally men and boys, move their feet; but here again habit
+probably comes into play, for it is very doubtful whether women would thus
+act.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Reflex actions</i>&mdash;Reflex actions, in the strict sense of the
+term, are due to the excitement of a peripheral nerve, which transmits its
+influence to certain nerve-cells, and these in their turn excite certain
+muscles or glands into action; and all this may take place without any
+sensation or consciousness on our part, though often thus accompanied. As
+many reflex actions are highly expressive, the subject must here be
+noticed at some little length. We shall also see that some of them
+graduate into, and can hardly be distinguished from actions which have
+arisen through habit?<a href="#linknote-109" name="linknoteref-109" id="linknoteref-109">[109]</a> Coughing and sneezing are familiar instances of
+reflex actions. With infants the first act of respiration is often a
+sneeze, although this requires the co-ordinated movement of numerous
+muscles. Respiration is partly voluntary, but mainly reflex, and is
+performed in the most natural and best manner without the interference of
+the will. A vast number of complex movements are reflex. As good an
+instance as can be given is the often-quoted one of a decapitated frog,
+which cannot of course feel, and cannot consciously perform, any movement.
+Yet if a drop of acid be placed on the lower surface of the thigh of a
+frog in this state, it will rub off the drop with the upper surface of the
+foot of the same leg. If this foot be cut off, it cannot thus act. &ldquo;After
+some fruitless efforts, therefore, it gives up trying in that way, seems
+restless, as though, says Pflüger, it was seeking some other way, and at
+last it makes use of the foot of the other leg and succeeds in rubbing off
+the acid. Notably we have here not merely contractions of muscles, but
+combined and harmonized contractions in due sequence for a special
+purpose. These are actions that have all the appearance of being guided by
+intelligence and instigated by will in an animal, the recognized organ of
+whose intelligence and will has been removed.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-110"
+name="linknoteref-110" id="linknoteref-110">[110]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We see the difference between reflex and voluntary movements in very young
+children not being able to perform, as I am informed by Sir Henry Holland,
+certain acts somewhat analogous to those of sneezing and coughing, namely,
+in their not being able to blow their noses (<i>i.e.</i> to compress the nose
+and blow violently through the passage), and in their not being able to
+clear their throats of phlegm. They have to learn to perform these acts,
+yet they are performed by us, when a little older, almost as easily as
+reflex actions. Sneezing and coughing, however, can be controlled by the
+will only partially or not at all; whilst the clearing the throat and
+blowing the nose are completely under our command.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When we are conscious of the presence of an irritating particle in our
+nostrils or windpipe&mdash;that is, when the same sensory nerve-cells are
+excited, as in the case of sneezing and coughing&mdash;we can voluntarily
+expel the particle by forcibly driving air through these passages; but we
+cannot do this with nearly the same force, rapidity, and precision, as by
+a reflex action. In this latter case the sensory nerve-cells apparently
+excite the motor nerve-cells without any waste of power by first
+communicating with the cerebral hemispheres&mdash;the seat of our
+consciousness and volition. In all cases there seems to exist a profound
+antagonism between the same movements, as directed by the will and by a
+reflex stimulant, in the force with which they are performed and in the
+facility with which they are excited. As Claude Bernard asserts,
+&ldquo;L&rsquo;influence du cerveau tend donc à entraver les mouvements réflexes, à
+limiter leur force et leur étendue.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-111"
+name="linknoteref-111" id="linknoteref-111">[111]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The conscious wish to perform a reflex action sometimes stops or
+interrupts its performance, though the proper sensory nerves may be
+stimulated. For instance, many years ago I laid a small wager with a dozen
+young men that they would not sneeze if they took snuff, although they all
+declared that they invariably did so; accordingly they all took a pinch,
+but from wishing much to succeed, not one sneezed, though their eyes
+watered, and all, without exception, had to pay me the wager. Sir H.
+Holland remarks<a href="#linknote-112" name="linknoteref-112"
+id="linknoteref-112">[112]</a> that attention paid to the act of
+swallowing interferes with the proper movements; from which it probably
+follows, at least in part, that some persons find it so difficult to
+swallow a pill.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another familiar instance of a reflex action is the involuntary closing of
+the eyelids when the surface of the eye is touched. A similar winking
+movement is caused when a blow is directed towards the face; but this is
+an habitual and not a strictly reflex action, as the stimulus is conveyed
+through the mind and not by the excitement of a peripheral nerve. The
+whole body and head are generally at the same time drawn suddenly
+backwards. These latter movements, however, can be prevented, if the
+danger does not appear to the imagination imminent; but our reason telling
+us that there is no danger does not suffice. I may mention a trifling
+fact, illustrating this point, and which at the time amused me. I put my
+face close to the thick glass-plate in front of a puff-adder in the
+Zoological Gardens, with the firm determination of not starting back if
+the snake struck at me; but, as soon as the blow was struck, my resolution
+went for nothing, and I jumped a yard or two backwards with astonishing
+rapidity. My will and reason were powerless against the imagination of a
+danger which had never been experienced.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The violence of a start seems to depend partly on the vividness of the
+imagination, and partly on the condition, either habitual or temporary, of
+the nervous system. He who will attend to the starting of his horse, when
+tired and fresh, will perceive how perfect is the gradation from a mere
+glance at some unexpected object, with a momentary doubt whether it is
+dangerous, to a jump so rapid and violent, that the animal probably could
+not voluntarily whirl round in so rapid a manner. The nervous system of a
+fresh and highly-fed horse sends its order to the motory system so
+quickly, that no time is allowed for him to consider whether or not the
+danger is real. After one violent start, when he is excited and the blood
+flows freely through his brain, he is very apt to start again; and so it
+is, as I have noticed, with young infants.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A start from a sudden noise, when the stimulus is conveyed through the
+auditory nerves, is always accompanied in grown-up persons by the winking
+of the eyelids.<a href="#linknote-113" name="linknoteref-113"
+id="linknoteref-113">[113]</a> I observed, however, that though my infants
+started at sudden sounds, when under a fortnight old, they certainly did
+not always wink their eyes, and I believe never did so. The start of an
+older infant apparently represents a vague catching hold of something to
+prevent falling. I shook a pasteboard box close before the eyes of one of
+my infants, when 114 days old, and it did not in the least wink; but when
+I put a few comfits into the box, holding it in the same position as
+before, and rattled them, the child blinked its eyes violently every time,
+and started a little. It was obviously impossible that a carefully-guarded
+infant could have learnt by experience that a rattling sound near its eyes
+indicated danger to them. But such experience will have been slowly gained
+at a later age during a long series of generations; and from what we know
+of inheritance, there is nothing improbable in the transmission of a habit
+to the offspring at an earlier age than that at which it was first
+acquired by the parents.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the foregoing remarks it seems probable that some actions, which were
+at first performed consciously, have become through habit and association
+converted into reflex actions, and are now so firmly fixed and inherited,
+that they are performed, even when not of the least use,<a
+href="#linknote-114" name="linknoteref-114" id="linknoteref-114">[114]</a>
+as often as the same causes arise, which originally excited them in us
+through the volition. In such cases the sensory nerve-cells excite the
+motor cells, without first communicating with those cells on which our
+consciousness and volition depend. It is probable that sneezing and
+coughing were originally acquired by the habit of expelling, as violently
+as possible, any irritating particle from the sensitive air-passages. As
+far as time is concerned, there has been more than enough for these habits
+to have become innate or converted into reflex actions; for they are
+common to most or all of the higher quadrupeds, and must therefore have
+been first acquired at a very remote period. Why the act of clearing the
+throat is not a reflex action, and has to be learnt by our children, I
+cannot pretend to say; but we can see why blowing the nose on a
+handkerchief has to be learnt.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is scarcely credible that the movements of a headless frog, when it
+wipes off a drop of acid or other object from its thigh, and which
+movements are so well coordinated for a special purpose, were not at first
+performed voluntarily, being afterwards rendered easy through
+long-continued habit so as at last to be performed unconsciously, or
+independently of the cerebral hemispheres.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So again it appears probable that starting was originally acquired by the
+habit of jumping away as quickly as possible from danger, whenever any of
+our senses gave us warning. Starting, as we have seen, is accompanied by
+the blinking of the eyelids so as to protect the eyes, the most tender and
+sensitive organs of the body; and it is, I believe, always accompanied by
+a sudden and forcible inspiration, which is the natural preparation for
+any violent effort. But when a man or horse starts, his heart beats wildly
+against his ribs, and here it may be truly said we have an organ which has
+never been under the control of the will, partaking in the general reflex
+movements of the body. To this point, however, I shall return in a future
+chapter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The contraction of the iris, when the retina is stimulated by a bright
+light, is another instance of a movement, which it appears cannot possibly
+have been at first voluntarily performed and then fixed by habit; for the
+iris is not known to be under the conscious control of the will in any
+animal. In such cases some explanation, quite distinct from habit, will
+have to be discovered. The radiation of nerve-force from strongly-excited
+nerve-cells to other connected cells, as in the case of a bright light on
+the retina causing a sneeze, may perhaps aid us in understanding how some
+reflex actions originated. A radiation of nerve-force of this kind, if it
+caused a movement tending to lessen the primary irritation, as in the case
+of the contraction of the iris preventing too much light from falling on
+the retina, might afterwards have been taken advantage of and modified for
+this special purpose.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It further deserves notice that reflex actions are in all probability
+liable to slight variations, as are all corporeal structures and
+instincts; and any variations which were beneficial and of sufficient
+importance, would tend to be preserved and inherited. Thus reflex actions,
+when once gained for one purpose, might afterwards be modified
+independently of the will or habit, so as to serve for some distinct
+purpose. Such cases would be parallel with those which, as we have every
+reason to believe, have occurred with many instincts; for although some
+instincts have been developed simply through long-continued and inherited
+habit, other highly complex ones have been developed through the
+preservation of variations of pre-existing instincts&mdash;that is,
+through natural selection.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have discussed at some little length, though as I am well aware, in a
+very imperfect manner, the acquirement of reflex actions, because they are
+often brought into play in connection with movements expressive of our
+emotions; and it was necessary to show that at least some of them might
+have been first acquired through the will in order to satisfy a desire, or
+to relieve a disagreeable sensation.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Associated habitual movements in the lower animals</i>.&mdash;I have
+already given in the case of Man several instances of movements associated
+with various states of the mind or body, which are now purposeless, but
+which were originally of use, and are still of use under certain
+circumstances. As this subject is very important for us, I will here give
+a considerable number of analogous facts, with reference to animals;
+although many of them are of a very trifling nature. My object is to show
+that certain movements were originally performed for a definite end, and
+that, under nearly the same circumstances, they are still pertinaciously
+performed through habit when not of the least use. That the tendency in
+most of the following cases is inherited, we may infer from such actions
+being performed in the same manner by all the individuals, young and old,
+of the same species. We shall also see that they are excited by the most
+diversified, often circuitous, and sometimes mistaken associations.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dogs, when they wish to go to sleep on a carpet or other hard surface,
+generally turn round and round and scratch the ground with their fore-paws
+in a senseless manner, as if they intended to trample down the grass and
+scoop out a hollow, as no doubt their wild parents did, when they lived on
+open grassy plains or in the woods. Jackals, fennecs, and other allied
+animals in the Zoological Gardens, treat their straw in this manner; but
+it is a rather odd circumstance that the keepers, after observing for some
+months, have never seen the wolves thus behave. A semi-idiotic dog&mdash;and
+an animal in this condition would be particularly liable to follow a
+senseless habit&mdash;was observed by a friend to turn completely round on
+a carpet thirteen times before going to sleep.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many carnivorous animals, as they crawl towards their prey and prepare to
+rush or spring on it, lower their heads and crouch, partly, as it would
+appear, to hide themselves, and partly to get ready for their rush; and
+this habit in an exaggerated form has become hereditary in our pointers
+and setters. Now I have noticed scores of times that when two strange dogs
+meet on an open road, the one which first sees the other, though at the
+distance of one or two hundred yards, after the first glance always lowers
+its bead, generally crouches a little, or even lies down; that is, he
+takes the proper attitude for concealing himself and for making a rush or
+spring although the road is quite open and the distance great. Again, dogs
+of all kinds when intently watching and slowly approaching their prey,
+frequently keep one of their fore-legs doubled up for a long time, ready
+for the next cautious step; and this is eminently characteristic of the
+pointer. But from habit they behave in exactly the same manner whenever
+their attention is aroused (fig. 4). I have seen a dog at the foot of a
+high wall, listening attentively to a sound on the opposite side, with one
+leg doubled up; and in this case there could have been no intention of
+making a cautious approach.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig4.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Small Dog Watching a Cat on A Table. Figure 4 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+{illust. caption = for making a rush or FIG. 4.&mdash;Small dog watching a
+cat on a table. From a photograph taken by Mr. Rejlander.}
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dogs after voiding their excrement often make with all four feet a few
+scratches backwards, even on a bare stone pavement, as if for the purpose
+of covering up their excrement with earth, in nearly the same manner as do
+cats. Wolves and jackals behave in the Zoological Gardens in exactly the
+same manner, yet, as I am assured by the keepers, neither wolves, jackals,
+nor foxes, when they have the means of doing so, ever cover up their
+excrement, any more than do dogs. All these animals, however, bury
+superfluous food. Hence, if we rightly understand the meaning of the above
+cat-like habit, of which there can be little doubt, we have a purposeless
+remnant of an habitual movement, which was originally followed by some
+remote progenitor of the dog-genus for a definite purpose, and which has
+been retained for a prodigious length of time.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dogs and jackals<a href="#linknote-115" name="linknoteref-115"
+id="linknoteref-115">[115]</a> take much pleasure in rolling and rubbing
+their necks and backs on carrion. The odour seems delightful to them,
+though dogs at least do not eat carrion. Mr. Bartlett has observed wolves
+for me, and has given them carrion, but has never seen them roll on it. I
+have heard it remarked, and I believe it to be true, that the larger dogs,
+which are probably descended from wolves, do not so often roll in carrion
+as do smaller dogs, which are probably descended from jackals. When a
+piece of brown biscuit is offered to a terrier of mine and she is not
+hungry (and I have heard of similar instances), she first tosses it about
+and worries it, as if it were a rat or other prey; she then repeatedly
+rolls on it precisely as if it were a piece of carrion, and at last eats
+it. It would appear that an imaginary relish has to be given to the
+distasteful morsel; and to effect this the dog acts in his habitual
+manner, as if the biscuit was a live animal or smelt like carrion, though
+he knows better than we do that this is not the case. I have seen this
+same terrier act in the same manner after killing a little bird or mouse.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dogs scratch themselves by a rapid movement of one of their hind-feet; and
+when their backs are rubbed with a stick, so strong is the habit, that
+they cannot help rapidly scratching the air or the ground in a useless and
+ludicrous manner. The terrier just alluded to, when thus scratched with a
+stick, will sometimes show her delight by another habitual movement,
+namely, by licking the air as if it were my hand.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Horses scratch themselves by nibbling those parts of their bodies which
+they can reach with their teeth; but more commonly one horse shows another
+where he wants to be scratched, and they then nibble each other. A friend
+whose attention I had called to the subject, observed that when he rubbed
+his horse&rsquo;s neck, the animal protruded his head, uncovered his teeth, and
+moved his jaws, exactly as if nibbling another horse&rsquo;s neck, for he could
+never have nibbled his own neck. If a horse is much tickled, as when
+curry-combed, his wish to bite something becomes so intolerably strong,
+that he will clatter his teeth together, and though not vicious, bite his
+groom. At the same time from habit he closely depresses his ears, so as to
+protect them from being bitten, as if he were fighting with another horse.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A horse when eager to start on a journey makes the nearest approach which
+he can to the habitual movement of progression by pawing the ground. Now
+when horses in their stalls are about to be fed and are eager for their
+corn, they paw the pavement or the straw. Two of my horses thus behave
+when they see or hear the corn given to their neighbours. But here we have
+what may almost be called a true expression, as pawing the ground is
+universally recognized as a sign of eagerness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cats cover up their excrements of both kinds with earth; and my grandfather<a
+href="#linknote-116" name="linknoteref-116" id="linknoteref-116">[116]</a> saw
+a kitten scraping ashes over a spoonful of pure water spilt on the hearth; so
+that here an habitual or instinctive action was falsely excited, not by a
+previous act or by odour, but by eyesight. It is well known that cats dislike
+wetting their feet, owing, it is probable, to their having aboriginally
+inhabited the dry country of Egypt; and when they wet their feet they shake
+them violently. My daughter poured some water into a glass close to the head of
+a kitten; and it immediately shook its feet in the usual manner; so that here
+we have an habitual movement falsely excited by an associated sound instead of
+by the sense of touch.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Kittens, puppies, young pigs and probably many other young animals,
+alternately push with their forefeet against the mammary glands of their
+mothers, to excite a freer secretion of milk, or to make it flow. Now it
+is very common with young cats, and not at all rare with old cats of the
+common and Persian breeds (believed by some naturalists to be specifically
+extinct), when comfortably lying on a warm shawl or other soft substance,
+to pound it quietly and alternately with their fore-feet; their toes being
+spread out and claws slightly protruded, precisely as when sucking their
+mother. That it is the same movement is clearly shown by their often at
+the same time taking a bit of the shawl into their mouths and sucking it;
+generally closing their eyes and purring from delight. This curious
+movement is commonly excited only in association with the sensation of a
+warm soft surface; but I have seen an old cat, when pleased by having its
+back scratched, pounding the air with its feet in the same manner; so that
+this action has almost become the expression of a pleasurable sensation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Having referred to the act of sucking, I may add that this complex
+movement, as well as the alternate protrusion of the fore-feet, are reflex
+actions; for they are performed if a finger moistened with milk is placed
+in the mouth of a puppy, the front part of whose brain has been removed.<a
+href="#linknote-117" name="linknoteref-117" id="linknoteref-117">[117]</a>
+It has recently been stated in France, that the action of sucking is
+excited solely through the sense of smell, so that if the olfactory nerves
+of a puppy are destroyed, it never sucks. In like manner the wonderful
+power which a chicken possesses only a few hours after being hatched, of
+picking up small particles of food, seems to be started into action
+through the sense of hearing; for with chickens hatched by artificial
+heat, a good observer found that &ldquo;making a noise with the finger-nail
+against a board, in imitation of the hen-mother, first taught them to peck
+at their meat.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-118" name="linknoteref-118"
+id="linknoteref-118">[118]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I will give only one other instance of an habitual and purposeless
+movement. The Sheldrake (<i>Tadorna</i>) feeds on the sands left uncovered
+by the tide, and when a worm-cast is discovered, &ldquo;it begins patting the
+ground with its feet, dancing as it were, over the hole;&rdquo; and this makes
+the worm come to the surface. Now Mr. St. John says, that when his tame
+Sheldrakes &ldquo;came to ask for food, they patted the ground in an impatient
+and rapid manner.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-119" name="linknoteref-119"
+id="linknoteref-119">[119]</a> This therefore may almost be considered as
+their expression of hunger. Mr. Bartlett informs me that the Flamingo and
+the Kagu (<i>Rhinochetus jubatus</i>) when anxious to be fed, beat the
+ground with their feet in the same odd manner. So again Kingfishers, when
+they catch a fish, always beat it until it is killed; and in the
+Zoological Gardens they always beat the raw meat, with which they are
+sometimes fed, before devouring it.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+We have now, I think, sufficiently shown the truth of our first Principle,
+namely, that when any sensation, desire, dislike, &amp;c., has led during
+a long series of generations to some voluntary movement, then a tendency
+to the performance of a similar movement will almost certainly be excited,
+whenever the same, or any analogous or associated sensation &amp;c.,
+although very weak, is experienced; notwithstanding that the movement in
+this case may not be of the least use. Such habitual movements are often,
+or generally inherited; and they then differ but little from reflex
+actions. When we treat of the special expressions of man, the latter part
+of our first Principle, as given at the commencement of this chapter, will
+be seen to hold good; namely, that when movements, associated through
+habit with certain states of the mind, are partially repressed by the
+will, the strictly involuntary muscles, as well as those which are least
+under the separate control of the will, are liable still to act; and their
+action is often highly expressive. Conversely, when the will is
+temporarily or permanently weakened, the voluntary muscles fail before the
+involuntary. It is a fact familiar to pathologists, as Sir C. Bell
+remarks,<a href="#linknote-120" name="linknoteref-120" id="linknoteref-120">[120]</a>
+&ldquo;that when debility arises from affection of the brain, the influence is
+greatest on those muscles which are, in their natural condition, most
+under the command of the will.&rdquo; We shall, also, in our future chapters,
+consider another proposition included in our first Principle; namely, that
+the checking of one habitual movement sometimes requires other slight
+movements; these latter serving as a means of expression.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"></a>
+CHAPTER II.<br/>GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION&mdash;<i>continued</i>.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The Principle of Antithesis&mdash;Instances in the dog and cat&mdash;Origin
+of the principle&mdash;Conventional signs&mdash;The principle of
+antithesis has not arisen from opposite actions being consciously
+performed under opposite impulses.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+We will now consider our second Principle, that of Antithesis. Certain
+states of the mind lead, as we have seen in the last chapter, to certain
+habitual movements which were primarily, or may still be, of service; and
+we shall find that when a directly opposite state of mind is induced,
+there is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements
+of a directly opposite nature, though these have never been of any
+service. A few striking instances of antithesis will be given, when we
+treat of the special expressions of man; but as, in these cases, we are
+particularly liable to confound conventional or artificial gestures and
+expressions with those which are innate or universal, and which alone
+deserve to rank as true expressions, I will in the present chapter almost
+confine myself to the lower animals.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig5.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind.  Fig. 5 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig6.jpg" width="100%" alt="  Fig. 6 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig7.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Dog in a Hostile Frame of Mind.  Fig. 7 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+When a dog approaches a strange dog or man in a savage or hostile frame of
+mind be walks upright and very stiffly; his head is slightly raised, or
+not much lowered; the tail is held erect, and quite rigid; the hairs
+bristle, especially along the neck and back; the pricked ears are directed
+forwards, and the eyes have a fixed stare: (see figs. 5 and 7). These
+actions, as will hereafter be explained, follow from the dog&rsquo;s intention
+to attack his enemy, and are thus to a large extent intelligible. As he
+prepares to spring with a savage growl on his enemy, the canine teeth are
+uncovered, and the ears are pressed close backwards on the head; but with
+these latter actions, we are not here concerned. Let us now suppose that
+the dog suddenly discovers that the man he is approaching, is not a
+stranger, but his master; and let it be observed how completely and
+instantaneously his whole bearing is reversed. Instead of walking upright,
+the body sinks downwards or even crouches, and is thrown into flexuous
+movements; his tail, instead of being held stiff and upright, is lowered
+and wagged from side to side; his hair instantly becomes smooth; his ears
+are depressed and drawn backwards, but not closely to the head; and his
+lips hang loosely. From the drawing back of the ears, the eyelids become
+elongated, and the eyes no longer appear round and staring. It should be
+added that the animal is at such times in an excited condition from joy;
+and nerve-force will be generated in excess, which naturally leads to
+action of some kind. Not one of the above movements, so clearly expressive
+of affection, are of the least direct service to the animal. They are
+explicable, as far as I can see, solely from being in complete opposition
+or antithesis to the attitude and movements which, from intelligible
+causes, are assumed when a dog intends to fight, and which consequently
+are expressive of anger. I request the reader to look at the four
+accompanying sketches, which have been given in order to recall vividly
+the appearance of a dog under these two states of mind. It is, however,
+not a little difficult to represent affection in a dog, whilst caressing
+his master and wagging his tail, as the essence of the expression lies in
+the continuous flexuous movements.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig8.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Dog Carressing his Master.  Fig. 8 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+We will now turn to the cat. When this animal is threatened by a dog, it
+arches its back in a surprising manner, erects its hair, opens its mouth
+and spits. But we are not here concerned with this well-known attitude,
+expressive of terror combined with anger; we are concerned only with that
+of rage or anger. This is not often seen, but may be observed when two
+cats are fighting together; and I have seen it well exhibited by a savage
+cat whilst plagued by a boy. The attitude is almost exactly the same as
+that of a tiger disturbed and growling over its food, which every one must
+have beheld in menageries. The animal assumes a crouching position, with
+the body extended; and the whole tail, or the tip alone, is lashed or
+curled from side to side. The hair is not in the least erect. Thus far,
+the attitude and movements are nearly the same as when the animal is
+prepared to spring on its prey, and when, no doubt, it feels savage. But
+when preparing to fight, there is this difference, that the ears are
+closely pressed backwards; the mouth is partially opened, showing the
+teeth; the fore feet are occasionally struck out with protruded claws; and
+the animal occasionally utters a fierce growl. (See figs. 9 and 10.) All,
+or almost all these actions naturally follow (as hereafter to be
+explained), from the cat&rsquo;s manner and intention of attacking its enemy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig9.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Cat, Savage, and Prepared to Fight. Fig. 9 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig10.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Cat in an Affectionate Frame of Mind. Fig. 10 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Let us now look at a cat in a directly opposite frame of mind, whilst
+feeling affectionate and caressing her master; and mark how opposite is
+her attitude in every respect. She now stands upright with her back
+slightly arched, which makes the hair appear rather rough, but it does not
+bristle; her tail, instead of being extended and lashed from side to side,
+is held quite still and perpendicularly upwards; her ears are erect and
+pointed; her mouth is closed; and she rubs against her master with a purr
+instead of a growl. Let it further be observed how widely different is the
+whole bearing of an affectionate cat from that of a dog, when with his
+body crouching and flexuous, his tail lowered and wagging, and ears
+depressed, he caresses his master. This contrast in the attitudes and
+movements of these two carnivorous animals, under the same pleased and
+affectionate frame of mind, can be explained, as it appears to me, solely
+by their movements standing in complete antithesis to those which are
+naturally assumed, when these animals feel savage and are prepared either
+to fight or to seize their prey.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In these cases of the dog and cat, there is every reason to believe that
+the gestures both of hostility and affection are innate or inherited; for
+they are almost identically the same in the different races of the
+species, and in all the individuals of the same race, both young and old.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I will here give one other instance of antithesis in expression. I
+formerly possessed a large dog, who, like every other dog, was much
+pleased to go out walking. He showed his pleasure by trotting gravely
+before me with high steps, head much raised, moderately erected ears, and
+tail carried aloft but not stiffly. Not far from my house a path branches
+off to the right, leading to the hot-house, which I used often to visit
+for a few moments, to look at my experimental plants. This was always a
+great disappointment to the dog, as he did not know whether I should
+continue my walk; and the instantaneous and complete change of expression
+which came over him as soon as my body swerved in the least towards the
+path (and I sometimes tried this as an experiment) was laughable. His look
+of dejection was known to every member of the family, and was called his
+<i>hot-house face</i>. This consisted in the head drooping much, the whole
+body sinking a little and remaining motionless; the ears and tail falling
+suddenly down, but the tail was by no means wagged. With the falling of
+the ears and of his great chaps, the eyes became much changed in
+appearance, and I fancied that they looked less bright. His aspect was
+that of piteous, hopeless dejection; and it was, as I have said,
+laughable, as the cause was so slight. Every detail in his attitude was in
+complete opposition to his former joyful yet dignified bearing; and can be
+explained, as it appears to me, in no other way, except through the
+principle of antithesis. Had not the change been so instantaneous, I
+should have attributed it to his lowered spirits affecting, as in the case
+of man, the nervous system and circulation, and consequently the tone of
+his whole muscular frame; and this may have been in part the cause.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+We will now consider how the principle of antithesis in expression has
+arisen. With social animals, the power of intercommunication between the
+members of the same community,&mdash;and with other species, between the
+opposite sexes, as well as between the young and the old,&mdash;is of the
+highest importance to them. This is generally effected by means of the
+voice, but it is certain that gestures and expressions are to a certain
+extent mutually intelligible. Man not only uses inarticulate cries,
+gestures, and expressions, but has invented articulate language; if,
+indeed, the word INVENTED can be applied to a process, completed by
+innumerable steps, half-consciously made. Any one who has watched monkeys
+will not doubt that they perfectly understand each other&rsquo;s gestures and
+expression, and to a large extent, as Rengger asserts,<a
+href="#linknote-201" name="linknoteref-201" id="linknoteref-201">[201]</a>
+those of man. An animal when going to attack another, or when afraid of
+another, often makes itself appear terrible, by erecting its hair, thus
+increasing the apparent bulk of its body, by showing its teeth, or
+brandishing its horns, or by uttering fierce sounds.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the power of intercommunication is certainly of high service to many
+animals, there is no <i>à priori</i> improbability in the supposition,
+that gestures manifestly of an opposite nature to those by which certain
+feelings are already expressed, should at first have been voluntarily
+employed under the influence of an opposite state of feeling. The fact of
+the gestures being now innate, would be no valid objection to the belief
+that they were at first intentional; for if practised during many
+generations, they would probably at last be inherited. Nevertheless it is
+more than doubtful, as we shall immediately see, whether any of the cases
+which come under our present head of antithesis, have thus originated.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With conventional signs which are not innate, such as those used by the
+deaf and dumb and by savages, the principle of opposition or antithesis
+has been partially brought into play. The Cistercian monks thought it
+sinful to speak, and as they could not avoid holding some communication,
+they invented a gesture language, in which the principle of opposition
+seems to have been employed.<a href="#linknote-202" name="linknoteref-202"
+id="linknoteref-202">[202]</a> Dr. Scott, of the Exeter Deaf and Dumb
+Institution, writes to me that &ldquo;opposites are greatly used in teaching the
+deaf and dumb, who have a lively sense of them.&rdquo; Nevertheless I have been
+surprised how few unequivocal instances can be adduced. This depends
+partly on all the signs having commonly had some natural origin; and
+partly on the practice of the deaf and dumb and of savages to contract
+their signs as much as possible for the sake of rapidity.<a
+href="#linknote-203" name="linknoteref-203" id="linknoteref-203">[203]</a>
+Hence their natural source or origin often becomes doubtful or is
+completely lost; as is likewise the case with articulate language.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many signs, moreover, which plainly stand in opposition to each other,
+appear to have had on both sides a significant origin. This seems to hold
+good with the signs used by the deal and dumb for light and darkness, for
+strength and weakness, &amp;c. In a future chapter I shall endeavour to
+show that the opposite gestures of affirmation and negation, namely,
+vertically nodding and laterally shaking the head, have both probably had
+a natural beginning. The waving of the hand from right to left, which is
+used as a negative by some savages, may have been invented in imitation of
+shaking the head; but whether the opposite movement of waving the hand in
+a straight line from the face, which is used in affirmation, has arisen
+through antithesis or in some quite distinct manner, is doubtful.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+If we now turn to the gestures which are innate or common to all the
+individuals of the same species, and which come under the present head of
+antithesis, it is extremely doubtful, whether any of them were at first
+deliberately invented and consciously performed. With mankind the best
+instance of a gesture standing in direct opposition to other movements,
+naturally assumed under an opposite frame of mind, is that of shrugging
+the shoulders. This expresses impotence or an apology,&mdash;something
+which cannot be done, or cannot be avoided. The gesture is sometimes used
+consciously and voluntarily, but it is extremely improbable that it was at
+first deliberately invented, and afterwards fixed by habit; for not only
+do young children sometimes shrug their shoulders under the above states
+of mind, but the movement is accompanied, as will be shown in a future
+chapter, by various subordinate movements, which not one man in a thousand
+is aware of, unless he has specially attended to the subject.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dogs when approaching a strange dog, may find it useful to show by their
+movements that they are friendly, and do not wish to fight. When two young
+dogs in play are growling and biting each other&rsquo;s faces and legs, it is
+obvious that they mutually understand each other&rsquo;s gestures and manners.
+There seems, indeed, some degree of instinctive knowledge in puppies and
+kittens, that they must not use their sharp little teeth or claws too
+freely in their play, though this sometimes happens and a squeal is the
+result; otherwise they would often injure each other&rsquo;s eyes. When my
+terrier bites my hand in play, often snarling at the same time, if he
+bites too hard and I say GENTLY, GENTLY, he goes on biting, but answers me
+by a few wags of the tail, which seems to say &ldquo;Never mind, it is all fun.&rdquo;
+Although dogs do thus express, and may wish to express, to other dogs and
+to man, that they are in a friendly state of mind, it is incredible that
+they could ever have deliberately thought of drawing back and depressing
+their ears, instead of holding them erect,&mdash;of lowering and wagging
+their tails, instead of keeping them stiff and upright, &amp;c., because
+they knew that these movements stood in direct opposition to those assumed
+under an opposite and savage frame of mind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Again, when a cat, or rather when some early progenitor of the species,
+from feeling affectionate first slightly arched its back, held its tail
+perpendicularly upwards and pricked its ears, can it be believed that the
+animal consciously wished thus to show that its frame of mind was directly
+the reverse of that, when from being ready to fight or to spring on its
+prey, it assumed a crouching attitude, curled its tail from side to side
+and depressed its ears? Even still less can I believe that my dog
+voluntarily put on his dejected attitude and &ldquo;<i>hot-house face</i>,&rdquo;
+which formed so complete a contrast to his previous cheerful attitude and
+whole bearing. It cannot be supposed that he knew that I should understand
+his expression, and that he could thus soften my heart and make me give up
+visiting the hot-house.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Hence for the development of the movements which come under the present
+head, some other principle, distinct from the will and consciousness, must
+have intervened. This principle appears to be that every movement which we
+have voluntarily performed throughout our lives has required the action of
+certain muscles; and when we have performed a directly opposite movement,
+an opposite set of muscles has been habitually brought into play,&mdash;as
+in turning to the right or to the left, in pushing away or pulling an
+object towards us, and in lifting or lowering a weight. So strongly are
+our intentions and movements associated together, that if we eagerly wish
+an object to move in any direction, we can hardly avoid moving our bodies
+in the same direction, although we may be perfectly aware that this can
+have no influence. A good illustration of this fact has already been given
+in the Introduction, namely, in the grotesque movements of a young and
+eager billiard-player, whilst watching the course of his ball. A man or
+child in a passion, if he tells any one in a loud voice to begone,
+generally moves his arm as if to push him away, although the offender may
+not be standing near, and although there may be not the least need to
+explain by a gesture what is meant. On the other hand, if we eagerly
+desire some one to approach us closely, we act as if pulling him towards
+us; and so in innumerable other instances.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the performance of ordinary movements of an opposite kind, under
+opposite impulses of the will, has become habitual in us and in the lower
+animals, so when actions of one kind have become firmly associated with
+any sensation or emotion, it appears natural that actions of a directly
+opposite kind, though of no use, should be unconsciously performed through
+habit and association, under the influence of a directly opposite
+sensation or emotion. On this principle alone can I understand how the
+gestures and expressions which come under the present head of antithesis
+have originated. If indeed they are serviceable to man or to any other
+animal, in aid of inarticulate cries or language, they will likewise be
+voluntarily employed, and the habit will thus be strengthened. But whether
+or not of service as a means of communication, the tendency to perform
+opposite movements under opposite sensations or emotions would, if we may
+judge by analogy, become hereditary through long practice; and there
+cannot be a doubt that several expressive movements due to the principle
+of antithesis are inherited.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"></a>
+CHAPTER III.<br/>GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION&mdash;<i>concluded</i>.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The principle of direct action of the excited nervous system on the body,
+independently of the will and in part of habit&mdash;Change of colour in
+the hair&mdash;Trembling of the muscles&mdash;Modified secretions&mdash;Perspiration&mdash;Expression
+of extreme pain&mdash;Of rage, great joy, and terror&mdash;Contrast
+between the emotions which cause and do not cause expressive movements&mdash;Exciting
+and depressing states of the mind&mdash;Summary.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+We now come to our third Principle, namely, that certain actions which we
+recognize as expressive of certain states of the mind, are the direct
+result of the constitution of the nervous system, and have been from the
+first independent of the will, and, to a large extent, of habit. When the
+sensorium is strongly excited nerve-force is generated in excess, and is
+transmitted in certain directions, dependent on the connection of the
+nerve-cells, and, as far as the muscular system is concerned, on the
+nature of the movements which have been habitually practised. Or the
+supply of nerve-force may, as it appears, be interrupted. Of course every
+movement which we make is determined by the constitution of the nervous
+system; but actions performed in obedience to the will, or through habit,
+or through the principle of antithesis, are here as far as possible
+excluded. Our present subject is very obscure, but, from its importance,
+must be discussed at some little length; and it is always advisable to
+perceive clearly our ignorance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The most striking case, though a rare and abnormal one, which can be
+adduced of the direct influence of the nervous system, when strongly
+affected, on the body, is the loss of colour in the hair, which has
+occasionally been observed after extreme terror or grief. One authentic
+instance has been recorded, in the case of a man brought out for execution
+in India, in which the change of colour was so rapid that it was
+perceptible to the eye.<a href="#linknote-301" name="linknoteref-301"
+id="linknoteref-301">[301]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another good case is that of the trembling of the muscles, which is common
+to man and to many, or most, of the lower animals. Trembling is of no
+service, often of much disservice, and cannot have been at first acquired
+through the will, and then rendered habitual in association with any
+emotion. I am assured by an eminent authority that young children do not
+tremble, but go into convulsions under the circumstances which would
+induce excessive trembling in adults. Trembling is excited in different
+individuals in very different degrees and by the most diversified causes,&mdash;by
+cold to the surface, before fever-fits, although the temperature of the
+body is then above the normal standard; in blood-poisoning, delirium
+tremens, and other diseases; by general failure of power in old age; by
+exhaustion after excessive fatigue; locally from severe injuries, such as
+burns; and, in an especial manner, by the passage of a catheter. Of all
+emotions, fear notoriously is the most apt to induce trembling; but so do
+occasionally great anger and joy. I remember once seeing a boy who had
+just shot his first snipe on the wing, and his hands trembled to such a
+degree from delight, that he could not for some time reload his gun; and I
+have heard of an exactly similar case with an Australian savage, to whom a
+gun had been lent. Fine music, from the vague emotions thus excited,
+causes a shiver to run down the backs of some persons. There seems to be
+very little in common in the above several physical causes and emotions to
+account for trembling; and Sir J. Paget, to whom I am indebted for several
+of the above statements, informs me that the subject is a very obscure
+one. As trembling is sometimes caused by rage, long before exhaustion can
+have set in, and as it sometimes accompanies great joy, it would appear
+that any strong excitement of the nervous system interrupts the steady
+flow of nerve-force to the muscles.<a href="#linknote-302"
+name="linknoteref-302" id="linknoteref-302">[302]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The manner in which the secretions of the alimentary canal and of certain
+glands&mdash;as the liver, kidneys, or mammæ are affected by strong
+emotions, is another excellent instance of the direct action of the
+sensorium on these organs, independently of the will or of any serviceable
+associated habit. There is the greatest difference in different persons in
+the parts which are thus affected, and in the degree of their affection.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The heart, which goes on uninterruptedly beating night and day in so wonderful
+a manner, is extremely sensitive to external stimulants. The great
+physiologist, Claude Bernard,<a href="#linknote-303" name="linknoteref-303"
+id="linknoteref-303">[303]</a> has shown how the least excitement of a
+sensitive nerve reacts on the heart; even when a nerve is touched so slightly
+that no pain can possibly be felt by the animal under experiment. Hence when
+the mind is strongly excited, we might expect that it would instantly affect in
+a direct manner the heart; and this is universally acknowledged and felt to be
+the case. Claude Bernard also repeatedly insists, and this deserves especial
+notice, that when the heart is affected it reacts on the brain; and the state
+of the brain again reacts through the pneumo-gastric nerve on the heart; so
+that under any excitement there will be much mutual action and reaction between
+these, the two most important organs of the body.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The vaso-motor system, which regulates the diameter of the small arteries,
+is directly acted on by the sensorium, as we see when a man blushes from
+shame; but in this latter case the checked transmission of nerve-force to
+the vessels of the face can, I think, be partly explained in a curious
+manner through habit. We shall also be able to throw some light, though
+very little, on the involuntary erection of the hair under the emotions of
+terror and rage. The secretion of tears depends, no doubt, on the
+connection of certain nerve-cells; but here again we can trace some few of
+the steps by which the flow of nerve-force through the requisite channels
+has become habitual under certain emotions.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+A brief consideration of the outward signs of some of the stronger
+sensations and emotions will best serve to show us, although vaguely, in
+how complex a manner the principle under consideration of the direct
+action of the excited nervous system of the body, is combined with the
+principle of habitually associated, serviceable movements.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When animals suffer from an agony of pain, they generally writhe about
+with frightful contortions; and those which habitually use their voices
+utter piercing cries or groans. Almost every muscle of the body is brought
+into strong action. With man the mouth may be closely compressed, or more
+commonly the lips are retracted, with the teeth clenched or ground
+together. There is said to be &ldquo;gnashing of teeth&rdquo; in hell; and I have
+plainly heard the grinding of the molar teeth of a cow which was suffering
+acutely from inflammation of the bowels. The female hippopotamus in the
+Zoological Gardens, when she produced her young, suffered greatly; she
+incessantly walked about, or rolled on her sides, opening and closing her
+jaws, and clattering her teeth together.<a href="#linknote-304"
+name="linknoteref-304" id="linknoteref-304">[304]</a> With man the eyes
+stare wildly as in horrified astonishment, or the brows are heavily
+contracted. Perspiration bathes the body, and drops trickle down the face.
+The circulation and respiration are much affected. Hence the nostrils are
+generally dilated and often quiver; or the breath may be held until the
+blood stagnates in the purple face. If the agony be severe and prolonged,
+these signs all change; utter prostration follows, with fainting or
+convulsions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A sensitive nerve when irritated transmits some influence to the
+nerve-cell, whence it proceeds; and this transmits its influence, first to
+the corresponding nerve-cell on the opposite side of the body, and then
+upwards and downwards along the cerebro-spinal column to other
+nerve-cells, to a greater or less extent, according to the strength of the
+excitement; so that, ultimately, the whole nervous system maybe affected.<a
+href="#linknote-305" name="linknoteref-305" id="linknoteref-305">[305]</a>
+This involuntary transmission of nerve-force may or may not be accompanied
+by consciousness. Why the irritation of a nerve-cell should generate or
+liberate nerve-force is not known; but that this is the case seems to be
+the conclusion arrived at by all the greatest physiologists, such as
+Müller, Virchow, Bernard, &amp;c.<a href="#linknote-306"
+name="linknoteref-306" id="linknoteref-306">[306]</a> As Mr. Herbert
+Spencer remarks, it may be received as an &ldquo;unquestionable truth that, at
+any moment, the existing quantity of liberated nerve-force, which in an
+inscrutable way produces in us the state we call feeling, MUST expend
+itself in some direction&mdash;MUST generate an equivalent manifestation
+of force somewhere;&rdquo; so that, when the cerebro-spinal system is highly
+excited and nerve-force is liberated in excess, it may be expended in
+intense sensations, active thought, violent movements, or increased
+activity of the glands.<a href="#linknote-307" name="linknoteref-307"
+id="linknoteref-307">[307]</a> Mr. Spencer further maintains that an
+&ldquo;overflow of nerve-force, undirected by any motive, will manifestly take
+the most habitual routes; and, if these do not suffice, will next overflow
+into the less habitual ones.&rdquo; Consequently the facial and respiratory
+muscles, which are the most used, will be apt to be first brought into
+action; then those of the upper extremities, next those of the lower, and
+finally those of the whole body.<a href="#linknote-308"
+name="linknoteref-308" id="linknoteref-308">[308]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+An emotion may be very strong, but it will have little tendency to induce
+movements of any kind, if it has not commonly led to voluntary action for
+its relief or gratification; and when movements are excited, their nature
+is, to a large extent, determined by those which have often and
+voluntarily been performed for some definite end under the same emotion.
+Great pain urges all animals, and has urged them during endless
+generations, to make the most violent and diversified efforts to escape
+from the cause of suffering. Even when a limb or other separate part of
+the body is hurt, we often see a tendency to shake it, as if to shake off
+the cause, though this may obviously be impossible. Thus a habit of
+exerting with the utmost force all the muscles will have been established,
+whenever great suffering is experienced. As the muscles of the chest and
+vocal organs are habitually used, these will be particularly liable to be
+acted on, and loud, harsh screams or cries will be uttered. But the
+advantage derived from outcries has here probably come into play in an
+important manner; for the young of most animals, when in distress or
+danger, call loudly to their parents for aid, as do the members of the
+same community for mutual aid.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another principle, namely, the internal consciousness that the power or
+capacity of the nervous system is limited, will have strengthened, though
+in a subordinate degree, the tendency to violent action under extreme
+suffering. A man cannot think deeply and exert his utmost muscular force.
+As Hippocrates long ago observed, if two pains are felt at the same time,
+the severer one dulls the other. Martyrs, in the ecstasy of their
+religious fervour have often, as it would appear, been insensible to the
+most horrid tortures. Sailors who are going to be flogged sometimes take a
+piece of lead into their mouths, in order to bite it with their utmost
+force, and thus to bear the pain. Parturient women prepare to exert their
+muscles to the utmost in order to relieve their sufferings.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We thus see that the undirected radiation of nerve-force from the
+nerve-cells which are first affected&mdash;the long-continued habit of
+attempting by struggling to escape from the cause of suffering&mdash;and
+the consciousness that voluntary muscular exertion relieves pain, have all
+probably concurred in giving a tendency to the most violent, almost
+convulsive, movements under extreme suffering; and such movements,
+including those of the vocal organs, are universally recognized as highly
+expressive of this condition.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the mere touching of a sensitive nerve reacts in a direct manner on the
+heart, severe pain will obviously react on it in like manner, but far more
+energetically. Nevertheless, even in this case, we must not overlook the
+indirect effects of habit on the heart, as we shall see when we consider
+the signs of rage.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When a man suffers from an agony of pain, the perspiration often trickles
+down his face; and I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon that he has
+frequently seen drops falling from the belly and running down the inside
+of the thighs of horses, and from the bodies of cattle, when thus
+suffering. He has observed this, when there has been no struggling which
+would account for the perspiration. The whole body of the female
+hippopotamus, before alluded to, was covered with red-coloured
+perspiration whilst giving birth to her young. So it is with extreme fear;
+the same veterinary has often seen horses sweating from this cause; as has
+Mr. Bartlett with the rhinoceros; and with man it is a well-known symptom.
+The cause of perspiration bursting forth in these cases is quite obscure;
+but it is thought by some physiologists to be connected with the failing
+power of the capillary circulation; and we know that the vasomotor system,
+which regulates the capillary circulation, is much influenced by the mind.
+With respect to the movements of certain muscles of the face under great
+suffering, as well as from other emotions, these will be best considered
+when we treat of the special expressions of man and of the lower animals.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We will now turn to the characteristic symptoms of Rage. Under this
+powerful emotion the action of the heart is much accelerated,<a
+href="#linknote-309" name="linknoteref-309" id="linknoteref-309">[309]</a>
+or it may be much disturbed. The face reddens, or it becomes purple from
+the impeded return of the blood, or may turn deadly pale. The respiration
+is laboured, the chest heaves, and the dilated nostrils quiver. The whole
+body often trembles. The voice is affected. The teeth are clenched or
+ground together, and the muscular system is commonly stimulated to
+violent, almost frantic action. But the gestures of a man in this state
+usually differ from the purposeless writhings and struggles of one
+suffering from an agony of pain; for they represent more or less plainly
+the act of striking or fighting with an enemy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All these signs of rage are probably in large part, and some of them
+appear to be wholly, due to the direct action of the excited sensorium.
+But animals of all kinds, and their progenitors before them, when attacked
+or threatened by an enemy, have exerted their utmost powers in fighting
+and in defending themselves. Unless an animal does thus act, or has the
+intention, or at least the desire, to attack its enemy, it cannot properly
+be said to be enraged. An inherited habit of muscular exertion will thus
+have been gained in association with rage; and this will directly or
+indirectly affect various organs, in nearly the same manner as does great
+bodily suffering.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The heart no doubt will likewise be affected in a direct manner; but it
+will also in all probability be affected through habit; and all the more
+so from not being under the control of the will. We know that any great
+exertion which we voluntarily make, affects the heart, through mechanical
+and other principles which need not here be considered; and it was shown
+in the first chapter that nerve-force flows readily through habitually
+used channels,&mdash;through the nerves of voluntary or involuntary
+movement, and through those of sensation. Thus even a moderate amount of
+exertion will tend to act on the heart; and on the principle of
+association, of which so many instances have been given, we may feel
+nearly sure that any sensation or emotion, as great pain or rage, which
+has habitually led to much muscular action, will immediately influence the
+flow of nerve-force to the heart, although there may not be at the time
+any muscular exertion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The heart, as I have said, will be all the more readily affected through
+habitual associations, as it is not under the control of the will. A man
+when moderately angry, or even when enraged, may command the movements of
+his body, but he cannot prevent his heart from beating rapidly. His chest
+will perhaps give a few heaves, and his nostrils just quiver, for the
+movements of respiration are only in part voluntary. In like manner those
+muscles of the face which are least obedient to the will, will sometimes
+alone betray a slight and passing emotion. The glands again are wholly
+independent of the will, and a man suffering from grief may command his
+features, but cannot always prevent the tears from coming into his eyes. A
+hungry man, if tempting food is placed before him, may not show his hunger
+by any outward gesture, but he cannot check the secretion of saliva.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Under a transport of Joy or of vivid Pleasure, there is a strong tendency
+to various purposeless movements, and to the utterance of various sounds.
+We see this in our young children, in their loud laughter, clapping of
+hands, and jumping for joy; in the bounding and barking of a dog when
+going out to walk with his master; and in the frisking of a horse when
+turned out into an open field. Joy quickens the circulation, and this
+stimulates the brain, which again reacts on the whole body. The above
+purposeless movements and increased heart-action may be attributed in
+chief part to the excited state of the sensorium,<a href="#linknote-310"
+name="linknoteref-310" id="linknoteref-310">[310]</a> and to the
+consequent undirected overflow, as Mr. Herbert Spencer insists, of
+nerve-force. It deserves notice, that it is chiefly the anticipation of a
+pleasure, and not its actual enjoyment, which leads to purposeless and
+extravagant movements of the body, and to the utterance of various sounds.
+We see this in our children when they expect any great pleasure or treat;
+and dogs, which have been bounding about at the sight of a plate of food,
+when they get it do not show their delight by any outward sign, not even
+by wagging their tails. Now with animals of all kinds, the acquirement of
+almost all their pleasures, with the exception of those of warmth and
+rest, are associated, and have long been associated with active movements,
+as in the hunting or search for food, and in their courtship. Moreover,
+the mere exertion of the muscles after long rest or confinement is in
+itself a pleasure, as we ourselves feel, and as we see in the play of
+young animals. Therefore on this latter principle alone we might perhaps
+expect, that vivid pleasure would be apt to show itself conversely in
+muscular movements.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With all or almost all animals, even with birds, Terror causes the body to
+tremble. The skin becomes pale, sweat breaks out, and the hair bristles.
+The secretions of the alimentary canal and of the kidneys are increased,
+and they are involuntarily voided, owing to the relaxation of the
+sphincter muscles, as is known to be the case with man, and as I have seen
+with cattle, dogs, cats, and monkeys. The breathing is hurried. The heart
+beats quickly, wildly, and violently; but whether it pumps the blood more
+efficiently through the body may be doubted, for the surface seems
+bloodless and the strength of the muscles soon fails. In a frightened
+horse I have felt through the saddle the beating of the heart so plainly
+that I could have counted the beats. The mental faculties are much
+disturbed. Utter prostration soon follows, and even fainting. A terrified
+canary-bird has been seen not only to tremble and to turn white about the
+base of the bill, but to faint;<a href="#linknote-311"
+name="linknoteref-311" id="linknoteref-311">[311]</a> and I once caught a
+robin in a room, which fainted so completely, that for a time I thought it
+dead.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Most of these symptoms are probably the direct result, independently of
+habit, of the disturbed state of the sensorium; but it is doubtful whether
+they ought to be wholly thus accounted for. When an animal is alarmed it
+almost always stands motionless for a moment, in order to collect its
+senses and to ascertain the source of danger, and sometimes for the sake
+of escaping detection. But headlong flight soon follows, with no
+husbanding of the strength as in fighting, and the animal continues to fly
+as long as the danger lasts, until utter prostration, with failing
+respiration and circulation, with all the muscles quivering and profuse
+sweating, renders further flight impossible. Hence it does not seem
+improbable that the principle of associated habit may in part account for,
+or at least augment, some of the above-named characteristic symptoms of
+extreme terror.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+That the principle of associated habit has played an important part in
+causing the movements expressive of the foregoing several strong emotions
+and sensations, we may, I think, conclude from considering firstly, some
+other strong emotions which do not ordinarily require for their relief or
+gratification any voluntary movement; and secondly the contrast in nature
+between the so-called exciting and depressing states of the mind. No
+emotion is stronger than maternal love; but a mother may feel the deepest
+love for her helpless infant, and yet not show it by any outward sign; or
+only by slight caressing movements, with a gentle smile and tender eyes.
+But let any one intentionally injure her infant, and see what a change!
+how she starts up with threatening aspect, how her eyes sparkle and her
+face reddens, how her bosom heaves, nostrils dilate, and heart beats; for
+anger, and not maternal love, has habitually led to action. The love
+between the opposite sexes is widely different from maternal love; and
+when lovers meet, we know that their hearts beat quickly, their breathing
+is hurried, and their faces flush; for this love is not inactive like that
+of a mother for her infant.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A man may have his mind filled with the blackest hatred or suspicion, or
+be corroded with envy or jealousy, but as these feelings do not at once
+lead to action, and as they commonly last for some time, they are not
+shown by any outward sign, excepting that a man in this state assuredly
+does not appear cheerful or good-tempered. If indeed these feelings break
+out into overt acts, rage takes their place, and will be plainly
+exhibited. Painters can hardly portray suspicion, jealousy, envy, &amp;c.,
+except by the aid of accessories which tell the tale; and poets use such
+vague and fanciful expressions as &ldquo;green-eyed jealousy.&rdquo; Spenser describes
+suspicion as &ldquo;Foul, ill-favoured, and grim, under his eyebrows looking
+still askance,&rdquo; &amp;c.; Shakespeare speaks of envy &ldquo;as lean-faced in her
+loathsome case;&rdquo; and in another place he says, &ldquo;no black envy shall make
+my grave;&rdquo; and again as &ldquo;above pale envy&rsquo;s threatening reach.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Emotions and sensations have often been classed as exciting or depressing.
+When all the organs of the body and mind,&mdash;those of voluntary and
+involuntary movement, of perception, sensation, thought, &amp;c.,&mdash;perform
+their functions more energetically and rapidly than usual, a man or animal
+may be said to be excited, and, under an opposite state, to be depressed.
+Anger and joy are from the first exciting emotions, and they naturally
+lead, more especially the former, to energetic movements, which react on
+the heart and this again on the brain. A physician once remarked to me as
+a proof of the exciting nature of anger, that a man when excessively jaded
+will sometimes invent imaginary offences and put himself into a passion,
+unconsciously for the sake of reinvigorating himself; and since hearing
+this remark, I have occasionally recognized its full truth.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Several other states of mind appear to be at first exciting, but soon
+become depressing to an extreme degree. When a mother suddenly loses her
+child, sometimes she is frantic with grief, and must be considered to be
+in an excited state; she walks wildly about, tears her hair or clothes,
+and wrings her hands. This latter action is perhaps due to the principle
+of antithesis, betraying an inward sense of helplessness and that nothing
+can be done. The other wild and violent movements may be in part explained
+by the relief experienced through muscular exertion, and in part by the
+undirected overflow of nerve-force from the excited sensorium. But under
+the sudden loss of a beloved person, one of the first and commonest
+thoughts which occurs, is that something more might have been done to save
+the lost one. An excellent observer,<a href="#linknote-312"
+name="linknoteref-312" id="linknoteref-312">[312]</a> in describing the
+behaviour of a girl at the sudden death of her father, says she &ldquo;went
+about the house wringing her hands like a creature demented, saying &lsquo;It
+was her fault;&rsquo; &lsquo;I should never have left him;&rsquo; &lsquo;If I had only sat up with
+him,&rsquo;&rdquo; &amp;c. With such ideas vividly present before the mind, there
+would arise, through the principle of associated habit, the strongest
+tendency to energetic action of some kind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As soon as the sufferer is fully conscious that nothing can be done, despair or
+deep sorrow takes the place of frantic grief. The sufferer sits motionless, or
+gently rocks to and fro; the circulation becomes languid; respiration is almost
+forgotten, and deep sighs are drawn. All this reacts on the brain, and
+prostration soon follows with collapsed muscles and dulled eyes. As associated
+habit no longer prompts the sufferer to action, he is urged by his friends to
+voluntary exertion, and not to give way to silent, motionless grief. Exertion
+stimulates the hear, and this reacts on the brain, and aids the mind to bear
+its heavy load. 
+
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Pain, if severe, soon induces extreme depression or prostration; but it is
+at first a stimulant and excites to action, as we see when we whip a
+horse, and as is shown by the horrid tortures inflicted in foreign lands
+on exhausted dray-bullocks, to rouse them to renewed exertion. Fear again
+is the most depressing of all the emotions; and it soon induces utter,
+helpless prostration, as if in consequence of, or in association with, the
+most violent and prolonged attempts to escape from the danger, though no
+such attempts have actually been made. Nevertheless, even extreme fear
+often acts at first as a powerful stimulant. A man or animal driven
+through terror to desperation, is endowed with wonderful strength, and is
+notoriously dangerous in the highest degree.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+On the whole we may conclude that the principle of the direct action of
+the sensorium on the body, due to the constitution of the nervous system,
+and from the first independent of the will, has been highly influential in
+determining many expressions. Good instances are afforded by the trembling
+of the muscles, the sweating of the skin, the modified secretions of the
+alimentary canal and glands, under various emotions and sensations. But
+actions of this kind are often combined with others, which follow from our
+first principle, namely, that actions which have often been of direct or
+indirect service, under certain states of the mind, in order to gratify or
+relieve certain sensations, desires, &amp;c., are still performed under
+analogous circumstances through mere habit although of no service. We have
+combinations of this kind, at least in part, in the frantic gestures of
+rage and in the writhings of extreme pain; and, perhaps, in the increased
+action of the heart and of the respiratory organs. Even when these and
+other emotions or sensations are aroused in a very feeble manner, there
+will still be a tendency to similar actions, owing to the force of
+long-associated habit; and those actions which are least under voluntary
+control will generally be longest retained. Our second principle of
+antithesis has likewise occasionally come into play.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Finally, so many expressive movements can be explained, as I trust will be
+seen in the course of this volume, through the three principles which have
+now been discussed, that we may hope hereafter to see all thus explained,
+or by closely analogous principles. It is, however, often impossible to
+decide how much weight ought to be attributed, in each particular case, to
+one of our principles, and how much to another; and very many points in
+the theory of Expression remain inexplicable.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"></a>
+CHAPTER IV.<br/>MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN ANIMALS.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The emission of Sounds&mdash;Vocal sounds&mdash;Sounds otherwise produced&mdash;Erection
+of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &amp;c., under the emotions of
+anger and terror&mdash;The drawing back of the ears as a preparation for
+fighting, and as an expression of anger&mdash;Erection of the ears and
+raising the head, a sign of attention.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+In this and the following chapter I will describe, but only in sufficient
+detail to illustrate my subject, the expressive movements, under different
+states of the mind, of some few well-known animals. But before considering
+them in due succession, it will save much useless repetition to discuss
+certain means of expression common to most of them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>The emission of Sounds</i>.&mdash;With many kinds of animals, man
+included, the vocal organs are efficient in the highest degree as a means
+of expression. We have seen, in the last chapter, that when the sensorium
+is strongly excited, the muscles of the body are generally thrown into
+violent action; and as a consequence, loud sounds are uttered, however
+silent the animal may generally be, and although the sounds may be of no
+use. Hares and rabbits for instance, never, I believe, use their vocal
+organs except in the extremity of suffering; as, when a wounded hare is
+killed by the sportsman, or when a young rabbit is caught by a stoat.
+Cattle and horses suffer great pain in silence; but when this is
+excessive, and especially when associated with terror, they utter fearful
+sounds. I have often recognized, from a distance on the Pampas, the
+agonized death-bellow of the cattle, when caught by the lasso and
+hamstrung. It is said that horses, when attacked by wolves, utter loud and
+peculiar screams of distress.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Involuntary and purposeless contractions of the muscles of the chest and
+glottis, excited in the above manner, may have first given rise to the
+emission of vocal sounds. But the voice is now largely used by many
+animals for various purposes; and habit seems to have played an important
+part in its employment under other circumstances. Naturalists have
+remarked, I believe with truth, that social animals, from habitually using
+their vocal organs as a means of intercommunication, use them on other
+occasions much more freely than other animals. But there are marked
+exceptions to this rule, for instance, with the rabbit. The principle,
+also, of association, which is so widely extended in its power, has
+likewise played its part. Hence it follows that the voice, from having
+been habitually employed as a serviceable aid under certain conditions,
+inducing pleasure, pain, rage, &amp;c., is commonly used whenever the same
+sensations or emotions are excited, under quite different conditions, or
+in a lesser degree.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The sexes of many animals incessantly call for each other during the
+breeding-season; and in not a few cases, the male endeavours thus to charm
+or excite the female. This, indeed, seems to have been the primeval use
+and means of development of the voice, as I have attempted to show in my
+&lsquo;Descent of Man.&rsquo; Thus the use of the vocal organs will have become
+associated with the anticipation of the strongest pleasure which animals
+are capable of feeling. Animals which live in society often call to each
+other when separated, and evidently feel much joy at meeting; as we see
+with a horse, on the return of his companion, for whom he has been
+neighing. The mother calls incessantly for her lost young ones; for
+instance, a cow for her calf; and the young of many animals call for their
+mothers. When a flock of sheep is scattered, the ewes bleat incessantly
+for their lambs, and their mutual pleasure at coming together is manifest.
+Woe betide the man who meddles with the young of the larger and fiercer
+quadrupeds, if they hear the cry of distress from their young. Rage leads
+to the violent exertion of all the muscles, including those of the voice;
+and some animals, when enraged, endeavour to strike terror into their
+enemies by its power and harshness, as the lion does by roaring, and the
+dog by growling. I infer that their object is to strike terror, because
+the lion at the same time erects the hair of its mane, and the dog the
+hair along its back, and thus they make themselves appear as large and
+terrible as possible. Rival males try to excel and challenge each other by
+their voices, and this leads to deadly contests. Thus the use of the voice
+will have become associated with the emotion of anger, however it may be
+aroused. We have also seen that intense pain, like rage, leads to violent
+outcries, and the exertion of screaming by itself gives some relief; and
+thus the use of the voice will have become associated with suffering of
+any kind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The cause of widely different sounds being uttered under different
+emotions and sensations is a very obscure subject. Nor does the rule
+always hold good that there is any marked difference. For instance with
+the dog, the bark of anger and that of joy do not differ much, though they
+can be distinguished. It is not probable that any precise explanation of
+the cause or source of each particular sound, under different states of
+the mind, will ever be given. We know that some animals, after being
+domesticated, have acquired the habit of uttering sounds which were not
+natural to them.<a href="#linknote-401" name="linknoteref-401"
+id="linknoteref-401">[401]</a> Thus domestic dogs, and even tamed jackals,
+have learnt to bark, which is a noise not proper to any species of the
+genus, with the exception of the <i>Canis latrans</i> of North America,
+which is said to bark. Some breeds, also, of the domestic pigeon have
+learnt to coo in a new and quite peculiar manner.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The character of the human voice, under the influence of various emotions,
+has been discussed by Mr. Herbert Spencer<a href="#linknote-402"
+name="linknoteref-402" id="linknoteref-402">[402]</a> in his interesting
+essay on Music. He clearly shows that the voice alters much under
+different conditions, in loudness and in quality, that is, in resonance
+and <i>timbre</i>, in pitch and intervals. No one can listen to an
+eloquent orator or preacher, or to a man calling angrily to another, or to
+one expressing astonishment, without being struck with the truth of Mr.
+Spencer&rsquo;s remarks. It is curious how early in life the modulation of the
+voice becomes expressive. With one of my children, under the age of two
+years, I clearly perceived that his humph of assent was rendered by a
+slight modulation strongly emphatic; and that by a peculiar whine his
+negative expressed obstinate determination. Mr. Spencer further shows that
+emotional speech, in all the above respects is intimately related to vocal
+music, and consequently to instrumental music; and he attempts to explain
+the characteristic qualities of both on physiological grounds&mdash;namely,
+on &ldquo;the general law that a feeling is a stimulus to muscular action.&rdquo; It
+may be admitted that the voice is affected through this law; but the
+explanation appears to me too general and vague to throw much light on the
+various differences, with the exception of that of loudness, between
+ordinary speech and emotional speech, or singing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This remark holds good, whether we believe that the various qualities of
+the voice originated in speaking under the excitement of strong feelings,
+and that these qualities have subsequently been transferred to vocal
+music; or whether we believe, as I maintain, that the habit of uttering
+musical sounds was first developed, as a means of courtship, in the early
+progenitors of man, and thus became associated with the strongest emotions
+of which they were capable,&mdash;namely, ardent love, rivalry and
+triumph. That animals utter musical notes is familiar to every one, as we
+may daily hear in the singing of birds. It is a more remarkable fact that
+an ape, one of the Gibbons, produces an exact octave of musical sounds,
+ascending and descending the scale by halftones; so that this monkey
+&ldquo;alone of brute mammals may be said to sing.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-403"
+name="linknoteref-403" id="linknoteref-403">[403]</a> From this fact, and
+from the analogy of other animals, I have been led to infer that the
+progenitors of man probably uttered musical tones, before they had
+acquired the power of articulate speech; and that consequently, when the
+voice is used under any strong emotion, it tends to assume, through the
+principle of association, a musical character. We can plainly perceive,
+with some of the lower animals, that the males employ their voices to
+please the females, and that they themselves take pleasure in their own
+vocal utterances; but why particular sounds are uttered, and why these
+give pleasure cannot at present be explained.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+That the pitch of the voice bears some relation to certain states of
+feeling is tolerably clear. A person gently complaining of ill-treatment,
+or slightly suffering, almost always speaks in a high-pitched voice. Dogs,
+when a little impatient, often make a high piping note through their
+noses, which at once strikes us as plaintive;<a href="#linknote-404"
+name="linknoteref-404" id="linknoteref-404">[404]</a> but how difficult it
+is to know whether the sound is essentially plaintive, or only appears so
+in this particular case, from our having learnt by experience what it
+means! Rengger, states<a href="#linknote-405" name="linknoteref-405"
+id="linknoteref-405">[405]</a> that the monkeys (<i>Cebus azaræ</i>),
+which he kept in Paraguay, expressed astonishment by a half-piping,
+half-snarling noise; anger or impatience, by repeating the sound <i>hu hu</i>
+in a deeper, grunting voice; and fright or pain, by shrill screams. On the
+other hand, with mankind, deep groans and high piercing screams equally
+express an agony of pain. Laughter maybe either high or low; so that, with
+adult men, as Haller long ago remarked,<a href="#linknote-406"
+name="linknoteref-406" id="linknoteref-406">[406]</a> the sound partakes
+of the character of the vowels (as pronounced in German) <i>O</i> and <i>A</i>;
+whilst with children and women, it has more of the character of <i>E</i>
+and <i>I</i>; and these latter vowel-sounds naturally have, as Helmholtz
+has shown, a higher pitch than the former; yet both tones of laughter
+equally express enjoyment or amusement.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In considering the mode in which vocal utterances express emotion, we are
+naturally led to inquire into the cause of what is called &ldquo;expression&rdquo; in
+music. Upon this point Mr. Litchfield, who has long attended to the
+subject of music, has been so kind as to give me the following remarks:&mdash;&ldquo;The
+question, what is the essence of musical &lsquo;expression&rsquo; involves a number of
+obscure points, which, so far as I am aware, are as yet unsolved enigmas.
+Up to a certain point, however, any law which is found to hold as to the
+expression of the emotions by simple sounds must apply to the more
+developed mode of expression in song, which may be taken as the primary
+type of all music. A great part of the emotional effect of a song depends
+on the character of the action by which the sounds are produced. In songs,
+for instance, which express great vehemence of passion, the effect often
+chiefly depends on the forcible utterance of some one or two
+characteristic passages which demand great exertion of vocal force; and it
+will be frequently noticed that a song of this character fails of its
+proper effect when sung by a voice of sufficient power and range to give
+the characteristic passages without much exertion. This is, no doubt, the
+secret of the loss of effect so often produced by the transposition of a
+song from one key to another. The effect is thus seen to depend not merely
+on the actual sounds, but also in part on the nature of the action which
+produces the sounds. Indeed it is obvious that whenever we feel the
+&lsquo;expression&rsquo; of a song to be due to its quickness or slowness of movement&mdash;to
+smoothness of flow, loudness of utterance, and so on&mdash;we are, in
+fact, interpreting the muscular actions which produce sound, in the same
+way in which we interpret muscular action generally. But this leaves
+unexplained the more subtle and more specific effect which we call the
+<i>musical</i> expression of the song&mdash;the delight given by its melody, or
+even by the separate sounds which make up the melody. This is an effect
+indefinable in language&mdash;one which, so far as I am aware, no one has
+been able to analyse, and which the ingenious speculation of Mr. Herbert
+Spencer as to the origin of music leaves quite unexplained. For it is
+certain that the <i>melodic</i> effect of a series of sounds does not depend in
+the least on their loudness or softness, or on their <i>absolute</i> pitch. A
+tune is always the same tune, whether it is sung loudly or softly, by a
+child or a man; whether it is played on a flute or on a trombone. The
+purely musical effect of any sound depends on its place in what is
+technically called a &lsquo;scale;&rsquo; the same sound producing absolutely
+different effects on the ear, according as it is heard in connection with
+one or another series of sounds.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+&ldquo;It is on this <i>relative</i> association of the sounds that all the essentially
+characteristic effects which are summed up in the phrase &lsquo;musical
+expression,&rsquo; depend. But why certain associations of sounds have
+such-and-such effects, is a problem which yet remains to be solved. These
+effects must indeed, in some way or other, be connected with the
+well-known arithmetical relations between the rates of vibration of the
+sounds which form a musical scale. And it is possible&mdash;but this is
+merely a suggestion&mdash;that the greater or less mechanical facility
+with which the vibrating apparatus of the human larynx passes from one
+state of vibration to another, may have been a primary cause of the
+greater or less pleasure produced by various sequences of sounds.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But leaving aside these complex questions and confining ourselves to the
+simpler sounds, we can, at least, see some reasons for the association of
+certain kinds of sounds with certain states of mind. A scream, for
+instance, uttered by a young animal, or by one of the members of a
+community, as a call for assistance, will naturally be loud, prolonged,
+and high, so as to penetrate to a distance. For Helmholtz has shown<a
+href="#linknote-407" name="linknoteref-407" id="linknoteref-407">[407]</a>
+that, owing to the shape of the internal cavity of the human ear and its
+consequent power of resonance, high notes produce a particularly strong
+impression. When male animals utter sounds in order to please the females,
+they would naturally employ those which are sweet to the ears of the
+species; and it appears that the same sounds are often pleasing to widely
+different animals, owing to the similarity of their nervous systems, as we
+ourselves perceive in the singing of birds and even in the chirping of
+certain tree-frogs giving us pleasure. On the other hand, sounds produced
+in order to strike terror into an enemy, would naturally be harsh or
+displeasing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Whether the principle of antithesis has come into play with sounds, as
+might perhaps have been expected, is doubtful. The interrupted, laughing
+or tittering sounds made by man and by various kinds of monkeys when
+pleased, are as different as possible from the prolonged screams of these
+animals when distressed. The deep grunt of satisfaction uttered by a pig,
+when pleased with its food, is widely different from its harsh scream of
+pain or terror. But with the dog, as lately remarked, the bark of anger
+and that of joy are sounds which by no means stand in opposition to each
+other; and so it is in some other cases.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is another obscure point, namely, whether the sounds which are
+produced under various states of the mind determine the shape of the
+mouth, or whether its shape is not determined by independent causes, and
+the sound thus modified. When young infants cry they open their mouths
+widely, and this, no doubt, is necessary for pouring forth a full volume
+of sound; but the mouth then assumes, from a quite distinct cause, an
+almost quadrangular shape, depending, as will hereafter be explained, on
+the firm closing of the eyelids, and consequent drawing up of the upper
+lip. How far this square shape of the mouth modifies the wailing or crying
+sound, I am not prepared to say; but we know from the researches of
+Helmholtz and others that the form of the cavity of the mouth and lips
+determines the nature and pitch of the vowel sounds which are produced.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It will also be shown in a future chapter that, under the feeling of
+contempt or disgust, there is a tendency, from intelligible causes, to
+blow out of the mouth or nostrils, and this produces sounds like pooh or
+pish. When any one is startled or suddenly astonished, there is an
+instantaneous tendency, likewise from an intelligible cause, namely, to be
+ready for prolonged exertion, to open the mouth widely, so as to draw a
+deep and rapid inspiration. When the next full expiration follows, the
+mouth is slightly closed, and the lips, from causes hereafter to be
+discussed, are somewhat protruded; and this form of the mouth, if the
+voice be at all exerted, produces, according to Helmholtz, the sound of
+the vowel <i>O</i>. Certainly a deep sound of a prolonged <i>Oh!</i> may
+be heard from a whole crowd of people immediately after witnessing any
+astonishing spectacle. If, together with surprise, pain be felt, there is
+a tendency to contract all the muscles of the body, including those of the
+face, and the lips will then be drawn back; and this will perhaps account
+for the sound becoming higher and assuming the character of <i>Ah!</i> or
+<i>Ach!</i> As fear causes all the muscles of the body to tremble, the
+voice naturally becomes tremulous, and at the same time husky from the
+dryness of the mouth, owing to the salivary glands failing to act. Why the
+laughter of man and the tittering of monkeys should be a rapidly
+reiterated sound, cannot be explained. During the utterance of these
+sounds, the mouth is transversely elongated by the corners being drawn
+backwards and upwards; and of this fact an explanation will be attempted
+in a future chapter. But the whole subject of the differences of the
+sounds produced under different states of the mind is so obscure, that I
+have succeeded in throwing hardly any light on it; and the remarks which I
+have made, have but little significance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig11.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Sound Producing Quills from Tail of a Porcupine. Fig. 11 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+All the sounds hitherto noticed depend on the respiratory organs; but
+sounds produced by wholly different means are likewise expressive. Rabbits
+stamp loudly on the ground as a signal to their comrades; and if a man
+knows how to do so properly, he may on a quiet evening hear the rabbits
+answering him all around. These animals, as well as some others, also
+stamp on the ground when made angry. Porcupines rattle their quills and
+vibrate their tails when angered; and one behaved in this manner when a
+live snake was placed in its compartment. The quills on the
+tail are very different from those on the body: they are short, hollow,
+thin like a goose-quill, with their ends transversely truncated, so that
+they are open; they are supported on long, thin, elastic foot-stalks. Now,
+when the tail is rapidly shaken, these hollow quills strike against each
+other and produce, as I heard in the presence of Mr. Bartlett, a peculiar
+continuous sound. We can, I think, understand why porcupines have been
+provided, through the modification of their protective spines, with this
+special sound-producing instrument. They are nocturnal animals, and if
+they scented or heard a prowling beast of prey, it would be a great
+advantage to them in the dark to give warning to their enemy what they
+were, and that they were furnished with dangerous spines. They would thus
+escape being attacked. They are, as I may add, so fully conscious of the
+power of their weapons, that when enraged they will charge backwards with
+their spines erected, yet still inclined backwards.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many birds during their courtship produce diversified sounds by means of
+specially adapted feathers. Storks, when excited, make a loud clattering
+noise with their beaks. Some snakes produce a grating or rattling noise.
+Many insects stridulate by rubbing together specially modified parts of
+their hard integuments. This stridulation generally serves as a sexual
+charm or call; but it is likewise used to express different emotions.<a
+href="#linknote-408" name="linknoteref-408" id="linknoteref-408">[408]</a>
+Every one who has attended to bees knows that their humming changes when
+they are angry; and this serves as a warning that there is danger of being
+stung. I have made these few remarks because some writers have laid so
+much stress on the vocal and respiratory organs as having been specially
+adapted for expression, that it was advisable to show that sounds
+otherwise produced serve equally well for the same purpose.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Erection of the dermal appendages</i>.&mdash;Hardly any expressive
+movement is so general as the involuntary erection of the hairs, feathers
+and other dermal appendages; for it is common throughout three of the
+great vertebrate classes. These appendages are erected under the
+excitement of anger or terror; more especially when these emotions are
+combined, or quickly succeed each other. The action serves to make the
+animal appear larger and more frightful to its enemies or rivals, and is
+generally accompanied by various voluntary movements adapted for the same
+purpose, and by the utterance of savage sounds. Mr. Bartlett, who has had
+such wide experience with animals of all kinds, does not doubt that this
+is the case; but it is a different question whether the power of erection
+was primarily acquired for this special purpose.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I will first give a considerable body of facts showing how general this
+action is with mammals, birds and reptiles; retaining what I have to say
+in regard to man for a future chapter. Mr. Sutton, the intelligent keeper
+in the Zoological Gardens, carefully observed for me the Chimpanzee and
+Orang; and he states that when they are suddenly frightened, as by a
+thunderstorm, or when they are made angry, as by being teased, their hair
+becomes erect. I saw a chimpanzee who was alarmed at the sight of a black
+coalheaver, and the hair rose all over his body; he made little starts
+forward as if to attack the man, without any real intention of doing so,
+but with the hope, as the keeper remarked, of frightening him. The
+Gorilla, when enraged, is described by Mr. Ford<a href="#linknote-409"
+name="linknoteref-409" id="linknoteref-409">[409]</a> as having his crest
+of hair &ldquo;erect and projecting forward, his nostrils dilated, and his under
+lip thrown down; at the same time uttering his characteristic yell,
+designed, it would seem, to terrify his antagonists.&rdquo; I saw the hair on
+the Anubis baboon, when angered bristling along the back, from the neck to
+the loins, but not on the rump or other parts of the body. I took a
+stuffed snake into the monkey-house, and the hair on several of the
+species instantly became erect; especially on their tails, as I
+particularly noticed with the <i>Cereopithecus nictitans</i>. Brehm states<a
+href="#linknote-410" name="linknoteref-410" id="linknoteref-410">[410]</a>
+that the <i>Midas œdipus</i> (belonging to the American division) when
+excited erects its mane, in order, as he adds, to make itself as frightful
+as possible.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With the Carnivora the erection of the hair seems to be almost universal,
+often accompanied by threatening movements, the uncovering of the teeth
+and the utterance of savage growls. In the Herpestes, I have seen the hair
+on end over nearly the whole body, including the tail; and the dorsal
+crest is erected in a conspicuous manner by the Hyaena and Proteles. The
+enraged lion erects his mane. The bristling of the hair along the neck and
+back of the dog, and over the whole body of the cat, especially on the
+tail, is familiar to every one. With the cat it apparently occurs only
+under fear; with the dog, under anger and fear; but not, as far as I have
+observed, under abject fear, as when a dog is going to be flogged by a
+severe gamekeeper. If, however, the dog shows fight, as sometimes happens,
+up goes his hair. I have often noticed that the hair of a dog is
+particularly liable to rise, if he is half angry and half afraid, as on
+beholding some object only indistinctly seen in the dusk.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon that he has often seen the
+hair erected on horses and cattle, on which he had operated and was again
+going to operate. When I showed a stuffed snake to a Peccary, the hair
+rose in a wonderful manner along its back; and so it does with the boar
+when enraged. An Elk which gored a man to death in the United States, is
+described as first brandishing his antlers, squealing with rage and
+stamping on the ground; &ldquo;at length his hair was seen to rise and stand on
+end,&rdquo; and then he plunged forward to the attack.<a href="#linknote-411"
+name="linknoteref-411" id="linknoteref-411">[411]</a> The hair likewise
+becomes erect on goats, and, as I hear from Mr. Blyth, on some Indian
+antelopes. I have seen it erected on the hairy Ant-eater; and on the
+Agouti, one of the Rodents. A female Bat,<a href="#linknote-412"
+name="linknoteref-412" id="linknoteref-412">[412]</a> which reared her
+young under confinement, when any one looked into the cage &ldquo;erected the
+fur on her back, and bit viciously at intruding fingers.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Birds belonging to all the chief Orders ruffle their feathers when angry
+or frightened. Every one must have seen two cocks, even quite young birds,
+preparing to fight with erected neck-hackles; nor can these feathers when
+erected serve as a means of defence, for cock-fighters have found by
+experience that it is advantageous to trim them. The male Ruff (<i>Machetes
+pugnæ</i>) likewise erects its collar of feathers when fighting. When a
+dog approaches a common hen with her chickens, she spreads out her wings,
+raises her tail, ruffles all her feathers, and looking as ferocious as
+possible, dashes at the intruder. The tail is not always held in exactly
+the same position; it is sometimes so much erected, that the central
+feathers, as in the accompanying drawing, almost touch the back. Swans,
+when angered, likewise raise their wings and tail, and erect their
+feathers. They open their beaks, and make by paddling little rapid starts
+forwards, against any one who approaches the water&rsquo;s edge too closely.
+Tropic birds<a href="#linknote-413" name="linknoteref-413"
+id="linknoteref-413">[413]</a> when disturbed on their nests are said not
+to fly away, but &ldquo;merely to stick out their feathers and scream.&rdquo; The
+Barn-owl, when approached &ldquo;instantly swells out its plumage, extends its
+wings and tail, hisses and clacks its mandibles with force and rapidity.&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-414" name="linknoteref-414" id="linknoteref-414">[414]</a>
+So do other kinds of owls. Hawks, as I am informed by Mr. Jenner Weir,
+likewise ruffle their feathers, and spread out their wings and tail under
+similar circumstances. Some kinds of parrots erect their feathers; and I
+have seen this action in the Cassowary, when angered at the sight of an
+Ant-eater. Young cuckoos in the nest, raise their feathers, open their
+mouths widely, and make themselves as frightful as possible.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0011" id="linkimage-0011">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Hen Driving Away a Dog from Her Chickens. Fig. 12 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+{illust. caption = FIG. 12&mdash;Hen driving away a dog from her chickens.
+Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.}
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0012" id="linkimage-0012">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig13.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Swan Driving Away an Intruder. Fig 13 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+{illust. caption = FIG. 13.&mdash;Swan driving away an intruder. Drawn
+from life by Mr. Wood.}
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Small birds, also, as I hear from Mr. Weir, such as various finches,
+buntings and warblers, when angry, ruffle all their feathers, or only
+those round the neck; or they spread out their wings and tail-feathers.
+With their plumage in this state, they rush at each other with open beaks
+and threatening gestures. Mr. Weir concludes from his large experience
+that the erection of the feathers is caused much more by anger than by
+fear. He gives as an instance a hybrid goldfinch of a most irascible
+disposition, which when approached too closely by a servant, instantly
+assumes the appearance of a ball of ruffled feathers. He believes that
+birds when frightened, as a general rule, closely adpress all their
+feathers, and their consequently diminished size is often astonishing. As
+soon as they recover from their fear or surprise, the first thing which
+they do is to shake out their feathers. The best instances of this
+adpression of the feathers and apparent shrinking of the body from fear,
+which Mr. Weir has noticed, has been in the quail and grass-parrakeet.<a
+href="#linknote-415" name="linknoteref-415" id="linknoteref-415">[415]</a>
+The habit is intelligible in these birds from their being accustomed, when
+in danger, either to squat on the ground or to sit motionless on a branch,
+so as to escape detection. Though, with birds, anger may be the chief and
+commonest cause of the erection of the feathers, it is probable that young
+cuckoos when looked at in the nest, and a hen with her chickens when
+approached by a dog, feel at least some terror. Mr. Tegetmeier informs me
+that with game-cocks, the erection of the feathers on the head has long
+been recognized in the cock-pit as a sign of cowardice.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The males of some lizards, when fighting together during their courtship,
+expand their throat pouches or frills, and erect their dorsal crests.<a
+href="#linknote-416" name="linknoteref-416" id="linknoteref-416">[416]</a>
+But Dr. Günther does not believe that they can erect their separate spines
+or scales.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We thus see how generally throughout the two higher vertebrate classes,
+and with some reptiles, the dermal appendages are erected under the
+influence of anger and fear. The movement is effected, as we know from
+Kolliker&rsquo;s interesting discovery, by the contraction of minute, unstriped,
+involuntary muscles,<a href="#linknote-417" name="linknoteref-417"
+id="linknoteref-417">[417]</a> often called <i>arrectores pili</i>, which
+are attached to the capsules of the separate hairs, feathers, &amp;c. By
+the contraction of these muscles the hairs can be instantly erected, as we
+see in a dog, being at the same time drawn a little out of their sockets;
+they are afterwards quickly depressed. The vast number of these minute
+muscles over the whole body of a hairy quadruped is astonishing. The
+erection of the hair is, however, aided in some cases, as with that on the
+head of a man, by the striped and voluntary muscles of the underlying <i>panniculus
+carnosus</i>. It is by the action of these latter muscles, that the
+hedgehog erects its spines. It appears, also, from the researches of
+Leydig<a href="#linknote-418" name="linknoteref-418" id="linknoteref-418">[418]</a>
+and others, that striped fibres extend from the panniculus to some of the
+larger hairs, such as the vibrissae of certain quadrupeds. The <i>arrectores
+pili</i> contract not only under the above emotions, but from the
+application of cold to the surface. I remember that my mules and dogs,
+brought from a lower and warmer country, after spending a night on the
+bleak Cordillera, had the hair all over their bodies as erect as under the
+greatest terror. We see the same action in our own <i>goose-skin</i>
+during the chill before a fever-fit. Mr. Lister has also found,<a
+href="#linknote-419" name="linknoteref-419" id="linknoteref-419">[419]</a>
+that tickling a neighbouring part of the skin causes the erection and
+protrusion of the hairs.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From these facts it is manifest that the erection of the dermal appendages
+is a reflex action, independent of the will; and this action must be
+looked at, when, occurring under the influence of anger or fear, not as a
+power acquired for the sake of some advantage, but as an incidental
+result, at least to a large extent, of the sensorium being affected. The
+result, in as far as it is incidental, may be compared with the profuse
+sweating from an agony of pain or terror. Nevertheless, it is remarkable
+how slight an excitement often suffices to cause the hair to become erect;
+as when two dogs pretend to fight together in play. We have, also, seen in
+a large number of animals, belonging to widely distinct classes, that the
+erection of the hair or feathers is almost always accompanied by various
+voluntary movements&mdash;by threatening gestures, opening the mouth,
+uncovering the teeth, spreading out of the wings and tail by birds, and by
+the utterance of harsh sounds; and the purpose of these voluntary
+movements is unmistakable. Therefore it seems hardly credible that the
+co-ordinated erection of the dermal appendages, by which the animal is
+made to appear larger and more terrible to its enemies or rivals, should
+be altogether an incidental and purposeless result of the disturbance of
+the sensorium. This seems almost as incredible as that the erection by the
+hedgehog of its spines, or of the quills by the porcupine, or of the
+ornamental plumes by many birds during their courtship, should all be
+purposeless actions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We here encounter a great difficulty. How can the contraction of the
+unstriped and involuntary <i>arrectores pili</i> have been co-ordinated
+with that of various voluntary muscles for the same special purpose? If we
+could believe that the arrectores primordially had been voluntary muscles,
+and had since lost their stripes and become involuntary, the case would be
+comparatively simple. I am not, however, aware that there is any evidence
+in favour of this view; although the reversed transition would not have
+presented any great difficulty, as the voluntary muscles are in an
+unstriped condition in the embryos of the higher animals, and in the
+larvae of some crustaceans. Moreover in the deeper layers of the skin of
+adult birds, the muscular network is, according to Leydig,<a
+href="#linknote-420" name="linknoteref-420" id="linknoteref-420">[420]</a>
+in a transitional condition; the fibres exhibiting only indications of
+transverse striation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another explanation seems possible. We may admit that originally the <i>arrectores
+pili</i> were slightly acted on in a direct manner, under the influence of
+rage and terror, by the disturbance of the nervous system; as is
+undoubtedly the case with our so-called <i>goose-skin</i> before a
+fever-fit. Animals have been repeatedly excited by rage and terror during
+many generations; and consequently the direct effects of the disturbed
+nervous system on the dermal appendages will almost certainly have been
+increased through habit and through the tendency of nerve-force to pass
+readily along accustomed channels. We shall find this view of the force of
+habit strikingly confirmed in a future chapter, where it will be shown
+that the hair of the insane is affected in an extraordinary manner, owing
+to their repeated accesses of fury and terror. As soon as with animals the
+power of erection had thus been strengthened or increased, they must often
+have seen the hairs or feathers erected in rival and enraged males, and
+the bulk of their bodies thus increased. In this case it appears possible
+that they might have wished to make themselves appear larger and more
+terrible to their enemies, by voluntarily assuming a threatening attitude
+and uttering harsh cries; such attitudes and utterances after a time
+becoming through habit instinctive. In this manner actions performed by
+the contraction of voluntary muscles might have been combined for the same
+special purpose with those effected by involuntary muscles. It is even
+possible that animals, when excited and dimly conscious of some change in
+the state of their hair, might act on it by repeated exertions of their
+attention and will; for we have reason to believe that the will is able to
+influence in an obscure manner the action of some unstriped or involuntary
+muscles, as in the period of the peristaltic movements of the intestines,
+and in the contraction of the bladder. Nor must we overlook the part which
+variation and natural selection may have played; for the males which
+succeeded in making themselves appear the most terrible to their rivals,
+or to their other enemies, if not of overwhelming power, will on an
+average have left more offspring to inherit their characteristic
+qualities, whatever these may be and however first acquired, than have
+other males.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>The inflation of the body, and other means of exciting fear in an enemy</i>.&mdash;Certain
+Amphibians and Reptiles, which either have no spines to erect, or no
+muscles by which they can be erected, enlarge themselves when alarmed or
+angry by inhaling air. This is well known to be the case with toads and
+frogs. The latter animal is made, in AEsop&rsquo;s fable of the &lsquo;Ox and the
+Frog,&rsquo; to blow itself up from vanity and envy until it burst. This action
+must have been observed during the most ancient times, as, according to
+Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood,<a href="#linknote-421" name="linknoteref-421"
+id="linknoteref-421">[421]</a> the word <i>toad</i> expresses in all the
+languages of Europe the habit of swelling. It has been observed with some
+of the exotic species in the Zoological Gardens; and Dr. Günther believes
+that it is general throughout the group. Judging from analogy, the primary
+purpose probably was to make the body appear as large and frightful as
+possible to an enemy; but another, and perhaps more important secondary
+advantage is thus gained. When frogs are seized by snakes, which are their
+chief enemies, they enlarge themselves wonderfully; so that if the snake
+be of small size, as Dr. Günther informs me, it cannot swallow the frog,
+which thus escapes being devoured.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Chameleons and some other lizards inflate themselves when angry. Thus a
+species inhabiting Oregon, the <i>Tapaya Douglasii</i>, is slow in its
+movements and does not bite, but has a ferocious aspect; &ldquo;when irritated
+it springs in a most threatening manner at anything pointed at it, at the
+same time opening its mouth wide and hissing audibly, after which it
+inflates its body, and shows other marks of anger.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-422"
+name="linknoteref-422" id="linknoteref-422">[422]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Several kinds of snakes likewise inflate themselves when irritated. The
+puff-adder (<i>Clotho arietans</i>) is remarkable in this respect; but I
+believe, after carefully watching these animals, that they do not act thus for
+the sake of increasing their apparent bulk, but simply for inhaling a large
+supply of air, so as to produce their surprisingly loud, harsh, and prolonged
+hissing sound. The Cobras-de-capello, when irritated, enlarge themselves a
+little, and hiss moderately; but, at the same time they lift their heads aloft,
+and dilate by means of their elongated anterior ribs, the skin on each side of
+the neck into a large flat disk,&mdash;the so-called hood. With their widely
+opened mouths, they then assume a terrific aspect. The benefit thus derived
+ought to be considerable, in order to compensate for the somewhat lessened
+rapidity (though this is still great) with which, when dilated, they can strike
+at their enemies or prey; on the same principle that a broad, thin piece of
+wood cannot be moved through the air so quickly as a small round stick. An
+innocuous snake, the <i>Trovidonotus macrophthalmus</i>, an inhabitant of
+India, likewise dilates its neck when irritated; and consequently is often
+mistaken for its compatriot, the deadly Cobra.<a href="#linknote-423"
+name="linknoteref-423" id="linknoteref-423">[423]</a> This resemblance perhaps
+serves as some protection to the Tropidonotus. Another innocuous species, the
+Dasypeltis of South Africa, blows itself out, distends its neck, hisses and
+darts at an intruder.<a href="#linknote-424" name="linknoteref-424"
+id="linknoteref-424">[424]</a> Many other snakes hiss under similar
+circumstances. They also rapidly vibrate their protruded tongues; and this may
+aid in increasing their terrific appearance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Snakes possess other means of producing sounds besides hissing. Many years
+ago I observed in South America that a venomous Trigonocephalus, when
+disturbed, rapidly vibrated the end of its tail, which striking against
+the dry grass and twigs produced a rattling noise that could be distinctly
+heard at the distance of six feet.<a href="#linknote-425"
+name="linknoteref-425" id="linknoteref-425">[425]</a> The deadly and
+fierce <i>Echis carinata</i> of India produces &ldquo;a curious prolonged,
+almost hissing sound in a very different manner, namely by rubbing the
+sides of the folds of its body against each other,&rdquo; whilst the head
+remains in almost the same position. The scales on the sides, and not on
+other parts of the body, are strongly keeled, with the keels toothed like
+a saw; and as the coiled-up animal rubs its sides together, these grate
+against each other.<a href="#linknote-426" name="linknoteref-426"
+id="linknoteref-426">[426]</a> Lastly, we have the well-known case of the
+Rattle-snake. He who has merely shaken the rattle of a dead snake, can
+form no just idea of the sound produced by the living animal. Professor
+Shaler states that it is indistinguishable from that made by the male of a
+large Cicada (an Homopterous insect), which inhabits the same district.<a
+href="#linknote-427" name="linknoteref-427" id="linknoteref-427">[427]</a>
+In the Zoological Gardens, when the rattle-snakes and puff-adders were
+greatly excited at the same time, I was much struck at the similarity of
+the sound produced by them; and although that made by the rattle-snake is
+louder and shriller than the hissing of the puff-adder, yet when standing
+at some yards distance I could scarcely distinguish the two. For whatever
+purpose the sound is produced by the one species, I can hardly doubt that
+it serves for the same purpose in the other species; and I conclude from
+the threatening gestures made at the same time by many snakes, that their
+hissing,&mdash;the rattling of the rattle-snake and of the tail of the
+Trigonocephalus,&mdash;the grating of the scales of the Echis,&mdash;and
+the dilatation of the hood of the Cobra,&mdash;all subserve the same end,
+namely, to make them appear terrible to their enemies.<a
+href="#linknote-428" name="linknoteref-428" id="linknoteref-428">[428]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It seems at first a probable conclusion that venomous snakes, such as the
+foregoing, from being already so well defended by their poison-fangs,
+would never be attacked by any enemy; and consequently would have no need
+to excite additional terror. But this is far from being the case, for they
+are largely preyed on in all quarters of the world by many animals. It is
+well known that pigs are employed in the United States to clear districts
+infested with rattle-snakes, which they do most effectually.<a
+href="#linknote-429" name="linknoteref-429" id="linknoteref-429">[429]</a>
+In England the hedgehog attacks and devours the viper. In India, as I hear
+from Dr. Jerdon, several kinds of hawks, and at least one mammal, the
+Herpestes, kill cobras and other venomous species;<a href="#linknote-430"
+name="linknoteref-430" id="linknoteref-430">[430]</a> and so it is in
+South Africa. Therefore it is by no means improbable that any sounds or
+signs by which the venomous species could instantly make themselves
+recognized as dangerous, would be of more service to them than to the
+innocuous species which would not be able, if attacked, to inflict any
+real injury.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Having said thus much about snakes, I am tempted to add a few remarks on
+the means by which the rattle of the rattle-snake was probably developed.
+Various animals, including some lizards, either curl or vibrate their
+tails when excited. This is the case with many kinds of snakes.<a
+href="#linknote-431" name="linknoteref-431" id="linknoteref-431">[431]</a>
+In the Zoological Gardens, an innocuous species, the <i>Coronella Sayi</i>,
+vibrates its tail so rapidly that it becomes almost invisible. The
+Trigonocephalus, before alluded to, has the same habit; and the extremity
+of its tail is a little enlarged, or ends in a bead. In the Lachesis,
+which is so closely allied to the rattle-snake that it was placed by
+Linnaeus in the same genus, the tail ends in a single, large,
+lancet-shaped point or scale. With some snakes the skin, as Professor
+Shaler remarks, &ldquo;is more imperfectly detached from the region about the
+tail than at other parts of the body.&rdquo; Now if we suppose that the end of
+the tail of some ancient American species was enlarged, and was covered by
+a single large scale, this could hardly have been cast off at the
+successive moults. In this case it would have been permanently retained,
+and at each period of growth, as the snake grew larger, a new scale,
+larger than the last, would have been formed above it, and would likewise
+have been retained. The foundation for the development of a rattle would
+thus have been laid; and it would have been habitually used, if the
+species, like so many others, vibrated its tail whenever it was irritated.
+That the rattle has since been specially developed to serve as an
+efficient sound-producing instrument, there can hardly be a doubt; for
+even the vertebrae included within the extremity of the tail have been
+altered in shape and cohere. But there is no greater improbability in
+various structures, such as the rattle of the rattle-snake,&mdash;the
+lateral scales of the Echis,&mdash;the neck with the included ribs of the
+Cobra,&mdash;and the whole body of the puff-adder,&mdash;having been
+modified for the sake of warning and frightening away their enemies, than
+in a bird, namely, the wonderful Secretary-hawk (<i>Gypogeranus</i>)
+having had its whole frame modified for the sake of killing snakes with
+impunity. It is highly probable, judging from what we have before seen,
+that this bird would ruffle its feathers whenever it attacked a snake; and
+it is certain that the Herpestes, when it eagerly rushes to attack a
+snake, erects the hair all over its body, and especially that on its tail.<a
+href="#linknote-432" name="linknoteref-432" id="linknoteref-432">[432]</a>
+We have also seen that some porcupines, when angered or alarmed at the
+sight of a snake, rapidly vibrate their tails, thus producing a peculiar
+sound by the striking together of the hollow quills. So that here both the
+attackers and the attacked endeavour to make themselves as dreadful as
+possible to each other; and both possess for this purpose specialised
+means, which, oddly enough, are nearly the same in some of these cases.
+Finally we can see that if, on the one hand, those individual snakes,
+which were best able to frighten away their enemies, escaped best from
+being devoured; and if, on the other hand, those individuals of the
+attacking enemy survived in larger numbers which were the best fitted for
+the dangerous task of killing and devouring venomous snakes;&mdash;then in
+the one case as in the other, beneficial variations, supposing the
+characters in question to vary, would commonly have been preserved through
+the survival of the fittest.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>The Drawing back and pressure of the Ears to the Head</i>.&mdash;The
+ears through their movements are highly expressive in many animals; but in
+some, such as man, the higher apes, and many ruminants, they fail in this
+respect. A slight difference in position serves to express in the plainest
+manner a different state of mind, as we may daily see in the dog; but we
+are here concerned only with the ears being drawn closely backwards and
+pressed to the head. A savage frame of mind is thus shown, but only in the
+case of those animals which fight with their teeth; and the care which
+they take to prevent their ears being seized by their antagonists,
+accounts for this position. Consequently, through habit and association,
+whenever they feel slightly savage, or pretend in their play to be savage,
+their ears are drawn back. That this is the true explanation may be
+inferred from the relation which exists in very many animals between their
+manner of fighting and the retraction of their ears.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All the Carnivora fight with their canine teeth, and all, as far as I have
+observed, draw their ears back when feeling savage. This may be
+continually seen with dogs when fighting in earnest, and with puppies
+fighting in play. The movement is different from the falling down and
+slight drawing back of the ears, when a dog feels pleased and is caressed
+by his master. The retraction of the ears may likewise be seen in kittens
+fighting together in their play, and in full-grown cats when really
+savage, as before illustrated in fig. 9 (p. 58). Although their ears are
+thus to a large extent protected, yet they often get much torn in old male
+cats during their mutual battles. The same movement is very striking in
+tigers, leopards, &amp;c., whilst growling over their food in menageries.
+The lynx has remarkably long ears; and their retraction, when one of these
+animals is approached in its cage, is very conspicuous, and is eminently
+expressive of its savage disposition. Even one of the Eared Seals, the <i>Otariapusilla</i>,
+which has very small ears, draws them backwards, when it makes a savage
+rush at the legs of its keeper.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When horses fight together they use their incisors for biting, and their
+fore-legs for striking, much more than they do their hind-legs for kicking
+backwards. This has been observed when stallions have broken loose and
+have fought together, and may likewise be inferred from the kind of wounds
+which they inflict on each other. Every one recognizes the vicious
+appearance which the drawing back of the ears gives to a horse. This
+movement is very different from that of listening to a sound behind. If an
+ill-tempered horse in a stall is inclined to kick backwards, his ears are
+retracted from habit, though he has no intention or power to bite. But
+when a horse throws up both hind-legs in play, as when entering an open
+field, or when just touched by the whip, he does not generally depress his
+ears, for he does not then feel vicious. Guanacoes fight savagely with
+their teeth; and they must do so frequently, for I found the hides of
+several which I shot in Patagonia deeply scored. So do camels; and both
+these animals, when savage, draw their ears closely backwards. Guanacoes,
+as I have noticed, when not intending to bite, but merely to spit their
+offensive saliva from a distance at an intruder, retract their ears. Even
+the hippopotamus, when threatening with its widely-open enormous mouth a
+comrade, draws back its small ears, just like a horse.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Now what a contrast is presented between the foregoing animals and cattle,
+sheep, or goats, which never use their teeth in fighting, and never draw
+back their ears when enraged! Although sheep and goats appear such placid
+animals, the males often join in furious contests. As deer form a closely
+related family, and as I did not know that they ever fought with their
+teeth, I was much surprised at the account given by Major Ross King of the
+Moose-deer in Canada. He says, when&ldquo;two males chance to meet, laying back
+their ears and gnashing their teeth together, they rush at each other with
+appalling fury.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-433" name="linknoteref-433"
+id="linknoteref-433">[433]</a> But Mr. Bartlett informs me that some
+species of deer fight savagely with their teeth, so that the drawing back
+of the ears by the moose accords with our rule. Several kinds of
+kangaroos, kept in the Zoological Gardens, fight by scratching with their
+fore-feet and by kicking with their hind-legs; but they never bite each
+other, and the keepers have never seen them draw back their ears when
+angered. Rabbits fight chiefly by kicking and scratching, but they
+likewise bite each other; and I have known one to bite off half the tail
+of its antagonist. At the commencement of their battles they lay back
+their ears, but afterwards, as they bound over and kick each other, they
+keep their ears erect, or move them much about.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Bartlett watched a wild boar quarrelling rather savagely with his sow;
+and both had their mouths open and their ears drawn backwards. But this
+does not appear to be a common action with domestic pigs when quarrelling.
+Boars fight together by striking upwards with their tusks; and Mr.
+Bartlett doubts whether they then draw back their ears. Elephants, which
+in like manner fight with their tusks, do not retract their ears, but, on
+the contrary, erect them when rushing at each other or at an enemy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The rhinoceroses in the Zoological Gardens fight with their nasal horns,
+and have never been seen to attempt biting each other except in play; and
+the keepers are convinced that they do not draw back their ears, like
+horses and dogs, when feeling savage. The following statement, therefore,
+by Sir S. Baker<a href="#linknote-434" name="linknoteref-434"
+id="linknoteref-434">[434]</a> is inexplicable, namely, that a rhinoceros,
+which he shot in North Africa, &ldquo;had no ears; they had been bitten off
+close to the head by another of the same species while fighting; and this
+mutilation is by no means uncommon.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lastly, with respect to monkeys. Some kinds, which have moveable ears, and
+which fight with their teeth&mdash;for instance the <i>Cereopithecus ruber</i>&mdash;draw
+back their ears when irritated just like dogs; and they then have a very
+spiteful appearance. Other kinds, as the <i>Inuus ecaudatus</i>,
+apparently do not thus act. Again, other kinds&mdash;and this is a great
+anomaly in comparison with most other animals&mdash;retract their ears,
+show their teeth, and jabber, when they are pleased by being caressed. I
+observed this in two or three species of Macacus, and in the <i>Cynopithecus
+niger</i>. This expression, owing to our familiarity with dogs, would
+never be recognized as one of joy or pleasure by those unacquainted with
+monkeys.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Erection of the Ears</i>.&mdash;This movement requires hardly any
+notice. All animals which have the power of freely moving their ears, when
+they are startled, or when they closely observe any object, direct their
+ears to the point towards which they are looking, in order to hear any
+sound from this quarter. At the same time they generally raise their
+heads, as all their organs of sense are there situated, and some of the
+smaller animals rise on their hind-legs. Even those kinds which squat on
+the ground or instantly flee away to avoid danger, generally act
+momentarily in this manner, in order to ascertain the source and nature of
+the danger. The head being raised, with erected ears and eyes directed
+forwards, gives an unmistakable expression of close attention to any
+animal.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"></a>
+CHAPTER V.<br/>SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The Dog, various expressive movements of&mdash;Cats&mdash;Horses&mdash;Ruminants&mdash;Monkeys,
+their expression of joy and affection&mdash;Of pain&mdash;Anger&mdash;Astonishment
+and Terror.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>The Dog</i>.&mdash;I have already described (figs. 5 and 7) the
+appearance of a dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions,
+namely, with erected ears, eyes intently directed forwards, hair on the
+neck and back bristling, gait remarkably stiff, with the tail upright and
+rigid. So familiar is this appearance to us, that an angry man is
+sometimes said &ldquo;to have his back up.&rdquo; Of the above points, the stiff gait
+and upright tail alone require further discussion. Sir C. Bell remarks<a
+href="#linknote-501" name="linknoteref-501" id="linknoteref-501">[501]</a>
+that, when a tiger or wolf is struck by its keeper and is suddenly roused
+to ferocity, every muscle is in tension, and the limbs are in an attitude
+of strained exertion, prepared to spring. This tension of the muscles and
+consequent stiff gait may be accounted for on the principle of associated
+habit, for anger has continually led to fierce struggles, and consequently
+to all the muscles of the body having been violently exerted. There is
+also reason to suspect that the muscular system requires some short
+preparation, or some degree of innervation, before being brought into
+strong action. My own sensations lead me to this inference; but I cannot
+discover that it is a conclusion admitted by physiologists. Sir J. Paget,
+however, informs me that when muscles are suddenly contracted with the
+greatest force, without any preparation, they are liable to be ruptured,
+as when a man slips unexpectedly; but that this rarely occurs when an
+action, however violent, is deliberately performed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With respect to the upright position of the tail, it seems to depend (but
+whether this is really the case I know not) on the elevator muscles being
+more powerful than the depressors, so that when all the muscles of the
+hinder part of the body are in a state of tension, the tail is raised. A
+dog in cheerful spirits, and trotting before his master with high, elastic
+steps, generally carries his tail aloft, though it is not held nearly so
+stiffly as when he is angered. A horse when first turned out into an open
+field, may be seen to trot with long elastic strides, the head and tail
+being held high aloft. Even cows when they frisk about from pleasure,
+throw up their tails in a ridiculous fashion. So it is with various
+animals in the Zoological Gardens. The position of the tail, however, in
+certain cases, is determined by special circumstances; thus as soon as a
+horse breaks into a gallop, at full speed, he always lowers his tail, so
+that as little resistance as possible may be offered to the air.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When a dog is on the point of springing on his antagonist, he utters a
+savage growl; the ears are pressed closely backwards, and the upper lip
+(fig. 14) is retracted out of the way of his teeth, especially of his
+canines. These movements may be observed with dogs and puppies in their
+play. But if a dog gets really savage in his play, his expression
+immediately changes. This, however, is simply due to the lips and ears
+being drawn back with much greater energy. If a dog only snarls at
+another, the lip is generally retracted on one side alone, namely towards
+his enemy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0013" id="linkimage-0013">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Head of Snarling Dog. Fig 14 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+{illust. caption = FIG. 14.&mdash;Head of snarling Dog. From life, by Mr.
+Wood.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The movements of a dog whilst exhibiting affection towards his master were
+described (figs. 6 and 8) in our second chapter. These consist in the head
+and whole body being lowered and thrown into flexuous movements, with the
+tail extended and wagged from side to side. The ears fall down and are
+drawn somewhat backwards, which causes the eyelids to be elongated, and
+alters the whole appearance of the face. The lips hang loosely, and the
+hair remains smooth. All these movements or gestures are explicable, as I
+believe, from their standing in complete antithesis to those naturally
+assumed by a savage dog under a directly opposite state of mind. When a
+man merely speaks to, or just notices, his dog, we see the last vestige of
+these movements in a slight wag of the tail, without any other movement of
+the body, and without even the ears being lowered. Dogs also exhibit their
+affection by desiring to rub against their masters, and to be rubbed or
+patted by them.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gratiolet explains the above gestures of affection in the following manner: and
+the reader can judge whether the explanation appears satisfactory. Speaking of
+animals in general, including the dog, he says,<a href="#linknote-502"
+name="linknoteref-502" id="linknoteref-502">[502]</a> &ldquo;C&rsquo;est
+toujours la partie la plus sensible de leurs corps qui recherche les caresses
+ou les donne. Lorsque toute la longueur des flancs et du corps est sensible,
+l&rsquo;animal serpente et rampe sous les caresses; et ces ondulations se
+propageant le long des muscles analogues des segments jusqu&rsquo;aux
+extrémités de la colonne vertébrale, la queue se ploie et s&rsquo;agite.&rdquo;
+Further on, he adds, that dogs, when feeling affectionate, lower their ears in
+order to exclude all sounds, so that their whole attention may be concentrated
+on the caresses of their master!
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dogs have another and striking way of exhibiting their affection, namely, by
+licking the hands or faces of their masters. They sometimes lick other dogs,
+and then it is always their chops. I have also seen dogs licking cats with whom
+they were friends. This habit probably originated in the females carefully
+licking their puppies&mdash;the dearest object of their love&mdash;for the sake
+of cleansing them. They also often give their puppies, after a short absence, a
+few cursory licks, apparently from affection. Thus the habit will have become
+associated with the emotion of love, however it may afterwards be aroused. It
+is now so firmly inherited or innate, that it is transmitted equally to both
+sexes. A female terrier of mine lately had her puppies destroyed, and though at
+all times a very affectionate creature, I was much struck with the manner in
+which she then tried to satisfy her instinctive maternal love by expending it
+on me; and her desire to lick my hands rose to an insatiable passion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The same principle probably explains why dogs, when feeling affectionate,
+like rubbing against their masters and being rubbed or patted by them, for
+from the nursing of their puppies, contact with a beloved object has
+become firmly associated in their minds with the emotion of love.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The feeling of affection of a dog towards his master is combined with a strong
+sense of submission, which is akin to fear. Hence dogs not only lower their
+bodies and crouch a little as they approach their masters, but sometimes throw
+themselves on the ground with their bellies upwards. This is a movement as
+completely opposite as is possible to any show of resistance. I formerly
+possessed a large dog who was not at all afraid to fight with other dogs; but a
+wolf-like shepherd-dog in the neighbourhood, though not ferocious and not so
+powerful as my dog, had a strange influence over him. When they met on the
+road, my dog used to run to meet him, with his tail partly tucked in between
+his legs and hair not erected; and then he would throw himself on the ground,
+belly upwards. By this action he seemed to say more plainly than by words,
+&ldquo;Behold, I am your slave.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A pleasurable and excited state of mind, associated with affection, is
+exhibited by some dogs in a very peculiar manner, namely, by grinning. This was
+noticed long ago by Somerville, who says,
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;And with a courtly grin, the fawning hound<br/>
+Salutes thee cow&rsquo;ring, his wide op&rsquo;ning nose<br/>
+Upward he curls, and his large sloe-back eyes<br/>
+Melt in soft blandishments, and humble joy.&rdquo;<br/>
+<i>The Chase</i>, book i.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sir W. Scott&rsquo;s famous Scotch greyhound, Maida, had this habit, and it is
+common with terriers. I have also seen it in a Spitz and in a sheep-dog. Mr.
+Riviere, who has particularly attended to this expression, informs me that it
+is rarely displayed in a perfect manner, but is quite common in a lesser
+degree. The upper lip during the act of grinning is retracted, as in snarling,
+so that the canines are exposed, and the ears are drawn backwards; but the
+general appearance of the animal clearly shows that anger is not felt. Sir C.
+Bell<a href="#linknote-503" name="linknoteref-503"
+id="linknoteref-503">[503]</a> remarks &ldquo;Dogs, in their expression of
+fondness, have a slight eversion of the lips, and grin and sniff amidst their
+gambols, in a way that resembles laughter.&rdquo; Some persons speak of the
+grin as a smile, but if it had been really a smile, we should see a similar,
+though more pronounced, movement of the lips and ears, when dogs utter their
+bark of joy; but this is not the case, although a bark of joy often follows a
+grin. On the other hand, dogs, when playing with their comrades or masters,
+almost always pretend to bite each other; and they then retract, though not
+energetically, their lips and ears. Hence I suspect that there is a tendency in
+some dogs, whenever they feel lively pleasure combined with affection, to act
+through habit and association on the same muscles, as in playfully biting each
+other, or their masters&rsquo; hands.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have described, in the second chapter, the gait and appearance of a dog when
+cheerful, and the marked antithesis presented by the same animal when dejected
+and disappointed, with his head, ears, body, tail, and chops drooping, and eyes
+dull. Under the expectation of any great pleasure, dogs bound and jump about in
+an extravagant manner, and bark for joy. The tendency to bark under this state
+of mind is inherited, or runs in the breed: greyhounds rarely bark, whilst the
+Spitz-dog barks so incessantly on starting for a walk with his master that he
+becomes a nuisance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+An agony of pain is expressed by dogs in nearly the same way as by many
+other animals, namely, by howling writhing, and contortions of the whole
+body.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Attention is shown by the head being raised, with the ears erected, and eyes
+intently directed towards the object or quarter under observation. If it be a
+sound and the source is not known, the head is often turned obliquely from side
+to side in a most significant manner, apparently in order to judge with more
+exactness from what point the sound proceeds. But I have seen a dog greatly
+surprised at a new noise, turning, his head to one side through habit, though
+he clearly perceived the source of the noise. Dogs, as formerly remarked, when
+their attention is in any way aroused, whilst watching some object, or
+attending to some sound, often lift up one paw (fig. 4) and keep it doubled up,
+as if to make a slow and stealthy approach.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A dog under extreme terror will throw himself down, howl, and void his
+excretions; but the hair, I believe, does not become erect unless some anger is
+felt. I have seen a dog much terrified at a band of musicians who were playing
+loudly outside the house, with every muscle of his body trembling, with his
+heart palpitating so quickly that the beats could hardly be counted, and
+panting for breath with widely open mouth, in the same manner as a terrified
+man does. Yet this dog had not exerted himself; he had only wandered slowly and
+restlessly about the room, and the day was cold.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Even a very slight degree of fear is invariably shown by the tail being tucked
+in between the legs. This tucking in of the fail is accompanied by the ears
+being drawn backwards; but they are not pressed closely to the head, as in
+snarling, and they are not lowered, as when a dog is pleased or affectionate.
+When two young dogs chase each other in play, the one that runs away always
+keeps his tail tucked inwards. So it is when a dog, in the highest spirits,
+careers like a mad creature round and round his master in circles, or in
+figures of eight. He then acts as if another dog were chasing him. This curious
+kind of play, which must be familiar to every one who has attended to dogs, is
+particularly apt to be excited, after the animal has been a little startled or
+frightened, as by his master suddenly jumping out on him in the dusk. In this
+case, as well as when two young dogs are chasing each other in play, it appears
+as if the one that runs away was afraid of the other catching him by the tail;
+but as far as I can find out, dogs very rarely catch each other in this manner.
+I asked a gentleman, who had kept foxhounds all his life, and he applied to
+other experienced sportsmen, whether they had ever seen hounds thus seize a
+fox; but they never had. It appears that when a dog is chased, or when in
+danger of being struck behind, or of anything falling on him, in all these
+cases he wishes to withdraw as quickly as possible his whole hind-quarters, and
+that from some sympathy or connection between the muscles, the tail is then
+drawn closely inwards.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A similarly connected movement between the hind-quarters and the tail may be
+observed in the hyaena. Mr. Bartlett informs me that when two of these animals
+fight together, they are mutually conscious of the wonderful power of each
+other&rsquo;s jaws, and are extremely cautious. They well know that if one of
+their legs were seized, the bone would instantly be crushed into atoms; hence
+they approach each other kneeling, with their legs turned as much as possible
+inwards, and with their whole bodies bowed, so as not to present any salient
+point; the tail at the same time being closely tucked in between the legs. In
+this attitude they approach each other sideways, or even partly backwards. So
+again with deer, several of the species, when savage and fighting, tuck in
+their tails. When one horse in a field tries to bite the hind-quarters of
+another in play, or when a rough boy strikes a donkey from behind, the
+hind-quarters and the tail are drawn in, though it does not appear as if this
+were done merely to save the tail from being injured. We have also seen the
+reverse of these movements; for when an animal trots with high elastic steps,
+the tail is almost always carried aloft.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As I have said, when a dog is chased and runs away, he keeps his ears directed
+backwards but still open; and this is clearly done for the sake of hearing the
+footsteps of his pursuer. From habit the ears are often held in this same
+position, and the tail tucked in, when the danger is obviously in front. I have
+repeatedly noticed, with a timid terrier of mine, that when she is afraid of
+some object in front, the nature of which she perfectly knows and does not need
+to reconnoitre, yet she will for a long time hold her ears and tail in this
+position, looking the image of discomfort. Discomfort, without any fear, is
+similarly expressed: thus, one day I went out of doors, just at the time when
+this same dog knew that her dinner would be brought. I did not call her, but
+she wished much to accompany me, and at the same time she wished much for her
+dinner; and there she stood, first looking one way and then the other, with her
+tail tucked in and ears drawn back, presenting an unmistakable appearance of
+perplexed discomfort.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Almost all the expressive movements now described, with the exception of the
+grinning from joy, are innate or instinctive, for they are common to all the
+individuals, young and old, of all the breeds. Most of them are likewise common
+to the aboriginal parents of the dog, namely the wolf and jackal; and some of
+them to other species of the same group. Tamed wolves and jackals, when
+caressed by their masters, jump about for joy, wag their tails, lower their
+ears, lick their master&rsquo;s hands, crouch down, and even throw themselves
+on the ground belly upwards.<a href="#linknote-504" name="linknoteref-504"
+id="linknoteref-504">[504]</a> I have seen a rather fox-like African jackal,
+from the Gaboon, depress its ears when caressed. Wolves and jackals, when
+frightened, certainly tuck in their tails; and a tamed jackal has been
+described as careering round his master in circles and figures of eight, like a
+dog, with his tail between his legs.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It has been stated<a href="#linknote-505" name="linknoteref-505"
+id="linknoteref-505">[505]</a> that foxes, however tame, never display any of
+the above expressive movements; but this is not strictly accurate. Many years
+ago I observed in the Zoological Gardens, and recorded the fact at the time,
+that a very tame English fox, When caressed by the keeper, wagged its tail,
+depressed its ears, and then threw itself on the ground, belly upwards. The
+black fox of North America likewise depressed its ears in a slight degree. But
+I believe that foxes never lick the hands of their masters, and I have been
+assured that when frightened they never tuck in their tails. If the explanation
+which I have given of the expression of affection in dogs be admitted, then it
+would appear that animals which have never been domesticated&mdash;namely
+wolves, jackals, and even foxes&mdash;have nevertheless acquired, through the
+principle of antithesis, certain expressive gestures; for it is not probable
+that these animals, confined in cages, should have learnt them by imitating
+dogs.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Cats</i>.&mdash;I have already described the actions of a cat (fig. 9),
+when feeling savage and not terrified. She assumes a crouching attitude
+and occasionally protrudes her fore-feet, with the claws exserted ready
+for striking. The tail is extended, being curled or lashed from side to
+side. The hair is not erected&mdash;at least it was not so in the few
+cases observed by me. The ears are drawn closely backwards and the teeth
+are shown. Low savage growls are uttered. We can understand why the
+attitude assumed by a cat when preparing to fight with another cat, or in
+any way greatly irritated, is so widely different from that of a dog
+approaching another dog with hostile intentions; for the cat uses her
+fore-feet for striking, and this renders a crouching position convenient
+or necessary. She is also much more accustomed than a dog to lie concealed
+and suddenly spring on her prey. No cause can be assigned with certainty
+for the tail being lashed or curled from side to side. This habit is
+common to many other animals&mdash;for instance, to the puma, when
+prepared to spring;<a href="#linknote-506" name="linknoteref-506"
+id="linknoteref-506">[506]</a> but it is not common to dogs, or to foxes,
+as I infer from Mr. St. John&rsquo;s account of a fox lying in wait and seizing
+a hare. We have already seen that some kinds of lizards and various
+snakes, when excited, rapidly vibrate the tips of their tails. It would
+appear as if, under strong excitement, there existed an uncontrollable
+desire for movement of some kind, owing to nerve-force being freely
+liberated from the excited sensorium; and that as the tail is left free,
+and as its movement does not disturb the general position of the body, it
+is curled or lashed about.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All the movements of a cat, when feeling affectionate, are in complete
+antithesis to those just described. She now stands upright, with slightly
+arched back, tail perpendicularly raised, and ears erected; and she rubs
+her cheeks and flanks against her master or mistress. The desire to rub
+something is so strong in cats under this state of mind, that they may
+often be seen rubbing themselves against the legs of chairs or tables, or
+against door-posts. This manner of expressing affection probably
+originated through association, as in the case of dogs, from the mother
+nursing and fondling her young; and perhaps from the young themselves
+loving each other and playing together. Another and very different
+gesture, expressive of pleasure, has already been described, namely, the
+curious manner in which young and even old cats, when pleased, alternately
+protrude their fore-feet, with separated toes, as if pushing against and
+sucking their mother&rsquo;s teats. This habit is so far analogous to that of
+rubbing against something, that both apparently are derived from actions
+performed during the nursing period. Why cats should show affection by
+rubbing so much more than do dogs, though the latter delight in contact
+with their masters, and why cats only occasionally lick the hands of their
+friends, whilst dogs always do so, I cannot say. Cats cleanse themselves
+by licking their own coats more regularly than do dogs. On the other hand,
+their tongues seem less well fitted for the work than the longer and more
+flexible tongues of dogs.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0014" id="linkimage-0014">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Cat Terrified at a Dog.  Fig.15 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Cats, when terrified, stand at full height, and arch their backs in a
+well-known and ridiculous fashion. They spit, hiss, or growl. The hair
+over the whole body, and especially on the tail, becomes erect. In the
+instances observed by me the basal part of the tail was held upright, the
+terminal part being thrown on one side; but sometimes the tail (see fig.
+15) is only a little raised, and is bent almost from the base to one side.
+The ears are drawn back, and the teeth exposed. When two kittens are
+playing together, the one often thus tries to frighten the other. From
+what we have seen in former chapters, all the above points of expression
+are intelligible, except the extreme arching of the back. I am inclined to
+believe that, in the same manner as many birds, whilst they ruffle their
+feathers, spread out their wings and tail, to make themselves look as big
+as possible, so cats stand upright at their full height, arch their backs,
+often raise the basal part of the tail, and erect their hair, for the same
+purpose. The lynx, when attacked, is said to arch its back, and is thus
+figured by Brehm. But the keepers in the Zoological Gardens have never
+seen any tendency to this action in the larger feline animals, such as
+tigers, lions, &amp;c.; and these have little cause to be afraid of any
+other animal.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cats use their voices much as a means of expression, and they utter, under
+various emotions and desires, at least six or seven different sounds. The
+purr of satisfaction, which is made during both inspiration and
+expiration, is one of the most curious. The puma, cheetah, and ocelot
+likewise purr; but the tiger, when pleased, &ldquo;emits a peculiar short
+snuffle, accompanied by the closure of the eyelids.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-507"
+name="linknoteref-507" id="linknoteref-507">[507]</a> It is said that the
+lion, jaguar, and leopard, do not purr.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Horses</i>.&mdash;Horses when savage draw their ears closely back,
+protrude their heads, and partially uncover their incisor teeth, ready for
+biting. When inclined to kick behind, they generally, through habit, draw
+back their ears; and their eyes are turned backwards in a peculiar manner.<a
+href="#linknote-508" name="linknoteref-508" id="linknoteref-508">[508]</a>
+When pleased, as when some coveted food is brought to them in the stable,
+they raise and draw in their heads, prick their ears, and looking intently
+towards their friend, often whinny. Impatience is expressed by pawing the
+ground.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The actions of a horse when much startled are highly expressive. One day
+my horse was much frightened at a drilling machine, covered by a
+tarpaulin, and lying on an open field. He raised his head so high, that
+his neck became almost perpendicular; and this he did from habit, for the
+machine lay on a slope below, and could not have been seen with more
+distinctness through the raising of the head; nor if any sound had
+proceeded from it, could the sound have been more distinctly heard. His
+eyes and ears were directed intently forwards; and I could feel through
+the saddle the palpitations of his heart. With red dilated nostrils he
+snorted violently, and whirling round, would have dashed off at full
+speed, had I not prevented him. The distension of the nostrils is not for
+the sake of scenting the source of danger, for when a horse smells
+carefully at any object and is not alarmed, he does not dilate his
+nostrils. Owing to the presence of a valve in the throat, a horse when
+panting does not breathe through his open mouth, but through his nostrils;
+and these consequently have become endowed with great powers of expansion.
+This expansion of the nostrils, as well as the snorting, and the
+palpitations of the heart, are actions which have become firmly associated
+during a long series of generations with the emotion of terror; for terror
+has habitually led the horse to the most violent exertion in dashing away
+at full speed from the cause of danger.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Ruminants</i>.&mdash;Cattle and sheep are remarkable from displaying in
+so slight a degree their emotions or sensations, excepting that of extreme
+pain. A bull when enraged exhibits his rage only by the manner in which he
+holds his lowered head, with distended nostrils, and by bellowing. He also
+often paws the ground; but this pawing seems quite different from that of
+an impatient horse, for when the soil is loose, he throws up clouds of
+dust. I believe that bulls act in this manner when irritated by flies, for
+the sake of driving them away. The wilder breeds of sheep and the chamois
+when startled stamp on the ground, and whistle through their noses; and
+this serves as a danger-signal to their comrades. The musk-ox of the
+Arctic regions, when encountered, likewise stamps on the ground.<a
+href="#linknote-509" name="linknoteref-509" id="linknoteref-509">[509]</a>
+How this stamping action arose I cannot conjecture; for from inquiries
+which I have made it does not appear that any of these animals fight with
+their fore-legs.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Some species of deer, when savage, display far more expression than do
+cattle, sheep, or goats, for, as has already been stated, they draw back
+their ears, grind their teeth, erect their hair, squeal, stamp on the
+ground, and brandish their horns. One day in the Zoological Gardens, the
+Formosan deer (<i>Cervus pseudaxis</i>) approached me in a curious
+attitude, with his muzzle raised high up, so that the horns were pressed
+back on his neck; the head being held rather obliquely. From the
+expression of his eye I felt sure that he was savage; he approached
+slowly, and as soon as he came close to the iron bars, he did not lower
+his head to butt at me, but suddenly bent it inwards, and struck his horns
+with great force against the railings. Mr. Bartlett informs me that some
+other species of deer place themselves in the same attitude when enraged.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Monkeys</i>.&mdash;The various species and genera of monkeys express
+their feelings in many different ways; and this fact is interesting, as in
+some degree bearing on the question, whether the so-called races of man
+should be ranked as distinct species or varieties; for, as we shall see in
+the following chapters, the different races of man express their emotions
+and sensations with remarkable uniformity throughout the world. Some of
+the expressive actions of monkeys are interesting in another way, namely
+from being closely analogous to those of man. As I have had no opportunity
+of observing any one species of the group under all circumstances, my
+miscellaneous remarks will be best arranged under different states of the
+mind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Pleasure, joy, affection</i>&mdash;It is not possible to distinguish in
+monkeys, at least without more experience than I have had, the expression
+of pleasure or joy from that of affection. Young chimpanzees make a kind
+of barking noise, when pleased by the return of any one to whom they are
+attached. When this noise, which the keepers call a laugh, is uttered, the
+lips are protruded; but so they are under various other emotions.
+Nevertheless I could perceive that when they were pleased the form of the
+lips differed a little from that assumed when they were angered. If a
+young chimpanzee be tickled&mdash;and the armpits are particularly
+sensitive to tickling, as in the case of our children,&mdash;a more
+decided chuckling or laughing sound is uttered; though the laughter is
+sometimes noiseless. The corners of the mouth are then drawn backwards;
+and this sometimes causes the lower eyelids to be slightly wrinkled. But
+this wrinkling, which is so characteristic of our own laughter, is more
+plainly seen in some other monkeys. The teeth in the upper jaw in the
+chimpanzee are not exposed when they utter their laughing noise, in which
+respect they differ from us. But their eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as
+Mr. W. L. Martin,<a href="#linknote-510" name="linknoteref-510"
+id="linknoteref-510">[510]</a> who has particularly attended to their
+expression, states.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Young Orangs, when tickled, likewise grin and make a chuckling sound; and
+Mr. Martin says that their eyes grow brighter. As soon as their laughter
+ceases, an expression may be detected passing over their faces, which, as
+Mr. Wallace remarked to me, may be called a smile. I have also noticed
+something of the same kind with the chimpanzee. Dr. Duchenne&mdash;and I
+cannot quote a better authority&mdash;informs me that he kept a very tame
+monkey in his house for a year; and when he gave it during meal-times some
+choice delicacy, he observed that the corners of its mouth were slightly
+raised; thus an expression of satisfaction, partaking of the nature of an
+incipient smile, and resembling that often seen on the face of main, could
+be plainly perceived in this animal.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The <i>Cebus azaræ</i>,<a href="#linknote-511" name="linknoteref-511"
+id="linknoteref-511">[511]</a> when rejoiced at again seeing a beloved
+person, utters a peculiar tittering (<i>kichernden</i>) sound. It also
+expresses agreeable sensations, by drawing back the corners of its mouth,
+without producing any sound. Rengger calls this movement laughter, but it
+would be more appropriately called a smile. The form of the mouth is
+different when either pain or terror is expressed, and high shrieks are
+uttered. Another species of <i>Cebus</i> in the Zoological Gardens (<i>C.
+hypoleucus</i>) when pleased, makes a reiterated shrill note, and likewise
+draws back the corners of its mouth, apparently through the contraction of
+the same muscles as with us. So does the Barbary ape (<i>Inuus ecaudatus</i>)
+to an extraordinary degree; and I observed in this monkey that the skin of
+the lower eyelids then became much wrinkled. At the same time it rapidly
+moved its lower jaw or lips in a spasmodic manner, the teeth being
+exposed; but the noise produced was hardly more distinct than that which
+we sometimes call silent laughter. Two of the keepers affirmed that this
+slight sound was the animal&rsquo;s laughter, and when I expressed some doubt on
+this head (being at the time quite inexperienced), they made it attack or
+rather threaten a hated Entellus monkey, living in the same compartment.
+Instantly the whole expression of the face of the Inuus changed; the mouth
+was opened much more widely, the canine teeth were more fully exposed, and
+a hoarse barking noise was uttered.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Anubis baboon (<i>Cynocephalus anubis</i>) was first insulted and put
+into a furious rage, as was easily done, by his keeper, who then made
+friends with him and shook hands. As the reconciliation was effected the
+baboon rapidly moved up and down his jaws and lips, and looked pleased.
+When we laugh heartily, a similar movement, or quiver, may be observed
+more or less distinctly in our jaws; but with man the muscles of the chest
+are more particularly acted on, whilst with this baboon, and with some
+other monkeys, it is the muscles of the jaws and lips which are
+spasmodically affected.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0016" id="linkimage-0016">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig16-17.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Cynopithecus Niger, in a Placid Condition. Fig.16-17 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+I have already had occasion to remark on the curious manner in which two
+or three species of Alacacus and the <i>Cynopithecus niger</i> draw back
+their ears and utter a slight jabbering noise, when they are pleased by
+being caressed. With the Cynopithecus (fig. 17), the corners of the mouth
+are at the same time drawn backwards and upwards, so that the teeth are
+exposed. Hence this expression would never be recognized by a stranger as
+one of pleasure. The crest of long hairs on the forehead is depressed, and
+apparently the whole skin of the head drawn backwards. The eyebrows are
+thus raised a little, and the eyes assume a staring appearance. The lower
+eyelids also become slightly wrinkled; but this wrinkling is not
+conspicuous, owing to the permanent transverse furrows on the face.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Painful emotions and sensations</i>.&mdash;With monkeys the expression
+of slight pain, or of any painful emotion, such as grief, vexation,
+jealousy, &amp;c., is not easily distinguished from that of moderate
+anger; and these states of mind readily and quickly pass into each other.
+Grief, however, with some species is certainly exhibited by weeping. A
+woman, who sold a monkey to the Zoological Society, believed to have come
+from Borneo (<i>Macacus maurus</i> or <i>M. inornatus</i> of Gray), said
+that it often cried; and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the keeper Mr. Sutton,
+have repeatedly seen it, when grieved, or even when much pitied, weeping
+so copiously that the tears rolled down its cheeks. There is, however,
+something strange about this case, for two specimens subsequently kept in
+the Gardens, and believed to be the same species, have never been seen to
+weep, though they were carefully observed by the keeper and myself when
+much distressed and loudly screaming. Rengger states<a href="#linknote-512"
+name="linknoteref-512" id="linknoteref-512">[512]</a> that the eyes of the
+<i>Cebus azaræ</i> fill with tears, but not sufficiently to overflow,
+when it is prevented getting some much desired object, or is much
+frightened. Humboldt also asserts that the eyes of the <i>Callithrix
+sciureus</i> &ldquo;instantly fill with tears when it is seized with fear;&rdquo; but
+when this pretty little monkey in the Zoological Gardens was teased, so as
+to cry out loudly, this did not occur. I do not, however, wish to throw
+the least doubt on the accuracy of Humboldt&rsquo;s statement.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The appearance of dejection in young orangs and chimpanzees, when out of
+health, is as plain and almost as pathetic as in the case of our children.
+This state of mind and body is shown by their listless movements, fallen
+countenances, dull eyes, and changed complexion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Anger</i>.&mdash;This emotion is often exhibited by many kinds of
+monkeys, and is expressed, as Mr. Martin remarks,<a href="#linknote-513"
+name="linknoteref-513" id="linknoteref-513">[513]</a> in many different
+ways. &ldquo;Some species, when irritated, pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and
+savage glare on their foe, and make repeated short starts as if about to
+spring forward, uttering at the same time inward guttural sounds. Many
+display their anger by suddenly advancing, making abrupt starts, at the
+same time opening the mouth and pursing up the lips, so as to conceal the
+teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed on the enemy, as if in savage
+defiance. Some again, and principally the long-tailed monkeys, or Guenons,
+display their teeth, and accompany their malicious grins with a sharp,
+abrupt, reiterated cry.&rdquo; Mr. Sutton confirms the statement that some
+species uncover their teeth when enraged, whilst others conceal them by
+the protrusion of their lips; and some kinds draw back their ears. The <i>Cynopithecus
+niger</i>, lately referred to, acts in this manner, at the same time
+depressing the crest of hair on its forehead, and showing its teeth; so
+that the movements of the features from anger are nearly the same as those
+from pleasure; and the two expressions can be distinguished only by those
+familiar with the animal.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Baboons often show their passion and threaten their enemies in a very odd
+manner, namely, by opening their mouths widely as in the act of yawning.
+Mr. Bartlett has often seen two baboons, when first placed in the same
+compartment, sitting opposite to each other and thus alternately opening
+their mouths; and this action seems frequently to end in a real yawn. Mr.
+Bartlett believes that both animals wish to show to each other that they
+are provided with a formidable set of teeth, as is undoubtedly the case.
+As I could hardly credit the reality of this yawning gesture, Mr. Bartlett
+insulted an old baboon and put him into a violent passion; and he almost
+immediately thus acted. Some species of Macacus and of Cereopithecus<a
+href="#linknote-514" name="linknoteref-514" id="linknoteref-514">[514]</a>
+behave in the same manner. Baboons likewise show their anger, as was
+observed by Brehin with those which he kept alive in Abyssinia, in another
+manner, namely, by striking the ground with one hand, &ldquo;like an angry man
+striking the table with his fist.&rdquo; I have seen this movement with the
+baboons in the Zoological Gardens; but sometimes the action seems rather
+to represent the searching for a stone or other object in their beds of
+straw.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Sutton has often observed the face of the <i>Macacus rhesus</i>, when
+much enraged, growing red. As he was mentioning this to me, another monkey
+attacked a <i>rhesus</i>, and I saw its face redden as plainly as that of
+a man in a violent passion. In the course of a few minutes, after the
+battle, the face of this monkey recovered its natural tint. At the same
+time that the face reddened, the naked posterior part of the body, which
+is always red, seemed to grow still redder; but I cannot positively assert
+that this was the case. When the Mandrill is in any way excited, the
+brilliantly coloured, naked parts of the skin are said to become still
+more vividly coloured.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With several species of baboons the ridge of the forehead projects much
+over the eyes, and is studded with a few long hairs, representing our
+eyebrows. These animals are always looking about them, and in order to
+look upwards they raise their eyebrows. They have thus, as it would
+appear, acquired the habit of frequently moving their eyebrows. However
+this may be, many kinds of monkeys, especially the baboons, when angered
+or in any way excited, rapidly and incessantly move their eyebrows up and
+down, as well as the hairy skin of their foreheads.<a href="#linknote-515"
+name="linknoteref-515" id="linknoteref-515">[515]</a> As we associate in
+the case of man the raising and lowering of the eyebrows with definite
+states of the mind, the almost incessant movement of the eyebrows by
+monkeys gives them a senseless expression. I once observed a man who had a
+trick of continually raising his eyebrows without any corresponding
+emotion, and this gave to him a foolish appearance; so it is with some
+persons who keep the corners of their mouths a little drawn backwards and
+upwards, as if by an incipient smile, though at the time they are not
+amused or pleased.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A young orang, made jealous by her keeper attending to another monkey,
+slightly uncovered her teeth, and, uttering a peevish noise like <i>tish-shist</i>,
+turned her back on him. Both orangs and chimpanzees, when a little more
+angered, protrude their lips greatly, and make a harsh barking noise. A
+young female chimpanzee, in a violent passion, presented a curious
+resemblance to a child in the same state. She screamed loudly with widely
+open mouth, the lips being retracted so that the teeth were fully exposed.
+She threw her arms wildly about, sometimes clasping them over her head.
+She rolled on the ground, sometimes on her back, sometimes on her belly,
+and bit everything within reach. A young gibbon (<i>Hylobates syndactylus</i>)
+in a passion has been described<a href="#linknote-516"
+name="linknoteref-516" id="linknoteref-516">[516]</a> as behaving in
+almost exactly the same manner.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The lips of young orangs and chimpanzees are protruded, sometimes to a
+wonderful degree, under various circumstances. They act thus, not only
+when slightly angered, sulky, or disappointed, but when alarmed at
+anything&mdash;in one instance, at the sight of a turtle,<a
+href="#linknote-517" name="linknoteref-517" id="linknoteref-517">[517]</a>&mdash;and
+likewise when pleased. But neither the degree of protrusion nor the shape
+of the mouth is exactly the same, as I believe, in all cases; and the
+sounds which are then uttered are different. The accompanying drawing
+represents a chimpanzee made sulky by an orange having been offered him,
+and then taken away. A similar protrusion or pouting of the lips, though
+to a much slighter degree, may be seen in sulky children.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0017" id="linkimage-0017">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig18.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Chimpanzee Disappointed and Sulky. Fig. 18 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Many years ago, in the Zoological Gardens, I placed a looking-glass on the
+floor before two young orangs, who, as far as it was known, had never
+before seen one. At first they gazed at their own images with the most
+steady surprise, and often changed their point of view. They then
+approached close and protruded their lips towards the image, as if to kiss
+it, in exactly the same manner as they had previously done towards each
+other, when first placed, a few days before, in the same room. They next
+made all sorts of grimaces, and put themselves in various attitudes before
+the mirror; they pressed and rubbed the surface; they placed their hands
+at different distances behind it; looked behind it; and finally seemed
+almost frightened, started a little, became cross, and refused to look any
+longer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When we try to perform some little action which is difficult and requires
+precision, for instance, to thread a needle, we generally close our lips
+firmly, for the sake, I presume, of not disturbing our movements by
+breathing; and I noticed the same action in a young Orang. The poor little
+creature was sick, and was amusing itself by trying to kill the flies on
+the window-panes with its knuckles; this was difficult as the flies buzzed
+about, and at each attempt the lips were firmly compressed, and at the
+same time slightly protruded.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although the countenances, and more especially the gestures, of orangs and
+chimpanzees are in some respects highly expressive, I doubt whether on the
+whole they are so expressive as those of some other kinds of monkeys. This
+may be attributed in part to their ears being immovable, and in part to
+the nakedness of their eyebrows, of which the movements are thus rendered
+less conspicuous. When, however, they raise their eyebrows their foreheads
+become, as with us, transversely wrinkled. In comparison with man, their
+faces are inexpressive, chiefly owing to their not frowning under any
+emotion of the mind&mdash;that is, as far as I have been able to observe,
+and I carefully attended to this point. Frowning, which is one of the most
+important of all the expressions in man, is due to the contraction of the
+corrugators by which the eyebrows are lowered and brought together, so
+that vertical furrows are formed on the forehead. Both the orang and
+chimpanzee are said<a href="#linknote-518" name="linknoteref-518"
+id="linknoteref-518">[518]</a> to possess this muscle, but it seems rarely
+brought into action, at least in a conspicuous manner. I made my hands
+into a sort of cage, and placing some tempting fruit within, allowed both
+a young orang and chimpanzee to try their utmost to get it out; but
+although they grew rather cross, they showed not a trace of a frown. Nor
+was there any frown when they were enraged. Twice I took two chimpanzees
+from their rather dark room suddenly into bright sunshine, which would
+certainly have caused us to frown; they blinked and winked their eyes, but
+only once did I see a very slight frown. On another occasion, I tickled
+the nose of a chimpanzee with a straw, and as it crumpled up its face,
+slight vertical furrows appeared between the eyebrows. I have never seen a
+frown on the forehead of the orang.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The gorilla, when enraged, is described as erecting its crest of hair,
+throwing down its under lip, dilating its nostrils, and uttering terrific
+yells. Messrs. Savage and Wyman<a href="#linknote-519"
+name="linknoteref-519" id="linknoteref-519">[519]</a> state that the scalp
+can be freely moved backwards and forwards, and that when the animal is
+excited it is strongly contracted; but I presume that they mean by this
+latter expression that the scalp is lowered; for they likewise speak of
+the young chimpanzee, when crying out, as having the eyebrows strongly
+contracted. The great power of movement in the scalp of the gorilla, of
+many baboons and other monkeys, deserves notice in relation to the power
+possessed by some few men, either through reversion or persistence, of
+voluntarily moving their scalps.<a href="#linknote-520"
+name="linknoteref-520" id="linknoteref-520">[520]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Astonishment, Terror</i>&mdash;A living fresh-water turtle was placed
+at my request in the same compartment in the Zoological Gardens with many
+monkeys; and they showed unbounded astonishment, as well as some fear.
+This was displayed by their remaining motionless, staring intently with
+widely opened eyes, their eyebrows being often moved up and down. Their
+faces seemed somewhat lengthened. They occasionally raised themselves on
+their hind-legs to get abetter view. They often retreated a few feet, and
+then turning their heads over one shoulder, again stared intently. It was
+curious to observe how much less afraid they were of the turtle than of a
+living snake which I had formerly placed in their compartment;<a
+href="#linknote-521" name="linknoteref-521" id="linknoteref-521">[521]</a>
+for in the course of a few minutes some of the monkeys ventured to
+approach and touch the turtle. On the other hand, some of the larger
+baboons were greatly terrified, and grinned as if on the point of
+screaming out. When I showed a little dressed-up doll to the <i>Cynopithecus
+niger</i>, it stood motionless, stared intently with widely opened eyes,
+and advanced its ears a little forwards. But when the turtle was placed in
+its compartment, this monkey also moved its lips in an odd, rapid,
+jabbering manner, which the keeper declared was meant to conciliate or
+please the turtle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I was never able clearly to perceive that the eyebrows of astonished
+monkeys were kept permanently raised, though they were frequently moved up
+and down. Attention, which precedes astonishment, is expressed by man by a
+slight raising of the eyebrows; and Dr. Duchenne informs me that when he
+gave to the monkey formerly mentioned some quite new article of food, it
+elevated its eyebrows a little, thus assuming an appearance of close
+attention. It then took the food in its fingers, and, with lowered or
+rectilinear eyebrows, scratched, smelt, and examined it,&mdash;an
+expression of reflection being thus exhibited. Sometimes it would throw
+back its head a little, and again with suddenly raised eyebrows re-examine
+and finally taste the food.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In no case did any monkey keep its mouth open when it was astonished. Mr.
+Sutton observed for me a young orang and chimpanzee during a considerable
+length of time; and however much they were astonished, or whilst listening
+intently to some strange sound, they did not keep their mouths open. This
+fact is surprising, as with mankind hardly any expression is more general
+than a widely open mouth under the sense of astonishment. As far as I have
+been able to observe, monkeys breathe more freely through their nostrils
+than men do; and this may account for their not opening their mouths when
+they are astonished; for, as we shall see in a future chapter, man
+apparently acts in this manner when startled, at first for the sake of
+quickly drawing a full inspiration, and afterwards for the sake of
+breathing as quietly as possible.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Terror is expressed by many kinds of monkeys by the utterance of shrill
+screams; the lips being drawn back, so that the teeth are exposed. The
+hair becomes erect, especially when some anger is likewise felt. Mr.
+Sutton has distinctly seen the face of the <i>Macacus rhesus</i> grow pale
+from fear. Monkeys also tremble from fear; and sometimes they void their
+excretions. I have seen one which, when caught, almost fainted from an
+excess of terror.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Sufficient facts have now been given with respect to the expressions of
+various animals. It is impossible to agree with Sir C. Bell when he says<a
+href="#linknote-522" name="linknoteref-522" id="linknoteref-522">[522]</a>
+that &ldquo;the faces of animals seem chiefly capable of expressing rage and
+fear;&rdquo; and again, when he says that all their expressions &ldquo;may be
+referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary
+instincts.&rdquo; He who will look at a dog preparing to attack another dog or a
+man, and at the same animal when caressing his master, or will watch the
+countenance of a monkey when insulted, and when fondled by his keeper,
+will be forced to admit that the movements of their features and their
+gestures are almost as expressive as those of man. Although no explanation
+can be given of some of the expressions in the lower animals, the greater
+number are explicable in accordance with the three principles given at the
+commencement of the first chapter.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"></a>
+CHAPTER VI.<br/>SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The screaming and weeping of infants&mdash;Forms of features&mdash;Age at
+which weeping commences&mdash;The effects of habitual restraint on weeping&mdash;Sobbing&mdash;Cause
+of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during screaming&mdash;Cause
+of the secretion of tears.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+In this and the following chapters the expressions exhibited by Man under
+various states of the mind will be described and explained, as far as lies
+in my power. My observations will be arranged according to the order which
+I have found the most convenient; and this will generally lead to opposite
+emotions and sensations succeeding each other.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Suffering of the body and mind: weeping</i>.&mdash;I have already
+described in sufficient detail, in the third chapter, the signs of extreme
+pain, as shown by screams or groans, with the writhing of the whole body
+and the teeth clenched or ground together. These signs are often
+accompanied or followed by profuse sweating, pallor, trembling, utter
+prostration, or faintness. No suffering is greater than that from extreme
+fear or horror, but here a distinct emotion comes into play, and will be
+elsewhere considered. Prolonged suffering, especially of the mind, passes
+into low spirits, grief, dejection, and despair, and these states will be
+the subject of the following chapter. Here I shall almost confine myself
+to weeping or crying, more especially in children.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Infants, when suffering even slight pain, moderate hunger, or discomfort,
+utter violent and prolonged screams. Whilst thus screaming their eyes are
+firmly closed, so that the skin round them is wrinkled, and the forehead
+contracted into a frown. The mouth is widely opened with the lips
+retracted in a peculiar manner, which causes it to assume a squarish form;
+the gums or teeth being more or less exposed. The breath is inhaled almost
+spasmodically. It is easy to observe infants whilst screaming; but I have
+found photographs made by the instantaneous process the best means for
+observation, as allowing more deliberation. I have collected twelve, most
+of them made purposely for me; and they all exhibit the same general
+characteristics. I have, therefore, had six of them<a href="#linknote-601"
+name="linknoteref-601" id="linknoteref-601">[601]</a> (Plate I.)
+reproduced by the heliotype process.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0018" id="linkimage-0018">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/plate-1.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Screaming Infants. Plate I. " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The firm closing of the eyelids and consequent compression of the eyeball,&mdash;and
+this is a most important element in various expressions,&mdash;serves to
+protect the eyes from becoming too much gorged with blood, as will
+presently be explained in detail. With respect to the order in which the
+several muscles contract in firmly compressing the eyes, I am indebted to
+Dr. Langstaff, of Southampton, for some observations, which I have since
+repeated. The best plan for observing the order is to make a person first
+raise his eyebrows, and this produces transverse wrinkles across the
+forehead; and then very gradually to contract all the muscles round the
+elves with as much force as possible. The reader who is unacquainted with
+the anatomy of the face, ought to refer to p. 24, and look at the woodcuts
+1 to 3. The corrugators of the brow (<i>corrugator supercilii</i>) seem to
+be the first muscles to contract; and these draw the eyebrows downwards
+and inwards towards the base of the nose, causing vertical furrows, that
+is a frown, to appear between the eyebrows; at the same time they cause
+the disappearance of the transverse wrinkles across the forehead. The
+orbicular muscles contract almost simultaneously with the corrugators, and
+produce wrinkles all round the eyes; they appear, however, to be enabled
+to contract with greater force, as soon as the contraction of the
+corrugators has given them some support. Lastly, the pyramidal muscles of
+the nose contract; and these draw the eyebrows and the skin of the
+forehead still lower down, producing short transverse wrinkles across the
+base of the nose.<a href="#linknote-602" name="linknoteref-602"
+id="linknoteref-602">[602]</a> For the sake of brevity these muscles will
+generally be spoken of as the orbiculars, or as those surrounding the
+eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When these muscles are strongly contracted, those running to the upper lip<a
+href="#linknote-603" name="linknoteref-603" id="linknoteref-603">[603]</a>
+likewise contract and raise the upper lip. This might have been expected
+from the manner in which at least one of them, the <i>malaris</i>, is
+connected with the orbiculars. Any one who will gradually contract the
+muscles round his eyes, will feel, as he increases the force, that his
+upper lip and the wings of his nose (which are partly acted on by one of
+the same muscles) are almost always a little drawn up. If he keeps his
+mouth firmly shut whilst contracting the muscles round the eyes, and then
+suddenly relaxes his lips, he will feel that the pressure on his eyes
+immediately increases. So again when a person on a bright, glaring day
+wishes to look at a distant object, but is compelled partially to close
+his eyelids, the upper lip may almost always be observed to be somewhat
+raised. The mouths of some very short-sighted persons, who are forced
+habitually to reduce the aperture of their eyes, wear from this same
+reason a grinning expression.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The raising of the upper lip draws upwards the flesh of the upper parts of
+the cheeks, and produces a strongly marked fold on each cheek,&mdash;the
+naso-labial fold,&mdash;which runs from near the wings of the nostrils to
+the corners of the mouth and below them. This fold or furrow may be seen
+in all the photographs, and is very characteristic of the expression of a
+crying child; though a nearly similar fold is produced in the act of
+laughing or smiling.<a href="#linknote-604" name="linknoteref-604"
+id="linknoteref-604">[604]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the upper lip is much drawn up during the act of screaming, in the
+manner just explained, the depressor muscles of the angles of the mouth
+(see K in woodcuts 1 and 2) are strongly contracted in order to keep the
+mouth widely open, so that a full volume of sound may be poured forth. The
+action of these opposed muscles, above and below, tends to give to the
+mouth an oblong, almost squarish outline, as may be seen in the
+accompanying photographs. An excellent observer,<a href="#linknote-605"
+name="linknoteref-605" id="linknoteref-605">[605]</a> in describing a baby
+crying whilst being fed, says, &ldquo;it made its mouth like a square, and let
+the porridge run out at all four corners.&rdquo; I believe, but we shall return
+to this point in a future chapter, that the depressor muscles of the
+angles of the mouth are less under the separate control of the will than
+the adjoining muscles; so that if a young child is only doubtfully
+inclined to cry, this muscle is generally the first to contract, and is
+the last to cease contracting. When older children commence crying, the
+muscles which run to the upper lip are often the first to contract; and
+this may perhaps be due to older children not having so strong a tendency
+to scream loudly, and consequently to keep their mouths widely open; so
+that the above-named depressor muscles are not brought into such strong
+action.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With one of my own infants, from his eighth day and for some time
+afterwards, I often observed that the first sign of a screaming-fit, when
+it could be observed coming on gradually, was a little frown, owing to the
+contraction of the corrugators of the brows; the capillaries of the naked
+head and face becoming at the same time reddened with blood. As soon as
+the screaming-fit actually began, all the muscles round the eyes were
+strongly contracted, and the mouth widely opened in the manner above
+described; so that at this early period the features assumed the same form
+as at a more advanced age.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Piderit<a href="#linknote-606" name="linknoteref-606"
+id="linknoteref-606">[606]</a> lays great stress on the contraction of
+certain muscles which draw down the nose and narrow the nostrils, as
+eminently characteristic of a crying expression. The <i>depressores anguli
+oris</i>, as we have just seen, are usually contracted at the same time,
+and they indirectly tend, according to Dr. Duchenne, to act in this same
+manner on the nose. With children having bad colds a similar pinched
+appearance of the nose may be noticed, which is at least partly due, as
+remarked to me by Dr. Langstaff, to their constant snuffling, and the
+consequent pressure of the atmosphere on the two sides. The purpose of
+this contraction of the nostrils by children having bad colds, or whilst
+crying, seems to be to check the downward flow of the mucus and tears, and
+to prevent these fluids spreading over the upper lip.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+After a prolonged and severe screaming-fit, the scalp, face, and eyes are
+reddened, owing to the return of the blood from the head having been
+impeded by the violent expiratory efforts; but the redness of the
+stimulated eyes is chiefly due to the copious effusion of tears. The
+various muscles of the face which have been strongly contracted, still
+twitch a little, and the upper lip is still slightly drawn up or everted,<a
+href="#linknote-607" name="linknoteref-607" id="linknoteref-607">[607]</a>
+with the corners of the mouth still a little drawn downwards. I have
+myself felt, and have observed in other grown-up persons, that when tears
+are restrained with difficulty, as in reading a pathetic story, it is
+almost impossible to prevent the various muscles. which with young
+children are brought into strong action during their screaming-fits, from
+slightly twitching or trembling.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Infants whilst young do not shed tears or weep, as is well known to nurses
+and medical men. This circumstance is not exclusively due to the lacrymal
+glands being as yet incapable of secreting tears. I first noticed this
+fact from having accidentally brushed with the cuff of my coat the open
+eye of one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old, causing this eye to
+water freely; and though the child screamed violently, the other eye
+remained dry, or was only slightly suffused with tears. A similar slight
+effusion occurred ten days previously in both eyes during a screaming-fit.
+The tears did not run over the eyelids and roll down the cheeks of this
+child, whilst screaming badly, when 122 days old. This first happened 17
+days later, at the age of 139 days. A few other children have been
+observed for me, and the period of free weeping appears to be very
+variable. In one case, the eyes became slightly suffused at the age of
+only 20 days; in another, at 62 days. With two other children, the tears
+did NOT run down the face at the ages of 84 and 110 days; but in a third
+child they did run down at the age of 104 days. In one instance, as I was
+positively assured, tears ran down at the unusually early age of 42 days.
+It would appear as if the lacrymal glands required some practice in the
+individual before they are easily excited into action, in somewhat the
+same manner as various inherited consensual movements and tastes require
+some exercise before they are fixed and perfected. This is all the more
+likely with a habit like weeping, which must have been acquired since the
+period when man branched off from the common progenitor of the genus Homo
+and of the non-weeping anthropomorphous apes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The fact of tears not being shed at a very early age from pain or any
+mental emotion is remarkable, as, later in life, no expression is more
+general or more strongly marked than weeping. When the habit has once been
+acquired by an infant, it expresses in the clearest manner suffering of
+all kinds, both bodily pain and mental distress, even though accompanied
+by other emotions, such as fear or rage. The character of the crying,
+however, changes at a very early age, as I noticed in my own infants,&mdash;the
+passionate cry differing from that of grief. A lady informs me that her
+child, nine months old, when in a passion screams loudly, but does not
+weep; tears, however, are shed when she is punished by her chair being
+turned with its back to the table. This difference may perhaps be
+attributed to weeping being restrained, as we shall immediately see, at a
+more advanced age, under most circumstances excepting grief; and to the
+influence of such restraint being transmitted to an earlier period of
+life, than that at which it was first practised.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With adults, especially of the male sex, weeping soon ceases to be caused
+by, or to express, bodily pain. This may be accounted for by its being
+thought weak and unmanly by men, both of civilized and barbarous races, to
+exhibit bodily pain by any outward sign. With this exception, savages weep
+copiously from very slight causes, of which fact Sir J. Lubbock<a
+href="#linknote-608" name="linknoteref-608" id="linknoteref-608">[608]</a>
+has collected instances. A New Zealand chief &ldquo;cried like a child because
+the sailors spoilt his favourite cloak by powdering it with flour.&rdquo; I saw
+in Tierra del Fuego a native who had lately lost a brother, and who
+alternately cried with hysterical violence, and laughed heartily at
+anything which amused him. With the civilized nations of Europe there is
+also much difference in the frequency of weeping. Englishmen rarely cry,
+except under the pressure of the acutest grief; whereas in some parts of
+the Continent the men shed tears much more readily and freely.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The insane notoriously give way to all their emotions with little or no
+restraint; and I am informed by Dr. J. Crichton Browne, that nothing is
+more characteristic of simple melancholia, even in the male sex, than a
+tendency to weep on the slightest occasions, or from no cause. They also
+weep disproportionately on the occurrence of any real cause of grief. The
+length of time during which some patients weep is astonishing, as well as
+the amount of tears which they shed. One melancholic girl wept for a whole
+day, and afterwards confessed to Dr. Browne, that it was because she
+remembered that she had once shaved off her eyebrows to promote their
+growth. Many patients in the asylum sit for a long time rocking themselves
+backwards and forwards; &ldquo;and if spoken to, they stop their movements,
+purse up their eyes, depress the corners of the mouth, and burst out
+crying.&rdquo; In some of these cases, the being spoken to or kindly greeted
+appears to suggest some fanciful and sorrowful notion; but in other cases
+an effort of any kind excites weeping, independently of any sorrowful
+idea. Patients suffering from acute mania likewise have paroxysms of
+violent crying or blubbering, in the midst of their incoherent ravings. We
+must not, however, lay too much stress on the copious shedding of tears by
+the insane, as being due to the lack of all restraint; for certain
+brain-diseases, as hemiplegia, brain-wasting, and senile decay, have a
+special tendency to induce weeping. Weeping is common in the insane, even
+after a complete state of fatuity has been reached and the power of speech
+lost. Persons born idiotic likewise weep;<a href="#linknote-609"
+name="linknoteref-609" id="linknoteref-609">[609]</a> but it is said that
+this is not the case with cretins.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Weeping seems to be the primary and natural expression, as we see in
+children, of suffering of any kind, whether bodily pain short of extreme
+agony, or mental distress. But the foregoing facts and common experience
+show us that a frequently repeated effort to restrain weeping, in
+association with certain states of the mind, does much in checking the
+habit. On the other hand, it appears that the power of weeping can be
+increased through habit; thus the Rev. R. Taylor,<a href="#linknote-610"
+name="linknoteref-610" id="linknoteref-610">[610]</a> who long resided in
+New Zealand, asserts that the women can voluntarily shed tears in
+abundance; they meet for this purpose to mourn for the dead, and they take
+pride in crying &ldquo;in the most affecting manner.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A single effort of repression brought to bear on the lacrymal glands does
+little, and indeed seems often to lead to an opposite result. An old and
+experienced physician told me that he had always found that the only means
+to check the occasional bitter weeping of ladies who consulted him, and
+who themselves wished to desist, was earnestly to beg them not to try, and
+to assure them that nothing would relieve them so much as prolonged and
+copious crying.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The screaming of infants consists of prolonged expirations, with short and
+rapid, almost spasmodic inspirations, followed at a somewhat more advanced
+age by sobbing. According to Gratiolet,<a href="#linknote-611"
+name="linknoteref-611" id="linknoteref-611">[611]</a> the glottis is
+chiefly affected during the act of sobbing. This sound is heard &ldquo;at the
+moment when the inspiration conquers the resistance of the glottis, and
+the air rushes into the chest.&rdquo; But the whole act of respiration is
+likewise spasmodic and violent. The shoulders are at the same time
+generally raised, as by this movement respiration is rendered easier. With
+one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old, the inspirations were so
+rapid and strong that they approached in character to sobbing; when 138
+days old I first noticed distinct sobbing, which subsequently followed
+every bad crying-fit. The respiratory movements are partly voluntary and
+partly involuntary, and I apprehend that sobbing is at least in part due
+to children having some power to command after early infancy their vocal
+organs and to stop their screams, but from having less power over their
+respiratory muscles, these continue for a time to act in an involuntary or
+spasmodic manner, after having been brought into violent action. Sobbing
+seems to be peculiar to the human species; for the keepers in the
+Zoological Gardens assure me that they have never heard a sob from any
+kind of monkey; though monkeys often scream loudly whilst being chased and
+caught, and then pant for a long time. We thus see that there is a close
+analogy between sobbing and the free shedding of tears; for with children,
+sobbing does not commence during early infancy, but afterwards comes on
+rather suddenly and then follows every bad crying-fit, until the habit is
+checked with advancing years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>On the cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during
+screaming</i>.&mdash;We have seen that infants and young children, whilst
+screaming, invariably close their eyes firmly, by the contraction of the
+surrounding muscles, so that the skin becomes wrinkled all around. With
+older children, and even with adults, whenever there is violent and
+unrestrained crying, a tendency to the contraction of these same muscles
+may be observed; though this is often checked in order not to interfere
+with vision.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sir C. Bell explains<a href="#linknote-612" name="linknoteref-612"
+id="linknoteref-612">[612]</a> this action in the following manner:&mdash;&ldquo;During
+every violent act of expiration, whether in hearty laughter, weeping,
+coughing, or sneezing, the eyeball is firmly compressed by the fibres of
+the orbicularis; and this is a provision for supporting and defending the
+vascular system of the interior of the eye from a retrograde impulse
+communicated to the blood in the veins at that time. When we contract the
+chest and expel the air, there is a retardation of the blood in the veins
+of the neck and head; and in the more powerful acts of expulsion, the
+blood not only distends the vessels, but is even regurgitated into the
+minute branches. Were the eye not properly compressed at that time, and a
+resistance given to the shock, irreparable injury might be inflicted on
+the delicate textures of the interior of the eye.&rdquo; He further adds, &ldquo;If we
+separate the eyelids of a child to examine the eye, while it cries and
+struggles with passion, by taking off the natural support to the vascular
+system of the eye, and means of guarding it against the rush of blood then
+occurring, the conjunctiva becomes suddenly filled with blood, and the
+eyelids everted.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Not only are the muscles round the eyes strongly contracted, as Sir C.
+Bell states and as I have often observed, during screaming, loud laughter,
+coughing, and sneezing, but during several other analogous actions. A man
+contracts these muscles when he violently blows his nose. I asked one of
+my boys to shout as loudly as he possibly could, and as soon as he began,
+he firmly contracted his orbicular muscles; I observed this repeatedly,
+and on asking him why he had every time so firmly closed his eyes, I found
+that he was quite unaware of the fact: he had acted instinctively or
+unconsciously.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is not necessary, in order to lead to the contraction of these muscles,
+that air should actually be expelled from the chest; it suffices that the
+muscles of the chest and abdomen should contract with great force, whilst
+by the closure of the glottis no air escapes. In violent vomiting or
+retching the diaphragm is made to descend by the chest being filled with
+air; it is then held in this position by the closure of the glottis, &ldquo;as
+well as by the contraction of its own fibres.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-613"
+name="linknoteref-613" id="linknoteref-613">[613]</a> The abdominal
+muscles now contract strongly upon the stomach, its proper muscles
+likewise contracting, and the contents are thus ejected. During each
+effort of vomiting &ldquo;the head becomes greatly congested, so that the
+features are red and swollen, and the large veins of the face and temples
+visibly dilated.&rdquo; At the same time, as I know from observation, the
+muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted. This is likewise the case
+when the abdominal muscles act downwards with unusual force in expelling
+the contents of the intestinal canal.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The greatest exertion of the muscles of the body, if those of the chest
+are not brought into strong action in expelling or compressing the air
+within the lungs, does not lead to the contraction of the muscles round
+the eyes. I have observed my sons using great force in gymnastic
+exercises, as in repeatedly raising their suspended bodies by their arms
+alone, and in lifting heavy weights from the ground, but there was hardly
+any trace of contraction in the muscles round the eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the contraction of these muscles for the protection of the eyes during
+violent expiration is indirectly, as we shall hereafter see, a fundamental
+element in several of our most important expressions, I was extremely
+anxious to ascertain how far Sir C. Bell&rsquo;s view could be substantiated.
+Professor Donders, of Utrecht,<a href="#linknote-614"
+name="linknoteref-614" id="linknoteref-614">[614]</a> well known as one of
+the highest authorities in Europe on vision and on the structure of the
+eye, has most kindly undertaken for me this investigation with the aid of
+the many ingenious mechanisms of modern science, and has published the
+results.<a href="#linknote-615" name="linknoteref-615" id="linknoteref-615">[615]</a>
+He shows that during violent expiration the external, the intra-ocular,
+and the retro-ocular vessels of the eye are all affected in two ways,
+namely by the increased pressure of the blood in the arteries, and by the
+return of the blood in the veins being impeded. It is, therefore, certain
+that both the arteries and the veins of the eye are more or less distended
+during violent expiration. The evidence in detail may be found in
+Professor Donders&rsquo; valuable memoir. We see the effects on the veins of the
+head, in their prominence, and in the purple colour of the face of a man
+who coughs violently from being half choked. I may mention, on the same
+authority, that the whole eye certainly advances a little during each
+violent expiration. This is due to the dilatation of the retro-ocular
+vessels, and might have been expected from the intimate connection of the
+eye and brain; the brain being known to rise and fall with each
+respiration, when a portion of the skull has been removed; and as may be
+seen along the unclosed sutures of infants&rsquo; heads. This also, I presume,
+is the reason that the eyes of a strangled man appear as if they were
+starting from their sockets.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With respect to the protection of the eye during violent expiratory
+efforts by the pressure of the eyelids, Professor Donders concludes from
+his various observations that this action certainly limits or entirely
+removes the dilatation of the vessels.<a href="#linknote-616"
+name="linknoteref-616" id="linknoteref-616">[616]</a> At such times, he
+adds, we not unfrequently see the hand involuntarily laid upon the
+eyelids, as if the better to support and defend the eyeball.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nevertheless much evidence cannot at present be advanced to prove that the
+eye actually suffers injury from the want of support during violent
+expiration; but there is some. It is &ldquo;a fact that forcible expiratory
+efforts in violent coughing or vomiting, and especially in sneezing,
+sometimes give rise to ruptures of the little (external) vessels&rdquo; of the
+eye.<a href="#linknote-617" name="linknoteref-617" id="linknoteref-617">[617]</a>
+With respect to the internal vessels, Dr. Gunning has lately recorded a
+case of exophthalmos in consequence of whooping-cough, which in his
+opinion depended on the rupture of the deeper vessels; and another
+analogous case has been recorded. But a mere sense of discomfort would
+probably suffice to lead to the associated habit of protecting the eyeball
+by the contraction of the surrounding muscles. Even the expectation or
+chance of injury would probably be sufficient, in the same manner as an
+object moving too near the eye induces involuntary winking of the eyelids.
+We may, therefore, safely conclude from Sir C. Bell&rsquo;s observations, and
+more especially from the more careful investigations by Professor Donders,
+that the firm closure of the eyelids during the screaming of children is
+an action full of meaning and of real service.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have already seen that the contraction of the orbicular muscles leads
+to the drawing up of the upper lip, and consequently, if the mouth is kept
+widely open, to the drawing down of the corners by the contraction of the
+depressor muscles. The formation of the naso-labial fold on the cheeks
+likewise follows from the drawing up of the upper lip. Thus all the chief
+expressive movements of the face during crying apparently result from the
+contraction of the muscles round the eyes. We shall also find that the
+shedding of tears depends on, or at least stands in some connection with,
+the contraction of these same muscles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In some of the foregoing cases, especially in those of sneezing and
+coughing, it is possible that the contraction of the orbicular muscles may
+serve in addition to protect the eyes from too severe a jar or vibration.
+I think so, because dogs and cats, in crunching hard bones, always close
+their eyelids, and at least sometimes in sneezing; though dogs do not do
+so whilst barking loudly. Mr. Sutton carefully observed for me a young
+orang and chimpanzee, and he found that both always closed their eyes in
+sneezing and coughing, but not whilst screaming violently. I gave a small
+pinch of snuff to a monkey of the American division, namely, a Cebus, and
+it closed its eyelids whilst sneezing; but not on a subsequent occasion
+whilst uttering loud cries.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Cause of the secretion of tears</i>.&mdash;It is an important fact
+which must be considered in any theory of the secretion of tears from the
+mind being affected, that whenever the muscles round the eyes are strongly
+and involuntarily contracted in order to compress the blood-vessels and
+thus to protect the eyes, tears are secreted, often in sufficient
+abundance to roll down the cheeks. This occurs under the most opposite
+emotions, and under no emotion at all. The sole exception, and this is
+only a partial one, to the existence of a relation between the involuntary
+and strong contraction of these muscles and the secretion of tears is that
+of young infants, who, whilst screaming violently with their eyelids
+firmly closed, do not commonly weep until they have attained the age of
+from two to three or four months. Their eyes, however, become suffused
+with tears at a much earlier age. It would appear, as already remarked,
+that the lacrymal glands do not, from the want of practice or some other
+cause, come to full functional activity at a very early period of life.
+With children at a somewhat later age, crying out or wailing from any
+distress is so regularly accompanied by the shedding of tears, that
+weeping and crying are synonymous terms.<a href="#linknote-618"
+name="linknoteref-618" id="linknoteref-618">[618]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Under the opposite emotion of great joy or amusement, as long as laughter
+is moderate there is hardly any contraction of the muscles round the eyes,
+so that there is no frowning; but when peals of loud laughter are uttered,
+with rapid and violent spasmodic expirations, tears stream down the face.
+I have more than once noticed the face of a person, after a paroxysm of
+violent laughter, and I could see that the orbicular muscles and those
+running to the upper lip were still partially contracted, which together
+with the tear-stained cheeks gave to the upper half of the face an
+expression not to be distinguished from that of a child still blubbering
+from grief. The fact of tears streaming down the face during violent
+laughter is common to all the races of mankind, as we shall see in a
+future chapter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In violent coughing especially when a person is half-choked, the face
+becomes purple, the veins distended, the orbicular muscles strongly
+contracted, and tears run down the cheeks. Even after a fit of ordinary
+coughing, almost every one has to wipe his eyes. In violent vomiting or
+retching, as I have myself experienced and seen in others, the orbicular
+muscles are strongly contracted, and tears sometimes flow freely down the
+cheeks. It has been suggested to me that this may be due to irritating
+matter being injected into the nostrils, and causing by reflex action the
+secretion of tears. Accordingly I asked one of my informants, a surgeon,
+to attend to the effects of retching when nothing was thrown up from the
+stomach; and, by an odd coincidence, he himself suffered the next morning
+from an attack of retching, and three days subsequently observed a lady
+under a similar attack; and he is certain that in neither case an atom of
+matter was ejected from the stomach; yet the orbicular muscles were
+strongly contracted, and tears freely secreted. I can also speak
+positively to the energetic contraction of these same muscles round the
+eyes, and to the coincident free secretion of tears, when the abdominal
+muscles act with unusual force in a downward direction on the intestinal
+canal.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Yawning commences with a deep inspiration, followed by a long and forcible
+expiration; and at the same time almost all the muscles of the body are
+strongly contracted, including those round the eyes. During this act tears
+are often secreted, and I have seen them even rolling down the cheeks.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have frequently observed that when persons scratch some point which
+itches intolerably, they forcibly close their eyelids; but they do not, as
+I believe, first draw a deep breath and then expel it with force; and I
+have never noticed that the eyes then become filled with tears; but I am
+not prepared to assert that this does not occur. The forcible closure of
+the eyelids is, perhaps, merely a part of that general action by which
+almost all the muscles of the body are at the same time rendered rigid. It
+is quite different from the gentle closure of the eyes which often
+accompanies, as Gratiolet remarks,<a href="#linknote-619"
+name="linknoteref-619" id="linknoteref-619">[619]</a> the smelling a
+delicious odour, or the tasting a delicious morsel, and which probably
+originates in the desire to shut out any disturbing impression through the
+eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Professor Donders writes to me to the following effect: &ldquo;I have observed
+some cases of a very curious affection when, after a slight rub (<i>attouchement</i>),
+for example, from the friction of a coat, which caused neither a wound nor
+a contusion, spasms of the orbicular muscles occurred, with a very profuse
+flow of tears, lasting about one hour. Subsequently, sometimes after an
+interval of several weeks, violent spasms of the same muscles re-occurred,
+accompanied by the secretion of tears, together with primary or secondary
+redness of the eye.&rdquo; Mr. Bowman informs me that he has occasionally
+observed closely analogous cases, and that, in some of these, there was no
+redness or inflammation of the eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I was anxious to ascertain whether there existed in any of the lower
+animals a similar relation between the contraction of the orbicular
+muscles during violent expiration and the secretion of tears; but there
+are very few animals which contract these muscles in a prolonged manner,
+or which shed tears. <i>The Macacus maurus</i>, which formerly wept so
+copiously in the Zoological Gardens, would have been a fine case for
+observation; but the two monkeys now there, and which are believed to
+belong to the same species, do not weep. Nevertheless they were carefully
+observed by Mr. Bartlett and myself, whilst screaming loudly, and they
+seemed to contract these muscles; but they moved about their cages so
+rapidly, that it was difficult to observe with certainty. No other monkey,
+as far as I have been able to ascertain, contracts its orbicular muscles
+whilst screaming.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Indian elephant is known sometimes to weep. Sir E. Tennent, in
+describing these which he saw captured and bound in Ceylon, says, some
+&ldquo;lay motionless on the ground, with no other indication of suffering than
+the tears which suffused their eyes and flowed incessantly.&rdquo; Speaking of
+another elephant he says, &ldquo;When overpowered and made fast, his grief was
+most affecting; his violence sank to utter prostration, and he lay on the
+ground, uttering choking cries, with tears trickling down his cheeks.&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-620" name="linknoteref-620" id="linknoteref-620">[620]</a>
+In the Zoological Gardens the keeper of the Indian elephants positively
+asserts that he has several times seen tears rolling down the face of the
+old female, when distressed by the removal of the young one. Hence I was
+extremely anxious to ascertain, as an extension of the relation between
+the contraction of the orbicular muscles and the shedding of tears in man,
+whether elephants when screaming or trumpeting loudly contract these
+muscles. At Mr. Bartlett&rsquo;s desire the keeper ordered the old and the young
+elephant to trumpet; and we repeatedly saw in both animals that, just as
+the trumpeting began, the orbicular muscles, especially the lower ones,
+were distinctly contracted. On a subsequent occasion the keeper made the
+old elephant trumpet much more loudly, and invariably both the upper and
+lower orbicular muscles were strongly contracted, and now in an equal
+degree. It is a singular fact that the African elephant, which, however,
+is so different from the Indian species that it is placed by some
+naturalists in a distinct sub-genus, when made on two occasions to trumpet
+loudly, exhibited no trace of the contraction of the orbicular muscles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the several foregoing cases with respect to Man, there can, I think,
+be no doubt that the contraction of the muscles round the eyes, during
+violent expiration or when the expanded chest is forcibly compressed, is,
+in some manner, intimately connected with the secretion of tears. This
+holds good under widely different emotions, and independently of any
+emotion. It is not, of course, meant that tears cannot be secreted without
+the contraction of these muscles; for it is notorious that they are often
+freely shed with the eyelids not closed, and with the brows unwrinkled.
+The contraction must be both involuntary and prolonged, as during a
+choking fit, or energetic, as during a sneeze. The mere involuntary
+winking of the eyelids, though often repeated, does not bring tears into
+the eyes. Nor does the voluntary and prolonged contraction of the several
+surrounding muscles suffice. As the lacrymal glands of children are easily
+excited, I persuaded my own and several other children of different ages
+to contract these muscles repeatedly with their utmost force, and to
+continue doing so as long as they possibly could; but this produced hardly
+any effect. There was sometimes a little moisture in the eyes, but not
+more than apparently could be accounted for by the squeezing out of the
+already secreted tears within the glands.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The nature of the relation between the involuntary and energetic
+contraction of the muscles round the eyes, and the secretion of tears,
+cannot be positively ascertained, but a probable view may be suggested.
+The primary function of the secretion of tears, together with some mucus,
+is to lubricate the surface of the eye; and a secondary one, as some
+believe, is to keep the nostrils damp, so that the inhaled air may be
+moist,<a href="#linknote-621" name="linknoteref-621" id="linknoteref-621">[621]</a>
+and likewise to favour the power of smelling. But another, and at least
+equally important function of tears, is to wash out particles of dust or
+other minute objects which may get into the eyes. That this is of great
+importance is clear from the cases in which the cornea has been rendered
+opaque through inflammation, caused by particles of dust not being
+removed, in consequence of the eye and eyelid becoming immovable.<a
+href="#linknote-622" name="linknoteref-622" id="linknoteref-622">[622]</a>
+The secretion of tears from the irritation of any foreign body in the eye
+is a reflex action;&mdash;that is, the body irritates a peripheral nerve
+which sends an impression to certain sensory nerve-cells; these transmit
+an influence to other cells, and these again to the lacrymal glands. The
+influence transmitted to these glands causes, as there is good reason to
+believe, the relaxation of the muscular coats of the smaller arteries;
+this allows more blood to permeate the glandular tissue, and this induces
+a free secretion of tears. When the small arteries of the face, including
+those of the retina, are relaxed under very different circumstances,
+namely, during an intense blush, the lacrymal glands are sometimes
+affected in a like manner, for the eyes become suffused with tears.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is difficult to conjecture how many reflex actions have originated,
+but, in relation to the present case of the affection of the lacrymal
+glands through irritation of the surface of the eye, it may be worth
+remarking that, as soon as some primordial form became semi-terrestrial in
+its habits, and was liable to get particles of dust into its eyes, if
+these were not washed out they would cause much irritation; and on the
+principle of the radiation of nerve-force to adjoining nerve-cells, the
+lacrymal glands would be stimulated to secretion. As this would often
+recur, and as nerve-force readily passes along accustomed channels, a
+slight irritation would ultimately suffice to cause a free secretion of
+tears.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As soon as by this, or by some other means, a reflex action of this nature
+had been established and rendered easy, other stimulants applied to the
+surface of the eye&mdash;such as a cold wind, slow inflammatory action, or
+a blow on the eyelids&mdash;would cause a copious secretion of tears, as
+we know to be the case. The glands are also excited into action through
+the irritation of adjoining parts. Thus when the nostrils are irritated by
+pungent vapours, though the eyelids may be kept firmly closed, tears are
+copiously secreted; and this likewise follows from a blow on the nose, for
+instance from a boxing-glove. A stinging switch on the face produces, as I
+have seen, the same effect. In these latter cases the secretion of tears
+is an incidental result, and of no direct service. As all these parts of
+the face, including the lacrymal glands, are supplied with branches of the
+same nerve, namely, the fifth, it is in some degree intelligible that the
+effects of the excitement of any one branch should spread to the
+nerve-cells or roots of the other branches.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The internal parts of the eye likewise act, under certain conditions, in a
+reflex manner on the lacrymal glands. The following statements have been
+kindly communicated to me by Mr. Bowman; but the subject is a very
+intricate one, as all the parts of the eye are so intimately related
+together, and are so sensitive to various stimulants. A strong light
+acting on the retina, when in a normal condition, has very little tendency
+to cause lacrymation; but with unhealthy children having small,
+old-standing ulcers on the cornea, the retina becomes excessively
+sensitive to light, and exposure even to common daylight causes forcible
+and sustained closure of the lids, and a profuse flow of tears. When
+persons who ought to begin the use of convex glasses habitually strain the
+waning power of accommodation, an undue secretion of tears very often
+follows, and the retina is liable to become unduly sensitive to light. In
+general, morbid affections of the surface of the eye, and of the ciliary
+structures concerned in the accommodative act, are prone to be accompanied
+with excessive secretion of tears. Hardness of the eyeball, not rising to
+inflammation, but implying a want of balance between the fluids poured out
+and again taken up by the intra-ocular vessels, is not usually attended
+with any lacrymation. When the balance is on the other side, and the eye
+becomes too soft, there is a greater tendency to lacrymation. Finally,
+there are numerous morbid states and structural alterations of the eyes,
+and even terrible inflammations, which may be attended with little or no
+secretion of tears.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It also deserves notice, as indirectly bearing on our subject, that the
+eye and adjoining parts are subject to an extraordinary number of reflex
+and associated movements, sensations, and actions, besides those relating
+to the lacrymal glands. When a bright light strikes the retina of one eye
+alone, the iris contracts, but the iris of the other eye moves after a
+measurable interval of time. The iris likewise moves in accommodation to
+near or distant vision, and when the two eyes are made to converge.<a
+href="#linknote-623" name="linknoteref-623" id="linknoteref-623">[623]</a>
+Every one knows how irresistibly the eyebrows are drawn down under an
+intensely bright light. The eyelids also involuntarily wink when an object
+is moved near the eyes, or a sound is suddenly heard. The well-known case
+of a bright light causing some persons to sneeze is even more curious; for
+nerve-force here radiates from certain nerve-cells in connection with the
+retina, to the sensory nerve-cells of the nose, causing it to tickle; and
+from these, to the cells which command the various respiratory muscles
+(the orbiculars included) which expel the air in so peculiar a manner that
+it rushes through the nostrils alone.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To return to our point: why are tears secreted during a screaming-fit or
+other violent expiratory efforts? As a slight blow on the eyelids causes a
+copious secretion of tears, it is at least possible that the spasmodic
+contraction of the eyelids, by pressing strongly on the eyeball, should in
+a similar manner cause some secretion. This seems possible, although the
+voluntary contraction of the same muscles does not produce any such
+effect. We know that a man cannot voluntarily sneeze or cough with nearly
+the same force as he does automatically; and so it is with the contraction
+of the orbicular muscles: Sir C. Bell experimented on them, and found that
+by suddenly and forcibly closing the eyelids in the dark, sparks of light
+are seen, like those caused by tapping the eyelids with the fingers; &ldquo;but
+in sneezing the compression is both more rapid and more forcible, and the
+sparks are more brilliant.&rdquo; That these sparks are due to the contraction
+of the eyelids is clear, because if they &ldquo;are held open during the act of
+sneezing, no sensation of light will be experienced.&rdquo; In the peculiar
+cases referred to by Professor Donders and Mr. Bowman, we have seen that
+some weeks after the eye has been very slightly injured, spasmodic
+contractions of the eyelids ensue, and these are accompanied by a profuse
+flow of tears. In the act of yawning, the tears are apparently due solely
+to the spasmodic contraction of the muscles round the eyes.
+Notwithstanding these latter cases, it seems hardly credible that the
+pressure of the eyelids on the surface of the eye, although effected
+spasmodically and therefore with much greater force than can be done
+voluntarily, should be sufficient to cause by reflex action the secretion
+of tears in the many cases in which this occurs during violent expiratory
+efforts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another cause may come conjointly into play. We have seen that the
+internal parts of the eye, under certain conditions act in a reflex manner
+on the lacrymal glands. We know that during violent expiratory efforts the
+pressure of the arterial blood within the vessels of the eye is increased,
+and that the return of the venous blood is impeded. It seems, therefore,
+not improbable that the distension of the ocular vessels, thus induced,
+might act by reflection on the lacrymal glands&mdash;the effects due to
+the spasmodic pressure of the eyelids on the surface of the eye being thus
+increased.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In considering how far this view is probable, we should bear in mind that
+the eyes of infants have been acted on in this double manner during
+numberless generations, whenever they have screamed; and on the principle
+of nerve-force readily passing along accustomed channels, even a moderate
+compression of the eyeballs and a moderate distension of the ocular
+vessels would ultimately come, through habit, to act on the glands. We
+have an analogous case in the orbicular muscles being almost always
+contracted in some slight degree, even during a gentle crying-fit, when
+there can be no distension of the vessels and no uncomfortable sensation
+excited within the eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Moreover, when complex actions or movements have long been performed in
+strict association together, and these are from any cause at first
+voluntarily and afterwards habitually checked, then if the proper exciting
+conditions occur, any part of the action or movement which is least under
+the control of the will, will often still be involuntarily performed. The
+secretion by a gland is remarkably free from the influence of the will;
+therefore, when with the advancing age of the individual, or with the
+advancing culture of the race, the habit of crying out or screaming is
+restrained, and there is consequently no distension of the blood-vessels
+of the eye, it may nevertheless well happen that tears should still be
+secreted. We may see, as lately remarked, the muscles round the eyes of a
+person who reads a pathetic story, twitching or trembling in so slight a
+degree as hardly to be detected. In this case there has been no screaming
+and no distension of the blood-vessels, yet through habit certain
+nerve-cells send a small amount of nerve-force to the cells commanding the
+muscles round the eyes; and they likewise send some to the cells
+commanding the lacrymal glands, for the eyes often become at the same time
+just moistened with tears. If the twitching of the muscles round the eyes
+and the secretion of tears had been completely prevented, nevertheless it
+is almost certain that there would have been some tendency to transmit
+nerve-force in these same directions; and as the lacrymal glands are
+remarkably free from the control of the will, they would be eminently
+liable still to act, thus betraying, though there were no other outward
+signs, the pathetic thoughts which were passing through the person&rsquo;s mind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As a further illustration of the view here advanced, I may remark that if,
+during an early period of life, when habits of all kinds are readily
+established, our infants, when pleased, had been accustomed to utter loud
+peals of laughter (during which the vessels of their eyes are distended)
+as often and as continuously as they have yielded when distressed to
+screaming-fits, then it is probable that in after life tears would have
+been as copiously and as regularly secreted under the one state of mind as
+under the other. Gentle laughter, or a smile, or even a pleasing thought,
+would have sufficed to cause a moderate secretion of tears. There does
+indeed exist an evident tendency in this direction, as will be seen in a
+future chapter, when we treat of the tender feelings. With the Sandwich
+Islanders, according to Freycinet,<a href="#linknote-624"
+name="linknoteref-624" id="linknoteref-624">[624]</a> tears are actually
+recognized as a sign of happiness; but we should require better evidence
+on this head than that of a passing voyager. So again if our infants,
+during many generations, and each of them during several years, had almost
+daily suffered from prolonged choking-fits, during which the vessels of
+the eye are distended and tears copiously secreted, then it is probable,
+such is the force of associated habit, that during after life the mere
+thought of a choke, without any distress of mind, would have sufficed to
+bring tears into our eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To sum up this chapter, weeping is probably the result of some such chain
+of events as follows. Children, when wanting food or suffering in any way,
+cry out loudly, like the young of most other animals, partly as a call to
+their parents for aid, and partly from any great exertion serving relief.
+Prolonged screaming inevitably leads to the gorging of the blood-vessels
+of the eye; and this will have led, at first consciously and at last
+habitually, to the contraction of the muscles round the eyes in order to
+protect them. At the same time the spasmodic pressure on the surface of
+the eye, and the distension of the vessels within the eye, without
+necessarily entailing any conscious sensation, will have affected, through
+reflex action, the lacrymal glands. Finally, through the three principles
+of nerve-force readily passing along accustomed channels&mdash;of
+association, which is so widely extended in its power&mdash;and of certain
+actions, being more under the control of the will than others&mdash;it has
+come to pass that suffering readily causes the secretion of tears, without
+being necessarily accompanied by any other action.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although in accordance with this view we must look at weeping as an
+incidental result, as purposeless as the secretion of tears from a blow
+outside the eye, or as a sneeze from the retina being affected by a bright
+light, yet this does not present any difficulty in our understanding how
+the secretion of tears serves as a relief to suffering. And by as much as
+the weeping is more violent or hysterical, by so much will the relief be
+greater,&mdash;on the same principle that the writhing of the whole body,
+the grinding of the teeth, and the uttering of piercing shrieks, all give
+relief under an agony of pain.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"></a>
+CHAPTER VII.<br/>LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+General effect of grief on the system&mdash;Obliquity of the eyebrows
+under suffering&mdash;On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows&mdash;On
+the depression of the corners of the mouth.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+After the mind has suffered from an acute paroxysm of grief, and the cause
+still continues, we fall into a state of low spirits; or we may be utterly
+cast down and dejected. Prolonged bodily pain, if not amounting to an
+agony, generally leads to the same state of mind. If we expect to suffer,
+we are anxious; if we have no hope of relief, we despair.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Persons suffering from excessive grief often seek relief by violent and
+almost frantic movements, as described in a former chapter; but when their
+suffering is somewhat mitigated, yet prolonged, they no longer wish for
+action, but remain motionless and passive, or may occasionally rock
+themselves to and fro. The circulation becomes languid; the face pale; the
+muscles flaccid; the eyelids droop; the head hangs on the contracted
+chest; the lips, cheeks, and lower jaw all sink downwards from their own
+weight. Hence all the features are lengthened; and the face of a person
+who hears bad news is said to fall. A party of natives in Tierra del Fuego
+endeavoured to explain to us that their friend, the captain of a sealing
+vessel, was out of spirits, by pulling down their cheeks with both hands,
+so as to make their faces as long as possible. Mr. Bunnet informs me that
+the Australian aborigines when out of spirits have a chop-fallen
+appearance. After prolonged suffering the eyes become dull and lack
+expression, and are often slightly suffused with tears. The eyebrows not
+rarely are rendered oblique, which is due to their inner ends being
+raised. This produces peculiarly-formed wrinkles on the forehead, which
+are very different from those of a simple frown; though in some cases a
+frown alone may be present. The comers of the mouth are drawn downwards,
+which is so universally recognized as a sign of being out of spirits, that
+it is almost proverbial.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The breathing becomes slow and feeble, and is often interrupted by deep
+sighs. As Gratiolet remarks, whenever our attention is long concentrated
+on any subject, we forget to breathe, and then relieve ourselves by a deep
+inspiration; but the sighs of a sorrowful person, owing to his slow
+respiration and languid circulation, are eminently characteristic.<a
+href="#linknote-701" name="linknoteref-701" id="linknoteref-701">[701]</a>
+As the grief of a person in this state occasionally recurs and increases
+into a paroxysm, spasms affect the respiratory muscles, and he feels as if
+something, the so-called <i>globus hystericus</i>, was rising in his
+throat. These spasmodic movements are clearly allied to the sobbing of
+children, and are remnants of those severer spasms which occur when a
+person is said to choke from excessive grief.<a href="#linknote-702"
+name="linknoteref-702" id="linknoteref-702">[702]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Obliquity of the eyebrows</i>.&mdash;Two points alone in the above
+description require further elucidation, and these are very curious ones;
+namely, the raising of the inner ends of the eyebrows, and the drawing
+down of the corners of the mouth. With respect to the eyebrows, they may
+occasionally be seen to assume an oblique position in persons suffering
+from deep dejection or anxiety; for instance, I have observed this
+movement in a mother whilst speaking about her sick son; and it is
+sometimes excited by quite trifling or momentary causes of real or
+pretended distress. The eyebrows assume this position owing to the
+contraction of certain muscles (namely, the orbiculars, corrugators, and
+pyramidals of the nose, which together tend to lower and contract the
+eyebrows) being partially cheeked by the more powerful action of the
+central fasciæ of the frontal muscle. These latter fasciæ by their
+contraction raise the inner ends alone of the eyebrows; and as the
+corrugators at the same time draw the eyebrows together, their inner ends
+become puckered into a fold or lump. This fold is a highly characteristic
+point in the appearance of the eyebrows when rendered oblique, as may be
+seen in figs. 2 and 5, Plate II. The eyebrows are at the same time
+somewhat roughened, owing to the hairs being made to project. Dr. J.
+Crichton Browne has also often noticed in melancholic patients who keep
+their eyebrows persistently oblique, &ldquo;a peculiar acute arching of the
+upper eyelid.&rdquo; A trace of this may be observed by comparing the right and
+left eyelids of the young man in the photograph (fig. 2, Plate II.); for
+he was not able to act equally on both eyebrows. This is also shown by the
+unequal furrows on the two sides of his forehead. The acute arching of the
+eyelids depends, I believe, on the inner end alone of the eyebrows being
+raised; for when the whole eyebrow is elevated and arched, the upper
+eyelid follows in a slight degree the same movement.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0019" id="linkimage-0019">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/plate-2.jpg" width="100%"
+alt=" Obliquity of the Eyebrows. Plate II " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+But the most conspicuous result of the opposed contraction of the
+above-named muscles, is exhibited by the peculiar furrows formed on the
+forehead. These muscles, when thus in conjoint yet opposed action, may be
+called, for the sake of brevity, the grief-muscles. When a person elevates
+his eyebrows by the contraction of the whole frontal muscle, transverse
+wrinkles extend across the whole breadth of the forehead; but in the
+present case the middle fasciae alone are contracted; consequently,
+transverse furrows are formed across the middle part alone of the
+forehead. The skin over the exterior parts of both eyebrows is at the same
+time drawn downwards and smooth, by the contraction of the outer portions
+of the orbicular muscles. The eyebrows are likewise brought together
+through the simultaneous contraction of the corrugators;<a
+href="#linknote-703" name="linknoteref-703" id="linknoteref-703">[703]</a>
+and this latter action generates vertical furrows, separating the exterior
+and lowered part of the skin of the forehead from the central and raised
+part. The union of these vertical furrows with the central and transverse
+furrows (see figs. 2 and 3) produces a mark on the forehead which has been
+compared to a horse-shoe; but the furrows more strictly form three sides
+of a quadrangle. They are often conspicuous on the foreheads of adult or
+nearly adult persons, when their eyebrows are made oblique; but with young
+children, owing to their skin not easily wrinkling, they are rarely seen,
+or mere traces of them can be detected.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These peculiar furrows are best represented in fig. 3, Plate II., on the
+forehead of a young lady who has the power in an unusual degree of
+voluntarily acting on the requisite muscles. As she was absorbed in the
+attempt, whilst being photographed, her expression was not at all one of
+grief; I have therefore given the forehead alone. Fig. 1 on the same
+plate, copied from Dr. Duchenne&rsquo;s work,<a href="#linknote-704"
+name="linknoteref-704" id="linknoteref-704">[704]</a> represents, on a
+reduced scale, the face, in its natural state, of a young man who was a
+good actor. In fig. 2 he is shown simulating grief, but the two eyebrows,
+as before remarked, are not equally acted on. That the expression is true,
+may be inferred from the fact that out of fifteen persons, to whom the
+original photograph was shown, without any clue to what was intended being
+given them, fourteen immediately answered, &ldquo;despairing sorrow,&rdquo; &ldquo;suffering
+endurance,&rdquo; &ldquo;melancholy,&rdquo; and so forth. The history of fig. 5 is rather
+curious: I saw the photograph in a shop-window, and took it to Mr.
+Rejlander for the sake of finding out by whom it had been made; remarking
+to him how pathetic the expression was. He answered, &ldquo;I made it, and it
+was likely to be pathetic, for the boy in a few minutes burst out crying.&rdquo;
+He then showed me a photograph of the same boy in a placid state, which I
+have had (fig. 4) reproduced. In fig. 6, a trace of obliquity in the
+eyebrows may be detected; but this figure, as well as fig. 7, is given to
+show the depression of the corners of the mouth, to which subject I shall
+presently refer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Few persons, without some practice, can voluntarily act on their
+grief-muscles; but after repeated trials a considerable number succeed,
+whilst others never can. The degree of obliquity in the eyebrows, whether
+assumed voluntarily or unconsciously, differs much in different persons.
+With some who apparently have unusually strong pyramidal muscles, the
+contraction of the central fasciae of the frontal muscle, although it may
+be energetic, as shown by the quadrangular furrows on the forehead, does
+not raise the inner ends of the eyebrows, but only prevents their being so
+much lowered as they otherwise would have been. As far as I have been able
+to observe, the grief-muscles are brought into action much more frequently
+by children and women than by men. They are rarely acted on, at least with
+grown-up persons, from bodily pain, but almost exclusively from mental
+distress. Two persons who, after some practice, succeeded in acting on
+their grief-muscles, found by looking at a mirror that when they made
+their eyebrows oblique, they unintentionally at the same time depressed
+the corners of their mouths; and this is often the case when the
+expression is naturally assumed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The power to bring the grief-muscles freely into play appears to be
+hereditary, like almost every other human faculty. A lady belonging to a
+family famous for having produced an extraordinary number of great actors
+and actresses, and who can herself give this expression &ldquo;with singular
+precision,&rdquo; told Dr. Crichton Browne that all her family had possessed the
+power in a remarkable degree. The same hereditary tendency is said to have
+extended, as I likewise hear from Dr. Browne, to the last descendant of
+the family, which gave rise to Sir Walter Scott&rsquo;s novel of &lsquo;Red Gauntlet;&rsquo;
+but the hero is described as contracting his forehead into a horseshoe
+mark from any strong emotion. I have also seen a young woman whose
+forehead seemed almost habitually thus contracted, independently of any
+emotion being at the time felt.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The grief-muscles are not very frequently brought into play; and as the
+action is often momentary, it easily escapes observation. Although the
+expression, when observed, is universally and instantly recognized as that
+of grief or anxiety, yet not one person out of a thousand who has never
+studied the subject, is able to say precisely what change passes over the
+sufferer&rsquo;s face. Hence probably it is that this expression is not even
+alluded to, as far as I have noticed, in any work of fiction, with the
+exception of &lsquo;Red Gauntlet&rsquo; and of one other novel; and the authoress of
+the latter, as I am informed, belongs to the famous family of actors just
+alluded to; so that her attention may have been specially called to the
+subject.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The ancient Greek sculptors were familiar with the expression, as shown in
+the statues of the Laocoon and Arretino; but, as Duchenne remarks, they
+carried the transverse furrows across the whole breadth of the forehead,
+and thus committed a great anatomical mistake: this is likewise the case
+in some modern statues. It is, however, more probable that these
+wonderfully accurate observers intentionally sacrificed truth for the sake
+of beauty, than that they made a mistake; for rectangular furrows on the
+forehead would not have had a grand appearance on the marble. The
+expression, in its fully developed condition, is, as far as I can
+discover, not often represented in pictures by the old masters, no doubt
+owing to the same cause; but a lady who is perfectly familiar with this
+expression, informs me that in Fra Angelico&rsquo;s &lsquo;Descent from the Cross&rsquo; in
+Florence, it is clearly exhibited in one of the figures on the right-hand;
+and I could add a few other instances.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Crichton Browne, at my request, closely attended to this expression in
+the numerous insane patients under his care in the West Riding Asylum; and
+he is familiar with Duchenne&rsquo;s photographs of the action of the
+grief-muscles. He informs me that they may constantly be seen in energetic
+action in cases of melancholia, and especially of hypochondria; and that
+the persistent lines or furrows, due to their habitual contraction, are
+characteristic of the physiognomy of the insane belonging to these two
+classes. Dr. Browne carefully observed for me during a considerable period
+three cases of hypochondria, in which the grief-muscles were persistently
+contracted. In one of these, a widow, aged 51, fancied that she had lost
+all her viscera, and that her whole body was empty. She wore an expression
+of great distress, and beat her semi-closed hands rhythmically together
+for hours. The grief-muscles were permanently contracted, and the upper
+eyelids arched. This condition lasted for months; she then recovered, and
+her countenance resumed its natural expression. A second case presented
+nearly the same peculiarities, with the addition that the comers of the
+mouth were depressed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Patrick Nicol has also kindly observed for me several cases in the
+Sussex Lunatic Asylum, and has communicated to me full details with
+respect to three of them; but they need not here be given. From his
+observations on melancholic patients, Mr. Nicol concludes that the inner
+ends of the eyebrows are almost always more or less raised, with the
+wrinkles on the forehead more or less plainly marked. In the case of one
+young woman, these wrinkles were observed to be in constant slight play or
+movement. In some cases the comers of the mouth are depressed, but often
+only in a slight degree. Some amount of difference in the expression of
+the several melancholic patients could almost always be observed. The
+eyelids generally droop; and the skin near their outer comers and beneath
+them is wrinkled. The naso-labial fold, which runs from the wings of the
+nostrils to the comers of the mouth, and which is so conspicuous in
+blubbering children, is often plainly marked in these patients.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although with the insane the grief-muscles often act persistently; yet in
+ordinary cases they are sometimes brought unconsciously into momentary
+action by ludicrously slight causes. A gentleman rewarded a young lady by
+an absurdly small present; she pretended to be offended, and as she
+upbraided him, her eyebrows became extremely oblique, with the forehead
+properly wrinkled. Another young lady and a youth, both in the highest
+spirits, were eagerly talking together with extraordinary rapidity; and I
+noticed that, as often as the young lady was beaten, and could not get out
+her words fast enough, her eyebrows went obliquely upwards, and
+rectangular furrows were formed on her forehead. She thus each time
+hoisted a flag of distress; and this she did half-a-dozen times in the
+course of a few minutes. I made no remark on the subject, but on a
+subsequent occasion I asked her to act on her grief-muscles; another girl
+who was present, and who could do so voluntarily, showing her what was
+intended. She tried repeatedly, but utterly failed; yet so slight a cause
+of distress as not being able to talk quickly enough, sufficed to bring
+these muscles over and over again into energetic action.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The expression of grief, due to the contraction of the grief-muscles, is
+by no means confined to Europeans, but appears to be common to all the
+races of mankind. I have, at least, received trustworthy accounts in
+regard to Hindoos, Dhangars (one of the aboriginal hill-tribes of India,
+and therefore belonging to a quite distinct race from the Hindoos),
+Malays, Negroes and Australians. With respect to the latter, two observers
+answer my query in the affirmative, but enter into no details. Mr. Taplin,
+however, appends to my descriptive remarks the words &ldquo;this is exact.&rdquo; With
+respect to negroes, the lady who told me of Fra Angelico&rsquo;s picture, saw a
+negro towing a boat on the Nile, and as he encountered an obstruction, she
+observed his grief-muscles in strong action, with the middle of the
+forehead well wrinkled. Mr. Geach watched a Malay man in Malacca, with the
+comers of his mouth much depressed, the eyebrows oblique, with deep short
+grooves on the forehead. This expression lasted for a very short time; and
+Mr. Geach remarks it &ldquo;was a strange one, very much like a person about to
+cry at some great loss.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In India Mr. H. Erskine found that the natives were familiar with this
+expression; and Mr. J. Scott, of the Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, has
+obligingly sent me a full description of two cases. He observed during
+some time, himself unseen, a very young Dhangar woman from Nagpore, the
+wife of one of the gardeners, nursing her baby who was at the point of
+death; and he distinctly saw the eyebrows raised at the inner comers, the
+eyelids drooping, the forehead wrinkled in the middle, the mouth slightly
+open, with the comers much depressed. He then came from behind a screen of
+plants and spoke to the poor woman, who started, burst into a bitter flood
+of tears, and besought him to cure her baby. The second case was that of a
+Hindustani man, who from illness and poverty was compelled to sell his
+favourite goat. After receiving the money, he repeatedly looked at the
+money in his hand and then at the goat, as if doubting whether he would
+not return it. He went to the goat, which was tied up ready to be led
+away, and the animal reared up and licked his hands. His eyes then wavered
+from side to side; his &ldquo;mouth was partially closed, with the corners very
+decidedly depressed.&rdquo; At last the poor man seemed to make up his mind that
+he must part with his goat, and then, as Mr. Scott saw, the eyebrows
+became slightly oblique, with the characteristic puckering or swelling at
+the inner ends, but the wrinkles on the forehead were not present. The man
+stood thus for a minute, then heaving a deep sigh, burst into tears,
+raised up his two hands, blessed the goat, turned round, and without
+looking again, went away.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows under suffering</i>.&mdash;During
+several years no expression seemed to me so utterly perplexing as this
+which we are here considering. Why should grief or anxiety cause the
+central fasciae alone of the frontal muscle together with those round the
+eyes, to contract? Here we seem to have a complex movement for the sole
+purpose of expressing grief; and yet it is a comparatively rare
+expression, and often overlooked. I believe the explanation is not so
+difficult as it at first appears. Dr. Duchenne gives a photograph of the
+young man before referred to, who, when looking upwards at a strongly
+illuminated surface, involuntarily contracted his grief-muscles in an
+exaggerated manner. I had entirely forgotten this photograph, when on a
+very bright day with the sun behind me, I met, whilst on horseback, a girl
+whose eyebrows, as she looked up at me, became extremely oblique, with the
+proper furrows on her forehead. I have observed the same movement under
+similar circumstances on several subsequent occasions. On my return home I
+made three of my children, without giving them any clue to my object, look
+as long and as attentively as they could, at the summit of a tall tree
+standing against an extremely bright sky. With all three, the orbicular,
+corrugator, and pyramidal muscles were energetically contracted, through
+reflex action, from the excitement of the retina, so that their eyes might
+be protected from the bright light. But they tried their utmost to look
+upwards; and now a curious struggle, with spasmodic twitchings, could be
+observed between the whole or only the central portion of the frontal
+muscle, and the several muscles which serve to lower the eyebrows and
+close the eyelids. The involuntary contraction of the pyramidal caused the
+basal part of their noses to be transversely and deeply wrinkled. In one
+of the three children, the whole eyebrows were momentarily raised and
+lowered by the alternate contraction of the whole frontal muscle and of
+the muscles surrounding the eyes, so that the whole breadth of the
+forehead was alternately wrinkled and smoothed. In the other two children
+the forehead became wrinkled in the middle part alone, rectangular furrows
+being thus produced; and the eyebrows were rendered oblique, with their
+inner extremities puckered and swollen,&mdash;in the one child in a slight
+degree, in the other in a strongly marked manner. This difference in the
+obliquity of the eyebrows apparently depended on a difference in their
+general mobility, and in the strength of the pyramidal muscles. In both
+these cases the eyebrows and forehead were acted on under the influence of
+a strong light, in precisely the same manner, in every characteristic
+detail, as under the influence of grief or anxiety.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Duchenne states that the pyramidal muscle of the nose is less under the
+control of the will than are the other muscles round the eyes. He remarks
+that the young man who could so well act on his grief-muscles, as well as
+on most of his other facial muscles, could not contract the pyramidals.<a
+href="#linknote-705" name="linknoteref-705" id="linknoteref-705">[705]</a>
+This power, however, no doubt differs in different persons. The pyramidal
+muscle serves to draw down the skin of the forehead between the eyebrows,
+together with their inner extremities. The central fasciae of the frontal
+are the antagonists of the pyramidal; and if the action of the latter is
+to be specially checked, these central fasciae must be contracted. So that
+with persons having powerful pyramidal muscles, if there is under the
+influence of a bright light an unconscious desire to prevent the lowering
+of the eyebrows, the central fasciae of the frontal muscle must be brought
+into play; and their contraction, if sufficiently strong to overmaster the
+pyramidals, together with the contraction of the corrugator and orbicular
+muscles, will act in the manner just described on the eyebrows and
+forehead.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When children scream or cry out, they contract, as we know, the orbicular,
+corrugator, and pyramidal muscles, primarily for the sake of compressing
+their eyes, and thus protecting them from being gorged with blood, and
+secondarily through habit. I therefore expected to find with children,
+that when they endeavoured either to prevent a crying-fit from coming on,
+or to stop crying, they would cheek the contraction of the above-named
+muscles, in the same manner as when looking upwards at a bright light; and
+consequently that the central fasciae of the frontal muscle would often be
+brought into play. Accordingly, I began myself to observe children at such
+times, and asked others, including some medical men, to do the same. It is
+necessary to observe carefully, as the peculiar opposed action of these
+muscles is not nearly so plain in children, owing to their foreheads not
+easily wrinkling, as in adults. But I soon found that the grief-muscles
+were very frequently brought into distinct action on these occasions. It
+would be superfluous to give all the cases which have been observed; and I
+will specify only a few. A little girl, a year and a half old, was teased
+by some other children, and before bursting into tears her eyebrows became
+decidedly oblique. With an older girl the same obliquity was observed,
+with the inner ends of the eyebrows plainly puckered; and at the same time
+the corners of the mouth were drawn downwards. As soon as she burst into
+tears, the features all changed and this peculiar expression vanished.
+Again, after a little boy had been vaccinated, which made him scream and
+cry violently, the surgeon gave him an orange brought for the purpose, and
+this pleased the child much; as he stopped crying all the characteristic
+movements were observed, including the formation of rectangular wrinkles
+in the middle of the forehead. Lastly, I met on the road a little girl
+three or four years old, who had been frightened by a dog, and when I
+asked her what was the matter, she stopped whimpering, and her eyebrows
+instantly became oblique to an extraordinary degree.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Here then, as I cannot doubt, we have the key to the problem why the
+central fasciae of the frontal muscle and the muscles round the eyes
+contract in opposition to each other under the influence of grief;&mdash;whether
+their contraction be prolonged, as with the melancholic insane, or
+momentary, from some trifling cause of distress. We have all of us, as
+infants, repeatedly contracted our orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal
+muscles, in order to protect our eyes whilst screaming; our progenitors
+before us have done the same during many generations; and though with
+advancing years we easily prevent, when feeling distressed, the utterance
+of screams, we cannot from long habit always prevent a slight contraction
+of the above-named muscles; nor indeed do we observe their contraction in
+ourselves, or attempt to stop it, if slight. But the pyramidal muscles
+seem to be less under the command of the will than the other related
+muscles; and if they be well developed, their contraction can be checked
+only by the antagonistic contraction of the central fasciae of the frontal
+muscle. The result which necessarily follows, if these fasciae contract
+energetically, is the oblique drawing up of the eyebrows, the puckering of
+their inner ends, and the formation of rectangular furrows on the middle
+of the forehead. As children and women cry much more freely than men, and
+as grown-up persons of both sexes rarely weep except from mental distress,
+we can understand why the grief-muscles are more frequently seen in
+action, as I believe to be the case, with children and women than with
+men; and with adults of both sexes from mental distress alone. In some of
+the cases before recorded, as in that of the poor Dhangar woman and of the
+Hindustani man, the action of the grief-muscles was quickly followed by
+bitter weeping. In all cases of distress, whether great or small, our
+brains tend through long habit to send an order to certain muscles to
+contract, as if we were still infants on the point of screaming out; but
+this order we, by the wondrous power of the will, and through habit, are
+able partially to counteract; although this is effected unconsciously, as
+far as the means of counteraction are concerned.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>On the depression of the corners of the mouth</i>.&mdash;This action is
+effected by the <i>depressores anguili oris</i> (see letter K in figs. 1
+and 2). The fibres of this muscle diverge downwards, with the upper
+convergent ends attached round the angles of the mouth, and to the lower
+lip a little way within the angles.<a href="#linknote-706"
+name="linknoteref-706" id="linknoteref-706">[706]</a> Some of the fibres
+appear to be antagonistic to the great zygomatic muscle, and others to the
+several muscles running to the outer part of the upper lip. The
+contraction of this muscle draws downwards and outwards the corners of the
+mouth, including the outer part of the upper lip, and even in a slight
+degree the wings of the nostrils. When the mouth is closed and this muscle
+acts, the commissure or line of junction of the two lips forms a curved
+line with the concavity downwards,<a href="#linknote-707"
+name="linknoteref-707" id="linknoteref-707">[707]</a> and the lips
+themselves are generally somewhat protruded, especially the lower one. The
+mouth in this state is well represented in the two photographs (Plate II.,
+figs. 6 and 7) by Mr. Rejlander. The upper boy (fig. 6) had just stopped
+crying, after receiving a slap on the face from another boy; and the right
+moment was seized for photographing him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The expression of low spirits, grief or dejection, due to the contraction
+of this muscle has been noticed by every one who has written on the
+subject. To say that a person &ldquo;is down in the mouth,&rdquo; is synonymous with
+saying that he is out of spirits. The depression of the corners may often
+be seen, as already stated on the authority of Dr. Crichton Browne and Mr.
+Nicol, with the melancholic insane, and was well exhibited in some
+photographs sent to me by the former gentleman, of patients with a strong
+tendency to suicide. It has been observed with men belonging to various
+races, namely with Hindoos, the dark hill-tribes of India, Malays, and, as
+the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer informs me, with the aborigines of Australia.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When infants scream they firmly contract the muscles round their eyes, and
+this draws up the upper lip; and as they have to keep their mouths widely
+open, the depressor muscles running to the corners are likewise brought
+into strong action. This generally, but not invariably, causes a slight
+angular bend in the lower lip on both sides, near the corners of the
+mouth. The result of the upper and lower lip being thus acted on is that
+the mouth assumes a squarish outline. The contraction of the depressor
+muscle is best seen in infants when not screaming violently, and
+especially just before they begin, or when they cease to scream. Their
+little faces then acquire an extremely piteous expression, as I
+continually observed with my own infants between the ages of about six
+weeks and two or three months. Sometimes, when they are struggling against
+a crying-fit, the outline of the mouth is curved in so exaggerated a
+manner as to be like a horseshoe; and the expression of misery then
+becomes a ludicrous caricature.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The explanation of the contraction of this muscle, under the influence of
+low spirits or dejection, apparently follows from the same general
+principles as in the case of the obliquity of the eyebrows. Dr. Duchenne
+informs me that he concludes from his observations, now prolonged during
+many years, that this is one of the facial muscles which is least under
+the control of the will. This fact may indeed be inferred from what has
+just been stated with respect to infants when doubtfully beginning to cry,
+or endeavouring to stop crying; for they then generally command all the
+other facial muscles more effectually than they do the depressors of the
+corners of the mouth. Two excellent observers who had no theory on the
+subject, one of them a surgeon, carefully watched for me some older
+children and women as with some opposed struggling they very gradually
+approached the point of bursting out into tears; and both observers felt
+sure that the depressors began to act before any of the other muscles. Now
+as the depressors have been repeatedly brought into strong action during
+infancy in many generations, nerve-force will tend to flow, on the
+principle of long associated habit, to these muscles as well as to various
+other facial muscles, whenever in after life even a slight feeling of
+distress is experienced. But as the depressors are somewhat less under the
+control of the will than most of the other muscles, we might expect that
+they would often slightly contract, whilst the others remained passive. It
+is remarkable how small a depression of the corners of the mouth gives to
+the countenance an expression of low spirits or dejection, so that an
+extremely slight contraction of these muscles would be sufficient to
+betray this state of mind.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+I may here mention a trifling observation, as it will serve to sum up our
+present subject. An old lady with a comfortable but absorbed expression
+sat nearly opposite to me in a railway carriage. Whilst I was looking at
+her, I saw that her <i>depressores anguli oris</i> became very slightly,
+yet decidedly, contracted; but as her countenance remained as placid as
+ever, I reflected how meaningless was this contraction, and how easily one
+might be deceived. The thought had hardly occurred to me when I saw that
+her eyes suddenly became suffused with tears almost to overflowing, and
+her whole countenance fell. There could now be no doubt that some painful
+recollection, perhaps that of a long-lost child, was passing through her
+mind. As soon as her sensorium was thus affected, certain nerve-cells from
+long habit instantly transmitted an order to all the respiratory muscles,
+and to those round the mouth, to prepare for a fit of crying. But the
+order was countermanded by the will, or rather by a later acquired habit,
+and all the muscles were obedient, excepting in a slight degree the <i>depressores
+anguli oris</i>. The mouth was not even opened; the respiration was not
+hurried; and no muscle was affected except those which draw down the
+corners of the mouth.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As soon as the mouth of this lady began, involuntarily and unconsciously
+on her part, to assume the proper form for a crying-fit, we may feel
+almost sure that some nerve-influence would have been transmitted through
+the long accustomed channels to the various respiratory muscles, as well
+as to those round the eyes, and to the vaso-motor centre which governs the
+supply of blood sent to the lacrymal glands. Of this latter fact we have
+indeed clear evidence in her eyes becoming slightly suffused with tears;
+and we can understand this, as the lacrymal glands are less under the
+control of the will than the facial muscles. No doubt there existed at the
+same time some tendency in the muscles round the eyes at contract, as if
+for the sake of protecting them from being gorged with blood, but this
+contraction was completely overmastered, and her brow remained unruffled.
+Had the pyramidal, corrugator, and orbicular muscles been as little
+obedient to the will, as they are in many persons, they would have been
+slightly acted on; and then the central fasciae of the frontal muscle
+would have contracted in antagonism, and her eyebrows would have become
+oblique, with rectangular furrows on her forehead. Her countenance would
+then have expressed still more plainly than it did a state of dejection,
+or rather one of grief.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Through steps such as these we can understand how it is, that as soon as
+some melancholy thought passes through the brain, there occurs a just
+perceptible drawing down of the corners of the mouth, or a slight raising
+up of the inner ends of the eyebrows, or both movements combined, and
+immediately afterwards a slight suffusion of tears. A thrill of
+nerve-force is transmitted along several habitual channels, and produces
+an effect on any point where the will has not acquired through long habit
+much power of interference. The above actions may be considered as
+rudimental vestiges of the screaming-fits, which are so frequent and
+prolonged during infancy. In this case, as well as in many others, the
+links are indeed wonderful which connect cause and effect in giving rise
+to various expressions on the human countenance; and they explain to us
+the meaning of certain movements, which we involuntarily and unconsciously
+perform, whenever certain transitory emotions pass through our minds.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"></a>
+CHAPTER VIII.<br/>JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+Laughter primarily the expression of joy&mdash;Ludicrous ideas&mdash;Movements
+of the features during laughter&mdash;Nature of the sound produced&mdash;The
+secretion of tears during loud laughter&mdash;Gradation from loud laughter
+to gentle smiling&mdash;High spirits&mdash;The expression of love&mdash;Tender
+feelings&mdash;Devotion.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Joy, when intense, leads to various purposeless movements&mdash;to dancing
+about, clapping the hands, stamping, &amp;c., and to loud laughter.
+Laughter seems primarily to be the expression of mere joy or happiness. We
+clearly see this in children at play, who are almost incessantly laughing.
+With young persons past childhood, when they are in high spirits, there is
+always much meaningless laughter. The laughter of the gods is described by
+Homer as &ldquo;the exuberance of their celestial joy after their daily
+banquet.&rdquo; A man smiles&mdash;and smiling, as we shall see, graduates into
+laughter&mdash;at meeting an old friend in the street, as he does at any
+trifling pleasure, such as smelling a sweet perfume.<a href="#linknote-801"
+name="linknoteref-801" id="linknoteref-801">[801]</a> Laura Bridgman, from
+her blindness and deafness, could not have acquired any expression through
+imitation, yet when a letter from a beloved friend was communicated to her
+by gesture-language, she &ldquo;laughed and clapped her hands, and the colour
+mounted to her cheeks.&rdquo; On other occasions she has been seen to stamp for
+joy.<a href="#linknote-802" name="linknoteref-802" id="linknoteref-802">[802]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Idiots and imbecile persons likewise afford good evidence that laughter or
+smiling primarily expresses mere happiness or joy. Dr. Crichton Browne, to
+whom, as on so many other occasions, I am indebted for the results of his
+wide experience, informs me that with idiots laughter is the most
+prevalent and frequent of all the emotional expressions. Many idiots are
+morose, passionate, restless, in a painful state of mind, or utterly
+stolid, and these never laugh. Others frequently laugh in a quite
+senseless manner. Thus an idiot boy, incapable of speech, complained to
+Dr. Browne, by the aid of signs, that another boy in the asylum had given
+him a black eye; and this was accompanied by &ldquo;explosions of laughter and
+with his face covered with the broadest smiles.&rdquo; There is another large
+class of idiots who are persistently joyous and benign, and who are
+constantly laughing or smiling.<a href="#linknote-803"
+name="linknoteref-803" id="linknoteref-803">[803]</a> Their countenances
+often exhibit a stereotyped smile; their joyousness is increased, and they
+grin, chuckle, or giggle, whenever food is placed before them, or when
+they are caressed, are shown bright colours, or hear music. Some of them
+laugh more than usual when they walk about, or attempt any muscular
+exertion. The joyousness of most of these idiots cannot possibly be
+associated, as Dr. Browne remarks, with any distinct ideas: they simply
+feel pleasure, and express it by laughter or smiles. With imbeciles rather
+higher in the scale, personal vanity seems to be the commonest cause of
+laughter, and next to this, pleasure arising from the approbation of their
+conduct.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With grown-up persons laughter is excited by causes considerably different
+from those which suffice during childhood; but this remark hardly applies
+to smiling. Laughter in this respect is analogous with weeping, which with
+adults is almost confined to mental distress, whilst with children it is
+excited by bodily pain or any suffering, as well as by fear or rage. Many
+curious discussions have been written on the causes of laughter with
+grown-up persons. The subject is extremely complex. Something incongruous
+or unaccountable, exciting surprise and some sense of superiority in the
+laugher, who must be in a happy frame of mind, seems to be the commonest
+cause.<a href="#linknote-804" name="linknoteref-804" id="linknoteref-804">[804]</a>
+The circumstances must not be of a momentous nature: no poor man would
+laugh or smile on suddenly hearing that a large fortune had been
+bequeathed to him. If the mind is strongly excited by pleasurable
+feelings, and any little unexpected event or thought occurs, then, as Mr.
+Herbert Spencer remarks,<a href="#linknote-805" name="linknoteref-805"
+id="linknoteref-805">[805]</a> &ldquo;a large amount of nervous energy, instead
+of being allowed to expend itself in producing an equivalent amount of the
+new thoughts and emotion which were nascent, is suddenly checked in its
+flow.&rdquo;... &ldquo;The excess must discharge itself in some other direction, and
+there results an efflux through the motor nerves to various classes of the
+muscles, producing the half-convulsive actions we term laughter.&rdquo; An
+observation, bearing on this point, was made by a correspondent during the
+recent siege of Paris, namely, that the German soldiers, after strong
+excitement from exposure to extreme danger, were particularly apt to burst
+out into loud laughter at the smallest joke. So again when young children
+are just beginning to cry, an unexpected event will sometimes suddenly
+turn their crying into laughter, which apparently serves equally well to
+expend their superfluous nervous energy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The imagination is sometimes said to be tickled by a ludicrous idea; and
+this so-called tickling of the mind is curiously analogous with that of
+the body. Every one knows how immoderately children laugh, and how their
+whole bodies are convulsed when they are tickled. The anthropoid apes, as
+we have seen, likewise utter a reiterated sound, corresponding with our
+laughter, when they are tickled, especially under the armpits. I touched
+with a bit of paper the sole of the foot of one of my infants, when only
+seven days old, and it was suddenly jerked away and the toes curled about,
+as in an older child. Such movements, as well as laughter from being
+tickled, are manifestly reflex actions; and this is likewise shown by the
+minute unstriped muscles, which serve to erect the separate hairs on the
+body, contracting near a tickled surface.<a href="#linknote-806"
+name="linknoteref-806" id="linknoteref-806">[806]</a> Yet laughter from a
+ludicrous idea, though involuntary, cannot be called a strictly reflex
+action. In this case, and in that of laughter from being tickled, the mind
+must be in a pleasurable condition; a young child, if tickled by a strange
+man, would scream from fear. The touch must be light, and an idea or
+event, to be ludicrous, must not be of grave import. The parts of the body
+which are most easily tickled are those which are not commonly touched,
+such as the armpits or between the toes, or parts such as the soles of the
+feet, which are habitually touched by a broad surface; but the surface on
+which we sit offers a marked exception to this rule. According to
+Gratiolet,<a href="#linknote-807" name="linknoteref-807"
+id="linknoteref-807">[807]</a> certain nerves are much more sensitive to
+tickling than others. From the fact that a child can hardly tickle itself,
+or in a much less degree than when tickled by another person, it seems
+that the precise point to be touched must not be known; so with the mind,
+something unexpected&mdash;a novel or incongruous idea which breaks
+through an habitual train of thought&mdash;appears to be a strong element
+in the ludicrous.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The sound of laughter is produced by a deep inspiration followed by short,
+interrupted, spasmodic contractions of the chest, and especially of the
+diaphragm.<a href="#linknote-808" name="linknoteref-808"
+id="linknoteref-808">[808]</a> Hence we hear of &ldquo;laughter holding both his
+sides.&rdquo; From the shaking of the body, the head nods to and fro. The lower
+jaw often quivers up and down, as is likewise the case with some species
+of baboons, when they are much pleased.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0020" id="linkimage-0020">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/plate-3.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Moderate Laughter and Smiling. Plate III " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+During laughter the mouth is opened more or less widely, with the corners
+drawn much backwards, as well as a little upwards; and the upper lip is
+somewhat raised. The drawing back of the corners is best seen in moderate
+laughter, and especially in a broad smile&mdash;the latter epithet showing
+how the mouth is widened. In the accompanying figs. 1-3, Plate III.,
+different degrees of moderate laughter and smiling have been photographed.
+The figure of the little girl, with the hat is by Dr. Wallich, and the
+expression was a genuine one; the other two are by Mr. Rejlander. Dr.
+Duchenne repeatedly insists<a href="#linknote-809" name="linknoteref-809"
+id="linknoteref-809">[809]</a> that, under the emotion of joy, the mouth
+is acted on exclusively by the great zygomatic muscles, which serve to
+draw the corners backwards and upwards; but judging from the manner in
+which the upper teeth are always exposed during laughter and broad
+smiling, as well as from my own sensations, I cannot doubt that some of
+the muscles running to the upper lip are likewise brought into moderate
+action. The upper and lower orbicular muscles of the eyes are at the same
+time more or less contracted; and there is an intimate connection, as
+explained in the chapter on weeping, between the orbiculars, especially
+the lower ones and some of the muscles running to the upper lip. Henle
+remarks<a href="#linknote-810" name="linknoteref-810" id="linknoteref-810">[810]</a>
+on this head, that when a man closely shuts one eye he cannot avoid
+retracting the upper lip on the same side; conversely, if any one will
+place his finger on his lower eyelid, and then uncover his upper incisors
+as much as possible, he will feel, as his upper lip is drawn strongly
+upwards, that the muscles of the lower eyelid contract. In Henle&rsquo;s
+drawing, given in woodcut, fig. 2, the <i>musculus malaris</i> (H) which
+runs to the upper lip may be seen to form an almost integral part of the
+lower orbicular muscle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Duchenne has given a large photograph of an old man (reduced on Plate
+III. fig 4), in his usual passive condition, and another of the same man
+(fig. 5), naturally smiling. The latter was instantly recognized by every
+one to whom it was shown as true to nature. He has also given, as an
+example of an unnatural or false smile, another photograph (fig. 6) of the
+same old man, with the corners of his mouth strongly retracted by the
+galvanization of the great zygomatic muscles. That the expression is not
+natural is clear, for I showed this photograph to twenty-four persons, of
+whom three could not in the least tell what was meant, whilst the others,
+though they perceived that the expression was of the nature of a smile,
+answered in such words as &ldquo;a wicked joke,&rdquo; &ldquo;trying to laugh,&rdquo; &ldquo;grinning
+laughter.... half-amazed laughter,&rdquo; &amp;c. Dr. Duchenne attributes the
+falseness of the expression altogether to the orbicular muscles of the
+lower eyelids not being sufficiently contracted; for he justly lays great
+stress on their contraction in the expression of joy. No doubt there is
+much truth in this view, but not, as it appears to me, the whole truth.
+The contraction of the lower orbiculars is always accompanied, as we have
+seen, by the drawing up of the upper lip. Had the upper lip, in fig. 6,
+been thus acted on to a slight extent, its curvature would have been less
+rigid, the naso-labial farrow would have been slightly different, and the
+whole expression would, as I believe, have been more natural,
+independently of the more conspicuous effect from the stronger contraction
+of the lower eyelids. The corrugator muscle, moreover, in fig. 6, is too
+much contracted, causing a frown; and this muscle never acts under the
+influence of joy except during strongly pronounced or violent laughter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+By the drawing backwards and upwards of the corners of the mouth, through
+the contraction of the great zygomatic muscles, and by the raising of the
+upper lip, the cheeks are drawn upwards. Wrinkles are thus formed under
+the eyes, and, with old people, at their outer ends; and these are highly
+characteristic of laughter or smiling. As a gentle smile increases into a
+strong one, or into a laugh, every one may feel and see, if he will attend
+to his own sensations and look at himself in a mirror, that as the upper
+lip is drawn up and the lower orbiculars contract, the wrinkles in the
+lower eyelids and those beneath the eyes are much strengthened or
+increased. At the same time, as I have repeatedly observed, the eyebrows
+are slightly lowered, which shows that the upper as well as the lower
+orbiculars contract at least to some degree, though this passes
+unperecived, as far as our sensations are concerned. If the original
+photograph of the old man, with his countenance in its usual placid state
+(fig. 4), be compared with that (fig. 5) in which he is naturally smiling,
+it may be seen that the eyebrows in the latter are a little lowered. I
+presume that this is owing to the upper orbiculars being impelled, through
+the force of long-associated habit, to act to a certain extent in concert
+with the lower orbiculars, which themselves contract in connection with
+the drawing up of the upper lip.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The tendency in the zygomatic muscles to contract under pleasurable
+emotions is shown by a curious fact, communicated to me by Dr. Browne,
+with respect to patients suffering from GENERAL PARALYSIS OF THE INSANE.<a
+href="#linknote-811" name="linknoteref-811" id="linknoteref-811">[811]</a>
+&ldquo;In this malady there is almost invariably optimism&mdash;delusions as to
+wealth, rank, grandeur&mdash;insane joyousness, benevolence, and
+profusion, while its very earliest physical symptom is trembling at the
+corners of the mouth and at the outer corners of the eyes. This is a
+well-recognized fact. Constant tremulous agitation of the inferior
+palpebral and great zygomatic muscles is pathognomic of the earlier stages
+of general paralysis. The countenance has a pleased and benevolent
+expression. As the disease advances other muscles become involved, but
+until complete fatuity is reached, the prevailing expression is that of
+feeble benevolence.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As in laughing and broadly smiling the cheeks and upper lip are much
+raised, the nose appears to be shortened, and the skin on the bridge
+becomes finely wrinkled in transverse lines, with other oblique
+longitudinal lines on the sides. The upper front teeth are commonly
+exposed. A well-marked naso-labial fold is formed, which runs from the
+wing of each nostril to the corner of the mouth; and this fold is often
+double in old persons.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A bright and sparkling eye is as characteristic of a pleased or amused
+state of mind, as is the retraction of the corners of the mouth and upper
+lip with the wrinkles thus produced. Even the eyes of microcephalous
+idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn to speak, brighten
+slightly when they are pleased.<a href="#linknote-812"
+name="linknoteref-812" id="linknoteref-812">[812]</a> Under extreme
+laughter the eyes are too much suffused with tears to sparkle; but the
+moisture squeezed out of the glands during moderate laughter or smiling
+may aid in giving them lustre; though this must be of altogether
+subordinate importance, as they become dull from grief, though they are
+then often moist. Their brightness seems to be chiefly due to their
+tenseness,<a href="#linknote-813" name="linknoteref-813"
+id="linknoteref-813">[813]</a> owing to the contraction of the orbicular
+muscles and to the pressure of the raised cheeks. But, according to Dr.
+Piderit, who has discussed this point more fully than any other writer,<a
+href="#linknote-814" name="linknoteref-814" id="linknoteref-814">[814]</a>
+the tenseness may be largely attributed to the eyeballs becoming filled
+with blood and other fluids, from the acceleration of the circulation,
+consequent on the excitement of pleasure. He remarks on the contrast in
+the appearance of the eyes of a hectic patient with a rapid circulation,
+and of a man suffering from cholera with almost all the fluids of his body
+drained from him. Any cause which lowers the circulation deadens the eye.
+I remember seeing a man utterly prostrated by prolonged and severe
+exertion during a very hot day, and a bystander compared his eyes to those
+of a boiled codfish.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To return to the sounds produced during laughter. We can see in a vague
+manner how the utterance of sounds of some kind would naturally become
+associated with a pleasurable state of mind; for throughout a large part
+of the animal kingdom vocal or instrumental sounds are employed either as
+a call or as a charm by one sex for the other. They are also employed as
+the means for a joyful meeting between the parents and their offspring,
+and between the attached members of the same social community. But why the
+sounds which man utters when he is pleased have the peculiar reiterated
+character of laughter we do not know. Nevertheless we can see that they
+would naturally be as different as possible from the screams or cries of
+distress; and as in the production of the latter, the expirations are
+prolonged and continuous, with the inspirations short and interrupted, so
+it might perhaps have been expected with the sounds uttered from joy, that
+the expirations would have been short and broken with the inspirations
+prolonged; and this is the case.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is an equally obscure point why the corners of the mouth are retracted
+and the upper lip raised during ordinary laughter. The mouth must not be
+opened to its utmost extent, for when this occurs during a paroxysm of
+excessive laughter hardly any sound is emitted; or it changes its tone and
+seems to come from deep down in the throat. The respiratory muscles, and
+even those of the limbs, are at the same time thrown into rapid vibratory
+movements. The lower jaw often partakes of this movement, and this would
+tend to prevent the mouth from being widely opened. But as a full volume
+of sound has to be poured forth, the orifice of the mouth must be large;
+and it is perhaps to gain this end that the corners are retracted and the
+upper lip raised. Although we can hardly account for the shape of the
+mouth during laughter, which leads to wrinkles being formed beneath the
+eyes, nor for the peculiar reiterated sound of laughter, nor for the
+quivering of the jaws, nevertheless we may infer that all these effects
+are due to some common cause. For they are all characteristic and
+expressive of a pleased state of mind in various kinds of monkeys.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A graduated series can be followed from violent to moderate laughter, to a
+broad smile, to a gentle smile, and to the expression of mere
+cheerfulness. During excessive laughter the whole body is often thrown
+backward and shakes, or is almost convulsed; the respiration is much
+disturbed; the head and face become gorged with blood, with the veins
+distended; and the orbicular muscles are spasmodically contracted in order
+to protect the eyes. Tears are freely shed. Hence, as formerly remarked,
+it is scarcely possible to point out any difference between the
+tear-stained face of a person after a paroxysm of excessive laughter and
+after a bitter crying-fit.<a href="#linknote-815" name="linknoteref-815"
+id="linknoteref-815">[815]</a> It is probably due to the close similarity
+of the spasmodic movements caused by these widely different emotions that
+hysteric patients alternately cry and laugh with violence, and that young
+children sometimes pass suddenly from the one to the other state. Mr.
+Swinhoe informs me that he has often seen the Chinese, when suffering from
+deep grief, burst out into hysterical fits of laughter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I was anxious to know whether tears are freely shed during excessive
+laughter by most of the races of men, and I hear from my correspondents
+that this is the case. One instance was observed with the Hindoos, and
+they themselves said that it often occurred. So it is with the Chinese.
+The women of a wild tribe of Malays in the Malacca peninsula, sometimes
+shed tears when they laugh heartily, though this seldom occurs. With the
+Dyaks of Borneo it must frequently be the case, at least with the women,
+for I hear from the Rajah C. Brooke that it is a common expression with
+them to say &ldquo;we nearly made tears from laughter.&rdquo; The aborigines of
+Australia express their emotions freely, and they are described by my
+correspondents as jumping about and clapping their hands for joy, and as
+often roaring with laughter. No less than four observers have seen their
+eyes freely watering on such occasions; and in one instance the tears
+rolled down their cheeks. Mr. Bulmer, a missionary in a remote part of
+Victoria, remarks, &ldquo;that they have a keen sense of the ridiculous; they
+are excellent mimics, and when one of them is able to imitate the
+peculiarities of some absent member of the tribe, it is very common to
+hear all in the camp convulsed with laughter.&rdquo; With Europeans hardly
+anything excites laughter so easily as mimicry; and it is rather curious
+to find the same fact with the savages of Australia, who constitute one of
+the most distinct races in the world.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In Southern Africa with two tribes of Kafirs, especially with the women,
+their eyes often fill with tears during laughter. Gaika, the brother of
+the chief Sandilli, answers my query on this head, with the words, &ldquo;Yes,
+that is their common practice.&rdquo; Sir Andrew Smith has seen the painted face
+of a Hottentot woman all furrowed with tears after a fit of laughter. In
+Northern Africa, with the Abyssinians, tears are secreted under the same
+circumstances. Lastly, in North America, the same fact has been observed
+in a remarkably savage and isolated tribe, but chiefly with the women; in
+another tribe it was observed only on a single occasion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Excessive laughter, as before remarked, graduates into moderate laughter.
+In this latter case the muscles round the eyes are much less contracted,
+and there is little or no frowning. Between a gentle laugh and a broad
+smile there is hardly any difference, excepting that in smiling no
+reiterated sound is uttered, though a single rather strong expiration, or
+slight noise&mdash;a rudiment of a laugh&mdash;may often be heard at the
+commencement of a smile. On a moderately smiling countenance the
+contraction of the upper orbicular muscles can still just be traced by a
+slight lowering of the eyebrows. The contraction of the lower orbicular
+and palpebral muscles is much plainer, and is shown by the wrinkling of
+the lower eyelids and of the skin beneath them, together with a slight
+drawing up of the upper lip. From the broadest smile we pass by the finest
+steps into the gentlest one. In this latter case the features are moved in
+a much less degree, and much more slowly, and the mouth is kept closed.
+The curvature of the naso-labial furrow is also slightly different in the
+two cases. We thus see that no abrupt line of demarcation can be drawn
+between the movement of the features during the most violent laughter and
+a very faint smile.<a href="#linknote-816" name="linknoteref-816"
+id="linknoteref-816">[816]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A smile, therefore, may be said to be the first stage in the development
+of a laugh. But a different and more probable view may be suggested;
+namely, that the habit of uttering load reiterated sounds from a sense of
+pleasure, first led to the retraction of the corners of the mouth and of
+the upper lip, and to the contraction of the orbicular muscles; and that
+now, through association and long-continued habit, the same muscles are
+brought into slight play whenever any cause excites in us a feeling which,
+if stronger, would have led to laughter; and the result is a smile.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Whether we look at laughter as the full development of a smile, or, as is
+more probable, at a gentle smile as the last trace of a habit, firmly
+fixed during many generations, of laughing whenever we are joyful, we can
+follow in our infants the gradual passage of the one into the other. It is
+well known to those who have the charge of young infants, that it is
+difficult to feel sure when certain movements about their mouths are
+really expressive; that is, when they really smile. Hence I carefully
+watched my own infants. One of them at the age of forty-five days, and
+being at the time in a happy frame of mind, smiled; that is, the corners
+of the mouth were retracted, and simultaneously the eyes became decidedly
+bright. I observed the same thing on the following day; but on the third
+day the child was not quite well and there was no trace of a smile, and
+this renders it probable that the previous smiles were real. Eight days
+subsequently and during the next succeeding week, it was remarkable how
+his eyes brightened whenever he smiled, and his nose became at the same
+time transversely wrinkled. This was now accompanied by a little bleating
+noise, which perhaps represented a laugh. At the age of 113 days these
+little noises, which were always made during expiration, assumed a
+slightly different character, and were more broken or interrupted, as in
+sobbing; and this was certainly incipient laughter. The change in tone
+seemed to me at the time to be connected with the greater lateral
+extension of the mouth as the smiles became broader.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In a second infant the first real smile was observed at about the same
+age, viz. forty-five days; and in a third, at a somewhat earlier age. The
+second infant, when sixty-five days old, smiled much more broadly and
+plainly than did the one first mentioned at the same age; and even at this
+early age uttered noises very like laughter. In this gradual acquirement,
+by infants, of the habit of laughing, we have a case in some degree
+analogous to that of weeping. As practice is requisite with the ordinary
+movements of the body, such as walking, so it seems to be with laughing
+and weeping. The art of screaming, on the other hand, from being of
+service to infants, has become finely developed from the earliest days.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>High spirits, cheerfulness</i>.&mdash;A man in high spirits, though he
+may not actually smile, commonly exhibits some tendency to the retraction
+of the corners of his mouth. From the excitement of pleasure, the
+circulation becomes more rapid; the eyes are bright, and the colour of the
+face rises. The brain, being stimulated by the increased flow of blood,
+reacts on the mental powers; lively ideas pass still more rapidly through
+the mind, and the affections are warmed. I heard a child, a little under
+four years old, when asked what was meant by being in good spirits,
+answer, &ldquo;It is laughing, talking, and kissing.&rdquo; It would be difficult to
+give a truer and more practical definition. A man in this state holds his
+body erect, his head upright, and his eyes open. There is no drooping of
+the features, and no contraction of the eyebrows. On the contrary, the
+frontal muscle, as Moreau observes,<a href="#linknote-817"
+name="linknoteref-817" id="linknoteref-817">[817]</a> tends to contract
+slightly; and this smooths the brow, removes every trace of a frown,
+arches the eyebrows a little, and raises the eyelids. Hence the Latin
+phrase, <i>exporrigere frontem</i>&mdash;to unwrinkle the brow&mdash;means,
+to be cheerful or merry. The whole expression of a man in good spirits is
+exactly the opposite of that of one suffering from sorrow. According to
+Sir C. Bell, &ldquo;In all the exhilarating emotions the eyebrows, eyelids, the
+nostrils, and the angles of the mouth are raised. In the depressing
+passions it is the reverse.&rdquo; Under the influence of the latter the brow is
+heavy, the eyelids, cheeks, mouth, and whole head droop; the eyes are
+dull; the countenance pallid, and the respiration slow. In joy the face
+expands, in grief it lengthens. Whether the principle of antithesis has
+here come into play in producing these opposite expressions, in aid of the
+direct causes which have been specified and which are sufficiently plain,
+I will not pretend to say.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With all the races of man the expression of good spirit appears to be the
+same, and is easily recognized. My informants, from various parts of the
+Old and New Worlds, answer in the affirmative to my queries on this head,
+and they give some particulars with respect to Hindoos, Malays, and New
+Zealanders. The brightness of the eyes of the Australians has struck four
+observers, and the same fact has been noticed with Hindoos, New
+Zealanders, and the Dyaks of Borneo.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Savages sometimes express their satisfaction not only by smiling, but by
+gestures derived from the pleasure of eating. Thus Mr. Wedgwood<a
+href="#linknote-818" name="linknoteref-818" id="linknoteref-818">[818]</a>
+quotes Petherick that the negroes on the Upper Nile began a general
+rubbing of their bellies when he displayed his beads; and Leichhardt says
+that the Australians smacked and clacked their mouths at the sight of his
+horses and bullocks, and more especially of his kangaroo dogs. The
+Greenlanders, &ldquo;when they affirm anything with pleasure, suck down air with
+a certain sound;&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-819" name="linknoteref-819"
+id="linknoteref-819">[819]</a> and this may be an imitation of the act of
+swallowing savoury food.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Laughter is suppressed by the firm contraction of the orbicular muscles of
+the mouth, which prevents the great zygomatic and other muscles from
+drawing the lips backwards and upwards. The lower lip is also sometimes
+held by the teeth, and this gives a roguish expression to the face, as was
+observed with the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman.<a href="#linknote-820"
+name="linknoteref-820" id="linknoteref-820">[820]</a> The great zygomatic
+muscle is sometimes variable in its course, and I have seen a young woman
+in whom the <i>depressores anguli oris</i> were brought into strong action
+in suppressing a smile; but this by no means gave to her countenance a
+melancholy expression, owing to the brightness of her eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Laughter is frequently employed in a forced manner to conceal or mask some
+other state of mind, even anger. We often see persons laughing in order to
+conceal their shame or shyness. When a person purses up his mouth, as if
+to prevent the possibility of a smile, though there is nothing to excite
+one, or nothing to prevent its free indulgence, an affected, solemn, or
+pedantic expression is given; but of such hybrid expressions nothing more
+need here be said. In the case of derision, a real or pretended smile or
+laugh is often blended with the expression proper to contempt, and this
+may pass into angry contempt or scorn. In such cases the meaning of the
+laugh or smile is to show the offending person that he excites only
+amusement.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Love, tender feelings, &amp;c</i>.&mdash;Although the emotion of love,
+for instance that of a mother for her infant, is one of the strongest of
+which the mind is capable, it can hardly be said to have any proper or
+peculiar means of expression; and this is intelligible, as it has not
+habitually led to any special line of action. No doubt, as affection is a
+pleasurable sensation, it generally causes a gentle smile and some
+brightening of the eyes. A strong desire to touch the beloved person is
+commonly felt; and love is expressed by this means more plainly than by
+any other.<a href="#linknote-821" name="linknoteref-821"
+id="linknoteref-821">[821]</a> Hence we long to clasp in our arms those
+whom we tenderly love. We probably owe this desire to inherited habit, in
+association with the nursing and tending of our children, and with the
+mutual caresses of lovers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With the lower animals we see the same principle of pleasure derived from
+contact in association with love. Dogs and cats manifestly take pleasure
+in rubbing against their masters and mistresses, and in being rubbed or
+patted by them. Many kinds of monkeys, as I am assured by the keepers in
+the Zoological Gardens, delight in fondling and being fondled by each
+other, and by persons to whom they are attached. Mr. Bartlett has
+described to me the behaviour of two chimpanzees, rather older animals
+than those generally imported into this country, when they were first
+brought together. They sat opposite, touching each other with their much
+protruded lips; and the one put his hand on the shoulder of the other.
+They then mutually folded each other in their arms. Afterwards they stood
+up, each with one arm on the shoulder of the other, lifted up their heads,
+opened their mouths, and yelled with delight.<a href="#linknote-822"
+name="linknoteref-822" id="linknoteref-822">[822]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We Europeans are so accustomed to kissing as a mark of affection, that it
+might be thought to be innate in mankind; but this is not the case. Steele
+was mistaken when he said &ldquo;Nature was its author, and it began with the
+first courtship.&rdquo; Jemmy Button, the Fuegian, told me that this practice
+was unknown in his land. It is equally unknown with the New Zealanders,
+Tahitians, Papuans, Australians, Somals of Africa, and the Esquimaux. But
+it is so far innate or natural that it apparently depends on pleasure from
+close contact with a beloved person; and it is replaced in various parts
+of the world, by the rubbing of noses, as with the New Zealanders and
+Laplanders, by the rubbing or patting of the arms, breasts, or stomachs,
+or by one man striking his own face with the hands or feet of another.
+Perhaps the practice of blowing, as a mark of affection, on various parts
+of the body may depend on the same principle.<a href="#linknote-823"
+name="linknoteref-823" id="linknoteref-823">[823]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The feelings which are called tender are difficult to analyse; they seem
+to be compounded of affection, joy, and especially of sympathy. These
+feelings are in themselves of a pleasurable nature, excepting when pity is
+too deep, or horror is aroused, as in hearing of a tortured man or animal.
+They are remarkable under our present point of view from so readily
+exciting the secretion of tears. Many a father and son have wept on
+meeting after a long separation, especially if the meeting has been
+unexpected. No doubt extreme joy by itself tends to act on the lacrymal
+glands; but on such occasions as the foregoing vague thoughts of the grief
+which would have been felt had the father and son never met, will probably
+have passed through their minds; and grief naturally leads to the
+secretion of tears. Thus on the return of Ulysses:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;Telemachus Rose, and clung weeping round his father&rsquo;s breast.<br/>
+There the pent grief rained o&rsquo;er them, yearning thus.<br/>
+*   *    *    *    *    *<br/>
+Thus piteously they wailed in sore unrest,<br/>
+And on their weepings had gone down the day,<br/>
+But that at last Telemachus found words to say.&rdquo;<br/>
+<i>Worsley&rsquo;s Translation of the Odyssey</i>, Book xvi. st. 27.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+So again when Penelope at last recognized her husband:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;Then from her eyelids the quick tears did start<br/>
+And she ran to him from her place, and threw<br/>
+Her arms about his neck, and a warm dew<br/>
+Of kisses poured upon him, and thus spake:&rdquo;<br/>
+&mdash;Book xxiii.  st.  27.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The vivid recollection of our former home, or of long-past happy days,
+readily causes the eyes to be suffused with tears; but here, again, the
+thought naturally occurs that these days will never return. In such cases
+we may be said to sympathize with ourselves in our present, in comparison
+with our former, state. Sympathy with the distresses of others, even with
+the imaginary distresses of a heroine in a pathetic story, for whom we
+feel no affection, readily excites tears. So does sympathy with the
+happiness of others, as with that of a lover, at last successful after
+many hard trials in a well-told tale.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sympathy appears to constitute a separate or distinct emotion; and it is
+especially apt to excite the lacrymal glands. This holds good whether we
+give or receive sympathy. Every one must have noticed how readily children
+burst out crying if we pity them for some small hurt. With the melancholic
+insane, as Dr. Crichton Browne informs me, a kind word will often plunge
+them into unrestrained weeping. As soon as we express our pity for the
+grief of a friend, tears often come into our own eyes. The feeling of
+sympathy is commonly explained by assuming that, when we see or hear of
+suffering in another, the idea of suffering is called up so vividly in our
+own minds that we ourselves suffer. But this explanation is hardly
+sufficient, for it does not account for the intimate alliance between
+sympathy and affection. We undoubtedly sympathize far more deeply with a
+beloved than with an indifferent person; and the sympathy of the one gives
+us far more relief than that of the other. Yet assuredly we can sympathize
+with those for whom we feel no affection.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Why suffering, when actually experienced by ourselves, excites weeping,
+has been discussed in a former chapter. With respect to joy, its natural
+and universal expression is laughter; and with all the races of man loud
+laughter leads to the secretion of tears more freely than does any other
+cause excepting distress. The suffusion of the eyes with tears, which
+undoubtedly occurs under great joy, though there is no laughter, can, as
+it seems to me, be explained through habit and association on the same
+principles as the effusion of tears from grief, although there is no
+screaming. Nevertheless it is not a little remarkable that sympathy with
+the distresses of others should excite tears more freely than our own
+distress; and this certainly is the case. Many a man, from whose eyes no
+suffering of his own could wring a tear, has shed tears at the sufferings
+of a beloved friend. It is still more remarkable that sympathy with the
+happiness or good fortune of those whom we tenderly love should lead to
+the same result, whilst a similar happiness felt by ourselves would leave
+our eyes dry. We should, however, bear in mind that the long-continued
+habit of restraint which is so powerful in checking the free flow of tears
+from bodily pain, has not been brought into play in preventing a moderate
+effusion of tears in sympathy with the sufferings or happiness of others.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Music has a wonderful power, as I have elsewhere attempted to show,<a
+href="#linknote-824" name="linknoteref-824" id="linknoteref-824">[824]</a>
+of recalling in a vague and indefinite manner, those strong emotions which
+were felt during long-past ages, when, as is probable, our early
+progenitors courted each other by the aid of vocal tones. And as several
+of our strongest emotions&mdash;grief, great joy, love, and sympathy&mdash;lead
+to the free secretion of tears, it is not surprising that music should be
+apt to cause our eyes to become suffused with tears, especially when we
+are already softened by any of the tenderer feelings. Music often produces
+another peculiar effect. We know that every strong sensation, emotion, or
+excitement&mdash;extreme pain, rage, terror, joy, or the passion of love&mdash;all
+have a special tendency to cause the muscles to tremble; and the thrill or
+slight shiver which runs down the backbone and limbs of many persons when
+they are powerfully affected by music, seems to bear the same relation to
+the above trembling of the body, as a slight suffusion of tears from the
+power of music does to weeping from any strong and real emotion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Devotion</i>.&mdash;As devotion is, in some degree, related to
+affection, though mainly consisting of reverence, often combined with
+fear, the expression of this state of mind may here be briefly noticed.
+With some sects, both past and present, religion and love have been
+strangely combined; and it has even been maintained, lamentable as the
+fact may be, that the holy kiss of love differs but little from that which
+a man bestows on a woman, or a woman on a man.<a href="#linknote-825"
+name="linknoteref-825" id="linknoteref-825">[825]</a> Devotion is chiefly
+expressed by the face being directed towards the heavens, with the
+eyeballs upturned. Sir C. Bell remarks that, at the approach of sleep, or
+of a fainting-fit, or of death, the pupils are drawn upwards and inwards;
+and he believes that &ldquo;when we are wrapt in devotional feelings, and
+outward impressions are unheeded, the eyes are raised by an action neither
+taught nor acquired.&rdquo; and that this is due to the same cause as in the
+above cases.<a href="#linknote-826" name="linknoteref-826"
+id="linknoteref-826">[826]</a> That the eyes are upturned during sleep is,
+as I hear from Professor Donders, certain. With babies, whilst sucking
+their mother&rsquo;s breast, this movement of the eyeballs often gives to them
+an absurd appearance of ecstatic delight; and here it may be clearly
+perceived that a struggle is going on against the position naturally
+assumed during sleep. But Sir C. Bell&rsquo;s explanation of the fact, which
+rests on the assumption that certain muscles are more under the control of
+the will than others is, as I hear from Professor Donders, incorrect. As
+the eyes are often turned up in prayer, without the mind being so much
+absorbed in thought as to approach to the unconsciousness of sleep, the
+movement is probably a conventional one&mdash;the result of the common
+belief that Heaven, the source of Divine power to which we pray, is seated
+above us.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A humble kneeling posture, with the hands upturned and palms joined,
+appears to us, from long habit, a gesture so appropriate to devotion, that
+it might be thought to be innate; but I have not met with any evidence to
+this effect with the various extra-European races of mankind. During the
+classical period of Roman history it does not appear, as I hear from an
+excellent classic, that the hands were thus joined during prayer. Mr.
+Rensleigh Wedgwood has apparently given<a href="#linknote-827"
+name="linknoteref-827" id="linknoteref-827">[827]</a> the true
+explanation, though this implies that the attitude is one of slavish
+subjection. &ldquo;When the suppliant kneels and holds up his hands with the
+palms joined, he represents a captive who proves the completeness of his
+submission by offering up his hands to be bound by the victor. It is the
+pictorial representation of the Latin <i>dare manus</i>, to signify
+submission.&rdquo; Hence it is not probable that either the uplifting of the
+eyes or the joining of the open hands, under the influence of devotional
+feelings, are innate or truly expressive actions; and this could hardly
+have been expected, for it is very doubtful whether feelings, such as we
+should now rank as devotional, affected the hearts of men, whilst they
+remained during past ages in an uncivilized condition.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"></a>
+CHAPTER IX.<br/>REFLECTION&mdash;MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER&mdash;SULKINESS&mdash;DETERMINATION.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The act of frowning&mdash;Reflection with an effort, or with the
+perception of something difficult or disagreeable&mdash;Abstracted
+meditation&mdash;Ill-temper&mdash;Moroseness&mdash;Obstinacy Sulkiness and
+pouting&mdash;Decision or determination&mdash;The firm closure of the
+mouth.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+The corrugators, by their contraction, lower the eyebrows and bring them
+together, producing vertical furrows on the forehead&mdash;that is, a
+frown. Sir C. Bell, who erroneously thought that the corrugator was
+peculiar to man, ranks it as &ldquo;the most remarkable muscle of the human
+face. It knits the eyebrows with an energetic effort, which unaccountably,
+but irresistibly, conveys the idea of mind.&rdquo; Or, as he elsewhere says,
+&ldquo;when the eyebrows are knit, energy of mind is apparent, and there is the
+mingling of thought and emotion with the savage and brutal rage of the
+mere animal.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-901" name="linknoteref-901"
+id="linknoteref-901">[901]</a> There is much truth in these remarks, but
+hardly the whole truth. Dr. Duchenne has called the corrugator the muscle
+of reflection;<a href="#linknote-902" name="linknoteref-902"
+id="linknoteref-902">[902]</a> but this name, without some limitation,
+cannot be considered as quite correct.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A man may be absorbed in the deepest thought, and his brow will remain
+smooth until he encounters some obstacle in his train of reasoning, or is
+interrupted by some disturbance, and then a frown passes like a shadow
+over his brow. A half-starved man may think intently how to obtain food,
+but he probably will not frown unless he encounters either in thought or
+action some difficulty, or finds the food when obtained nauseous. I have
+noticed that almost everyone instantly frowns if he perceives a strange or
+bad taste in what he is eating. I asked several persons, without
+explaining my object, to listen intently to a very gentle tapping sound,
+the nature and source of which they all perfectly knew, and not one
+frowned; but a man who joined us, and who could not conceive what we were
+all doing in profound silence, when asked to listen, frowned much, though
+not in an ill-temper, and said he could not in the least understand what
+we all wanted. Dr. Piderit<a href="#linknote-903" name="linknoteref-903"
+id="linknoteref-903">[903]</a> who has published remarks to the same
+effect, adds that stammerers generally frown in speaking, and that a man
+in doing even so trifling a thing as pulling on a boot, frowns if he finds
+it too tight. Some persons are such habitual frowners, that the mere
+effort of speaking almost always causes their brows to contract.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Men of all races frown when they are in any way perplexed in thought, as I
+infer from the answers which I have received to my queries; but I framed
+them badly, confounding absorbed meditation with perplexed reflection.
+Nevertheless, it is clear that the Australians, Malays, Hindoos, and
+Kafirs of South Africa frown, when they are puzzled. Dobritzhoffer remarks
+that the Guaranies of South America on like occasions knit their brows.<a
+href="#linknote-904" name="linknoteref-904" id="linknoteref-904">[904]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From these considerations, we may conclude that frowning is not the
+expression of simple reflection, however profound, or of attention,
+however close, but of something difficult or displeasing encountered in a
+train of thought or in action. Deep reflection can, however, seldom be
+long carried on without some difficulty, so that it will generally be
+accompanied by a frown. Hence it is that frowning commonly gives to the
+countenance, as Sir C. Bell remarks, an aspect of intellectual energy. But
+in order that this effect may be produced, the eyes must be clear and
+steady, or they may be cast downwards, as often occurs in deep thought.
+The countenance must not be otherwise disturbed, as in the case of an
+ill-tempered or peevish man, or of one who shows the effects of prolonged
+suffering, with dulled eyes and drooping jaw, or who perceives a bad taste
+in his food, or who finds it difficult to perform some trifling act, such
+as threading a needle. In these cases a frown may often be seen, but it
+will be accompanied by some other expression, which will entirely prevent
+the countenance having an appearance of intellectual energy or of profound
+thought.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We may now inquire how it is that a frown should express the perception of
+something difficult or disagreeable, either in thought or action. In the
+same way as naturalists find it advisable to trace the embryological
+development of an organ in order fully to understand its structure, so
+with the movements of expression it is advisable to follow as nearly as
+possible the same plan. The earliest and almost sole expression seen
+during the first days of infancy, and then often exhibited is that
+displayed during the act of screaming; and screaming is excited, both at
+first and for some time afterwards, by every distressing or displeasing
+sensation and emotion,&mdash;by hunger, pain, anger, jealousy, fear, &amp;c.
+At such times the muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted; and
+this, as I believe, explains to a large extent the act of frowning during
+the remainder of our lives. I repeatedly observed my own infants, from
+under the age of one week to that of two or three months, and found that
+when a screaming-fit came on gradually, the first sign was the contraction
+of the corrugators, which produced a slight frown, quickly followed by the
+contraction of the other muscles round the eyes. When an infant is
+uncomfortable or unwell, little frowns&mdash;as I record in my notes&mdash;may
+be seen incessantly passing like shadows over its face; these being
+generally, but not always, followed sooner or later by a crying-fit. For
+instance, I watched for some time a baby, between seven and eight weeks
+old, sucking some milk which was cold, and therefore displeasing to him;
+and a steady little frown was maintained all the time. This was never
+developed into an actual crying-fit, though occasionally every stage of
+close approach could be observed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the habit of contracting the brows has been followed by infants during
+innumerable generations, at the commencement of every crying or screaming
+fit, it has become firmly associated with the incipient sense of something
+distressing or disagreeable. Hence under similar circumstances it would be
+apt to be continued during maturity, although never then developed into a
+crying-fit. Screaming or weeping begins to be voluntarily restrained at an
+early period of life, whereas frowning is hardly ever restrained at any
+age. It is perhaps worth notice that with children much given to weeping,
+anything which perplexes their minds, and which would cause most other
+children merely to frown, readily makes them weep. So with certain classes
+of the insane, any effort of mind, however slight, which with an habitual
+frowner would cause a slight frown, leads to their weeping in an
+unrestrained manner. It is not more surprising that the habit of
+contracting the brows at the first perception of something distressing,
+although gained during infancy, should be retained during the rest of our
+lives, than that many other associated habits acquired at an early age
+should be permanently retained both by man and the lower animals. For
+instance, full-grown cats, when feeling warm and comfortable, often retain
+the habit of alternately protruding their fore-feet with extended toes,
+which habit they practised for a definite purpose whilst sucking their
+mothers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Another and distinct cause has probably strengthened the habit of
+frowning, whenever the mind is intent on any subject and encounters some
+difficulty. Vision is the most important of all the senses, and during
+primeval times the closest attention must have been incessantly: directed
+towards distant objects for the sake of obtaining prey and avoiding
+danger. I remember being struck, whilst travelling in parts of South
+America, which were dangerous from the presence of Indians, how
+incessantly, yet as it appeared unconsciously, the half-wild Gauchos
+closely scanned the whole horizon. Now, when any one with no covering on
+his head (as must have been aboriginally the case with mankind), strives
+to the utmost to distinguish in broad daylight, and especially if the sky
+is bright, a distant object, he almost invariably contracts his brows to
+prevent the entrance of too much light; the lower eyelids, cheeks, and
+upper lip being at the same time raised, so as to lessen the orifice of
+the eyes. I have purposely asked several persons, young and old, to look,
+under the above circumstances, at distant objects, making them believe
+that I only wished to test the power of their vision; and they all behaved
+in the manner just described. Some of them, also, put their open, flat
+hands over their eyes to keep out the excess of light. Gratiolet, after
+making some remarks to nearly the same effect,<a href="#linknote-905"
+name="linknoteref-905" id="linknoteref-905">[905]</a> says, &ldquo;Ce sont là
+des attitudes de vision difficile.&rdquo; He concludes that the muscles round
+the eyes contract partly for the sake of excluding too much light (which
+appears to me the more important end), and partly to prevent all rays
+striking the retina, except those which come direct from the object that
+is scrutinized. Mr. Bowman, whom I consulted on this point, thinks that
+the contraction of the surrounding muscles may, in addition, &ldquo;partly
+sustain the consensual movements of the two eyes, by giving a firmer
+support while the globes are brought to binocular vision by their own
+proper muscles.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the effort of viewing with care under a bright light a distant object
+is both difficult and irksome, and as this effort has been habitually
+accompanied, during numberless generations, by the contraction of the
+eyebrows, the habit of frowning will thus have been much strengthened;
+although it was originally practised during infancy from a quite
+independent cause, namely as the first step in the protection of the eyes
+during screaming. There is, indeed, much analogy, as far as the state of
+the mind is concerned, between intently scrutinizing a distant object, and
+following out an obscure train of thought, or performing some little and
+troublesome mechanical work. The belief that the habit of contracting the
+brows is continued when there is no need whatever to exclude too much
+light, receives support from the cases formerly alluded to, in which the
+eyebrows or eyelids are acted on under certain circumstances in a useless
+manner, from having been similarly used, under analogous circumstances,
+for a serviceable purpose. For instance, we voluntarily close our eyes
+when we do not wish to see any object, and we are apt to close them, when
+we reject a proposition, as if we could not or would not see it; or when
+we think about something horrible. We raise our eyebrows when we wish to
+see quickly all round us, and we often do the same, when we earnestly
+desire to remember something; acting as if we endeavoured to see it.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Abstraction. Meditation</i>.&mdash;When a person is lost in thought
+with his mind absent, or, as it is sometimes said, &ldquo;when he is in a brown
+study,&rdquo; he does not frown, but his eyes appear vacant. The lower eyelids
+are generally raised and wrinkled, in the same manner as when a
+short-sighted person tries to distinguish a distant object; and the upper
+orbicular muscles are at the same time slightly contracted. The wrinkling
+of the lower eyelids under these circumstances has been observed with some
+savages, as by Mr. Dyson Lacy with the Australians of Queensland, and
+several times by Mr. Geach with the Malays of the interior of Malacca.
+What the meaning or cause of this action may be, cannot at present be
+explained; but here we have another instance of movement round the eyes in
+relation to the state of the mind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The vacant expression of the eyes is very peculiar, and at once shows when
+a man is completely lost in thought. Professor Donders has, with his usual
+kindness, investigated this subject for me. He has observed others in this
+condition, and has been himself observed by Professor Engelmann. The eyes
+are not then fixed on any object, and therefore not, as I had imagined, on
+some distant object. The lines of vision of the two eyes even often become
+slightly divergent; the divergence, if the head be held vertically, with
+the plane of vision horizontal, amounting to an angle of 2° as a maximum.
+This was ascertained by observing the crossed double image of a distant
+object. When the head droops forward, as often occurs with a man absorbed
+in thought, owing to the general relaxation of his muscles, if the plane
+of vision be still horizontal, the eyes are necessarily a little turned
+upwards, and then the divergence is as much as 3°, or 3° 5&rsquo;: if the eyes
+are turned still more upwards, it amounts to between 6° and 7°.
+Professor Donders attributes this divergence to the almost complete
+relaxation of certain muscles of the eyes, which would be apt to follow
+from the mind being wholly absorbed.<a href="#linknote-906"
+name="linknoteref-906" id="linknoteref-906">[906]</a> The active condition
+of the muscles of the eyes is that of convergence; and Professor Donders
+remarks, as bearing on their divergence during a period of complete
+abstraction, that when one eye becomes blind, it almost always, after a
+short lapse of time, deviates outwards; for its muscles are no longer used
+in moving the eyeball inwards for the sake of binocular vision.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Perplexed reflection is often accompanied by certain movements or
+gestures. At such times we commonly raise our hands to our foreheads,
+mouths, or chins; but we do not act thus, as far as I have seen, when we
+are quite lost in meditation, and no difficulty is encountered. Plautus,
+describing in one of his plays<a href="#linknote-907"
+name="linknoteref-907" id="linknoteref-907">[907]</a> a puzzled man, says,
+&ldquo;Now look, he has pillared his chin upon his hand.&rdquo; Even so trifling and
+apparently unmeaning a gesture as the raising of the hand to the face has
+been observed with some savages. Mr. J. Mansel Weale has seen it with the
+Kafirs of South Africa; and the native chief Gaika adds, that men then
+&ldquo;sometimes pull their beards.&rdquo; Mr. Washington Matthews, who attended to
+some of the wildest tribes of Indians in the western regions of the United
+States, remarks that he has seen them when concentrating their thoughts,
+bring their &ldquo;hands, usually the thumb and index finger, in contact with
+some part of the face, commonly the upper lip.&rdquo; We can understand why the
+forehead should be pressed or rubbed, as deep thought tries the brain; but
+why the hand should be raised to the mouth or face is far from clear.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Ill-temper</i>.&mdash;We have seen that frowning is the natural
+expression of some difficulty encountered, or of something disagreeable
+experienced either in thought or action, and he whose mind is often and
+readily affected in this way, will be apt to be ill-tempered, or slightly
+angry, or peevish, and will commonly show it by frowning. But a cross
+expression, due to a frown, may be counteracted, if the mouth appears
+sweet, from being habitually drawn into a smile, and the eyes are bright
+and cheerful. So it will be if the eye is clear and steady, and there is
+the appearance of earnest reflection. Frowning, with some depression of
+the corners of the mouth, which is a sign of grief, gives an air of
+peevishness. If a child (see Plate IV., fig. 2)<a href="#linknote-908"
+name="linknoteref-908" id="linknoteref-908">[908]</a> frowns much whilst
+crying, but does not strongly contract in the usual manner the orbicular
+muscles, a well-marked expression of anger or even of rage, together with
+misery, is displayed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0021" id="linkimage-0021">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/plate-4.jpg" width="100%" alt="Ill-temper. Plate IV " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+If the whole frowning brow be drawn much downward by the contraction of
+the pyramidal muscles of the nose, which produces transverse wrinkles or
+folds across the base of the nose, the expression becomes one of
+moroseness. Duchenne believes that the contraction of this muscle, without
+any frowning, gives the appearance of extreme and aggressive hardness.<a
+href="#linknote-909" name="linknoteref-909" id="linknoteref-909">[909]</a>
+But I much doubt whether this is a true or natural expression. I have
+shown Duchenne&rsquo;s photograph of a young man, with this muscle strongly
+contracted by means of galvanism, to eleven persons, including some
+artists, and none of them could form an idea what was intended, except
+one, a girl, who answered correctly, &ldquo;surely reserve.&rdquo; When I first looked
+at this photograph, knowing what was intended, my imagination added, as I
+believe, what was necessary, namely, a frowning brow; and consequently the
+expression appeared to me true and extremely morose.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A firmly closed mouth, in addition to a lowered and frowning brow, gives
+determination to the expression, or may make it obstinate and sullen. How
+it comes that the firm closure of the mouth gives the appearance of
+determination will presently be discussed. An expression of sullen
+obstinacy has been clearly recognized by my informants, in the natives of
+six different regions of Australia. It is well marked, according to Mr.
+Scott, with the Hindoos. It has been recognized with the Malays, Chinese,
+Kafirs, Abyssinians, and in a conspicuous degree, according to Dr.
+Rothrock, with the wild Indians of North America, and according to Mr. D.
+Forbes, with the Aymaras of Bolivia. I have also observed it with the
+Araucanos of southern Chili. Mr. Dyson Lacy remarks that the natives of
+Australia, when in this frame of mind, sometimes fold their arms across
+their breasts, an attitude which may be seen with us. A firm
+determination, amounting to obstinacy, is, also, sometimes expressed by
+both shoulders being kept raised, the meaning of which gesture will be
+explained in the following chapter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With young children sulkiness is shown by pouting, or, as it is sometimes
+called, &ldquo;making a snout.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-910" name="linknoteref-910"
+id="linknoteref-910">[910]</a> When the corners of the mouth are much
+depressed, the lower lip is a little everted and protruded; and this is
+likewise called a pout. But the pouting here referred to, consists of the
+protrusion of both lips into a tubular form, sometimes to such an extent
+as to project as far as the end of the nose, if this be short. Pouting is
+generally accompanied by frowning, and sometimes by the utterance of a
+booing or whooing noise. This expression is remarkable, as almost the sole
+one, as far as I know, which is exhibited much more plainly during
+childhood, at least with Europeans, than during maturity. There is,
+however, some tendency to the protrusion of the lips with the adults of
+all races under the influence of great rage. Some children pout when they
+are shy, and they can then hardly be called sulky.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From inquiries which I have made in several large families, pouting does
+not seem very common with European children; but it prevails throughout
+the world, and must be both common and strongly marked with most savage
+races, as it has caught the attention of many observers. It has been
+noticed in eight different districts of Australia; and one of my
+informants remarks how greatly the lips of the children are then
+protruded. Two observers have seen pouting with the children of Hindoos;
+three, with those of the Kafirs and Fingoes of South Africa, and with the
+Hottentots; and two, with the children of the wild Indians of North
+America. Pouting has also been observed with the Chinese, Abyssinians,
+Malays of Malacca, Dyaks of Borneo, and often with the New Zealanders. Mr.
+Mansel Weale informs me that he has seen the lips much protruded, not only
+with the children of the Kafirs, but with the adults of both sexes when
+sulky; and Mr. Stack has sometimes observed the same thing with the men,
+and very frequently with the women of New Zealand. A trace of the same
+expression may occasionally be detected even with adult Europeans.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We thus see that the protrusion of the lips, especially with young
+children, is characteristic of sulkiness throughout the greater part of
+the world. This movement apparently results from the retention, chiefly
+during youth, of a primordial habit, or from an occasional reversion to
+it. Young orangs and chimpanzees protrude their lips to an extraordinary
+degree, as described in a former chapter, when they are discontented,
+somewhat angry, or sulky; also when they are surprised, a little
+frightened, and even when slightly pleased. Their mouths are protruded
+apparently for the sake of making the various noises proper to these
+several states of mind; and its shape, as I observed with the chimpanzee,
+differed slightly when the cry of pleasure and that of anger were uttered.
+As soon as these animals become enraged, the shape of the month wholly
+changes, and the teeth are exposed. The adult orang when wounded is said
+to emit &ldquo;a singular cry, consisting at first of high notes, which at
+length deepen into a low roar. While giving out the high notes he thrusts
+out his lips into a funnel shape, but in uttering the low notes he holds
+his mouth wide open.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-911" name="linknoteref-911"
+id="linknoteref-911">[911]</a> With the gorilla, the lower lip is said to
+be capable of great elongation. If then our semi-human progenitors
+protruded their lips when sulky or a little angered, in the same manner as
+do the existing anthropoid apes, it is not an anomalous, though a curious
+fact, that our children should exhibit, when similarly affected, a trace
+of the same expression, together with some tendency to utter a noise. For
+it is not at all unusual for animals to retain, more or less perfectly,
+during early youth, and subsequently to lose, characters which were
+aboriginally possessed by their adult progenitors, and which are still
+retained by distinct species, their near relations.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nor is it an anomalous fact that the children of savages should exhibit a
+stronger tendency to protrude their lips, when sulky, than the children of
+civilized Europeans; for the essence of savagery seems to consist in the
+retention of a primordial condition, and this occasionally holds good even
+with bodily peculiarities.<a href="#linknote-912" name="linknoteref-912"
+id="linknoteref-912">[912]</a> It may be objected to this view of the
+origin of pouting, that the anthropoid apes likewise protrude their lips
+when astonished and even when a little pleased; whilst with us this
+expression is generally confined to a sulky frame of mind. But we shall
+see in a future chapter that with men of various races surprise does
+sometimes lead to a slight protrusion of the lips, though great surprise
+or astonishment is more commonly shown by the mouth being widely opened.
+As when we smile or laugh we draw back the corners of the mouth, we have
+lost any tendency to protrude the lips, when pleased, if indeed our early
+progenitors thus expressed pleasure.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A little gesture made by sulky children may here be noticed, namely, their
+&ldquo;showing a cold shoulder.&rdquo; This has a different meaning, as, I believe,
+from the keeping both shoulders raised. A cross child, sitting on its
+parent&rsquo;s knee, will lift up the near shoulder, then jerk it away, as if
+from a caress, and afterwards give a backward push with it, as if to push
+away the offender. I have seen a child, standing at some distance from any
+one, clearly express its feelings by raising one shoulder, giving it a
+little backward movement, and then turning away its whole body.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Decision or determination</i>.&mdash;The firm closure of the mouth
+tends to give an expression of determination or decision to the
+countenance. No determined man probably ever had an habitually gaping
+mouth. Hence, also, a small and weak lower jaw, which seems to indicate
+that the mouth is not habitually and firmly closed, is commonly thought to
+be characteristic of feebleness of character. A prolonged effort of any
+kind, whether of body or mind, implies previous determination; and if it
+can be shown that the mouth is generally closed with firmness before and
+during a great and continued exertion of the muscular system, then,
+through the principle of association, the mouth would almost certainly be
+closed as soon as any determined resolution was taken. Now several
+observers have noticed that a man, in commencing any violent muscular
+effort, invariably first distends his lungs with air, and then compresses
+it by the strong contraction of the muscles of the chest; and to effect
+this the mouth must be firmly closed. Moreover, as soon as the man is
+compelled to draw breath, he still keeps his chest as much distended as
+possible.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Various causes have been assigned for this manner of acting. Sir C. Bell
+maintains<a href="#linknote-913" name="linknoteref-913"
+id="linknoteref-913">[913]</a> that the chest is distended with air, and
+is kept distended at such times, in order to give a fixed support to the
+muscles which are thereto attached. Hence, as he remarks, when two men are
+engaged in a deadly contest, a terrible silence prevails, broken only by
+hard stifled breathing. There is silence, because to expel the air in the
+utterance of any sound would be to relax the support for the muscles of
+the arms. If an outcry is heard, supposing the struggle to take place in
+the dark, we at once know that one of the two has given up in despair.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Gratiolet admits<a href="#linknote-914" name="linknoteref-914"
+id="linknoteref-914">[914]</a> that when a man has to struggle with
+another to his utmost, or has to support a great weight, or to keep for a
+long time the same forced attitude, it is necessary for him first to make
+a deep inspiration, and then to cease breathing; but he thinks that Sir C.
+Bell&rsquo;s explanation is erroneous. He maintains that arrested respiration
+retards the circulation of the blood, of which I believe there is no
+doubt, and he adduces some curious evidence from the structure of the
+lower animals, showing, on the one hand, that a retarded circulation is
+necessary for prolonged muscular exertion, and, on the other hand, that a
+rapid circulation is necessary for rapid movements. According to this
+view, when we commence any great exertion, we close our mouths and stop
+breathing, in order to retard the circulation of the blood. Gratiolet sums
+up the subject by saying, &ldquo;C&rsquo;est là la vraie théorie de l&rsquo;effort continu;&rdquo;
+but how far this theory is admitted by other physiologists I do not know.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Piderit accounts<a href="#linknote-915" name="linknoteref-915"
+id="linknoteref-915">[915]</a> for the firm closure of the mouth during
+strong muscular exertion, on the principle that the influence of the will
+spreads to other muscles besides those necessarily brought into action in
+making any particular exertion; and it is natural that the muscles of
+respiration and of the mouth, from being so habitually used, should be
+especially liable to be thus acted on. It appears to me that there
+probably is some truth in this view, for we are apt to press the teeth
+hard together during violent exertion, and this is not requisite to
+prevent expiration, whilst the muscles of the chest are strongly
+contracted.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lastly, when a man has to perform some delicate and difficult operation,
+not requiring the exertion of any strength, he nevertheless generally
+closes his mouth and ceases for a time to breathe; but he acts thus in
+order that the movements of his chest may not disturb, those of his arms.
+A person, for instance, whilst threading a needle, may be seen to compress
+his lips and either to stop breathing, or to breathe as quietly as
+possible. So it was, as formerly stated, with a young and sick chimpanzee,
+whilst it amused itself by killing flies with its knuckles, as they buzzed
+about on the window-panes. To perform an action, however trifling, if
+difficult, implies some amount of previous determination.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There appears nothing improbable in all the above assigned causes having
+come into play in different degrees, either conjointly or separately, on
+various occasions. The result would be a well-established habit, now
+perhaps inherited, of firmly closing the mouth at the commencement of and
+during any violent and prolonged exertion, or any delicate operation.
+Through the principle of association there would also be a strong tendency
+towards this same habit, as soon as the mind had resolved on any
+particular action or line of conduct, even before there was any bodily
+exertion, or if none were requisite. The habitual and firm closure of the
+mouth would thus come to show decision of character; and decision readily
+passes into obstinacy.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"></a>
+CHAPTER X.<br/>HATRED AND ANGER.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+Hatred&mdash;Rage, effects of on the system&mdash;Uncovering of the teeth&mdash;Rage
+in the insane&mdash;Anger and indignation&mdash;As expressed by the
+various races of man&mdash;Sneering and defiance&mdash;The uncovering of
+the canine tooth on one side of the face.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+If we have suffered or expect to suffer some wilful injury from a man, or
+if he is in any way offensive to us, we dislike him; and dislike easily
+rises into hatred. Such feelings, if experienced in a moderate degree, are
+not clearly expressed by any movement of the body or features, excepting
+perhaps by a certain gravity of behaviour, or by some ill-temper. Few
+individuals, however, can long reflect about a hated person, without
+feeling and exhibiting signs of indignation or rage. But if the offending
+person be quite insignificant, we experience merely disdain or contempt.
+If, on the other hand, he is all-powerful, then hatred passes into terror,
+as when a slave thinks about a cruel master, or a savage about a
+bloodthirsty malignant deity.<a href="#linknote-1001"
+name="linknoteref-1001" id="linknoteref-1001">[1001]</a> Most of our
+emotions are so closely connected with their expression, that they hardly
+exist if the body remains passive&mdash;the nature of the expression
+depending in chief part on the nature of the actions which have been
+habitually performed under this particular state of the mind. A man, for
+instance, may know that his life is in the extremest peril, and may
+strongly desire to save if; yet, as Louis XVI. said, when surrounded by a
+fierce mob, &ldquo;Am I afraid? feel my pulse.&rdquo; So a man may intensely hate
+another, but until his bodily frame is affected, he cannot be said to be
+enraged.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Rage</i>.&mdash;I have already had occasion to treat of this emotion in
+the third chapter, when discussing the direct influence of the excited
+sensorium on the body, in combination with the effects of habitually
+associated actions. Rage exhibits itself in the most diversified manner.
+The heart and circulation are always affected; the face reddens or becomes
+purple, with the veins on the forehead and neck distended. The reddening
+of the skin has been observed with the copper-coloured Indians of South
+America,<a href="#linknote-1002" name="linknoteref-1002"
+id="linknoteref-1002">[1002]</a> and even, as it is said, on the white
+cicatrices left by old wounds on negroes.<a href="#linknote-1003"
+name="linknoteref-1003" id="linknoteref-1003">[1003]</a> Monkeys also
+redden from passion. With one of my own infants, under four months old, I
+repeatedly observed that the first symptom of an approaching passion was
+the rushing of the blood into his bare scalp. On the other hand, the
+action of the heart is sometimes so much impeded by great rage, that the
+countenance becomes pallid or livid,<a href="#linknote-1004"
+name="linknoteref-1004" id="linknoteref-1004">[1004]</a> and not a few men
+with heart-disease have dropped down dead under this powerful emotion.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The respiration is likewise affected; the chest heaves, and the dilated
+nostrils quiver.<a href="#linknote-1005" name="linknoteref-1005"
+id="linknoteref-1005">[1005]</a> As Tennyson writes, &ldquo;sharp breaths of
+anger puffed her fairy nostrils out.&rdquo; Hence we have such expressions as
+&ldquo;breathing out vengeance,&rdquo; and &ldquo;fuming with anger.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1006"
+name="linknoteref-1006" id="linknoteref-1006">[1006]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The excited brain gives strength to the muscles, and at the same time
+energy to the will. The body is commonly held erect ready for instant
+action, but sometimes it is bent forward towards the offending person,
+with the limbs more or less rigid. The mouth is generally closed with
+firmness, showing fixed determination, and the teeth are clenched or
+ground together. Such gestures as the raising of the arms, with the fists
+clenched, as if to strike the offender, are common. Few men in a great
+passion, and telling some one to begone, can resist acting as if they
+intended to strike or push the man violently away. The desire, indeed, to
+strike often becomes so intolerably strong, that inanimate objects are
+struck or dashed to the ground; but the gestures frequently become
+altogether purposeless or frantic. Young children, when in a violent rage
+roll on the ground on their backs or bellies, screaming, kicking,
+scratching, or biting everything within reach. So it is, as I hear from
+Mr. Scott, with Hindoo children; and, as we have seen, with the young of
+the anthropomorphous apes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But the muscular system is often affected in a wholly different way; for
+trembling is a frequent consequence of extreme rage. The paralysed lips
+then refuse to obey the will, &ldquo;and the voice sticks in the throat;&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-1007" name="linknoteref-1007" id="linknoteref-1007">[1007]</a>
+or it is rendered loud, harsh, and discordant. If there be much and rapid
+speaking, the mouth froths. The hair sometimes bristles; but I shall
+return to this subject in another chapter, when I treat of the mingled
+emotions of rage and terror. There is in most cases a strongly-marked
+frown on the forehead; for this follows from the sense of anything
+displeasing or difficult, together with concentration of mind. But
+sometimes the brow, instead of being much contracted and lowered, remains
+smooth, with the glaring eyes kept widely open. The eyes are always
+bright, or may, as Homer expresses it, glisten with fire. They are
+sometimes bloodshot, and are said to protrude from their sockets&mdash;the
+result, no doubt, of the head being gorged with blood, as shown by the
+veins being distended. According to Gratiolet, &ldquo;the pupils are always
+contracted in rage,&rdquo; and I hear from Dr. Crichton Browne that this is the
+case in the fierce delirium of meningitis; but the movements of the iris
+under the influence of the different emotions is a very obscure subject.<a
+href="#linknote-1008" name="linknoteref-1008" id="linknoteref-1008">[1008]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Shakspeare sums up the chief characteristics of rage as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;In peace there&rsquo;s nothing so becomes a man,<br/>
+As modest stillness and humility;<br/>
+But when the blast of war blows in our ears,<br/>
+Then imitate the action of the tiger:<br/>
+Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood,<br/>
+Then lend the eye a terrible aspect;<br/>
+Now set the teeth, and stretch the nostril wide,<br/>
+Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit<br/>
+To his full height! On, on, you noblest English.&rdquo;<br/>
+<i>Henry V</i>., act iii. sc. 1.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The lips are sometimes protruded during rage in a manner, the meaning of
+which I do not understand, unless it depends on our descent from some
+ape-like animal. Instances have been observed, not only with Europeans,
+but with the Australians and Hindoos. The lips, however, are much more
+commonly retracted, the grinning or clenched teeth being thus exposed.
+This has been noticed by almost every one who has written on expression.<a
+href="#linknote-1009" name="linknoteref-1009" id="linknoteref-1009">[1009]</a>
+The appearance is as if the teeth were uncovered, ready for seizing or
+tearing an enemy, though there may be no intention of acting in this
+manner. Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen this grinning expression with the
+Australians, when quarrelling, and so has Gaika with the Kafirs of South
+America. Dickens,<a href="#linknote-1010" name="linknoteref-1010"
+id="linknoteref-1010">[1010]</a> in speaking of an atrocious murderer who
+had just been caught, and was surrounded by a furious mob, describes &ldquo;the
+people as jumping up one behind another, snarling with their teeth, and
+making at him like wild beasts.&rdquo; Every one who has had much to do with
+young children must have seen how naturally they take to biting, when in a
+passion. It seems as instinctive in them as in young crocodiles, who snap
+their little jaws as soon as they emerge from the egg.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A grinning expression and the protrusion of the lips appear sometimes to
+go together. A close observer says that he has seen many instances of
+intense hatred (which can hardly be distinguished from rage, more or less
+suppressed) in Orientals, and once in an elderly English woman. In all
+these cases there &ldquo;was a grin, not a scowl&mdash;the lips lengthening, the
+cheeks settling downwards, the eyes half-closed, whilst the brow remained
+perfectly calm.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1011" name="linknoteref-1011"
+id="linknoteref-1011">[1011]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This retraction of the lips and uncovering of the teeth during paroxysms
+of rage, as if to bite the offender, is so remarkable, considering how
+seldom the teeth are used by men in fighting, that I inquired from Dr. J.
+Crichton Browne whether the habit was common in the insane whose passions
+are unbridled. He informs me that he has repeatedly observed it both with
+the insane and idiotic, and has given me the following illustrations:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Shortly before receiving my letter, he witnessed an uncontrollable
+outbreak of anger and delusive jealousy in an insane lady. At first she
+vituperated her husband, and whilst doing so foamed at the mouth. Next she
+approached close to him with compressed lips, and a virulent set frown.
+Then she drew back her lips, especially the corners of the upper lip, and
+showed her teeth, at the same time aiming a vicious blow at him. A second
+case is that of an old soldier, who, when he is requested to conform to
+the rules of the establishment, gives way to discontent, terminating in
+fury. He commonly begins by asking Dr. Browne whether he is not ashamed to
+treat him in such a manner. He then swears and blasphemes, paces tip and
+down, tosses his arms wildly about, and menaces any one near him. At last,
+as his exasperation culminates, he rushes up towards Dr. Browne with a
+peculiar sidelong movement, shaking his doubled fist, and threatening
+destruction. Then his upper lip may be seen to be raised, especially at
+the corners, so that his huge canine teeth are exhibited. He hisses forth
+his curses through his set teeth, and his whole expression assumes the
+character of extreme ferocity. A similar description is applicable to
+another man, excepting that he generally foams at the mouth and spits,
+dancing and jumping about in a strange rapid manner, shrieking out his
+maledictions in a shrill falsetto voice.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Browne also informs me of the case of an epileptic idiot, incapable of
+independent movements, and who spends the whole day in playing with some
+toys; but his temper is morose and easily roused into fierceness. When any
+one touches his toys, he slowly raises his head from its habitual downward
+position, and fixes his eyes on the offender, with a tardy yet angry
+scowl. If the annoyance be repeated, he draws back his thick lips and
+reveals a prominent row of hideous fangs (large canines being especially
+noticeable), and then makes a quick and cruel clutch with his open hand at
+the offending person. The rapidity of this clutch, as Dr. Browne remarks,
+is marvellous in a being ordinarily so torpid that he takes about fifteen
+seconds, when attracted by any noise, to turn his head from one side to
+the other. If, when thus incensed, a handkerchief, book, or other article,
+be placed into his hands, he drags it to his mouth and bites it. Mr. Nicol
+has likewise described to me two cases of insane patients, whose lips are
+retracted during paroxysms of rage.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Maudsley, after detailing various strange animal-like traits in
+idiots, asks whether these are not due to the reappearance of primitive
+instincts&mdash;&ldquo;a faint echo from a far-distant past, testifying to a
+kinship which man has almost outgrown.&rdquo; He adds, that as every human brain
+passes, in the course of its development, through the same stages as those
+occurring in the lower vertebrate animals, and as the brain of an idiot is
+in an arrested condition, we may presume that it &ldquo;will manifest its most
+primitive functions, and no higher functions.&rdquo; Dr. Maudsley thinks that
+the same view may be extended to the brain in its degenerated condition in
+some insane patients; and asks, whence come &ldquo;the savage snarl, the
+destructive disposition, the obscene language, the wild howl, the
+offensive habits, displayed by some of the insane? Why should a human
+being, deprived of his reason, ever become so brutal in character, as some
+do, unless he has the brute nature within him?&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1012"
+name="linknoteref-1012" id="linknoteref-1012">[1012]</a> This question
+must, as it would appear, he answered in the affirmative.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Anger, Indignation</i>.&mdash;These states of the mind differ from rage
+only in degree, and there is no marked distinction in their characteristic
+signs. Under moderate anger the action of the heart is a little increased,
+the colour heightened, and the eyes become bright. The respiration is
+likewise a little hurried; and as all the muscles serving for this
+function act in association, the wings of the nostrils are somewhat raised
+to allow of a free indraught of air; and this is a highly characteristic
+sign of indignation. The mouth is commonly compressed, and there is almost
+always a frown on the brow. Instead of the frantic gestures of extreme
+rage, an indignant man unconsciously throws himself into an attitude ready
+for attacking or striking his enemy, whom he will perhaps scan from head
+to foot in defiance. He carries his head erect, with his chest well
+expanded, and the feet planted firmly on the ground. He holds his arms in
+various positions, with one or both elbows squared, or with the arms
+rigidly suspended by his sides. With Europeans the fists are commonly
+clenched.<a href="#linknote-1013" name="linknoteref-1013"
+id="linknoteref-1013">[1013]</a> The figures 1 and 2 in Plate VI. are
+fairly good representations of men simulating indignation. Any one may see
+in a mirror, if he will vividly imagine that he has been insulted and
+demands an explanation in an angry tone of voice, that he suddenly and
+unconsciously throws himself into some such attitude.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0022" id="linkimage-0022">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/plate-6.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Anger and Indignation.  Plate VI " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Rage, anger, and indignation are exhibited in nearly the same manner
+throughout the world; and the following descriptions may be worth giving
+as evidence of this, and as illustrations of some of the foregoing
+remarks. There is, however, an exception with respect to clenching the
+fists, which seems confined chiefly to the men who fight with their fists.
+With the Australians only one of my informants has seen the fists
+clenched. All agree about the body being held erect; and all, with two
+exceptions, state that the brows are heavily contracted. Some of them
+allude to the firmly-compressed mouth, the distended nostrils, and
+flashing eyes. According to the Rev. Mr. Taplin, rage, with the
+Australians, is expressed by the lips being protruded, the eyes being
+widely open; and in the case of the women by their dancing about and
+casting dust into the air. Another observer speaks of the native men, when
+enraged, throwing their arms wildly about.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have received similar accounts, except as to the clenching of the fists,
+in regard to the Malays of the Malacca peninsula, the Abyssinians, and the
+natives of South Africa. So it is with the Dakota Indians of North
+America; and, according to Mr. Matthews, they then hold their heads erect,
+frown, and often stalk away with long strides. Mr. Bridges states that the
+Fuegians, when enraged, frequently stamp on the ground, walk distractedly
+about, sometimes cry and grow pale. The Rev. Mr. Stack watched a New
+Zealand man and woman quarrelling, and made the following entry in his
+note-book: &ldquo;Eyes dilated, body swayed violently backwards and forwards,
+head inclined forwards, fists clenched, now thrown behind the body, now
+directed towards each other&rsquo;s faces.&rdquo; Mr. Swinhoe says that my description
+agrees with what he has seen of the Chinese, excepting that an angry man
+generally inclines his body towards his antagonist, and pointing at him,
+pours forth a volley of abuse.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lastly, with respect to the natives of India, Mr. J. Scott has sent me a
+full description of their gestures and expression when enraged. Two
+low-caste Bengalees disputed about a loan. At first they were calm, but
+soon grew furious and poured forth the grossest abuse on each other&rsquo;s
+relations and progenitors for many generations past. Their gestures were
+very different from those of Europeans; for though their chests were
+expanded and shoulders squared, their arms remained rigidly suspended,
+with the elbows turned inwards and the hands alternately clenched and
+opened. Their shoulders were often raised high, and then again lowered.
+They looked fiercely at each other from under their lowered and strongly
+wrinkled brows, and their protruded lips were firmly closed. They
+approached each other, with heads and necks stretched forwards, and
+pushed, scratched, and grasped at each other. This protrusion of the head
+and body seems a common gesture with the enraged; and I have noticed it
+with degraded English women whilst quarrelling violently in the streets.
+In such cases it may be presumed that neither party expects to receive a
+blow from the other.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A Bengalee employed in the Botanic Gardens was accused, in the presence of
+Mr. Scott, by the native overseer of having stolen a valuable plant. He
+listened silently and scornfully to the accusation; his attitude erect,
+chest expanded, mouth closed, lips protruding, eyes firmly set and
+penetrating. He then defiantly maintained his innocence, with upraised and
+clenched hands, his head being now pushed forwards, with the eyes widely
+open and eyebrows raised. Mr. Scott also watched two Mechis, in Sikhim,
+quarrelling about their share of payment. They soon got into a furious
+passion, and then their bodies became less erect, with their heads pushed
+forwards; they made grimaces at each other; their shoulders were raised;
+their arms rigidly bent inwards at the elbows, and their hands
+spasmodically closed, but not properly clenched. They continually
+approached and retreated from each other, and often raised their arms as
+if to strike, but their hands were open, and no blow was given. Mr. Scott
+made similar observations on the Lepchas whom he often saw quarrelling,
+and he noticed that they kept their arms rigid and almost parallel to
+their bodies, with the hands pushed somewhat backwards and partially
+closed, but not clenched.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Sneering, Defiance: Uncovering the canine tooth on one side</i>.&mdash;The
+expression which I wish here to consider differs but little from that
+already described, when the lips are retracted and the grinning teeth
+exposed. The difference consists solely in the upper lip being retracted
+in such a manner that the canine tooth on one side of the face alone is
+shown; the face itself being generally a little upturned and half averted
+from the person causing offence. The other signs of rage are not
+necessarily present. This expression may occasionally be observed in a
+person who sneers at or defies another, though there may be no real anger;
+as when any one is playfully accused of some fault, and answers, &ldquo;I scorn
+the imputation.&rdquo; The expression is not a common one, but I have seen it
+exhibited with perfect distinctness by a lady who was being quizzed by
+another person. It was described by Parsons as long ago as 1746, with an
+engraving, showing the uncovered canine on one side.<a
+href="#linknote-1014" name="linknoteref-1014" id="linknoteref-1014">[1014]</a>
+Mr. Rejlander, without my having made any allusion to the subject, asked
+me whether I had ever noticed this expression, as he had been much struck
+by it. He has photographed for me (Plate IV. fig 1) a lady, who sometimes
+unintentionally displays the canine on one side, and who can do so
+voluntarily with unusual distinctness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The expression of a half-playful sneer graduates into one of great
+ferocity when, together with a heavily frowning brow and fierce eye, the
+canine tooth is exposed. A Bengalee boy was accused before Mr. Scott of
+some misdeed. The delinquent did not dare to give vent to his wrath in
+words, but it was plainly shown on his countenance, sometimes by a defiant
+frown, and sometimes &ldquo;by a thoroughly canine snarl.&rdquo; When this was
+exhibited, &ldquo;the corner of the lip over the eye-tooth, which happened in
+this case to be large and projecting, was raised on the side of his
+accuser, a strong frown being still retained on the brow.&rdquo; Sir C. Bell
+states<a href="#linknote-1015" name="linknoteref-1015"
+id="linknoteref-1015">[1015]</a> that the actor Cooke could express the
+most determined hate &ldquo;when with the oblique cast of his eyes he drew up
+the outer part of the upper lip, and discovered a sharp angular tooth.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The uncovering of the canine tooth is the result of a double movement. The
+angle or corner of the mouth is drawn a little backwards, and at the same
+time a muscle which runs parallel to and near the nose draws up the outer
+part of the upper lip, and exposes the canine on this side of the face.
+The contraction of this muscle makes a distinct furrow on the cheek, and
+produces strong wrinkles under the eye, especially at its inner corner.
+The action is the same as that of a snarling dog; and a dog when
+pretending to fight often draws up the lip on one side alone, namely that
+facing his antagonist. Our word <i>sneer</i> is in fact the same as <i>snarl</i>,
+which was originally <i>snar</i>, the <i>l</i> &ldquo;being merely an element
+implying continuance of action.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1016"
+name="linknoteref-1016" id="linknoteref-1016">[1016]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I suspect that we see a trace of this same expression in what is called a
+derisive or sardonic smile. The lips are then kept joined or almost
+joined, but one corner of the mouth is retracted on the side towards the
+derided person; and this drawing back of the corner is part of a true
+sneer. Although some persons smile more on one side of their face than on
+the other, it is not easy to understand why in cases of derision the
+smile, if a real one, should so commonly be confined to one side. I have
+also on these occasions noticed a slight twitching of the muscle which
+draws up the outer part of the upper lip; and this movement, if fully
+carried out, would have uncovered the canine, and would have produced a
+true sneer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Bulmer, an Australian missionary in a remote part of Gipps&rsquo; Land,
+says, in answer to my query about the uncovering of the canine on one
+side, &ldquo;I find that the natives in snarling at each other speak with the
+teeth closed, the upper lip drawn to one side, and a general angry
+expression of face; but they look direct at the person addressed.&rdquo; Three
+other observers in Australia, one in Abyssinia, and one in China, answer
+my query on this head in the affirmative; but as the expression is rare,
+and as they enter into no details, I am afraid of implicitly trusting
+them. It is, however, by no means improbable that this animal-like
+expression may be more common with savages than with civilized races. Mr.
+Geach is an observer who may be fully trusted, and he has observed it on
+one occasion in a Malay in the interior of Malacca. The Rev. S. O. Glenie
+answers, &ldquo;We have observed this expression with the natives of Ceylon, but
+not often.&rdquo; Lastly, in North America, Dr. Rothrock has seen it with some
+wild Indians, and often in a tribe adjoining the Atnahs.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although the upper lip is certainly sometimes raised on one side alone in
+sneering at or defying any one, I do not know that this is always the
+case, for the face is commonly half averted, and the expression is often
+momentary. The movement being confined to one side may not be an essential
+part of the expression, but may depend on the proper muscles being
+incapable of movement excepting on one side. I asked four persons to
+endeavour to act voluntarily in this manner; two could expose the canine
+only on the left side, one only on the right side, and the fourth on
+neither side. Nevertheless it is by no means certain that these same
+persons, if defying any one in earnest, would not unconsciously have
+uncovered their canine tooth on the side, whichever it might be, towards
+the offender. For we have seen that some persons cannot voluntarily make
+their eyebrows oblique, yet instantly act in this manner when affected by
+any real, although most trifling, cause of distress. The power of
+voluntarily uncovering the canine on one side of the face being thus often
+wholly lost, indicates that it is a rarely used and almost abortive
+action. It is indeed a surprising fact that man should possess the power,
+or should exhibit any tendency to its use; for Mr. Sutton has never
+noticed a snarling action in our nearest allies, namely, the monkeys in
+the Zoological Gardens, and he is positive that the baboons, though
+furnished with great canines, never act thus, but uncover all their teeth
+when feeling savage and ready for an attack. Whether the adult
+anthropomorphous apes, in the males of whom the canines are much larger
+than in the females, uncover them when prepared to fight, is not known.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The expression here considered, whether that of a playful sneer or
+ferocious snarl, is one of the most curious which occurs in man. It
+reveals his animal descent; for no one, even if rolling on the ground in a
+deadly grapple with an enemy, and attempting to bite him, would try to use
+his canine teeth more than his other teeth. We may readily believe from
+our affinity to the anthropomorphous apes that our male semi-human
+progenitors possessed great canine teeth, and men are now occasionally
+born having them of unusually large size, with interspaces in the opposite
+jaw for their reception.<a href="#linknote-1017" name="linknoteref-1017"
+id="linknoteref-1017">[1017]</a> We may further suspect, notwithstanding
+that we have no support from analogy, that our semi-human progenitors
+uncovered their canine teeth when prepared for battle, as we still do when
+feeling ferocious, or when merely sneering at or defying some one, without
+any intention of making a real attack with our teeth.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"></a>
+CHAPTER XI.<br/>DISDAIN&mdash;CONTEMPT&mdash;DISGUST-GUILT&mdash;PRIDE,
+ETC.&mdash;HELPLESSNESS&mdash;PATIENCE&mdash;AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed&mdash;Derisive smile&mdash;Gestures
+expressive of contempt&mdash;Disgust&mdash;Guilt, deceit, pride, &amp;c.&mdash;Helplessness
+or impotence&mdash;Patience&mdash;Obstinacy&mdash;Shrugging the shoulders
+common to most of the races of man&mdash;Signs of affirmation and
+negation.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Scorn and disdain can hardly be distinguished from contempt, excepting
+that they imply a rather more angry frame of mind. Nor can they be clearly
+distinguished from the feelings discussed in the last chapter under the
+terms of sneering and defiance. Disgust is a sensation rather more
+distinct in its nature and refers to something revolting, primarily in
+relation to the sense of taste, as actually perceived or vividly imagined;
+and secondarily to anything which causes a similar feeling, through the
+sense of smell, touch, and even of eyesight. Nevertheless, extreme
+contempt, or as it is often called loathing contempt, hardly differs from
+disgust. These several conditions of the mind are, therefore, nearly
+related; and each of them may be exhibited in many different ways. Some
+writers have insisted chiefly on one mode of expression, and others on a
+different mode. From this circumstance M. Lemoine has argued<a
+href="#linknote-1101" name="linknoteref-1101" id="linknoteref-1101">[1101]</a>
+that their descriptions are not trustworthy. But we shall immediately see
+that it is natural that the feelings which we have here to consider should
+be expressed in many different ways, inasmuch as various habitual actions
+serve equally well, through the principle of association, for their
+expression.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Scorn and disdain, as well as sneering and defiance, may be displayed by a
+slight uncovering of the canine tooth on one side of the face; and this
+movement appears to graduate into one closely like a smile. Or the smile
+or laugh may be real, although one of derision; and this implies that the
+offender is so insignificant that he excites only amusement; but the
+amusement is generally a pretence. Gaika in his answers to my queries
+remarks, that contempt is commonly shown by his countrymen, the Kafirs, by
+smiling; and the Rajah Brooke makes the same observation with respect to
+the Dyaks of Borneo. As laughter is primarily the expression of simple
+joy, very young children do not, I believe, ever laugh in derision.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The partial closure of the eyelids, as Duchenne<a href="#linknote-1102"
+name="linknoteref-1102" id="linknoteref-1102">[1102]</a> insists, or the
+turning away of the eyes or of the whole body, are likewise highly
+expressive of disdain. These actions seem to declare that the despised
+person is not worth looking at or is disagreeable to behold. The
+accompanying photograph (Plate V. fig. 1) by Mr. Rejlander, shows this
+form of disdain. It represents a young lady, who is supposed to be tearing
+up the photograph of a despised lover.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0023" id="linkimage-0023">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/plate-5.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Scorn and Disdain.  Plate V " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+The most common method of expressing contempt is by movements about the
+nose, or round the mouth; but the latter movements, when strongly
+pronounced, indicate disgust. The nose may be slightly turned up, which
+apparently follows from the turning up of the upper lip; or the movement
+may be abbreviated into the mere wrinkling of the nose. The nose is often
+slightly contracted, so as partly to close the passage;<a
+href="#linknote-1103" name="linknoteref-1103" id="linknoteref-1103">[1103]</a>
+and this is commonly accompanied by a slight snort or expiration. All
+these actions are the same with those which we employ when we perceive an
+offensive odour, and wish to exclude or expel it. In extreme cases, as Dr.
+Piderit remarks,<a href="#linknote-1104" name="linknoteref-1104"
+id="linknoteref-1104">[1104]</a> we protrude and raise both lips, or the
+upper lip alone, so as to close the nostrils as by a valve, the nose being
+thus turned up. We seem thus to say to the despised person that he smells
+offensively,<a href="#linknote-1105" name="linknoteref-1105"
+id="linknoteref-1105">[1105]</a> in nearly the same manner as we express
+to him by half-closing our eyelids, or turning away our faces, that he is
+not worth looking at. It must not, however, be supposed that such ideas
+actually pass through the mind when we exhibit our contempt; but as
+whenever we have perceived a disagreeable odour or seen a disagreeable
+sight, actions of this kind have been performed, they have become habitual
+or fixed, and are now employed under any analogous state of mind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Various odd little gestures likewise indicate contempt; for instance, <i>snapping
+one&rsquo;s fingers</i>. This, as Mr. Taylor remarks,<a href="#linknote-1106"
+name="linknoteref-1106" id="linknoteref-1106">[1106]</a> &ldquo;is not very
+intelligible as we generally see it; but when we notice that the same sign
+made quite gently, as if rolling some tiny object away between the finger
+and thumb, or the sign of flipping it away with the thumb-nail and
+forefinger, are usual and well-understood deaf-and-dumb gestures, denoting
+anything tiny, insignificant, contemptible, it seems as though we had
+exaggerated and conventionalized a perfectly natural action, so as to lose
+sight of its original meaning. There is a curious mention of this gesture
+by Strabo.&rdquo; Mr. Washington Matthews informs me that, with the Dakota
+Indians of North America, contempt is shown not only by movements of the
+face, such as those above described, but &ldquo;conventionally, by the hand
+being closed and held near the breast, then, as the forearm is suddenly
+extended, the hand is opened and the fingers separated from each other. If
+the person at whose expense the sign is made is present, the hand is moved
+towards him, and the head sometimes averted from him.&rdquo; This sudden
+extension and opening of the hand perhaps indicates the dropping or
+throwing away a valueless object.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The term &lsquo;disgust,&rsquo; in its simplest sense, means something offensive to
+the taste. It is curious how readily this feeling is excited by anything
+unusual in the appearance, odour, or nature of our food. In Tierra del
+Fuego a native touched with his finger some cold preserved meat which I
+was eating at our bivouac, and plainly showed utter disgust at its
+softness; whilst I felt utter disgust at my food being touched by a naked
+savage, though his hands did not appear dirty. A smear of soup on a man&rsquo;s
+beard looks disgusting, though there is of course nothing disgusting in
+the soup itself. I presume that this follows from the strong association
+in our minds between the sight of food, however circumstanced, and the
+idea of eating it.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the sensation of disgust primarily arises in connection with the act of
+eating or tasting, it is natural that its expression should consist
+chiefly in movements round the mouth. But as disgust also causes
+annoyance, it is generally accompanied by a frown, and often by gestures
+as if to push away or to guard oneself against the offensive object. In
+the two photographs (figs. 2 and 3, on Plate V.) Mr. Rejlander has
+simulated this expression with some success. With respect to the face,
+moderate disgust is exhibited in various ways; by the mouth being widely
+opened, as if to let an offensive morsel drop out; by spitting; by blowing
+out of the protruded lips; or by a sound as of clearing the throat. Such
+guttural sounds are written <i>ach</i> or <i>ugh</i>; and their utterance
+is sometimes accompanied by a shudder, the arms being pressed close to the
+sides and the shoulders raised in the same manner as when horror is
+experienced.<a href="#linknote-1107" name="linknoteref-1107"
+id="linknoteref-1107">[1107]</a> Extreme disgust is expressed by movements
+round the month identical with those preparatory to the act of vomiting.
+The mouth is opened widely, with the upper lip strongly retracted, which
+wrinkles the sides of the nose, and with the lower lip protruded and
+everted as much as possible. This latter movement requires the contraction
+of the muscles which draw downwards the corners of the mouth.<a
+href="#linknote-1108" name="linknoteref-1108" id="linknoteref-1108">[1108]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is remarkable how readily and instantly retching or actual vomiting is
+induced in some persons by the mere idea of having partaken of any unusual
+food, as of an animal which is not commonly eaten; although there is
+nothing in such food to cause the stomach to reject it. When vomiting
+results, as a reflex action, from some real cause&mdash;as from too rich
+food, or tainted meat, or from an emetic&mdash;it does not ensue
+immediately, but generally after a considerable interval of time.
+Therefore, to account for retching or vomiting being so quickly and easily
+excited by a mere idea, the suspicion arises that our progenitors must
+formerly have had the power (like that possessed by ruminants and some
+other animals) of voluntarily rejecting food which disagreed with them, or
+which they thought would disagree with them; and now, though this power
+has been lost, as far as the will is concerned, it is called into
+involuntary action, through the force of a formerly well-established
+habit, whenever the mind revolts at the idea of having partaken of any
+kind of food, or at anything disgusting. This suspicion receives support
+from the fact, of which I am assured by Mr. Sutton, that the monkeys in
+the Zoological Gardens often vomit whilst in perfect health, which looks
+as if the act were voluntary. We can see that as man is able to
+communicate by language to his children and others, the knowledge of the
+kinds of food to be avoided, he would have little occasion to use the
+faculty of voluntary rejection; so that this power would tend to be lost
+through disuse.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the sense of smell is so intimately connected with that of taste, it is
+not surprising that an excessively bad odour should excite retching or
+vomiting in some persons, quite as readily as the thought of revolting
+food does; and that, as a further consequence, a moderately offensive
+odour should cause the various expressive movements of disgust. The
+tendency to retch from a fetid odour is immediately strengthened in a
+curious manner by some degree of habit, though soon lost by longer
+familiarity with the cause of offence and by voluntary restraint. For
+instance, I wished to clean the skeleton of a bird, which had not been
+sufficiently macerated, and the smell made my servant and myself (we not
+having had much experience in such work) retch so violently, that we were
+compelled to desist. During the previous days I had examined some other
+skeletons, which smelt slightly; yet the odour did not in the least affect
+me, but, subsequently for several days, whenever I handled these same
+skeletons, they made me retch.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the answers received from my correspondents it appears that the
+various movements, which have now been described as expressing contempt
+and disgust, prevail throughout a large part of the world. Dr. Rothrock,
+for instance, answers with a decided affirmative with respect to certain
+wild Indian tribes of North America. Crantz says that when a Greenlander
+denies anything with contempt or horror he turns up his nose, and gives a
+slight sound through it.<a href="#linknote-1109" name="linknoteref-1109"
+id="linknoteref-1109">[1109]</a> Mr. Scott has sent me a graphic
+description of the face of a young Hindoo at the sight of castor-oil,
+which he was compelled occasionally to take. Mr. Scott has also seen the
+same expression on the faces of high-caste natives who have approached
+close to some defiling object. Mr. Bridges says that the Fuegians &ldquo;express
+contempt by shooting out the lips and hissing through them, and by turning
+up the nose.&rdquo; The tendency either to snort through the nose, or to make a
+noise expressed by <i>ugh</i> or <i>ach</i>, is noticed by several of my
+correspondents.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Spitting seems an almost universal sign of contempt or disgust; and
+spitting obviously represents the rejection of anything offensive from the
+mouth. Shakspeare makes the Duke of Norfolk say, &ldquo;I spit at him&mdash;call
+him a slanderous coward and a villain.&rdquo; So, again, Falstaff says, &ldquo;Tell
+thee what, Hal,&mdash;if I tell thee a lie, spit in my face.&rdquo; Leichhardt
+remarks that the Australians &ldquo;interrupted their speeches by spitting, and
+uttering a noise like pooh! pooh! apparently expressive of their disgust.&rdquo;
+And Captain Burton speaks of certain negroes &ldquo;spitting with disgust upon
+the ground.&rdquo; Captain Speedy informs me that this is likewise the case with
+the Abyssinians. Mr. Geach says that with the Malays of Malacca the
+expression of disgust &ldquo;answers to spitting from the mouth;&rdquo; and with the
+Fuegians, according to Mr. Bridges &ldquo;to spit at one is the highest mark of
+contempt.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1110" name="linknoteref-1110"
+id="linknoteref-1110">[1110]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I never saw disgust more plainly expressed than on the face of one of my
+infants at the age of five months, when, for the first time, some cold
+water, and again a month afterwards, when a piece of ripe cherry was put
+into his mouth. This was shown by the lips and whole mouth assuming a
+shape which allowed the contents to run or fall quickly out; the tongue
+being likewise protruded. These movements were accompanied by a little
+shudder. It was all the more comical, as I doubt whether the child felt
+real disgust&mdash;the eyes and forehead expressing much surprise and
+consideration. The protrusion of the tongue in letting a nasty object fall
+out of the mouth, may explain how it is that lolling out the tongue
+universally serves as a sign of contempt and hatred.<a
+href="#linknote-1111" name="linknoteref-1111" id="linknoteref-1111">[1111]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have now seen that scorn, disdain, contempt, and disgust are expressed
+in many different ways, by movements of the features, and by various
+gestures; and that these are the same throughout the world. They all
+consist of actions representing the rejection or exclusion of some real
+object which we dislike or abhor, but which does not excite in us certain
+other strong emotions, such as rage or terror; and through the force of
+habit and association similar actions are performed, whenever any
+analogous sensation arises in our minds.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Jealousy, Envy, Avarice, Revenge, Suspicion, Deceit, Slyness, Guilt,
+Vanity, Conceit, Ambition, Pride, Humility, &amp;c</i>.&mdash;It is
+doubtful whether the greater number of the above complex states of mind
+are revealed by any fixed expression, sufficiently distinct to be
+described or delineated. When Shakspeare speaks of Envy as <i>lean-faced</i>,
+or <i>black</i>, or <i>pale</i>, and Jealousy as &ldquo;<i>the green-eyed
+monster</i>;&rdquo; and when Spenser describes Suspicion as &ldquo;<i>foul,
+ill-favoured, and grim</i>,&rdquo; they must have felt this difficulty.
+Nevertheless, the above feelings&mdash;at least many of them&mdash;can be
+detected by the eye; for instance, conceit; but we are often guided in a
+much greater degree than we suppose by our previous knowledge of the
+persons or circumstances.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+My correspondents almost unanimously answer in the affirmative to my
+query, whether the expression of guilt and deceit can be recognized
+amongst the various races of man; and I have confidence in their answers,
+as they generally deny that jealousy can thus be recognized. In the cases
+in which details are given, the eyes are almost always referred to. The
+guilty man is said to avoid looking at his accuser, or to give him stolen
+looks. The eyes are said &ldquo;to be turned askant,&rdquo; or &ldquo;to waver from side to
+side,&rdquo; or &ldquo;the eyelids to be lowered and partly closed.&rdquo; This latter
+remark is made by Mr. Hagenauer with respect to the Australians, and by
+Gaika with respect to the Kafirs. The restless movements of the eyes
+apparently follow, as will be explained when we treat of blushing, from
+the guilty man not enduring to meet the gaze of his accuser. I may add,
+that I have observed a guilty expression, without a shade of fear, in some
+of my own children at a very early age. In one instance the expression was
+unmistakably clear in a child two years and seven months old, and led to
+the detection of his little crime. It was shown, as I record in my notes
+made at the time, by an unnatural brightness in the eyes, and by an odd,
+affected manner, impossible to describe.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Slyness is also, I believe, exhibited chiefly by movements about the eyes;
+for these are less under the control of the will, owing to the force of
+long-continued habit, than are the movements of the body. Mr. Herbert
+Spencer remarks,<a href="#linknote-1112" name="linknoteref-1112"
+id="linknoteref-1112">[1112]</a> &ldquo;When there is a desire to see something
+on one side of the visual field without being supposed to see it, the
+tendency is to check the conspicuous movement of the head, and to make the
+required adjustment entirely with the eyes; which are, therefore, drawn
+very much to one side. Hence, when the eyes are turned to one side, while
+the face is not turned to the same side, we get the natural language of
+what is called slyness.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of all the above-named complex emotions, Pride, perhaps, is the most
+plainly expressed. A proud man exhibits his sense of superiority over
+others by holding his head and body erect. He is haughty (<i>haut</i>), or
+high, and makes himself appear as large as possible; so that
+metaphorically he is said to be swollen or puffed up with pride. A peacock
+or a turkey-cock strutting about with puffed-up feathers, is sometimes
+said to be an emblem of pride.<a href="#linknote-1113"
+name="linknoteref-1113" id="linknoteref-1113">[1113]</a> The arrogant man
+looks down on others, and with lowered eyelids hardly condescends to see
+them; or he may show his contempt by slight movements, such as those
+before described, about the nostrils or lips. Hence the muscle which
+everts the lower lip has been called the <i>musculus superbus</i>. In some
+photographs of patients affected by a monomania of pride, sent me by Dr.
+Crichton Browne, the head and body were held erect, and the mouth firmly
+closed. This latter action, expressive of decision, follows, I presume,
+from the proud man feeling perfect self-confidence in himself. The whole
+expression of pride stands in direct antithesis to that of humility; so
+that nothing need here be said of the latter state of mind.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Helplessness, Impotence: Shrugging the shoulders</i>.&mdash;When a man
+wishes to show that he cannot do something, or prevent something being
+done, he often raises with a quick movement both shoulders. At the same
+time, if the whole gesture is completed, he bends his elbows closely
+inwards, raises his open hands, turning them outwards, with the fingers
+separated. The head is often thrown a little on one side; the eyebrows are
+elevated, and this causes wrinkles across the forehead. The mouth is
+generally opened. I may mention, in order to show how unconsciously the
+features are thus acted on, that though I had often intentionally shrugged
+my shoulders to observe how my arms were placed, I was not at all aware
+that my eyebrows were raised and mouth opened, until I looked at myself in
+a glass; and since then I have noticed the same movements in the faces of
+others. In the accompanying Plate VI., figs. 3 and 4, Mr. Rejlander has
+successfully acted the gesture of shrugging the shoulders.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Englishmen are much less demonstrative than the men of most other European
+nations, and they shrug their shoulders far less frequently and
+energetically than Frenchmen or Italians do. The gesture varies in all
+degrees from the complex movement, just described, to only a momentary and
+scarcely perceptible raising of both shoulders; or, as I have noticed in a
+lady sitting in an arm-chair, to the mere turning slightly outwards of the
+open hands with separated fingers. I have never seen very young English
+children shrug their shoulders, but the following case was observed with
+care by a medical professor and excellent observer, and has been
+communicated to me by him. The father of this gentleman was a Parisian,
+and his mother a Scotch lady. His wife is of British extraction on both
+sides, and my informant does not believe that she ever shrugged her
+shoulders in her life. His children have been reared in England, and the
+nursemaid is a thorough Englishwoman, who has never been seen to shrug her
+shoulders. Now, his eldest daughter was observed to shrug her shoulders at
+the age of between sixteen and eighteen months; her mother exclaiming at
+the time, &ldquo;Look at the little French girl shrugging her shoulders!&rdquo; At
+first she often acted thus, sometimes throwing her head a little backwards
+and on one side, but she did not, as far as was observed, move her elbows
+and hands in the usual manner. The habit gradually wore away, and now,
+when she is a little over four years old, she is never seen to act thus.
+The father is told that he sometimes shrugs his shoulders, especially when
+arguing with any one; but it is extremely improbable that his daughter
+should have imitated him at so early an age; for, as he remarks, she could
+not possibly have often seen this gesture in him. Moreover, if the habit
+had been acquired through imitation, it is not probable that it would so
+soon have been spontaneously discontinued by this child, and, as we shall
+immediately see, by a second child, though the father still lived with his
+family. This little girl, it may be added, resembles her Parisian
+grandfather in countenance to an almost absurd degree. She also presents
+another and very curious resemblance to him, namely, by practising a
+singular trick. When she impatiently wants something, she holds out her
+little hand, and rapidly rubs the thumb against the index and middle
+finger: now this same trick was frequently performed under the same
+circumstances by her grandfather.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This gentleman&rsquo;s second daughter also shrugged her shoulders before the
+age of eighteen months, and afterwards discontinued the habit. It is of
+course possible that she may have imitated her elder sister; but she
+continued it after her sister had lost the habit. She at first resembled
+her Parisian grandfather in a less degree than did her sister at the same
+age, but now in a greater degree. She likewise practises to the present
+time the peculiar habit of rubbing together, when impatient, her thumb and
+two of her fore-fingers.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In this latter case we have a good instance, like those given in a former
+chapter, of the inheritance of a trick or gesture; for no one, I presume,
+will attribute to mere coincidence so peculiar a habit as this, which was
+common to the grandfather and his two grandchildren who had never seen
+him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Considering all the circumstances with reference to these children
+shrugging their shoulders, it can hardly be doubted that they have
+inherited the habit from their French progenitors, although they have only
+one quarter French blood in their veins, and although their grandfather
+did not often shrug his shoulders. There is nothing very unusual, though
+the fact is interesting, in these children having gained by inheritance a
+habit during early youth, and then discontinuing it; for it is of frequent
+occurrence with many kinds of animals that certain characters are retained
+for a period by the young, and are then lost.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As it appeared to me at one time improbable in a high degree that so
+complex a gesture as shrugging the shoulders, together with the
+accompanying movements, should be innate, I was anxious to ascertain
+whether the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman, who could not have learnt the
+habit by imitation, practised it. And I have heard, through Dr. Innes,
+from a lady who has lately had charge of her, that she does shrug her
+shoulders, turn in her elbows, and raise her eyebrows in the same manner
+as other people, and under the same circumstances. I was also anxious to
+learn whether this gesture was practised by the various races of man,
+especially by those who never have had much intercourse with Europeans. We
+shall see that they act in this manner; but it appears that the gesture is
+sometimes confined to merely raising or shrugging the shoulders, without
+the other movements.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Scott has frequently seen this gesture in the Bengalees and Dhangars
+(the latter constituting a distinct race) who are employed in the Botanic
+Garden at Calcutta; when, for instance, they have declared that they could
+not do some work, such as lifting a heavy weight. He ordered a Bengalee to
+climb a lofty tree; but the man, with a shrug of his shoulders and a
+lateral shake of his head, said he could not. Mr. Scott knowing that the
+man was lazy, thought he could, and insisted on his trying. His face now
+became pale, his arms dropped to his sides, his mouth and eyes were widely
+opened, and again surveying the tree, he looked askant at Mr. Scott,
+shrugged his shoulders, inverted his elbows, extended his open hands, and
+with a few quick lateral shakes of the head declared his inability. Mr. H.
+Erskine has likewise seen the natives of India shrugging their shoulders;
+but he has never seen the elbows turned so much inwards as with us; and
+whilst shrugging their shoulders they sometimes lay their uncrossed hands
+on their breasts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With the wild Malays of the interior of Malacca, and with the Bugis (true
+Malays, though speaking a different language), Mr. Geach has often seen
+this gesture. I presume that it is complete, as, in answer to my query
+descriptive of the movements of the shoulders, arms, hands, and face, Mr.
+Geach remarks, &ldquo;it is performed in a beautiful style.&rdquo; I have lost an
+extract from a scientific voyage, in which shrugging the shoulders by some
+natives (Micronesians) of the Caroline Archipelago in the Pacific Ocean,
+was well described. Capt. Speedy informs me that the Abyssinians shrug
+their shoulders but enters into no details. Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab
+dragoman in Alexandria acting exactly as described in my query, when an
+old gentleman, on whom he attended, would not go in the proper direction
+which had been pointed out to him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Washington Matthews says, in reference to the wild Indian tribes of
+the western parts of the United States, &ldquo;I have on a few occasions
+detected men using a slight apologetic shrug, but the rest of the
+demonstration which you describe I have not witnessed.&rdquo; Fritz Müller
+informs me that he has seen the negroes in Brazil shrugging their
+shoulders; but it is of course possible that they may have learnt to do so
+by imitating the Portuguese. Mrs. Barber has never seen this gesture with
+the Kafirs of South Africa; and Gaika, judging from his answer, did not
+even understand what was meant by my description. Mr. Swinhoe is also
+doubtful about the Chinese; but he has seen them, under the circumstances
+which would make us shrug our shoulders, press their right elbow against
+their side, raise their eyebrows, lift up their hand with the palm
+directed towards the person addressed, and shake it from right to left.
+Lastly, with respect to the Australians, four of my informants answer by a
+simple negative, and one by a simple affirmative. Mr. Bunnett, who has had
+excellent opportunities for observation on the borders of the Colony of
+Victory, also answers by a &ldquo;yes,&rdquo; adding that the gesture is performed &ldquo;in
+a more subdued and less demonstrative manner than is the case with civilized
+nations.&rdquo; This circumstance may account for its not having been noticed by
+four of my informants.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These statements, relating to Europeans, Hindoos, the hill-tribes of
+India, Malays, Micronesians, Abyssinians, Arabs, Negroes, Indians of North
+America, and apparently to the Australians&mdash;many of these natives
+having had scarcely any intercourse with Europeans&mdash;are sufficient to
+show that shrugging the shoulders, accompanied in some cases by the other
+proper movements, is a gesture natural to mankind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This gesture implies an unintentional or unavoidable action on our own
+part, or one that we cannot perform; or an action performed by another
+person which we cannot prevent. It accompanies such speeches as, &ldquo;It was
+not my fault;&rdquo; &ldquo;It is impossible for me to grant this favour;&rdquo; &ldquo;He must
+follow his own course, I cannot stop him.&rdquo; Shrugging the shoulders
+likewise expresses patience, or the absence of any intention to resist.
+Hence the muscles which raise the shoulders are sometimes called, as I
+have been informed by an artist, the patience muscles. Shylock the Jew,
+says,
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;Signor Antonio, many a time and oft<br/>
+In the Rialto have you rated me<br/>
+About my monies and usances;<br/>
+Still have I borne it with a patient shrug.&rdquo;<br/>
+<i>Merchant of Venice</i>, act i. sc. 3.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sir C. Bell has given<a href="#linknote-1114" name="linknoteref-1114"
+id="linknoteref-1114">[1114]</a> a life-like figure of a man, who is
+shrinking back from some terrible danger, and is on the point of screaming
+out in abject terror. He is represented with his shoulders lifted up
+almost to his ears; and this at once declares that there is no thought of
+resistance.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As shrugging the shoulders generally implies &ldquo;I cannot do this or that,&rdquo;
+so by a slight change, it sometimes implies &ldquo;I won&rsquo;t do it.&rdquo; The movement
+then expresses a dogged determination not to act. Olmsted describes<a
+href="#linknote-1115" name="linknoteref-1115" id="linknoteref-1115">[1115]</a>
+an Indian in Texas as giving a great shrug to his shoulders, when he was
+informed that a party of men were Germans and not Americans, thus
+expressing that he would have nothing to do with them. Sulky and obstinate
+children may be seen with both their shoulders raised high up; but this
+movement is not associated with the others which generally accompany a
+true shrug. An excellent observer<a href="#linknote-1116"
+name="linknoteref-1116" id="linknoteref-1116">[1116]</a> in describing a
+young man who was determined not to yield to his father&rsquo;s desire, says,
+&ldquo;He thrust his hands deep down into his pockets, and set up his shoulders
+to his ears, which was a good warning that, come right or wrong, this rock
+should fly from its firm base as soon as Jack would; and that any
+remonstrance on the subject was purely futile.&rdquo; As soon as the son got his
+own way, he &ldquo;put his shoulders into their natural position.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Resignation is sometimes shown by the open hands being placed, one over
+the other, on the lower part of the body. I should not have thought this
+little gesture worth even a passing notice, had not Dr. W. Ogle remarked
+to me that he had two or three times observed it in patients who were
+preparing for operations under chloroform. They exhibited no great fear,
+but seemed to declare by this posture of their hands, that they had made
+up their minds, and were resigned to the inevitable.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We may now inquire why men in all parts of the world when they feel,&mdash;whether
+or not they wish to show this feeling,&mdash;that they cannot or will not
+do something, or will not resist something if done by another, shrug their
+shoulders, at the same time often bending in their elbows, showing the
+palms of their hands with extended fingers, often throwing their heads a
+little on one side, raising their eyebrows, and opening their mouths.
+These states of the mind are either simply passive, or show a
+determination not to act. None of the above movements are of the least
+service. The explanation lies, I cannot doubt, in the principle of
+unconscious antithesis. This principle here seems to come into play as
+clearly as in the case of a dog, who, when feeling savage, puts himself in
+the proper attitude for attacking and for making himself appear terrible
+to his enemy; but as soon as he feels affectionate, throws his whole body
+into a directly opposite attitude, though this is of no direct use to him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Let it be observed how an indignant man, who resents, and will not submit
+to some injury, holds his head erect, squares his shoulders, and expands
+his chest. He often clenches his fists, and puts one or both arms in the
+proper position for attack or defence, with the muscles of his limbs
+rigid. He frowns,&mdash;that is, he contracts and lowers his brows,&mdash;and,
+being determined, closes his mouth. The actions and attitude of a helpless
+man are, in every one of these respects, exactly the reverse. In Plate VI.
+we may imagine one of the figures on the left side to have just said,
+&ldquo;What do you mean by insulting me?&rdquo; and one of the figures on the right
+side to answer, &ldquo;I really could not help it.&rdquo; The helpless man
+unconsciously contracts the muscles of his forehead which are antagonistic
+to those that cause a frown, and thus raises his eyebrows; at the same
+time he relaxes the muscles about the mouth, so that the lower jaw drops.
+The antithesis is complete in every detail, not only in the movements of
+the features, but in the position of the limbs and in the attitude of the
+whole body, as may be seen in the accompanying plate. As the helpless or
+apologetic man often wishes to show his state of mind, he then acts in a
+conspicuous or demonstrative manner.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In accordance with the fact that squaring the elbows and clenching the
+fists are gestures by no means universal with the men of all races, when
+they feel indignant and are prepared to attack their enemy, so it appears
+that a helpless or apologetic frame of mind is expressed in many parts of
+the world by merely shrugging the shoulders, without turning inwards the
+elbows and opening the hands. The man or child who is obstinate, or one
+who is resigned to some great misfortune, has in neither case any idea of
+resistance by active means; and he expresses this state of mind, by simply
+keeping his shoulders raised; or he may possibly fold his arms across his
+breast.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Signs of affirmation or approval, and of negation or disapproval:
+nodding and shaking the head</i>.&mdash;I was curious to ascertain how far
+the common signs used by us in affirmation and negation were general
+throughout the world. These signs are indeed to a certain extent
+expressive of our feelings, as we give a vertical nod of approval with a
+smile to our children, when we approve of their conduct; and shake our
+heads laterally with a frown, when we disapprove. With infants, the first
+act of denial consists in refusing food; and I repeatedly noticed with my
+own infants, that they did so by withdrawing their heads laterally from
+the breast, or from anything offered them in a spoon. In accepting food
+and taking it into their mouths, they incline their heads forwards. Since
+making these observations I have been informed that the same idea had
+occurred to Charma.<a href="#linknote-1117" name="linknoteref-1117"
+id="linknoteref-1117">[1117]</a> It deserves notice that in accepting or
+taking food, there is only a single movement forward, and a single nod
+implies an affirmation. On the other hand, in refusing food, especially if
+it be pressed on them, children frequently move their heads several times
+from side to side, as we do in shaking our heads in negation. Moreover, in
+the case of refusal, the head is not rarely thrown backwards, or the mouth
+is closed, so that these movements might likewise come to serve as signs
+of negation. Mr. Wedgwood remarks on this subject,<a href="#linknote-1118"
+name="linknoteref-1118" id="linknoteref-1118">[1118]</a> that &ldquo;when the
+voice is exerted with closed teeth or lips, it produces the sound of the
+letter <i>n</i> or <i>m</i>. Hence we may account for the use of the
+particle <i>ne</i> to signify negation, and possibly also of the Greek mh
+in the same sense.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+That these signs are innate or instinctive, at least with Anglo-Saxons, is
+rendered highly probable by the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman &ldquo;constantly
+accompanying her <i>yes</i> with the common affirmative nod, and her <i>no</i>
+with our negative shake of the head.&rdquo; Had not Mr. Lieber stated to the
+contrary,<a href="#linknote-1119" name="linknoteref-1119"
+id="linknoteref-1119">[1119]</a> I should have imagined that these
+gestures might have been acquired or learnt by her, considering her
+wonderful sense of touch and appreciation of the movements of others. With
+microcephalous idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn to speak,
+one of them is described by Vogt,<a href="#linknote-1120"
+name="linknoteref-1120" id="linknoteref-1120">[1120]</a> as answering,
+when asked whether he wished for more food or drink, by inclining or
+shaking his head. Schmalz, in his remarkable dissertation on the education
+of the deaf and dumb, as well as of children raised only one degree above
+idiotcy, assumes that they can always both make and understand the common
+signs of affirmation and negation.<a href="#linknote-1121"
+name="linknoteref-1121" id="linknoteref-1121">[1121]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nevertheless if we look to the various races of man, these signs are not
+so universally employed as I should have expected; yet they seem too
+general to be ranked as altogether conventional or artificial. My
+informants assert that both signs are used by the Malays, by the natives
+of Ceylon, the Chinese, the negroes of the Guinea coast, and, according to
+Gaika, by the Kafirs of South Africa, though with these latter people Mrs.
+Barber has never seen a lateral shake used as a negative. With respect to
+the Australians, seven observers agree that a nod is given in affirmation;
+five agree about a lateral shake in negation, accompanied or not by some
+word; but Mr. Dyson Lacy has never seen this latter sign in Queensland,
+and Mr. Bulmer says that in Gipps&rsquo; Land a negative is expressed by
+throwing the head a little backwards and putting out the tongue. At the
+northern extremity of the continent, near Torres Straits, the natives when
+uttering a negative &ldquo;don&rsquo;t shake the head with it, but holding up the
+right hand, shake it by turning it half round and back again two or three
+times.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1122" name="linknoteref-1122"
+id="linknoteref-1122">[1122]</a> The throwing back of the head with a
+cluck of the tongue is said to be used as a negative by the modern Greeks
+and Turks, the latter people expressing <i>yes</i> by a movement like that
+made by us when we shake our heads.<a href="#linknote-1123"
+name="linknoteref-1123" id="linknoteref-1123">[1123]</a> The Abyssinians,
+as I am informed by Captain Speedy, express a negative by jerking the head
+to the right shoulder, together with a slight cluck, the mouth being
+closed; an affirmation is expressed by the head being thrown backwards and
+the eyebrows raised for an instant. The Tagals of Luzon, in the Philippine
+Archipelago, as I hear from Dr. Adolf Meyer, when they say &ldquo;yes,&rdquo; also
+throw the head backwards. According to the Rajah Brooke, the Dyaks of
+Borneo express an affirmation by raising the eyebrows, and a negation by
+slightly contracting them, together with a peculiar look from the eyes.
+With the Arabs on the Nile, Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray concluded that
+nodding in affirmation was rare, whilst shaking the head in negation was
+never used, and was not even understood by them. With the Esquimaux<a
+href="#linknote-1124" name="linknoteref-1124" id="linknoteref-1124">[1124]</a>
+a nod means <i>yes</i> and a wink <i>no</i>. The New Zealanders &ldquo;elevate
+the head and chin in place of nodding acquiescence.&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-1125" name="linknoteref-1125" id="linknoteref-1125">[1125]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With the Hindoos Mr. H. Erskine concludes from inquiries made from
+experienced Europeans, and from native gentlemen, that the signs of
+affirmation and negation vary&mdash;a nod and a lateral shake being
+sometimes used as we do; but a negative is more commonly expressed by the
+head being thrown suddenly backwards and a little to one side, with a
+cluck of the tongue. What the meaning may be of this cluck of the tongue,
+which has been observed with various people, I cannot imagine. A native
+gentleman stated that affirmation is frequently shown by the head being
+thrown to the left. I asked Mr. Scott to attend particularly to this
+point, and, after repeated observations, he believes that a vertical nod
+is not commonly used by the natives in affirmation, but that the head is
+first thrown backwards either to the left or right, and then jerked
+obliquely forwards only once. This movement would perhaps have been
+described by a less careful observer as a lateral shake. He also states
+that in negation the head is usually held nearly upright, and shaken
+several times.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Bridges informs me that the Fuegians nod their heads vertically in
+affirmation, and shake them laterally in denial. With the wild Indians of
+North America, according to Mr. Washington Matthews, nodding and shaking
+the head have been learnt from Europeans, and are not naturally employed.
+They express affirmation by describing with the hand (all the fingers
+except the index being flexed) a curve downwards and outwards from the
+body, whilst negation is expressed by moving the open hand outwards, with
+the palm facing inwards. Other observers state that the sign of
+affirmation with these Indians is the forefinger being raised, and then
+lowered and pointed to the ground, or the hand is waved straight forward
+from the face; and that the sign of negation is the finger or whole hand
+shaken from side to side.<a href="#linknote-1126" name="linknoteref-1126"
+id="linknoteref-1126">[1126]</a> This latter movement probably represents
+in all cases the lateral shaking of the head. The Italians are said in
+like manner to move the lifted finger from right to left in negation, as
+indeed we English sometimes do.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On the whole we find considerable diversity in the signs of affirmation
+and negation in the different races of man. With respect to negation, if
+we admit that the shaking of the finger or hand from side to side is
+symbolic of the lateral movement of the head; and if we admit that the
+sudden backward movement of the head represents one of the actions often
+practised by young children in refusing food, then there is much
+uniformity throughout the world in the signs of negation, and we can see
+how they originated. The most marked exceptions are presented by the
+Arabs, Esquimaux, some Australian tribes, and Dyaks. With the latter a
+frown is the sign of negation, and with us frowning often accompanies a
+lateral shake of the head.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With respect to nodding in affirmation, the exceptions are rather more
+numerous, namely with some of the Hindoos, with the Turks, Abyssinians,
+Dyaks, Tagals, and New Zealanders. The eyebrows are sometimes raised in
+affirmation, and as a person in bending his head forwards and downwards
+naturally looks up to the person whom he addresses, he will be apt to
+raise his eyebrows, and this sign may thus have arisen as an abbreviation.
+So again with the New Zealanders, the lifting up the chin and head in
+affirmation may perhaps represent in an abbreviated form the upward
+movement of the head after it has been nodded forwards and downwards.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"></a>
+CHAPTER XII.<br/>SURPRISE&mdash;ASTONISHMENT&mdash;FEAR&mdash;HORROR.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+Surprise, astonishment&mdash;Elevation of the eyebrows&mdash;Opening the
+mouth&mdash;Protrusion of the lips&mdash;Gestures accompanying surprise&mdash;Admiration&mdash;Fear&mdash;Terror&mdash;Erection
+of the hair&mdash;Contraction of the platysma muscle&mdash;Dilatation of
+the pupils&mdash;Horror&mdash;Conclusion.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Attention, if sudden and close, graduates into surprise; and this into
+astonishment; and this into stupefied amazement. The latter frame of mind
+is closely akin to terror. Attention is shown by the eyebrows being
+slightly raised; and as this state increases into surprise, they are
+raised to a much greater extent, with the eyes and mouth widely open. The
+raising of the eyebrows is necessary in order that the eyes should be
+opened quickly and widely; and this movement produces transverse wrinkles
+across the forehead. The degree to which the eyes and mouth are opened
+corresponds with the degree of surprise felt; but these movements must be
+coordinated; for a widely opened mouth with eyebrows only slightly raised
+results in a meaningless grimace, as Dr. Duchenne has shown in one of his
+photographs.<a href="#linknote-1201" name="linknoteref-1201"
+id="linknoteref-1201">[1201]</a> On the other hand, a person may often be
+seen to pretend surprise by merely raising his eyebrows.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Duchenne has given a photograph of an old man with his eyebrows well
+elevated and arched by the galvanization of the frontal muscle; and with
+his mouth voluntarily opened. This figure expresses surprise with much
+truth. I showed it to twenty-four persons without a word of explanation,
+and one alone did not at all understand what was intended. A second person
+answered terror, which is not far wrong; some of the others, however,
+added to the words surprise or astonishment, the epithets horrified,
+woful, painful, or disgusted.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The eyes and mouth being widely open is an expression universally
+recognized as one of surprise or astonishment. Thus Shakespeare says, &ldquo;I
+saw a smith stand with open mouth swallowing a tailor&rsquo;s news.&rdquo; (&lsquo;King
+John,&rsquo; act iv. scene ii.) And again, &ldquo;They seemed almost, with staring on
+one another, to tear the cases of their eyes; there was speech in the
+dumbness, language in their very gesture; they looked as they had heard of
+a world destroyed.&rdquo; (&lsquo;Winter&rsquo;s Tale,&rsquo; act v. scene ii.)
+</p>
+
+<p>
+My informants answer with remarkable uniformity to the same effect, with
+respect to the various races of man; the above movements of the features
+being often accompanied by certain gestures and sounds, presently to be
+described. Twelve observers in different parts of Australia agree on this
+head. Mr. Winwood Reade has observed this expression with the negroes on
+the Guinea coast. The chief Gaika and others answer <i>yes</i> to my query
+with respect to the Kafirs of South Africa; and so do others emphatically
+with reference to the Abyssinians, Ceylonese, Chinese, Fuegians, various
+tribes of North America, and New Zealanders. With the latter, Mr. Stack
+states that the expression is more plainly shown by certain individuals
+than by others, though all endeavour as much as possible to conceal their
+feelings. The Dyaks of Borneo are said by the Rajah Brooke to open their
+eyes widely, when astonished, often swinging their heads to and fro, and
+beating their breasts. Mr. Scott informs me that the workmen in the
+Botanic Gardens at Calcutta are strictly ordered not to smoke; but they
+often disobey this order, and when suddenly surprised in the act, they
+first open their eyes and mouths widely. They then often slightly shrug
+their shoulders, as they perceive that discovery is inevitable, or frown
+and stamp on the ground from vexation. Soon they recover from their
+surprise, and abject fear is exhibited by the relaxation of all their
+muscles; their heads seem to sink between their shoulders; their fallen
+eyes wander to and fro; and they supplicate forgiveness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The well-known Australian explorer, Mr. Stuart, has given<a
+href="#linknote-1202" name="linknoteref-1202" id="linknoteref-1202">[1202]</a>
+a striking account of stupefied amazement together with terror in a native
+who had never before seen a man on horseback. Mr. Stuart approached unseen
+and called to him from a little distance. &ldquo;He turned round and saw me.
+What he imagined I was I do not know; but a finer picture of fear and
+astonishment I never saw. He stood incapable of moving a limb, riveted to
+the spot, mouth open and eyes staring.... He remained motionless until our
+black got within a few yards of him, when suddenly throwing down his
+waddies, he jumped into a mulga bush as high as he could get.&rdquo; He could
+not speak, and answered not a word to the inquiries made by the black,
+but, trembling from head to foot, &ldquo;waved with his hand for us to be off.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+That the eyebrows are raised by an innate or instinctive impulse may be
+inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman invariably acts thus when
+astonished, as I have been assured by the lady who has lately had charge
+of her. As surprise is excited by something unexpected or unknown, we
+naturally desire, when startled, to perceive the cause as quickly as
+possible; and we consequently open our eyes fully, so that the field of
+vision may be increased, and the eyeballs moved easily in any direction.
+But this hardly accounts for the eyebrows being so greatly raised as is
+the case, and for the wild staring of the open eyes. The explanation lies,
+I believe, in the impossibility of opening the eyes with great rapidity by
+merely raising the upper lids. To effect this the eyebrows must be lifted
+energetically. Any one who will try to open his eyes as quickly as
+possible before a mirror will find that he acts thus; and the energetic
+lifting up of the eyebrows opens the eyes so widely that they stare, the
+white being exposed all round the iris. Moreover, the elevation of the
+eyebrows is an advantage in looking upwards; for as long as they are
+lowered they impede our vision in this direction. Sir C. Bell gives<a
+href="#linknote-1203" name="linknoteref-1203" id="linknoteref-1203">[1203]</a>
+a curious little proof of the part which the eyebrows play in opening the
+eyelids. In a stupidly drunken man all the muscles are relaxed, and the
+eyelids consequently droop, in the same manner as when we are falling
+asleep. To counteract this tendency the drunkard raises his eyebrows; and
+this gives to him a puzzled, foolish look, as is well represented in one
+of Hogarth&rsquo;s drawings. The habit of raising the eyebrows having once been
+gained in order to see as quickly as possible all around us, the movement
+would follow from the force of association whenever astonishment was felt
+from any cause, even from a sudden sound or an idea.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With adult persons, when the eyebrows are raised, the whole forehead
+becomes much wrinkled in transverse lines; but with children this occurs
+only to a slight degree. The wrinkles run in lines concentric with each
+eyebrow, and are partially confluent in the middle. They are highly
+characteristic of the expression of surprise or astonishment. Each
+eyebrow, when raised, becomes also, as Duchenne remarks,<a
+href="#linknote-1204" name="linknoteref-1204" id="linknoteref-1204">[1204]</a>
+more arched than it was before.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The cause of the mouth being opened when astonishment is felt, is a much
+more complex affair; and several causes apparently concur in leading to
+this movement. It has often been supposed<a href="#linknote-1205"
+name="linknoteref-1205" id="linknoteref-1205">[1205]</a> that the sense of
+hearing is thus rendered more acute; but I have watched persons listening
+intently to a slight noise, the nature and source of which they knew
+perfectly, and they did not open their mouths. Therefore I at one time
+imagined that the open mouth might aid in distinguishing the direction
+whence a sound proceeded, by giving another channel for its entrance into
+the ear through the eustachian tube, But Dr. W. Ogle<a
+href="#linknote-1206" name="linknoteref-1206" id="linknoteref-1206">[1206]</a>
+has been so kind as to search the best recent authorities on the functions
+of the eustachian tube, and he informs me that it is almost conclusively
+proved that it remains closed except during the act of deglutition; and
+that in persons in whom the tube remains abnormally open, the sense of
+hearing, as far as external sounds are concerned, is by no means improved;
+on the contrary, it is impaired by the respiratory sounds being rendered
+more distinct. If a watch be placed within the mouth, but not allowed to
+touch the sides, the ticking is heard much less plainly than when held
+outside. In persons in whom from disease or a cold the eustachian tube is
+permanently or temporarily closed, the sense of hearing is injured; but
+this may be accounted for by mucus accumulating within the tube, and the
+consequent exclusion of air. We may therefore infer that the mouth is not
+kept open under the sense of astonishment for the sake of hearing sounds
+more distinctly; notwithstanding that most deaf people keep their mouths
+open.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Every sudden emotion, including astonishment, quickens the action of the
+heart, and with it the respiration. Now we can breathe, as Gratiolet
+remarks<a href="#linknote-1207" name="linknoteref-1207"
+id="linknoteref-1207">[1207]</a> and as appears to me to be the case, much
+more quietly through the open mouth than through the nostrils. Therefore,
+when we wish to listen intently to any sound, we either stop breathing, or
+breathe as quietly as possible, by opening our mouths, at the same time
+keeping our bodies motionless. One of my sons was awakened in the night by
+a noise under circumstances which naturally led to great care, and after a
+few minutes he perceived that his mouth was widely open. He then became
+conscious that he had opened it for the sake of breathing as quietly as
+possible. This view receives support from the reversed case which occurs
+with dogs. A dog when panting after exercise, or on a hot day, breathes
+loudly; but if his attention be suddenly aroused, he instantly pricks his
+ears to listen, shuts his mouth, and breathes quietly, as he is enabled to
+do, through his nostrils.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When the attention is concentrated for a length of time with fixed
+earnestness on any object or subject, all the organs of the body are
+forgotten and neglected;<a href="#linknote-1208" name="linknoteref-1208"
+id="linknoteref-1208">[1208]</a> and as the nervous energy of each
+individual is limited in amount, little is transmitted to any part of the
+system, excepting that which is at the time brought into energetic action.
+Therefore many of the muscles tend to become relaxed, and the jaw drops
+from its own weight. This will account for the dropping of the jaw and
+open mouth of a man stupefied with amazement, and perhaps when less
+strongly affected. I have noticed this appearance, as I find recorded in
+my notes, in very young children when they were only moderately surprised.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is still another and highly effective cause, leading to the mouth
+being opened, when we are astonished, and more especially when we are
+suddenly startled. We can draw a full and deep inspiration much more
+easily through the widely open mouth than through the nostrils. Now when
+we start at any sudden sound or sight, almost all the muscles of the body
+are involuntarily and momentarily thrown into strong action, for the sake
+of guarding ourselves against or jumping away from the danger, which we
+habitually associate with anything unexpected. But we always unconsciously
+prepare ourselves for any great exertion, as formerly explained, by first
+taking a deep and full inspiration, and we consequently open our mouths.
+If no exertion follows, and we still remain astonished, we cease for a
+time to breathe, or breathe as quietly as possible, in order that every
+sound may be distinctly heard. Or again, if our attention continues long
+and earnestly absorbed, all our muscles become relaxed, and the jaw, which
+was at first suddenly opened, remains dropped. Thus several causes concur
+towards this same movement, whenever surprise, astonishment, or amazement
+is felt.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although when thus affected, our mouths are generally opened, yet the lips
+are often a little protruded. This fact reminds us of the same movement,
+though in a much more strongly marked degree, in the chimpanzee and orang
+when astonished. As a strong expiration naturally follows the deep
+inspiration which accompanies the first sense of startled surprise, and as
+the lips are often protruded, the various sounds which are then commonly
+uttered can apparently be accounted for. But sometimes a strong expiration
+alone is heard; thus Laura Bridgman, when amazed, rounds and protrudes her
+lips, opens them, and breathes strongly.<a href="#linknote-1209"
+name="linknoteref-1209" id="linknoteref-1209">[1209]</a> One of the
+commonest sounds is a deep <i>Oh</i>; and this would naturally follow, as
+explained by Helmholtz, from the mouth being moderately opened and the
+lips protruded. On a quiet night some rockets were fired from the
+&lsquo;Beagle,&rsquo; in a little creek at Tahiti, to amuse the natives; and as each
+rocket, was let off there was absolute silence, but this was invariably
+followed by a deep groaning <i>Oh</i>, resounding all round the bay. Mr.
+Washington Matthews says that the North American Indians express
+astonishment by a groan; and the negroes on the West Coast of Africa,
+according to Mr. Winwood Reade, protrude their lips, and make a sound like
+<i>heigh, heigh</i>. If the mouth is not much opened, whilst the lips are
+considerably protruded, a blowing, hissing, or whistling noise is
+produced. Mr. R. Brough Smith informs me that an Australian from the
+interior was taken to the theatre to see an acrobat rapidly turning head
+over heels: &ldquo;he was greatly astonished, and protruded his lips, making a
+noise with his mouth as if blowing out a match.&rdquo; According to Mr. Bulmer
+the Australians, when surprised, utter the exclamation <i>korki</i>, &ldquo;and
+to do this the mouth is drawn out as if going to whistle.&rdquo; We Europeans
+often whistle as a sign of surprise; thus, in a recent novel<a
+href="#linknote-1210" name="linknoteref-1210" id="linknoteref-1210">[1210]</a>
+it is said, &ldquo;here the man expressed his astonishment and disapprobation by
+a prolonged whistle.&rdquo; A Kafir girl, as Mr. J. Mansel Weale informs me, &ldquo;on
+hearing of the high price of an article, raised her eyebrows and whistled
+just as a European would.&rdquo; Mr. Wedgwood remarks that such sounds are
+written down as <i>whew</i>, and they serve as interjections for surprise.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+According to three other observers, the Australians often evince
+astonishment by a clucking noise. Europeans also sometimes express gentle
+surprise by a little clicking noise of nearly the same kind. We have seen
+that when we are startled, the mouth is suddenly opened; and if the tongue
+happens to be then pressed closely against the palate, its sudden
+withdrawal will produce a sound of this kind, which might thus come to
+express surprise.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0024" id="linkimage-0024">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/plate-7.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Gestures of the Body. Plate VII " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Turning to gestures of the body. A surprised person often raises his
+opened hands high above his head, or by bending his arms only to the level
+of his face. The flat palms are directed towards the person who causes
+this feeling, and the straightened fingers are separated. This gesture is
+represented by Mr. Rejlander in Plate VII. fig. 1. In the &lsquo;Last Supper,&rsquo;
+by Leonardo da Vinci, two of the Apostles have their hands half uplifted,
+clearly expressive of their astonishment. A trustworthy observer told me
+that he had lately met his wife under most unexpected circumstances: &ldquo;She
+started, opened her mouth and eyes very widely, and threw up both her arms
+above her head.&rdquo; Several years ago I was surprised by seeing several of my
+young children earnestly doing something together on the ground; but the
+distance was too great for me to ask what they were about. Therefore I
+threw up my open hands with extended fingers above my head; and as soon as
+I had done this, I became conscious of the action. I then waited, without
+saying a word, to see if my children had understood this gesture; and as
+they came running to me they cried out, &ldquo;We saw that you were astonished
+at us.&rdquo; I do not know whether this gesture is common to the various races
+of man, as I neglected to make inquiries on this head. That it is innate
+or natural may be inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman, when amazed,
+&ldquo;spreads her arms and turns her hands with extended fingers upwards;&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-1211" name="linknoteref-1211" id="linknoteref-1211">[1211]</a>
+nor is it likely, considering that the feeling of surprise is generally a
+brief one, that she should have learnt this gesture through her keen sense
+of touch.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Huschke describes<a href="#linknote-1212" name="linknoteref-1212"
+id="linknoteref-1212">[1212]</a> a somewhat different yet allied gesture,
+which he says is exhibited by persons when astonished. They hold
+themselves erect, with the features as before described, but with the
+straightened arms extended backwards&mdash;the stretched fingers being
+separated from each other. I have never myself seen this gesture; but
+Huschke is probably correct; for a friend asked another man how he would
+express great astonishment, and he at once threw himself into this
+attitude.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These gestures are, I believe, explicable on the principle of antithesis.
+We have seen that an indignant man holds his head erect, squares his
+shoulders, turns out his elbows, often clenches his fist, frowns, and
+closes his mouth; whilst the attitude of a helpless man is in every one of
+these details the reverse. Now, a man in an ordinary frame of mind, doing
+nothing and thinking of nothing in particular, usually keeps his two arms
+suspended laxly by his sides, with his hands somewhat flexed, and the
+fingers near together. Therefore, to raise the arms suddenly, either the
+whole arms or the fore-arms, to open the palms flat, and to separate the
+fingers,&mdash;or, again, to straighten the arms, extending them backwards
+with separated fingers,&mdash;are movements in complete antithesis to
+those preserved under an indifferent frame of mind, and they are, in
+consequence, unconsciously assumed by an astonished man. There is, also,
+often a desire to display surprise in a conspicuous manner, and the above
+attitudes are well fitted for this purpose. It may be asked why should
+surprise, and only a few other states of the mind, be exhibited by
+movements in antithesis to others. But this principle will not be brought
+into play in the case of those emotions, such as terror, great joy,
+suffering, or rage, which naturally lead to certain lines of action and
+produce certain effects on the body, for the whole system is thus
+preoccupied; and these emotions are already thus expressed with the
+greatest plainness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is another little gesture, expressive of astonishment of which I can
+offer no explanation; namely, the hand being placed over the mouth or on
+some part of the head. This has been observed with so many races of man,
+that it must have some natural origin. A wild Australian was taken into a
+large room full of official papers, which surprised him greatly, and he
+cried out, <i>cluck, cluck, cluck</i>, putting the back of his hand
+towards his lips. Mrs. Barber says that the Kafirs and Fingoes express
+astonishment by a serious look and by placing the right hand upon the
+mouth, uttering the word <i>mawo</i>, which means &lsquo;wonderful.&rsquo; The
+Bushmen are said<a href="#linknote-1213" name="linknoteref-1213"
+id="linknoteref-1213">[1213]</a> to put their right hands to their necks,
+bending their heads backwards. Mr. Winwood Reade has observed that the
+negroes on the West Coast of Africa, when surprised, clap their hands to
+their mouths, saying at the same time, &ldquo;My mouth cleaves to me,&rdquo; i. e. to
+my hands; and he has heard that this is their usual gesture on such
+occasions. Captain Speedy informs me that the Abyssinians place their
+right hand to the forehead, with the palm outside. Lastly, Mr. Washington
+Matthews states that the conventional sign of astonishment with the wild
+tribes of the western parts of the United States &ldquo;is made by placing the
+half-closed hand over the mouth; in doing this, the head is often bent
+forwards, and words or low groans are sometimes uttered.&rdquo; Catlin<a
+href="#linknote-1214" name="linknoteref-1214" id="linknoteref-1214">[1214]</a>
+makes the same remark about the hand being pressed over the mouth by the
+Mandans and other Indian tribes.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Admiration</i>.&mdash;Little need be said on this head. Admiration
+apparently consists of surprise associated with some pleasure and a sense
+of approval. When vividly felt, the eyes are opened and the eyebrows
+raised; the eyes become bright, instead of remaining blank, as under
+simple astonishment; and the mouth, instead of gaping open, expands into a
+smile.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Fear, Terror</i>.&mdash;The word &lsquo;fear&rsquo; seems to be derived from what
+is sudden and dangerous;<a href="#linknote-1215" name="linknoteref-1215"
+id="linknoteref-1215">[1215]</a> and that of terror from the trembling of
+the vocal organs and body. I use the word &lsquo;terror&rsquo; for extreme fear; but
+some writers think it ought to be confined to cases in which the
+imagination is more particularly concerned. Fear is often preceded by
+astonishment, and is so far akin to it, that both lead to the senses of
+sight and hearing being instantly aroused. In both cases the eyes and
+mouth are widely opened, and the eyebrows raised. The frightened man at
+first stands like a statue motionless and breathless, or crouches down as
+if instinctively to escape observation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The heart beats quickly and violently, so that it palpitates or knocks
+against the ribs; but it is very doubtful whether it then works more
+efficiently than usual, so as to send a greater supply of blood to all
+parts of the body; for the skin instantly becomes pale, as during
+incipient faintness. This paleness of the surface, however, is probably in
+large part, or exclusively, due to the vasomotor centre being affected in
+such a manner as to cause the contraction of the small arteries of the
+skin. That the skin is much affected under the sense of great fear, we see
+in the marvellous and inexplicable manner in which perspiration
+immediately exudes from it. This exudation is all the more remarkable, as
+the surface is then cold, and hence the term a cold sweat; whereas, the
+sudorific glands are properly excited into action when the surface is
+heated. The hairs also on the skin stand erect; and the superficial
+muscles shiver. In connection with the disturbed action of the heart, the
+breathing is hurried. The salivary glands act imperfectly; the mouth
+becomes dry,<a href="#linknote-1216" name="linknoteref-1216"
+id="linknoteref-1216">[1216]</a> and is often opened and shut. I have also
+noticed that under slight fear there is a strong tendency to yawn. One of
+the best-marked symptoms is the trembling of all the muscles of the body;
+and this is often first seen in the lips. From this cause, and from the
+dryness of the mouth, the voice becomes husky or indistinct, or may
+altogether fail. &ldquo;Obstupui, steteruntque comae, et vox faucibus haesit.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of vague fear there is a well-known and grand description in Job:&mdash;&ldquo;In
+thoughts from the visions of the night, when deep sleep falleth on men,
+fear came upon me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake. Then a
+spirit passed before my face; the hair of my flesh stood up. It stood
+still, but I could not discern the form thereof: an image was before my
+eyes, there was silence, and I heard a voice, saying, Shall mortal man be
+more just than God? Shall a man be more pure than his Maker?&rdquo; (Job iv. 13)
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As fear increases into an agony of terror, we behold, as under all violent
+emotions, diversified results. The heart beats wildly, or may fail to act
+and faintness ensue; there is a death-like pallor; the breathing is
+laboured; the wings of the nostrils are wildly dilated; &ldquo;there is a
+gasping and convulsive motion of the lips, a tremor on the hollow cheek, a
+gulping and catching of the throat;&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1217"
+name="linknoteref-1217" id="linknoteref-1217">[1217]</a> the uncovered and
+protruding eyeballs are fixed on the object of terror; or they may roll
+restlessly from side to side, <i>huc illuc volvens oculos totumque
+pererrat</i>.<a href="#linknote-1218" name="linknoteref-1218"
+id="linknoteref-1218">[1218]</a> The pupils are said to be enormously
+dilated. All the muscles of the body may become rigid, or may be thrown
+into convulsive movements. The hands are alternately clenched and opened,
+often with a twitching movement. The arms may be protruded, as if to avert
+some dreadful danger, or may be thrown wildly over the head. The Rev. Mr.
+Hagenauer has seen this latter action in a terrified Australian. In other
+cases there is a sudden and uncontrollable tendency to headlong flight;
+and so strong is this, that the boldest soldiers may be seized with a
+sudden panic.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As fear rises to an extreme pitch, the dreadful scream of terror is heard.
+Great beads of sweat stand on the skin. All the muscles of the body are
+relaxed. Utter prostration soon follows, and the mental powers fail. The
+intestines are affected. The sphincter muscles cease to act, and no longer
+retain the contents of the body.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0025" id="linkimage-0025">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig19.jpg" width="100%"
+alt="Photograph of an Insane Woman. Fig. 19 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Dr. J. Crichton Browne has given me so striking an account of intense fear
+in an insane woman, aged thirty-five, that the description though painful
+ought not to be omitted. When a paroxysm seizes her, she screams out,
+&ldquo;This is hell!&rdquo; &ldquo;There is a black woman!&rdquo; &ldquo;I can&rsquo;t get out!&rdquo;&mdash;and
+other such exclamations. When thus screaming, her movements are those of
+alternate tension and tremor. For one instant she clenches her hands,
+holds her arms out before her in a stiff semi-flexed position; then
+suddenly bends her body forwards, sways rapidly to and fro, draws her
+fingers through her hair, clutches at her neck, and tries to tear off her
+clothes. The sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles (which serve to bend the head
+on the chest) stand out prominently, as if swollen, and the skin in front
+of them is much wrinkled. Her hair, which is cut short at the back of her
+head, and is smooth when she is calm, now stands on end; that in front
+being dishevelled by the movements of her hands. The countenance expresses
+great mental agony. The skin is flushed over the face and neck, down to
+the clavicles, and the veins of the forehead and neck stand out like thick
+cords. The lower lip drops, and is somewhat everted. The mouth is kept
+half open, with the lower jaw projecting. The cheeks are hollow and deeply
+furrowed in curved lines running from the wings of the nostrils to the
+corners of the mouth. The nostrils themselves are raised and extended. The
+eyes are widely opened, and beneath them the skin appears swollen; the
+pupils are large. The forehead is wrinkled transversely in many folds, and
+at the inner extremities of the eyebrows it is strongly furrowed in
+diverging lines, produced by the powerful and persistent contraction of
+the corrugators.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0026" id="linkimage-0026">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig20.jpg" width="100%" alt="Terror. Fig. 20 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Bell has also described<a href="#linknote-1219" name="linknoteref-1219"
+id="linknoteref-1219">[1219]</a> an agony of terror and of despair, which
+he witnessed in a murderer, whilst carried to the place of execution in
+Turin. &ldquo;On each side of the car the officiating priests were seated; and
+in the centre sat the criminal himself. It was impossible to witness the
+condition of this unhappy wretch without terror; and yet, as if impelled
+by some strange infatuation, it was equally impossible not to gaze upon an
+object so wild, so full of horror. He seemed about thirty-five years of
+age; of large and muscular form; his countenance marked by strong and
+savage features; half naked, pale as death, agonized with terror, every
+limb strained in anguish, his hands clenched convulsively, the sweat
+breaking out on his bent and contracted brow, he kissed incessantly the
+figure of our Saviour, painted on the flag which was suspended before him;
+but with an agony of wildness and despair, of which nothing ever exhibited
+on the stage can give the slightest conception.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I will add only one other case, illustrative of a man utterly prostrated
+by terror. An atrocious murderer of two persons was brought into a
+hospital, under the mistaken impression that he had poisoned himself; and
+Dr. W. Ogle carefully watched him the next morning, while he was being
+handcuffed and taken away by the police. His pallor was extreme, and his
+prostration so great that he was hardly able to dress himself. His skin
+perspired; and his eyelids and head drooped so much that it was impossible
+to catch even a glimpse of his eyes. His lower jaw hung down. There was no
+contraction of any facial muscle, and Dr. Ogle is almost certain that the
+hair did not stand on end, for he observed it narrowly, as it had been
+dyed for the sake of concealment.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With respect to fear, as exhibited by the various races of man, my
+informants agree that the signs are the same as with Europeans. They are
+displayed in an exaggerated degree with the Hindoos and natives of Ceylon.
+Mr. Geach has seen Malays when terrified turn pale and shake; and Mr.
+Brough Smyth states that a native Australian &ldquo;being on one occasion much
+frightened, showed a complexion as nearly approaching to what we call
+paleness, as can well be conceived in the case of a very black man.&rdquo; Mr.
+Dyson Lacy has seen extreme fear shown in an Australian, by a nervous
+twitching of the hands, feet, and lips; and by the perspiration standing
+on the skin. Many savages do not repress the signs of fear so much as
+Europeans; and they often tremble greatly. With the Kafir, Gaika says, in
+his rather quaint English, the shaking &ldquo;of the body is much experienced,
+and the eyes are widely open.&rdquo; With savages, the sphincter muscles are
+often relaxed, just as may be observed in much frightened dogs, and as I
+have seen with monkeys when terrified by being caught.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>The erection of the hair</i>.&mdash;Some of the signs of fear deserve a
+little further consideration. Poets continually speak of the hair standing
+on end; Brutus says to the ghost of Caesar, &ldquo;that mak&rsquo;st my blood cold,
+and my hair to stare.&rdquo; And Cardinal Beaufort, after the murder of
+Gloucester exclaims, &ldquo;Comb down his hair; look, look, it stands upright.&rdquo;
+As I did not feel sure whether writers of fiction might not have applied
+to man what they had often observed in animals, I begged for information
+from Dr. Crichton Browne with respect to the insane. He states in answer
+that he has repeatedly seen their hair erected under the influence of
+sudden and extreme terror. For instance, it is occasionally necessary to
+inject morphia, under the skin of an insane woman, who dreads the
+operation extremely, though it causes very little pain; for she believes
+that poison is being introduced into her system, and that her bones will
+be softened, and her flesh turned into dust. She becomes deadly pale; her
+limbs are stiffened by a sort of tetanic spasm, and her hair is partially
+erected on the front of the head.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Browne further remarks that the bristling of the hair which is so
+common in the insane, is not always associated with terror. It is perhaps
+most frequently seen in chronic maniacs, who rave incoherently and have
+destructive impulses; but it is during their paroxysms of violence that
+the bristling is most observable. The fact of the hair becoming erect
+under the influence both of rage and fear agrees perfectly with what we
+have seen in the lower animals. Dr. Browne adduces several cases in
+evidence. Thus with a man now in the Asylum, before the recurrence of each
+maniacal paroxysm, &ldquo;the hair rises up from his forehead like the mane of a
+Shetland pony.&rdquo; He has sent me photographs of two women, taken in the
+intervals between their paroxysms, and he adds with respect to one of
+these women, &ldquo;that the state of her hair is a sure and convenient
+criterion of her mental condition.&rdquo; I have had one of these photographs
+copied, and the engraving gives, if viewed from a little distance, a
+faithful representation of the original, with the exception that the hair
+appears rather too coarse and too much curled. The extraordinary condition
+of the hair in the insane is due, not only to its erection, but to its
+dryness and harshness, consequent on the subcutaneous glands failing to
+act. Dr. Bucknill has said<a href="#linknote-1220" name="linknoteref-1220"
+id="linknoteref-1220">[1220]</a> that a lunatic &ldquo;is a lunatic to his
+finger&rsquo;s ends;&rdquo; he might have added, and often to the extremity of each
+particular hair.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Browne mentions as an empirical confirmation of the relation which
+exists in the insane between the state of their hair and minds, that the
+wife of a medical man, who has charge of a lady suffering from acute
+melancholia, with a strong fear of death, for herself, her husband and
+children, reported verbally to him the day before receiving my letter as
+follows, &ldquo;I think Mrs. &mdash;&mdash; will soon improve, for her hair is
+getting smooth; and I always notice that our patients get better whenever
+their hair ceases to be rough and unmanageable.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Browne attributes the persistently rough condition of the hair in many
+insane patients, in part to their minds being always somewhat disturbed,
+and in part to the effects of habit,&mdash;that is, to the hair being
+frequently and strongly erected during their many recurrent paroxysms. In
+patients in whom the bristling of the hair is extreme, the disease is
+generally permanent and mortal; but in others, in whom the bristling is
+moderate, as soon as they recover their health of mind the hair recovers
+its smoothness.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In a previous chapter we have seen that with animals the hairs are erected
+by the contraction of minute, unstriped, and involuntary muscles, which
+run to each separate follicle. In addition to this action, Mr. J. Wood has
+clearly ascertained by experiment, as he informs me, that with man the
+hairs on the front of the head which slope forwards, and those on the back
+which slope backwards, are raised in opposite directions by the
+contraction of the occipito-frontalis or scalp muscle. So that this muscle
+seems to aid in the erection of the hairs on the head of man in the same
+manner as the homologous <i>panniculus carnosus</i> aids, or takes the
+greater part, in the erection of the spines on the backs of some of the
+lower animals.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Contraction of the platysma myoides muscle</i>.&mdash;This muscle is
+spread over the sides of the neck, extending downwards to a little beneath
+the collar-bones, and upwards to the lower part of the cheeks. A portion,
+called the risorius, is represented in the woodcut (M) fig. 2. The
+contraction of this muscle draws the corners of the mouth and the lower
+parts of the checks downwards and backwards. It produces at the same time
+divergent, longitudinal, prominent ridges on the sides of the neck in the
+young; and, in old thin persons, fine transverse wrinkles. This muscle is
+sometimes said not to be under the control of the will; but almost every
+one, if told to draw the corners of his mouth backwards and downwards with
+great force, brings it into action. I have, however, heard of a man who
+can voluntarily act on it only on one side of his neck.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Sir C. Bell<a href="#linknote-1221" name="linknoteref-1221"
+id="linknoteref-1221">[1221]</a> and others have stated that this muscle
+is strongly contracted under the influence of fear; and Duchenne insists
+so strongly on its importance in the expression of this emotion, that he
+calls it the <i>muscle of fright</i>.<a href="#linknote-1222"
+name="linknoteref-1222" id="linknoteref-1222">[1222]</a> He admits,
+however, that its contraction is quite inexpressive unless associated with
+widely open eyes and mouth. He has given a photograph (copied and reduced
+in the accompanying woodcut) of the same old man as on former occasions,
+with his eyebrows strongly raised, his mouth opened, and the platysma
+contracted, all by means of galvanism. The original photograph was shown
+to twenty-four persons, and they were separately asked, without any
+explanation being given, what expression was intended: twenty instantly
+answered, &ldquo;intense fright&rdquo; or &ldquo;horror&rdquo;; three said pain, and one extreme
+discomfort. Dr. Duchenne has given another photograph of the same old man,
+with the platysma contracted, the eyes and mouth opened, and the eyebrows
+rendered oblique, by means of galvanism. The expression thus induced is
+very striking (see Plate VII. fig. 2); the obliquity of the eyebrows
+adding the appearance of great mental distress. The original was shown to
+fifteen persons; twelve answered terror or horror, and three agony or
+great suffering. From these cases, and from an examination of the other
+photographs given by Dr. Duchenne, together with his remarks thereon, I
+think there can be little doubt that the contraction of the platysma does
+add greatly to the expression of fear. Nevertheless this muscle ought
+hardly to be called that of fright, for its contraction is certainly not a
+necessary concomitant of this state of mind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A man may exhibit extreme terror in the plainest manner by death-like
+pallor, by drops of perspiration on his skin, and by utter prostration,
+with all the muscles of his body, including the platysma, completely
+relaxed. Although Dr. Browne has often seen this muscle quivering and
+contracting in the insane, he has not been able to connect its action with
+any emotional condition in them, though he carefully attended to patients
+suffering from great fear. Mr. Nicol, on the other hand, has observed
+three cases in which this muscle appeared to be more or less permanently
+contracted under the influence of melancholia, associated with much dread;
+but in one of these cases, various other muscles about the neck and head
+were subject to spasmodic contractions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. W. Ogle observed for me in one of the London hospitals about twenty
+patients, just before they were put under the influence of chloroform for
+operations. They exhibited some trepidation, but no great terror. In only
+four of the cases was the platysma visibly contracted; and it did not
+begin to contract until the patients began to cry. The muscle seemed to
+contract at the moment of each deep-drawn inspiration; so that it is very
+doubtful whether the contraction depended at all on the emotion of fear.
+In a fifth case, the patient, who was not chloroformed, was much
+terrified; and his platysma was more forcibly and persistently contracted
+than in the other cases. But even here there is room for doubt, for the
+muscle which appeared to be unusually developed, was seen by Dr. Ogle to
+contract as the man moved his head from the pillow, after the operation
+was over.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As I felt much perplexed why, in any case, a superficial muscle on the
+neck should be especially affected by fear, I applied to my many obliging
+correspondents for information about the contraction of this muscle under
+other circumstances. It would be superfluous to give all the answers which
+I have received. They show that this muscle acts, often in a variable
+manner and degree, under many different conditions. It is violently
+contracted in hydrophobia, and in a somewhat less degree in lockjaw;
+sometimes in a marked manner during the insensibility from chloroform. Dr.
+W. Ogle observed two male patients, suffering from such difficulty in
+breathing, that the trachea had to be opened, and in both the platysma was
+strongly contracted. One of these men overheard the conversation of the
+surgeons surrounding him, and when he was able to speak, declared that he
+had not been frightened. In some other cases of extreme difficulty of
+respiration, though not requiring tracheotomy, observed by Drs. Ogle and
+Langstaff, the platysma was not contracted.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. J. Wood, who has studied with such care the muscles of the human body,
+as shown by his various publications, has often seen the platysma
+contracted in vomiting, nausea, and disgust; also in children and adults
+under the influence of rage,&mdash;for instance, in Irishwomen,
+quarrelling and brawling together with angry gesticulations. This may
+possibly have been due to their high and angry tones; for I know a lady,
+an excellent musician, who, in singing certain high notes, always
+contracts her platysma. So does a young man, as I have observed, in
+sounding certain notes on the flute. Mr. J. Wood informs me that he has
+found the platysma best developed in persons with thick necks and broad
+shoulders; and that in families inheriting these peculiarities, its
+development is usually associated with much voluntary power over the
+homologous occipito-frontalis muscle, by which the scalp can be moved.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+None of the foregoing cases appear to throw any light on the contraction
+of the platysma from fear; but it is different, I think, with the
+following cases. The gentleman before referred to, who can voluntarily act
+on this muscle only on one side of his neck, is positive that it contracts
+on both sides whenever he is startled. Evidence has already been given
+showing that this muscle sometimes contracts, perhaps for the sake of
+opening the mouth widely, when the breathing is rendered difficult by
+disease, and during the deep inspirations of crying-fits before an
+operation. Now, whenever a person starts at any sudden sight or sound, he
+instantaneously draws a deep breath; and thus the contraction of the
+platysma may possibly have become associated with the sense of fear. But
+there is, I believe, a more efficient relation. The first sensation of
+fear, or the imagination of something dreadful, commonly excites a
+shudder. I have caught myself giving a little involuntary shudder at a
+painful thought, and I distinctly perceived that my platysma contracted;
+so it does if I simulate a shudder. I have asked others to act in this
+manner; and in some the muscle contracted, but not in others. One of my
+sons, whilst getting out of bed, shuddered from the cold, and, as he
+happened to have his hand on his neck, he plainly felt that this muscle
+strongly contracted. He then voluntarily shuddered, as he had done on
+former occasions, but the platysma was not then affected. Mr. J. Wood has
+also several times observed this muscle contracting in patients, when
+stripped for examination, and who were not frightened, but shivered
+slightly from the cold. Unfortunately I have not been able to ascertain
+whether, when the whole body shakes, as in the cold stage of an ague fit,
+the platysma contracts. But as it certainly often contracts during a
+shudder; and as a shudder or shiver often accompanies the first sensation
+of fear, we have, I think, a clue to its action in this latter case.<a
+href="#linknote-1223" name="linknoteref-1223" id="linknoteref-1223">[1223]</a>
+Its contraction, however, is not an invariable concomitant of fear; for it
+probably never acts under the influence of extreme, prostrating terror.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Dilatation of the Pupils</i>.&mdash;Gratiolet repeatedly insists<a
+href="#linknote-1224" name="linknoteref-1224" id="linknoteref-1224">[1224]</a>
+that the pupils are enormously dilated whenever terror is felt. I have no
+reason to doubt the accuracy of this statement, but have failed to obtain
+confirmatory evidence, excepting in the one instance before given of an
+insane woman suffering from great fear. When writers of fiction speak of
+the eyes being widely dilated, I presume that they refer to the eyelids.
+Munro&rsquo;s statement, that with parrots the iris is affected by the passions,
+independently of the amount of light, seems to bear on this question; but
+Professor Donders informs me, that he has often seen movements in the
+pupils of these birds which he thinks may be related to their power of
+accommodation to distance, in nearly the same manner as our own pupils
+contract when our eyes converge for near vision. Gratiolet remarks that
+the dilated pupils appear as if they were gazing into profound darkness.
+No doubt the fears of man have often been excited in the dark; but hardly
+so often or so exclusively, as to account for a fixed and associated habit
+having thus arisen. It seems more probable, assuming that Gratiolet&rsquo;s
+statement is correct, that the brain is directly affected by the powerful
+emotion of fear and reacts on the pupils; but Professor Donders informs me
+that this is an extremely complicated subject. I may add, as possibly
+throwing light on the subject, that Dr. Fyffe, of Netley Hospital, has
+observed in two patients that the pupils were distinctly dilated during
+the cold stage of an ague fit. Professor Donders has also often seen
+dilatation of the pupils in incipient faintness.<a href="#linknote-1225"
+name="linknoteref-1225" id="linknoteref-1225">[1225]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Horror</i>.&mdash;The state of mind expressed by this term implies
+terror, and is in some, cases almost synonymous with it. Many a man must
+have felt, before the blessed discovery of chloroform, great horror at the
+thought of an impending surgical operation. He who dreads, as well as
+hates a man, will feel, as Milton uses the word, a horror of him. We feel
+horror if we see any one, for instance a child, exposed to some instant
+and crushing danger. Almost every one would experience the same feeling in
+the highest degree in witnessing a man being tortured or going to be
+tortured. In these cases there is no danger to ourselves; but from the
+power of the imagination and of sympathy we put ourselves in the position
+of the sufferer, and feel something akin to fear.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linkimage-0027" id="linkimage-0027">
+<!-- IMG --></a>
+</p>
+<div class="fig" style="width:80%;">
+<img src="images/fig21.jpg" width="100%" alt="Horror and Agony. Fig. 21 " />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+Sir C. Bell remarks,<a href="#linknote-1226" name="linknoteref-1226"
+id="linknoteref-1226">[1226]</a> that &ldquo;horror is full of energy; the body
+is in the utmost tension, not unnerved by fear.&rdquo; It is, therefore,
+probable that horror would generally be accompanied by the strong
+contraction of the brows; but as fear is one of the elements, the eyes and
+mouth would be opened, and the eyebrows would be raised, as far as the
+antagonistic action of the corrugators permitted this movement. Duchenne
+has given a photograph<a href="#linknote-1227" name="linknoteref-1227"
+id="linknoteref-1227">[1227]</a> (fig. 21) of the same old man as before,
+with his eyes somewhat staring, the eyebrows partially raised, and at the
+same time strongly contracted, the mouth opened, and the platysma in
+action, all effected by the means of galvanism. He considers that the
+expression thus produced shows extreme terror with horrible pain or
+torture. A tortured man, as long as his sufferings allowed him to feel any
+dread for the future, would probably exhibit horror in an extreme degree.
+I have shown the original of this photograph to twenty-three persons of
+both sexes and various ages; and thirteen immediately answered horror,
+great pain, torture, or agony; three answered extreme fright; so that
+sixteen answered nearly in accordance with Duchenne&rsquo;s belief. Six,
+however, said anger, guided no doubt, by the strongly contracted brows,
+and overlooking the peculiarly opened mouth. One said disgust. On the
+whole, the evidence indicates that we have here a fairly good
+representation of horror and agony. The photograph before referred to (Pl.
+VII. fig. 2) likewise exhibits horror; but in this the oblique eyebrows
+indicate great mental distress in place of energy.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Horror is generally accompanied by various gestures, which differ in
+different individuals. Judging from pictures, the whole body is often
+turned away or shrinks; or the arms are violently protruded as if to push
+away some dreadful object. The most frequent gesture, as far as can be
+inferred from the action of persons who endeavour to express a
+vividly-imagined scene of horror, is the raising of both shoulders, with
+the bent arms pressed closely against the sides or chest. These movements
+are nearly the same with those commonly made when we feel very cold; and
+they are generally accompanied by a shudder, as well as by a deep
+expiration or inspiration, according as the chest happens at the time to
+be expanded or contracted. The sounds thus made are expressed by words
+like <i>uh</i> or <i>ugh</i>.<a href="#linknote-1228"
+name="linknoteref-1228" id="linknoteref-1228">[1228]</a> It is not,
+however, obvious why, when we feel cold or express a sense of horror, we
+press our bent arms against our bodies, raise our shoulders, and shudder.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Conclusion</i>.&mdash;I have now endeavoured to describe the
+diversified expressions of fear, in its gradations from mere attention to
+a start of surprise, into extreme terror and horror. Some of the signs may
+be accounted for through the principles of habit, association, and
+inheritance,&mdash;such as the wide opening of the mouth and eyes, with
+upraised eyebrows, so as to see as quickly as possible all around us, and
+to hear distinctly whatever sound may reach our ears. For we have thus
+habitually prepared ourselves to discover and encounter any danger. Some
+of the other signs of fear may likewise be accounted for, at least in
+part, through these same principles. Men, during numberless generations,
+have endeavoured to escape from their enemies or danger by headlong
+flight, or by violently struggling with them; and such great exertions
+will have caused the heart to beat rapidly, the breathing to be hurried,
+the chest to heave, and the nostrils to be dilated. As these exertions
+have often been prolonged to the last extremity, the final result will
+have been utter prostration, pallor, perspiration, trembling of all the
+muscles, or their complete relaxation. And now, whenever the emotion of
+fear is strongly felt, though it may not lead to any exertion, the same
+results tend to reappear, through the force of inheritance and
+association.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Nevertheless, it is probable that many or most of the above symptoms of
+terror, such as the beating of the heart, the trembling of the muscles,
+cold perspiration, &amp;c., are in large part directly due to the
+disturbed or interrupted transmission of nerve-force from the
+cerebro-spinal system to various parts of the body, owing to the mind
+being so powerfully affected. We may confidently look to this cause,
+independently of habit and association, in such cases as the modified
+secretions of the intestinal canal, and the failure of certain glands to
+act. With respect to the involuntary bristling of the hair, we have good
+reason to believe that in the case of animals this action, however it may
+have originated, serves, together with certain voluntary movements, to
+make them appear terrible to their enemies; and as the same involuntary
+and voluntary actions are performed by animals nearly related to man, we
+are led to believe that man has retained through inheritance a relic of
+them, now become useless. It is certainly a remarkable fact, that the
+minute unstriped muscles, by which the hairs thinly scattered over man&rsquo;s
+almost naked body are erected, should have been preserved to the present
+day; and that they should still contract under the same emotions, namely,
+terror and rage, which cause the hairs to stand on end in the lower
+members of the Order to which man belongs.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"></a>
+CHAPTER XIII.<br/>SELF-ATTENTION&mdash;SHAME&mdash;SHYNESS&mdash;MODESTY:
+BLUSHING.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+Nature of a blush&mdash;Inheritance&mdash;The parts of the body most
+affected&mdash;Blushing in the various races of man&mdash;Accompanying
+gestures&mdash;Confusion of mind&mdash;Causes of blushing&mdash;Self-attention,
+the fundamental element&mdash;Shyness&mdash;Shame, from broken moral laws
+and conventional rules&mdash;Modesty&mdash;Theory of blushing&mdash;Recapitulation.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+Blushing is the most peculiar and the most human of all expressions.
+Monkeys redden from passion, but it would require an overwhelming amount
+of evidence to make us believe that any animal could blush. The reddening
+of the face from a blush is due to the relaxation of the muscular coats of
+the small arteries, by which the capillaries become filled with blood; and
+this depends on the proper vaso-motor centre being affected. No doubt if
+there be at the same time much mental agitation, the general circulation
+will be affected; but it is not due to the action of the heart that the
+network of minute vessels covering the face becomes under a sense of shame
+gorged with blood. We can cause laughing by tickling the skin, weeping or
+frowning by a blow, trembling from the fear of pain, and so forth; but we
+cannot cause a blush, as Dr. Burgess remarks,<a href="#linknote-1301"
+name="linknoteref-1301" id="linknoteref-1301">[1301]</a> by any physical
+means,&mdash;that is by any action on the body. It is the mind which must
+be affected. Blushing is not only involuntary; but the wish to restrain
+it, by leading to self-attention actually increases the tendency.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The young blush much more freely than the old, but not during infancy,<a
+href="#linknote-1302" name="linknoteref-1302" id="linknoteref-1302">[1302]</a>
+which is remarkable, as we know that infants at a very early age redden
+from passion. I have received authentic accounts of two little girls
+blushing at the ages of between two and three years; and of another
+sensitive child, a year older, blushing, when reproved for a fault. Many
+children, at a somewhat more advanced age blush in a strongly marked
+manner. It appears that the mental powers of infants are not as yet
+sufficiently developed to allow of their blushing. Hence, also, it is that
+idiots rarely blush. Dr. Crichton Browne observed for me those under his
+care, but never saw a genuine blush, though he has seen their faces flush,
+apparently from joy, when food was placed before them, and from anger.
+Nevertheless some, if not utterly degraded, are capable of blushing. A
+microcephalous idiot, for instance, thirteen years old, whose eyes
+brightened a little when he was pleased or amused, has been described by
+Dr. Behn,<a href="#linknote-1303" name="linknoteref-1303"
+id="linknoteref-1303">[1303]</a> as blushing and turning to one side, when
+undressed for medical examination.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Women blush much more than men. It is rare to see an old man, but not
+nearly so rare to see an old woman blushing. The blind do not escape.
+Laura Bridgman, born in this condition, as well as completely deaf,
+blushes.<a href="#linknote-1304" name="linknoteref-1304"
+id="linknoteref-1304">[1304]</a> The Rev. R. H. Blair, Principal of the
+Worcester College, informs me that three children born blind, out of seven
+or eight then in the Asylum, are great blushers. The blind are not at
+first conscious that they are observed, and it is a most important part of
+their education, as Mr. Blair informs me, to impress this knowledge on
+their minds; and the impression thus gained would greatly strengthen the
+tendency to blush, by increasing the habit of self-attention.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The tendency to blush is inherited. Dr. Burgess gives the case<a
+href="#linknote-1305" name="linknoteref-1305" id="linknoteref-1305">[1305]</a>
+of a family consisting of a father, mother, and ten children, all of whom,
+without exception, were prone to blush to a most painful degree. The
+children were grown up; &ldquo;and some of them were sent to travel in order to
+wear away this diseased sensibility, but nothing was of the slightest
+avail.&rdquo; Even peculiarities in blushing seem to be inherited. Sir James
+Paget, whilst examining the spine of a girl, was struck at her singular
+manner of blushing; a big splash of red appeared first on one cheek, and
+then other splashes, variously scattered over the face and neck. He
+subsequently asked the mother whether her daughter always blushed in this
+peculiar manner; and was answered, &ldquo;Yes, she takes after me.&rdquo; Sir J. Paget
+then perceived that by asking this question he had caused the mother to
+blush; and she exhibited the same peculiarity as her daughter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In most cases the face, ears and neck are the sole parts which redden; but
+many persons, whilst blushing intensely, feel that their whole bodies grow
+hot and tingle; and this shows that the entire surface must be in some
+manner affected. Blushes are said sometimes to commence on the forehead,
+but more commonly on the cheeks, afterwards spreading to the ears and
+neck.<a href="#linknote-1306" name="linknoteref-1306" id="linknoteref-1306">[1306]</a>
+In two Albinos examined by Dr. Burgess, the blushes commenced by a small
+circumscribed spot on the cheeks, over the parotidean plexus of nerves,
+and then increased into a circle; between this blushing circle and the
+blush on the neck there was an evident line of demarcation; although both
+arose simultaneously. The retina, which is naturally red in the Albino,
+invariably increased at the same time in redness.<a href="#linknote-1307"
+name="linknoteref-1307" id="linknoteref-1307">[1307]</a> Every one must
+have noticed how easily after one blush fresh blushes chase each other
+over the face. Blushing is preceded by a peculiar sensation in the skin.
+According to Dr. Burgess the reddening of the skin is generally succeeded
+by a slight pallor, which shows that the capillary vessels contract after
+dilating. In some rare cases paleness instead of redness is caused under
+conditions which would naturally induce a blush. For instance, a young
+lady told me that in a large and crowded party she caught her hair so
+firmly on the button of a passing servant, that it took some time before
+she could be extricated; from her sensations she imagined that she had
+blushed crimson; but was assured by a friend that she had turned extremely
+pale.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I was desirous to learn how far down the body blushes extend; and Sir J.
+Paget, who necessarily has frequent opportunities for observation, has
+kindly attended to this point for me during two or three years. He finds
+that with women who blush intensely on the face, ears, and nape of neck,
+the blush does not commonly extend any lower down the body. It is rare to
+see it as low down as the collar-bones and shoulder-blades; and he has
+never himself seen a single instance in which it extended below the upper
+part of the chest. He has also noticed that blushes sometimes die away
+downwards, not gradually and insensibly, but by irregular ruddy blotches.
+Dr. Langstaff has likewise observed for me several women whose bodies did
+not in the least redden while their faces were crimsoned with blushes.
+With the insane, some of whom appear to be particularly liable to
+blushing, Dr. J. Crichton Browne has several times seen the blush extend
+as far down as the collar-bones, and in two instances to the breasts. He
+gives me the case of a married woman, aged twenty-seven, who suffered from
+epilepsy. On the morning after her arrival in the Asylum, Dr. Browne,
+together with his assistants, visited her whilst she was in bed. The
+moment that he approached, she blushed deeply over her cheeks and temples;
+and the blush spread quickly to her ears. She was much agitated and
+tremulous. He unfastened the collar of her chemise in order to examine the
+state of her lungs; and then a brilliant blush rushed over her chest, in
+an arched line over the upper third of each breast, and extended downwards
+between the breasts nearly to the ensiform cartilage of the sternum. This
+case is interesting, as the blush did not thus extend downwards until it
+became intense by her attention being drawn to this part of her person. As
+the examination proceeded she became composed, and the blush disappeared;
+but on several subsequent occasions the same phenomena were observed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The foregoing facts show that, as a general rule, with English women,
+blushing does not extend beneath the neck and upper part of the chest.
+Nevertheless Sir J. Paget informs me that he has lately heard of a case,
+on which he can fully rely, in which a little girl, shocked by what she
+imagined to be an act of indelicacy, blushed all over her abdomen and the
+upper parts of her legs. Moreau also<a href="#linknote-1308"
+name="linknoteref-1308" id="linknoteref-1308">[1308]</a> relates, on the
+authority of a celebrated painter, that the chest, shoulders, arms, and
+whole body of a girl, who unwillingly consented to serve as a model,
+reddened when she was first divested of her clothes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is a rather curious question why, in most cases the face, ears, and
+neck alone redden, inasmuch as the whole surface of the body often tingles
+and grows hot. This seems to depend, chiefly, on the face and adjoining
+parts of the skin having been habitually exposed to the air, light, and
+alternations of temperature, by which the small arteries not only have
+acquired the habit of readily dilating and contracting, but appear to have
+become unusually developed in comparison with other parts of the surface.<a
+href="#linknote-1309" name="linknoteref-1309" id="linknoteref-1309">[1309]</a>
+It is probably owing to this same cause, as M. Moreau and Dr. Burgess have
+remarked, that the face is so liable to redden under various
+circumstances, such as a fever-fit, ordinary heat, violent exertion,
+anger, a slight blow, &amp;c.; and on the other hand that it is liable to
+grow pale from cold and fear, and to be discoloured during pregnancy. The
+face is also particularly liable to be affected by cutaneous complaints,
+by small-pox, erysipelas, &amp;c. This view is likewise supported by the
+fact that the men of certain races, who habitually go nearly naked, often
+blush over their arms and chests and even down to their waists. A lady,
+who is a great blusher, informs Dr. Crichton Browne, that when she feels
+ashamed or is agitated, she blushes over her face, neck, wrists, and
+hands,&mdash;that is, over all the exposed portions of her skin.
+Nevertheless it may be doubted whether the habitual exposure of the skin
+of the face and neck, and its consequent power of reaction under
+stimulants of all kinds, is by itself sufficient to account for the much
+greater tendency in English women of these parts than of others to blush;
+for the hands are well supplied with nerves and small vessels, and have
+been as much exposed to the air as the face or neck, and yet the hands
+rarely blush. We shall presently see that the attention of the mind having
+been directed much more frequently and earnestly to the face than to any
+other part of the body, probably affords a sufficient explanation.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Blushing in the various races of man</i>.&mdash;The small vessels of
+the face become filled with blood, from the emotion of shame, in almost
+all the races of man, though in the very dark races no distinct change of
+colour can be perceived. Blushing is evident in all the Aryan nations of
+Europe, and to a certain extent with those of India. But Mr. Erskine has
+never noticed that the necks of the Hindoos are decidedly affected. With
+the Lepchas of Sikhim, Mr. Scott has often observed a faint blush on the
+cheeks, base of the ears, and sides of the neck, accompanied by sunken
+eyes and lowered head. This has occurred when he has detected them in a
+falsehood, or has accused them of ingratitude. The pale, sallow
+complexions of these men render a blush much more conspicuous than in most
+of the other natives of India. With the latter, shame, or it may be in
+part fear, is expressed, according to Mr. Scott, much more plainly by the
+head being averted or bent down, with the eyes wavering or turned askant,
+than by any change of colour in the skin.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Semitic races blush freely, as might have been expected, from their
+general similitude to the Aryans. Thus with the Jews, it is said in the
+Book of Jeremiah (chap. vi. 15), &ldquo;Nay, they were not at all ashamed,
+neither could they blush.&rdquo; Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab managing his boat
+clumsily on the Nile, and when laughed at by his companions, &ldquo;he blushed
+quite to the back of his neck.&rdquo; Lady Duff Gordon remarks that a young Arab
+blushed on coming into her presence.<a href="#linknote-1310"
+name="linknoteref-1310" id="linknoteref-1310">[1310]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Swinhoe has seen the Chinese blushing, but he thinks it is rare; yet
+they have the expression &ldquo;to redden with shame.&rdquo; Mr. Geach informs me that
+the Chinese settled in Malacca and the native Malays of the interior both
+blush. Some of these people go nearly naked, and he particularly attended
+to the downward extension of the blush. Omitting the cases in which the
+face alone was seen to blush, Mr. Geach observed that the face, arms, and
+breast of a Chinaman, aged 24 years, reddened from shame; and with another
+Chinese, when asked why he had not done his work in better style, the
+whole body was similarly affected. In two Malays<a href="#linknote-1311"
+name="linknoteref-1311" id="linknoteref-1311">[1311]</a> he saw the face,
+neck, breast, and arms blushing; and in a third Malay (a Bugis) the blush
+extended down to the waist.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Polynesians blush freely. The Rev. Mr. Stack has seen hundreds of
+instances with the New Zealanders. The following case is worth giving, as
+it relates to an old man who was unusually dark-coloured and partly
+tattooed. After having let his land to an Englishman for a small yearly
+rental, a strong passion seized him to buy a gig, which had lately become
+the fashion with the Maoris. He consequently wished to draw all the rent
+for four years from his tenant, and consulted Mr. Stack whether he could
+do so. The man was old, clumsy, poor, and ragged, and the idea of his
+driving himself about in his carriage for display amused Mr. Stack so much
+that he could not help bursting out into a laugh; and then &ldquo;the old man
+blushed up to the roots of his hair.&rdquo; Forster says that &ldquo;you may easily
+distinguish a spreading blush&rdquo; on the cheeks of the fairest women in
+Tahiti.<a href="#linknote-1312" name="linknoteref-1312"
+id="linknoteref-1312">[1312]</a> The natives also of several of the other
+archipelagoes in the Pacific have been seen to blush.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Washington Matthews has often seen a blush on the faces of the young
+squaws belonging to various wild Indian tribes of North America. At the
+opposite extremity of the continent in Tierra del Fuego, the natives,
+according to Mr. Bridges, &ldquo;blush much, but chiefly in regard to women; but
+they certainly blush also at their own personal appearance.&rdquo; This latter
+statement agrees with what I remember of the Fuegian, Jemmy Button, who
+blushed when he was quizzed about the care which he took in polishing his
+shoes, and in otherwise adorning himself. With respect to the Aymara
+Indians on the lofty plateaus of Bolivia, Mr. Forbes says,<a
+href="#linknote-1313" name="linknoteref-1313" id="linknoteref-1313">[1313]</a>
+that from the colour of their skins it is impossible that their blushes
+should be as clearly visible as in the white races; still under such
+circumstances as would raise a blush in us, &ldquo;there can always be seen the
+same expression of modesty or confusion; and even in the dark, a rise of
+temperature of the skin of the face can be felt, exactly as occurs in the
+European.&rdquo; With the Indians who inhabit the hot, equable, and damp parts
+of South America, the skin apparently does not answer to mental excitement
+so readily as with the natives of the northern and southern parts of the
+continent, who have long been exposed to great vicissitudes of climate;
+for Humboldt quotes without a protest the sneer of the Spaniard, &ldquo;How can
+those be trusted, who know not how to blush?&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1314"
+name="linknoteref-1314" id="linknoteref-1314">[1314]</a> Von Spix and
+Martius, in speaking of the aborigines of Brazil, assert that they cannot
+properly be said to blush; &ldquo;it was only after long intercourse with the
+whites, and after receiving some education, that we perceived in the
+Indians a change of colour expressive of the emotions of their minds.&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-1315" name="linknoteref-1315" id="linknoteref-1315">[1315]</a>
+It is, however, incredible that the power of blushing could have thus
+originated; but the habit of self-attention, consequent on their education
+and new course of life, would have much increased any innate tendency to
+blush.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Several trustworthy observers have assured me that they have seen on the
+faces of negroes an appearance resembling a blush, under circumstances
+which would have excited one in us, though their skins were of an
+ebony-black tint. Some describe it as blushing brown, but most say that
+the blackness becomes more intense. An increased supply of blood in the
+skin seems in some manner to increase its blackness; thus certain
+exanthematous diseases cause the affected places in the negro to appear
+blacker, instead of, as with us, redder.<a href="#linknote-1316"
+name="linknoteref-1316" id="linknoteref-1316">[1316]</a> The skin,
+perhaps, from being rendered more tense by the filling of the capillaries,
+would reflect a somewhat different tint to what it did before. That the
+capillaries of the face in the negro become filled with blood, under the
+emotion of shame, we may feel confident; because a perfectly characterized
+albino negress, described by Buffon,<a href="#linknote-1317"
+name="linknoteref-1317" id="linknoteref-1317">[1317]</a> showed a faint
+tinge of crimson on her cheeks when she exhibited herself naked.
+Cicatrices of the skin remain for a long time white in the negro, and Dr.
+Burgess, who had frequent opportunities of observing a scar of this kind
+on the face of a negress, distinctly saw that it &ldquo;invariably became red
+whenever she was abruptly spoken to, or charged with any trivial offence.&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-1318" name="linknoteref-1318" id="linknoteref-1318">[1318]</a>
+The blush could be seen proceeding from the circumference of the scar
+towards the middle, but it did not reach the centre. Mulattoes are often
+great blushers, blush succeeding blush over their faces. From these facts
+there can be no doubt that negroes blush, although no redness is visible
+on the skin.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I am assured by Gaika and by Mrs. Barber that the Kafirs of South Africa
+never blush; but this may only mean that no change of colour is
+distinguishable. Gaika adds that under the circumstances which would make
+a European blush, his countrymen &ldquo;look ashamed to keep their heads up.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is asserted by four of my informants that the Australians, who are
+almost as black as negroes, never blush. A fifth answers doubtfully,
+remarking that only a very strong blush could be seen, on account of the
+dirty state of their skins. Three observers state that they do blush;<a
+href="#linknote-1319" name="linknoteref-1319" id="linknoteref-1319">[1319]</a>
+Mr. S. Wilson adding that this is noticeable only under a strong emotion,
+and when the skin is not too dark from long exposure and want of
+cleanliness. Mr. Lang answers, &ldquo;I have noticed that shame almost always
+excites a blush, which frequently extends as low as the neck.&rdquo; Shame is
+also shown, as he adds, &ldquo;by the eyes being turned from side to side.&rdquo; As
+Mr. Lang was a teacher in a native school, it is probable that he chiefly
+observed children; and we know that they blush more than adults. Mr. G.
+Taplin has seen half-castes blushing, and he says that the aborigines have
+a word expressive of shame. Mr. Hagenauer, who is one of those who has
+never observed the Australians to blush, says that he has &ldquo;seen them
+looking down to the ground on account of shame;&rdquo; and the missionary, Mr.
+Bulmer, remarks that though &ldquo;I have not been able to detect anything like
+shame in the adult aborigines, I have noticed that the eyes of the
+children, when ashamed, present a restless, watery appearance, as if they
+did not know where to look.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The facts now given are sufficient to show that blushing, whether or not
+there is any change of colour, is common to most, probably to all, of the
+races of man.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Movements and gestures which accompany Blushing</i>.&mdash;Under a keen
+sense of shame there is a strong desire for concealment.<a
+href="#linknote-1320" name="linknoteref-1320" id="linknoteref-1320">[1320]</a>
+We turn away the whole body, more especially the face, which we endeavour
+in some manner to hide. An ashamed person can hardly endure to meet the
+gaze of those present, so that he almost invariably casts down his eyes or
+looks askant. As there generally exists at the same time a strong wish to
+avoid the appearance of shame, a vain attempt is made to look direct at
+the person who causes this feeling; and the antagonism between these
+opposite tendencies leads to various restless movements in the eyes. I
+have noticed two ladies who, whilst blushing, to which they are very
+liable, have thus acquired, as it appears, the oddest trick of incessantly
+blinking their eyelids with extraordinary rapidity. An intense blush is
+sometimes accompanied by a slight effusion of tears;<a
+href="#linknote-1321" name="linknoteref-1321" id="linknoteref-1321">[1321]</a>
+and this, I presume, is due to the lacrymal glands partaking of the
+increased supply of blood, which we know rushes into the capillaries of
+the adjoining parts, including the retina.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many writers, ancient and modern, have noticed the foregoing movements;
+and it has already been shown that the aborigines in various parts of the
+world often exhibit their shame by looking downwards or askant, or by
+restless movements of their eyes. Ezra cries out (ch. ix. 6), &ldquo;O, my God!
+I am ashamed, and blush to lift up my head to thee, my God.&rdquo; In Isaiah
+(ch. I. 6) we meet with the words, &ldquo;I hid not my face from shame.&rdquo; Seneca
+remarks (Epist. xi. 5) &ldquo;that the Roman players hang down their heads, fix
+their eyes on the ground and keep them lowered, but are unable to blush in
+acting shame.&rdquo; According to Macrobius, who lived in the filth century
+(&lsquo;Saturnalia,&rsquo; B. vii. C. 11), &ldquo;Natural philosophers assert that nature
+being moved by shame spreads the blood before herself as a veil, as we see
+any one blushing often puts his hands before his face.&rdquo; Shakspeare makes
+Marcus (&lsquo;Titus Andronicus,&rsquo; act ii, sc. 5) say to his niece, &ldquo;Ah! now thou
+turn&rsquo;st away thy face for shame.&rdquo; A lady informs me that she found in the
+Lock Hospital a girl whom she had formerly known, and who had become a
+wretched castaway, and the poor creature, when approached, hid her face
+under the bed-clothes, and could not be persuaded to uncover it. We often
+see little children, when shy or ashamed, turn away, and still standing
+up, bury their faces in their mother&rsquo;s gown; or they throw themselves face
+downwards on her lap.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Confusion of mind</i>.&mdash;Most persons, whilst blushing intensely,
+have their mental powers confused. This is recognized in such common
+expressions as &ldquo;she was covered with confusion.&rdquo; Persons in this condition
+lose their presence of mind, and utter singularly inappropriate remarks.
+They are often much distressed, stammer, and make awkward movements or
+strange grimaces. In certain cases involuntary twitchings of some of the
+facial muscles may be observed. I have been informed by a young lady, who
+blushes excessively, that at such times she does not even know what she is
+saying. When it was suggested to her that this might be due to her
+distress from the consciousness that her blushing was noticed, she
+answered that this could not be the case, &ldquo;as she had sometimes felt quite
+as stupid when blushing at a thought in her own room.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I will give an instance of the extreme disturbance of mind to which some
+sensitive men are liable. A gentleman, on whom I can rely, assured me that
+he had been an eye-witness of the following scene:&mdash;A small
+dinner-party was given in honour of an extremely shy man, who, when he
+rose to return thanks, rehearsed the speech, which he had evidently learnt
+by heart, in absolute silence, and did not utter a single word; but he
+acted as if he were speaking with much emphasis. His friends, perceiving
+how the case stood, loudly applauded the imaginary bursts of eloquence,
+whenever his gestures indicated a pause, and the man never discovered that
+he had remained the whole time completely silent. On the contrary, he
+afterwards remarked to my friend, with much satisfaction, that he thought
+he had succeeded uncommonly well.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When a person is much ashamed or very shy, and blushes intensely, his
+heart beats rapidly and his breathing is disturbed. This can hardly fail
+to affect the circulation of the blood within the brain, and perhaps the
+mental powers. It seems however doubtful, judging from the still more
+powerful influence of anger and fear on the circulation, whether we can
+thus satisfactorily account for the confused state of mind in persons
+whilst blushing intensely.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The true explanation apparently lies in the intimate sympathy which exists
+between the capillary circulation of the surface of the head and face, and
+that of the brain. On applying to Dr. J. Crichton Browne for information,
+he has given me various facts bearing on this subject. When the
+sympathetic nerve is divided on one side of the head, the capillaries on
+this side are relaxed and become filled with blood, causing the skin to
+redden and to grow hot, and at the same time the temperature within the
+cranium on the same side rises. Inflammation of the membranes of the brain
+leads to the engorgement of the face, ears, and eyes with blood. The first
+stage of an epileptic fit appears to be the contraction of the vessels of
+the brain, and the first outward manifestation is, an extreme pallor of
+countenance. Erysipelas of the head commonly induces delirium. Even the
+relief given to a severe headache by burning the skin with strong lotion,
+depends, I presume, on the same principle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Dr. Browne has often administered to his patients the vapour of the
+nitrite of amyl,<a href="#linknote-1322" name="linknoteref-1322"
+id="linknoteref-1322">[1322]</a> which has the singular property of
+causing vivid redness of the face in from thirty to sixty seconds. This
+flushing resembles blushing in almost every detail: it begins at several
+distinct points on the face, and spreads till it involves the whole
+surface of the head, neck, and front of the chest; but has been observed
+to extend only in one case to the abdomen. The arteries in the retina
+become enlarged; the eyes glisten, and in one instance there was a slight
+effusion of tears. The patients are at first pleasantly stimulated, but,
+as the flushing increases, they become confused and bewildered. One woman
+to whom the vapour had often been administered asserted that, as soon as
+she grew hot, she grew MUDDLED. With persons just commencing to blush it
+appears, judging from their bright eyes and lively behaviour, that their
+mental powers are somewhat stimulated. It is only when the blushing is
+excessive that the mind grows confused. Therefore it would seem that the
+capillaries of the face are affected, both during the inhalation of the
+nitrite of amyl and during blushing, before that part of the brain is
+affected on which the mental powers depend.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Conversely when the brain is primarily affected; the circulation of the
+skin is so in a secondary manner. Dr. Browne has frequently observed, as
+he informs me, scattered red blotches and mottlings on the chests of
+epileptic patients. In these cases, when the skin on the thorax or abdomen
+is gently rubbed with a pencil or other object, or, in strongly-marked
+cases, is merely touched by the finger, the surface becomes suffused in
+less than half a minute with bright red marks, which spread to some
+distance on each side of the touched point, and persist for several
+minutes. These are the <i>cerebral maculae</i> of Trousseau; and they
+indicate, as Dr. Browne remarks, a highly modified condition of the
+cutaneous vascular system. If, then, there exists, as cannot be doubted,
+an intimate sympathy between the capillary circulation in that part of the
+brain on which our mental powers depend, and in the skin of the face, it
+is not surprising that the moral causes which induce intense blushing
+should likewise induce, independently of their own disturbing influence,
+much confusion of mind.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>The Nature of the Mental States which induce Blushing</i>.&mdash;These
+consist of shyness, shame, and modesty; the essential element in all being
+self-attention. Many reasons can be assigned for believing that originally
+self-attention directed to personal appearance, in relation to the opinion
+of others, was the exciting cause; the same effect being subsequently
+produced, through the force of association, by self-attention in relation
+to moral conduct. It is not the simple act of reflecting on our own
+appearance, but the thinking what others think of us, which excites a
+blush. In absolute solitude the most sensitive person would be quite
+indifferent about his appearance. We feel blame or disapprobation more
+acutely than approbation; and consequently depreciatory remarks or
+ridicule, whether of our appearance or conduct, causes us to blush much
+more readily than does praise. But undoubtedly praise and admiration are
+highly efficient: a pretty girl blushes when a man gazes intently at her,
+though she may know perfectly well that he is not depreciating her. Many
+children, as well as old and sensitive persons blush, when they are much
+praised. Hereafter the question will be discussed, how it has arisen that
+the consciousness that others are attending to our personal appearance
+should have led to the capillaries, especially those of the face,
+instantly becoming filled with blood.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+My reasons for believing that attention directed to personal appearance,
+and not to moral conduct, has been the fundamental element in the
+acquirement of the habit of blushing, will now be given. They are
+separately light, but combined possess, as it appears to me, considerable
+weight. It is notorious that nothing makes a shy person blush so much as
+any remark, however slight, on his personal appearance. One cannot notice
+even the dress of a woman much given to blushing, without causing her face
+to crimson. It is sufficient to stare hard at some persons to make them,
+as Coleridge remarks, blush,&mdash;&ldquo;account for that he who can.&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-1323" name="linknoteref-1323" id="linknoteref-1323">[1323]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With the two albinos observed by Dr. Burgess,<a href="#linknote-1324"
+name="linknoteref-1324" id="linknoteref-1324">[1324]</a> &ldquo;the slightest
+attempt to examine their peculiarities invariably caused them to blush
+deeply.&rdquo; Women are much more sensitive about their personal appearance
+than men are, especially elderly women in comparison with elderly men, and
+they blush much more freely. The young of both sexes are much more
+sensitive on this same head than the old, and they also blush much more
+freely than the old. Children at a very early age do not blush; nor do
+they show those other signs of self-consciousness which generally
+accompany blushing; and it is one of their chief charms that they think
+nothing about what others think of them. At this early age they will stare
+at a stranger with a fixed gaze and un-blinking eyes, as on an inanimate
+object, in a manner which we elders cannot imitate.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is plain to every one that young men and women are highly sensitive to
+the opinion of each other with reference to their personal appearance; and
+they blush incomparably more in the presence of the opposite sex than in
+that of their own.<a href="#linknote-1325" name="linknoteref-1325"
+id="linknoteref-1325">[1325]</a> A young man, not very liable to blush,
+will blush intensely at any slight ridicule of his appearance from a girl
+whose judgment on any important subject he would disregard. No happy pair
+of young lovers, valuing each other&rsquo;s admiration and love more than
+anything else in the world, probably ever courted each other without many
+a blush. Even the barbarians of Tierra del Fuego, according to Mr.
+Bridges, blush &ldquo;chiefly in regard to women, but certainly also at their
+own personal appearance.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of all parts of the body, the face is most considered and regarded, as is
+natural from its being the chief seat of expression and the source of the
+voice. It is also the chief seat of beauty and of ugliness, and throughout
+the world is the most ornamented.<a href="#linknote-1326"
+name="linknoteref-1326" id="linknoteref-1326">[1326]</a> The face,
+therefore, will have been subjected during many generations to much closer
+and more earnest self-attention than any other part of the body; and in
+accordance with the principle here advanced we can understand why it
+should be the most liable to blush. Although exposure to alternations of
+temperature, &amp;c., has probably much increased the power of dilatation
+and contraction in the capillaries of the face and adjoining parts, yet
+this by itself will hardly account for these parts blushing much more than
+the rest of the body; for it does not explain the fact of the hands rarely
+blushing. With Europeans the whole body tingles slightly when the face
+blushes intensely; and with the races of men who habitually go nearly
+naked, the blushes extend over a much larger surface than with us. These
+facts are, to a certain extent, intelligible, as the self-attention of
+primeval man, as well as of the existing races which still go naked, will
+not have been so exclusively confined to their faces, as is the case with
+the people who now go clothed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have seen that in all parts of the world persons who feel shame for
+some moral delinquency, are apt to avert, bend down, or hide their faces,
+independently of any thought about their personal appearance. The object
+can hardly be to conceal their blushes, for the face is thus averted or
+hidden under circumstances which exclude any desire to conceal shame, as
+when guilt is fully confessed and repented of. It is, however, probable
+that primeval man before he had acquired much moral sensitiveness would
+have been highly sensitive about his personal appearance, at least in
+reference to the other sex, and he would consequently have felt distress
+at any depreciatory remarks about his appearance; and this is one form of
+shame. And as the face is the part of the body which is most regarded, it
+is intelligible that any one ashamed of his personal appearance would
+desire to conceal this part of his body. The habit having been thus
+acquired, would naturally be carried on when shame from strictly moral
+causes was felt; and it is not easy otherwise to see why under these
+circumstances there should be a desire to hide the face more than any
+other part of the body.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The habit, so general with every one who feels ashamed, of turning away,
+or lowering his eyes, or restlessly moving them from side to side,
+probably follows from each glance directed towards those present, bringing
+home the conviction that he is intently regarded; and he endeavours, by
+not looking at those present, and especially not at their eyes,
+momentarily to escape from this painful conviction.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Shyness</i>.&mdash;This odd state of mind, often called shamefacedness,
+or false shame, or <i>mauvaise honte</i>, appears to be one of the most
+efficient of all the causes of blushing. Shyness is, indeed, chiefly
+recognized by the face reddening, by the eyes being averted or cast down,
+and by awkward, nervous movements of the body. Many a woman blushes from
+this cause, a hundred, perhaps a thousand times, to once that she blushes
+from having done anything deserving blame, and of which she is truly
+ashamed. Shyness seems to depend on sensitiveness to the opinion, whether
+good or bad, of others, more especially with respect to external
+appearance. Strangers neither know nor care anything about our conduct or
+character, but they may, and often do, criticize our appearance: hence shy
+persons are particularly apt to be shy and to blush in the presence of
+strangers. The consciousness of anything peculiar, or even new, in the
+dress, or any slight blemish on the person, and more especially, on the
+face&mdash;points which are likely to attract the attention of strangers&mdash;makes
+the shy intolerably shy. On the other hand, in those cases in which
+conduct and not personal appearance is concerned, we are much more apt to
+be shy in the presence of acquaintances, whose judgment we in some degree
+value, than in that of strangers. A physician told me that a young man, a
+wealthy duke, with whom he had travelled as medical attendant, blushed
+like a girl, when he paid him his fee; yet this young man probably would
+not have blushed and been shy, had he been paying a bill to a tradesman.
+Some persons, however, are so sensitive, that the mere act of speaking to
+almost any one is sufficient to rouse their self-consciousness, and a
+slight blush is the result.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Disapprobation or ridicule, from our sensitiveness on this head, causes
+shyness and blushing much more readily than does approbation; though the
+latter with some persons is highly efficient. The conceited are rarely
+shy; for they value themselves much too highly to expect depreciation. Why
+a proud man is often shy, as appears to be the case, is not so obvious,
+unless it be that, with all his self-reliance, he really thinks much about
+the opinion of others although in a disdainful spirit. Persons who are
+exceedingly shy are rarely shy in the presence of those with whom they are
+quite familiar, and of whose good opinion and sympathy they are perfectly
+assured;&mdash;for instance, a girl in the presence of her mother. I
+neglected to inquire in my printed paper whether shyness can be detected
+in the different races of man; but a Hindoo gentleman assured Mr. Erskine
+that it is recognizable in his countrymen.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Shyness, as the derivation of the word indicates in several languages,<a
+href="#linknote-1327" name="linknoteref-1327" id="linknoteref-1327">[1327]</a>
+is closely related to fear; yet it is distinct from fear in the ordinary
+sense. A shy man no doubt dreads the notice of strangers, but can hardly
+be said to be afraid of them, he may be as bold as a hero in battle, and
+yet have no self-confidence about trifles in the presence of strangers.
+Almost every one is extremely nervous when first addressing a public
+assembly, and most men remain so throughout their lives; but this appears
+to depend on the consciousness of a great coming exertion, with its
+associated effects on the system, rather than on shyness;<a
+href="#linknote-1328" name="linknoteref-1328" id="linknoteref-1328">[1328]</a>
+although a timid or shy man no doubt suffers on such occasions infinitely
+more than another. With very young children it is difficult to distinguish
+between fear and shyness; but this latter feeling with them has often
+seemed to me to partake of the character of the wildness of an untamed
+animal. Shyness comes on at a very early age. In one of my own children,
+when two years and three months old, I saw a trace of what certainly
+appeared to be shyness, directed towards myself after an absence from home
+of only a week. This was shown not by a blush, but by the eyes being for a
+few minutes slightly averted from me. I have noticed on other occasions
+that shyness or shamefacedness and real shame are exhibited in the eyes of
+young children before they have acquired the power of blushing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As shyness apparently depends on self-attention, we can perceive how right
+are those who maintain that reprehending children for shyness, instead of
+doing them any good, does much harm, as it calls their attention still
+more closely to themselves. It has been well urged that &ldquo;nothing hurts
+young people more than to be watched continually about their feelings, to
+have their countenances scrutinized, and the degrees of their sensibility
+measured by the surveying eye of the unmerciful spectator. Under the
+constraint of such examinations they can think of nothing but that they
+are looked at, and feel nothing but shame or apprehension.&rdquo;<a
+href="#linknote-1329" name="linknoteref-1329" id="linknoteref-1329">[1329]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Moral causes: guilt</i>.&mdash;With respect to blushing from strictly
+moral causes, we meet with the same fundamental principle as before,
+namely, regard for the opinion of others. It is not the conscience which
+raises a blush, for a man may sincerely regret some slight fault committed
+in solitude, or he may suffer the deepest remorse for an undetected crime,
+but he will not blush. &ldquo;I blush,&rdquo; says Dr. Burgess,<a href="#linknote-1330"
+name="linknoteref-1330" id="linknoteref-1330">[1330]</a> &ldquo;in the presence
+of my accusers.&rdquo; It is not the sense of guilt, but the thought that others
+think or know us to be guilty which crimsons the face. A man may feel
+thoroughly ashamed at having told a small falsehood, without blushing; but
+if he even suspects that he is detected he will instantly blush,
+especially if detected by one whom he reveres.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On the other hand, a man may be convinced that God witnesses all his
+actions, and he may feel deeply conscious of some fault and pray for
+forgiveness; but this will not, as a lady who is a great blusher believes,
+ever excite a blush. The explanation of this difference between the
+knowledge by God and man of our actions lies, I presume, in man&rsquo;s
+disapprobation of immoral conduct being somewhat akin in nature to his
+depreciation of our personal appearance, so that through association both
+lead to similar results; whereas the disapprobation of God brings up no
+such association.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Many a person has blushed intensely when accused of some crime, though
+completely innocent of it. Even the thought, as the lady before referred
+to has observed to me, that others think that we have made an unkind or
+stupid remark, is amply sufficient to cause a blush, although we know all
+the time that we have been completely misunderstood. An action may be
+meritorious or of an indifferent nature, but a sensitive person, if he
+suspects that others take a different view of it, will blush. For
+instance, a lady by herself may give money to a beggar without a trace of
+a blush, but if others are present, and she doubts whether they approve,
+or suspects that they think her influenced by display, she will blush. So
+it will be, if she offers to relieve the distress of a decayed
+gentlewoman, more particularly of one whom she had previously known under
+better circumstances, as she cannot then feel sure how her conduct will be
+viewed. But such cases as these blend into shyness.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Breaches of etiquette</i>.&mdash;The rules of <i>etiquette</i> always
+refer to conduct in the presence of, or towards others. They have no
+necessary connection with the moral sense, and are often meaningless.
+Nevertheless as they depend on the fixed custom of our equals and
+superiors, whose opinion we highly regard, they are considered almost as
+binding as are the laws of honour to a gentleman. Consequently the breach
+of the laws of etiquette, that is, any impoliteness or <i>gaucherie</i>,
+any impropriety, or an inappropriate remark, though quite accidental, will
+cause the most intense blushing of which a man is capable. Even the
+recollection of such an act, after an interval of many years, will make
+the whole body to tingle. So strong, also, is the power of sympathy that a
+sensitive person, as a lady has assured me, will sometimes blush at a
+flagrant breach of etiquette by a perfect stranger, though the act may in
+no way concern her.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Modesty</i>.&mdash;This is another powerful agent in exciting blushes;
+but the word modesty includes very different states of the mind. It
+implies humility, and we often judge of this by persons being greatly
+pleased and blushing at slight praise, or by being annoyed at praise which
+seems to them too high according to their own humble standard of
+themselves. Blushing here has the usual signification of regard for the
+opinion of others. But modesty frequently relates to acts of indelicacy;
+and indelicacy is an affair of etiquette, as we clearly see with the
+nations that go altogether or nearly naked. He who is modest, and blushes
+easily at acts of this nature, does so because they are breaches of a
+firmly and wisely established etiquette. This is indeed shown by the
+derivation of the word <i>modest</i> from <i>modus</i>, a measure or
+standard of behaviour. A blush due to this form of modesty is, moreover,
+apt to be intense, because it generally relates to the opposite sex; and
+we have seen how in all cases our liability to blush is thus increased. We
+apply the term &lsquo;modest,&rsquo; as it would appear, to those who have an humble
+opinion of themselves, and to those who are extremely sensitive about an
+indelicate word or deed, simply because in both cases blushes are readily
+excited, for these two frames of mind have nothing else in common. Shyness
+also, from this same cause, is often mistaken for modesty in the sense of
+humility.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Some persons flush up, as I have observed and have been assured, at any
+sudden and disagreeable recollection. The commonest cause seems to be the
+sudden remembrance of not having done something for another person which
+had been promised. In this case it may be that the thought passes half
+unconsciously through the mind, &ldquo;What will he think of me?&rdquo; and then the
+flush would partake of the nature of a true blush. But whether such
+flushes are in most cases due to the capillary circulation being affected,
+is very doubtful; for we must remember that almost every strong emotion,
+such as anger or great joy, acts on the heart, and causes the face to
+redden.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+The fact that blushes may be excited in absolute solitude seems opposed to
+the view here taken, namely that the habit originally arose from thinking
+about what others think of us. Several ladies, who are great blushers, are
+unanimous in regard to solitude; and some of them believe that they have
+blushed in the dark. From what Mr. Forbes has stated with respect to the
+Aymaras, and from my own sensations, I have no doubt that this latter
+statement is correct. Shakspeare, therefore, erred when he made Juliet,
+who was not even by herself, say to Romeo (act ii. sc. 2):&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+&ldquo;Thou know&rsquo;st the mask of night is on my face;<br/>
+Else would a maiden blush bepaint my cheek,<br/>
+For that which thou hast heard me speak to-night.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+But when a blush is excited in solitude, the cause almost always relates
+to the thoughts of others about us&mdash;to acts done in their presence,
+or suspected by them; or again when we reflect what others would have
+thought of us had they known of the act. Nevertheless one or two of my
+informants believe that they have blushed from shame at acts in no way
+relating to others. If this be so, we must attribute the result to the
+force of inveterate habit and association, under a state of mind closely
+analogous to that which ordinarily excites a blush; nor need we feel
+surprise at this, as even sympathy with another person who commits a
+flagrant breach of etiquette is believed, as we have just seen, sometimes
+to cause a blush.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Finally, then, I conclude that blushing,&mdash;whether due to shyness&mdash;to
+shame for a real crime&mdash;to shame from a breach of the laws of
+etiquette&mdash;to modesty from humility&mdash;to modesty from an
+indelicacy&mdash;depends in all cases on the same principle; this
+principle being a sensitive regard for the opinion, more particularly for
+the depreciation of others, primarily in relation to our personal
+appearance, especially of our faces; and secondarily, through the force of
+association and habit, in relation to the opinion of others on our
+conduct.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Theory of Blushing</i>.&mdash;We have now to consider, why should the
+thought that others are thinking about us affect our capillary
+circulation? Sir C. Bell insists<a href="#linknote-1331"
+name="linknoteref-1331" id="linknoteref-1331">[1331]</a> that blushing &ldquo;is
+a provision for expression, as may be inferred from the colour extending
+only to the surface of the face, neck, and breast, the parts most exposed.
+It is not acquired; it is from the beginning.&rdquo; Dr. Burgess believes that
+it was designed by the Creator in &ldquo;order that the soul might have
+sovereign power of displaying in the cheeks the various internal emotions
+of the moral feelings;&rdquo; so as to serve as a check on ourselves, and as a
+sign to others, that we were violating rules which ought to be held
+sacred. Gratiolet merely remarks,&mdash;&ldquo;Or, comme il est dans l&rsquo;ordre de
+la nature que l&rsquo;être social le plus intelligent soit aussi le plus
+intelligible, cette faculté de rougeur et de pâleur qui distingue l&rsquo;homme,
+est un signe naturel de sa haute perfection.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The belief that blushing was SPECIALLY designed by the Creator is opposed
+to the general theory of evolution, which is now so largely accepted; but
+it forms no part of my duty here to argue on the general question. Those
+who believe in design, will find it difficult to account for shyness being
+the most frequent and efficient of all the causes of blushing, as it makes
+the blusher to suffer and the beholder uncomfortable, without being of the
+least service to either of them. They will also find it difficult to
+account for negroes and other dark-coloured races blushing, in whom a
+change of colour in the skin is scarcely or not at all visible.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+No doubt a slight blush adds to the beauty of a maiden&rsquo;s face; and the
+Circassian women who are capable of blushing, invariably fetch a higher
+price in the seraolio of the Sultan than less susceptible women.<a
+href="#linknote-1332" name="linknoteref-1332" id="linknoteref-1332">[1332]</a>
+But the firmest believer in the efficacy of sexual selection will hardly
+suppose that blushing was acquired as a sexual ornament. This view would
+also be opposed to what has just been said about the dark-coloured races
+blushing in an invisible manner.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The hypothesis which appears to me the most probable, though it may at
+first seem rash, is that attention closely directed to any part of the
+body tends to interfere with the ordinary and tonic contraction of the
+small arteries of that part. These vessels, in consequence, become at such
+times more or less relaxed, and are instantly filled with arterial blood.
+This tendency will have been much strengthened, if frequent attention has
+been paid during many generations to the same part, owing to nerve-force
+readily flowing along accustomed channels, and by the power of
+inheritance. Whenever we believe that others are depreciating or even
+considering our personal appearance, our attention is vividly directed to
+the outer and visible parts of our bodies; and of all such parts we are
+most sensitive about our faces, as no doubt has been the case during many
+past generations. Therefore, assuming for the moment that the capillary
+vessels can be acted on by close attention, those of the face will have
+become eminently susceptible. Through the force of association, the same
+effects will tend to follow whenever we think that others are considering
+or censuring our actions or character.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As the basis of this theory rests on mental attention having some power to
+influence the capillary circulation, it will be necessary to give a
+considerable body of details, bearing more or less directly on this
+subject. Several observers,<a href="#linknote-1333" name="linknoteref-1333"
+id="linknoteref-1333">[1333]</a> who from their wide experience and
+knowledge are eminently capable of forming a sound judgment, are convinced
+that attention or consciousness (which latter term Sir H. Holland thinks
+the more explicit) concentrated on almost any part of the body produces
+some direct physical effect on it. This applies to the movements of the
+involuntary muscles, and of the voluntary muscles when acting
+involuntarily,&mdash;to the secretion of the glands,&mdash;to the activity
+of the senses and sensations,&mdash;and even to the nutrition of parts.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is known that the involuntary movements of the heart are affected if
+close attention be paid to them. Gratiolet<a href="#linknote-1334"
+name="linknoteref-1334" id="linknoteref-1334">[1334]</a> gives the case of
+a man, who by continually watching and counting his own pulse, at last
+caused one beat out of every six to intermit. On the other hand, my father
+told me of a careful observer, who certainly had heart-disease and died
+from it, and who positively stated that his pulse was habitually irregular
+to an extreme degree; yet to his great disappointment it invariably became
+regular as soon as my father entered the room. Sir H. Holland remarks,
+that &ldquo;the effect upon the circulation of a part from the consciousness
+suddenly directed and fixed upon it, is often obvious and immediate.&rdquo;
+Professor Laycock, who has particularly attended to phenomena of this
+nature, insists that &ldquo;when the attention is directed to any portion of the
+body, innervation and circulation are excited locally, and the functional
+activity of that portion developed.&rdquo;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is generally believed that the peristaltic movements of the intestines
+are influenced by attention being paid to them at fixed recurrent periods;
+and these movements depend on the contraction of unstriped and involuntary
+muscles. The abnormal action of the voluntary muscles in epilepsy, chorea,
+and hysteria is known to be influenced by the expectation of an attack,
+and by the sight of other patients similarly affected. So it is with the
+involuntary acts of yawning and laughing.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Certain glands are much influenced by thinking of them, or of the
+conditions under which they have been habitually excited. This is familiar
+to every one in the increased flow of saliva, when the thought, for
+instance, of intensely acid fruit is kept before the mind. It was shown in
+our sixth chapter, that an earnest and long-continued desire either to
+repress, or to increase, the action of the lacrymal glands is effectual.
+Some curious cases have been recorded in the case of women, of the power
+of the mind on the mammary glands; and still more remarkable ones in
+relation to the uterine functions.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+See Gratiolet on this subject, De la Phys. p. 287. Dr. J. Crichton Browne,
+from his observations on the insane, is convinced that attention directed
+for a prolonged period on any part or organ may ultimately influence its
+capillary circulation and nutrition. He has given me some extraordinary
+cases; one of these, which cannot here be related in full, refers to a
+married woman fifty years of age, who laboured under the firm and
+long-continued delusion that she was pregnant. When the expected period
+arrived, she acted precisely as if she had been really delivered of a
+child, and seemed to suffer extreme pain, so that the perspiration broke
+out on her forehead. The result was that a state of things returned,
+continuing for three days, which had ceased during the six previous years.
+Mr. Braid gives, in his &lsquo;Magic, Hypnotism,&rsquo; &amp;c., 1852, p. 95, and in
+his other works analogous cases, as well as other facts showing the great
+influence of the will on the mammary glands, even on one breast alone.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+When we direct our whole attention to any one sense, its acuteness is
+increased;<a href="#linknote-1340" name="linknoteref-1340"
+id="linknoteref-1340">[1340]</a> and the continued habit of close
+attention, as with blind people to that of hearing, and with the blind and
+deaf to that of touch, appears to improve the sense in question
+permanently. There is, also, some reason to believe, judging from the
+capacities of different races of man, that the effects are inherited.
+Turning to ordinary sensations, it is well known that pain is increased by
+attending to it; and Sir B. Brodie goes so far as to believe that pain may
+be felt in any part of the body to which attention is closely drawn.<a
+href="#linknote-1341" name="linknoteref-1341" id="linknoteref-1341">[1341]</a>
+Sir H. Holland also remarks that we become not only conscious of the
+existence of a part subjected to concentrated attention, but we experience
+in it various odd sensations as of weight, heat, cold, tingling, or
+itching.<a href="#linknote-1342" name="linknoteref-1342"
+id="linknoteref-1342">[1342]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lastly, some physiologists maintain that the mind can influence the
+nutrition of parts. Sir J. Paget has given a curious instance of the
+power, not indeed of the mind, but of the nervous system, on the hair. A
+lady &ldquo;who is subject to attacks of what is called nervous headache, always
+finds in the morning after such an one, that some patches of her hair are
+white, as if powdered with starch. The change is effected in a night, and
+in a few days after, the hairs gradually regain their dark brownish
+colour.&rdquo;<a href="#linknote-1343" name="linknoteref-1343"
+id="linknoteref-1343">[1343]</a>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We thus see that close attention certainly affects various parts and
+organs, which are not properly under the control of the will. By what
+means attention&mdash;perhaps the most wonderful of all the wondrous
+powers of the mind&mdash;is effected, is an extremely obscure subject.
+According to Müller,<a href="#linknote-1344" name="linknoteref-1344"
+id="linknoteref-1344">[1344]</a> the process by which the sensory cells of
+the brain are rendered, through the will, susceptible of receiving more
+intense and distinct impressions, is closely analogous to that by which
+the motor cells are excited to send nerve-force to the voluntary muscles.
+There are many points of analogy in the action of the sensory and motor
+nerve-cells; for instance, the familiar fact that close attention to any
+one sense causes fatigue, like the prolonged exertion of any one muscle.<a
+href="#linknote-1345" name="linknoteref-1345" id="linknoteref-1345">[1345]</a>
+When therefore we voluntarily concentrate our attention on any part of the
+body, the cells of the brain which receive impressions or sensations from
+that part are, it is probable, in some unknown manner stimulated into
+activity. This may account, without any local change in the part to which
+our attention is earnestly directed, for pain or odd sensations being
+there felt or increased.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+If, however, the part is furnished with muscles, we cannot feel sure, as
+Mr. Michael Foster has remarked to me, that some slight impulse may not be
+unconsciously sent to such muscles; and this would probably cause an
+obscure sensation in the part.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In a large number of cases, as with the salivary and lacrymal glands,
+intestinal canal, &amp;c., the power of attention seems to rest, either
+chiefly, or as some physiologists think, exclusively, on the vaso-motor
+system being affected in such a manner that more blood is allowed to flow
+into the capillaries of the part in question. This increased action of the
+capillaries may in some cases be combined with the simultaneously
+increased activity of the sensorium.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The manner in which the mind affects the vasomotor system may be conceived
+in the following manner. When we actually taste sour fruit, an impression
+is sent through the gustatory nerves to a certain part of the sensorium;
+this transmits nerve-force to the vasomotor centre, which consequently
+allows the muscular coats of the small arteries that permeate the salivary
+glands to relax. Hence more blood flows into these glands, and they
+secrete a copious supply of saliva. Now it does not seem an improbable
+assumption, that, when we reflect intently on a sensation, the same part
+of the sensorium, or a closely connected part of it, is brought into a
+state of activity, in the same manner as when we actually perceive the
+sensation. If so, the same cells in the brain will be excited, though,
+perhaps, in a less degree, by vividly thinking about a sour taste, as by
+perceiving it; and they will transmit in the one case, as in the other,
+nerve-force to the vaso-motor centre with the same results.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To give another, and, in some respects, more appropriate illustration. If
+a man stands before a hot fire, his face reddens. This appears to be due,
+as Mr. Michael Foster informs me, in part to the local action of the heat,
+and in part to a reflex action from the vaso-motor centres.<a
+href="#linknote-1346" name="linknoteref-1346" id="linknoteref-1346">[1346]</a>
+In this latter case, the heat affects the nerves of the face; these
+transmit an impression to the sensory cells of the brain, which act on the
+vaso-motor centre, and this reacts on the small arteries of the face,
+relaxing them and allowing them to become filled with blood. Here, again,
+it seems not improbable that if we were repeatedly to concentrate with
+great earnestness our attention on the recollection of our heated faces,
+the same part of the sensorium which gives us the consciousness of actual
+heat would be in some slight degree stimulated, and would in consequence
+tend to transmit some nerve-force to the vaso-motor centres, so as to
+relax the capillaries of the face. Now as men during endless generations
+have had their attention often and earnestly directed to their personal
+appearance, and especially to their faces, any incipient tendency in the
+facial capillaries to be thus affected will have become in the course of
+time greatly strengthened through the principles just referred to, namely,
+nerve-force passing readily along accustomed channels, and inherited
+habit. Thus, as it appears to me, a plausible explanation is afforded of
+the leading phenomena connected with the act of blushing.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+<i>Recapitulation</i>.&mdash;Men and women, and especially the young, have
+always valued, in a high degree, their personal appearance; and have
+likewise regarded the appearance of others. The face has been the chief
+object of attention, though, when man aboriginally went naked, the whole
+surface of his body would have been attended to. Our self-attention is
+excited almost exclusively by the opinion of others, for no person living
+in absolute solitude would care about his appearance. Every one feels
+blame more acutely than praise. Now, whenever we know, or suppose, that
+others are depreciating our personal appearance, our attention is strongly
+drawn towards ourselves, more especially to our faces. The probable effect
+of this will be, as has just been explained, to excite into activity that
+part of the sensorium, which receives the sensory nerves of the face; and
+this will react through the vaso-motor system on the facial capillaries.
+By frequent reiteration during numberless generations, the process will
+have become so habitual, in association with the belief that others are
+thinking of us, that even a suspicion of their depreciation suffices to
+relax the capillaries, without any conscious thought about our faces. With
+some sensitive persons it is enough even to notice their dress to produce
+the same effect. Through the force, also, of association and inheritance
+our capillaries are relaxed, whenever we know, or imagine, that any one is
+blaming, though in silence, our actions, thoughts, or character; and,
+again, when we are highly praised.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On this hypothesis we can understand how it is that the face blushes much
+more than any other part of the body, though the whole surface is somewhat
+affected, more especially with the races which still go nearly naked. It
+is not at all surprising that the dark-coloured races should blush, though
+no change of colour is visible in their skins. From the principle of
+inheritance it is not surprising that persons born blind should blush. We
+can understand why the young are much more affected than the old, and
+women more than men; and why the opposite sexes especially excite each
+other&rsquo;s blushes. It becomes obvious why personal remarks should be
+particularly liable to cause blushing, and why the most powerful of all
+the causes is shyness; for shyness relates to the presence and opinion of
+others, and the shy are always more or less self-conscious. With respect
+to real shame from moral delinquencies, we can perceive why it is not
+guilt, but the thought that others think us guilty, which raises a blush.
+A man reflecting on a crime committed in solitude, and stung by his
+conscience, does not blush; yet he will blush under the vivid recollection
+of a detected fault, or of one committed in the presence of others, the
+degree of blushing being closely related to the feeling of regard for
+those who have detected, witnessed, or suspected his fault. Breaches of
+conventional rules of conduct, if they are rigidly insisted on by our
+equals or superiors, often cause more intense blushes even than a detected
+crime, and an act which is really criminal, if not blamed by our equals,
+hardly raises a tinge of colour on our cheeks. Modesty from humility, or
+from an indelicacy, excites a vivid blush, as both relate to the judgment
+or fixed customs of others.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the intimate sympathy which exists between the capillary circulation
+of the surface of the head and of the brain, whenever there is intense
+blushing, there will be some, and often great, confusion of mind. This is
+frequently accompanied by awkward movements, and sometimes by the
+involuntary twitching of certain muscles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As blushing, according to this hypothesis, is an indirect result of
+attention, originally directed to our personal appearance, that is to the
+surface of the body, and more especially to the face, we can understand
+the meaning of the gestures which accompany blushing throughout the world.
+These consist in hiding the face, or turning it towards the ground, or to
+one side. The eyes are generally averted or are restless, for to look at
+the man who causes us to feel shame or shyness, immediately brings home in
+an intolerable manner the consciousness that his gaze is directed on us.
+Through the principle of associated habit, the same movements of the face
+and eyes are practised, and can, indeed, hardly be avoided, whenever we
+know or believe that, others are blaming, or too strongly praising, our
+moral conduct.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2>
+<a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"></a>
+CHAPTER XIV.<br/>CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
+</h2>
+
+<p>
+The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements of
+expression&mdash;Their inheritance&mdash;On the part which the will and
+intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions&mdash;The
+instinctive recognition of expression&mdash;The bearing of our subject on
+the specific unity of the races of man&mdash;On the successive acquirement
+of various expressions by the progenitors of man&mdash;The importance of
+expression&mdash;Conclusion.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+I have now described, to the best of my ability, the chief expressive
+actions in man, and in some few of the lower animals. I have also
+attempted to explain the origin or development of these actions through
+the three principles given in the first chapter. The first of these
+principles is, that movements which are serviceable in gratifying some
+desire, or in relieving some sensation, if often repeated, become so
+habitual that they are performed, whether or not of any service, whenever
+the same desire or sensation is felt, even in a very weak degree.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Our second principle is that of antithesis. The habit of voluntarily
+performing opposite movements under opposite impulses has become firmly
+established in us by the practice of our whole lives. Hence, if certain
+actions have been regularly performed, in accordance with our first
+principle, under a certain frame of mind, there will be a strong and
+involuntary tendency to the performance of directly opposite actions,
+whether or not these are of any use, under the excitement of an opposite
+frame of mind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Our third principle is the direct action of the excited nervous system on
+the body, independently of the will, and independently, in large part, of
+habit. Experience shows that nerve-force is generated and set free
+whenever the cerebro-spinal system is excited. The direction which this
+nerve-force follows is necessarily determined by the lines of connection
+between the nerve-cells, with each other and with various parts of the
+body. But the direction is likewise much influenced by habit; inasmuch as
+nerve-force passes readily along accustomed channels.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The frantic and senseless actions of an enraged man may be attributed in
+part to the undirected flow of nerve-force, and in part to the effects of
+habit, for these actions often vaguely represent the act of striking. They
+thus pass into gestures included under our first principle; as when an
+indignant man unconsciously throws himself into a fitting attitude for
+attacking his opponent, though without any intention of making an actual
+attack. We see also the influence of habit in all the emotions and
+sensations which are called exciting; for they have assumed this character
+from having habitually led to energetic action; and action affects, in an
+indirect manner, the respiratory and circulatory system; and the latter
+reacts on the brain. Whenever these emotions or sensations are even
+slightly felt by us, though they may not at the time lead to any exertion,
+our whole system is nevertheless disturbed through the force of habit and
+association. Other emotions and sensations are called depressing, because
+they have not habitually led to energetic action, excepting just at first,
+as in the case of extreme pain, fear, and grief, and they have ultimately
+caused complete exhaustion; they are consequently expressed chiefly by
+negative signs and by prostration. Again, there are other emotions, such
+as that of affection, which do not commonly lead to action of any kind,
+and consequently are not exhibited by any strongly marked outward signs.
+Affection indeed, in as far as it is a pleasurable sensation, excites the
+ordinary signs of pleasure.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+On the other hand, many of the effects due to the excitement of the
+nervous system seem to be quite independent of the flow of nerve-force
+along the channels which have been rendered habitual by former exertions
+of the will. Such effects, which often reveal the state of mind of the
+person thus affected, cannot at present be explained; for instance, the
+change of colour in the hair from extreme terror or grief,&mdash;the cold
+sweat and the trembling of the muscles from fear,&mdash;the modified
+secretions of the intestinal canal,&mdash;and the failure of certain
+glands to act.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Notwithstanding that much remains unintelligible in our present subject,
+so many expressive movements and actions can be explained to a certain
+extent through the above three principles, that we may hope hereafter to
+see all explained by these or by closely analogous principles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Actions of all kinds, if regularly accompanying any state of the mind, are
+at once recognized as expressive. These may consist of movements of any
+part of the body, as the wagging of a dog&rsquo;s tail, the shrugging of a man&rsquo;s
+shoulders, the erection of the hair, the exudation of perspiration, the
+state of the capillary circulation, laboured breathing, and the use of the
+vocal or other sound-producing instruments. Even insects express anger,
+terror, jealousy, and love by their stridulation. With man the respiratory
+organs are of especial importance in expression, not only in a direct, but
+in a still higher degree in an indirect manner.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Few points are more interesting in our present subject than the
+extraordinarily complex chain of events which lead to certain expressive
+movements. Take, for instance, the oblique eyebrows of a man suffering
+from grief or anxiety. When infants scream loudly from hunger or pain, the
+circulation is affected, and the eyes tend to become gorged with blood:
+consequently the muscles surrounding the eyes are strongly contracted as a
+protection: this action, in the course of many generations, has become
+firmly fixed and inherited: but when, with advancing years and culture,
+the habit of screaming is partially repressed, the muscles round the eyes
+still tend to contract, whenever even slight distress is felt: of these
+muscles, the pyramidals of the nose are less under the control of the will
+than are the others and their contraction can be checked only by that of
+the central fasciae of the frontal muscle: these latter fasciae draw up
+the inner ends of the eyebrows, and wrinkle the forehead in a peculiar
+manner, which we instantly recognize as the expression of grief or
+anxiety. Slight movements, such as these just described, or the scarcely
+perceptible drawing down of the corners of the mouth, are the last
+remnants or rudiments of strongly marked and intelligible movements. They
+are as full of significance to us in regard to expression, as are ordinary
+rudiments to the naturalist in the classification and genealogy of organic
+beings.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+That the chief expressive actions, exhibited by man and by the lower
+animals, are now innate or inherited,&mdash;that is, have not been learnt
+by the individual,&mdash;is admitted by every one. So little has learning
+or imitation to do with several of them that they are from the earliest
+days and throughout life quite beyond our control; for instance, the
+relaxation of the arteries of the skin in blushing, and the increased
+action of the heart in anger. We may see children, only two or three years
+old, and even those born blind, blushing from shame; and the naked scalp
+of a very young infant reddens from passion. Infants scream from pain
+directly after birth, and all their features then assume the same form as
+during subsequent years. These facts alone suffice to show that many of
+our most important expressions have not been learnt; but it is remarkable
+that some, which are certainly innate, require practice in the individual,
+before they are performed in a full and perfect manner; for instance,
+weeping and laughing. The inheritance of most of our expressive actions
+explains the fact that those born blind display them, as I hear from the
+Rev. R. H. Blair, equally well with those gifted with eyesight. We can
+thus also understand the fact that the young and the old of widely
+different races, both with man and animals, express the same state of mind
+by the same movements.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We are so familiar with the fact of young and old animals displaying their
+feelings in the same manner, that we hardly perceive how remarkable it is
+that a young puppy should wag its tail when pleased, depress its ears and
+uncover its canine teeth when pretending to be savage, just like an old
+dog; or that a kitten should arch its little back and erect its hair when
+frightened and angry, like an old cat. When, however, we turn to less
+common gestures in ourselves, which we are accustomed to look at as
+artificial or conventional,&mdash;such as shrugging the shoulders, as a
+sign of impotence, or the raising the arms with open hands and extended
+fingers, as a sign of wonder,&mdash;we feel perhaps too much surprise at
+finding that they are innate. That these and some other gestures are
+inherited, we may infer from their being performed by very young children,
+by those born blind, and by the most widely distinct races of man. We
+should also bear in mind that new and highly peculiar tricks, in
+association with certain states of the mind, are known to have arisen in
+certain individuals, and to have been afterwards transmitted to their
+offspring, in some cases, for more than one generation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Certain other gestures, which seem to us so natural that we might easily
+imagine that they were innate, apparently have been learnt like the words
+of a language. This seems to be the case with the joining of the uplifted
+hands, and the turning up of the eyes, in prayer. So it is with kissing as
+a mark of affection; but this is innate, in so far as it depends on the
+pleasure derived from contact with a beloved person. The evidence with
+respect to the inheritance of nodding and shaking the head, as signs of
+affirmation and negation, is doubtful; for they are not universal, yet
+seem too general to have been independently acquired by all the
+individuals of so many races.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+We will now consider how far the will and consciousness have come into
+play in the development of the various movements of expression. As far as
+we can judge, only a few expressive movements, such as those just referred
+to, are learnt by each individual; that is, were consciously and
+voluntarily performed during the early years of life for some definite
+object, or in imitation of others, and then became habitual. The far
+greater number of the movements of expression, and all the more important
+ones, are, as we have seen, innate or inherited; and such cannot be said
+to depend on the will of the individual. Nevertheless, all those included
+under our first principle were at first voluntarily performed for a
+definite object,&mdash;namely, to escape some danger, to relieve some
+distress, or to gratify some desire. For instance, there can hardly be a
+doubt that the animals which fight with their teeth, have acquired the
+habit of drawing back their ears closely to their heads, when feeling
+savage, from their progenitors having voluntarily acted in this manner in
+order to protect their ears from being torn by their antagonists; for
+those animals which do not fight with their teeth do not thus express a
+savage state of mind. We may infer as highly probable that we ourselves
+have acquired the habit of contracting the muscles round the eyes, whilst
+crying gently, that is, without the utterance of any loud sound, from our
+progenitors, especially during infancy, having experienced, during the act
+of screaming, an uncomfortable sensation in their eyeballs. Again, some
+highly expressive movements result from the endeavour to cheek or prevent
+other expressive movements; thus the obliquity of the eyebrows and the
+drawing down of the corners of the mouth follow from the endeavour to
+prevent a screaming-fit from coming on, or to cheek it after it has come
+on. Here it is obvious that the consciousness and will must at first have
+come into play; not that we are conscious in these or in other such cases
+what muscles are brought into action, any more than when we perform the
+most ordinary voluntary movements.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With respect to the expressive movements due to the principle of
+antithesis, it is clear that the will has intervened, though in a remote
+and indirect manner. So again with the movements coming under our third
+principle; these, in as far as they are influenced by nerve-force readily
+passing along habitual channels, have been determined by former and
+repeated exertions of the will. The effects indirectly due to this latter
+agency are often combined in a complex manner, through the force of habit
+and association, with those directly resulting from the excitement of the
+cerebro-spinal system. This seems to be the case with the increased action
+of the heart under the influence of any strong emotion. When an animal
+erects its hair, assumes a threatening attitude, and utters fierce sounds,
+in order to terrify an enemy, we see a curious combination of movements
+which were originally voluntary with those that are involuntary. It is,
+however, possible that even strictly involuntary actions, such as the
+erection of the hair, may have been affected by the mysterious power of
+the will.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Some expressive movements may have arisen spontaneously, in association
+with certain states of the mind, like the tricks lately referred to, and
+afterwards been inherited. But I know of no evidence rendering this view
+probable.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The power of communication between the members of the same tribe by means
+of language has been of paramount importance in the development of man;
+and the force of language is much aided by the expressive movements of the
+face and body. We perceive this at once when we converse on an important
+subject with any person whose face is concealed. Nevertheless there are no
+grounds, as far as I can discover, for believing that any muscle has been
+developed or even modified exclusively for the sake of expression. The
+vocal and other sound-producing organs, by which various expressive noises
+are produced, seem to form a partial exception; but I have elsewhere
+attempted to show that these organs were first developed for sexual
+purposes, in order that one sex might call or charm the other. Nor can I
+discover grounds for believing that any inherited movement, which now
+serves as a means of expression, was at first voluntarily and consciously
+performed for this special purpose,&mdash;like some of the gestures and
+the finger-language used by the deaf and dumb. On the contrary, every true
+or inherited movement of expression seems to have had some natural and
+independent origin. But when once acquired, such movements may be
+voluntarily and consciously employed as a means of communication. Even
+infants, if carefully attended to, find out at a very early age that their
+screaming brings relief, and they soon voluntarily practise it. We may
+frequently see a person voluntarily raising his eyebrows to express
+surprise, or smiling to express pretended satisfaction and acquiescence. A
+man often wishes to make certain gestures conspicuous or demonstrative,
+and will raise his extended arms with widely opened fingers above his
+head, to show astonishment, or lift his shoulders to his ears, to show
+that he cannot or will not do something. The tendency to such movements
+will be strengthened or increased by their being thus voluntarily and
+repeatedly performed; and the effects may be inherited.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is perhaps worth consideration whether movements at first used only by
+one or a few individuals to express a certain state of mind may not
+sometimes have spread to others, and ultimately have become universal,
+through the power of conscious and unconscious imitation. That there
+exists in man a strong tendency to imitation, independently of the
+conscious will, is certain. This is exhibited in the most extraordinary
+manner in certain brain diseases, especially at the commencement of
+inflammatory softening of the brain, and has been called the &ldquo;echo sign.&rdquo;
+Patients thus affected imitate, without understanding every absurd gesture
+which is made, and every word which is uttered near them, even in a
+foreign language.<a href="#linknote-1401" name="linknoteref-1401"
+id="linknoteref-1401">[1401]</a> In the case of animals, the jackal and
+wolf have learnt under confinement to imitate the barking of the dog. How
+the barking of the dog, which serves to express various emotions and
+desires, and which is so remarkable from having been acquired since the
+animal was domesticated, and from being inherited in different degrees by
+different breeds, was first learnt we do not know; but may we not suspect
+that imitation has had something to do with its acquisition, owing to dogs
+having long lived in strict association with so loquacious an animal as
+man?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the course of the foregoing remarks and throughout this volume, I have
+often felt much difficulty about the proper application of the terms,
+will, consciousness, and intention. Actions, which were at first
+voluntary, soon became habitual, and at last hereditary, and may then be
+performed even in opposition to the will. Although they often reveal the
+state of the mind, this result was not at first either intended or
+expected. Even such words as that &ldquo;certain movements serve as a means of
+expression,&rdquo; are apt to mislead, as they imply that this was their primary
+purpose or object. This, however, seems rarely or never to have been the
+case; the movements having been at first either of some direct use, or the
+indirect effect of the excited state of the sensorium. An infant may
+scream either intentionally or instinctively to show that it wants food;
+but it has no wish or intention to draw its features into the peculiar
+form which so plainly indicates misery; yet some of the most
+characteristic expressions exhibited by man are derived from the act of
+screaming, as has been explained.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Although most of our expressive actions are innate or instinctive, as is
+admitted by everyone, it is a different question whether we have any
+instinctive power of recognizing them. This has generally been assumed to
+be the case; but the assumption has been strongly controverted by M.
+Lemoine.<a href="#linknote-1402" name="linknoteref-1402"
+id="linknoteref-1402">[1402]</a> Monkeys soon learn to distinguish, not
+only the tones of voice of their masters, but the expression of their
+faces, as is asserted by a careful observer.<a href="#linknote-1403"
+name="linknoteref-1403" id="linknoteref-1403">[1403]</a> Dogs well know
+the difference between caressing and threatening gestures or tones; and
+they seem to recognize a compassionate tone. But as far as I can make out,
+after repeated trials, they do not understand any movement confined to the
+features, excepting a smile or laugh; and this they appear, at least in
+some cases, to recognize. This limited amount of knowledge has probably
+been gained, both by monkeys and dogs, through their associating harsh or
+kind treatment with our actions; and the knowledge certainly is not
+instinctive. Children, no doubt, would soon learn the movements of
+expression in their elders in the same manner as animals learn those of
+man. Moreover, when a child cries or laughs, he knows in a general manner
+what he is doing and what he feels; so that a very small exertion of
+reason would tell him what crying or laughing meant in others. But the
+question is, do our children acquire their knowledge of expression solely
+by experience through the power of association and reason?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+As most of the movements of expression must have been gradually acquired,
+afterwards becoming instinctive, there seems to be some degree of <i>a
+priori</i> probability that their recognition would likewise have become
+instinctive. There is, at least, no greater difficulty in believing this
+than in admitting that, when a female quadruped first bears young, she
+knows the cry of distress of her offspring, or than in admitting that many
+animals instinctively recognize and fear their enemies; and of both these
+statements there can be no reasonable doubt. It is however extremely
+difficult to prove that our children instinctively recognize any
+expression. I attended to this point in my first-born infant, who could
+not have learnt anything by associating with other children, and I was
+convinced that he understood a smile and received pleasure from seeing
+one, answering it by another, at much too early an age to have learnt
+anything by experience. When this child was about four months old, I made
+in his presence many odd noises and strange grimaces, and tried to look
+savage; but the noises, if not too loud, as well as the grimaces, were all
+taken as good jokes; and I attributed this at the time to their being
+preceded or accompanied by smiles. When five months old, he seemed to
+understand a compassionate, expression and tone of voice. When a few days
+over six months old, his nurse pretended to cry, and I saw that his face
+instantly assumed a melancholy expression, with the corners of the mouth
+strongly depressed; now this child could rarely have seen any other child
+crying, and never a grown-up person crying, and I should doubt whether at
+so early an age he could have reasoned on the subject. Therefore it seems
+to me that an innate feeling must have told him that the pretended crying
+of his nurse expressed grief; and this through the instinct of sympathy
+excited grief in him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+M. Lemoine argues that, if man possessed an innate knowledge of
+expression, authors and artists would not have found it so difficult, as
+is notoriously the case, to describe and depict the characteristic signs
+of each particular state of mind. But this does not seem to me a valid
+argument. We may actually behold the expression changing in an
+unmistakable manner in a man or animal, and yet be quite unable, as I know
+from experience, to analyse the nature of the change. In the two
+photographs given by Duchenne of the same old man (Plate III. figs. 5 and
+6), almost every one recognized that the one represented a true, and the
+other a false smile; but I have found it very difficult to decide in what
+the whole amount of difference consists. It has often struck me as a
+curious fact that so many shades of expression are instantly recognized
+without any conscious process of analysis on our part. No one, I believe,
+can clearly describe a sullen or sly expression; yet many observers are
+unanimous that these expressions can be recognized in the various races of
+man. Almost everyone to whom I showed Duchenne&rsquo;s photograph of the young
+man with oblique eyebrows (Plate II. fig. 2) at once declared that it
+expressed grief or some such feeling; yet probably not one of these
+persons, or one out of a thousand persons, could beforehand have told
+anything precise about the obliquity of the eyebrows with their inner ends
+puckered, or about the rectangular furrows on the forehead. So it is with
+many other expressions, of which I have had practical experience in the
+trouble requisite in instructing others what points to observe. If, then,
+great ignorance of details does not prevent our recognizing with certainty
+and promptitude various expressions, I do not see how this ignorance can
+be advanced as an argument that our knowledge, though vague and general,
+is not innate.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have endeavoured to show in considerable detail that all the chief
+expressions exhibited by man are the same throughout the world. This fact
+is interesting, as it affords a new argument in favour of the several
+races being descended from a single parent-stock, which must have been
+almost completely human in structure, and to a large extent in mind,
+before the period at which the races diverged from each other. No doubt
+similar structures, adapted for the same purpose, have often been
+independently acquired through variation and natural selection by distinct
+species; but this view will not explain close similarity between distinct
+species in a multitude of unimportant details. Now if we bear in mind the
+numerous points of structure having no relation to expression, in which
+all the races of man closely agree, and then add to them the numerous
+points, some of the highest importance and many of the most trifling
+value, on which the movements of expression directly or indirectly depend,
+it seems to me improbable in the highest degree that so much similarity,
+or rather identity of structure, could have been acquired by independent
+means. Yet this must have been the case if the races of man are descended
+from several aboriginally distinct species. It is far more probable that
+the many points of close similarity in the various races are due to
+inheritance from a single parent-form, which had already assumed a human
+character.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is a curious, though perhaps an idle speculation, how early in the long
+line of our progenitors the various expressive movements, now exhibited by
+man, were successively acquired. The following remarks will at least serve
+to recall some of the chief points discussed in this volume. We may
+confidently believe that laughter, as a sign of pleasure or enjoyment, was
+practised by our progenitors long before they deserved to be called human;
+for very many kinds of monkeys, when pleased, utter a reiterated sound,
+clearly analogous to our laughter, often accompanied by vibratory
+movements of their jaws or lips, with the corners of the mouth drawn
+backwards and upwards, by the wrinkling of the cheeks, and even by the
+brightening of the eyes.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We may likewise infer that fear was expressed from an extremely remote
+period, in almost the same manner as it now is by man; namely, by
+trembling, the erection of the hair, cold perspiration, pallor, widely
+opened eyes, the relaxation of most of the muscles, and by the whole body
+cowering downwards or held motionless.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Suffering, if great, will from the first have caused screams or groans to
+be uttered, the body to be contorted, and the teeth to be ground together.
+But our progenitors will not have exhibited those highly expressive
+movements of the features which accompany screaming and crying until their
+circulatory and respiratory organs, and the muscles surrounding the eyes,
+had acquired their present structure. The shedding of tears appears to
+have originated through reflex action from the spasmodic contraction of
+the eyelids, together perhaps with the eyeballs becoming gorged with blood
+during the act of screaming. Therefore weeping probably came on rather
+late in the line of our descent; and this conclusion agrees with the fact
+that our nearest allies, the anthropomorphous apes, do not weep. But we
+must here exercise some caution, for as certain monkeys, which are not
+closely related to man, weep, this habit might have been developed long
+ago in a sub-branch of the group from which man is derived. Our early
+progenitors, when suffering from grief or anxiety, would not have made
+their eyebrows oblique, or have drawn down the corners of their mouth,
+until they had acquired the habit of endeavouring to restrain their
+screams. The expression, therefore, of grief and anxiety is eminently
+human.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Rage will have been expressed at a very early period by threatening or
+frantic gestures, by the reddening of the skin, and by glaring eyes, but
+not by frowning. For the habit of frowning seems to have been acquired
+chiefly from the corrugators being the first muscles to contract round the
+eyes, whenever during infancy pain, anger, or distress is felt, and there
+consequently is a near approach to screaming; and partly from a frown
+serving as a shade in difficult and intent vision. It seems probable that
+this shading action would not have become habitual until man had assumed a
+completely upright position, for monkeys do not frown when exposed to a
+glaring light. Our early progenitors, when enraged, would probably have
+exposed their teeth more freely than does man, even when giving full vent
+to his rage, as with the insane. We may, also, feel almost certain that
+they would have protruded their lips, when sulky or disappointed, in a
+greater degree than is the case with our own children, or even with the
+children of existing savage races.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Our early progenitors, when indignant or moderately angry, would not have
+held their heads erect, opened their chests, squared their shoulders, and
+clenched their fists, until they had acquired the ordinary carriage and
+upright attitude of man, and had learnt to fight with their fists or
+clubs. Until this period had arrived the antithetical gesture of shrugging
+the shoulders, as a sign of impotence or of patience, would not have been
+developed. From the same reason astonishment would not then have been
+expressed by raising the arms with open hands and extended fingers. Nor,
+judging from the actions of monkeys, would astonishment have been
+exhibited by a widely opened mouth; but the eyes would have been opened
+and the eyebrows arched. Disgust would have been shown at a very early
+period by movements round the mouth, like those of vomiting,&mdash;that
+is, if the view which I have suggested respecting the source of the
+expression is correct, namely, that our progenitors had the power, and
+used it, of voluntarily and quickly rejecting any food from their stomachs
+which they disliked. But the more refined manner of showing contempt or
+disdain, by lowering the eyelids, or turning away the eyes and face, as if
+the despised person were not worth looking at, would not probably have
+been acquired until a much later period.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of all expressions, blushing seems to be the most strictly human; yet it
+is common to all or nearly all the races of man, whether or not any change
+of colour is visible in their skin. The relaxation of the small arteries
+of the surface, on which blushing depends, seems to have primarily
+resulted from earnest attention directed to the appearance of our own
+persons, especially of our faces, aided by habit, inheritance, and the
+ready flow of nerve-force along accustomed channels; and afterwards to
+have been extended by the power of association to self-attention directed
+to moral conduct. It can hardly be doubted that many animals are capable
+of appreciating beautiful colours and even forms, as is shown by the pains
+which the individuals of one sex take in displaying their beauty before
+those of the opposite sex. But it does not seem possible that any animal,
+until its mental powers had been developed to an equal or nearly equal
+degree with those of man, would have closely considered and been sensitive
+about its own personal appearance. Therefore we may conclude that blushing
+originated at a very late period in the long line of our descent.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+From the various facts just alluded to, and given in the course of this
+volume, it follows that, if the structure of our organs of respiration and
+circulation had differed in only a slight degree from the state in which
+they now exist, most of our expressions would have been wonderfully
+different. A very slight change in the course of the arteries and veins
+which run to the head, would probably have prevented the blood from
+accumulating in our eyeballs during violent expiration; for this occurs in
+extremely few quadrupeds. In this case we should not have displayed some
+of our most characteristic expressions. If man had breathed water by the
+aid of external branchiae (though the idea is hardly conceivable), instead
+of air through his mouth and nostrils, his features would not have
+expressed his feelings much more efficiently than now do his hands or
+limbs. Rage and disgust, however, would still have been shown by movements
+about the lips and mouth, and the eyes would have become brighter or
+duller according to the state of the circulation. If our ears had remained
+movable, their movements would have been highly expressive, as is the case
+with all the animals which fight with their teeth; and we may infer that
+our early progenitors thus fought, as we still uncover the canine tooth on
+one side when we sneer at or defy any one, and we uncover all our teeth
+when furiously enraged.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p2">
+The movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin
+may have been, are in themselves of much importance for our welfare. They
+serve as the first means of communication between the mother and her
+infant; she smiles approval, and thus encourages her child on the right
+path, or frowns disapproval. We readily perceive sympathy in others by
+their expression; our sufferings are thus mitigated and our pleasures
+increased; and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened. The movements of
+expression give vividness and energy to our spoken words. They reveal the
+thoughts and intentions of others more truly than do words, which may be
+falsified. Whatever amount of truth the so-called science of physiognomy
+may contain, appears to depend, as Haller long ago remarked,<a
+href="#linknote-1404" name="linknoteref-1404" id="linknoteref-1404">[1404]</a>
+on different persons bringing into frequent use different facial muscles,
+according to their dispositions; the development of these muscles being
+perhaps thus increased, and the lines or furrows on the face, due to their
+habitual contraction, being thus rendered deeper and more conspicuous. The
+free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the
+other hand, the repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward
+signs softens our emotions.<a href="#linknote-1405" name="linknoteref-1405"
+id="linknoteref-1405">[1405]</a> He who gives way to violent gestures will
+increase his rage; he who does not control the signs of fear will
+experience fear in a greater degree; and he who remains passive when
+overwhelmed with grief loses his best chance of recovering elasticity of
+mind. These results follow partly from the intimate relation which exists
+between almost all the emotions and their outward manifestations; and
+partly from the direct influence of exertion on the heart, and
+consequently on the brain. Even the simulation of an emotion tends to
+arouse it in our minds. Shakespeare, who from his wonderful knowledge of
+the human mind ought to be an excellent judge, says:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+Is it not monstrous that this player here,<br/>
+But in a fiction, in a dream of passion,<br/>
+Could force his soul so to his own conceit,<br/>
+That, from her working, all his visage wann&rsquo;d;<br/>
+Tears in his eyes, distraction in &rsquo;s aspect,<br/>
+A broken voice, and his whole function suiting<br/>
+With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing!<br/>
+<i>Hamlet</i>, act ii. sc. 2.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+We have seen that the study of the theory of expression confirms to a
+certain limited extent the conclusion that man is derived from some lower
+animal form, and supports the belief of the specific or sub-specific unity
+of the several races; but as far as my judgment serves, such confirmation
+was hardly needed. We have also seen that expression in itself, or the
+language of the emotions, as it has sometimes been called, is certainly of
+importance for the welfare of mankind. To understand, as far as possible,
+the source or origin of the various expressions which may be hourly seen
+on the faces of the men around us, not to mention our domesticated
+animals, ought to possess much interest for us. From these several causes,
+we may conclude that the philosophy of our subject has well deserved the
+attention which it has already received from several excellent observers,
+and that it deserves still further attention, especially from any able
+physiologist.
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2><a name="link2H_FOOT" id="link2H_FOOT"></a>FOOTNOTES:</h2>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1" id="linknote-1">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1 (<a href="#linknoteref-1">return</a>)<br/> [ J. Parsons, in his paper in
+the Appendix to the &lsquo;Philosophical Transactions&rsquo; for 1746, p. 41, gives a
+list of forty-one old authors who have written on Expression.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-2" id="linknote-2">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+2 (<a href="#linknoteref-2">return</a>)<br/> [ Conférences sur
+l&rsquo;expression des différents Caractères des Passions.&rsquo; Paris, 4to, 1667. I
+always quote from the republication of the &lsquo;Conférences&rsquo; in the edition of
+Lavater, by Moreau, which appeared in 1820, as given in vol. ix. p. 257.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-3" id="linknote-3">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+3 (<a href="#linknoteref-3">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Discours par Pierre Camper
+sur le moyen de représenter les diverses passions,&rsquo; &amp;c. 1792. 1844]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-4" id="linknote-4">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+4 (<a href="#linknoteref-4">return</a>)<br/> [ I always quote from the
+third edition, 1844, which was published after the death of Sir C. Bell,
+and contains his latest corrections. The first edition of 1806 is much
+inferior in merit, and does not include some of his more important views.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-5" id="linknote-5">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+5 (<a href="#linknoteref-5">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie et de la
+Parole,&rsquo; par Albert Lemoine, 1865, p. 101.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-6" id="linknote-6">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+6 (<a href="#linknoteref-6">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;L&rsquo;Art de connaître les
+Hommes,&rsquo; &amp;c., par G. Lavater. The earliest edition of this work,
+referred to in the preface to the edition of 1820 in ten volumes, as containing
+the observations of M. Moreau, is said to have been published in 1807; and I
+have no doubt that this is correct, because the &lsquo;Notice sur
+Lavater&rsquo; at the commencement of volume i. is dated April 13, 1806. In
+some bibliographical works, however, the date of 1805&mdash;1809 is given, but
+it seems impossible that 1805 can be correct. Dr. Duchenne remarks
+(&lsquo;Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo;-8vo edit. 1862, p. 5, and
+&lsquo;Archives Générales de Médecine,&rsquo; Jan. et Fév. 1862) that M. Moreau
+&ldquo;<i>a composé pour son ouvrage un article important</i>,&rdquo; &amp;c.,
+in the year 1805; and I find in volume i. of the edition of 1820 passages
+bearing the dates of December 12, 1805, and another January 5, 1806, besides
+that of April 13, 1806, above referred to. In consequence of some of these
+passages having thus been <i>composed</i> in 1805, Dr. Duchenne assigns to M.
+Moreau the priority over Sir C. Bell, whose work, as we have seen, was
+published in 1806. This is a very unusual manner of determining the priority of
+scientific works; but such questions are of extremely little importance in
+comparison with their relative merits. The passages above quoted from M. Moreau
+and from Le Brun are taken in this and all other cases from the edition of 1820
+of Lavater, tom. iv. p. 228, and tom. ix. p. 279.]
+</p>
+
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-7" id="linknote-7">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+7 (<a href="#linknoteref-7">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Handbuch der
+Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.&rsquo; Band I. Dritte Abtheilung, 1858.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-8" id="linknote-8">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+8 (<a href="#linknoteref-8">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Senses and the
+Intellect,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1864, pp. 96 and 288. The preface to the first
+edition of this work is dated June, 1855. See also the 2nd edition of Mr.
+Bain&rsquo;s work on the &lsquo;Emotions and Will.&rsquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-9" id="linknote-9">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+9 (<a href="#linknoteref-9">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; 3rd edit. p. 121.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-10" id="linknote-10">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+10 (<a href="#linknoteref-10">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Essays, Scientific,
+Political, and Speculative,&rsquo; Second Series, 1863, p. 111. There is a
+discussion on Laughter in the First Series of Essays, which discussion
+seems to me of very inferior value.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-11" id="linknote-11">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+11 (<a href="#linknoteref-11">return</a>)<br/> [ Since the publication of
+the essay just referred to, Mr. Spencer has written another, on &ldquo;Morals
+and Moral Sentiments,&rdquo; in the &lsquo;Fortnightly Review,&rsquo; April 1, 1871, p. 426.
+He has, also, now published his final conclusions in vol. ii. of the
+second edit. of the &lsquo;Principles of Psychology,&rsquo; 1872, p. 539. I may state,
+in order that I may not be accused of trespassing on Mr. Spencer&rsquo;s domain,
+that I announced in my &lsquo;Descent of Man,&rsquo; that I had then written a part of
+the present volume: my first MS. notes on the subject of expression bear
+the date of the year 1838.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-12" id="linknote-12">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+12 (<a href="#linknoteref-12">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo;
+3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-13" id="linknote-13">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+13 (<a href="#linknoteref-13">return</a>)<br/> [ Professor Owen expressly
+states (Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1830, p. 28) that this is the case with respect
+to the Orang, and specifies all the more important muscles which are well
+known to serve with man for the expression of his feelings. See, also, a
+description of several of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof.
+Macalister, in &lsquo;Annals and Magazine of Natural History,&rsquo; vol. vii. May,
+1871, p. 342.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-14" id="linknote-14">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+14 (<a href="#linknoteref-14">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo;
+pp. 121, 138.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-15" id="linknote-15">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+15 (<a href="#linknoteref-15">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo; pp.
+12, 73.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-16" id="linknote-16">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+16 (<a href="#linknoteref-16">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo; 8vo edit. p. 31.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-17" id="linknote-17">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+17 (<a href="#linknoteref-17">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Elements of Physiology,&rsquo;
+English translation, vol. ii. p. 934.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-18" id="linknote-18">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+18 (<a href="#linknoteref-18">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo;
+3rd edit. p. 198.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-19" id="linknote-19">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+19 (<a href="#linknoteref-19">return</a>)<br/> [ See remarks to this
+effect in Lessing&rsquo;s &lsquo;Lacooon,&rsquo; translated by W. Ross, 1836, p. 19.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-20" id="linknote-20">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+20 (<a href="#linknoteref-20">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Partridge in Todd&rsquo;s
+&lsquo;Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology,&rsquo; vol. ii. p. 227.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-21" id="linknote-21">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+21 (<a href="#linknoteref-21">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;La Physionomie,&rsquo; par G.
+Lavater, tom. iv. 1820, p. 274. On the number of the facial muscles, see
+vol. iv. pp. 209-211.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-22" id="linknote-22">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+22 (<a href="#linknoteref-22">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mimik und Physiognomik,&rsquo;
+1867, s. 91.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-101" id="linknote-101">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+101 (<a href="#linknoteref-101">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Herbert Spencer
+(&lsquo;Essays,&rsquo; Second Series, 1863, p. 138) has drawn a clear distinction
+between emotions and sensations, the latter being &ldquo;generated in our
+corporeal framework.&rdquo; He classes as Feelings both emotions
+and-sensations.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-102" id="linknote-102">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+102 (<a href="#linknoteref-102">return</a>)<br/> [ Müller, &lsquo;Elements of
+Physiology,&rsquo; Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 939. See also Mr. H. Spencer&rsquo;s
+interesting speculations on the same subject, and on the genesis of
+nerves, in his &lsquo;Principles of Biology,&rsquo; vol. ii. p. 346; and in his
+&lsquo;Principles of Psychology,&rsquo; 2nd edit. pp. 511-557.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-103" id="linknote-103">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+103 (<a href="#linknoteref-103">return</a>)<br/> [ A remark to much the
+same effect was made long ago by Hippocrates and by the illustrious
+Harvey; for both assert that a young animal forgets in the course of a few
+days the art of sucking, and cannot without some difficulty again acquire
+it. I give these assertions on the authority of Dr. Darwin, &lsquo;Zoonomia,&rsquo;
+1794, vol. i. p. 140.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-104" id="linknote-104">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+104 (<a href="#linknoteref-104">return</a>)<br/> [ See for my authorities,
+and for various analogous facts, &lsquo;The Variation of Animals and Plants
+under Domestication,&rsquo; 1868, vol. ii. p. 304.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-105" id="linknote-105">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+105 (<a href="#linknoteref-105">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Senses and the
+Intellect,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1864, p. 332. Prof. Huxley remarks (&lsquo;Elementary
+Lessons in Physiology,&rsquo; 5th edit. 1872, p. 306), &ldquo;It may be laid down as a
+rule, that, if any two mental states be called up together, or in
+succession, with due frequency and vividness, the subsequent production of
+the one of them will suffice to call up the other, and that whether we
+desire it or not.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-106" id="linknote-106">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+106 (<a href="#linknoteref-106">return</a>)<br/> [ Gratiolet (&lsquo;De la
+Physionomie,&rsquo; p. 324), in his discussion on this subject, gives many
+analogous instances. See p. 42, on the opening and shutting of the eyes.
+Engel is quoted (p. 323) on the changed paces of a man, as his thoughts
+change.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-107" id="linknote-107">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+107 (<a href="#linknoteref-107">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo; 1862, p. 17.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-108" id="linknote-108">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+108 (<a href="#linknoteref-108">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Variation of
+Animals and Plants under Domestication,&rsquo; vol. ii. p. 6. The inheritance of
+habitual gestures is so important for us, that I gladly avail myself of
+Mr. F. Galton&rsquo;s permission to give in his own words the following
+remarkable case:&mdash;&ldquo;The following account of a habit occurring in
+individuals of three consecutive generations {footnote continues:} is of
+peculiar interest, because it occurs only during sound sleep, and
+therefore cannot be due to imitation, but must be altogether natural. The
+particulars are perfectly trustworthy, for I have enquired fully into
+them, and speak from abundant and independent evidence. A gentleman of
+considerable position was found by his wife to have the curious trick,
+when he lay fast asleep on his back in bed, of raising his right arm
+slowly in front of his face, up to his forehead, and then dropping it with
+a jerk, so that the wrist fell heavily on the bridge of his nose. The
+trick did not occur every night, but occasionally, and was independent of
+any ascertained cause. Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an hour
+or more. The gentleman&rsquo;s nose was prominent, and its bridge often became
+sore from the blows which it received. At one time an awkward sore was
+produced, that was long in healing, on account of the recurrence, night
+after night, of the blows which first caused it. His wife had to remove
+the button from the wrist of his night-gown as it made severe scratches,
+and some means were attempted of tying his arm.
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+&ldquo;Many years after his death, his son married a lady who had never heard of
+the family incident. She, however, observed precisely the same peculiarity
+in her husband; but his nose, from not being particularly prominent, has
+never as yet suffered from the blows. The trick does not occur when he is
+half-asleep, as, for example, when dozing in his arm-chair, but the moment
+he is fast asleep it is apt to begin. It is, as with his father,
+intermittent; sometimes ceasing for many nights, and sometimes almost
+incessant during a part of every night. It is performed, as it was by his
+father, with his right hand.
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+&ldquo;One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick. She performs
+it, likewise, with the right hand, but in a slightly modified form; for,
+after raising the arm, she does not allow the wrist to drop upon the
+bridge of the nose, but the palm of the half-closed hand falls over and
+down the nose, striking it rather rapidly. It is also very intermittent
+with this child, not occurring for periods of some months, but sometimes
+occurring almost incessantly.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-109" id="linknote-109">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+109 (<a href="#linknoteref-109">return</a>)<br/> [ Prof. Huxley remarks
+(&lsquo;Elementary Physiology,&rsquo; 5th edit. p. 305) that reflex actions proper to
+the spinal cord are <i>natural</i>; but, by the help of the brain, that is
+through habit, an infinity of <i>artificial</i> reflex actions may be acquired.
+Virchow admits (&lsquo;Sammlung wissenschaft. Vorträge,&rsquo; &amp;c., &ldquo;Ueber das
+Rückenmark,&rdquo; 1871, ss. 24, 31) that some reflex actions can hardly be
+distinguished from instincts; and, of the latter, it may be added, some
+cannot be distinguished from inherited habits.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-110" id="linknote-110">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+110 (<a href="#linknoteref-110">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Maudsley, &lsquo;Body and
+Mind,&rsquo; 1870, p. 8.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-111" id="linknote-111">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+111 (<a href="#linknoteref-111">return</a>)<br/> [ See the very
+interesting discussion on the whole subject by Claude Bernard, &lsquo;Tissus
+Vivants,&rsquo; 1866, p. 353-356.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-112" id="linknote-112">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+112 (<a href="#linknoteref-112">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Chapters on Mental
+Physiology,&rsquo; 1858, p. 85.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-113" id="linknote-113">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+113 (<a href="#linknoteref-113">return</a>)<br/> [ Müller remarks
+(&lsquo;Elements of Physiology,&rsquo; Eng. tr. vol. ii. p. 1311) on starting being
+always accompanied by the closure of the eyelids.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-114" id="linknote-114">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+114 (<a href="#linknoteref-114">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Maudsley remarks
+(&lsquo;Body and Mind,&rsquo; p. 10) that &ldquo;reflex movements which commonly effect a
+useful end may, under the changed circumstances of disease, do great
+mischief, becoming even the occasion of violent suffering and of a most
+painful death.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-115" id="linknote-115">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+115 (<a href="#linknoteref-115">return</a>)<br/> [ See Mr. F. H. Salvin&rsquo;s
+account of a tame jackal in &lsquo;Land and Water,&rsquo; October, 1869.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-116" id="linknote-116">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+116 (<a href="#linknoteref-116">return</a>)<br/> [ &ldquo;Dr. Darwin,
+&lsquo;Zoonomia,&rsquo; 1794, vol. i. p. 160. I find that the fact of cats protruding
+their feet when pleased is also noticed (p. 151) in this work.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-117" id="linknote-117">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+117 (<a href="#linknoteref-117">return</a>)<br/> [ Carpenter, &lsquo;Principles
+of Comparative Physiology,&rsquo; 1854, p. 690, and Müller&rsquo;s &lsquo;Elements of
+Physiology,&rsquo; Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 936.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-118" id="linknote-118">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+118 (<a href="#linknoteref-118">return</a>)<br/> [ Mowbray on &lsquo;Poultry,&rsquo;
+6th edit. 1830, p. 54.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-119" id="linknote-119">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+119 (<a href="#linknoteref-119">return</a>)<br/> [ See the account given
+by this excellent observer in &lsquo;Wild Sports of the Highlands,&rsquo; 1846, p.
+142.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-120" id="linknote-120">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+120 (<a href="#linknoteref-120">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Philosophical
+Translations,&rsquo; 1823, p. 182.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-201" id="linknote-201">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+201 (<a href="#linknoteref-201">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Naturgeschichte der
+Säugethiere von Paraguay,&rsquo; 1830, s. 55.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-202" id="linknote-202">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+202 (<a href="#linknoteref-202">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Tylor gives an
+account of the Cistercian gesture-language in his &lsquo;Early History of
+Mankind&rsquo; (2nd edit. 1870, p. 40), and makes some remarks on the principle
+of opposition in gestures.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-203" id="linknote-203">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+203 (<a href="#linknoteref-203">return</a>)<br/> [ See on this subject Dr.
+W. R. Scott&rsquo;s interesting work, &lsquo;The Deaf and Dumb,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1870, p.
+12. He says, &ldquo;This contracting of natural gestures into much shorter
+gestures than the natural expression requires, is very common amongst the
+deaf and dumb. This contracted gesture is frequently so shortened as
+nearly to lose all semblance of the natural one, but to the deaf and dumb
+who use it, it still has the force of the original expression.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-301" id="linknote-301">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+301 (<a href="#linknoteref-301">return</a>)<br/> [ See the interesting
+cases collected by M. G. Pouchet in the &lsquo;Revue des Deux Mondes,&rsquo; January
+1, 1872, p. 79. An instance was also brought some years ago before the
+British Association at Belfast.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-302" id="linknote-302">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+302 (<a href="#linknoteref-302">return</a>)<br/> [ Müller remarks
+(&lsquo;Elements of Physiology,&rsquo; Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 934) that when the
+feelings are very intense, &ldquo;all the spinal nerves become affected to the
+extent of imperfect paralysis, or the excitement of trembling of the whole
+body.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-303" id="linknote-303">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+303 (<a href="#linknoteref-303">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Leçons sur les Prop.
+des Tissus Vivants,&rsquo; 1866, pp. 457-466.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-304" id="linknote-304">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+304 (<a href="#linknoteref-304">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bartlett, &ldquo;Notes on
+the Birth of a Hippopotamus,&rdquo; Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1871, p. 255.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-305" id="linknote-305">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+305 (<a href="#linknoteref-305">return</a>)<br/> [ See, on this subject,
+Claude Bernard, &lsquo;Tissus Vivants,&rsquo; 1866, pp. 316, 337, 358. Virchow
+expresses himself to almost exactly the same effect in his essay &ldquo;Ueber
+das Rückenmark&rdquo; (Sammlung wissenschaft. Vorträge, 1871, s. 28).]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-306" id="linknote-306">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+306 (<a href="#linknoteref-306">return</a>)<br/> [ Müller (&lsquo;Elements of
+Physiology,&rsquo; Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 932) in speaking of the nerves,
+says, &ldquo;any sudden change of condition of whatever kind sets the nervous
+principle into action.&rdquo; See Virchow and Bernard on the same subject in
+passages in the two works referred to in my last foot-note.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-307" id="linknote-307">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+307 (<a href="#linknoteref-307">return</a>)<br/> [ H. Spencer, &lsquo;Essays,
+Scientific, Political,&rsquo; &amp;c., Second Series, 1863, pp. 109, 111.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-308" id="linknote-308">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+308 (<a href="#linknoteref-308">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir H. Holland, in
+speaking (&lsquo;Medical Notes and Reflexions,&rsquo; 1839, p. 328) of that curious
+state of body called the <i>fidgets</i>, remarks that it seems due to &ldquo;an
+accumulation of some cause of irritation which requires muscular action
+for its relief.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-309" id="linknote-309">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+309 (<a href="#linknoteref-309">return</a>)<br/> [ I am much indebted to
+Mr. A. H. Garrod for having informed me of M. Lorain&rsquo;s work on the pulse,
+in which a sphygmogram of a woman in a rage is given; and this shows much
+difference in the rate and other characters from that of the same woman in
+her ordinary state.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-310" id="linknote-310">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+310 (<a href="#linknoteref-310">return</a>)<br/> [ How powerfully intense
+joy excites the brain, and how the brain reacts on the body, is well shown
+in the rare cases of Psychical Intoxication. Dr. J. Crichton Browne
+(&lsquo;Medical Mirror,&rsquo; 1865) records the case of a young man of strongly
+nervous temperament, who, on hearing by a telegram that a fortune had been
+bequeathed him, first became pale, then exhilarated, and soon in the
+highest spirits, but flushed and very restless. He then took a walk with a
+friend for the sake of tranquillising himself, but returned staggering in
+his gait, uproariously laughing, yet irritable in temper, incessantly
+talking, and singing loudly in the public streets. It was positively
+ascertained that he had not touched any spirituous liquor, though every
+one thought that he was intoxicated. Vomiting after a time came on, and
+the half-digested contents of his stomach were examined, but no odour of
+alcohol could be detected. He then slept heavily, and on awaking was well,
+except that he suffered from headache, nausea, and prostration of
+strength.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-311" id="linknote-311">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+311 (<a href="#linknoteref-311">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Darwin, &lsquo;Zoonomia,&rsquo;
+1794, vol. i. p. 148.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-312" id="linknote-312">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+312 (<a href="#linknoteref-312">return</a>)<br/> [ Mrs. Oliphant, in her
+novel of &lsquo;Miss Majoribanks,&rsquo; p. 362. All this reacts on the brain, and
+prostration soon follows with collapsed muscles and dulled eyes. As
+associated habit no longer prompts the sufferer to action, he is urged by
+his friends to voluntary exertion, and not to give way to silent,
+motionless grief. Exertion stimulates the heart, and this reacts on the
+brain, and aids the mind to bear its heavy load.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-401" id="linknote-401">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+401 (<a href="#linknoteref-401">return</a>)<br/> [ See the evidence on
+this head in my &lsquo;Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,&rsquo;
+vol. i. p. 27. On the cooing of pigeons, vol. i. pp. 154, 155.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-402" id="linknote-402">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+402 (<a href="#linknoteref-402">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Essays, Scientific,
+Political, and Speculative,&rsquo; 1858. &lsquo;The Origin and Function of Music,&rsquo; p.
+359.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-403" id="linknote-403">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+403 (<a href="#linknoteref-403">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Descent of Man,&rsquo;
+1870, vol. ii. p. 332. The words quoted are from Professor Owen. It has
+lately been shown that some quadrupeds much lower in the scale than
+monkeys, namely Rodents, are able to produce correct musical tones: see
+the account of a singing Hesperomys, by the Rev. S. Lockwood, in the
+&lsquo;American Naturalist,&rsquo; vol. v. December, 1871, p. 761.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-404" id="linknote-404">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+404 (<a href="#linknoteref-404">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Tylor (&lsquo;Primitive
+Culture,&rsquo; 1871, vol. i. p. 166), in his discussion on this subject,
+alludes to the whining of the dog.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-405" id="linknote-405">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+405 (<a href="#linknoteref-405">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Naturgeschichte der
+Säugethiere von Paraguay,&rsquo; 1830, s. 46.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-406" id="linknote-406">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+406 (<a href="#linknoteref-406">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Gratiolet,
+&lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo; 1865, p. 115.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-407" id="linknote-407">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+407 (<a href="#linknoteref-407">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Théorie Physiologique
+de la Musique,&rsquo; Paris, 1868, P. 146. Helmholtz has also fully discussed in
+this profound work the relation of the form of the cavity of the mouth to
+the production of vowel-sounds.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-408" id="linknote-408">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+408 (<a href="#linknoteref-408">return</a>)<br/> [ I have given some
+details on this subject in my &lsquo;Descent of Man,&rsquo; vol. i. pp. 352, 384.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-409" id="linknote-409">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+409 (<a href="#linknoteref-409">return</a>)<br/> [ As quoted in Huxley&rsquo;s
+&lsquo;Evidence as to Man&rsquo;s Place in Nature,&rsquo; 1863, p. 52.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-410" id="linknote-410">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+410 (<a href="#linknoteref-410">return</a>)<br/> [ Illust. Thierleben,
+1864, B. i. s. 130.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-411" id="linknote-411">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+411 (<a href="#linknoteref-411">return</a>)<br/> [ The Hon. J. Caton,
+Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences, May, 1868, pp. 36, 40. For the <i>Capra,
+Ægagrus</i>, &lsquo;Land and Water,&rsquo; 1867, p. 37.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-412" id="linknote-412">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+412 (<a href="#linknoteref-412">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Land and Water,&rsquo; July
+20, 1867, p. 659.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-413" id="linknote-413">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+413 (<a href="#linknoteref-413">return</a>)<br/> [ <i>Phaeton rubricauda</i>:
+&lsquo;Ibis,&rsquo; vol. iii. 1861, p. 180.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-414" id="linknote-414">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+414 (<a href="#linknoteref-414">return</a>)<br/> [ On the <i>Strix flammea</i>,
+Audubon, &lsquo;Ornithological Biography,&rsquo; 1864, vol. ii. p. 407. I have
+observed other cases in the Zoological Gardens.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-415" id="linknote-415">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+415 (<a href="#linknoteref-415">return</a>)<br/> [ <i>Melopsittacus
+undulatus</i>. See an account of its habits by Gould, &lsquo;Handbook of Birds
+of Australia,&rsquo; 1865, vol. ii. p. 82.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-416" id="linknote-416">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+416 (<a href="#linknoteref-416">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for instance, the
+account which I have given (&lsquo;Descent of Man,&rsquo; vol. ii. p. 32) of an Anolis
+and Draco.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-417" id="linknote-417">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+417 (<a href="#linknoteref-417">return</a>)<br/> [ These muscles are
+described in his well-known works. I am greatly indebted to this
+distinguished observer for having given me in a letter information on this
+same subject.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-418" id="linknote-418">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+418 (<a href="#linknoteref-418">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Lehrbuch der
+Histologie des Menschen,&rsquo; 1857, s. 82. I owe to Prof. W. Turner&rsquo;s kindness
+an extract from this work.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-419" id="linknote-419">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+419 (<a href="#linknoteref-419">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Quarterly Journal of
+Microscopical Science,&rsquo; 1853, vol. i. p. 262.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-420" id="linknote-420">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+420 (<a href="#linknoteref-420">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Lehrbuch der
+Histologie,&rsquo; 1857, s. 82.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-421" id="linknote-421">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+421 (<a href="#linknoteref-421">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Dictionary of English
+Etymology,&rsquo; p. 403.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-422" id="linknote-422">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+422 (<a href="#linknoteref-422">return</a>)<br/> [ See the account of the
+habits of this animal by Dr. Cooper, as quoted in &lsquo;Nature,&rsquo; April 27,
+1871, p. 512.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-423" id="linknote-423">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+423 (<a href="#linknoteref-423">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Günther, &lsquo;Reptiles
+of British India,&rsquo; p. 262.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-424" id="linknote-424">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+424 (<a href="#linknoteref-424">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. J. Mansel Weale,
+&lsquo;Nature,&rsquo; April 27, 1871, p. 508.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-425" id="linknote-425">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+425 (<a href="#linknoteref-425">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Journal of Researches
+during the Voyage of the &ldquo;Beagle,&rdquo;&rsquo; 1845, p. 96. I have compared the
+rattling thus produced with that of the Rattle-snake.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-426" id="linknote-426">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+426 (<a href="#linknoteref-426">return</a>)<br/> [ See the account by Dr.
+Anderson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 196.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-427" id="linknote-427">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+427 (<a href="#linknoteref-427">return</a>)<br/> [ The &lsquo;American
+Naturalist,&rsquo; Jan. 1872, p. 32. I regret that I cannot follow Prof. Shaler
+in believing that the rattle has been developed, by the aid of natural
+selection, for the sake of producing sounds which deceive and attract
+birds, so that they may serve as prey to the snake. I do not, however,
+wish to doubt that the sounds may occasionally subserve this end. But the
+conclusion at which I have arrived, viz. that the rattling serves as a
+warning to would-be devourers, appears to me much more probable, as it
+connects together various classes of facts. If this snake had acquired its
+rattle and the habit of rattling, for the sake of attracting prey, it does
+not seem probable that it would have invariably used its instrument when
+angered or disturbed. Prof. Shaler takes nearly the same view as I do of
+the manner of development of the rattle; and I have always held this
+opinion since observing the Trigonocephalus in South America.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-428" id="linknote-428">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+428 (<a href="#linknoteref-428">return</a>)<br/> [ From the accounts
+lately collected, and given in the &lsquo;Journal of the Linnean Society,&rsquo; by
+Airs. Barber, on the habits of the snakes of South Africa; and from the
+accounts published by several writers, for instance by Lawson, of the
+rattle-snake in North America,&mdash;it does not seem improbable that the
+terrific appearance of snakes and the sounds produced by them, may
+likewise serve in procuring prey, by paralysing, or as it is sometimes
+called fascinating, the smaller animals.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-429" id="linknote-429">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+429 (<a href="#linknoteref-429">return</a>)<br/> [ See the account by Dr.
+R. Brown, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 39. He says that as soon as a pig
+sees a snake it rushes upon it; and a snake makes off immediately on the
+appearance of a pig.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-430" id="linknote-430">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+430 (<a href="#linknoteref-430">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Günther remarks
+(&lsquo;Reptiles of British India,&rsquo; p. 340) on the destruction of cobras by the
+ichneumon or herpestes, and whilst the cobras are young by the
+jungle-fowl. It is well known that the peacock also eagerly kills snakes.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-431" id="linknote-431">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+431 (<a href="#linknoteref-431">return</a>)<br/> [ Prof. Cope enumerates a
+number of kinds in his &lsquo;Method of Creation of Organic Types,&rsquo; read before
+the American Phil. Soc., December 15th, 1871, p. 20. Prof. Cope takes the
+same view as I do of the use of the gestures and sounds made by snakes. I
+briefly alluded to this subject in the last edition of my &lsquo;Origin of
+Species.&rsquo; Since the passages in the text above have been printed, I have
+been pleased to find that Mr. Henderson (&lsquo;The American Naturalist,&rsquo; May,
+1872, p. 260) also takes a similar view of the use of the rattle, namely
+&ldquo;in preventing an attack from being made.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-432" id="linknote-432">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+432 (<a href="#linknoteref-432">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. des Vœux, in Proc.
+Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 3.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-433" id="linknote-433">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+433 (<a href="#linknoteref-433">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Sportsman and
+Naturalist in Canada,&rsquo; 1866, p. 53. p. 53.{sic}]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-434" id="linknote-434">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+434 (<a href="#linknoteref-434">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Nile Tributaries
+of Abyssinia,&rsquo; 1867, p. 443.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-501" id="linknote-501">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+501 (<a href="#linknoteref-501">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; 1844, p. 190.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-502" id="linknote-502">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+502 (<a href="#linknoteref-502">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+1865, pp. 187, 218.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-503" id="linknote-503">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+503 (<a href="#linknoteref-503">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; 1844, p. 140.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-504" id="linknote-504">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+504 (<a href="#linknoteref-504">return</a>)<br/> [ Many particulars are
+given by Gueldenstädt in his account of the jackal in Nov. Comm. Acad. Sc.
+Imp. Petrop. 1775, tom. xx. p. 449. See also another excellent account of
+the manners of this animal and of its play, in &lsquo;Land and Water,&rsquo; October,
+1869. Lieut. Annesley, R. A., has also communicated to me some particulars
+with respect to the jackal. I have made many inquiries about wolves and
+jackals in the Zoological Gardens, and have observed them for myself.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-505" id="linknote-505">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+505 (<a href="#linknoteref-505">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Land and Water,&rsquo;
+November 6, 1869.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-506" id="linknote-506">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+506 (<a href="#linknoteref-506">return</a>)<br/> [ Azara, &lsquo;Quadrupèdes du
+Paraquay,&rsquo; 1801, tom. 1. p. 136.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-507" id="linknote-507">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+507 (<a href="#linknoteref-507">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Land and Water,&rsquo; 1867,
+p. 657. See also Azara on the Puma, in the work above quoted.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-508" id="linknote-508">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+508 (<a href="#linknoteref-508">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell, &lsquo;Anatomy
+of Expression,&rsquo; 3rd edit. p. 123. See also p. 126, on horses not breathing
+through their mouths, with reference to their distended nostrils.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-509" id="linknote-509">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+509 (<a href="#linknoteref-509">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Land and Water,&rsquo; 1869,
+p. 152.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-510" id="linknote-510">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+510 (<a href="#linknoteref-510">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Natural History of
+Mammalia,&rsquo; 1841, vol. 1. pp. 383, 410.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-511" id="linknote-511">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+511 (<a href="#linknoteref-511">return</a>)<br/> [ Rengger (&lsquo;Sagetheire
+von Paraquay&rsquo;, 1830, s. 46) kept these monkeys in confinement for seven
+years in their native country of Paraguay.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-512" id="linknote-512">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+512 (<a href="#linknoteref-512">return</a>)<br/> [ Rengger, ibid. s. 46.
+Humboldt, &lsquo;Personal Narrative, Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 527.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-513" id="linknote-513">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+513 (<a href="#linknoteref-513">return</a>)<br/> [ Nat. Hist. of Mammalia,
+1841, p. 351.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-514" id="linknote-514">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+514 (<a href="#linknoteref-514">return</a>)<br/> [ Brehm, &lsquo;Thierleben,&rsquo; B.
+i. s. 84. On baboons striking the ground, s. 61.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-515" id="linknote-515">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+515 (<a href="#linknoteref-515">return</a>)<br/> [ Brehm remarks
+(&lsquo;Thierleben,&rsquo; s. 68) that the eyebrows of the <i>Inuus ecaudatus</i> are
+frequently moved up and down when the animal is angered.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-516" id="linknote-516">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+516 (<a href="#linknoteref-516">return</a>)<br/> [ G. Bennett, &lsquo;Wanderings
+in New South Wales,&rsquo; &amp;c. vol. ii. 1834, p. 153. FIG. 18.-Chimpanzee
+disappointed and sulky. Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-517" id="linknote-517">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+517 (<a href="#linknoteref-517">return</a>)<br/> [ W. L. Martin, Nat.
+Hist. of Mamm. Animals, 1841, p. 405.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-518" id="linknote-518">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+518 (<a href="#linknoteref-518">return</a>)<br/> [ Prof. Owen on the
+Orang, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1830, p. 28. On the Chimpanzee, see Prof.
+Macalister, in Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. vii. 1871, p. 342, who
+states that the <i>corrugator supercilii</i> is inseparable from the <i>orbicularis
+palpebrarum</i>.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-519" id="linknote-519">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+519 (<a href="#linknoteref-519">return</a>)<br/> [ Boston Journal of Nat.
+Hist. 1845&mdash;-47, vol. v. p. 423. On the Chimpanzee, ibid. 1843-44,
+vol. iv. p. 365.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-520" id="linknote-520">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+520 (<a href="#linknoteref-520">return</a>)<br/> [ See on this subject,
+&lsquo;Descent of Man,&rsquo; vol. i. p. 20.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-521" id="linknote-521">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+521 (<a href="#linknoteref-521">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Descent of Man,&rsquo; vol,
+i. p, 43.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-522" id="linknote-522">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+522 (<a href="#linknoteref-522">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; 3rd edit. 1844, pp. 138, 121.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-601" id="linknote-601">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+601 (<a href="#linknoteref-601">return</a>)<br/> [ The best photographs in
+my collection are by Mr. Rejlander, of Victoria Street, London, and by
+Herr Kindermann, of Hamburg. Figs. 1, 3, 4, and 6 are by the former; and
+figs. 2 and 5, by the latter gentleman. Fig. 6 is given to show moderate
+crying in an older child.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-602" id="linknote-602">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+602 (<a href="#linknoteref-602">return</a>)<br/> [ Henle (&lsquo;Handbuch d.
+Syst. Anat. 1858, B. i. s. 139) agrees with Duchenne that this is the
+effect of the contraction of the <i>pyramidalis nasi</i>.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-603" id="linknote-603">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+603 (<a href="#linknoteref-603">return</a>)<br/> [ These consist of the <i>levator
+labii superioris alaeque nasi</i>, the <i>levator labii proprius</i>, the
+<i>malaris</i>, and the <i>zygomaticus minor</i>, or little zygomatic.
+This latter muscle runs parallel to and above the great zygomatic, and is
+attached to the outer part of the upper lip. It is represented in fig. 2
+(I. p. 24), but not in figs. 1 and 3. Dr. Duchenne first showed
+(&lsquo;Mécanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo; Album, 1862, p. 39) the importance
+of the contraction of this muscle in the shape assumed by the features in
+crying. Henle considers the above-named muscles (excepting the <i>malaris</i>)
+as subdivisions of the <i>quadratus labii superioris</i>.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-604" id="linknote-604">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+604 (<a href="#linknoteref-604">return</a>)<br/> [ Although Dr. Duchenne
+has so carefully studied the contraction of the different muscles during
+the act of crying, and the furrows on the face thus produced, there seems
+to be something incomplete in his account; but what this is I cannot say.
+He has given a figure (Album, fig. 48) in which one half of the face is
+made, by galvanizing the proper muscles, to smile; whilst the other half
+is similarly made to begin crying. Almost all those (viz. nineteen out of
+twenty-one persons) to whom I showed the smiling half of the face
+instantly recognized the expression; but, with respect to the other half,
+only six persons out of twenty-one recognized it,&mdash;that is, if we
+accept such terms as &ldquo;grief,&rdquo; &ldquo;misery,&rdquo; &ldquo;annoyance,&rdquo; as correct;&mdash;whereas,
+fifteen persons were ludicrously mistaken; some of them saying the face
+expressed &ldquo;fun,&rdquo; &ldquo;satisfaction,&rdquo; &ldquo;cunning,&rdquo; &ldquo;disgust,&rdquo; &amp;c. We may
+infer from this that there is something wrong in the expression. Some of
+the fifteen persons may, however, have been partly misled by not expecting
+to see an old man crying, and by tears not being secreted. With respect to
+another figure by Dr. Duchenne (fig. 49), in which the muscles of half the
+face are galvanized in order to represent a man beginning to cry, with the
+eyebrow on the same side rendered oblique, which is characteristic of
+misery, the expression was recognized by a greater proportional number of
+persons. Out of twenty-three persons, fourteen answered correctly,
+&ldquo;sorrow,&rdquo; &ldquo;distress,&rdquo; &ldquo;grief,&rdquo; &ldquo;just going to cry,&rdquo; &ldquo;endurance of pain,&rdquo;
+&amp;c. On the other hand, nine persons either could form no opinion or
+were entirely wrong, answering, &ldquo;cunning leer,&rdquo; &ldquo;jocund,&rdquo; &ldquo;looking at an
+intense light,&rdquo; &ldquo;looking at a distant object,&rdquo; &amp;c.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-605" id="linknote-605">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+605 (<a href="#linknoteref-605">return</a>)<br/> [ Mrs. Gaskell, &lsquo;Mary
+Barton,&rsquo; new edit. p. 84.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-606" id="linknote-606">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+606 (<a href="#linknoteref-606">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mimik und
+Physiognomik,&rsquo; 1867, s. 102. Duchenne, Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine,
+Album, p. 34.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-607" id="linknote-607">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+607 (<a href="#linknoteref-607">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Duchenne makes this
+remark, ibid. p. 39.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-608" id="linknote-608">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+608 (<a href="#linknoteref-608">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Origin of
+Civilization,&rsquo; 1870, p. 355.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-609" id="linknote-609">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+609 (<a href="#linknoteref-609">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for instance, Mr.
+Marshall&rsquo;s account of an idiot in Philosoph. Transact. 1864, p. 526. With
+respect to cretins, see Dr. Piderit, &lsquo;Mimik und Physiognomik,&rsquo; 1867, s.
+61.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-610" id="linknote-610">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+610 (<a href="#linknoteref-610">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;New Zealand and its
+Inhabitants,&rsquo; 1855, p. 175.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-611" id="linknote-611">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+611 (<a href="#linknoteref-611">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+1865, p. 126.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-612" id="linknote-612">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+612 (<a href="#linknoteref-612">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; 1844, p. 106. See also his paper in the &lsquo;Philosophical
+Transactions,&rsquo; 1822, p. 284, ibid. 1823, pp. 166 and 289. Also &lsquo;The
+Nervous System of the Human Body,&rsquo; 3rd edit. 1836, p. 175.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-613" id="linknote-613">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+613 (<a href="#linknoteref-613">return</a>)<br/> [ See Dr. Brinton&rsquo;s
+account of the act of vomiting, in Todd&rsquo;s Cyclop. of Anatomy and
+Physiology, 1859, vol. v. Supplement, p. 318.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-614" id="linknote-614">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+614 (<a href="#linknoteref-614">return</a>)<br/> [ I am greatly indebted
+to Mr. Bowman for having introduced me to Prof. Donders, and for his aid
+in persuading this great physiologist to undertake the investigation of
+the present subject. I am likewise much indebted to Mr. Bowman for having
+given me, with the utmost kindness, information on many points.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-615" id="linknote-615">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+615 (<a href="#linknoteref-615">return</a>)<br/> [ This memoir first
+appeared in the &lsquo;Nederlandsch Archief voor Genees en Natuurkunde,&rsquo; Deel
+5, 1870. It has been translated by Dr. W. D. Moore, under the title of &ldquo;On
+the Action of the Eyelids in determination of Blood from expiratory
+effort,&rdquo; in &lsquo;Archives of Medicine,&rsquo; edited by Dr. L. S. Beale, 1870, vol.
+v. p. 20.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-616" id="linknote-616">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+616 (<a href="#linknoteref-616">return</a>)<br/> [ Prof. Donders remarks
+(ibid. p. 28), that, &ldquo;After injury to the eye, after operations, and in
+some forms of internal inflammation, we attach great value to the uniform
+support of the closed eyelids, and we increase this in many instances by
+the application of a bandage. In both cases we carefully endeavour to
+avoid great expiratory pressure, the disadvantage of which is well known.&rdquo;
+Mr. Bowman informs me that in the excessive photophobia, accompanying what
+is called scrofulous ophthalmia in children, when the light is so very
+painful that during weeks or months it is constantly excluded by the most
+forcible closure of the lids, he has often been struck on opening the lids
+by the paleness of the eye,&mdash;not an unnatural paleness, but an
+absence of the redness that might have been expected when the surface is
+somewhat inflamed, as is then usually the case; and this paleness he is
+inclined to attribute to the forcible closure of the eyelids.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-617" id="linknote-617">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+617 (<a href="#linknoteref-617">return</a>)<br/> [ Donders, ibid. p. 36.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-618" id="linknote-618">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+618 (<a href="#linknoteref-618">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood
+(Dict. of English Etymology, 1859, vol. i. p. 410) says, &ldquo;the verb to weep
+comes from Anglo-Saxon <i>wop</i>, the primary meaning of which is simply
+outcry.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-619" id="linknote-619">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+619 (<a href="#linknoteref-619">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+1865, p. 217.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-620" id="linknote-620">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+620 (<a href="#linknoteref-620">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Ceylon,&rsquo; 3rd edit.
+1859, vol. ii. pp. 364, 376. I applied to Mr. Thwaites, in Ceylon, for
+further information with respect to the weeping of the elephant; and in
+consequence received a letter from the Rev. Mr Glenie, who, with others,
+kindly observed for me a herd of recently captured elephants. These, when
+irritated, screamed violently; but it is remarkable that they never when
+thus screaming contracted the muscles round the eyes. Nor did they shed
+tears; and the native hunters asserted that they had never observed
+elephants weeping. Nevertheless, it appears to me impossible to doubt Sir
+E. Tennent&rsquo;s distinct details about their weeping, supported as they are
+by the positive assertion of the keeper in the Zoological Gardens. It is
+certain that the two elephants in the Gardens, when they began to trumpet
+loudly, invariably contracted their orbicular muscles. I can reconcile
+these conflicting statements only by supposing that the recently captured
+elephants in Ceylon, from being enraged or frightened, desired to observe
+their persecutors, and consequently did not contract their orbicular
+muscles, so that their vision might not be impeded. Those seen weeping by
+Sir E. Tennent were prostrate, and had given up the contest in despair.
+The elephants which trumpeted in the Zoological Gardens at the word of
+command, were, of course, neither alarmed nor enraged.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-621" id="linknote-621">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+621 (<a href="#linknoteref-621">return</a>)<br/> [ Bergeon, as quoted in
+the &lsquo;Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,&rsquo; Nov. 1871, p. 235.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-622" id="linknote-622">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+622 (<a href="#linknoteref-622">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for instance, a
+case given by Sir Charles Bell, &lsquo;Philosophical Transactions,&rsquo; 1823, p.
+177.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-623" id="linknote-623">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+623 (<a href="#linknoteref-623">return</a>)<br/> [ See, on these several
+points, Prof. Donders &lsquo;On the Anomalies of Accommodation and Refraction of
+the Eye,&rsquo; 1864, p. 573.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-624" id="linknote-624">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+624 (<a href="#linknoteref-624">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Sir J.
+Lubbock, &lsquo;Prehistoric Times,&rsquo; 1865, p. 458.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-701" id="linknote-701">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+701 (<a href="#linknoteref-701">return</a>)<br/> [ The above descriptive
+remarks are taken in part from my own observations, but chiefly from
+Gratiolet (&lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo; pp. 53, 337; on Sighing, 232), who has
+well treated this whole subject. See, also, Huschke, &lsquo;Mimices et
+Physiognomices, Fragmentum Physiologi-cum,&rsquo; 1821, p. 21. On the dulness of
+the eyes, Dr. Piderit, &lsquo;Mimik und Physiognomik,&rsquo; 1867, s. 65.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-702" id="linknote-702">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+702 (<a href="#linknoteref-702">return</a>)<br/> [ On the action of grief
+on the organs of respiration, see more especially Sir C. Bell, &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; 3rd edit. 1844, p. 151.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-703" id="linknote-703">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+703 (<a href="#linknoteref-703">return</a>)<br/> [ In the foregoing
+remarks on the manner in which the eyebrows are made oblique, I have
+followed what seems to be the universal opinion of all the anatomists,
+whose works I have consulted on the action of the above-named muscles, or
+with whom I have conversed. Hence throughout this work I shall take a
+similar view of the action of the corrugator supercilii, orbicularis,
+pyramidalis nasi, and frontalis muscles. Dr. Duchenne, however, believes,
+and every conclusion at which he arrives deserves serious consideration,
+that it is the corrugator, called by him the sourcilier, which raises the
+inner corner of the eyebrows and is antagonistic to the upper and inner
+part of the orbicular muscle, as well as to the pyramidalis nasi (see
+Mécanisme de la Phys. Humaine, 1862, folio, art. v., text and figures 19
+to 29: octavo edit. 1862, p. 43 text). He admits, however, that the
+corrugator draws together the eyebrows, causing vertical furrows above the
+base of the nose, or a frown. He further believes that towards the outer
+two-thirds of the eyebrow the corrugator acts in conjunction with the
+upper orbicular muscle; both here standing in antagonism to the frontal
+muscle. I am unable to understand, judging from Henle&rsquo;s drawings (woodcut,
+fig. 3), how the corrugator can act in the manner described by Duchenne.
+See, also, on this subject, Prof. Donders&rsquo; remarks in the &lsquo;Archives of
+Medicine,&rsquo; 1870, vol. v. p. 34. Mr. J. Wood, who is so well known for his
+careful study of the muscles of the human frame, informs me that he
+believes the account which I have given of the action of the corrugator to
+be correct. But this is not a point of any importance with respect to the
+expression which is caused by the obliquity of the eyebrows, nor of much
+importance to the theory of its origin.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-704" id="linknote-704">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+704 (<a href="#linknoteref-704">return</a>)<br/> [ I am greatly indebted
+to Dr. Duchenne for permission to have these two photographs (figs. 1 and
+2) reproduced by the heliotype process from his work in folio. Many of the
+foregoing remarks on the furrowing of the skin, when the eyebrows are
+rendered oblique, are taken from his excellent discussion on this
+subject.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-705" id="linknote-705">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+705 (<a href="#linknoteref-705">return</a>)<br/> [ Mécanisme de la Phys.
+Humaine, Album, p. 15.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-706" id="linknote-706">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+706 (<a href="#linknoteref-706">return</a>)<br/> [ Henle, Handbuch der
+Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s. 148, figs. 68 and 69.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-707" id="linknote-707">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+707 (<a href="#linknoteref-707">return</a>)<br/> [ See the account of the
+action of this muscle by Dr. Duchenne, &lsquo;Mécanisme de la Physionomie
+Humaine, Album (1862), viii. p. 34.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-801" id="linknote-801">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+801 (<a href="#linknoteref-801">return</a>)<br/> [ Herbert Spencer,
+&lsquo;Essays Scientific,&rsquo; &amp;c., 1858, p. 360.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-802" id="linknote-802">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+802 (<a href="#linknoteref-802">return</a>)<br/> [ F. Lieber on the vocal
+sounds of L. Bridgman, &lsquo;Smithsonian Contributions,&rsquo; 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-803" id="linknote-803">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+803 (<a href="#linknoteref-803">return</a>)<br/> [ See, also, Mr.
+Marshall, in Phil. Transact. 1864, p. 526.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-804" id="linknote-804">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+804 (<a href="#linknoteref-804">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bain (&lsquo;The Emotions
+and the Will,&rsquo; 1865, p. 247) has a long and interesting discussion on the
+Ludicrous. The quotation above given about the laughter of the gods is
+taken from this work. See, also, Mandeville, &lsquo;The Fable of the Bees,&rsquo; vol.
+ii. p. 168.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-805" id="linknote-805">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+805 (<a href="#linknoteref-805">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Physiology of
+Laughter,&rsquo; Essays, Second Series, 1863, p. 114.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-806" id="linknote-806">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+806 (<a href="#linknoteref-806">return</a>)<br/> [ J. Lister in &lsquo;Quarterly
+Journal of Microscopical Science,&rsquo; 1853, vol. 1. p. 266.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-807" id="linknote-807">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+807 (<a href="#linknoteref-807">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo; p.
+186.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-808" id="linknote-808">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+808 (<a href="#linknoteref-808">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell (Anat. of
+Expression, p. 147) makes some remarks on the movement of the diaphragm
+during laughter.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-809" id="linknote-809">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+809 (<a href="#linknoteref-809">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo; Album, Légende vi.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-810" id="linknote-810">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+810 (<a href="#linknoteref-810">return</a>)<br/> [ Handbuch der System.
+Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s. 144. See my woodcut (H. fig. 2).]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-811" id="linknote-811">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+811 (<a href="#linknoteref-811">return</a>)<br/> [ See, also, remarks to
+the same effect by Dr. J. Crichton Browne in &lsquo;Journal of Mental Science,&rsquo;
+April, 1871, p. 149.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-812" id="linknote-812">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+812 (<a href="#linknoteref-812">return</a>)<br/> [ C. Vogt, &lsquo;Mémoire sur
+les Microcéphales,&rsquo; 1867, p. 21.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-813" id="linknote-813">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+813 (<a href="#linknoteref-813">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell, &lsquo;Anatomy
+of Expression,&rsquo; p. 133.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-814" id="linknote-814">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+814 (<a href="#linknoteref-814">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mimik und
+Physiognomik,&rsquo; 1867, s. 63-67.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-815" id="linknote-815">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+815 (<a href="#linknoteref-815">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir T. Reynolds remarks
+(&lsquo;Discourses,&rsquo; xii. p. 100), &ldquo;it is curious to observe, and it is
+certainly true, that the extremes of contrary passions are, with very
+little variation, expressed by the same action.&rdquo; He gives as an instance
+the frantic joy of a Bacchante and the grief of a Mary Magdalen.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-816" id="linknote-816">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+816 (<a href="#linknoteref-816">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Piderit has come to
+the same conclusion, ibid. s. 99.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-817" id="linknote-817">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+817 (<a href="#linknoteref-817">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;La Physionomie,&rsquo; par
+G. Lavater, edit. of 1820, vol. iv. p. 224. See, also, Sir C. Bell,
+&lsquo;Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo; p. 172, for the quotation given below.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-818" id="linknote-818">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+818 (<a href="#linknoteref-818">return</a>)<br/> [ A &lsquo;Dictionary of
+English Etymology,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1872, Introduction, p. xliv.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-819" id="linknote-819">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+819 (<a href="#linknoteref-819">return</a>)<br/> [ Crantz, quoted by
+Tylor, &lsquo;Primitive Culture,&rsquo; 1871, Vol. i. P. 169.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-820" id="linknote-820">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+820 (<a href="#linknoteref-820">return</a>)<br/> [ F. Lieber, &lsquo;Smithsonian
+Contributions,&rsquo; 1851, vol. ii. p. 7.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-821" id="linknote-821">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+821 (<a href="#linknoteref-821">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bain remarks
+(&lsquo;Mental and Moral Science,&rsquo; 1868, p. 239), &ldquo;Tenderness is a pleasurable
+emotion, variously stimulated, whose effort is to draw human beings into
+mutual embrace.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-822" id="linknote-822">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+822 (<a href="#linknoteref-822">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir J. Lubbock,
+&lsquo;Prehistoric Times,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1869, p. 552, gives full authorities for
+these statements. The quotation from Steele is taken from this work.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-823" id="linknote-823">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+823 (<a href="#linknoteref-823">return</a>)<br/> [ See a full acount,{sic}
+with references, by E. B. Tylor, &lsquo;Researches into the Early History of
+Mankind,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1870, p. 51.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-824" id="linknote-824">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+824 (<a href="#linknoteref-824">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Descent of Man,&rsquo;
+vol. ii. p. 336.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-825" id="linknote-825">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+825 (<a href="#linknoteref-825">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Mandsley has a
+discussion to this effect in his &lsquo;Body and Mind,&rsquo; 1870, p. 85.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-826" id="linknote-826">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+826 (<a href="#linknoteref-826">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; p. 103, and &lsquo;Philosophical Transactions,&rsquo; 1823, p. 182.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-827" id="linknote-827">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+827 (<a href="#linknoteref-827">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Origin of
+Language,&rsquo; 1866, p. 146. Mr. Tylor (&lsquo;Early History of Mankind,&rsquo; 2nd edit.
+1870, p. 48) gives a more complex origin to the position of the hands
+during prayer.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-901" id="linknote-901">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+901 (<a href="#linknoteref-901">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; pp. 137, 139. It is not surprising that the corrugators
+should have become much more developed in man than in the anthropoid apes;
+for they are brought into incessant action by him under various
+circumstances, and will have been strengthened and modified by the
+inherited effects of use. We have seen how important a part they play,
+together with the orbiculares, in protecting the eyes from being too much
+gorged with blood during violent expiratory movements. When the eyes are
+closed as quickly and as forcibly as possible, to save them from being
+injured by a blow, the corrugators contract. With savages or other men
+whose heads are uncovered, the eyebrows are continually lowered and
+contracted to serve as a shade against a too strong light; and this is
+effected partly by the corrugators. This movement would have been more
+especially serviceable to man, as soon as his early progenitors held their
+heads erect. Lastly, Prof. Donders believes (&lsquo;Archives of Medicine,&rsquo; ed.
+by L. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 34), that the corrugators are brought into
+action in causing the eyeball to advance in accommodation for proximity in
+vision.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-902" id="linknote-902">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+902 (<a href="#linknoteref-902">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo; Album, Légende iii.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-903" id="linknote-903">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+903 (<a href="#linknoteref-903">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mimik und
+Physiognomik,&rsquo; s. 46.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-904" id="linknote-904">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+904 (<a href="#linknoteref-904">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;History of the
+Abipones,&rsquo; Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 59, as quoted by Lubbock, &lsquo;Origin of
+Civilisation,&rsquo; 1870, p. 355.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-905" id="linknote-905">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+905 (<a href="#linknoteref-905">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+pp. 15, 144, 146. Mr. Herbert Spencer accounts for frowning exclusively by
+the habit of contracting the brows as a shade to the eyes in a bright
+light: see &lsquo;Principles of Physiology,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1872, p. 546.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-906" id="linknote-906">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+906 (<a href="#linknoteref-906">return</a>)<br/> [ Gratiolet remarks (De
+la Phys. p. 35), &ldquo;Quand l&rsquo;attention est fixee sur quelque image
+interieure, l&rsquo;oeil regarde dons le vide et s&rsquo;associe automatiquement a la
+contemplation de l&rsquo;esprit.&rdquo; But this view hardly deserves to be called an
+explanation.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-907" id="linknote-907">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+907 (<a href="#linknoteref-907">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Miles Gloriosus,&rsquo; act
+ii. sc. 2.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-908" id="linknote-908">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+908 (<a href="#linknoteref-908">return</a>)<br/> [ The original photograph
+by Herr Kindermann is much more expressive than this copy, as it shows the
+frown on the brow more plainly.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-909" id="linknote-909">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+909 (<a href="#linknoteref-909">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie Humaine,&rsquo; Album, Légende iv. figs. 16-18.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-910" id="linknote-910">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+910 (<a href="#linknoteref-910">return</a>)<br/> [ Hensleigh Wedgwood on
+&lsquo;The Origin of Language,&rsquo; 1866, p. 78.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-911" id="linknote-911">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+911 (<a href="#linknoteref-911">return</a>)<br/> [ Müller, as quoted by
+Huxley, &lsquo;Man&rsquo;s Place in Nature,&rsquo; 1863, p. 38.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-912" id="linknote-912">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+912 (<a href="#linknoteref-912">return</a>)<br/> [ I have given several
+instances in my &lsquo;Descent of Man,&rsquo; vol. i. chap. iv.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-913" id="linknote-913">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+913 (<a href="#linknoteref-913">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression.&rsquo; p. 190.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-914" id="linknote-914">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+914 (<a href="#linknoteref-914">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+pp. 118-121.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-915" id="linknote-915">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+915 (<a href="#linknoteref-915">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mimik und
+Physiognomik,&rsquo; s. 79.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1001" id="linknote-1001">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1001 (<a href="#linknoteref-1001">return</a>)<br/> [ See some remarks to
+this effect by Mr. Bain, &lsquo;The Emotions and the Will,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1865, p.
+127.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1002" id="linknote-1002">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1002 (<a href="#linknoteref-1002">return</a>)<br/> [ Rengger, Naturgesch.
+der Säugethiere von Paraguay, 1830, s. 3.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1003" id="linknote-1003">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1003 (<a href="#linknoteref-1003">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell, &lsquo;Anatomy
+of Expression,&rsquo; p. 96. On the other hand, Dr. Burgess (&lsquo;Physiology of
+Blushing,&rsquo; 1839, p. 31) speaks of the reddening of a cicatrix in a negress
+as of the nature of a blush.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1004" id="linknote-1004">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1004 (<a href="#linknoteref-1004">return</a>)<br/> [ Moreau and Gratiolet
+have discussed the colour of the face under the influence of intense
+passion: see the edit. of 1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. pp. 282 and 300; and
+Gratiolet, &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo; p. 345.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1005" id="linknote-1005">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1005 (<a href="#linknoteref-1005">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell &lsquo;Anatomy
+of Expression,&rsquo; pp. 91, 107, has fully discussed this subject. Moreau
+remarks (in the edit. of 1820 of &lsquo;La Physionomie, par G. Lavater,&rsquo; vol.
+iv. p. 237), and quotes Portal in confirmation, that asthmatic patients
+acquire permanently expanded nostrils, owing to the habitual contraction
+of the elevatory muscles of the wings of the nose. The explanation by Dr.
+Piderit (&lsquo;Mimik und Physiognomik,&rsquo; s. 82) of the distension of the
+nostrils, namely, to allow free breathing whilst the mouth is closed and
+the teeth clenched, does not appear to be nearly so correct as that by Sir
+C. Bell, who attributes it to the sympathy (<i>i. e</i>. habitual
+co-action) of all the respiratory muscles. The nostrils of an angry man
+may be seen to become dilated, although his mouth is open.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1006" id="linknote-1006">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1006 (<a href="#linknoteref-1006">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Wedgwood, &lsquo;On the
+Origin of Language,&rsquo; 1866, p. 76. He also observes that the sound of hard
+breathing &ldquo;is represented by the syllables <i>puff, huff, whiff</i>,
+whence a <i>huff</i> is a fit of ill-temper.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1007" id="linknote-1007">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1007 (<a href="#linknoteref-1007">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell &lsquo;Anatomy
+of Expression,&rsquo; p. 95) has some excellent remarks on the expression of
+rage.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1008" id="linknote-1008">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1008 (<a href="#linknoteref-1008">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+1865, p. 346.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1009" id="linknote-1009">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1009 (<a href="#linknoteref-1009">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell, &lsquo;Anatomy
+of Expression,&rsquo; p. 177. Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 369) says, &lsquo;les dents se
+découvrent, et imitent symboliquement l&rsquo;action de déchirer et de mordre.&rsquo;I
+If, instead of using the vague term <i>symboliquement</i>, Gratiolet had
+said that the action was a remnant of a habit acquired during primeval
+times when our semi-human progenitors fought together with their teeth,
+like gorillas and orangs at the present day, he would have been more
+intelligible. Dr. Piderit (&lsquo;Mimik,&rsquo; &amp;c., s. 82) also speaks of the
+retraction of the upper lip during rage. In an engraving of one of
+Hogarth&rsquo;s wonderful pictures, passion is represented in the plainest
+manner by the open glaring eyes, frowning forehead, and exposed grinning
+teeth.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1010" id="linknote-1010">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1010 (<a href="#linknoteref-1010">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Oliver Twist,&rsquo; vol.
+iii. p. 245.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1011" id="linknote-1011">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1011 (<a href="#linknoteref-1011">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Spectator,&rsquo; July
+11, 1868, p. 810.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1012" id="linknote-1012">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1012 (<a href="#linknoteref-1012">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Body and Mind,&rsquo;
+1870, pp. 51-53.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1013" id="linknote-1013">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1013 (<a href="#linknoteref-1013">return</a>)<br/> [ Le Brun, in his
+well-known &lsquo;Conference sur l&rsquo;Expression&rsquo; (&lsquo;La Physionomie, par Lavater,&rsquo;
+edit. of 1820, vol. lx. p. 268), remarks that anger is expressed by the
+clenching of the fists. See, to the same effect, Huschke, &lsquo;Mimices et
+Physiognomices, Fragmentum Physiologicum,&rsquo; 1824, p. 20. Also Sir C. Bell,
+&lsquo;Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo; p. 219.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1014" id="linknote-1014">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1014 (<a href="#linknoteref-1014">return</a>)<br/> [ Transact. Philosoph.
+Soc., Appendix, 1746, p. 65.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1015" id="linknote-1015">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1015 (<a href="#linknoteref-1015">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; p. 136. Sir C. Bell calls (p. 131) the muscles which uncover
+the canines the snarling muscles.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1016" id="linknote-1016">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1016 (<a href="#linknoteref-1016">return</a>)<br/> [ Hensleigh Wedgwood,
+&lsquo;Dictionary of English Etymology,&rsquo; 1865, vol. iii. pp. 240, 243.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1017" id="linknote-1017">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1017 (<a href="#linknoteref-1017">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Descent of Man,&rsquo;
+1871, vol. L p. 126.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1101" id="linknote-1101">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1101 (<a href="#linknoteref-1101">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De In Physionomie et
+la Parole,&rsquo; 1865, p. 89.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1102" id="linknote-1102">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1102 (<a href="#linknoteref-1102">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Physionomie
+Humaine,&rsquo; Album, Légende viii. p. 35. Gratiolet also speaks (De la Phys.
+1865, p. 52) of the turning away of the eyes and body.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1103" id="linknote-1103">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1103 (<a href="#linknoteref-1103">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. W. Ogle, in an
+interesting paper on the Sense of Smell (&lsquo;Medico-Chirurgical
+Transactions,&rsquo; vol. liii. p. 268), shows that when we wish to smell
+carefully, instead of taking one deep nasal inspiration, we draw in the
+air by a succession of rapid short sniffs. If &ldquo;the nostrils be watched
+during this process, it will be seen that, so far from dilating, they
+actually contract at each sniff. The contraction does not include the
+whole anterior opening, but only the posterior portion.&rdquo; He then explains
+the cause of this movement. When, on the other hand, we wish to exclude
+any odour, the contraction, I presume, affects only the anterior part of
+the nostrils.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1104" id="linknote-1104">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1104 (<a href="#linknoteref-1104">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mimik und
+Physiognomik,&rsquo; ss. 84, 93. Gratiolet (ibid. p. 155) takes nearly the same
+view with Dr. Piderit respecting the expression of contempt and disgust.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1105" id="linknote-1105">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1105 (<a href="#linknoteref-1105">return</a>)<br/> [ Scorn implies a
+strong form of contempt; and one of the roots of the word &lsquo;scorn&rsquo; means,
+according to Mr. Wedgwood (Dict. of English Etymology, vol. iii. p. 125),
+ordure or dirt. A person who is scorned is treated like dirt.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1106" id="linknote-1106">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1106 (<a href="#linknoteref-1106">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Early History of
+Mankind,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1870, p. 45.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1107" id="linknote-1107">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1107 (<a href="#linknoteref-1107">return</a>)<br/> [ See, to this effect,
+Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood&rsquo;s Introduction to the &lsquo;Dictionary of English
+Etymology,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1872, p. xxxvii.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1108" id="linknote-1108">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1108 (<a href="#linknoteref-1108">return</a>)<br/> [ Duchenne believes
+that in the eversion of the lower lip, the corners are drawn downwards by
+the <i>depressores anguli oris</i>. Henle (Handbuch d. Anat. des Menschen,
+1858, B. i. s. 151) concludes that this is effected by the <i>musculus
+quadratus menti</i>.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1109" id="linknote-1109">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1109 (<a href="#linknoteref-1109">return</a>)<br/> [ As quoted by Tylor,
+&lsquo;Primitive Culture,&rsquo; 1871, vol. i. p. 169.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1110" id="linknote-1110">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1110 (<a href="#linknoteref-1110">return</a>)<br/> [ Both these quotations
+are given by Mr. H. Wedgwood, &lsquo;On the Origin of Language,&rsquo; 1866, p. 75.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1111" id="linknote-1111">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1111 (<a href="#linknoteref-1111">return</a>)<br/> [ This is stated to be
+the case by Mr. Tylor (Early Hist. of Mankind, 2nd edit. 1870, p. 52); and
+he adds, &ldquo;it is not clear why this should be so.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1112" id="linknote-1112">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1112 (<a href="#linknoteref-1112">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Principles of
+Psychology,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1872, p. 552.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1113" id="linknote-1113">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1113 (<a href="#linknoteref-1113">return</a>)<br/> [ Gratiolet (De la
+Phys. p. 351) makes this remark, and has some good observations on the
+expression of pride. See Sir C. Bell (&lsquo;Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo; p. 111) on
+the action of the <i>musculus superbus</i>.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1114" id="linknote-1114">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1114 (<a href="#linknoteref-1114">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; p. 166.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1115" id="linknote-1115">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1115 (<a href="#linknoteref-1115">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Journey through
+Texas,&rsquo; p. 352.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1116" id="linknote-1116">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1116 (<a href="#linknoteref-1116">return</a>)<br/> [ Mrs. Oliphant, &lsquo;The
+Brownlows,&rsquo; vol. ii. p. 206.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1117" id="linknote-1117">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1117 (<a href="#linknoteref-1117">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Essai sur le
+Langage,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1846. I am much indebted to Miss Wedgwood for having
+given me this information, with an extract from the work.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1118" id="linknote-1118">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1118 (<a href="#linknoteref-1118">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;On the Origin of
+Language,&rsquo; 1866, p. 91.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1119" id="linknote-1119">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1119 (<a href="#linknoteref-1119">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;On the Vocal Sounds
+of L. Bridgman;&rsquo; Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 11.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1120" id="linknote-1120">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1120 (<a href="#linknoteref-1120">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mémoire sur les
+Microcéphales,&rsquo; 1867, p. 27.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1121" id="linknote-1121">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1121 (<a href="#linknoteref-1121">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Tylor,
+&lsquo;Early History of Mankind,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1870, p. 38.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1122" id="linknote-1122">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1122 (<a href="#linknoteref-1122">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. J. B. Jukes,
+&lsquo;Letters and Extracts,&rsquo; &amp;c. 1871, p. 248.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1123" id="linknote-1123">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1123 (<a href="#linknoteref-1123">return</a>)<br/> [ F. Lieber, &lsquo;On the
+Vocal Sounds,&rsquo; &amp;c. p. 11. Tylor, ibid. p. 53.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1124" id="linknote-1124">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1124 (<a href="#linknoteref-1124">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. King, Edinburgh
+Phil. Journal, 1845, p. 313.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1125" id="linknote-1125">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1125 (<a href="#linknoteref-1125">return</a>)<br/> [ Tylor, &lsquo;Early History
+of Mankind,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1870, p. 53.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1126" id="linknote-1126">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1126 (<a href="#linknoteref-1126">return</a>)<br/> [ Lubbock, &lsquo;The Origin
+of Civilization,&rsquo; 1870, p. 277. Tylor, ibid. p. 38. Lieber (ibid. p. 11)
+remarks on the negative of the Italians.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1201" id="linknote-1201">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1201 (<a href="#linknoteref-1201">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie,&rsquo; Album, 1862, p. 42.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1202" id="linknote-1202">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1202 (<a href="#linknoteref-1202">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Polyglot News
+Letter,&rsquo; Melbourne, Dec. 1858, p. 2.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1203" id="linknote-1203">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1203 (<a href="#linknoteref-1203">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; p. 106.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1204" id="linknote-1204">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1204 (<a href="#linknoteref-1204">return</a>)<br/> [ Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie,&rsquo; Album, p. 6.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1205" id="linknote-1205">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1205 (<a href="#linknoteref-1205">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for instance,
+Dr. Piderit (&lsquo;Mimik und Physiognomik,&rsquo; s. 88), who has a good discussion
+on the expression of surprise.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1206" id="linknote-1206">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1206 (<a href="#linknoteref-1206">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Murie has also
+given me information leading to the same conclusion, derived in part from
+comparative anatomy.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1207" id="linknote-1207">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1207 (<a href="#linknoteref-1207">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+1865, p. 234.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1208" id="linknote-1208">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1208 (<a href="#linknoteref-1208">return</a>)<br/> [ See, on this subject,
+Gratiolet, ibid. p. 254.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1209" id="linknote-1209">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1209 (<a href="#linknoteref-1209">return</a>)<br/> [ Lieber, &lsquo;On the Vocal
+Sounds of Laura Bridgman,&rsquo; Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p.
+7.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1210" id="linknote-1210">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1210 (<a href="#linknoteref-1210">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Wenderholme,&rsquo; vol.
+ii. p. 91.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1211" id="linknote-1211">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1211 (<a href="#linknoteref-1211">return</a>)<br/> [ Lieber, &lsquo;On the Vocal
+Sounds,&rsquo; &amp;c., ibid. p. 7.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1212" id="linknote-1212">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1212 (<a href="#linknoteref-1212">return</a>)<br/> [ Huschke, &lsquo;Mimices et
+Physiognomices,&rsquo; 1821, p. 18. Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 255) gives a
+figure of a man in this attitude, which, however, seems to me expressive
+of fear combined with astonishment. Le Brun also refers (Lavater, vol. ix.
+p. 299) to the hands of an astonished man being opened.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1213" id="linknote-1213">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1213 (<a href="#linknoteref-1213">return</a>)<br/> [ Huschke, ibid. p.
+18.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1214" id="linknote-1214">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1214 (<a href="#linknoteref-1214">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;North American
+Indians,&rsquo; 3rd edit. 1842, vol. i. p. 105.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1215" id="linknote-1215">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1215 (<a href="#linknoteref-1215">return</a>)<br/> [ H. Wedgwood, Dict. of
+English Etymology, vol. ii. 1862, p. 35. See, also, Gratiolet (&lsquo;De la
+Physionomie,&rsquo; p. 135) on the sources of such words as &lsquo;terror, horror,
+rigidus, frigidus,&rsquo; &amp;c.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1216" id="linknote-1216">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1216 (<a href="#linknoteref-1216">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bain (&lsquo;The
+Emotions and the Will,&rsquo; 1865, p. 54) explains in the following manner the
+origin of the custom &ldquo;of subjecting criminals in India to the ordeal of
+the morsel of rice. The accused is made to take a mouthful of rice, and
+after a little time to throw it out. If the morsel is quite dry, the party
+is believed to be guilty,&mdash;his own evil conscience operating to
+paralyse the salivating organs.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1217" id="linknote-1217">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1217 (<a href="#linknoteref-1217">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir C. Bell,
+Transactions of Royal Phil. Soc. 1822, p. 308. &lsquo;Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo; p.
+88 and pp. 164-469.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1218" id="linknote-1218">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1218 (<a href="#linknoteref-1218">return</a>)<br/> [ See Moreau on the
+rolling of the eyes, in the edit. of 1820 of Lavater, tome iv. p. 263.
+Also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 17.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1219" id="linknote-1219">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1219 (<a href="#linknoteref-1219">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Observations on
+Italy,&rsquo; 1825, p. 48, as quoted in &lsquo;The Anatomy of Expression,&rsquo; p. 168.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1220" id="linknote-1220">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1220 (<a href="#linknoteref-1220">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Dr.
+Maudsley, &lsquo;Body and Mind,&rsquo; 1870, p. 41.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1221" id="linknote-1221">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1221 (<a href="#linknoteref-1221">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; p. 168.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1222" id="linknote-1222">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1222 (<a href="#linknoteref-1222">return</a>)<br/> [ Mécanisme de la Phys.
+Humaine, Album, Légende xi.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1223" id="linknote-1223">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1223 (<a href="#linknoteref-1223">return</a>)<br/> [ Ducheinne takes, in
+fact, this view (ibid. p. 45), as he attributes the contraction of the
+platysma to the shivering of fear (<i>frisson de la peur</i>); but he
+elsewhere compares the action with that which causes the hair of
+frightened quadrupeds to stand erect; and this can hardly be considered as
+quite correct.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1224" id="linknote-1224">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1224 (<a href="#linknoteref-1224">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;De la Physionomie,&rsquo;
+pp. 51, 256, 346.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1225" id="linknote-1225">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1225 (<a href="#linknoteref-1225">return</a>)<br/> [ As quoted in White&rsquo;s
+&lsquo;Gradation in Man,&rsquo; p. 57.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1226" id="linknote-1226">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1226 (<a href="#linknoteref-1226">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; p. 169.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1227" id="linknote-1227">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1227 (<a href="#linknoteref-1227">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Mécanisme de la
+Physionomie,&rsquo; Album, pl. 65, pp. 44, 45.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1228" id="linknote-1228">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1228 (<a href="#linknoteref-1228">return</a>)<br/> [ See remarks to this
+effect by Mr. Wedgwood, in the Introduction to his &lsquo;Dictionary of English
+Etymology,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1872, p. xxxvii. He shows by intermediate forms that
+the sounds here referred to have probably given rise to many words, such
+as <i>ugly, huge</i>, &amp;c.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1301" id="linknote-1301">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1301 (<a href="#linknoteref-1301">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;The Physiology or
+Mechanism of Blushing,&rsquo; 1839, p. 156. I shall have occasion often to quote
+this work in the present chapter.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1302" id="linknote-1302">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1302 (<a href="#linknoteref-1302">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Burgess, ibid. p.
+56. At p. 33 he also remarks on women blushing more freely than men, as
+stated below.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1303" id="linknote-1303">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1303 (<a href="#linknoteref-1303">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Vogt,
+&lsquo;Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,&rsquo; 1867, p. 20. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 56)
+doubts whether idiots ever blush.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1304" id="linknote-1304">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1304 (<a href="#linknoteref-1304">return</a>)<br/> [ Lieber &lsquo;On the Vocal
+Sounds,&rsquo; &amp;c.; Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1305" id="linknote-1305">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1305 (<a href="#linknoteref-1305">return</a>)<br/> [ Ibid. p. 182.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1306" id="linknote-1306">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1306 (<a href="#linknoteref-1306">return</a>)<br/> [ Moreau, in edit. of
+1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. p. 303.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1307" id="linknote-1307">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1307 (<a href="#linknoteref-1307">return</a>)<br/> [ Burgess. ibid. p. 38,
+on paleness after blushing, p. 177.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1308" id="linknote-1308">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1308 (<a href="#linknoteref-1308">return</a>)<br/> [ See Lavater, edit. of
+1820, vol. iv. p. 303.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1309" id="linknote-1309">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1309 (<a href="#linknoteref-1309">return</a>)<br/> [ Burgess, ibid. pp.
+114, 122. Moreau in Lavater, ibid. vol. iv. p. 293.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1310" id="linknote-1310">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1310 (<a href="#linknoteref-1310">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Letters from Egypt,&rsquo;
+1865, p. 66. Lady Gordon is mistaken when she says Malays and Mulattoes
+never blush.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1311" id="linknote-1311">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1311 (<a href="#linknoteref-1311">return</a>)<br/> [ Capt. Osborn
+(&lsquo;Quedah,&rsquo; p. 199), in speaking of a Malay, whom he reproached for
+cruelty, says he was glad to see that the man blushed.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1312" id="linknote-1312">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1312 (<a href="#linknoteref-1312">return</a>)<br/> [ J. R. Forster,
+&lsquo;Observations during a Voyage round the World,&rsquo; 4to, 1778, p. 229. Waitz
+gives (&lsquo;Introduction to Anthropology,&rsquo; Eng. translat. 1863, vol. i. p.
+135) references for other islands in the Pacific. See, also, Dampier &lsquo;On
+the Blushing of the Tunquinese&rsquo; (vol. ii. p. 40); but I have not consulted
+this work. Waitz quotes Bergmann, that the Kalmucks do not blush, but this
+may be doubted after what we have seen with respect to the Chinese. He
+also quotes Roth, who denies that the Abyssinians are capable of blushing.
+Unfortunately, Capt. Speedy, who lived so long with the Abyssinians, has
+not answered my inquiry on this head. Lastly, I must add that the Rajah
+Brooke has never observed the least sign of a blush with the Dyaks of
+Borneo; on the contrary under circumstances which would excite a blush in
+us, they assert &ldquo;that they feel the blood drawn from their faces.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1313" id="linknote-1313">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1313 (<a href="#linknoteref-1313">return</a>)<br/> [ Transact. of the
+Ethnological Soc. 1870, vol. ii. p. 16.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1314" id="linknote-1314">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1314 (<a href="#linknoteref-1314">return</a>)<br/> [ Humboldt, &lsquo;Personal
+Narrative,&rsquo; Eng. translat. vol. iii. p. 229.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1315" id="linknote-1315">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1315 (<a href="#linknoteref-1315">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Prichard,
+Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit 1851, vol. i. p. 271.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1316" id="linknote-1316">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1316 (<a href="#linknoteref-1316">return</a>)<br/> [ See, on this head,
+Burgess, ibid. p. 32. Also Waitz, &lsquo;Introduction to Anthropology,&rsquo; Eng.
+edit. vol. i. p. 139. Moreau gives a detailed account (&lsquo;Lavater,&rsquo; 1820,
+tom. iv. p. 302) of the blushing of a Madagascar negress-slave when forced
+by her brutal master to exhibit her naked bosom.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1317" id="linknote-1317">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1317 (<a href="#linknoteref-1317">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Prichard,
+Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit. 1851, vol. i. p. 225.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1318" id="linknote-1318">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1318 (<a href="#linknoteref-1318">return</a>)<br/> [ Burgess, ibid. p. 31.
+On mulattoes blushing, see p. 33. I have received similar accounts with
+respect to, mulattoes.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1319" id="linknote-1319">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1319 (<a href="#linknoteref-1319">return</a>)<br/> [ Barrington also says
+that the Australians of New South Wales blush, as quoted by Waitz, ibid.
+p. 135.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1320" id="linknote-1320">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1320 (<a href="#linknoteref-1320">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Wedgwood says
+(Dict. of English Etymology, vol. iii. 1865, p. 155) that the word shame
+&ldquo;may well originate in the idea of shade or concealment, and may be
+illustrated by the Low German <i>scheme</i>, shade or shadow.&rdquo; Gratiolet
+(De la Phys. pp. 357-362) has a good discussion on the gestures
+accompanying shame; but some of his remarks seem to me rather fanciful.
+See, also, Burgess (ibid. pp. 69, 134) on the same subject.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1321" id="linknote-1321">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1321 (<a href="#linknoteref-1321">return</a>)<br/> [ Burgess, ibid. pp.
+181, 182. Boerhaave also noticed (as quoted by Gratiolet, ibid. p. 361)
+the tendency to the secretion of tears during intense blushing. Mr.
+Bulmer, as we have seen, speaks of the &ldquo;watery eyes&rdquo; of the children of
+the Australian aborigines when ashamed.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1322" id="linknote-1322">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1322 (<a href="#linknoteref-1322">return</a>)<br/> [ See also Dr. J.
+Crichton Browne&rsquo;s Memoir on this subject in the &lsquo;West Riding Lunatic
+Asylum Medical Report,&rsquo; 1871, pp. 95-98.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1323" id="linknote-1323">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1323 (<a href="#linknoteref-1323">return</a>)<br/> [ In a discussion on
+so-called animal magnetism in &lsquo;Table Talk,&rsquo; vol. i.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1324" id="linknote-1324">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1324 (<a href="#linknoteref-1324">return</a>)<br/> [ Ibid. p. 40.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1325" id="linknote-1325">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1325 (<a href="#linknoteref-1325">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bain (&lsquo;The
+Emotions and the Will,&rsquo; 1865, p. 65) remarks on &ldquo;the shyness of manners
+which is induced between the sexes.... from the influence of mutual
+regard, by the apprehension on either side of not standing well with the
+other.&rdquo;]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1326" id="linknote-1326">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1326 (<a href="#linknoteref-1326">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for evidence on
+this subject, &lsquo;The Descent of Man,&rsquo; &amp;c., vol. ii. pp. 71, 341.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1327" id="linknote-1327">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1327 (<a href="#linknoteref-1327">return</a>)<br/> [ H. Wedgwood, Dict.
+English Etymology, vol. iii. 1865, p. 184. So with the Latin word <i>verecundus</i>.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1328" id="linknote-1328">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1328 (<a href="#linknoteref-1328">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Bain (&lsquo;The
+Emotions and the Will,&rsquo; p. 64) has discussed the &ldquo;abashed&rdquo; feelings
+experienced on these occasions, as well as the <i>stage-fright</i> of
+actors unused to the stage. Mr. Bain apparently attributes these feelings
+to simple apprehension or dread.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1329" id="linknote-1329">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1329 (<a href="#linknoteref-1329">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Essays on Practical
+Education,&rsquo; by Maria and R. L. Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 38.
+Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 187) insists strongly to the same effect.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1330" id="linknote-1330">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1330 (<a href="#linknoteref-1330">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Essays on Practical
+Education,&rsquo; by Maria and R. L. Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 50.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1331" id="linknote-1331">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1331 (<a href="#linknoteref-1331">return</a>)<br/> [ Bell, &lsquo;Anatomy of
+Expression,&rsquo; p. 95. Burgess, as quoted below, ibid. p. 49. Gratiolet, De
+la Phys. p. 94.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1332" id="linknote-1332">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1332 (<a href="#linknoteref-1332">return</a>)<br/> [ On the authority of
+Lady Mary Wortley Montague; see Burgess, ibid. p. 43.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1333" id="linknote-1333">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1333 (<a href="#linknoteref-1333">return</a>)<br/> [ In England, Sir H.
+Holland was, I believe, the first to consider the influence of mental
+attention on various parts of the body, in his &lsquo;Medical Notes and
+Reflections,&rsquo; 1839 p. 64. This essay, much enlarged, was reprinted by Sir
+H. Holland in his &lsquo;Chapters on Mental Physiology,&rsquo; 1858, p. 79, from which
+work I always quote. At nearly the same time, as well as subsequently,
+Prof. Laycock discussed the same subject: see &lsquo;Edinburgh Medical and
+Surgical Journal,&rsquo; 1839, July, pp. 17-22. Also his &lsquo;Treatise on the
+Nervous Diseases of Women,&rsquo; 1840, p. 110; and &lsquo;Mind and Brain,&rsquo; vol. ii.
+1860, p. 327. Dr. Carpenter&rsquo;s views on mesmerism have a nearly similar
+bearing. The great physiologist Müller treated (&lsquo;Elements of Physiology,&rsquo;
+Eng. translat. vol. ii. pp. 937, 1085) of the influence of the attention
+on the senses. Sir J. Paget discusses the influence of the mind on the
+nutrition of parts, in his &lsquo;Lectures on Surgical Pathology,&rsquo; 1853, vol. i.
+p. 39: 1 quote from the 3rd edit. revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, p. 28.
+See, also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. pp. 283-287.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1334" id="linknote-1334">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1334 (<a href="#linknoteref-1334">return</a>)<br/> [ De la Phys. p. 283.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1340" id="linknote-1340">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1340 (<a href="#linknoteref-1340">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Maudsley has
+given (&lsquo;The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,&rsquo; 2nd edit. 1868, p. 105), on
+good authority, some curious statements with respect to the improvement of
+the sense of touch by practice and attention. It is remarkable that when
+this sense has thus been rendered more acute at any point of the body, for
+instance, in a finger, it is likewise improved at the corresponding point
+on the opposite side of the body.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1341" id="linknote-1341">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1341 (<a href="#linknoteref-1341">return</a>)<br/> [ The Lancet,&rsquo; 1838,
+pp. 39-40, as quoted by Prof. Laycock, &lsquo;Nervous Diseases of Women,&rsquo; 1840,
+p. 110.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1342" id="linknote-1342">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1342 (<a href="#linknoteref-1342">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Chapters on Mental
+Physiology,&rsquo; 1858, pp. 91-93.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1343" id="linknote-1343">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1343 (<a href="#linknoteref-1343">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Lectures on Surgical
+Pathology,&rsquo; 3rd edit. revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, pp. 28, 31.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1344" id="linknote-1344">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1344 (<a href="#linknoteref-1344">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;Elements of
+Physiology,&rsquo; Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 938.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1345" id="linknote-1345">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1345 (<a href="#linknoteref-1345">return</a>)<br/> [ Prof. Laycock has
+discussed this point in a very interesting manner. See his &lsquo;Nervous
+Diseases of Women,&rsquo; 1840, p. 110.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1346" id="linknote-1346">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1346 (<a href="#linknoteref-1346">return</a>)<br/> [ See, also, Mr.
+Michael Foster, on the action of the vaso-motor system, in his interesting
+Lecture before the royal Institution, as translated in the &lsquo;Revue des
+Cours Scientifiques,&rsquo; Sept. 25, 1869, p. 683.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1401" id="linknote-1401">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1401 (<a href="#linknoteref-1401">return</a>)<br/> [ See the interesting
+facts given by Dr. Bateman on &lsquo;Aphasia,&rsquo; 1870, p. 110.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1402" id="linknote-1402">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1402 (<a href="#linknoteref-1402">return</a>)<br/> [ &lsquo;La Physionomie et la
+Parole,&rsquo; 1865, pp. 103, 118.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1403" id="linknote-1403">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1403 (<a href="#linknoteref-1403">return</a>)<br/> [ Rengger,
+&lsquo;Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,&rsquo; 1830, s. 55.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1404" id="linknote-1404">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1404 (<a href="#linknoteref-1404">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoted by Moreau, in
+his edition of Lavater, 1820, tom. iv. p. 211.]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<a name="linknote-1405" id="linknote-1405">
+<!-- Note --></a>
+</p>
+<p class="foot">
+1405 (<a href="#linknoteref-1405">return</a>)<br/> [ Gratiolet (&lsquo;De la
+Physionomie,&rsquo; 1865, p. 66) insists on the truth of this conclusion.]
+</p>
+
+</div><!--end chapter-->
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Expression of Emotion in Man and
+Animals, by Charles Darwin
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMOTION IN MAN AND ANIMALS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 1227-h.htm or 1227-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/2/1227/
+
+Produced by Charles Keller and David Widger
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
+be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
+law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
+so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
+States without permission and without paying copyright
+royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
+of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
+concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
+and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
+specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
+eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
+for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
+performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
+away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
+not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
+trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
+
+START: FULL LICENSE
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
+Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
+www.gutenberg.org/license.
+
+Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+
+1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
+destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
+possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
+Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
+by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
+person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
+1.E.8.
+
+1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
+paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
+agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
+Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
+of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
+works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
+States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
+United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
+claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
+displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
+all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
+that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
+free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
+works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
+Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
+comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
+same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
+you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
+in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
+check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
+agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
+distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
+other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
+representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
+country outside the United States.
+
+1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
+immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
+prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
+on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
+performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
+
+  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
+  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
+  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
+  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
+  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
+  are located before using this ebook.
+
+1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
+derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
+contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
+copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
+the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
+redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
+either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
+obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
+trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
+additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
+will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
+posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
+beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
+any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
+to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
+other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
+version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
+(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
+to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
+of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
+Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
+full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+provided that
+
+* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
+  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
+  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
+  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
+  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
+  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
+  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
+  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
+  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
+  Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
+  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
+  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
+  works.
+
+* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
+  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
+  receipt of the work.
+
+* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
+are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
+from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
+Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
+Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
+contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
+or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
+intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
+other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
+cannot be read by your equipment.
+
+1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
+with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
+with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
+lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
+or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
+opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
+the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
+without further opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
+OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
+damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
+violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
+agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
+limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
+unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
+remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
+accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
+production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
+including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
+the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
+or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
+additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
+Defect you cause.
+
+Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
+computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
+exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
+from people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
+generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
+Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
+www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
+U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
+mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
+volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
+locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
+Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
+date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
+official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
+
+For additional contact information:
+
+    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+    Chief Executive and Director
+    gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
+DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
+state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
+donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
+freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
+distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
+volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
+the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
+necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
+edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
+facility: www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+
+</html>
+
+
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig1-2.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig1-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4acbc84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig1-2.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig10.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig10.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0ff3454
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig10.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig11.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig11.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..72a4e72
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig11.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig12.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig12.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..580c02e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig12.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig13.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig13.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca3ee0c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig13.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig14.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig14.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3a2450
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig14.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig15.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig15.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1542937
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig15.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig16-17.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig16-17.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc03550
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig16-17.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig18.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig18.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..02ae73a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig18.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig19.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig19.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f49ca68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig19.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig20.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig20.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ed8ee02
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig20.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig21.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig21.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d4ffde4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig21.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig3.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b9684a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig3.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig4.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig4.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5624d91
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig4.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig5.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig5.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..35a48e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig5.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig6.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig6.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b84500
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig6.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig7.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig7.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..43bf6dc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig7.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig8.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig8.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d2e2fea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig8.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/fig9.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/fig9.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..515b84e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/fig9.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/plate-1.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/plate-1.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d2694d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/plate-1.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/plate-2.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/plate-2.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..69d18a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/plate-2.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/plate-3.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/plate-3.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2fa47e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/plate-3.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/plate-4.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/plate-4.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2f1b3bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/plate-4.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/plate-5.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/plate-5.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f4671ad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/plate-5.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/plate-6.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/plate-6.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a0e4d2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/plate-6.jpg
diff --git a/old/1227-h/images/plate-7.jpg b/old/1227-h/images/plate-7.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..91becbb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/1227-h/images/plate-7.jpg
diff --git a/old/old/1227-8.txt b/old/old/1227-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b923ee5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/old/1227-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11116 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals, by
+Charles Darwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals
+
+Author: Charles Darwin
+
+Release Date: March, 1998 [EBook #1227]
+Last Updated: August 2, 2012
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMOTION IN MAN AND ANIMALS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Keller and David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS
+
+By Charles Darwin
+
+
+_With Photographic And Other Illustrations_
+
+New York
+
+D. Appleton And Company
+
+1899
+
+
+
+
+DETAILED CONTENTS.
+INTRODUCTION......................................................Pages
+1-26
+
+CHAP. I--GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.The three chief principles
+stated--The first principle--Serviceable actions become habitual in
+association with certain states of the mind, and are performed
+whether or not of service in each particular case--The force of
+habit--Inheritance--Associated habitual movements in man--Reflex
+actions--Passage of habits into reflex actions--Associated habitual
+movements in the lower animals--Concluding remarks............27-49
+
+CHAP. II--GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION--_continued_. The
+Principle of Antithesis--Instances in the dog and cat--Origin of the
+principle--Conventional signs--The principle of antithesis has not
+arisen from opposite actions being consciously performed under opposite
+impulses..........50-65
+
+CHAP. III--GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION--_concluded_.
+The principle of the direct action of the excited nervous system on the
+body, independently of the will and in part of habit--Change of
+colour in the hair--Trembling of the muscles--Modified
+secretions--Perspiration--Expression of extreme pain--Of rage, great
+joy, and terror--Contrast between the emotions which cause and do
+not cause expressive movements--Exciting and depressing states of the
+mind--Summary............................................ 66-82
+
+CHAP. IV--MEANS OF EXPRESSION. IN ANIMALS. The emission of sounds--Vocal
+sounds--Sounds otherwise produced--Erection of the dermal appendages,
+hairs, feathers, &c., under the emotions of anger and terror--The
+drawing back of the ears as a preparation for fighting, and as an
+expression of anger--Erection of the ears and raising the head, a sign
+of attention 88-114
+
+CHAP. V.--SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS. The Dog, various expressive
+movements of--Cats--Horses--Ruminants--Monkeys, their expression of joy
+and affection--Of pain--Anger Astonishment and Terror Pages 115-145
+
+CHAP. VI.--SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING. The
+screaming and weeping of infants--Form of features--Age at which weeping
+commences--The effects of habitual restraint on weeping--Sobbing--Cause
+of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during screaming--Cause
+of the secretion of tears 146-175
+
+CHAP. VII.--LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR. General
+effect of grief on the system--Obliquity of the eyebrows under
+suffering--On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows--On the
+depression of the corners of the mouth 176-195
+
+CHAP. VIII.--JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
+Laughter primarily the expression of joy--Ludicrous ideas--Movements
+of the features during laughter--Nature of the sound produced--The
+secretion of tears during loud laughter--Gradation from loud laughter
+to gentle smiling--High spirits--The expression of love--Tender
+feelings--Devotion 196-219
+
+CHAP. IX.--REFLECTION--MEDITATION--ILL--TEMPER--SULKINESS DETERMINATION.
+The act of frowning--Reflection with an effort or with the perception
+of something difficult or disagreeable--Abstracted
+meditation--Ill-temper--Moroseness--Obstinacy--Sulkiness and
+pouting--Decision or determination--The firm closure of the mouth
+220-236
+
+CHAP. X.-HATRED AND ANGER. Hatred--Rage, effects of on the
+system--Uncovering of the teeth--Rage in the insane--Anger and
+indignation--As expressed by the various races of man--Sneering and
+defiance--The uncovering of the canine teeth on one side of the face
+237-252
+
+CHAP. XI.--DISDAIN--CONTEMPT--DISGUST--GUILT--PRIDE,
+ETC.--HELPLESSNESS--PATIENCE--AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. Contempt, scorn
+and disdain, variously expressed--Derisive Smile--Gestures expressive
+of contempt--Disgust--Guilt, deceit, pride, etc.--Helplessness or
+impotence--Patience--Obstinacy--Shrugging the shoulders common to most
+of the races of man--Signs of affirmation and negation 253-277
+
+CHAP. XII.--SURPRISE--ASTONISHMENT--FEAR--HORROR.
+Surprise, astonishment--Elevation of the eyebrows--Opening
+the mouth--Protrusion of the lips--Gestures accompanying
+surprise--Admiration Fear--Terror--Erection of the hair--Contraction of
+the platysma muscle--Dilatation of the pupils--horror--Conclusion. Pages
+278-308
+
+CHAP. XIII.--SELF-ATTENTION--SHAME--SHYNESS--MODESTY: BLUSHING.
+Nature of a blush--Inheritance--The parts of the body most
+affected--Blushing in the various races of man--Accompanying
+gestures--Confusion of mind--Causes of blushing--Self-attention,
+the fundamental element--Shyness--Shame, from broken moral laws and
+conventional rules--Modesty--Theory of blushing--Recapitulation 309-346
+
+CHAP. XIV.--CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
+The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements
+of expression--Their inheritance--On the part which the will and
+intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions--The
+instinctive recognition of expression--The bearing of our subject on
+the specific unity of the races of man--On the successive acquirement
+of various expressions by the progenitors of man--The importance of
+expression--Conclusion 347-366
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+    FIG.  PAGE
+     1. Diagram of the muscles of the face, from Sir C. Bell     24
+     2.   "   "   "   Henle................ 24
+     3.   "   "   "   "................ 25
+     4 Small dog watching a cat on a table   43
+     5 Dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions  52
+     6. Dog in a humble and affectionate frame of mind      53
+     7. Half-bred Shepherd Dog     54
+     8. Dog caressing his master   55
+     9. Cat, savage, and prepared to fight   58
+     10. Cat in an affectionate frame of mind     59
+     11. Sound-producing quills from the tail of the Porcupine   93
+     12. Hen driving away a dog from her chickens......98
+     13. Swan driving away an intruder.................99
+     14. Head of snarling dog.........................117
+     15. Cat terrified at a dog.......................125
+     16. Cynopithecus niger, in a placid condition....135
+     17. The same, when pleased by being caressed.....135
+     18. Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky............139
+     19. Photograph of an insane woman................296
+     20. Terror.......................................299
+     21. Horror and Agony.............................306
+
+  Plate I. to face page 147    Plate V. to face page 254.
+  "  II.  "   178.      "   VI.  "   264.
+  "  III. "   200.      "   VII. "   300.
+  "  IV.  "   248.
+
+_N. B_.--Several of the figures in these seven Heliotype Plates
+have been reproduced from photographs, instead of from the original
+negatives; and they are in consequence somewhat indistinct. Nevertheless
+they are faithful copies, and are much superior for my purpose to any
+drawing, however carefully executed.
+
+
+
+
+ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+MANY works have been written on Expression, but a greater number on
+Physiognomy,--that is, on the recognition of character through the study
+of the permanent form of the features. With this latter subject I am
+not here concerned. The older treatises,[1] which I have consulted, have
+been of little or no service to me. The famous 'Conferences'[2] of the
+painter Le Brun, published in 1667, is the best known ancient work,
+and contains some good remarks. Another somewhat old essay, namely,
+the 'Discours,' delivered 1774-1782, by the well-known Dutch anatomist
+Camper,[3] can hardly be considered as having made any marked advance in
+the subject. The following works, on the contrary, deserve the fullest
+consideration.
+
+Sir Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in physiology,
+published in 1806 the first edition, and in the third edition of his
+'Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression.'[4] He may with justice be said,
+not only to have laid the foundations of the subject as a branch of
+science, but to have built up a noble structure. His work is in every
+way deeply interesting; it includes graphic descriptions of the various
+emotions, and is admirably illustrated. It is generally admitted that
+his service consists chiefly in having shown the intimate relation which
+exists between the movements of expression and those of respiration. One
+of the most important points, small as it may at first appear, is that
+the muscles round the eyes are involuntarily contracted during violent
+expiratory efforts, in order to protect these delicate organs from the
+pressure of the blood. This fact, which has been fully investigated for
+me with the greatest kindness by Professors Donders of Utrecht, throws,
+as we shall hereafter see, a flood of light on several of the most
+important expressions of the human countenance. The merits of Sir C.
+Bell's work have been undervalued or quite ignored by several foreign
+writers, but have been fully admitted by some, for instance by M.
+Lemoine,[5] who with great justice says:--"Le livre de Ch. Bell devrait
+etre medite par quiconque essaye de faire parler le visage de l'homme,
+par les philosophes aussi bien que par les artistes, car, sous une
+apparence plus legere et sous le pretexte de l'esthetique, c'est un
+des plus beaux monuments de la science des rapports du physique et du
+moral."
+
+From reasons which will presently be assigned, Sir C. Bell did not
+attempt to follow out his views as far as they might have been carried.
+He does not try to explain why different muscles are brought into action
+under different emotions; why, for instance, the inner ends of the
+eyebrows are raised, and the corners of the mouth depressed, by a person
+suffering from grief or anxiety.
+
+In 1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater on Physiognomy,[6] in
+which he incorporated several of his own essays, containing excellent
+descriptions of the movements of the facial muscles, together with
+many valuable remarks. He throws, however, very little light on the
+philosophy of the subject. For instance, M. Moreau, in speaking of the
+act of frowning, that is, of the contraction of the muscle called by
+French writers the _soucilier_ (_corrigator supercilii_), remarks with
+truth:--"Cette action des sourciliers est un des symptomes les plus
+tranches de l'expression des affections penibles ou concentrees." He
+then adds that these muscles, from their attachment and position, are
+fitted "a resserrer, a concentrer les principaux traits de la _face_,
+comme il convient dans toutes ces passions vraiment oppressives
+ou profondes, dans ces affections dont le sentiment semble porter
+l'organisation a revenir sur elle-meme, a se contracter et a
+_s'amoindrir_, comme pour offrir moins de prise et de surface a des
+impressions redoutables ou importunes." He who thinks that remarks of
+this kind throw any light on the meaning or origin of the different
+expressions, takes a very different view of the subject to what I do.
+
+The earliest edition of this work, referred to in the preface to the
+edition of 1820 in ten volumes, as containing the observations of M.
+Moreau, is said to have been published in 1807; and I have no doubt that
+this is correct, because the 'Notice sur Lavater' at the commencement
+of volume i. is dated April 13, 1806. In some bibliographical works,
+however, the date of 1805--1809 is given, but it seems impossible that
+1805 can be correct. Dr. Duchenne remarks ('Mecanisme de la Physionomie
+Humaine,'-8vo edit. 1862, p. 5, and 'Archives Generales de Medecine,'
+Jan. et Fev. 1862) that M. Moreau "_a compose pour son ouvrage un
+article important_," &c., in the year 1805; and I find in volume i. of
+the edition of 1820 passages bearing the dates of December 12, 1805, and
+another January 5, 1806, besides that of April 13, 1806, above referred
+to. In consequence of some of these passages having thus been COMPOSED
+in 1805, Dr. Duchenne assigns to M. Moreau the priority over Sir C.
+Bell, whose work, as we have seen, was published in 1806. This is a very
+unusual manner of determining the priority of scientific works; but such
+questions are of extremely little importance in comparison with their
+relative merits. The passages above quoted from M. Moreau and from Le
+Brun are taken in this and all other cases from the edition of 1820 of
+Lavater, tom. iv. p. 228, and tom. ix. p. 279. In the above passage
+there is but a slight, if any, advance in the philosophy of the subject,
+beyond that reached by the painter Le Brun, who, in 1667, in describing
+the expression of fright, says:--"Le sourcil qui est abaisse d'un cote
+et eleve de l'autre, fait voir que la partie elevee semble le vouloir
+joindre au cerveau pour le garantir du mal que l'ame apercoit, et le
+cote qui est abaisse et qui parait enfle,--nous fait trouver dans cet
+etat par les esprits qui viennent du cerveau en abondance, comme polir
+couvrir l'aine et la defendre du mal qu'elle craint; la bouche fort
+ouverte fait voir le saisissement du coeur, par le sang qui se retire
+vers lui, ce qui l'oblige, voulant respirer, a faire un effort qui est
+cause que la bouche s'ouvre extremement, et qui, lorsqu'il passe par les
+organes de la voix, forme un son qui n'est point articule; que si les
+muscles et les veines paraissent enfles, ce n'est que par les esprits
+que le cerveau envoie en ces parties-la." I have thought the foregoing
+sentences worth quoting, as specimens of the surprising nonsense which
+has been written on the subject.
+
+'The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,' by Dr. Burgess, appeared
+in 1839, and to this work I shall frequently refer in my thirteenth
+Chapter.
+
+In 1862 Dr. Duchenne published two editions, in folio and octavo, of his
+'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' in which he analyses by means of
+electricity, and illustrates by magnificent photographs, the movements
+of the facial muscles. He has generously permitted me to copy as many of
+his photographs as I desired. His works have been spoken lightly of, or
+quite passed over, by some of his countrymen. It is possible that Dr.
+Duchenne may have exaggerated the importance of the contraction of
+single muscles in giving expression; for, owing to the intimate manner
+in which the muscles are connected, as may be seen in Henle's anatomical
+drawings[7]--the best I believe ever published it is difficult to
+believe in their separate action. Nevertheless, it is manifest that Dr.
+Duchenne clearly apprehended this and other sources of error, and as it
+is known that he was eminently successful in elucidating the physiology
+of the muscles of the hand by the aid of electricity, it is probable
+that he is generally in the right about the muscles of the face. In my
+opinion, Dr. Duchenne has greatly advanced the subject by his treatment
+of it. No one has more carefully studied the contraction of each
+separate muscle, and the consequent furrows produced on the skin. He
+has also, and this is a very important service, shown which muscles are
+least under the separate control of the will. He enters very little into
+theoretical considerations, and seldom attempts to explain why certain
+muscles and not others contract under the influence of certain emotions.
+A distinguished French anatomist, Pierre Gratiolet, gave a course of
+lectures on Expression at the Sorbonne, and his notes were published
+(1865) after his death, under the title of 'De la Physionomie et des
+Mouvements d'Expression.' This is a very interesting work, full of
+valuable observations. His theory is rather complex, and, as far as it
+can be given in a single sentence (p. 65), is as follows:--"Il resulte,
+de tous les faits que j'ai rappeles, que les sens, l'imagination et la
+pensee ellememe, si elevee, si abstraite qu'on la suppose, ne peuvent
+s'exercer sans eveiller un sentiment correlatif, et que ce sentiment
+se traduit directement, sympathiquement, symboliquement ou
+metaphoriquement, dans toutes les spheres des organs exterieurs, qui la
+racontent tous, suivant leur mode d'action propre, comme si chacun d'eux
+avait ete directement affecte."
+
+Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit, and even to some extent
+habit in the individual; and therefore he fails, as it seems to me, to
+give the right explanation, or any explanation at all, of many gestures
+and expressions. As an illustration of what he calls symbolic movements,
+I will quote his remarks (p. 37), taken from M. Chevreul, on a man
+playing at billiards. "Si une bille devie legerement de la direction
+que le joueur pretend zlui imprimer, ne l'avez-vous pas vu cent fois
+la pousser du regard, de la tete et meme des epaules, comme si ces
+mouvements, purement symboliques, pouvaient rectifier son trajet? Des
+mouvements non moins significatifs se produisent quand la bille manque
+d'une impulsion suffisante. Et cliez les joueurs novices, ils sont
+quelquefois accuses au point d'eveiller le sourire sur les levres des
+spectateurs." Such movements, as it appeirs to me, may be attributed
+simply to habit. As often as a man has wished to move an object to one
+side, he has always pushed it to that side when forwards, he has pushed
+it forwards; and if he has wished to arrest it, he has pulled backwards.
+Therefore, when a man sees his ball travelling in a wrong direction, and
+he intensely wishes it to go in another direction, he cannot avoid, from
+long habit, unconsciously performing movements which in other cases he
+has found effectual.
+
+As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet gives (p. 212) the
+following case:--"un jeune chien A oreilles droites, auquel son maitre
+presente de loin quelque viande appetissante, fixe avec ardeur ses yeux
+sur cet objet dont il suit tous les mouvements, et pendant que les yeux
+regardent, les deux oreilles se portent en avant comme si cet objet
+pouvait etre entendu." Here, instead of speaking of sympathy between
+the ears and eyes, it appears to me more simple to believe, that as dogs
+during many generations have, whilst intently looking at any object,
+pricked their ears in order to perceive any sound; and conversely have
+looked intently in the direction of a sound to which they may have
+listened, the movements of these organs have become firmly associated
+together through long-continued habit.
+
+Dr. Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, which I have not
+seen, but in which, as he states, he forestalled Gratiolet in many of
+his views. In 1867 he published his 'Wissenschaftliches System der Mimik
+und Physiognomik.' It is hardly possible to give in a few sentences a
+fair notion of his views; perhaps the two following sentences will tell
+as much as can be briefly told: "the muscular movements of expression
+are in part related to imaginary objects, and in part to imaginary
+sensorial impressions. In this proposition lies the key to the
+comprehension of all expressive muscular movements." (s. 25) Again,
+"Expressive movements manifest themselves chiefly in the numerous and
+mobile muscles of the face, partly because the nerves by which they
+are set into motion originate in the most immediate vicinity of the
+mind-organ, but partly also because these muscles serve to support the
+organs of sense." (s. 26.) If Dr. Piderit had studied Sir C. Bell's
+work, he would probably not have said (s. 101) that violent laughter
+causes a frown from partaking of the nature of pain; or that with
+infants (s. 103) the tears irritate the eyes, and thus excite the
+contraction of the surrounding in muscles. Many good remarks are
+scattered throughout this volume, to which I shall hereafter refer.
+
+Short discussions on Expression may be found in various works, which
+need not here be particularised. Mr. Bain, however, in two of his works
+has treated the subject at some length. He says,[8] "I look upon the
+expression so-called as part and parcel of the feeling. I believe it to
+be a general law of the mind that along with the fact of inward feeling
+or consciousness, there is a diffusive action or excitement over the
+bodily members." In another place he adds, "A very considerable number
+of the facts may be brought under the following principle: namely, that
+states of pleasure are connected with an increase, and states of pain
+with an abatement, of some, or all, of the vital functions." But the
+above law of the diffusive action of feelings seems too general to throw
+much light on special expressions.
+
+Mr. Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in his 'Principles of
+Psychology' (1855), makes the following remarks:--"Fear, when strong,
+expresses itself in cries, in efforts to hide or escape, in palpitations
+and tremblings; and these are just the manifestations that would
+accompany an actual experience of the evil feared. The destructive
+passions are shown in a general tension of the muscular system, in
+gnashing of the teeth and protrusion of the claws, in dilated eyes
+and nostrils in growls; and these are weaker forms of the actions that
+accompany the killing of prey." Here we have, as I believe, the true
+theory of a large number of expressions; but the chief interest and
+difficulty of the subject lies in following out the wonderfully complex
+results. I infer that some one (but who he is I have not been able to
+ascertain) formerly advanced a nearly similar view, for Sir C. Bell
+says,[9] "It has been maintained that what are called the external signs
+of passion, are only the concomitants of those voluntary movements which
+the structure renders necessary." Mr. Spencer has also published[10]
+a valuable essay on the physiology of Laughter, in which he insists on
+"the general law that feeling passing a certain pitch, habitually
+vents itself in bodily action," and that "an overflow of nerve-force
+undirected by any motive, will manifestly take first the most habitual
+routes; and if these do not suffice, will next overflow into the less
+habitual ones." This law I believe to be of the highest importance in
+throwing light on our subject.'
+
+All the authors who have written on Expression, with the exception of
+Mr. Spencer--the great expounder of the principle of Evolution--appear
+to have been firmly convinced that species, man of course included,
+came into existence in their present condition. Sir C. Bell, being
+thus convinced, maintains that many of our facial muscles are "purely
+instrumental in expression;" or are "a special provision" for this sole
+object.[12] But the simple fact that the anthropoid apes possess the
+same facial muscles as we do,[13] renders it very improbable that these
+muscles in our case serve exclusively for expression; for no one, I
+presume, would be inclined to admit that monkeys have been endowed with
+special muscles solely for exhibiting their hideous grimaces. Distinct
+uses, independently of expression, can indeed be assigned with much
+probability for almost all the facial muscles.
+
+Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a distinction as possible
+between man and the lower animals; and he consequently asserts that with
+"the lower creatures there is no expression but what may be referred,
+more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary instincts."
+He further maintains that their faces "seem chiefly capable of
+expressing rage and fear."[14] But man himself cannot express love and
+humility by external signs, so plainly as does a dog, when with drooping
+ears, hanging lips, flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets his
+beloved master. Nor can these movements in the dog be explained by acts
+of volition or necessary instincts, any more than the beaming eyes and
+smiling cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir C. Bell had
+been questioned about the expression of affection in the dog, he would
+no doubt have answered that this animal had been created with special
+instincts, adapting him for association with man, and that all further
+enquiry on the subject was superfluous.
+
+Although Gratiolet emphatically denies[15] that any muscle has been
+developed solely for the sake of expression, he seems never to have
+reflected on the principle of evolution. He apparently looks at each
+species as a separate creation. So it is with the other writers on
+Expression. For instance, Dr. Duchenne, after speaking of the movements
+of the limbs, refers to those which give expression to the face, and
+remarks:[16] "Le createur n'a donc pas eu a se preoccuper ici des
+besoins de la mecanique; il a pu, selon sa sagesse, ou--que l'on me
+pardonne cette maniere de parler--par une divine fantaisie, mettre
+en action tel ou tel muscle, un seul ou plusieurs muscles a la fois,
+lorsqu'il a voulu que les signes caracteristiques des passions, meme les
+plus fugaces, lussent ecrits passagerement sur la face de l'homme. Ce
+langage de la physionomie une fois cree, il lui a suffi, pour le
+rendre universel et immuable, de donner a tout etre humain la faculte
+instinctive d'exprimer toujours ses sendments par la contraction des
+memes muscles."
+
+Many writers consider the whole subject of Expression as inexplicable.
+Thus the illustrious physiologist Muller, says,[17] "The completely
+different expression of the features in different passions shows that,
+according to the kind of feeling excited, entirely different groups of
+the fibres of the facial nerve are acted on. Of the cause of this we are
+quite ignorant."
+
+No doubt as long as man and all other animals are viewed as independent
+creations, an effectual stop is put to our natural desire to investigate
+as far as possible the causes of Expression. By this doctrine, anything
+and everything can be equally well explained; and it has proved as
+pernicious with respect to Expression as to every other branch of
+natural history. With mankind some expressions, such as the bristling of
+the hair under the influence of extreme terror, or the uncovering of the
+teeth under that of furious rage, can hardly be understood, except
+on the belief that man once existed in a much lower and animal-like
+condition. The community of certain expressions in distinct though
+allied species, as in the movements of the same facial muscles during
+laughter by man and by various monkeys, is rendered somewhat more
+intelligible, if we believe in their descent from a common progenitor.
+He who admits on general grounds that the structure and habits of all
+animals have been gradually evolved, will look at the whole subject of
+Expression in a new and interesting light.
+
+The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements being often
+extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature. A difference may be clearly
+perceived, and yet it may be impossible, at least I have found it so, to
+state in what the difference consists. When we witness any deep emotion,
+our sympathy is so strongly excited, that close observation is forgotten
+or rendered almost impossible; of which fact I have had many curious
+proofs. Our imagination is another and still more serious source of
+error; for if from the nature of the circumstances we expect to see
+any expression, we readily imagine its presence. Notwithstanding Dr.
+Duchenne's great experience, he for a long time fancied, as he states,
+that several muscles contracted under certain emotions, whereas he
+ultimately convinced himself that the movement was confined to a single
+muscle.
+
+In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to ascertain,
+independently of common opinion, how far particular movements of the
+features and gestures are really expressive of certain states of the
+mind, I have found the following means the most serviceable. In the
+first place, to observe infants; for they exhibit many emotions, as Sir
+C. Bell remarks, "with extraordinary force;" whereas, in after life,
+some of our expressions "cease to have the pure and simple source from
+which they spring in infancy."[18]
+
+In the second place, it occurred to me that the insane ought to
+be studied, as they are liable to the strongest passions, and give
+uncontrolled vent to them. I had, myself, no opportunity of doing this,
+so I applied to Dr. Maudsley and received from him an introduction
+to Dr. J. Crichton Browne, who has charge of an immense asylum near
+Wakefield, and who, as I found, had already attended to the subject.
+This excellent observer has with unwearied kindness sent me copious
+notes and descriptions, with valuable suggestions on many points; and I
+can hardly over-estimate the value of his assistance. I owe also, to the
+kindness of Mr. Patrick Nicol, of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, interesting
+statements on two or three points.
+
+Thirdly Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already seen, certain
+muscles in the face of an old man, whose skin was little sensitive, and
+thus produced various expressions which were photographed on a large
+scale. It fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best plates,
+without a word of explanation, to above twenty educated persons of
+various ages and both sexes, asking them, in each case, by what emotion
+or feeling the old man was supposed to be agitated; and I recorded their
+answers in the words which they used. Several of the expressions were
+instantly recognised by almost everyone, though described in not exactly
+the same terms; and these may, I think, be relied on as truthful,
+and will hereafter be specified. On the other hand, the most widely
+different judgments were pronounced in regard to some of them. This
+exhibition was of use in another way, by convincing me how easily we
+may be misguided by our imagination; for when I first looked through
+Dr. Duchenne's photographs, reading at the same time the text, and
+thus learning what was intended, I was struck with admiration at the
+truthfulness of all, with only a few exceptions. Nevertheless, if I had
+examined them without any explanation, no doubt I should have been as
+much perplexed, in some cases, as other persons have been.
+
+Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters in
+painting and sculpture, who are such close observers. Accordingly, I
+have looked at photographs and engravings of many well-known works; but,
+with a few exceptions, have not thus profited. The reason no doubt
+is, that in works of art, beauty is the chief object; and strongly
+contracted facial muscles destroy beauty.[19] The story of the
+composition is generally told with wonderful force and truth by
+skilfully given accessories.
+
+Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascertain whether the same
+expressions and gestures prevail, as has often been asserted without
+much evidence, with all the races of mankind, especially with those who
+have associated but little with Europeans. Whenever the same movements
+of the features or body express the same emotions in several distinct
+races of man, we may infer with much probability, that such expressions
+are true ones,--that is, are innate or instinctive. Conventional
+expressions or gestures, acquired by the individual during early life,
+would probably have differed in the different races, in the same manner
+as do their languages. Accordingly I circulated, early in the year
+1867, the following printed queries with a request, which has been
+fully responded to, that actual observations, and not memory, might be
+trusted. These queries were written after a considerable interval of
+time, during which my attention had been otherwise directed, and I can
+now see that they might have been greatly improved. To some of the later
+copies, I appended, in manuscript, a few additional remarks:--
+
+(1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide,
+and by the eyebrows being raised?
+
+(2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows it to
+be visible? and especially how low down the body does the blush extend?
+
+(3.) When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his body and
+head erect, square his shoulders and clench his fists?
+
+(4) When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to understand any
+puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids?
+
+(5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed, and
+the inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which the French
+call the "Grief muscle"? The eyebrow in this state becomes slightly
+oblique, with a little swelling at the Inner end; and the forehead
+is transversely wrinkled in the middle part, but not across the whole
+breadth, as when the eyebrows are raised in surprise. (6.) When in good
+spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little wrinkled round and
+under them, and with the mouth a little drawn back at the corners?
+
+(7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the upper
+lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side facing the man whom
+he addresses?
+
+(8) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized, which is chiefly
+shown by the mouth being firmly closed, a lowering brow and a slight
+frown?
+
+(9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips and by
+turning up the nose, and with a slight expiration?
+
+(10) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down, the upper
+lip slightly raised, with a sudden expiration, something like incipient
+vomiting, or like something spit out of the mouth?
+
+(11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as with
+Europeans?
+
+(12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears into
+the eyes?
+
+(13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something being
+done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his shoulders, turn
+inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands and open the palms; with
+the eyebrows raised?
+
+(14) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the lips?
+
+(15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized? though I
+know not how these can be defined.
+
+(16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken laterally
+in negation?
+
+
+Observations on natives who have had little communication with Europeans
+would be of course the most valuable, though those made on any natives
+would be of much interest to me. General remarks on expression are of
+comparatively little value; and memory is so deceptive that I earnestly
+beg it may not be trusted. A definite description of the countenance
+under any emotion or frame of mind, with a statement of the
+circumstances under which it occurred, would possess much value.
+
+To these queries I have received thirty-six answers from different
+observers, several of them missionaries or protectors of the aborigines,
+to all of whom I am deeply indebted for the great trouble which they
+have taken, and for the valuable aid thus received. I will specify their
+names, &c., towards the close of this chapter, so as not to interrupt my
+present remarks. The answers relate to several of the most distinct
+and savage races of man. In many instances, the circumstances have been
+recorded under which each expression was observed, and the expression
+itself described. In such cases, much confidence may be placed in the
+answers. When the answers have been simply yes or no, I have always
+received them with caution. It follows, from the information thus
+acquired, that the same state of mind is expressed throughout the world
+with remarkable uniformity; and this fact is in itself interesting
+as evidence of the close similarity in bodily structure and mental
+disposition of all the races, of mankind.
+
+Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended as closely as I could, to the
+expression of the several passions in some of the commoner animals; and
+this I believe to be of paramount importance, not of course for deciding
+how far in man certain expressions are characteristic of certain states
+of mind, but as affording the safest basis for generalisation on the
+causes, or origin, of the various movements of Expression. In observing
+animals, we are not so likely to be biassed by our imagination; and we
+may feel safe that their expressions are not conventional.
+
+From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting nature of some
+expressions (the changes in the features being often extremely slight);
+our sympathy being easily aroused when we behold any strong emotion,
+and our attention thus distracted; our imagination deceiving us, from
+knowing in a vague manner what to expect, though certainly few of us
+know what the exact changes in the countenance are; and lastly, even our
+long familiarity with the subject,--from all these causes combined, the
+observation of Expression is by no means easy, as many persons, whom I
+have asked to observe certain points, have soon discovered. Hence it is
+difficult to determine, with certainty, what are the movements of the
+features and of the body, which commonly characterize certain states of
+the mind. Nevertheless, some of the doubts and difficulties have, as
+I hope, been cleared away by the observation of infants,--of the
+insane,--of the different races of man,--of works of art,--and lastly,
+of the facial muscles under the action of galvanism, as effected by Dr.
+Duchenne.
+
+But there remains the much greater difficulty of understanding the
+cause or origin of the several expressions, and of judging whether any
+theoretical explanation is trustworthy. Besides, judging as well as we
+can by our reason, without the aid of any rules, which of two or more
+explanations is the most satisfactory, or are quite unsatisfactory, I
+see only one way of testing our conclusions. This is to observe whether
+the same principle by which one expression can, as it appears, be
+explained, is applicable in other allied cases; and especially, whether
+the same general principles can be applied with satisfactory results,
+both to man and the lower animals. This latter method, I am inclined to
+think, is the most serviceable of all. The difficulty of judging of the
+truth of any theoretical explanation, and of testing it by some distinct
+line of investigation, is the great drawback to that interest which the
+study seems well fitted to excite.
+
+Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may state that they were
+commenced in the year 1838; and from that time to the present day, I
+have occasionally attended to the subject. At the above date, I was
+already inclined to believe in the principle of evolution, or of the
+derivation of species from other and lower forms. Consequently, when I
+read Sir C. Bell's great work, his view, that man had been created with
+certain muscles specially adapted for the expression of his feelings,
+struck me as unsatisfactory. It seemed probable that the habit of
+expressing our feelings by certain movements, though now rendered
+innate, had been in some manner gradually acquired. But to discover how
+such habits had been acquired was perplexing in no small degree. The
+whole subject had to be viewed under a new aspect, and each expression
+demanded a rational explanation. This belief led me to attempt the
+present work, however imperfectly it may have been executed.--------
+
+I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, as I have said, I am
+deeply indebted for information in regard to the expressions exhibited
+by various races of man, and I will specify some of the circumstances
+under which the observations were in each case made. Owing to the great
+kindness and powerful influence of Mr. Wilson, of Hayes Place, Kent, I
+have received from Australia no less than thirteen sets of answers to
+my queries. This has been particularly fortunate, as the Australian
+aborigines rank amongst the most distinct of all the races of man. It
+will be seen that the observations have been chiefly made in the south,
+in the outlying parts of the colony of Victoria; but some excellent
+answers have been received from the north.
+
+Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valuable observations, made
+several hundred miles in the interior of Queensland. To Mr. R. Brough
+Smyth, of Melbourne, I am much indebted for observations made
+by himself, and for sending me several of the following letters,
+namely:--From the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer, of Lake Wellington, a missionary
+in Gippsland, Victoria, who has had much experience with the natives.
+From Mr. Samuel Wilson, a landowner, residing at Langerenong, Wimmera,
+Victoria. From the Rev. George Taplin, superintendent of the native
+Industrial Settlement at Port Macleay. From Mr. Archibald G. Lang, of
+Coranderik, Victoria, a teacher at a school where aborigines, old and
+young, are collected from all parts of the colony. From Mr. H. B.
+Lane, of Belfast, Victoria, a police magistrate and warden, whose
+observations, as I am assured, are highly trustworthy. From Mr.
+Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose station is on the borders of
+the colony of Victoria, and who has thus been able to observe many
+aborigines who have had little intercourse with white men. He compared
+his observations with those made by two other gentlemen long resident
+in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr. J. Bulmer, a missionary in a remote
+part of Gippsland, Victoria.
+
+I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr. Ferdinand Muller,
+of Victoria, for some observations made by himself, and for sending me
+others made by Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing letters.
+
+In regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Rev. J. W. Stack has
+answered only a few of my queries; but the answers have been remarkably
+full, clear, and distinct, with the circumstances recorded under which
+the observations were made.
+
+The Rajah Brooke has given me some information with respect to the Dyaks
+of Borneo.
+
+Respecting the Malays, I have been highly successful; for Mr. F. Geach
+(to whom I was introduced by Mr. Wallace), during his residence as a
+mining engineer in the interior of Malacca, observed many natives, who
+had never before associated with white men. He wrote me two long
+letters with admirable and detailed observations on their expression. He
+likewise observed the Chinese immigrants in the Malay archipelago.
+
+The well-known naturalist, H. M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, also observed
+for me the Chinese in their native country; and he made inquiries from
+others whom he could trust.
+
+In India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official capacity in the
+Admednugur District in the Bombay Presidency, attended to the expression
+of the inhabitants, but found much difficulty in arriving at any safe
+conclusions, owing to their habitual concealment of all emotions in
+the presence of Europeans. He also obtained information for me from
+Mr. West, the Judge in Canara, and he consulted some intelligent native
+gentlemen on certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J. Scott, curator of the
+Botanic Gardens, carefully observed the various tribes of men therein
+employed during a considerable period, and no one has sent me such full
+and valuable details. The habit of accurate observation, gained by his
+botanical studies, has been brought to bear on our present subject. For
+Ceylon I am much indebted to the Rev. S. O. Glenie for answers to some
+of my queries.
+
+Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with respect to the negroes,
+though Mr. Winwood Reade aided me as far as lay in his power. It would
+have been comparatively easy to have obtained information in regard to
+the negro slaves in America; but as they have long associated with
+white men, such observations would have possessed little value. In the
+southern parts of the continent Mrs. Barber observed the Kafirs and
+Fingoes, and sent me many distinct answers. Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale also
+made some observations on the natives, and procured for me a curious
+document, namely, the opinion, written in English, of Christian
+Gaika, brother of the Chief Sandilli, on the expressions of his
+fellow-countrymen. In the northern regions of Africa Captain Speedy,
+who long resided with the Abyssinians, answered my queries partly from
+memory and partly from observations made on the son of King Theodore,
+who was then under his charge. Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray attended
+to some points in the expressions of the natives, as observed by them
+whilst ascending the Nile.
+
+On the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a catechist residing
+with the Fuegians, answered some few questions about their expression,
+addressed to him many years ago. In the northern half of the continent
+Dr. Rothrock attended to the expressions of the wild Atnah and Espyox
+tribes on the Nasse River, in North-Western America. Mr. Washington
+Matthews Assistant-Surgeon in the United States Army, also observed
+with special care (after having seen my queries, as printed in the
+'Smithsonian Report') some of the wildest tribes in the Western parts
+of the United States, namely, the Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans, and
+Assinaboines; and his answers have proved of the highest value.
+
+Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I have collected
+some few facts incidentally given in books of travels.----
+
+[Illustration: Muscles of the human face. Fig 1-2]
+
+[Illustration: Muscles of the human face. Fig 3]
+
+As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the latter part of
+this volume, to the muscles of the human face, I have had a diagram
+(fig. 1) copied and reduced from Sir C. Bell's work, and two others,
+with more accurate details (figs. 2 and 3), from Herde's well-known
+'Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.' The same letters
+refer to the same muscles in all three figures, but the names are given
+of only the more important ones to which I shall have to allude. The
+facial muscles blend much together, and, as I am informed, hardly appear
+on a dissected face so distinct as they are here represented. Some
+writers consider that these muscles consist of nineteen pairs, with one
+unpaired;[20] but others make the number much larger, amounting even to
+fifty-five, according to Moreau. They are, as is admitted by everyone
+who has written on the subject, very variable in structure; and Moreau
+remarks that they are hardly alike in half-a-dozen subjects.[21] They
+are also variable in function. Thus the power of uncovering the canine
+tooth on one side differs much in different persons. The power of
+raising the wings of the nostrils is also, according to Dr. Piderit,[22]
+variable in a remarkable degree; and other such cases could be given.
+
+Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing my obligations to Mr.
+Rejlander for the trouble which he has taken in photographing for me
+various expressions and gestures. I am also indebted to Herr Kindermann,
+of Hamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of crying infants;
+and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one of a smiling girl. I have already
+expressed my obligations to Dr. Duchenne for generously permitting me
+to have some of his large photographs copied and reduced. All these
+photographs have been printed by the Heliotype process, and the accuracy
+of the copy is thus guaranteed. These plates are referred to by Roman
+numerals.
+
+I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme pains which
+he has taken in drawing from life the expressions of various animals. A
+distinguished artist, Mr. Riviere, has had the kindness to give me
+two drawings of dogs--one in a hostile and the other in a humble and
+caressing frame of mind. Mr. A. May has also given me two similar
+sketches of dogs. Mr. Cooper has taken much care in cutting the blocks.
+Some of the photographs and drawings, namely, those by Mr. May, and
+those by Mr. Wolf of the Cynopithecus, were first reproduced by Mr.
+Cooper on wood by means of photography, and then engraved: by this means
+almost complete fidelity is ensured.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I. -- GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
+
+The three chief principles stated--The first principle--Serviceable
+actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind,
+and are performed whether or not of service in each particular
+case--The force of habit--Inheritance--Associated habitual movements in
+man--Reflex actions--Passage of habits into reflex actions--Associated
+habitual movements in the lower animals--Concluding remarks.
+
+
+I WILL begin by giving the three Principles, which appear to me to
+account for most of the expressions and gestures involuntarily used by
+man and the lower animals, under the influence of various emotions and
+sensations.[101] I arrived, however, at these three Principles only at
+the close of my observations. They will be discussed in the present and
+two following chapters in a general manner. Facts observed both with man
+and the lower animals will here be made use of; but the latter facts
+are preferable, as less likely to deceive us. In the fourth and fifth
+chapters, I will describe the special expressions of some of the lower
+animals; and in the succeeding chapters those of man. Everyone will thus
+be able to judge for himself, how far my three principles throw light on
+the theory of the subject. It appears to me that so many expressions are
+thus explained in a fairly satisfactory manner, that probably all will
+hereafter be found to come under the same or closely analogous heads.
+I need hardly premise that movements or changes in any part of the
+body,--as the wagging of a dog's tail, the drawing back of a horse's
+ears, the shrugging of a man's shoulders, or the dilatation of
+the capillary vessels of the skin,--may all equally well serve for
+expression. The three Principles are as follows.
+
+I. _The principle of serviceable associated Habits_.--Certain complex
+actions are of direct or indirect service under certain states of the
+mind, in order to relieve or gratify certain sensations, desires, &c.;
+and whenever the same state of mind is induced, however feebly, there
+is a tendency through the force of habit and association for the same
+movements to be performed, though they may not then be of the least use.
+Some actions ordinarily associated through habit with certain states of
+the mind may be partially repressed through the will, and in such cases
+the muscles which are least under the separate control of the will are
+the most liable still to act, causing movements which we recognize as
+expressive. In certain other cases the checking of one habitual movement
+requires other slight movements; and these are likewise expressive.
+
+II. _The principle of Antithesis_.--Certain states of the mind lead
+to certain habitual actions, which are of service, as under our first
+principle. Now when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, there
+is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements
+of a directly opposite nature, though these are of no use; and such
+movements are in some cases highly expressive.
+
+III. _The principle of actions due to the constitution of the Nervous
+System, independently from the first of the Will, and independently to
+a certain extent of Habit_.--When the sensorium is strongly excited,
+nerve-force is generated in excess, and is transmitted in certain
+definite directions, depending on the connection of the nerve-cells,
+and partly on habit: or the supply of nerve-force may, as it appears, be
+interrupted. Effects are thus produced which we recognize as expressive.
+This third principle may, for the sake of brevity, be called that of the
+direct action of the nervous system.
+
+
+With respect to our _first Principle_, it is notorious how powerful is
+the force of habit. The most complex and difficult movements can in
+time be performed without the least effort or consciousness. It is not
+positively known how it comes that habit is so efficient in facilitating
+complex movements; but physiologists admit[102] "that the conducting
+power of the nervous fibres increases with the frequency of their
+excitement." This applies to the nerves of motion and sensation, as
+well as to those connected with the act of thinking. That some physical
+change is produced in the nerve-cells or nerves which are habitually
+used can hardly be doubted, for otherwise it is impossible to understand
+how the tendency to certain acquired movements is inherited. That they
+are inherited we see with horses in certain transmitted paces, such as
+cantering and ambling, which are not natural to them,--in the pointing
+of young pointers and the setting of young setters--in the peculiar
+manner of flight of certain breeds of the pigeon, &c. We have analogous
+cases with mankind in the inheritance of tricks or unusual gestures, to
+which we shall presently recur. To those who admit the gradual evolution
+of species, a most striking instance of the perfection with which the
+most difficult consensual movements can be transmitted, is afforded by
+the humming-bird Sphinx-moth (_Macroglossa_); for this moth, shortly
+after its emergence from the cocoon, as shown by the bloom on its
+unruffled scales, may be seen poised stationary in the air, with its
+long hair-like proboscis uncurled and inserted into the minute orifices
+of flowers; and no one, I believe, has ever seen this moth learning to
+perform its difficult task, which requires such unerring aim.
+
+When there exists an inherited or instinctive tendency to the
+performance of an action, or an inherited taste for certain kinds of
+food, some degree of habit in the individual is often or generally
+requisite. We find this in the paces of the horse, and to a certain
+extent in the pointing of dogs; although some young dogs point
+excellently the first time they are taken out, yet they often associate
+the proper inherited attitude with a wrong odour, and even with
+eyesight. I have heard it asserted that if a calf be allowed to suck
+its mother only once, it is much more difficult afterwards to rear it by
+hand.[103] Caterpillars which have been fed on the leaves of one kind
+of tree, have been known to perish from hunger rather than to eat the
+leaves of another tree, although this afforded them their proper food,
+under a state of nature;[104] and so it is in many other cases.
+
+The power of Association is admitted by everyone. Mr. Bain remarks, that
+"actions, sensations and states of feeling, occurring together or in
+close succession, tend to grow together, or cohere, in such a way that
+when any one of them is afterwards presented to the mind, the others are
+apt to be brought up in idea."[105] It is so important for our purpose
+fully to recognize that actions readily become associated with other
+actions and with various states of the mind, that I will give a good
+many instances, in the first place relating to man, and afterwards to
+the lower animals. Some of the instances are of a very trifling nature,
+but they are as good for our purpose as more important habits. It is
+known to everyone how difficult, or even impossible it is, without
+repeated trials, to move the limbs in certain opposed directions which
+have never been practised. Analogous cases occur with sensations, as
+in the common experiment of rolling a marble beneath the tips of two
+crossed fingers, when it feels exactly like two marbles. Everyone
+protects himself when falling to the ground by extending his arms,
+and as Professor Alison has remarked, few can resist acting thus, when
+voluntarily falling on a soft bed. A man when going out of doors puts
+on his gloves quite unconsciously; and this may seem an extremely simple
+operation, but he who has taught a child to put on gloves, knows that
+this is by no means the case.
+
+When our minds are much affected, so are the movements of our bodies;
+but here another principle besides habit, namely the undirected overflow
+of nerve-force, partially comes into play. Norfolk, in speaking of
+Cardinal Wolsey, says--
+
+    "Some strange commotion
+     Is in his brain; he bites his lip and starts;
+     Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground,
+     Then, lays his finger on his temple: straight,
+     Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again,
+     Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he casts
+     His eye against the moon: in most strange postures
+     We have seen him set himself."--_Hen. VIII_., act 3, sc. 2.
+
+
+A vulgar man often scratches his head when perplexed in mind; and I
+believe that he acts thus from habit, as if he experienced a slightly
+uncomfortable bodily sensation, namely, the itching of his head, to
+which he is particularly liable, and which he thus relieves. Another man
+rubs his eyes when perplexed, or gives a little cough when embarrassed,
+acting in either case as if he felt a slightly uncomfortable sensation
+in his eyes or windpipe.[106]
+
+From the continued use of the eyes, these organs are especially liable
+to be acted on through association under various states of the mind,
+although there is manifestly nothing to be seen. A man, as Gratiolet
+remarks, who vehemently rejects a proposition, will almost certainly
+shut his eyes or turn away his face; but if he accepts the proposition,
+he will nod his head in affirmation and open his eyes widely. The man
+acts in this latter case as if he clearly saw the thing, and in the
+former case as if he did not or would not see it. I have noticed that
+persons in describing a horrid sight often shut their eyes momentarily
+and firmly, or shake their heads, as if not to see or to drive away
+something disagreeable; and I have caught myself, when thinking in the
+dark of a horrid spectacle, closing my eyes firmly. In looking suddenly
+at any object, or in looking all around, everyone raises his eyebrows,
+so that the eyes may be quickly and widely opened; and Duchenne remarks
+that[107] a person in trying to remember something often raises his
+eyebrows, as if to see it. A Hindoo gentleman made exactly the same
+remark to Mr. Erskine in regard to his countrymen. I noticed a young
+lady earnestly trying to recollect a painter's name, and she first
+looked to one corner of the ceiling and then to the opposite corner,
+arching the one eyebrow on that side; although, of course, there was
+nothing to be seen there.
+
+In most of the foregoing cases, we can understand how the associated
+movements were acquired through habit; but with some individuals,
+certain strange gestures or tricks have arisen in association with
+certain states of the mind, owing to wholly inexplicable causes, and are
+undoubtedly inherited. I have elsewhere given one instance from my own
+observation of an extraordinary and complex gesture, associated with
+pleasurable feelings, which was transmitted from a father to his
+daughter, as well as some other analogous facts.[108]
+
+Another curious instance of an odd inherited movement, associated
+with the wish to obtain an object, will be given in the course of this
+volume.
+
+There are other actions which are commonly performed under certain
+circumstances, independently of habit, and which seem to be due to
+imitation or some sort of sympathy. Thus persons cutting anything with a
+pair of scissors may be seen to move their jaws simultaneously with the
+blades of the scissors. Children learning to write often twist about
+their tongues as their fingers move, in a ridiculous fashion. When a
+public singer suddenly becomes a little hoarse, many of those present
+may be heard, as I have been assured by a gentleman on whom I can rely,
+to clear their throats; but here habit probably comes into play, as we
+clear our own throats under similar circumstances. I have also been told
+that at leaping matches, as the performer makes his spring, many of
+the spectators, generally men and boys, move their feet; but here again
+habit probably comes into play, for it is very doubtful whether women
+would thus act.
+
+_Reflex actions_--Reflex actions, in the strict sense of the term,
+are due to the excitement of a peripheral nerve, which transmits its
+influence to certain nerve-cells, and these in their turn excite certain
+muscles or glands into action; and all this may take place without any
+sensation or consciousness on our part, though often thus accompanied.
+As many reflex actions are highly expressive, the subject must here
+be noticed at some little length. We shall also see that some of them
+graduate into, and can hardly be distinguished from actions which have
+arisen through habit? Coughing and sneezing are familiar instances of
+reflex actions. With infants the first act of respiration is often a
+sneeze, although this requires the co-ordinated movement of numerous
+muscles. Respiration is partly voluntary, but mainly reflex, and is
+performed in the most natural and best manner without the interference
+of the will. A vast number of complex movements are reflex. As good an
+instance as can be given is the often-quoted one of a decapitated
+frog, which cannot of course feel, and cannot consciously perform, any
+movement. Yet if a drop of acid be placed on the lower surface of the
+thigh of a frog in this state, it will rub off the drop with the upper
+surface of the foot of the same leg. If this foot be cut off, it cannot
+thus act. "After some fruitless efforts, therefore, it gives up trying
+in that way, seems restless, as though, says Pfluger, it was seeking
+some other way, and at last it makes use of the foot of the other leg
+and succeeds in rubbing off the acid. Notably we have here not merely
+contractions of muscles, but combined and harmonized contractions in
+due sequence for a special purpose. These are actions that have all the
+appearance of being guided by intelligence and instigated by will in
+an animal, the recognized organ of whose intelligence and will has been
+removed."[110]
+
+We see the difference between reflex and voluntary movements in very
+young children not being able to perform, as I am informed by Sir
+Henry Holland, certain acts somewhat analogous to those of sneezing and
+coughing, namely, in their not being able to blow their noses (i. e. to
+compress the nose and blow violently through the passage), and in their
+not being able to clear their throats of phlegm. They have to learn to
+perform these acts, yet they are performed by us, when a little older,
+almost as easily as reflex actions. Sneezing and coughing, however,
+can be controlled by the will only partially or not at all; whilst
+the clearing the throat and blowing the nose are completely under our
+command.
+
+When we are conscious of the presence of an irritating particle in our
+nostrils or windpipe--that is, when the same sensory nerve-cells are
+excited, as in the case of sneezing and coughing--we can voluntarily
+expel the particle by forcibly driving air through these passages; but
+we cannot do this with nearly the same force, rapidity, and precision,
+as by a reflex action. In this latter case the sensory nerve-cells
+apparently excite the motor nerve-cells without any waste of power
+by first communicating with the cerebral hemispheres--the seat of our
+consciousness and volition. In all cases there seems to exist a profound
+antagonism between the same movements, as directed by the will and by a
+reflex stimulant, in the force with which they are performed and in
+the facility with which they are excited. As Claude Bernard asserts,
+"L'influence du cerveau tend donc a entraver les mouvements reflexes, a
+limiter leur force et leur etendue."[111]
+
+The conscious wish to perform a reflex action sometimes stops or
+interrupts its performance, though the proper sensory nerves may be
+stimulated. For instance, many years ago I laid a small wager with a
+dozen young men that they would not sneeze if they took snuff, although
+they all declared that they invariably did so; accordingly they all took
+a pinch, but from wishing much to succeed, not one sneezed, though their
+eyes watered, and all, without exception, had to pay me the wager. Sir
+H. Holland remarks[112] that attention paid to the act of swallowing
+interferes with the proper movements; from which it probably follows, at
+least in part, that some persons find it so difficult to swallow a pill.
+
+Another familiar instance of a reflex action is the involuntary closing
+of the eyelids when the surface of the eye is touched. A similar winking
+movement is caused when a blow is directed towards the face; but this
+is an habitual and not a strictly reflex action, as the stimulus is
+conveyed through the mind and not by the excitement of a peripheral
+nerve. The whole body and head are generally at the same time drawn
+suddenly backwards. These latter movements, however, can be prevented,
+if the danger does not appear to the imagination imminent; but our
+reason telling us that there is no danger does not suffice. I may
+mention a trifling fact, illustrating this point, and which at the time
+amused me. I put my face close to the thick glass-plate in front of a
+puff-adder in the Zoological Gardens, with the firm determination of not
+starting back if the snake struck at me; but, as soon as the blow was
+struck, my resolution went for nothing, and I jumped a yard or two
+backwards with astonishing rapidity. My will and reason were powerless
+against the imagination of a danger which had never been experienced.
+
+The violence of a start seems to depend partly on the vividness of the
+imagination, and partly on the condition, either habitual or temporary,
+of the nervous system. He who will attend to the starting of his horse,
+when tired and fresh, will perceive how perfect is the gradation from a
+mere glance at some unexpected object, with a momentary doubt whether it
+is dangerous, to a jump so rapid and violent, that the animal probably
+could not voluntarily whirl round in so rapid a manner. The nervous
+system of a fresh and highly-fed horse sends its order to the motory
+system so quickly, that no time is allowed for him to consider whether
+or not the danger is real. After one violent start, when he is excited
+and the blood flows freely through his brain, he is very apt to start
+again; and so it is, as I have noticed, with young infants.
+
+A start from a sudden noise, when the stimulus is conveyed through
+the auditory nerves, is always accompanied in grown-up persons by the
+winking of the eyelids.[113] I observed, however, that though my infants
+started at sudden sounds, when under a fortnight old, they certainly did
+not always wink their eyes, and I believe never did so. The start of an
+older infant apparently represents a vague catching hold of something to
+prevent falling. I shook a pasteboard box close before the eyes of one
+of my infants, when 114 days old, and it did not in the least wink; but
+when I put a few comfits into the box, holding it in the same position
+as before, and rattled them, the child blinked its eyes violently
+every time, and started a little. It was obviously impossible that a
+carefully-guarded infant could have learnt by experience that a rattling
+sound near its eyes indicated danger to them. But such experience
+will have been slowly gained at a later age during a long series of
+generations; and from what we know of inheritance, there is nothing
+improbable in the transmission of a habit to the offspring at an earlier
+age than that at which it was first acquired by the parents.
+
+From the foregoing remarks it seems probable that some actions, which
+were at first performed consciously, have become through habit and
+association converted into reflex actions, and are now so firmly fixed
+and inherited, that they are performed, even when not of the least
+use,[114] as often as the same causes arise, which originally excited
+them in us through the volition. In such cases the sensory nerve-cells
+excite the motor cells, without first communicating with those cells
+on which our consciousness and volition depend. It is probable
+that sneezing and coughing were originally acquired by the habit of
+expelling, as violently as possible, any irritating particle from the
+sensitive air-passages. As far as time is concerned, there has been more
+than enough for these habits to have become innate or converted into
+reflex actions; for they are common to most or all of the higher
+quadrupeds, and must therefore have been first acquired at a very remote
+period. Why the act of clearing the throat is not a reflex action, and
+has to be learnt by our children, I cannot pretend to say; but we can
+see why blowing the nose on a handkerchief has to be learnt.
+
+It is scarcely credible that the movements of a headless frog, when
+it wipes off a drop of acid or other object from its thigh, and which
+movements are so well coordinated for a special purpose, were not at
+first performed voluntarily, being afterwards rendered easy through
+long-continued habit so as at last to be performed unconsciously, or
+independently of the cerebral hemispheres.
+
+So again it appears probable that starting was originally acquired by
+the habit of jumping away as quickly as possible from danger, whenever
+any of our senses gave us warning. Starting, as we have seen, is
+accompanied by the blinking of the eyelids so as to protect the eyes,
+the most tender and sensitive organs of the body; and it is, I believe,
+always accompanied by a sudden and forcible inspiration, which is the
+natural preparation for any violent effort. But when a man or horse
+starts, his heart beats wildly against his ribs, and here it may be
+truly said we have an organ which has never been under the control of
+the will, partaking in the general reflex movements of the body. To this
+point, however, I shall return in a future chapter.
+
+The contraction of the iris, when the retina is stimulated by a bright
+light, is another instance of a movement, which it appears cannot
+possibly have been at first voluntarily performed and then fixed by
+habit; for the iris is not known to be under the conscious control of
+the will in any animal. In such cases some explanation, quite distinct
+from habit, will have to be discovered. The radiation of nerve-force
+from strongly-excited nerve-cells to other connected cells, as in the
+case of a bright light on the retina causing a sneeze, may perhaps aid
+us in understanding how some reflex actions originated. A radiation of
+nerve-force of this kind, if it caused a movement tending to lessen
+the primary irritation, as in the case of the contraction of the iris
+preventing too much light from falling on the retina, might afterwards
+have been taken advantage of and modified for this special purpose.
+
+It further deserves notice that reflex actions are in all probability
+liable to slight variations, as are all corporeal structures and
+instincts; and any variations which were beneficial and of sufficient
+importance, would tend to be preserved and inherited. Thus reflex
+actions, when once gained for one purpose, might afterwards be modified
+independently of the will or habit, so as to serve for some distinct
+purpose. Such cases would be parallel with those which, as we have every
+reason to believe, have occurred with many instincts; for although
+some instincts have been developed simply through long-continued and
+inherited habit, other highly complex ones have been developed through
+the preservation of variations of pre-existing instincts--that is,
+through natural selection.
+
+I have discussed at some little length, though as I am well aware, in a
+very imperfect manner, the acquirement of reflex actions, because they
+are often brought into play in connection with movements expressive of
+our emotions; and it was necessary to show that at least some of them
+might have been Erst acquired through the will in order to satisfy a
+desire, or to relieve a disagreeable sensation.
+
+_Associated habitual movements in the lower animals_.--I have already
+given in the case of Man several instances of movements associated with
+various states of the mind or body, which are now purposeless, but
+which were originally of use, and are still of use under certain
+circumstances. As this subject is very important for us, I will here
+give a considerable number of analogous facts, with reference to
+animals; although many of them are of a very trifling nature. My object
+is to show that certain movements were originally performed for a
+definite end, and that, under nearly the same circumstances, they are
+still pertinaciously performed through habit when not of the least use.
+That the tendency in most of the following cases is inherited, we may
+infer from such actions being performed in the same manner by all the
+individuals, young and old, of he same species. We shall also see
+that they are excited by the most diversified, often circuitous, and
+sometimes mistaken associations.
+
+Dogs, when they wish to go to sleep on a carpet or other hard surface,
+generally turn round and round and scratch the ground with their
+fore-paws in a senseless manner, as if they intended to trample down the
+grass and scoop out a hollow, as no doubt their wild parents did, when
+they lived on open grassy plains or in the woods. Jackals, fennecs, and
+other allied animals in the Zoological Gardens, treat their straw in
+this manner; but it is a rather odd circumstance that the keepers, after
+observing for some months, have never seen the wolves thus behave. A
+semi-idiotic dog--and an animal in this condition would be particularly
+liable to follow a senseless habit--was observed by a friend to turn
+completely round on a carpet thirteen times before going to sleep.
+
+
+Many carnivorous animals, as they crawl towards their prey and prepare
+to rush or spring on it, lower their heads and crouch, partly, as it
+would appear, to hide themselves, and partly to get ready for their
+rush; and this habit in an exaggerated form has become hereditary in our
+pointers and setters. Now I have noticed scores of times that when two
+strange dogs meet on an open road, the one which first sees the other,
+though at the distance of one or two hundred yards, after the first
+glance always lowers its bead, generally crouches a little, or even lies
+down; that is, he takes the proper attitude for concealing himself and
+for making a rush or spring although the road
+is quite open and the distance great. Again, dogs of
+all kinds when intently watching and slowly approaching their prey,
+frequently keep one of their fore-legs doubled up for a long time, ready
+for the next cautious step; and this is eminently characteristic of the
+pointer. But from habit they behave in exactly the same manner whenever
+their attention is aroused (fig. 4). I have seen a dog at the foot of a
+high wall, listening attentively to a sound on the opposite side, with
+one leg doubled up; and in this case there could have been no intention
+of making a cautious approach.
+
+[Illustration: Small dog watching a cat on a table. Figure 4]
+
+{illust. caption = for making a rush or FIG. 4.--Small dog watching a
+cat on a table. From a photograph taken  by Mr. Rejlander.}
+
+Dogs after voiding their excrement often make with all four feet a
+few scratches backwards, even on a bare stone pavement, as if for the
+purpose of covering up their excrement with earth, in nearly the same
+manner as do cats. Wolves and jackals behave in the Zoological Gardens
+in exactly the same manner, yet, as I am assured by the keepers, neither
+wolves, jackals, nor foxes, when they have the means of doing so, ever
+cover up their excrement, any more than do dogs. All these animals,
+however, bury superfluous food. Hence, if we rightly understand the
+meaning of the above cat-like habit, of which there can be little
+doubt, we have a purposeless remnant of an habitual movement, which was
+originally followed by some remote progenitor of the dog-genus for a
+definite purpose, and which has been retained for a prodigious length of
+time.
+
+Dogs and jackals[115] take much pleasure in rolling and rubbing their
+necks and backs on carrion. The odour seems delightful to them, though
+dogs at least do not eat carrion. Mr. Bartlett has observed wolves for
+me, and has given them carrion, but has never seen them roll on it. I
+have heard it remarked, and I believe it to be true, that the larger
+dogs, which are probably descended from wolves, do not so often roll in
+carrion as do smaller dogs, which are probably descended from jackals.
+When a piece of brown biscuit is offered to a terrier of mine and she is
+not hungry (and I have heard of similar instances), she first tosses
+it about and worries it, as if it were a rat or other prey; she then
+repeatedly rolls on it precisely as if it were a piece of carrion, and
+at last eats it. It would appear that an imaginary relish has to be
+given to the distasteful morsel; and to effect this the dog acts in
+his habitual manner, as if the biscuit was a live animal or smelt like
+carrion, though he knows better than we do that this is not the case.
+I have seen this same terrier act in the same manner after killing a
+little bird or mouse.
+
+Dogs scratch themselves by a rapid movement of one of their hind-feet;
+and when their backs are rubbed with a stick, so strong is the habit,
+that they cannot help rapidly scratching the air or the ground in a
+useless and ludicrous manner. The terrier just alluded to, when thus
+scratched with a stick, will sometimes show her delight by another
+habitual movement, namely, by licking the air as if it were my hand.
+
+Horses scratch themselves by nibbling those parts of their bodies which
+they can reach with their teeth; but more commonly one horse shows
+another where he wants to be scratched, and they then nibble each other.
+A friend whose attention I had called to the subject, observed that when
+he rubbed his horse's neck, the animal protruded his head, uncovered his
+teeth, and moved his jaws, exactly as if nibbling another horse's
+neck, for he could never have nibbled his own neck. If a horse is much
+tickled, as when curry-combed, his wish to bite something becomes so
+intolerably strong, that he will clatter his teeth together, and though
+not vicious, bite his groom. At the same time from habit he closely
+depresses his ears, so as to protect them from being bitten, as if he
+were fighting with another horse.
+
+A horse when eager to start on a journey makes the nearest approach
+which he can to the habitual movement of progression by pawing the
+ground. Now when horses in their stalls are about to be fed and are
+eager for their corn, they paw the pavement or the straw. Two of
+my horses thus behave when they see or hear the corn given to
+their neighbours. But here we have what may almost be called a true
+expression, as pawing the ground is universally recognized as a sign of
+eagerness.
+
+Cats cover up their excrements of both kinds with earth; and my
+grandfather[117]{sic} saw a kitten scraping ashes over a spoonful of
+pure water spilt on the hearth; so that here an habitual or instinctive
+action was falsely excited, not by a previous act or by odour, but by
+eyesight. It is well known that cats dislike wetting their feet, owing,
+it is probable, to their having aboriginally inhabited the dry country
+of Egypt; and when they wet their feet they shake them violently. My
+daughter poured some water into a glass close to the head of a kitten;
+and it immediately shook its feet in the usual manner; so that here we
+have an habitual movement falsely excited by an associated sound instead
+of by the sense of touch.
+
+Kittens, puppies, young pigs and probably many other young animals,
+alternately push with their forefeet against the mammary glands of their
+mothers, to excite a freer secretion of milk, or to make it flow. Now it
+is very common with young cats, and not at all rare with old cats of
+the common and Persian breeds (believed by some naturalists to be
+specifically extinct), when comfortably lying on a warm shawl or
+other soft substance, to pound it quietly and alternately with their
+fore-feet; their toes being spread out and claws slightly protruded,
+precisely as when sucking their mother. That it is the same movement is
+clearly shown by their often at the same time taking a bit of the shawl
+into their mouths and sucking it; generally closing their eyes and
+purring from delight. This curious movement is commonly excited only in
+association with the sensation of a warm soft surface; but I have seen
+an old cat, when pleased by having its back scratched, pounding the air
+with its feet in the same manner; so that this action has almost become
+the expression of a pleasurable sensation.
+
+Having referred to the act of sucking, I may add that this complex
+movement, as well as the alternate protrusion of the fore-feet, are
+reflex actions; for they are performed if a finger moistened with milk
+is placed in the mouth of a puppy, the front part of whose brain has
+been removed.[117] It has recently been stated in France, that the
+action of sucking is excited solely through the sense of smell, so that
+if the olfactory nerves of a puppy are destroyed, it never sucks. In
+like manner the wonderful power which a chicken possesses only a few
+hours after being hatched, of picking up small particles of food,
+seems to be started into action through the sense of hearing; for with
+chickens hatched by artificial heat, a good observer found that "making
+a noise with the finger-nail against a board, in imitation of the
+hen-mother, first taught them to peck at their meat."[118]
+
+I will give only one other instance of an habitual and purposeless
+movement. The Sheldrake (_Tadorna_) feeds on the sands left uncovered
+by the tide, and when a worm-cast is discovered, "it begins patting the
+ground with its feet, dancing as it were, over the hole;" and this makes
+the worm come to the surface. Now Mr. St. John says, that when his tame
+Sheldrakes "came to ask for food, they patted the ground in an impatient
+and rapid manner."[119] This therefore may almost be considered as their
+expression of hunger. Mr. Bartlett informs me that the Flamingo and the
+Kagu (_Rhinochetus jubatus_) when anxious to be fed, beat the ground
+with their feet in the same odd manner. So again Kingfishers, when they
+catch a fish, always beat it until it is killed; and in the Zoological
+Gardens they always beat the raw meat, with which they are sometimes
+fed, before devouring it.
+
+We have now, I think, sufficiently shown the truth of our first
+Principle, namely, that when any sensation, desire, dislike, &c., has
+led during a long series of generations to some voluntary movement,
+then a tendency to the performance of a similar movement will almost
+certainly be excited, whenever the same, or any analogous or associated
+sensation &c., although very weak, is experienced; notwithstanding that
+the movement in this case may not be of the least use. Such habitual
+movements are often, or generally inherited; and they then differ but
+little from reflex actions. When we treat of the special expressions
+of man, the latter part of our first Principle, as given at the
+commencement of this chapter, will be seen to hold good; namely, that
+when movements, associated through habit with certain states of the
+mind, are partially repressed by the will, the strictly involuntary
+muscles, as well as those which are least under the separate control
+of the will, are liable still to act; and their action is often highly
+expressive. Conversely, when the will is temporarily or permanently
+weakened, the voluntary muscles fail before the involuntary. It is a
+fact familiar to pathologists, as Sir C. Bell remarks,[120] "that when
+debility arises from affection of the brain, the influence is greatest
+on those muscles which are, in their natural condition, most under the
+command of the will." We shall, also, in our future chapters, consider
+another proposition included in our first Principle; namely, that
+the checking of one habitual movement sometimes requires other slight
+movements; these latter serving as a means of expression.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. -- GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION--_continued_.
+
+The Principle of Antithesis--Instances in the dog and cat--Origin of
+the principle--Conventional signs--The principle of antithesis has not
+arisen from opposite actions being consciously performed under opposite
+impulses.
+
+
+WE will now consider our second Principle, that of Antithesis. Certain
+states of the mind lead, as we have seen in the last chapter, to certain
+habitual movements which were primarily, or may still be, of service;
+and we shall find that when a directly opposite state of mind is
+induced, there is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance
+of movements of a directly opposite nature, though these have never been
+of any service. A few striking instances of antithesis will be given,
+when we treat of the special expressions of man; but as, in these
+cases, we are particularly liable to confound conventional or artificial
+gestures and expressions with those which are innate or universal, and
+which alone deserve to rank as true expressions, I will in the present
+chapter almost confine myself to the lower animals.
+
+[Illustration: Dog in a hostile frame of mind.  Fig. 5]
+
+[Illustration:   Fig. 6]
+
+[Illustration: Dog in a hostile frame of mind.  Fig. 7]
+
+
+When a dog approaches a strange dog or man in a savage or hostile frame
+of mind be walks upright and very stiffly; his head is slightly raised,
+or not much lowered; the tail is held erect, and quite rigid; the
+hairs bristle, especially along the neck and back; the pricked ears are
+directed forwards, and the eyes have a fixed stare: (see figs. 5 and
+7). These actions, as will hereafter be explained, follow from the
+dog's intention to attack his enemy, and are thus to a large extent
+intelligible. As he prepares to spring with a savage growl on his enemy,
+the canine teeth are uncovered, and the ears are pressed close backwards
+on the head; but with these latter actions, we are not here concerned.
+Let us now suppose that the dog suddenly discovers that the man he is
+approaching, is not a stranger, but his master; and let it be observed
+how completely and instantaneously his whole bearing is reversed.
+Instead of walking upright, the body sinks downwards or even crouches,
+and is thrown into flexuous movements; his tail, instead of being held
+stiff and upright, is lowered and wagged from side to side; his hair
+instantly becomes smooth; his ears are depressed and drawn backwards,
+but not closely to the head; and his lips hang loosely. From the drawing
+back of the ears, the eyelids become elongated, and the eyes no longer
+appear round and staring. It should be added that the animal is at
+such times in an excited condition from joy; and nerve-force will be
+generated in excess, which naturally leads to action of some kind. Not
+one of the above movements, so clearly expressive of affection, are of
+the least direct service to the animal. They are explicable, as far as
+I can see, solely from being in complete opposition or antithesis to the
+attitude and movements which, from intelligible causes, are assumed when
+a dog intends to fight, and which consequently are expressive of anger.
+I request the reader to look at the four accompanying sketches, which
+have been given in order to recall vividly the appearance of a dog under
+these two states of mind. It is, however, not a little difficult to
+represent affection in a dog, whilst caressing his master and wagging
+his tail, as the essence of the expression lies in the continuous
+flexuous movements.
+
+[Illustration: Dog Carressing his master.  Fig. 8]
+
+We will now turn to the cat. When this animal is threatened by a dog, it
+arches its back in a surprising manner, erects its hair, opens its mouth
+and spits. But we are not here concerned with this well-known attitude,
+expressive of terror combined with anger; we are concerned only with
+that of rage or anger. This is not often seen, but may be observed when
+two cats are fighting together; and I have seen it well exhibited by a
+savage cat whilst plagued by a boy. The attitude is almost exactly the
+same as that of a tiger disturbed and growling over its food, which
+every one must have beheld in menageries. The animal assumes a crouching
+position, with the body extended; and the whole tail, or the tip alone,
+is lashed or curled from side to side. The hair is not in the least
+erect. Thus far, the attitude and movements are nearly the same as when
+the animal is prepared to spring on its prey, and when, no doubt, it
+feels savage. But when preparing to fight, there is this difference,
+that the ears are closely pressed backwards; the mouth is partially
+opened, showing the teeth; the fore feet are occasionally struck out
+with protruded claws; and the animal occasionally utters a fierce growl.
+(See figs. 9 and 10.) All, or almost all these actions naturally follow
+(as hereafter to be explained), from the cat's manner and intention of
+attacking its enemy.
+
+[Illustration: Cat, savage, and prepared to fight. Fig. 9]
+
+[Illustration: Cat in an affectionate frame of mind. Fig. 10]
+
+Let us now look at a cat in a directly opposite frame of mind, whilst
+feeling affectionate and caressing her master; and mark how opposite
+is her attitude in every respect. She now stands upright with her back
+slightly arched, which makes the hair appear rather rough, but it does
+not bristle; her tail, instead of being extended and lashed from side
+to side, is held quite still and perpendicularly upwards; her ears are
+erect and pointed; her mouth is closed; and she rubs against her master
+with a purr instead of a growl. Let it further be observed how widely
+different is the whole bearing of an affectionate cat from that of a
+dog, when with his body crouching and flexuous, his tail lowered and
+wagging, and ears depressed, he caresses his master. This contrast in
+the attitudes and movements of these two carnivorous animals, under the
+same pleased and affectionate frame of mind, can be explained, as it
+appears to me, solely by their movements standing in complete antithesis
+to those which are naturally assumed, when these animals feel savage and
+are prepared either to fight or to seize their prey.
+
+In these cases of the dog and cat, there is every reason to believe that
+the gestures both of hostility and affection are innate or inherited;
+for they are almost identically the same in the different races of the
+species, and in all the individuals of the same race, both young and
+old.
+
+I will here give one other instance of antithesis in expression. I
+formerly possessed a large dog, who, like every other dog, was much
+pleased to go out walking. He showed his pleasure by trotting gravely
+before me with high steps, head much raised, moderately erected ears,
+and tail carried aloft but not stiffly. Not far from my house a path
+branches off to the right, leading to the hot-house, which I used often
+to visit for a few moments, to look at my experimental plants. This was
+always a great disappointment to the dog, as he did not know whether I
+should continue my walk; and the instantaneous and complete change of
+expression which came over him as soon as my body swerved in the least
+towards the path (and I sometimes tried this as an experiment) was
+laughable. His look of dejection was known to every member of the
+family, and was called his _hot-house face_. This consisted in the head
+drooping much, the whole body sinking a little and remaining motionless;
+the ears and tail falling suddenly down, but the tail was by no means
+wagged. With the falling of the ears and of his great chaps, the eyes
+became much changed in appearance, and I fancied that they looked less
+bright. His aspect was that of piteous, hopeless dejection; and it was,
+as I have said, laughable, as the cause was so slight. Every detail
+in his attitude was in complete opposition to his former joyful yet
+dignified bearing; and can be explained, as it appears to me, in no
+other way, except through the principle of antithesis. Had not the
+change been so instantaneous, I should have attributed it to his
+lowered spirits affecting, as in the case of man, the nervous system and
+circulation, and consequently the tone of his whole muscular frame; and
+this may have been in part the cause.
+
+We will now consider how the principle of antithesis in expression has
+arisen. With social animals, the power of intercommunication between
+the members of the same community,--and with other species, between the
+opposite sexes, as well as between the young and the old,--is of the
+highest importance to them. This is generally effected by means of the
+voice, but it is certain that gestures and expressions are to a certain
+extent mutually intelligible. Man not only uses inarticulate cries,
+gestures, and expressions, but has invented articulate language; if,
+indeed, the word INVENTED can be applied to a process, completed by
+innumerable steps, half-consciously made. Any one who has watched
+monkeys will not doubt that they perfectly understand each other's
+gestures and expression, and to a large extent, as Rengger asserts,[201]
+those of man. An animal when going to attack another, or when afraid of
+another, often makes itself appear terrible, by erecting its hair,
+thus increasing the apparent bulk of its body, by showing its teeth, or
+brandishing its horns, or by uttering fierce sounds.
+
+As the power of intercommunication is certainly of high service to many
+animals, there is no _a priori_ improbability in the supposition, that
+gestures manifestly of an opposite nature to those by which certain
+feelings are already expressed, should at first have been voluntarily
+employed under the influence of an opposite state of feeling. The fact
+of the gestures being now innate, would be no valid objection to the
+belief that they were at first intentional; for if practised during many
+generations, they would probably at last be inherited. Nevertheless it
+is more than doubtful, as we shall immediately see, whether any of
+the cases which come under our present head of antithesis, have thus
+originated.
+
+With conventional signs which are not innate, such as those used by the
+deaf and dumb and by savages, the principle of opposition or antithesis
+has been partially brought into play. The Cistercian monks thought it
+sinful to speak, and as they could not avoid holding some communication,
+they invented a gesture language, in which the principle of opposition
+seems to have been employed.[202] Dr. Scott, of the Exeter Deaf and Dumb
+Institution, writes to me that "opposites are greatly used in teaching
+the deaf and dumb, who have a lively sense of them." Nevertheless I
+have been surprised how few unequivocal instances can be adduced. This
+depends partly on all the signs having commonly had some natural origin;
+and partly on the practice of the deaf and dumb and of savages to
+contract their signs as much as possible for the sake of rapidity?[203]
+Hence their natural source or origin often becomes doubtful or is
+completely lost; as is likewise the case with articulate language.
+
+Many signs, moreover, which plainly stand in opposition to each other,
+appear to have had on both sides a significant origin. This seems
+to hold good with the signs used by the deal and dumb for light and
+darkness, for strength and weakness, &c. In a future chapter I shall
+endeavour to show that the opposite gestures of affirmation and
+negation, namely, vertically nodding and laterally shaking the head,
+have both probably had a natural beginning. The waving of the hand from
+right to left, which is used as a negative by some savages, may have
+been invented in imitation of shaking the head; but whether the opposite
+movement of waving the hand in a straight line from the face, which
+is used in affirmation, has arisen through antithesis or in some quite
+distinct manner, is doubtful.
+
+If we now turn to the gestures which are innate or common to all the
+individuals of the same species, and which come under the present head
+of antithesis, it is extremely doubtful, whether any of them were at
+first deliberately invented and consciously performed. With mankind
+the best instance of a gesture standing in direct opposition to other
+movements, naturally assumed under an opposite frame of mind, is that
+of shrugging the shoulders. This expresses impotence or an
+apology,--something which cannot be done, or cannot be avoided. The
+gesture is sometimes used consciously and voluntarily, but it is
+extremely improbable that it was at first deliberately invented, and
+afterwards fixed by habit; for not only do young children sometimes
+shrug their shoulders under the above states of mind, but the movement
+is accompanied, as will be shown in a future chapter, by various
+subordinate movements, which not one man in a thousand is aware of,
+unless he has specially attended to the subject.
+
+Dogs when approaching a strange dog, may find it useful to show by their
+movements that they are friendly, and do not wish to fight. When two
+young dogs in play are growling and biting each other's faces and legs,
+it is obvious that they mutually understand each other's gestures and
+manners. There seems, indeed, some degree of instinctive knowledge in
+puppies and kittens, that they must not use their sharp little teeth
+or claws too freely in their play, though this sometimes happens and
+a squeal is the result; otherwise they would often injure each other's
+eyes. When my terrier bites my hand in play, often snarling at the same
+time, if he bites too hard and I say GENTLY, GENTLY, he goes on biting,
+but answers me by a few wags of the tail, which seems to say "Never
+mind, it is all fun." Although dogs do thus express, and may wish to
+express, to other dogs and to man, that they are in a friendly state of
+mind, it is incredible that they could ever have deliberately thought
+of drawing back and depressing their ears, instead of holding them
+erect,--of lowering and wagging their tails, instead of keeping them
+stiff and upright, &c., because they knew that these movements stood in
+direct opposition to those assumed under an opposite and savage frame of
+mind.
+
+Again, when a cat, or rather when some early progenitor of the species,
+from feeling affectionate first slightly arched its back, held its tail
+perpendicularly upwards and pricked its ears, can it be believed that
+the animal consciously wished thus to show that its frame of mind was
+directly the reverse of that, when from being ready to fight or to
+spring on its prey, it assumed a crouching attitude, curled its tail
+from side to side and depressed its ears? Even still less can I believe
+that my dog voluntarily put on his dejected attitude and "_hot-house
+face_," which formed so complete a contrast to his previous cheerful
+attitude and whole bearing. It cannot be supposed that he knew that I
+should understand his expression, and that he could thus soften my heart
+and make me give up visiting the hot-house.
+
+Hence for the development of the movements which come under the present
+head, some other principle, distinct from the will and consciousness,
+must have intervened. This principle appears to be that every movement
+which we have voluntarily performed throughout our lives has required
+the action of certain muscles; and when we have performed a directly
+opposite movement, an opposite set of muscles has been habitually
+brought into play,--as in turning to the right or to the left, in
+pushing away or pulling an object towards us, and in lifting or lowering
+a weight. So strongly are our intentions and movements associated
+together, that if we eagerly wish an object to move in any direction,
+we can hardly avoid moving our bodies in the same direction, although
+we may be perfectly aware that this can have no influence. A good
+illustration of this fact has already been given in the Introduction,
+namely, in the grotesque movements of a young and eager billiard-player,
+whilst watching the course of his ball. A man or child in a passion, if
+he tells any one in a loud voice to begone, generally moves his arm as
+if to push him away, although the offender may not be standing near, and
+although there may be not the least need to explain by a gesture what is
+meant. On the other hand, if we eagerly desire some one to approach
+us closely, we act as if pulling him towards us; and so in innumerable
+other instances.
+
+As the performance of ordinary movements of an opposite kind, under
+opposite impulses of the will, has become habitual in us and in the
+lower animals, so when actions of one kind have become firmly associated
+with any sensation or emotion, it appears natural that actions of
+a directly opposite kind, though of no use, should be unconsciously
+performed through habit and association, under the influence of a
+directly opposite sensation or emotion. On this principle alone can I
+understand how the gestures and expressions which come under the present
+head of antithesis have originated. If indeed they are serviceable to
+man or to any other animal, in aid of inarticulate cries or language,
+they will likewise be voluntarily employed, and the habit will thus be
+strengthened. But whether or not of service as a means of communication,
+the tendency to perform opposite movements under opposite sensations or
+emotions would, if we may judge by analogy, become hereditary through
+long practice; and there cannot be a doubt that several expressive
+movements due to the principle of antithesis are inherited.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. -- GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION--_concluded_.
+
+The principle of direct action of the excited nervous system on the
+body, independently of the will and in part of habit--Change of
+colour in the hair--Trembling of the muscles--Modified
+secretions--Perspiration--Expression of extreme pain--Of rage, great
+joy, and terror--Contrast between the emotions which cause and do
+not cause expressive movements--Exciting and depressing states of the
+mind--Summary.
+
+
+WE now come to our third Principle, namely, that certain actions which
+we recognize as expressive of certain states of the mind, are the direct
+result of the constitution of the nervous system, and have been from the
+first independent of the will, and, to a large extent, of habit. When
+the sensorium is strongly excited nerve-force is generated in excess,
+and is transmitted in certain directions, dependent on the connection of
+the nerve-cells, and, as far as the muscular system is concerned, on
+the nature of the movements which have been habitually practised. Or
+the supply of nerve-force may, as it appears, be interrupted. Of course
+every movement which we make is determined by the constitution of the
+nervous system; but actions performed in obedience to the will, or
+through habit, or through the principle of antithesis, are here as far
+as possible excluded. Our present subject is very obscure, but, from its
+importance, must be discussed at some little length; and it is always
+advisable to perceive clearly our ignorance.
+
+The most striking case, though a rare and abnormal one, which can be
+adduced of the direct influence of the nervous system, when strongly
+affected, on the body, is the loss of colour in the hair, which has
+occasionally been observed after extreme terror or grief. One authentic
+instance has been recorded, in the case of a man brought out for
+execution in India, in which the change of colour was so rapid that it
+was perceptible to the eye.[301]
+
+Another good case is that of the trembling of the muscles, which is
+common to man and to many, or most, of the lower animals. Trembling is
+of no service, often of much disservice, and cannot have been at first
+acquired through the will, and then rendered habitual in association
+with any emotion. I am assured by an eminent authority that young
+children do not tremble, but go into convulsions under the circumstances
+which would induce excessive trembling in adults. Trembling is excited
+in different individuals in very different degrees and by the most
+diversified causes,--by cold to the surface, before fever-fits, although
+the temperature of the body is then above the normal standard; in
+blood-poisoning, delirium tremens, and other diseases; by general
+failure of power in old age; by exhaustion after excessive fatigue;
+locally from severe injuries, such as burns; and, in an especial manner,
+by the passage of a catheter. Of all emotions, fear notoriously is the
+most apt to induce trembling; but so do occasionally great anger and
+joy. I remember once seeing a boy who had just shot his first snipe on
+the wing, and his hands trembled to such a degree from delight, that he
+could not for some time reload his gun; and I have heard of an exactly
+similar case with an Australian savage, to whom a gun had been lent.
+Fine music, from the vague emotions thus excited, causes a shiver to run
+down the backs of some persons. There seems to be very little in
+common in the above several physical causes and emotions to account for
+trembling; and Sir J. Paget, to whom I am indebted for several of the
+above statements, informs me that the subject is a very obscure one. As
+trembling is sometimes caused by rage, long before exhaustion can have
+set in, and as it sometimes accompanies great joy, it would appear that
+any strong excitement of the nervous system interrupts the steady flow
+of nerve-force to the muscles.[302]
+
+The manner in which the secretions of the alimentary canal and of
+certain glands--as the liver, kidneys, or mammae are affected by strong
+emotions, is another excellent instance of the direct action of
+the sensorium on these organs, independently of the will or of any
+serviceable associated habit. There is the greatest difference in
+different persons in the parts which are thus affected, and in the
+degree of their affection.
+
+The heart, which goes on uninterruptedly beating night and day in so
+wonderful a manner, is extremely sensitive to external stimulants.
+The great physiologist, Claude Bernard,[303] has shown bow the least
+excitement of a sensitive nerve reacts on the heart; even when a nerve
+is touched so slightly that no pain can possibly be felt by the animal
+under experiment. Hence when the mind is strongly excited, we might
+expect that it would instantly affect in a direct manner the heart; and
+this is universally acknowledged and felt to be the case. Claude Bernard
+also repeatedly insists, and this deserves especial notice, that when
+the heart is affected it reacts on the brain; and the state of the brain
+again reacts through the pneumo-gastric nerve on the heart; so that
+under any excitement there will be much mutual action and reaction
+between these, the two most important organs of the body.
+
+The vaso-motor system, which regulates the diameter of the small
+arteries, is directly acted on by the sensorium, as we see when a man
+blushes from shame; but in this latter case the checked transmission of
+nerve-force to the vessels of the face can, I think, be partly explained
+in a curious manner through habit. We shall also be able to throw some
+light, though very little, on the involuntary erection of the hair under
+the emotions of terror and rage. The secretion of tears depends, no
+doubt, on the connection of certain nerve-cells; but here again we can
+trace some few of the steps by which the flow of nerve-force through the
+requisite channels has become habitual under certain emotions.
+
+A brief consideration of the outward signs of some of the stronger
+sensations and emotions will best serve to show us, although vaguely,
+in how complex a manner the principle under consideration of the direct
+action of the excited nervous system of the body, is combined with the
+principle of habitually associated, serviceable movements.
+
+When animals suffer from an agony of pain, they generally writhe about
+with frightful contortions; and those which habitually use their voices
+utter piercing cries or groans. Almost every muscle of the body
+is brought into strong action. With man the mouth may be closely
+compressed, or more commonly the lips are retracted, with the teeth
+clenched or ground together. There is said to be "gnashing of teeth" in
+hell; and I have plainly heard the grinding of the molar teeth of a cow
+which was suffering acutely from inflammation of the bowels. The female
+hippopotamus in the Zoological Gardens, when she produced her young,
+suffered greatly; she incessantly walked about, or rolled on her sides,
+opening and closing her jaws, and clattering her teeth together.[304]
+With man the eyes stare wildly as in horrified astonishment, or the
+brows are heavily contracted. Perspiration bathes the body, and
+drops trickle down the face. The circulation and respiration are much
+affected. Hence the nostrils are generally dilated and often quiver; or
+the breath may be held until the blood stagnates in the purple face.
+If the agony be severe and prolonged, these signs all change; utter
+prostration follows, with fainting or convulsions.
+
+A sensitive nerve when irritated transmits some influence to the
+nerve-cell, whence it proceeds; and this transmits its influence, first
+to the corresponding nerve-cell on the opposite side of the body, and
+then upwards and downwards along the cerebro-spinal column to other
+nerve-cells, to a greater or less extent, according to the strength
+of the excitement; so that, ultimately, the whole nervous system maybe
+affected.[305] This involuntary transmission of nerve-force may or may
+not be accompanied by consciousness. Why the irritation of a nerve-cell
+should generate or liberate nerve-force is not known; but that this
+is the case seems to be the conclusion arrived at by all the greatest
+physiologists, such as Muller, Virchow, Bernard, &c.[306] As Mr. Herbert
+Spencer remarks, it may be received as an "unquestionable truth that, at
+any moment, the existing quantity of liberated nerve-force, which in an
+inscrutable way produces in us the state we call feeling, MUST expend
+itself in some direction--MUST generate an equivalent manifestation
+of force somewhere;" so that, when the cerebro-spinal system is highly
+excited and nerve-force is liberated in excess, it may be expended in
+intense sensations, active thought, violent movements, or increased
+activity of the glands.[307] Mr. Spencer further maintains that an
+"overflow of nerve-force, undirected by any motive, will manifestly
+take the most habitual routes; and, if these do not suffice, will next
+overflow into the less habitual ones." Consequently the facial and
+respiratory muscles, which are the most used, will be apt to be first
+brought into action; then those of the upper extremities, next those of
+the lower, and finally those of the whole body.[308]
+
+An emotion may be very strong, but it will have little tendency to
+induce movements of any kind, if it has not commonly led to voluntary
+action for its relief or gratification; and when movements are excited,
+their nature is, to a large extent, determined by those which have often
+and voluntarily been performed for some definite end under the same
+emotion. Great pain urges all animals, and has urged them during endless
+generations, to make the most violent and diversified efforts to escape
+from the cause of suffering. Even when a limb or other separate part of
+the body is hurt, we often see a tendency to shake it, as if to shake
+off the cause, though this may obviously be impossible. Thus a habit
+of exerting with the utmost force all the muscles will have been
+established, whenever great suffering is experienced. As the muscles
+of the chest and vocal organs are habitually used, these will be
+particularly liable to be acted on, and loud, harsh screams or cries
+will be uttered. But the advantage derived from outcries has here
+probably come into play in an important manner; for the young of most
+animals, when in distress or danger, call loudly to their parents for
+aid, as do the members of the same community for mutual aid.
+
+Another principle, namely, the internal consciousness that the power
+or capacity of the nervous system is limited, will have strengthened,
+though in a subordinate degree, the tendency to violent action under
+extreme suffering. A man cannot think deeply and exert his utmost
+muscular force. As Hippocrates long ago observed, if two pains are
+felt at the same time, the severer one dulls the other. Martyrs, in the
+ecstasy of their religious fervour have often, as it would appear, been
+insensible to the most horrid tortures. Sailors who are going to be
+flogged sometimes take a piece of lead into their mouths, in order to
+bite it with their utmost force, and thus to bear the pain. Parturient
+women prepare to exert their muscles to the utmost in order to relieve
+their sufferings.
+
+We thus see that the undirected radiation of nerve-force from the
+nerve-cells which are first affected--the long-continued habit of
+attempting by struggling to escape from the cause of suffering--and the
+consciousness that voluntary muscular exertion relieves pain, have all
+probably concurred in giving a tendency to the most violent, almost
+convulsive, movements under extreme suffering; and such movements,
+including those of the vocal organs, are universally recognized as
+highly expressive of this condition.
+
+As the mere touching of a sensitive nerve reacts in a direct manner on
+the heart, severe pain will obviously react on it in like manner, but
+far more energetically. Nevertheless, even in this case, we must not
+overlook the indirect effects of habit on the heart, as we shall see
+when we consider the signs of rage.
+
+When a man suffers from an agony of pain, the perspiration often
+trickles down his face; and I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon
+that he has frequently seen drops falling from the belly and running
+down the inside of the thighs of horses, and from the bodies of cattle,
+when thus suffering. He has observed this, when there has been no
+struggling which would account for the perspiration. The whole body
+of the female hippopotamus, before alluded to, was covered with
+red-coloured perspiration whilst giving birth to her young. So it is
+with extreme fear; the same veterinary has often seen horses sweating
+from this cause; as has Mr. Bartlett with the rhinoceros; and with man
+it is a well-known symptom. The cause of perspiration bursting forth in
+these cases is quite obscure; but it is thought by some physiologists to
+be connected with the failing power of the capillary circulation; and
+we know that the vasomotor system, which regulates the capillary
+circulation, is much influenced by the mind. With respect to the
+movements of certain muscles of the face under great suffering, as well
+as from other emotions, these will be best considered when we treat of
+the special expressions of man and of the lower animals.
+
+We will now turn to the characteristic symptoms of Rage. Under this
+powerful emotion the action of the heart is much accelerated,[309] or it
+may be much disturbed. The face reddens, or it becomes purple from the
+impeded return of the blood, or may turn deadly pale. The respiration is
+laboured, the chest heaves, and the dilated nostrils quiver. The whole
+body often trembles. The voice is affected. The teeth are clenched
+or ground together, and the muscular system is commonly stimulated to
+violent, almost frantic action. But the gestures of a man in this state
+usually differ from the purposeless writhings and struggles of one
+suffering from an agony of pain; for they represent more or less plainly
+the act of striking or fighting with an enemy.
+
+All these signs of rage are probably in large part, and some of them
+appear to be wholly, due to the direct action of the excited sensorium.
+But animals of all kinds, and their progenitors before them, when
+attacked or threatened by an enemy, have exerted their utmost powers in
+fighting and in defending themselves. Unless an animal does thus act,
+or has the intention, or at least the desire, to attack its enemy, it
+cannot properly be said to be enraged. An inherited habit of muscular
+exertion will thus have been gained in association with rage; and this
+will directly or indirectly affect various organs, in nearly the same
+manner as does great bodily suffering.
+
+The heart no doubt will likewise be affected in a direct manner; but it
+will also in all probability be affected through habit; and all the more
+so from not being under the control of the will. We know that any
+great exertion which we voluntarily make, affects the heart, through
+mechanical and other principles which need not here be considered; and
+it was shown in the first chapter that nerve-force flows readily
+through habitually used channels,--through the nerves of voluntary
+or involuntary movement, and through those of sensation. Thus even a
+moderate amount of exertion will tend to act on the heart; and on the
+principle of association, of which so many instances have been given,
+we may feel nearly sure that any sensation or emotion, as great pain or
+rage, which has habitually led to much muscular action, will immediately
+influence the flow of nerve-force to the heart, although there may not
+be at the time any muscular exertion.
+
+The heart, as I have said, will be all the more readily affected through
+habitual associations, as it is not under the control of the will. A man
+when moderately angry, or even when enraged, may command the movements
+of his body, but he cannot prevent his heart from beating rapidly. His
+chest will perhaps give a few heaves, and his nostrils just quiver, for
+the movements of respiration are only in part voluntary. In like manner
+those muscles of the face which are least obedient to the will, will
+sometimes alone betray a slight and passing emotion. The glands again
+are wholly independent of the will, and a man suffering from grief may
+command his features, but cannot always prevent the tears from coming
+into his eyes. A hungry man, if tempting food is placed before him,
+may not show his hunger by any outward gesture, but he cannot check the
+secretion of saliva.
+
+Under a transport of Joy or of vivid Pleasure, there is a strong
+tendency to various purposeless movements, and to the utterance of
+various sounds. We see this in our young children, in their loud
+laughter, clapping of hands, and jumping for joy; in the bounding and
+barking of a dog when going out to walk with his master; and in the
+frisking of a horse when turned out into an open field. Joy quickens the
+circulation, and this stimulates the brain, which again reacts on the
+whole body. The above purposeless movements and increased heart-action
+may be attributed in chief part to the excited state of the
+sensorium,[310] and to the consequent undirected overflow, as Mr.
+Herbert Spencer insists, of nerve-force. It deserves notice, that it is
+chiefly the anticipation of a pleasure, and not its actual enjoyment,
+which leads to purposeless and extravagant movements of the body, and to
+the utterance of various sounds. We see this in our children when they
+expect any great pleasure or treat; and dogs, which have been bounding
+about at the sight of a plate of food, when they get it do not show
+their delight by any outward sign, not even by wagging their tails.
+Now with animals of all kinds, the acquirement of almost all their
+pleasures, with the exception of those of warmth and rest, are
+associated, and have long been associated with active movements, as in
+the hunting or search for food, and in their courtship. Moreover, the
+mere exertion of the muscles after long rest or confinement is in itself
+a pleasure, as we ourselves feel, and as we see in the play of young
+animals. Therefore on this latter principle alone we might perhaps
+expect, that vivid pleasure would be apt to show itself conversely in
+muscular movements.
+
+With all or almost all animals, even with birds, Terror causes the
+body to tremble. The skin becomes pale, sweat breaks out, and the hair
+bristles. The secretions of the alimentary canal and of the kidneys are
+increased, and they are involuntarily voided, owing to the relaxation
+of the sphincter muscles, as is known to be the case with man, and as
+I have seen with cattle, dogs, cats, and monkeys. The breathing is
+hurried. The heart beats quickly, wildly, and violently; but whether it
+pumps the blood more efficiently through the body may be doubted, for
+the surface seems bloodless and the strength of the muscles soon fails.
+In a frightened horse I have felt through the saddle the beating of
+the heart so plainly that I could have counted the beats. The mental
+faculties are much disturbed. Utter prostration soon follows, and even
+fainting. A terrified canary-bird has been seen not only to tremble and
+to turn white about the base of the bill, but to faint;[311] and I once
+caught a robin in a room, which fainted so completely, that for a time I
+thought it dead.
+
+Most of these symptoms are probably the direct result, independently
+of habit, of the disturbed state of the sensorium; but it is doubtful
+whether they ought to be wholly thus accounted for. When an animal is
+alarmed it almost always stands motionless for a moment, in order to
+collect its senses and to ascertain the source of danger, and sometimes
+for the sake of escaping detection. But headlong flight soon follows,
+with no husbanding of the strength as in fighting, and the animal
+continues to fly as long as the danger lasts, until utter prostration,
+with failing respiration and circulation, with all the muscles quivering
+and profuse sweating, renders further flight impossible. Hence it does
+not seem improbable that the principle of associated habit may in part
+account for, or at least augment, some of the above-named characteristic
+symptoms of extreme terror.
+
+
+That the principle of associated habit has played an important part
+in causing the movements expressive of the foregoing several strong
+emotions and sensations, we may, I think, conclude from considering
+firstly, some other strong emotions which do not ordinarily require for
+their relief or gratification any voluntary movement; and secondly the
+contrast in nature between the so-called exciting and depressing states
+of the mind. No emotion is stronger than maternal love; but a mother may
+feel the deepest love for her helpless infant, and yet not show it by
+any outward sign; or only by slight caressing movements, with a gentle
+smile and tender eyes. But let any one intentionally injure her infant,
+and see what a change! how she starts up with threatening aspect, how
+her eyes sparkle and her face reddens, how her bosom heaves, nostrils
+dilate, and heart beats; for anger, and not maternal love, has
+habitually led to action. The love between the opposite sexes is widely
+different from maternal love; and when lovers meet, we know that their
+hearts beat quickly, their breathing is hurried, and their faces flush;
+for this love is not inactive like that of a mother for her infant.
+
+A man may have his mind filled with the blackest hatred or suspicion, or
+be corroded with envy or jealousy, but as these feelings do not at once
+lead to action, and as they commonly last for some time, they are not
+shown by any outward sign, excepting that a man in this state assuredly
+does not appear cheerful or good-tempered. If indeed these feelings
+break out into overt acts, rage takes their place, and will be plainly
+exhibited. Painters can hardly portray suspicion, jealousy, envy, &c.,
+except by the aid of accessories which tell the tale; and poets use
+such vague and fanciful expressions as "green-eyed jealousy." Spenser
+describes suspicion as "Foul, ill-favoured, and grim, under his eyebrows
+looking still askance," &c.; Shakespeare speaks of envy "as lean-faced
+in her loathsome case;" and in another place he says, "no black envy
+shall make my grave;" and again as "above pale envy's threatening
+reach."
+
+Emotions and sensations have often been classed as exciting or
+depressing. When all the organs of the body and mind,--those of
+voluntary and involuntary movement, of perception, sensation, thought,
+&c.,--perform their functions more energetically and rapidly than usual,
+a man or animal may be said to be excited, and, under an opposite state,
+to be depressed. Anger and joy are from the first exciting emotions, and
+they naturally lead, more especially the former, to energetic movements,
+which react on the heart and this again on the brain. A physician once
+remarked to me as a proof of the exciting nature of anger, that a man
+when excessively jaded will sometimes invent imaginary offences and put
+himself into a passion, unconsciously for the sake of reinvigorating
+himself; and since hearing this remark, I have occasionally recognized
+its full truth.
+
+Several other states of mind appear to be at first exciting, but soon
+become depressing to an extreme degree. When a mother suddenly loses her
+child, sometimes she is frantic with grief, and must be considered to be
+in an excited state; she walks wildly about, tears her hair or clothes,
+and wrings her hands. This latter action is perhaps due to the principle
+of antithesis, betraying an inward sense of helplessness and that
+nothing can be done. The other wild and violent movements may be in part
+explained by the relief experienced through muscular exertion, and
+in part by the undirected overflow of nerve-force from the excited
+sensorium. But under the sudden loss of a beloved person, one of the
+first and commonest thoughts which occurs, is that something more might
+have been done to save the lost one. An excellent observer,[312] in
+describing the behaviour of a girl at the sudden death of her father,
+says she "went about the house wringing her hands like a creature
+demented, saying 'It was her fault;' 'I should never have left him;'
+'If I had only sat up with him,'" &c. With such ideas vividly present
+before the mind, there would arise, through the principle of associated
+habit, the strongest tendency to energetic action of some kind.
+
+As soon as the sufferer is fully conscious that nothing can be done,
+despair or deep sorrow takes the place of frantic grief. The sufferer
+sits motionless, or gently rocks to and fro; the circulation becomes
+languid; respiration is almost forgotten, and deep sighs are drawn.
+
+Pain, if severe, soon induces extreme depression or prostration; but it
+is at first a stimulant and excites to action, as we see when we whip a
+horse, and as is shown by the horrid tortures inflicted in foreign lands
+on exhausted dray-bullocks, to rouse them to renewed exertion. Fear
+again is the most depressing of all the emotions; and it soon induces
+utter, helpless prostration, as if in consequence of, or in association
+with, the most violent and prolonged attempts to escape from the danger,
+though no such attempts have actually been made. Nevertheless, even
+extreme fear often acts at first as a powerful stimulant. A man or
+animal driven through terror to desperation, is endowed with wonderful
+strength, and is notoriously dangerous in the highest degree.
+
+On the whole we may conclude that the principle of the direct action
+of the sensorium on the body, due to the constitution of the nervous
+system, and from the first independent of the will, has been highly
+influential in determining many expressions. Good instances are afforded
+by the trembling of the muscles, the sweating of the skin, the modified
+secretions of the alimentary canal and glands, under various emotions
+and sensations. But actions of this kind are often combined with others,
+which follow from our first principle, namely, that actions which have
+often been of direct or indirect service, under certain states of the
+mind, in order to gratify or relieve certain sensations, desires, &c.,
+are still performed under analogous circumstances through mere habit
+although of no service. We have combinations of this kind, at least in
+part, in the frantic gestures of rage and in the writhings of extreme
+pain; and, perhaps, in the increased action of the heart and of the
+respiratory organs. Even when these and other emotions or sensations
+are aroused in a very feeble manner, there will still be a tendency to
+similar actions, owing to the force of long-associated habit; and
+those actions which are least under voluntary control will generally
+be longest retained. Our second principle of antithesis has likewise
+occasionally come into play.
+
+Finally, so many expressive movements can be explained, as I trust will
+be seen in the course of this volume, through the three principles which
+have now been discussed, that we may hope hereafter to see all thus
+explained, or by closely analogous principles. It is, however, often
+impossible to decide how much weight ought to be attributed, in each
+particular case, to one of our principles, and how much to another; and
+very many points in the theory of Expression remain inexplicable.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. -- MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN ANIMALS.
+
+The emission of Sounds--Vocal sounds--Sounds otherwise
+produced--Erection of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &c., under
+the emotions of anger and terror--The drawing back of the ears as a
+preparation for fighting, and as an expression of anger--Erection of the
+ears and raising the head, a sign of attention.
+
+
+IN this and the following chapter I will describe, but only in
+sufficient detail to illustrate my subject, the expressive movements,
+under different states of the mind, of some few well-known animals. But
+before considering them in due succession, it will save much useless
+repetition to discuss certain means of expression common to most of
+them.
+
+_The emission of Sounds_.--With many kinds of animals, man included,
+the vocal organs are efficient in the highest degree as a means of
+expression. We have seen, in the last chapter, that when the sensorium
+is strongly excited, the muscles of the body are generally thrown into
+violent action; and as a consequence, loud sounds are uttered, however
+silent the animal may generally be, and although the sounds may be of no
+use. Hares and rabbits for instance, never, I believe, use their vocal
+organs except in the extremity of suffering; as, when a wounded hare is
+killed by the sportsman, or when a young rabbit is caught by a stoat.
+Cattle and horses suffer great pain in silence; but when this is
+excessive, and especially when associated with terror, they utter
+fearful sounds. I have often recognized, from a distance on the Pampas,
+the agonized death-bellow of the cattle, when caught by the lasso and
+hamstrung. It is said that horses, when attacked by wolves, utter loud
+and peculiar screams of distress.
+
+Involuntary and purposeless contractions of the muscles of the chest and
+glottis, excited in the above manner, may have first given rise to the
+emission of vocal sounds. But the voice is now largely used by many
+animals for various purposes; and habit seems to have played an
+important part in its employment under other circumstances. Naturalists
+have remarked, I believe with truth, that social animals, from
+habitually using their vocal organs as a means of intercommunication,
+use them on other occasions much more freely than other animals. But
+there are marked exceptions to this rule, for instance, with the rabbit.
+The principle, also, of association, which is so widely extended in its
+power, has likewise played its part. Hence it follows that the voice,
+from having been habitually employed as a serviceable aid under certain
+conditions, inducing pleasure, pain, rage, &c., is commonly used
+whenever the same sensations or emotions are excited, under quite
+different conditions, or in a lesser degree.
+
+The sexes of many animals incessantly call for each other during the
+breeding-season; and in not a few cases, the male endeavours thus
+to charm or excite the female. This, indeed, seems to have been the
+primeval use and means of development of the voice, as I have attempted
+to show in my 'Descent of Man.' Thus the use of the vocal organs will
+have become associated with the anticipation of the strongest pleasure
+which animals are capable of feeling. Animals which live in society
+often call to each other when separated, and evidently feel much joy
+at meeting; as we see with a horse, on the return of his companion, for
+whom he has been neighing. The mother calls incessantly for her lost
+young ones; for instance, a cow for her calf; and the young of many
+animals call for their mothers. When a flock of sheep is scattered, the
+ewes bleat incessantly for their lambs, and their mutual pleasure at
+coming together is manifest. Woe betide the man who meddles with the
+young of the larger and fiercer quadrupeds, if they hear the cry of
+distress from their young. Rage leads to the violent exertion of all the
+muscles, including those of the voice; and some animals, when enraged,
+endeavour to strike terror into their enemies by its power and
+harshness, as the lion does by roaring, and the dog by growling. I infer
+that their object is to strike terror, because the lion at the same time
+erects the hair of its mane, and the dog the hair along its back, and
+thus they make themselves appear as large and terrible as possible.
+Rival males try to excel and challenge each other by their voices,
+and this leads to deadly contests. Thus the use of the voice will have
+become associated with the emotion of anger, however it may be aroused.
+We have also seen that intense pain, like rage, leads to violent
+outcries, and the exertion of screaming by itself gives some relief; and
+thus the use of the voice will have become associated with suffering of
+any kind.
+
+The cause of widely different sounds being uttered under different
+emotions and sensations is a very obscure subject. Nor does the rule
+always hold good that there is any marked difference. For instance with
+the dog, the bark of anger and that of joy do not differ much,
+though they can be distinguished. It is not probable that any precise
+explanation of the cause or source of each particular sound, under
+different states of the mind, will ever be given. We now that some
+animals, after being domesticated, have acquired the habit of uttering
+sounds which were not natural to them.[401] Thus domestic dogs, and even
+tamed jackals, have learnt to bark, which is a noise not proper to any
+species of the genus, with the exception of the _Canis latrans_ of
+North America, which is said to bark. Some breeds, also, of the domestic
+pigeon have learnt to coo in a new and quite peculiar manner.
+
+The character of the human voice, under the influence of various
+emotions, has been discussed by Mr. Herbert Spencer[402] in his
+interesting essay on Music. He clearly shows that the voice alters much
+under different conditions, in loudness and in quality, that is, in
+resonance and _timbre_, in pitch and intervals. No one can listen to an
+eloquent orator or preacher, or to a man calling angrily to another, or
+to one expressing astonishment, without being struck with the truth of
+Mr. Spencer's remarks. It is curious how early in life the modulation of
+the voice becomes expressive. With one of my children, under the age of
+two years, I clearly perceived that his humph of assent was rendered by
+a slight modulation strongly emphatic; and that by a peculiar whine his
+negative expressed obstinate determination. Mr. Spencer further shows
+that emotional speech, in all the above respects is intimately related
+to vocal music, and consequently to instrumental music; and he attempts
+to explain the characteristic qualities of both on physiological
+grounds--namely, on "the general law that a feeling is a stimulus to
+muscular action." It may be admitted that the voice is affected through
+this law; but the explanation appears to me too general and vague to
+throw much light on the various differences, with the exception of that
+of loudness, between ordinary speech and emotional speech, or singing.
+
+This remark holds good, whether we believe that the various qualities
+of the voice originated in speaking under the excitement of strong
+feelings, and that these qualities have subsequently been transferred
+to vocal music; or whether we believe, as I maintain, that the habit of
+uttering musical sounds was first developed, as a means of courtship,
+in the early progenitors of man, and thus became associated with the
+strongest emotions of which they were capable,--namely, ardent love,
+rivalry and triumph. That animals utter musical notes is familiar to
+every one, as we may daily hear in the singing of birds. It is a more
+remarkable fact that an ape, one of the Gibbons, produces an exact
+octave of musical sounds, ascending and descending the scale by
+halftones; so that this monkey "alone of brute mammals may be said to
+sing."[403] From this fact, and from the analogy of other animals, I
+have been led to infer that the progenitors of man probably uttered
+musical tones, before they had acquired the power of articulate speech;
+and that consequently, when the voice is used under any strong emotion,
+it tends to assume, through the principle of association, a musical
+character. We can plainly perceive, with some of the lower animals,
+that the males employ their voices to please the females, and that
+they themselves take pleasure in their own vocal utterances; but why
+particular sounds are uttered, and why these give pleasure cannot at
+present be explained.
+
+That the pitch of the voice bears some relation to certain states
+of feeling is tolerably clear. A person gently complaining of
+ill-treatment, or slightly suffering, almost always speaks in a
+high-pitched voice. Dogs, when a little impatient, often make a
+high piping note through their noses, which at once strikes us as
+plaintive;[404] but how difficult it is to know whether the sound is
+essentially plaintive, or only appears so in this particular case, from
+our having learnt by experience what it means! Rengger, states[405]
+that the monkeys (_Cebus azaroe_), which he kept in Paraguay, expressed
+astonishment by a half-piping, half-snarling noise; anger or impatience,
+by repeating the sound _hu hu_ in a deeper, grunting voice; and fright
+or pain, by shrill screams. On the other hand, with mankind, deep groans
+and high piercing screams equally express an agony of pain. Laughter
+maybe either high or low; so that, with adult men, as Haller long ago
+remarked,[406] the sound partakes of the character of the vowels (as
+pronounced in German) _O_ and _A_; whilst with children and women, it
+has more of the character of _E_ and _I_; and these latter vowel-sounds
+naturally have, as Helmholtz has shown, a higher pitch than the former;
+yet both tones of laughter equally express enjoyment or amusement.
+
+In considering the mode in which vocal utterances express emotion,
+we are naturally led to inquire into the cause of what is called
+"expression" in music. Upon this point Mr. Litchfield, who has long
+attended to the subject of music, has been so kind as to give me the
+following remarks:--"The question, what is the essence of musical
+'expression' involves a number of obscure points, which, so far as I am
+aware, are as yet unsolved enigmas. Up to a certain point, however,
+any law which is found to hold as to the expression of the emotions by
+simple sounds must apply to the more developed mode of expression in
+song, which may be taken as the primary type of all music. A great part
+of the emotional effect of a song depends on the character of the action
+by which the sounds are produced. In songs, for instance, which express
+great vehemence of passion, the effect often chiefly depends on the
+forcible utterance of some one or two characteristic passages which
+demand great exertion of vocal force; and it will be frequently noticed
+that a song of this character fails of its proper effect when sung by a
+voice of sufficient power and range to give the characteristic passages
+without much exertion. This is, no doubt, the secret of the loss of
+effect so often produced by the transposition of a song from one key
+to another. The effect is thus seen to depend not merely on the actual
+sounds, but also in part on the nature of the action which produces the
+sounds. Indeed it is obvious that whenever we feel the 'expression' of
+a song to be due to its quickness or slowness of movement--to smoothness
+of flow, loudness of utterance, and so on--we are, in fact, interpreting
+the muscular actions which produce sound, in the same way in which we
+interpret muscular action generally. But this leaves unexplained
+the more subtle and more specific effect which we call the MUSICAL
+expression of the song--the delight given by its melody, or even by the
+separate sounds which make up the melody. This is an effect indefinable
+in language--one which, so far as I am aware, no one has been able to
+analyse, and which the ingenious speculation of Mr. Herbert Spencer as
+to the origin of music leaves quite unexplained. For it is certain that
+the MELODIC effect of a series of sounds does not depend in the least on
+their loudness or softness, or on their ABSOLUTE pitch. A tune is always
+the same tune, whether it is sung loudly or softly, by a child or a man;
+whether it is played on a flute or on a trombone. The purely musical
+effect of any sound depends on its place in what is technically called
+a 'scale;' the same sound producing absolutely different effects on the
+ear, according as it is heard in connection with one or another series
+of sounds.
+
+"It is on this RELATIVE association of the sounds that all the
+essentially characteristic effects which are summed up in the phrase
+'musical expression,' depend. But why certain associations of sounds
+have such-and-such effects, is a problem which yet remains to be solved.
+These effects must indeed, in some way or other, be connected with the
+well-known arithmetical relations between the rates of vibration of
+the sounds which form a musical scale. And it is possible--but this is
+merely a suggestion--that the greater or less mechanical facility with
+which the vibrating apparatus of the human larynx passes from one state
+of vibration to another, may have been a primary cause of the greater or
+less pleasure produced by various sequences of sounds."
+
+But leaving aside these complex questions and confining ourselves to the
+simpler sounds, we can, at least, see some reasons for the association
+of certain kinds of sounds with certain states of mind. A scream, for
+instance, uttered by a young animal, or by one of the members of a
+community, as a call for assistance, will naturally be loud, prolonged,
+and high, so as to penetrate to a distance. For Helmholtz has shown[407]
+that, owing to the shape of the internal cavity of the human ear and its
+consequent power of resonance, high notes produce a particularly strong
+impression. When male animals utter sounds in order to please the
+females, they would naturally employ those which are sweet to the ears
+of the species; and it appears that the same sounds are often pleasing
+to widely different animals, owing to the similarity of their nervous
+systems, as we ourselves perceive in the singing of birds and even in
+the chirping of certain tree-frogs giving us pleasure. On the other
+hand, sounds produced in order to strike terror into an enemy, would
+naturally be harsh or displeasing.
+
+Whether the principle of antithesis has come into play with sounds, as
+might perhaps have been expected, is doubtful. The interrupted, laughing
+or tittering sounds made by man and by various kinds of monkeys when
+pleased, are as different as possible from the prolonged screams of
+these animals when distressed. The deep grunt of satisfaction uttered
+by a pig, when pleased with its food, is widely different from its harsh
+scream of pain or terror. But with the dog, as lately remarked, the
+bark of anger and that of joy are sounds which by no means stand in
+opposition to each other; and so it is in some other cases.
+
+There is another obscure point, namely, whether the sounds which are
+produced under various states of the mind determine the shape of the
+mouth, or whether its shape is not determined by independent causes, and
+the sound thus modified. When young infants cry they open their mouths
+widely, and this, no doubt, is necessary for pouring forth a full volume
+of sound; but the mouth then assumes, from a quite distinct cause, an
+almost quadrangular shape, depending, as will hereafter be explained, on
+the firm closing of the eyelids, and consequent drawing up of the upper
+lip. How far this square shape of the mouth modifies the wailing or
+crying sound, I am not prepared to say; but we know from the researches
+of Helmholtz and others that the form of the cavity of the mouth and
+lips determines the nature and pitch of the vowel sounds which are
+produced.
+
+It will also be shown in a future chapter that, under the feeling of
+contempt or disgust, there is a tendency, from intelligible causes, to
+blow out of the mouth or nostrils, and this produces sounds like pooh
+or pish. When any one is startled or suddenly astonished, there is an
+instantaneous tendency, likewise from an intelligible cause, namely, to
+be ready for prolonged exertion, to open the mouth widely, so as to draw
+a deep and rapid inspiration. When the next full expiration follows,
+the mouth is slightly closed, and the lips, from causes hereafter to be
+discussed, are somewhat protruded; and this form of the mouth, if the
+voice be at all exerted, produces, according to Helmholtz, the sound of
+the vowel _O_. Certainly a deep sound of a prolonged _Oh!_ may be
+heard from a whole crowd of people immediately after witnessing any
+astonishing spectacle. If, together with surprise, pain be felt, there
+is a tendency to contract all the muscles of the body, including those
+of the face, and the lips will then be drawn back; and this will perhaps
+account for the sound becoming higher and assuming the character of
+_Ah!_ or _Ach!_ As fear causes all the muscles of the body to tremble,
+the voice naturally becomes tremulous, and at the same time husky from
+the dryness of the mouth, owing to the salivary glands failing to act.
+Why the laughter of man and the tittering of monkeys should be a rapidly
+reiterated sound, cannot be explained. During the utterance of these
+sounds, the mouth is transversely elongated by the corners being drawn
+backwards and upwards; and of this fact an explanation will be attempted
+in a future chapter. But the whole subject of the differences of the
+sounds produced under different states of the mind is so obscure, that I
+have succeeded in throwing hardly any light on it; and the remarks which
+I have made, have but little significance.
+
+[Illustration: Sound producing quills from tail of a porcupine. Fig. 11]
+
+All the sounds hitherto noticed depend on the respiratory organs; but
+sounds produced by wholly different means are likewise expressive.
+Rabbits stamp loudly on the ground as a signal to their comrades; and
+if a man knows how to do so properly, he may on a quiet evening hear the
+rabbits answering him all around. These animals, as well as some others,
+also stamp on the ground when made angry. Porcupines rattle their quills
+and vibrate their tails when angered; and one behaved in this manner
+when a live snake was placed in its compartment. The quills
+on the tail are very different from those on the body: they are short,
+hollow, thin like a goose-quill, with their ends transversely truncated,
+so that they are open; they are supported on long, thin, elastic
+foot-stalks. Now, when the tail is rapidly shaken, these hollow quills
+strike against each other and produce, as I heard in the presence of Mr.
+Bartlett, a peculiar continuous sound. We can, I think, understand
+why porcupines have been provided, through the modification of their
+protective spines, with this special sound-producing instrument. They
+are nocturnal animals, and if they scented or heard a prowling beast of
+prey, it would be a great advantage to them in the dark to give warning
+to their enemy what they were, and that they were furnished with
+dangerous spines. They would thus escape being attacked. They are, as
+I may add, so fully conscious of the power of their weapons, that when
+enraged they will charge backwards with their spines erected, yet still
+inclined backwards.
+
+Many birds during their courtship produce diversified sounds by means of
+specially adapted feathers. Storks, when excited, make a loud clattering
+noise with their beaks. Some snakes produce a grating or rattling noise.
+Many insects stridulate by rubbing together specially modified parts of
+their hard integuments. This stridulation generally serves as a
+sexual charm or call; but it is likewise used to express different
+emotions.[408] Every one who has attended to bees knows that their
+humming changes when they are angry; and this serves as a warning that
+there is danger of being stung. I have made these few remarks because
+some writers have laid so much stress on the vocal and respiratory
+organs as having been specially adapted for expression, that it was
+advisable to show that sounds otherwise produced serve equally well for
+the same purpose.
+
+_Erection of the dermal appendages_.--Hardly any expressive movement is
+so general as the involuntary erection of the hairs, feathers and
+other dermal appendages; for it is common throughout three of the great
+vertebrate classes. These appendages are erected under the excitement
+of anger or terror; more especially when these emotions are combined, or
+quickly succeed each other. The action serves to make the animal appear
+larger and more frightful to its enemies or rivals, and is generally
+accompanied by various voluntary movements adapted for the same purpose,
+and by the utterance of savage sounds. Mr. Bartlett, who has had such
+wide experience with animals of all kinds, does not doubt that this is
+the case; but it is a different question whether the power of erection
+was primarily acquired for this special purpose.
+
+I will first give a considerable body of facts showing how general this
+action is with mammals, birds and reptiles; retaining what I have to
+say in regard to man for a future chapter. Mr. Sutton, the intelligent
+keeper in the Zoological Gardens, carefully observed for me the
+Chimpanzee and Orang; and he states that when they are suddenly
+frightened, as by a thunderstorm, or when they are made angry, as by
+being teased, their hair becomes erect. I saw a chimpanzee who was
+alarmed at the sight of a black coalheaver, and the hair rose all over
+his body; he made little starts forward as if to attack the man,
+without any real intention of doing so, but with the hope, as the keeper
+remarked, of frightening him. The Gorilla, when enraged, is described by
+Mr. Ford[409] as having his crest of hair "erect and projecting forward,
+his nostrils dilated, and his under lip thrown down; at the same time
+uttering his characteristic yell, designed, it would seem, to terrify
+his antagonists." I saw the hair on the Anubis baboon, when angered
+bristling along the back, from the neck to the loins, but not on
+the rump or other parts of the body. I took a stuffed snake into the
+monkey-house, and the hair on several of the species instantly became
+erect; especially on their tails, as I particularly noticed with the
+_Cereopithecus nictitans_. Brehm states[410] that the _Midas aedipus_
+(belonging to the American division) when excited erects its mane, in
+order, as he adds, to make itself as frightful as possible.
+
+With the Carnivora the erection of the hair seems to be almost
+universal, often accompanied by threatening movements, the uncovering of
+the teeth and the utterance of savage growls. In the Herpestes, I have
+seen the hair on end over nearly the whole body, including the tail; and
+the dorsal crest is erected in a conspicuous manner by the Hyaena and
+Proteles. The enraged lion erects his mane. The bristling of the hair
+along the neck and back of the dog, and over the whole body of the
+cat, especially on the tail, is familiar to every one. With the cat it
+apparently occurs only under fear; with the dog, under anger and fear;
+but not, as far as I have observed, under abject fear, as when a dog is
+going to be flogged by a severe gamekeeper. If, however, the dog shows
+fight, as sometimes happens, up goes his hair. I have often noticed that
+the hair of a dog is particularly liable to rise, if he is half angry
+and half afraid, as on beholding some object only indistinctly seen in
+the dusk.
+
+I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon that he has often seen the
+hair erected on horses and cattle, on which he had operated and was
+again going to operate. When I showed a stuffed snake to a Peccary, the
+hair rose in a wonderful manner along its back; and so it does with
+the boar when enraged. An Elk which gored a man to death in the United
+States, is described as first brandishing his antlers, squealing with
+rage and stamping on the ground; "at length his hair was seen to rise
+and stand on end," and then he plunged forward to the attack.[411] The
+hair likewise becomes erect on goats, and, as I hear from Mr. Blyth, on
+some Indian antelopes. I have seen it erected on the hairy Ant-eater;
+and on the Agouti, one of the Rodents. A female Bat,[412] which reared
+her young under confinement, when any one looked into the cage "erected
+the fur on her back, and bit viciously at intruding fingers."
+
+Birds belonging to all the chief Orders ruffle their feathers when angry
+or frightened. Every one must have seen two cocks, even quite young
+birds, preparing to fight with erected neck-hackles; nor can these
+feathers when erected serve as a means of defence, for cock-fighters
+have found by experience that it is advantageous to trim them. The male
+Ruff (_Machetes pugnax_) likewise erects its collar of feathers when
+fighting. When a dog approaches a common hen with her chickens, she
+spreads out her wings, raises her tail, ruffles all her feathers, and
+looking as ferocious as possible, dashes at the intruder. The tail is
+not always held in exactly the same position; it is sometimes so much
+erected, that the central feathers, as in the accompanying drawing,
+almost touch the back. Swans, when angered, likewise raise their wings
+and tail, and erect their feathers. They open their beaks, and make by
+paddling little rapid starts forwards, against any one who approaches
+the water's edge too closely. Tropic birds[413] when disturbed on their
+nests are said not to fly away, but "merely to stick out their feathers
+and scream." The Barn-owl, when approached "instantly swells out its
+plumage, extends its wings and tail, hisses and clacks its mandibles
+with force and rapidity."[414] So do other kinds of owls. Hawks, as I am
+informed by Mr. Jenner Weir, likewise ruffle their feathers, and spread
+out their wings and tail under similar circumstances. Some kinds of
+parrots erect their feathers; and I have seen this action in the
+Cassowary, when angered at the sight of an Ant-eater. Young cuckoos in
+the nest, raise their feathers, open their mouths widely, and make
+themselves as frightful as possible.
+
+[Illustration: Hen driving away a dog from her chickens. Fig. 12]
+
+{illust. caption = FIG. 12--Hen driving away a dog from her chickens.
+Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.}
+
+[Illustration: Swan driving away an intruder. Fig 13]
+
+{illust. caption = FIG. 13.--Swan driving away an intruder. Drawn from
+life by Mr. Wood.}
+
+Small birds, also, as I hear from Mr. Weir, such as various finches,
+buntings and warblers, when angry, ruffle all their feathers, or only
+those round the neck; or they spread out their wings and tail-feathers.
+With their plumage in this state, they rush at each other with open
+beaks and threatening gestures. Mr. Weir concludes from his large
+experience that the erection of the feathers is caused much more by
+anger than by fear. He gives as an instance a hybrid goldfinch of a most
+irascible disposition, which when approached too closely by a servant,
+instantly assumes the appearance of a ball of ruffled feathers. He
+believes that birds when frightened, as a general rule, closely adpress
+all their feathers, and their consequently diminished size is often
+astonishing. As soon as they recover from their fear or surprise, the
+first thing which they do is to shake out their feathers. The best
+instances of this adpression of the feathers and apparent shrinking of
+the body from fear, which Mr. Weir has noticed, has been in the quail
+and grass-parrakeet.[415] The habit is intelligible in these birds from
+their being accustomed, when in danger, either to squat on the ground or
+to sit motionless on a branch, so as to escape detection. Though, with
+birds, anger may be the chief and commonest cause of the erection of the
+feathers, it is probable that young cuckoos when looked at in the nest,
+and a hen with her chickens when approached by a dog, feel at least some
+terror. Mr. Tegetmeier informs me that with game-cocks, the erection of
+the feathers on the head has long been recognized in the cock-pit as a
+sign of cowardice.
+
+The males of some lizards, when fighting together during their
+courtship, expand their throat pouches or frills, and erect their dorsal
+crests.[416] But Dr. Gunther does not believe that they can erect their
+separate spines or scales.
+
+We thus see how generally throughout the two higher vertebrate classes,
+and with some reptiles, the dermal appendages are erected under the
+influence of anger and fear. The movement is effected, as we know
+from Kolliker's interesting discovery, by the contraction of minute,
+unstriped, involuntary muscles,[417] often called _arrectores pili_,
+which are attached to the capsules of the separate hairs, feathers, &c.
+By the contraction of these muscles the hairs can be instantly erected,
+as we see in a dog, being at the same time drawn a little out of their
+sockets; they are afterwards quickly depressed. The vast number of these
+minute muscles over the whole body of a hairy quadruped is astonishing.
+The erection of the hair is, however, aided in some cases, as with
+that on the head of a man, by the striped and voluntary muscles of the
+underlying _panniculus carnosus_. It is by the action of these latter
+muscles, that the hedgehog erects its spines. It appears, also, from the
+researches of Leydig[418] and others, that striped fibres extend from
+the panniculus to some of the larger hairs, such as the vibrissae of
+certain quadrupeds. The _arrectores pili_ contract not only under the
+above emotions, but from the application of cold to the surface.
+I remember that my mules and dogs, brought from a lower and warmer
+country, after spending a night on the bleak Cordillera, had the hair
+all over their bodies as erect as under the greatest terror. We see the
+same action in our own _goose-skin_ during the chill before a fever-fit.
+Mr. Lister has also found,[419] that tickling a neighbouring part of the
+skin causes the erection and protrusion of the hairs.
+
+From these facts it is manifest that the erection of the dermal
+appendages is a reflex action, independent of the will; and this action
+must be looked at, when, occurring under the influence of anger or
+fear, not as a power acquired for the sake of some advantage, but as an
+incidental result, at least to a large extent, of the sensorium being
+affected. The result, in as far as it is incidental, may be compared
+with the profuse sweating from an agony of pain or terror. Nevertheless,
+it is remarkable how slight an excitement often suffices to cause the
+hair to become erect; as when two dogs pretend to fight together in
+play. We have, also, seen in a large number of animals, belonging to
+widely distinct classes, that the erection of the hair or feathers is
+almost always accompanied by various voluntary movements--by threatening
+gestures, opening the mouth, uncovering the teeth, spreading out of the
+wings and tail by birds, and by the utterance of harsh sounds; and the
+purpose of these voluntary movements is unmistakable. Therefore it seems
+hardly credible that the co-ordinated erection of the dermal appendages,
+by which the animal is made to appear larger and more terrible to its
+enemies or rivals, should be altogether an incidental and purposeless
+result of the disturbance of the sensorium. This seems almost as
+incredible as that the erection by the hedgehog of its spines, or of
+the quills by the porcupine, or of the ornamental plumes by many birds
+during their courtship, should all be purposeless actions.
+
+We here encounter a great difficulty. How can the contraction of the
+unstriped and involuntary _arrectores pili_ have been co-ordinated with
+that of various voluntary muscles for the same special purpose? If
+we could believe that the arrectores primordially had been voluntary
+muscles, and had since lost their stripes and become involuntary, the
+case would be comparatively simple. I am not, however, aware that there
+is any evidence in favour of this view; although the reversed transition
+would not have presented any great difficulty, as the voluntary muscles
+are in an unstriped condition in the embryos of the higher animals, and
+in the larvae of some crustaceans. Moreover in the deeper layers of the
+skin of adult birds, the muscular network is, according to Leydig,[420]
+in a transitional condition; the fibres exhibiting only indications of
+transverse striation.
+
+Another explanation seems possible. We may admit that originally the
+_arrectores pili_ were slightly acted on in a direct manner, under the
+influence of rage and terror, by the disturbance of the nervous system;
+as is undoubtedly the case with our so-called _goose-skin_ before a
+fever-fit. Animals have been repeatedly excited by rage and terror
+during many generations; and consequently the direct effects of the
+disturbed nervous system on the dermal appendages will almost
+certainly have been increased through habit and through the tendency
+of nerve-force to pass readily along accustomed channels. We shall
+find this view of the force of habit strikingly confirmed in a future
+chapter, where it will be shown that the hair of the insane is affected
+in an extraordinary manner, owing to their repeated accesses of fury
+and terror. As soon as with animals the power of erection had thus
+been strengthened or increased, they must often have seen the hairs
+or feathers erected in rival and enraged males, and the bulk of their
+bodies thus increased. In this case it appears possible that they might
+have wished to make themselves appear larger and more terrible to their
+enemies, by voluntarily assuming a threatening attitude and uttering
+harsh cries; such attitudes and utterances after a time becoming through
+habit instinctive. In this manner actions performed by the contraction
+of voluntary muscles might have been combined for the same special
+purpose with those effected by involuntary muscles. It is even possible
+that animals, when excited and dimly conscious of some change in the
+state of their hair, might act on it by repeated exertions of their
+attention and will; for we have reason to believe that the will is
+able to influence in an obscure manner the action of some unstriped or
+involuntary muscles, as in the period of the peristaltic movements
+of the intestines, and in the contraction of the bladder. Nor must we
+overlook the part which variation and natural selection may have played;
+for the males which succeeded in making themselves appear the most
+terrible to their rivals, or to their other enemies, if not of
+overwhelming power, will on an average have left more offspring to
+inherit their characteristic qualities, whatever these may be and
+however first acquired, than have other males.
+
+_The inflation of the body, and other means of exciting fear in an
+enemy_.--Certain Amphibians and Reptiles, which either have no spines
+to erect, or no muscles by which they can be erected, enlarge themselves
+when alarmed or angry by inhaling air. This is well known to be the case
+with toads and frogs. The latter animal is made, in AEsop's fable of
+the 'Ox and the Frog,' to blow itself up from vanity and envy until
+it burst. This action must have been observed during the most ancient
+times, as, according to Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood,[421] the word _toad_
+expresses in all the languages of Europe the habit of swelling. It has
+been observed with some of the exotic species in the Zoological Gardens;
+and Dr. Gunther believes that it is general throughout the group.
+Judging from analogy, the primary purpose probably was to make the body
+appear as large and frightful as possible to an enemy; but another, and
+perhaps more important secondary advantage is thus gained. When frogs
+are seized by snakes, which are their chief enemies, they enlarge
+themselves wonderfully; so that if the snake be of small size, as Dr.
+Gunther informs me, it cannot swallow the frog, which thus escapes being
+devoured.
+
+Chameleons and some other lizards inflate themselves when angry. Thus
+a species inhabiting Oregon, the _Tapaya Douglasii_, is slow in its
+movements and does not bite, but has a ferocious aspect; "when irritated
+it springs in a most threatening manner at anything pointed at it, at
+the same time opening its mouth wide and hissing audibly, after which it
+inflates its body, and shows other marks of anger."[422]
+
+Several kinds of snakes likewise inflate themselves when irritated.
+The puff-adder (_Clotho arietans_) is remarkable in this respect; but
+I believe, after carefully watching these animals, that they do not
+act thus for the sake of increasing their apparent bulk, but simply
+for inhaling a large supply of air, so as to produce their surprisingly
+loud, harsh, and prolonged hissing sound. The Cobras-de-capello, when
+irritated, enlarge themselves a little, and hiss moderately; but, at
+the same time they lift their heads aloft, and dilate by means of their
+elongated anterior ribs, the skin on each side of the neck into a large
+flat disk,--the so-called hood. With their widely opened mouths, they
+then assume a terrific aspect. The benefit thus derived ought to be
+considerable, in order to compensate for the somewhat lessened rapidity
+(though this is still great) with which, when dilated, they can strike
+at their enemies or prey; on the same principle that a broad, thin piece
+of wood cannot be moved through the air so quickly as a small round
+stick. An innocuous snake, the _Trovidonotus macrophthalmus_, an
+inhabitant of India, likewise dilates its neck when irritated;
+and consequently is often mistaken for its compatriot, the deadly
+Cobra.[423] This resemblance perhaps serves as some protection to the
+Tropidonotus.
+
+Another innocuous species, the Dasypeltis of South Africa, blows itself
+out, distends its neck, hisses and darts at an intruder.[424] Many other
+snakes hiss under similar circumstances. They also rapidly vibrate
+their protruded tongues; and this may aid in increasing their terrific
+appearance.
+
+Snakes possess other means of producing sounds besides hissing. Many
+years ago I observed in South America that a venomous Trigonocephalus,
+when disturbed, rapidly vibrated the end of its tail, which striking
+against the dry grass and twigs produced a rattling noise that could be
+distinctly heard at the distance of six feet.[425] The deadly and fierce
+_Echis carinata_ of India produces "a curious prolonged, almost hissing
+sound in a very different manner, namely by rubbing the sides of the
+folds of its body against each other," whilst the head remains in almost
+the same position. The scales on the sides, and not on other parts of
+the body, are strongly keeled, with the keels toothed like a saw; and as
+the coiled-up animal rubs its sides together, these grate against each
+other.[426] Lastly, we have the well-known case of the Rattle-snake. He
+who has merely shaken the rattle of a dead snake, can form no just idea
+of the sound produced by the living animal. Professor Shaler states that
+it is indistinguishable from that made by the male of a large Cicada
+(an Homopterous insect), which inhabits the same district.[427] In the
+Zoological Gardens, when the rattle-snakes and puff-adders were greatly
+excited at the same time, I was much struck at the similarity of the
+sound produced by them; and although that made by the rattle-snake
+is louder and shriller than the hissing of the puff-adder, yet when
+standing at some yards distance I could scarcely distinguish the two.
+For whatever purpose the sound is produced by the one species, I can
+hardly doubt that it serves for the same purpose in the other species;
+and I conclude from the threatening gestures made at the same time by
+many snakes, that their hissing,--the rattling of the rattle-snake and
+of the tail of the Trigonocephalus,--the grating of the scales of the
+Echis,--and the dilatation of the hood of the Cobra,--all subserve the
+same end, namely, to make them appear terrible to their enemies.[428]
+
+It seems at first a probable conclusion that venomous snakes, such
+as the foregoing, from being already so well defended by their
+poison-fangs, would never be attacked by any enemy; and consequently
+would have no need to excite additional terror. But this is far from
+being the case, for they are largely preyed on in all quarters of the
+world by many animals. It is well known that pigs are employed in the
+United States to clear districts infested with rattle-snakes, which they
+do most effectually.[429] In England the hedgehog attacks and devours
+the viper. In India, as I hear from Dr. Jerdon, several kinds of hawks,
+and at least one mammal, the Herpestes, kill cobras and other venomous
+species;[430] and so it is in South Africa. Therefore it is by no means
+improbable that any sounds or signs by which the venomous species could
+instantly make themselves recognized as dangerous, would be of more
+service to them than to the innocuous species which would not be able,
+if attacked, to inflict any real injury.
+
+Having said thus much about snakes, I am tempted to add a few remarks
+on the means by which the rattle of the rattle-snake was probably
+developed. Various animals, including some lizards, either curl or
+vibrate their tails when excited. This is the case with many kinds
+of snakes.[431] In the Zoological Gardens, an innocuous species, the
+_Coronella Sayi_, vibrates its tail so rapidly that it becomes almost
+invisible. The Trigonocephalus, before alluded to, has the same habit;
+and the extremity of its tail is a little enlarged, or ends in a bead.
+In the Lachesis, which is so closely allied to the rattle-snake that
+it was placed by Linnaeus in the same genus, the tail ends in a single,
+large, lancet-shaped point or scale. With some snakes the skin, as
+Professor Shaler remarks, "is more imperfectly detached from the region
+about the tail than at other parts of the body." Now if we suppose that
+the end of the tail of some ancient American species was enlarged, and
+was covered by a single large scale, this could hardly have been
+cast off at the successive moults. In this case it would have been
+permanently retained, and at each period of growth, as the snake grew
+larger, a new scale, larger than the last, would have been formed
+above it, and would likewise have been retained. The foundation for the
+development of a rattle would thus have been laid; and it would have
+been habitually used, if the species, like so many others, vibrated its
+tail whenever it was irritated. That the rattle has since been specially
+developed to serve as an efficient sound-producing instrument, there can
+hardly be a doubt; for even the vertebrae included within the extremity
+of the tail have been altered in shape and cohere. But there is no
+greater improbability in various structures, such as the rattle of
+the rattle-snake,--the lateral scales of the Echis,--the neck with
+the included ribs of the Cobra,--and the whole body of the
+puff-adder,--having been modified for the sake of warning and
+frightening away their enemies, than in a bird, namely, the wonderful
+Secretary-hawk (_Gypogeranus_) having had its whole frame modified for
+the sake of killing snakes with impunity. It is highly probable, judging
+from what we have before seen, that this bird would ruffle its feathers
+whenever it attacked a snake; and it is certain that the Herpestes, when
+it eagerly rushes to attack a snake, erects the hair all over its
+body, and especially that on its tail.[432] We have also seen that some
+porcupines, when angered or alarmed at the sight of a snake, rapidly
+vibrate their tails, thus producing a peculiar sound by the striking
+together of the hollow quills. So that here both the attackers and the
+attacked endeavour to make themselves as dreadful as possible to each
+other; and both possess for this purpose specialised means, which, oddly
+enough, are nearly the same in some of these cases. Finally we can see
+that if, on the one hand, those individual snakes, which were best able
+to frighten away their enemies, escaped best from being devoured; and
+if, on the other hand, those individuals of the attacking enemy survived
+in larger numbers which were the best fitted for the dangerous task of
+killing and devouring venomous snakes;--then in the one case as in the
+other, beneficial variations, supposing the characters in question to
+vary, would commonly have been preserved through the survival of the
+fittest.
+
+_The Drawing back and pressure of the Ears to the Head_.--The ears
+through their movements are highly expressive in many animals; but in
+some, such as man, the higher apes, and many ruminants, they fail in
+this respect. A slight difference in position serves to express in the
+plainest manner a different state of mind, as we may daily see in the
+dog; but we are here concerned only with the ears being drawn closely
+backwards and pressed to the head. A savage frame of mind is thus shown,
+but only in the case of those animals which fight with their teeth; and
+the care which they take to prevent their ears being seized by their
+antagonists, accounts for this position. Consequently, through habit
+and association, whenever they feel slightly savage, or pretend in their
+play to be savage, their ears are drawn back. That this is the true
+explanation may be inferred from the relation which exists in very many
+animals between their manner of fighting and the retraction of their
+ears.
+
+All the Carnivora fight with their canine teeth, and all, as far as I
+have observed, draw their ears back when feeling savage. This may be
+continually seen with dogs when fighting in earnest, and with puppies
+fighting in play. The movement is different from the falling down
+and slight drawing back of the ears, when a dog feels pleased and is
+caressed by his master. The retraction of the ears may likewise be seen
+in kittens fighting together in their play, and in full-grown cats when
+really savage, as before illustrated in fig. 9 (p. 58). Although their
+ears are thus to a large extent protected, yet they often get much torn
+in old male cats during their mutual battles. The same movement is very
+striking in tigers, leopards, &c., whilst growling over their food in
+menageries. The lynx has remarkably long ears; and their retraction,
+when one of these animals is approached in its cage, is very
+conspicuous, and is eminently expressive of its savage disposition. Even
+one of the Eared Seals, the _Otariapusilla_, which has very small ears,
+draws them backwards, when it makes a savage rush at the legs of its
+keeper.
+
+When horses fight together they use their incisors for biting, and
+their fore-legs for striking, much more than they do their hind-legs
+for kicking backwards. This has been observed when stallions have broken
+loose and have fought together, and may likewise be inferred from the
+kind of wounds which they inflict on each other. Every one recognizes
+the vicious appearance which the drawing back of the ears gives to a
+horse. This movement is very different from that of listening to a
+sound behind. If an ill-tempered horse in a stall is inclined to kick
+backwards, his ears are retracted from habit, though he has no intention
+or power to bite. But when a horse throws up both hind-legs in play, as
+when entering an open field, or when just touched by the whip, he does
+not generally depress his ears, for he does not then feel vicious.
+Guanacoes fight savagely with their teeth; and they must do so
+frequently, for I found the hides of several which I shot in Patagonia
+deeply scored. So do camels; and both these animals, when savage, draw
+their ears closely backwards. Guanacoes, as I have noticed, when not
+intending to bite, but merely to spit their offensive saliva from a
+distance at an intruder, retract their ears. Even the hippopotamus, when
+threatening with its widely-open enormous mouth a comrade, draws back
+its small ears, just like a horse.
+
+Now what a contrast is presented between the foregoing animals and
+cattle, sheep, or goats, which never use their teeth in fighting, and
+never draw back their ears when enraged! Although sheep and goats appear
+such placid animals, the males often join in furious contests. As deer
+form a closely related family, and as I did not know that they ever
+fought with their teeth, I was much surprised at the account given by
+Major Ross King of the Moose-deer in Canada. He says, when "two
+males chance to meet, laying back their ears and gnashing their teeth
+together, they rush at each other with appalling fury."[433] But Mr.
+Bartlett informs me that some species of deer fight savagely with their
+teeth, so that the drawing back of the ears by the moose accords with
+our rule. Several kinds of kangaroos, kept in the Zoological Gardens,
+fight by scratching with their fore-feet and by kicking with their
+hind-legs; but they never bite each other, and the keepers have never
+seen them draw back their ears when angered. Rabbits fight chiefly by
+kicking and scratching, but they likewise bite each other; and I
+have known one to bite off half the tail of its antagonist. At the
+commencement of their battles they lay back their ears, but afterwards,
+as they bound over and kick each other, they keep their ears erect, or
+move them much about.
+
+Mr. Bartlett watched a wild boar quarrelling rather savagely with his
+sow; and both had their mouths open and their ears drawn backwards.
+But this does not appear to be a common action with domestic pigs when
+quarrelling. Boars fight together by striking upwards with their
+tusks; and Mr. Bartlett doubts whether they then draw back their ears.
+Elephants, which in like manner fight with their tusks, do not retract
+their ears, but, on the contrary, erect them when rushing at each other
+or at an enemy.
+
+The rhinoceroses in the Zoological Gardens fight with their nasal horns,
+and have never been seen to attempt biting each other except in play;
+and the keepers are convinced that they do not draw back their ears,
+like horses and dogs, when feeling savage. The following statement,
+therefore, by Sir S. Baker[434] is inexplicable, namely, that a
+rhinoceros, which he shot in North Africa, "had no ears; they had
+been bitten off close to the head by another of the same species while
+fighting; and this mutilation is by no means uncommon."
+
+Lastly, with respect to monkeys. Some kinds, which have moveable ears,
+and which fight with their teeth--for instance the _Cereopithecus
+ruber_--draw back their ears when irritated just like dogs; and they
+then have a very spiteful appearance. Other kinds, as the _Inuus
+ecaudatus_, apparently do not thus act. Again, other kinds--and this
+is a great anomaly in comparison with most other animals--retract their
+ears, show their teeth, and jabber, when they are pleased by being
+caressed. I observed this in two or three species of Macacus, and in
+the _Cynopithecus niger_. This expression, owing to our familiarity
+with dogs, would never be recognized as one of joy or pleasure by those
+unacquainted with monkeys.
+
+_Erection of the Ears_.--This movement requires hardly any notice. All
+animals which have the power of freely moving their ears, when they are
+startled, or when they closely observe any object, direct their ears
+to the point towards which they are looking, in order to hear any sound
+from this quarter. At the same time they generally raise their heads,
+as all their organs of sense are there situated, and some of the smaller
+animals rise on their hind-legs. Even those kinds which squat on the
+ground or instantly flee away to avoid danger, generally act momentarily
+in this manner, in order to ascertain the source and nature of the
+danger. The head being raised, with erected ears and eyes directed
+forwards, gives an unmistakable expression of close attention to any
+animal.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. -- SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.
+
+The Dog, various expressive movements
+of--Cats--Horses--Ruminants--Monkeys, their expression of joy and
+affection--Of pain--Anger--Astonishment and Terror.
+
+
+_The Dog_.--I have already described (figs. 5 and 1) the appearance of
+a dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions, namely, with
+erected ears, eyes intently directed forwards, hair on the neck and back
+bristling, gait remarkably stiff, with the tail upright and rigid. So
+familiar is this appearance to us, that an angry man is sometimes said
+"to have his back up." Of the above points, the stiff gait and upright
+tail alone require further discussion. Sir C. Bell remarks[501] that,
+when a tiger or wolf is struck by its keeper and is suddenly roused to
+ferocity, every muscle is in tension, and the limbs are in an attitude
+of strained exertion, prepared to spring. This tension of the muscles
+and consequent stiff gait may be accounted for on the principle of
+associated habit, for anger has continually led to fierce struggles,
+and consequently to all the muscles of the body having been violently
+exerted. There is also reason to suspect that the muscular system
+requires some short preparation, or some degree of innervation, before
+being brought into strong action. My own sensations lead me to this
+inference; but I cannot discover that it is a conclusion admitted by
+physiologists. Sir J. Paget, however, informs me that when muscles are
+suddenly contracted with the greatest force, without any preparation,
+they are liable to be ruptured, as when a man slips unexpectedly; but
+that this rarely occurs when an action, however violent, is deliberately
+performed.
+
+With respect to the upright position of the tail, it seems to depend
+(but whether this is really the case I know not) on the elevator muscles
+being more powerful than the depressors, so that when all the muscles
+of the hinder part of the body are in a state of tension, the tail is
+raised. A dog in cheerful spirits, and trotting before his master with
+high, elastic steps, generally carries his tail aloft, though it is not
+held nearly so stiffly as when he is angered. A horse when first turned
+out into an open field, may be seen to trot with long elastic strides,
+the head and tail being held high aloft. Even cows when they frisk about
+from pleasure, throw up their tails in a ridiculous fashion. So it is
+with various animals in the Zoological Gardens. The position of the
+tail, however, in certain cases, is determined by special circumstances;
+thus as soon as a horse breaks into a gallop, at full speed, he always
+lowers his tail, so that as little resistance as possible may be offered
+to the air.
+
+When a dog is on the point of springing on his antagonist, he utters a
+savage growl; the ears are pressed closely backwards, and the upper lip
+(fig. 14) is retracted out of the way of his teeth, especially of his
+canines. These movements may be observed with dogs and puppies in
+their play. But if a dog gets really savage in his play, his expression
+immediately changes. This, however, is simply due to the lips and ears
+being drawn back with much greater energy. If a dog only snarls at
+another, the lip is generally retracted on one side alone, namely
+towards his enemy.
+
+[Illustration: Head of snarling Dog. Fig 14]
+
+{illust. caption = FIG. 14.--Head of snarling Dog. From life, by Mr.
+Wood.
+
+The movements of a dog whilst exhibiting affection towards his master
+were described (figs. 6 and 8) in our second chapter. These consist
+in the head and whole body being lowered and thrown into flexuous
+movements, with the tail extended and wagged from side to side. The ears
+fall down and are drawn somewhat backwards, which causes the eyelids to
+be elongated, and alters the whole appearance of the face. The lips hang
+loosely, and the hair remains smooth. All these movements or gestures
+are explicable, as I believe, from their standing in complete antithesis
+to those naturally assumed by a savage dog under a directly opposite
+state of mind. When a man merely speaks to, or just notices, his dog, we
+see the last vestige of these movements in a slight wag of the tail,
+without any other movement of the body, and without even the ears being
+lowered. Dogs also exhibit their affection by desiring to rub against
+their masters, and to be rubbed or patted by them. Gratiolet explains
+the above gestures of affection in the following manner: and the reader
+can judge whether the explanation appears satisfactory. Speaking of
+animals in general, including the dog, he says,[502] "C'est toujours la
+partie la plus sensible de leurs corps qui recherche les caresses ou les
+donne. Lorsque toute la longueur des flancs et du corps est sensible,
+l'animal serpente et rampe sous les caresses; et ces ondulations se
+propageant le long des muscles analogues des segments jusqu'aux
+extremites de la colonne vertebrale, la queue se ploie et s'agite."
+Further on, he adds, that dogs, when feeling affectionate, lower their
+ears in order to exclude all sounds, so that their whole attention may
+be concentrated on the caresses of their master! Dogs have another and
+striking way of exhibiting their affection, namely, by licking the hands
+or faces of their masters. They sometimes lick other dogs, and then it
+is always their chops. I have also seen dogs licking cats with whom they
+were friends. This habit probably originated in the females carefully
+licking their puppies--the dearest object of their love--for the sake of
+cleansing them. They also often give their puppies, after a short
+absence, a few cursory licks, apparently from affection. Thus the habit
+will have become associated with the emotion of love, however it may
+afterwards be aroused. It is now so firmly inherited or innate, That it
+is transmitted equally to both sexes. A female terrier of mine lately
+had her puppies destroyed, and though at all times a very affectionate
+creature, I was much struck with the manner in which she then tried to
+satisfy her instinctive maternal love by expending it on me; and her
+desire to lick my hands rose to an insatiable passion.
+
+The same principle probably explains why dogs, when feeling
+affectionate, like rubbing against their masters and being rubbed or
+patted by them, for from the nursing of their puppies, contact with
+a beloved object has become firmly associated in their minds with the
+emotion of love. The feeling of affection of a dog towards his master is
+combined with a strong sense of submission, which is akin to fear. Hence
+dogs not only lower their bodies and crouch a little as they approach
+their masters, but sometimes throw themselves on the ground with
+their bellies upwards. This is a movement as completely opposite as is
+possible to any show of resistance. I formerly possessed a large dog
+who was not at all afraid to fight with other dogs; but a wolf-like
+shepherd-dog in the neighbourhood, though not ferocious and not so
+powerful as my dog, had a strange influence over him. When they met on
+the road, my dog used to run to meet him, with his tail partly tucked in
+between his legs and hair not erected; and then he would throw himself
+on the ground, belly upwards. By this action he seemed to say more
+plainly than by words, "Behold, I am your slave." A pleasurable and
+excited state of mind, associated with affection, is exhibited by some
+dogs in a very peculiar manner, namely, by grinning. This was noticed
+long ago by Somerville, who says, And with a courtly grin, the fawning
+bound Salutes thee cow'ring, his wide op'ning nose Upward he curls, and
+his large sloe-back eyes Melt in soft blandishments, and humble joy.'
+_The Chase_, book i. Sir W. Scott's famous Scotch greyhound, Maida, had
+this habit, and it is common with terriers. I have also seen it in a
+Spitz and in a sheep-dog. Mr. Riviere, who has particularly attended
+to this expression, informs me that it is rarely displayed in a perfect
+manner, but is quite common in a lesser degree. The upper lip during the
+act of grinning is retracted, as in snarling, so that the canines are
+exposed, and the ears are drawn backwards; but the general appearance
+of the animal clearly shows that anger is not felt. Sir C. Bell[503]
+remarks "Dogs, in their expression of fondness, have a slight eversion
+of the lips, and grin and sniff amidst their gambols, in a way that
+resembles laughter." Some persons speak of the grin as a smile, but
+if it had been really a smile, we should see a similar, though more
+pronounced, movement of the lips and ears, when dogs utter their bark
+of joy; but this is not the case, although a bark of joy often follows
+a grin. On the other hand, dogs, when playing with their comrades
+or masters, almost always pretend to bite each other; and they then
+retract, though not energetically, their lips and ears. Hence I suspect
+that there is a tendency in some dogs, whenever they feel lively
+pleasure combined with affection, to act through habit and association
+on the same muscles, as in playfully biting each other, or their
+masters' hands. I have described, in the second chapter, the gait and
+appearance of a dog when cheerful, and the marked antithesis presented
+by the same animal when dejected and disappointed, with his head, ears,
+body, tail, and chops drooping, and eyes dull. Under the expectation of
+any great pleasure, dogs bound and jump about in an extravagant manner,
+and bark for joy. The tendency to bark under this state of mind is
+inherited, or runs in the breed: greyhounds rarely bark, whilst the
+Spitz-dog barks so incessantly on starting for a walk with his master
+that he becomes a nuisance.
+
+An agony of pain is expressed by dogs in nearly the same way as by many
+other animals, namely, by howling writhing, and contortions of the
+whole body. Attention is shown by the head being raised, with the ears
+erected, and eyes intently directed towards the object or quarter under
+observation. If it be a sound and the source is not known, the head is
+often turned obliquely from side to side in a most significant manner,
+apparently in order to judge with more exactness from what point the
+sound proceeds. But I have seen a dog greatly surprised at a new noise,
+turning, his head to one side through habit, though he clearly perceived
+the source of the noise. Dogs, as formerly remarked, when their
+attention is in any way aroused, whilst watching some object, or
+attending to some sound, often lift up one paw (fig. 4) and keep it
+doubled up, as if to make a slow and stealthy approach. A dog under
+extreme terror will throw himself down, howl, and void his excretions;
+but the hair, I believe, does not become erect unless some anger is
+felt. I have seen a dog much terrified at a band of musicians who
+were playing loudly outside the house, with every muscle of his body
+trembling, with his heart palpitating so quickly that the beats could
+hardly be counted, and panting for breath with widely open mouth, in
+the same manner as a terrified man does. Yet this dog had not exerted
+himself; he had only wandered slowly and restlessly about the room, and
+the day was cold. Even a very slight degree of fear is invariably shown
+by the tail being tucked in between the legs. This tucking in of the
+fail is accompanied by the ears being drawn backwards; but they are not
+pressed closely to the head,nas in snarling, and they are not lowered,
+as when a dog is pleased or affectionate. When two young dogs chase
+each other in play, the one that runs away always keeps his tail tucked
+inwards. So it is when a dog, in the highest spirits, careers like a mad
+creature round and round his master in circles, or in figures of eight.
+He then acts as if another dog were chasing him. This curious kind of
+play, which must be familiar to every one who has attended to dogs,
+is particularly apt to be excited, after the animal has been a little
+startled or frightened, as by his master suddenly jumping out on him in
+the dusk. In this case, as well as when two young dogs are chasing each
+other in play, it appears as if the one that runs away was afraid of the
+other catching him by the tail; but as far as I can find out, dogs very
+rarely catch each other in this manner. I asked a gentleman, who
+had kept foxhounds all his life, and be applied to other experienced
+sportsmen, whether they had ever seen hounds thus seize a fox; but they
+never had. It appears that when a dog is chased, or when in danger of
+being struck behind, or of anything falling on him, in all these cases
+he wishes to withdraw as quickly as possible his whole hind-quarters,
+and that from some sympathy or connection between the muscles, the tail
+is then drawn closely inwards. A similarly connected movement between
+the hind-quarters and the tail may be observed in the hyaena. Mr.
+Bartlett informs me that when two of these animals fight together, they
+are mutually conscious of the wonderful power of each other's jaws, and
+are extremely cautious. They well know that if one of their legs were
+seized, the bone would instantly be crushed into atoms; hence they
+approach each other kneeling, with their legs turned as much as possible
+inwards, and with their whole bodies bowed, so as not to present any
+salient point; the tail at the same time being closely tucked in between
+the legs. In this attitude they approach each other sideways, or even
+partly backwards. So again with deer, several of the species, when
+savage and fighting, tuck in their tails. When one horse in a field
+tries to bite the hind-quarters of another in play, or when a rough boy
+strikes a donkey from behind, the hind-quarters and the tail are drawn
+in, though it does not appear as if this were done merely to save
+the tail from being injured. We have also seen the reverse of these
+movements; for when an animal trots with high elastic steps, the tail
+is almost always carried aloft. As I have said, when a dog is chased and
+runs away, he keeps his ears directed backwards but still open; and this
+is clearly done for the sake of hearing the footsteps of his pursuer.
+From habit the ears are often held in this same position, and the tail
+tucked in, when the danger is obviously in front. I have repeatedly
+noticed, with a timid terrier of mine, that when she is afraid of some
+object in front, the nature of which she perfectly knows and does not
+need to reconnoitre, yet she will for a long time hold her ears and tail
+in this position, looking the image of discomfort. Discomfort, without
+any fear, is similarly expressed: thus, one day I went out of doors,
+just at the time when this same dog knew that her dinner would be
+brought. I did not call her, but she wished much to accompany me, and at
+the same time she wished much for her dinner; and there she stood, first
+looking one way and then the other, with her tail tucked in and
+ears drawn back, presenting an unmistakable appearance of perplexed
+discomfort. Almost all the expressive movements now described, with the
+exception of the grinning from joy, are innate or instinctive, for they
+are common to all the individuals, young and old, of all the breeds.
+Most of them are likewise common to the aboriginal parents of the dog,
+namely the wolf and jackal; and some of them to other species of the
+same group. Tamed wolves and jackals, when caressed by their masters,
+jump about for joy, wag their tails, lower their ears, lick their
+master's hands, crouch down, and even throw themselves on the ground
+belly upwards.[504] I have seen a rather fox-like African jackal, from
+the Gaboon, depress its ears when caressed. Wolves and jackals, when
+frightened, certainly tuck in their tails; and a tamed jackal has been
+described as careering round his master in circles and figures of eight,
+like a dog, with his tail between his legs. It has been stated[505]
+that foxes, however tame, never display any of the above expressive
+movements; but this is not strictly accurate. Many years ago I observed
+in the Zoological Gardens, and recorded the fact at the time, that a
+very tame English fox, When caressed by the keeper, wagged its tail,
+depressed its ears, and then threw itself on the ground, belly upwards.
+The black fox of North America likewise depressed its ears in a slight
+degree. But I believe that foxes never lick the hands of their masters,
+and I have been assured that when frightened they never tuck in their
+tails. If the explanation which I have given of the expression of
+affection in dogs be admitted, then it would appear that animals
+which have never been domesticated--namely wolves, jackals, and even
+foxes--have nevertheless acquired, through the principle of antithesis,
+certain expressive gestures; for it is Dot probable that these animals,
+confined in cages, should have learnt them by imitating dogs.
+
+_Cats_.--I have already described the actions of a cat (fig. 9), when
+feeling savage and not terrified. She assumes a crouching attitude and
+occasionally protrudes her fore-feet, with the claws exserted ready
+for striking. The tail is extended, being curled or lashed from side to
+side. The hair is not erected--at least it was not so in the few cases
+observed by me. The ears are drawn closely backwards and the teeth are
+shown. Low savage growls are uttered. We can understand why the attitude
+assumed by a cat when preparing to fight with another cat, or in any way
+greatly irritated, is so widely different from that of a dog approaching
+another dog with hostile intentions; for the cat uses her fore-feet for
+striking, and this renders a crouching position convenient or necessary.
+She is also much more accustomed than a dog to lie concealed and
+suddenly spring on her prey. No cause can be assigned with certainty for
+the tail being lashed or curled from side to side. This habit is common
+to many other animals--for instance, to the puma, when prepared to
+spring;[506] but it is not common to dogs, or to foxes, as I infer from
+Mr. St. John's account of a fox lying in wait and seizing a hare. We
+have already seen that some kinds of lizards and various snakes, when
+excited, rapidly vibrate the tips of their tails. It would appear as
+if, under strong excitement, there existed an uncontrollable desire for
+movement of some kind, owing to nerve-force being freely liberated from
+the excited sensorium; and that as the tail is left free, and as its
+movement does not disturb the general position of the body, it is curled
+or lashed about.
+
+All the movements of a cat, when feeling affectionate, are in complete
+antithesis to those just described. She now stands upright, with
+slightly arched back, tail perpendicularly raised, and ears erected;
+and she rubs her cheeks and flanks against her master or mistress. The
+desire to rub something is so strong in cats under this state of mind,
+that they may often be seen rubbing themselves against the legs of
+chairs or tables, or against door-posts. This manner of expressing
+affection probably originated through association, as in the case of
+dogs, from the mother nursing and fondling her young; and perhaps from
+the young themselves loving each other and playing together. Another
+and very different gesture, expressive of pleasure, has already been
+described, namely, the curious manner in which young and even old cats,
+when pleased, alternately protrude their fore-feet, with separated toes,
+as if pushing against and sucking their mother's teats. This habit is so
+far analogous to that of rubbing against something, that both apparently
+are derived from actions performed during the nursing period. Why cats
+should show affection by rubbing so much more than do dogs, though
+the latter delight in contact with their masters, and why cats only
+occasionally lick the hands of their friends, whilst dogs always do so,
+I cannot say. Cats cleanse themselves by licking their own coats more
+regularly than do dogs. On the other hand, their tongues seem less well
+fitted for the work than the longer and more flexible tongues of dogs.
+
+[Illustration: Cat terrified at a dog.  Fig.15]
+
+Cats, when terrified, stand at full height, and arch their backs in a
+well-known and ridiculous fashion. They spit, hiss, or growl. The hair
+over the whole body, and especially on the tail, becomes erect. In the
+instances observed by me the basal part of the tail was held upright,
+the terminal part being thrown on one side; but sometimes the tail (see
+fig. 15) is only a little raised, and is bent almost from the base
+to one side. The ears are drawn back, and the teeth exposed. When two
+kittens are playing together, the one often thus tries to frighten the
+other. From what we have seen in former chapters, all the above points
+of expression are intelligible, except the extreme arching of the back.
+I am inclined to believe that, in the same manner as many birds, whilst
+they ruffle their feathers, spread out their wings and tail, to make
+themselves look as big as possible, so cats stand upright at their full
+height, arch their backs, often raise the basal part of the tail, and
+erect their hair, for the same purpose. The lynx, when attacked, is said
+to arch its back, and is thus figured by Brehm. But the keepers in the
+Zoological Gardens have never seen any tendency to this action in the
+larger feline animals, such as tigers, lions, &c.; and these have little
+cause to be afraid of any other animal.
+
+Cats use their voices much as a means of expression, and they utter,
+under various emotions and desires, at least six or seven different
+sounds. The purr of satisfaction, which is made during both inspiration
+and expiration, is one of the most curious. The puma, cheetah, and
+ocelot likewise purr; but the tiger, when pleased, "emits a peculiar
+short snuffle, accompanied by the closure of the eyelids."[507] It is
+said that the lion, jaguar, and leopard, do not purr.
+
+
+_Horses_.--Horses when savage draw their ears closely back, protrude
+their heads, and partially uncover their incisor teeth, ready for
+biting. When inclined to kick behind, they generally, through habit,
+draw back their ears; and their eyes are turned backwards in a peculiar
+manner.[508] When pleased, as when some coveted food is brought to them
+in the stable, they raise and draw in their heads, prick their ears,
+and looking intently towards their friend, often whinny. Impatience is
+expressed by pawing the ground.
+
+The actions of a horse when much startled are highly expressive. One
+day my horse was much frightened at a drilling machine, covered by a
+tarpaulin, and lying on an open field. He raised his head so high, that
+his neck became almost perpendicular; and this he did from habit, for
+the machine lay on a slope below, and could not have been seen with
+more distinctness through the raising of the head; nor if any sound had
+proceeded from it, could the sound have been more distinctly heard. His
+eyes and ears were directed intently forwards; and I could feel through
+the saddle the palpitations of his heart. With red dilated nostrils he
+snorted violently, and whirling round, would have dashed off at full
+speed, had I not prevented him. The distension of the nostrils is not
+for the sake of scenting the source of danger, for when a horse smells
+carefully at any object and is not alarmed, he does not dilate his
+nostrils. Owing to the presence of a valve in the throat, a horse
+when panting does not breathe through his open mouth, but through his
+nostrils; and these consequently have become endowed with great powers
+of expansion. This expansion of the nostrils, as well as the snorting,
+and the palpitations of the heart, are actions which have become firmly
+associated during a long series of generations with the emotion of
+terror; for terror has habitually led the horse to the most violent
+exertion in dashing away at full speed from the cause of danger.
+
+
+_Ruminants_.--Cattle and sheep are remarkable from displaying in so
+slight a degree their emotions or sensations, excepting that of extreme
+pain. A bull when enraged exhibits his rage only by the manner in which
+he holds his lowered head, with distended nostrils, and by bellowing. He
+also often paws the ground; but this pawing seems quite different from
+that of an impatient horse, for when the soil is loose, he throws up
+clouds of dust. I believe that bulls act in this manner when irritated
+by flies, for the sake of driving them away. The wilder breeds of sheep
+and the chamois when startled stamp on the ground, and whistle through
+their noses; and this serves as a danger-signal to their comrades. The
+musk-ox of the Arctic regions, when encountered, likewise stamps on the
+ground.[509] How this stamping action arose I cannot conjecture; for
+from inquiries which I have made it does not appear that any of these
+animals fight with their fore-legs.
+
+Some species of deer, when savage, display far more expression than do
+cattle, sheep, or goats, for, as has already been stated, they draw back
+their ears, grind their teeth, erect their hair, squeal, stamp on the
+ground, and brandish their horns. One day in the Zoological Gardens, the
+Formosan deer (_Cervus pseudaxis_) approached me in a curious attitude,
+with his muzzle raised high up, so that the horns were pressed back on
+his neck; the head being held rather obliquely. From the expression of
+his eye I felt sure that he was savage; he approached slowly, and as
+soon as he came close to the iron bars, he did not lower his head to
+butt at me, but suddenly bent it inwards, and struck his horns with
+great force against the railings. Mr. Bartlett informs me that some
+other species of deer place themselves in the same attitude when
+enraged.
+
+_Monkeys_.--The various species and genera of monkeys express their
+feelings in many different ways; and this fact is interesting, as in
+some degree bearing on the question, whether the so-called races of man
+should be ranked as distinct species or varieties; for, as we shall
+see in the following chapters, the different races of man express their
+emotions and sensations with remarkable uniformity throughout the world.
+Some of the expressive actions of monkeys are interesting in another
+way, namely from being closely analogous to those of man. As I have
+had no opportunity of observing any one species of the group under all
+circumstances, my miscellaneous remarks will be best arranged under
+different states of the mind.
+
+_Pleasure, joy, affection_--It is not possible to distinguish in
+monkeys, at least without more experience than I have had, the
+expression of pleasure or joy from that of affection. Young chimpanzees
+make a kind of barking noise, when pleased by the return of any one to
+whom they are attached. When this noise, which the keepers call a laugh,
+is uttered, the lips are protruded; but so they are under various other
+emotions. Nevertheless I could perceive that when they were pleased
+the form of the lips differed a little from that assumed when they
+were angered. If a young chimpanzee be tickled--and the armpits are
+particularly sensitive to tickling, as in the case of our children,--a
+more decided chuckling or laughing sound is uttered; though the
+laughter is sometimes noiseless. The corners of the mouth are then drawn
+backwards; and this sometimes causes the lower eyelids to be slightly
+wrinkled. But this wrinkling, which is so characteristic of our own
+laughter, is more plainly seen in some other monkeys. The teeth in
+the upper jaw in the chimpanzee are not exposed when they utter their
+laughing noise, in which respect they differ from us. But their
+eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as Mr. W. L. Martin,[510] who has
+particularly attended to their expression, states.
+
+Young Orangs, when tickled, likewise grin and make a chuckling sound;
+and Mr. Martin says that their eyes grow brighter. As soon as their
+laughter ceases, an expression may be detected passing over their faces,
+which, as Mr. Wallace remarked to me, may be called a smile. I have
+also noticed something of the same kind with the chimpanzee. Dr.
+Duchenne--and I cannot quote a better authority--informs me that he kept
+a very tame monkey in his house for a year; and when he gave it during
+meal-times some choice delicacy, he observed that the corners of
+its mouth were slightly raised; thus an expression of satisfaction,
+partaking of the nature of an incipient smile, and resembling that often
+seen on the face of main, could be plainly perceived in this animal.
+
+The _Cebus azarae_,[511] when rejoiced at again seeing a beloved person,
+utters a peculiar tittering (_kichernden_) sound. It also expresses
+agreeable sensations, by drawing back the corners of its mouth, without
+producing any sound. Rengger calls this movement laughter, but it would
+be more appropriately called a smile. The form of the mouth is different
+when either pain or terror is expressed, and high shrieks are uttered.
+Another species of _Cebus_ in the Zoological Gardens (_C. hypoleucus_)
+when pleased, makes a reiterated shrill note, and likewise draws back
+the corners of its mouth, apparently through the contraction of the same
+muscles as with us. So does the Barbary ape (_Inuus ecaudatus_) to an
+extraordinary degree; and I observed in this monkey that the skin of
+the lower eyelids then became much wrinkled. At the same time it rapidly
+moved its lower jaw or lips in a spasmodic manner, the teeth being
+exposed; but the noise produced was hardly more distinct than that which
+we sometimes call silent laughter. Two of the keepers affirmed that this
+slight sound was the animal's laughter, and when I expressed some doubt
+on this head (being at the time quite inexperienced), they made it
+attack or rather threaten a hated Entellus monkey, living in the same
+compartment. Instantly the whole expression of the face of the Inuus
+changed; the mouth was opened much more widely, the canine teeth were
+more fully exposed, and a hoarse barking noise was uttered.
+
+The Anubis baboon (_Cynocephalus anubis_) was first insulted and put
+into a furious rage, as was easily done, by his keeper, who then made
+friends with him and shook hands. As the reconciliation was effected the
+baboon rapidly moved up and down his jaws and lips, and looked pleased.
+When we laugh heartily, a similar movement, or quiver, may be observed
+more or less distinctly in our jaws; but with man the muscles of the
+chest are more particularly acted on, whilst with this baboon, and with
+some other monkeys, it is the muscles of the jaws and lips which are
+spasmodically affected.
+
+[Illustration: Cynopithecus niger, in a placid condition. Fig.16]
+
+[Illustration: Cynopithecus niger, pleased by being caressed. Fig.17]
+
+I have already had occasion to remark on the curious manner in which
+two or three species of Alacacus and the _Cynopithecus niger_ draw back
+their ears and utter a slight jabbering noise, when they are pleased
+by being caressed. With the Cynopithecus (fig. 17), the corners of the
+mouth are at the same time drawn backwards and upwards, so that the
+teeth are exposed. Hence this expression would never be recognized by a
+stranger as one of pleasure. The crest of long hairs on the forehead is
+depressed, and apparently the whole skin of the head drawn backwards.
+The eyebrows are thus raised a little, and the eyes assume a staring
+appearance. The lower eyelids also become slightly wrinkled; but this
+wrinkling is not conspicuous, owing to the permanent transverse furrows
+on the face.
+
+_Painful emotions and sensations_.--With monkeys the expression of
+slight pain, or of any painful emotion, such as grief, vexation,
+jealousy, &c., is not easily distinguished from that of moderate anger;
+and these states of mind readily and quickly pass into each other.
+Grief, however, with some species is certainly exhibited by weeping.
+A woman, who sold a monkey to the Zoological Society, believed to have
+come from Borneo (_Macacus maurus_ or _M. inornatus_ of Gray), said that
+it often cried; and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the keeper Mr. Sutton, have
+repeatedly seen it, when grieved, or even when much pitied, weeping
+so copiously that the tears rolled down its cheeks. There is, however,
+something strange about this case, for two specimens subsequently kept
+in the Gardens, and believed to be the same species, have never been
+seen to weep, though they were carefully observed by the keeper and
+myself when much distressed and loudly screaming. Rengger states[512]
+that the eyes of the _Cebus azarae_ fill with tears, but not
+sufficiently to overflow, when it is prevented getting some much desired
+object, or is much frightened. Humboldt also asserts that the eyes of
+the _Callithrix sciureus_ "instantly fill with tears when it is seized
+with fear;" but when this pretty little monkey in the Zoological Gardens
+was teased, so as to cry out loudly, this did not occur. I do not,
+however, wish to throw the least doubt on the accuracy of Humboldt's
+statement.
+
+The appearance of dejection in young orangs and chimpanzees, when out
+of health, is as plain and almost as pathetic as in the case of our
+children. This state of mind and body is shown by their listless
+movements, fallen countenances, dull eyes, and changed complexion.
+
+_Anger_.--This emotion is often exhibited by many kinds of monkeys, and
+is expressed, as Mr. Martin remarks,[513] in many different ways. "Some
+species, when irritated, pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and savage
+glare on their foe, and make repeated short starts as if about to spring
+forward, uttering at the same time inward guttural sounds. Many display
+their anger by suddenly advancing, making abrupt starts, at the same
+time opening the mouth and pursing up the lips, so as to conceal the
+teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed on the enemy, as if in savage
+defiance. Some again, and principally the long-tailed monkeys, or
+Guenons, display their teeth, and accompany their malicious grins with
+a sharp, abrupt, reiterated cry." Mr. Sutton confirms the statement that
+some species uncover their teeth when enraged, whilst others conceal
+them by the protrusion of their lips; and some kinds draw back their
+ears. The _Cynopithecus niger_, lately referred to, acts in this manner,
+at the same time depressing the crest of hair on its forehead, and
+showing its teeth; so that the movements of the features from anger are
+nearly the same as those from pleasure; and the two expressions can be
+distinguished only by those familiar with the animal.
+
+Baboons often show their passion and threaten their enemies in a very
+odd manner, namely, by opening their mouths widely as in the act of
+yawning. Mr. Bartlett has often seen two baboons, when first placed
+in the same compartment, sitting opposite to each other and thus
+alternately opening their mouths; and this action seems frequently to
+end in a real yawn. Mr. Bartlett believes that both animals wish to show
+to each other that they are provided with a formidable set of teeth, as
+is undoubtedly the case. As I could hardly credit the reality of this
+yawning gesture, Mr. Bartlett insulted an old baboon and put him into a
+violent passion; and he almost immediately thus acted. Some species of
+Macacus and of Cereopithecus[514] behave in the same manner. Baboons
+likewise show their anger, as was observed by Brehin with those which
+he kept alive in Abyssinia, in another manner, namely, by striking the
+ground with one hand, "like an angry man striking the table with his
+fist." I have seen this movement with the baboons in the Zoological
+Gardens; but sometimes the action seems rather to represent the
+searching for a stone or other object in their beds of straw.
+
+Mr. Sutton has often observed the face of the _Macacus rhesus_, when
+much enraged, growing red. As he was mentioning this to me, another
+monkey attacked a _rhesus_, and I saw its face redden as plainly as that
+of a man in a violent passion. In the course of a few minutes, after the
+battle, the face of this monkey recovered its natural tint. At the same
+time that the face reddened, the naked posterior part of the body, which
+is always red, seemed to grow still redder; but I cannot positively
+assert that this was the case. When the Mandrill is in any way excited,
+the brilliantly coloured, naked parts of the skin are said to become
+still more vividly coloured.
+
+With several species of baboons the ridge of the forehead projects much
+over the eyes, and is studded with a few long hairs, representing our
+eyebrows. These animals are always looking about them, and in order
+to look upwards they raise their eyebrows. They have thus, as it would
+appear, acquired the habit of frequently moving their eyebrows. However
+this may be, many kinds of monkeys, especially the baboons, when angered
+or in any way excited, rapidly and incessantly move their eyebrows
+up and down, as well as the hairy skin of their foreheads.[515] As we
+associate in the case of man the raising and lowering of the eyebrows
+with definite states of the mind, the almost incessant movement of the
+eyebrows by monkeys gives them a senseless expression. I once observed
+a man who had a trick of continually raising his eyebrows without any
+corresponding emotion, and this gave to him a foolish appearance; so it
+is with some persons who keep the corners of their mouths a little drawn
+backwards and upwards, as if by an incipient smile, though at the time
+they are not amused or pleased.
+
+A young orang, made jealous by her keeper attending to another monkey,
+slightly uncovered her teeth, and, uttering a peevish noise like
+_tish-shist_, turned her back on him. Both orangs and chimpanzees, when
+a little more angered, protrude their lips greatly, and make a harsh
+barking noise. A young female chimpanzee, in a violent passion,
+presented a curious resemblance to a child in the same state. She
+screamed loudly with widely open mouth, the lips being retracted so that
+the teeth were fully exposed. She threw her arms wildly about, sometimes
+clasping them over her head. She rolled on the ground, sometimes on her
+back, sometimes on her belly, and bit everything within reach. A young
+gibbon (_Hylobates syndactylus_) in a passion has been described[516] as
+behaving in almost exactly the same manner.
+
+The lips of young orangs and chimpanzees are protruded, sometimes to a
+wonderful degree, under various circumstances. They act thus, not only
+when slightly angered, sulky, or disappointed, but when alarmed at
+anything--in one instance, at the sight of a turtle,[517]--and likewise
+when pleased. But neither the degree of protrusion nor the shape of the
+mouth is exactly the same, as I believe, in all cases; and the
+sounds which are then uttered are different. The accompanying drawing
+represents a chimpanzee made sulky by an orange having been offered him,
+and then taken away. A similar protrusion or pouting of the lips, though
+to a much slighter degree, may be seen in sulky children.
+
+[Illustration: Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky. Fig. 18]
+
+Many years ago, in the Zoological Gardens, I placed a looking-glass
+on the floor before two young orangs, who, as far as it was known, had
+never before seen one. At first they gazed at their own images with the
+most steady surprise, and often changed their point of view. They then
+approached close and protruded their lips towards the image, as if to
+kiss it, in exactly the same manner as they had previously done towards
+each other, when first placed, a few days before, in the same room. They
+next made all sorts of grimaces, and put themselves in various attitudes
+before the mirror; they pressed and rubbed the surface; they placed
+their hands at different distances behind it; looked behind it; and
+finally seemed almost frightened, started a little, became cross, and
+refused to look any longer.
+
+When we try to perform some little action which is difficult and
+requires precision, for instance, to thread a needle, we generally
+close our lips firmly, for the sake, I presume, of not disturbing our
+movements by breathing; and I noticed the same action in a young Orang.
+The poor little creature was sick, and was amusing itself by trying to
+kill the flies on the window-panes with its knuckles; this was difficult
+as the flies buzzed about, and at each attempt the lips were firmly
+compressed, and at the same time slightly protruded.
+
+Although the countenances, and more especially the gestures, of orangs
+and chimpanzees are in some respects highly expressive, I doubt whether
+on the whole they are so expressive as those of some other kinds of
+monkeys. This may be attributed in part to their ears being immovable,
+and in part to the nakedness of their eyebrows, of which the movements
+are thus rendered less conspicuous. When, however, they raise their
+eyebrows their foreheads become, as with us, transversely wrinkled.
+In comparison with man, their faces are inexpressive, chiefly owing to
+their not frowning under any emotion of the mind--that is, as far as
+I have been able to observe, and I carefully attended to this point.
+Frowning, which is one of the most important of all the expressions in
+man, is due to the contraction of the corrugators by which the eyebrows
+are lowered and brought together, so that vertical furrows are formed
+on the forehead. Both the orang and chimpanzee are said[518] to possess
+this muscle, but it seems rarely brought into action, at least in a
+conspicuous manner. I made my hands into a sort of cage, and placing
+some tempting fruit within, allowed both a young orang and chimpanzee
+to try their utmost to get it out; but although they grew rather cross,
+they showed not a trace of a frown. Nor was there any frown when they
+were enraged. Twice I took two chimpanzees from their rather dark room
+suddenly into bright sunshine, which would certainly have caused us to
+frown; they blinked and winked their eyes, but only once did I see
+a very slight frown. On another occasion, I tickled the nose of a
+chimpanzee with a straw, and as it crumpled up its face, slight vertical
+furrows appeared between the eyebrows. I have never seen a frown on the
+forehead of the orang.
+
+The gorilla, when enraged, is described as erecting its crest of
+hair, throwing down its under lip, dilating its nostrils, and uttering
+terrific yells. Messrs. Savage and Wyman[519] state that the scalp can
+be freely moved backwards and forwards, and that when the animal is
+excited it is strongly contracted; but I presume that they mean by this
+latter expression that the scalp is lowered; for they likewise speak of
+the young chimpanzee, when crying out, as having the eyebrows strongly
+contracted. The great power of movement in the scalp of the gorilla, of
+many baboons and other monkeys, deserves notice in relation to the power
+possessed by some few men, either through reversion or persistence, of
+voluntarily moving their scalps.[520]
+
+_Astonishment, Terror_--A living fresh-water turtle was placed at my
+request in the same compartment in the Zoological Gardens with many
+monkeys; and they showed unbounded astonishment, as well as some fear.
+This was displayed by their remaining motionless, staring intently with
+widely opened eyes, their eyebrows being often moved up and down. Their
+faces seemed somewhat lengthened. They occasionally raised themselves
+on their hind-legs to get abetter view. They often retreated a few feet,
+and then turning their heads over one shoulder, again stared intently.
+It was curious to observe how much less afraid they were of the
+turtle than of a living snake which I had formerly placed in their
+compartment;[521] for in the course of a few minutes some of the monkeys
+ventured to approach and touch the turtle. On the other hand, some of
+the larger baboons were greatly terrified, and grinned as if on the
+point of screaming out. When I showed a little dressed-up doll to the
+_Cynopithecus niger_, it stood motionless, stared intently with widely
+opened eyes, and advanced its ears a little forwards. But when the
+turtle was placed in its compartment, this monkey also moved its lips in
+an odd, rapid, jabbering manner, which the keeper declared was meant to
+conciliate or please the turtle.
+
+I was never able clearly to perceive that the eyebrows of astonished
+monkeys were kept permanently raised, though they were frequently moved
+up and down. Attention, which precedes astonishment, is expressed by man
+by a slight raising of the eyebrows; and Dr. Duchenne informs me that
+when he gave to the monkey formerly mentioned some quite new article of
+food, it elevated its eyebrows a little, thus assuming an appearance of
+close attention. It then took the food in its fingers, and, with
+lowered or rectilinear eyebrows, scratched, smelt, and examined it,--an
+expression of reflection being thus exhibited. Sometimes it would
+throw back its head a little, and again with suddenly raised eyebrows
+re-examine and finally taste the food.
+
+In no case did any monkey keep its mouth open when it was astonished.
+Mr. Sutton observed for me a young orang and chimpanzee during a
+considerable length of time; and however much they were astonished, or
+whilst listening intently to some strange sound, they did not keep
+their mouths open. This fact is surprising, as with mankind hardly any
+expression is more general than a widely open mouth under the sense of
+astonishment. As far as I have been able to observe, monkeys breathe
+more freely through their nostrils than men do; and this may account
+for their not opening their mouths when they are astonished; for, as we
+shall see in a future chapter, man apparently acts in this manner when
+startled, at first for the sake of quickly drawing a full inspiration,
+and afterwards for the sake of breathing as quietly as possible.
+
+Terror is expressed by many kinds of monkeys by the utterance of shrill
+screams; the lips being drawn back, so that the teeth are exposed. The
+hair becomes erect, especially when some anger is likewise felt. Mr.
+Sutton has distinctly seen the face of the _Macacus rhesus_ grow pale
+from fear. Monkeys also tremble from fear; and sometimes they void their
+excretions. I have seen one which, when caught, almost fainted from an
+excess of terror.
+
+Sufficient facts have now been given with respect to the expressions
+of various animals. It is impossible to agree with Sir C. Bell when he
+says[522] that "the faces of animals seem chiefly capable of expressing
+rage and fear;" and again, when he says that all their expressions
+"may be referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or
+necessary instincts." He who will look at a dog preparing to attack
+another dog or a man, and at the same animal when caressing his master,
+or will watch the countenance of a monkey when insulted, and when
+fondled by his keeper, will be forced to admit that the movements of
+their features and their gestures are almost as expressive as those of
+man. Although no explanation can be given of some of the expressions in
+the lower animals, the greater number are explicable in accordance with
+the three principles given at the commencement of the first chapter.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. -- SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.
+
+The screaming and weeping Of infants--Forms of features--Age at
+which weeping commences--The effects of habitual restraint on
+weeping--Sobbing--Cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes
+during screaming--Cause of the secretion of tears.
+
+
+IN this and the following chapters the expressions exhibited by Man
+under various states of the mind will be described and explained, as far
+as lies in my power. My observations will be arranged according to the
+order which I have found the most convenient; and this will generally
+lead to opposite emotions and sensations succeeding each other.
+
+_Suffering of the body and mind: weeping_.--I have already described in
+sufficient detail, in the third chapter, the signs of extreme pain, as
+shown by screams or groans, with the writhing of the whole body and the
+teeth clenched or ground together. These signs are often accompanied or
+followed by profuse sweating, pallor, trembling, utter prostration,
+or faintness. No suffering is greater than that from extreme fear
+or horror, but here a distinct emotion comes into play, and will be
+elsewhere considered. Prolonged suffering, especially of the mind,
+passes into low spirits, grief, dejection, and despair, and these
+states will be the subject of the following chapter. Here I shall almost
+confine myself to weeping or crying, more especially in children.
+
+Infants, when suffering even slight pain, moderate hunger, or
+discomfort, utter violent and prolonged screams. Whilst thus screaming
+their eyes are firmly closed, so that the skin round them is wrinkled,
+and the forehead contracted into a frown. The mouth is widely opened
+with the lips retracted in a peculiar manner, which causes it to assume
+a squarish form; the gums or teeth being more or less exposed. The
+breath is inhaled almost spasmodically. It is easy to observe infants
+whilst screaming; but I have found photographs made by the instantaneous
+process the best means for observation, as allowing more deliberation. I
+have collected twelve, most of them made purposely for me; and they all
+exhibit the same general characteristics. I have, therefore, had six of
+them[601] (Plate I.) reproduced by the heliotype process.
+
+[Illustration: Screaming Infants. Plate I. ]
+
+The firm closing of the eyelids and consequent compression of
+the eyeball,--and this is a most important element in various
+expressions,--serves to protect the eyes from becoming too much gorged
+with blood, as will presently be explained in detail. With respect to
+the order in which the several muscles contract in firmly compressing
+the eyes, I am indebted to Dr. Langstaff, of Southampton, for some
+observations, which I have since repeated. The best plan for observing
+the order is to make a person first raise his eyebrows, and this
+produces transverse wrinkles across the forehead; and then very
+gradually to contract all the muscles round the elves with as much force
+as possible. The reader who is unacquainted with the anatomy of the
+face, ought to refer to p. 24, and look at the woodcuts 1 to 3. The
+corrugators of the brow (_corrugator supercilii_) seem to be the first
+muscles to contract; and these draw the eyebrows downwards and inwards
+towards the base of the nose, causing vertical furrows, that is a
+frown, to appear between the eyebrows; at the same time they cause
+the disappearance of the transverse wrinkles across the forehead. The
+orbicular muscles contract almost simultaneously with the corrugators,
+and produce wrinkles all round the eyes; they appear, however, to be
+enabled to contract with greater force, as soon as the contraction
+of the corrugators has given them some support. Lastly, the pyramidal
+muscles of the nose contract; and these draw the eyebrows and the skin
+of the forehead still lower down, producing short transverse wrinkles
+across the base of the nose.[602] For the sake of brevity these muscles
+will generally be spoken of as the orbiculars, or as those surrounding
+the eyes.
+
+When these muscles are strongly contracted, those running to the upper
+lip[603] likewise contract and raise the upper lip. This might have been
+expected from the manner in which at least one of them, the _malaris_,
+is connected with the orbiculars. Any one who will gradually contract
+the muscles round his eyes, will feel, as he increases the force, that
+his upper lip and the wings of his nose (which are partly acted on by
+one of the same muscles) are almost always a little drawn up. If he
+keeps his mouth firmly shut whilst contracting the muscles round the
+eyes, and then suddenly relaxes his lips, he will feel that the pressure
+on his eyes immediately increases. So again when a person on a bright,
+glaring day wishes to look at a distant object, but is compelled
+partially to close his eyelids, the upper lip may almost always be
+observed to be somewhat raised. The mouths of some very short-sighted
+persons, who are forced habitually to reduce the aperture of their eyes,
+wear from this same reason a grinning expression.
+
+The raising of the upper lip draws upwards the flesh of the upper parts
+of the cheeks, and produces a strongly marked fold on each cheek,--the
+naso-labial fold,--which runs from near the wings of the nostrils to the
+corners of the mouth and below them. This fold or furrow may be seen in
+all the photographs, and is very characteristic of the expression of
+a crying child; though a nearly similar fold is produced in the act of
+laughing or Smiling.[604]
+
+As the upper lip is much drawn up during the act of screaming, in the
+manner just explained, the depressor muscles of the angles of the mouth
+(see K in woodcuts 1 and 2) are strongly contracted in order to keep the
+mouth widely open, so that a full volume of sound may be poured forth.
+The action of these opposed muscles, above and below, tends to give
+to the mouth an oblong, almost squarish outline, as may be seen in the
+accompanying photographs. An excellent observer,[605] in describing a
+baby crying whilst being fed, says, "it made its mouth like a square,
+and let the porridge run out at all four corners." I believe, but we
+shall return to this point in a future chapter, that the depressor
+muscles of the angles of the mouth are less under the separate control
+of the will than the adjoining muscles; so that if a young child is
+only doubtfully inclined to cry, this muscle is generally the first
+to contract, and is the last to cease contracting. When older children
+commence crying, the muscles which run to the upper lip are often the
+first to contract; and this may perhaps be due to older children not
+having so strong a tendency to scream loudly, and consequently to keep
+their mouths widely open; so that the above-named depressor muscles are
+not brought into such strong action.
+
+With one of my own infants, from his eighth day and for some time
+afterwards, I often observed that the first sign of a screaming-fit,
+when it could be observed coming on gradually, was a little frown, owing
+to the contraction of the corrugators of the brows; the capillaries of
+the naked head and face becoming at the same time reddened with blood.
+As soon as the screaming-fit actually began, all the muscles round
+the eyes were strongly contracted, and the mouth widely opened in the
+manlier above described; so that at this early period the features
+assumed the same form as at a more advanced age.
+
+Dr. Piderit[606] lays great stress on the contraction of certain
+muscles which draw down the nose and narrow the nostrils, as eminently
+characteristic of a crying expression. The _depressores anguli oris_,
+as we have just seen, are usually contracted at the same time, and they
+indirectly tend, according to Dr. Duchenne, to act in this same manner
+on the nose. With children having bad colds a similar pinched appearance
+of the nose may be noticed, which is at least partly due, as remarked
+to me by Dr. Langstaff, to their constant snuffling, and the consequent
+pressure of the atmosphere on the two sides. The purpose of this
+contraction of the nostrils by children having bad colds, or whilst
+crying, seems to be to cheek the downward flow of the mucus and tears,
+and to prevent these fluids spreading over the upper lip.
+
+After a prolonged and severe screaming-fit, the scalp, face, and eyes
+are reddened, owing to the return of the blood from the head having
+been impeded by the violent expiratory efforts; but the redness of the
+stimulated eyes is chiefly due to the copious effusion of tears. The
+various muscles of the face which have been strongly contracted,
+still twitch a little, and the upper lip is still slightly drawn up
+or everted,[607] with the corners of the mouth still a little drawn
+downwards. I have myself felt, and have observed in other grown-up
+persons, that when tears are restrained with difficulty, as in reading a
+pathetic story, it is almost impossible to prevent the various muscles.
+which with young children are brought into strong action during their
+screaming-fits, from slightly twitching or trembling.
+
+Infants whilst young do not shed tears or weep, as is well known to
+nurses and medical men. This circumstance is not exclusively due to
+the lacrymal glands being as yet incapable of secreting tears. I first
+noticed this fact from having accidentally brushed with the cuff of my
+coat the open eye of one of my infants, when seventy-seven days
+old, causing this eye to water freely; and though the child screamed
+violently, the other eye remained dry, or was only slightly suffused
+with tears. A similar slight effusion occurred ten days previously in
+both eyes during a screaming-fit. The tears did not run over the eyelids
+and roll down the cheeks of this child, whilst screaming badly, when 122
+days old. This first happened 17 days later, at the age of 139 days.
+A few other children have been observed for me, and the period of
+free weeping appears to be very variable. In one case, the eyes became
+slightly suffused at the age of only 20 days; in another, at 62 days.
+With two other children, the tears did NOT run down the face at the ages
+of 84 and 110 days; but in a third child they did run down at the age of
+104 days. In one instance, as I was positively assured, tears ran
+down at the unusually early age of 42 days. It would appear as if the
+lacrymal glands required some practice in the individual before they
+are easily excited into action, in somewhat the same manner as various
+inherited consensual movements and tastes require some exercise before
+they are fixed and perfected. This is all the more likely with a habit
+like weeping, which must have been acquired since the period when man
+branched off from the common progenitor of the genus Homo and of the
+non-weeping anthropomorphous apes.
+
+The fact of tears not being shed at a very early age from pain or any
+mental emotion is remarkable, as, later in life, no expression is more
+general or more strongly marked than weeping. When the habit has
+once been acquired by an infant, it expresses in the clearest manner
+suffering of all kinds, both bodily pain and mental distress, even
+though accompanied by other emotions, such as fear or rage. The
+character of the crying, however, changes at a very early age, as I
+noticed in my own infants,--the passionate cry differing from that of
+grief. A lady informs me that her child, nine months old, when in a
+passion screams loudly, but does not weep; tears, however, are shed when
+she is punished by her chair being turned with its back to the table.
+This difference may perhaps be attributed to weeping being restrained,
+as we shall immediately see, at a more advanced age, under most
+circumstances excepting grief; and to the influence of such restraint
+being transmitted to an earlier period of life, than that at which it
+was first practised.
+
+With adults, especially of the male sex, weeping soon ceases to be
+caused by, or to express, bodily pain. This may be accounted for by its
+being thought weak and unmanly by men, both of civilized and barbarous
+races, to exhibit bodily pain by any outward sign. With this exception,
+savages weep copiously from very slight causes, of which fact Sir J.
+Lubbock[608] has collected instances. A New Zealand chief "cried like
+a child because the sailors spoilt his favourite cloak by powdering it
+with flour." I saw in Tierra del Fuego a native who had lately lost a
+brother, and who alternately cried with hysterical violence, and laughed
+heartily at anything which amused him. With the civilized nations
+of Europe there is also much difference in the frequency of weeping.
+Englishmen rarely cry, except under the pressure of the acutest grief;
+whereas in some parts of the Continent the men shed tears much more
+readily and freely.
+
+The insane notoriously give way to all their emotions with little or no
+restraint; and I am informed by Dr. J. Crichton Browne, that nothing is
+more characteristic of simple melancholia, even in the male sex, than a
+tendency to weep on the slightest occasions, or from no cause. They also
+weep disproportionately on the occurrence of any real cause of grief.
+The length of time during which some patients weep is astonishing, as
+well as the amount of tears which they shed. One melancholic girl wept
+for a whole day, and afterwards confessed to Dr. Browne, that it was
+because she remembered that she had once shaved off her eyebrows to
+promote their growth. Many patients in the asylum sit for a long time
+rocking themselves backwards and forwards; "and if spoken to, they stop
+their movements, purse up their eyes, depress the corners of the mouth,
+and burst out crying." In some of these cases, the being spoken to or
+kindly greeted appears to suggest some fanciful and sorrowful notion;
+but in other cases an effort of any kind excites weeping, independently
+of any sorrowful idea. Patients suffering from acute mania likewise
+have paroxysms of violent crying or blubbering, in the midst of their
+incoherent ravings. We must not, however, lay too much stress on the
+copious shedding of tears by the insane, as being due to the lack of all
+restraint; for certain brain-diseases, as hemiplegia, brain-wasting,
+and senile decay, have a special tendency to induce weeping. Weeping is
+common in the insane, even after a complete state of fatuity has been
+reached and the power of speech lost. Persons born idiotic likewise
+weep;[609] but it is said that this is not the case with cretins.
+
+Weeping seems to be the primary and natural expression, as we see in
+children, of suffering of any kind, whether bodily pain short of extreme
+agony, or mental distress. But the foregoing facts and common experience
+show us that a frequently repeated effort to restrain weeping, in
+association with certain states of the mind, does much in checking the
+habit. On the other hand, it appears that the power of weeping can be
+increased through habit; thus the Rev. R. Taylor,[610] who long resided
+in New Zealand, asserts that the women can voluntarily shed tears in
+abundance; they meet for this purpose to mourn for the dead, and they
+take pride in crying "in the most affecting manner."
+
+A single effort of repression brought to bear on the lacrymal glands
+does little, and indeed seems often to lead to an opposite result. An
+old and experienced physician told me that he had always found that
+the only means to check the occasional bitter weeping of ladies who
+consulted him, and who themselves wished to desist, was earnestly to beg
+them not to try, and to assure them that nothing would relieve them so
+much as prolonged and copious crying.
+
+The screaming of infants consists of prolonged expirations, with short
+and rapid, almost spasmodic inspirations, followed at a somewhat more
+advanced age by sobbing. According to Gratiolet,[611] the glottis is
+chiefly affected during the act of sobbing. This sound is heard "at the
+moment when the inspiration conquers the resistance of the glottis,
+and the air rushes into the chest." But the whole act of respiration
+is likewise spasmodic and violent. The shoulders are at the same time
+generally raised, as by this movement respiration is rendered easier.
+With one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old, the inspirations
+were so rapid and strong that they approached in character to sobbing;
+when 138 days old I first noticed distinct sobbing, which subsequently
+followed every bad crying-fit. The respiratory movements are partly
+voluntary and partly involuntary, and I apprehend that sobbing is at
+least in part due to children having some power to command after early
+infancy their vocal organs and to stop their screams, but from having
+less power over their respiratory muscles, these continue for a time
+to act in an involuntary or spasmodic manner, after having been brought
+into violent action. Sobbing seems to be peculiar to the human species;
+for the keepers in the Zoological Gardens assure me that they have never
+heard a sob from any kind of monkey; though monkeys often scream loudly
+whilst being chased and caught, and then pant for a long time. We thus
+see that there is a close analogy between sobbing and the free shedding
+of tears; for with children, sobbing does not commence during early
+infancy, but afterwards comes on rather suddenly and then follows every
+bad crying-fit, until the habit is checked with advancing years.
+
+_On the cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during
+screaming_.--We have seen that infants and young children, whilst
+screaming, invariably close their eyes firmly, by the contraction of the
+surrounding muscles, so that the skin becomes wrinkled all around. With
+older children, and even with adults, whenever there is violent and
+unrestrained crying, a tendency to the contraction of these same muscles
+may be observed; though this is often checked in order not to interfere
+with vision.
+
+Sir C. Bell explains[612] this action in the following manner:--"During
+every violent act of expiration, whether in hearty laughter, weeping,
+coughing, or sneezing, the eyeball is firmly compressed by the fibres
+of the orbicularis; and this is a provision for supporting and defending
+the vascular system of the interior of the eye from a retrograde impulse
+communicated to the blood in the veins at that time. When we contract
+the chest and expel the air, there is a retardation of the blood in the
+veins of the neck and head; and in the more powerful acts of expulsion,
+the blood not only distends the vessels, but is even regurgitated into
+the minute branches. Were the eye not properly compressed at that
+time, and a resistance given to the shock, irreparable injury might
+be inflicted on the delicate textures of the interior of the eye." He
+further adds, "If we separate the eyelids of a child to examine the eye,
+while it cries and struggles with passion, by taking off the natural
+support to the vascular system of the eye, and means of guarding it
+against the rush of blood then occurring, the conjunctiva becomes
+suddenly filled with blood, and the eyelids everted."
+
+Not only are the muscles round the eyes strongly contracted, as Sir
+C. Bell states and as I have often observed, during screaming, loud
+laughter, coughing, and sneezing, but during several other analogous
+actions. A man contracts these muscles when he violently blows his nose.
+I asked one of my boys to shout as loudly as he possibly could, and as
+soon as he began, he firmly contracted his orbicular muscles; I observed
+this repeatedly, and on asking him why he had every time so firmly
+closed his eyes, I found that he was quite unaware of the fact: he had
+acted instinctively or unconsciously.
+
+It is not necessary, in order to lead to the contraction of these
+muscles, that air should actually be expelled from the chest; it
+suffices that the muscles of the chest and abdomen should contract with
+great force, whilst by the closure of the glottis no air escapes. In
+violent vomiting or retching the diaphragm is made to descend by the
+chest being filled with air; it is then held in this position by the
+closure of the glottis, "as well as by the contraction of its own
+fibres."[613] The abdominal muscles now contract strongly upon the
+stomach, its proper muscles likewise contracting, and the contents are
+thus ejected. During each effort of vomiting "the head becomes greatly
+congested, so that the features are red and swollen, and the large veins
+of the face and temples visibly dilated." At the same time, as I know
+from observation, the muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted.
+This is likewise the case when the abdominal muscles act downwards with
+unusual force in expelling the contents of the intestinal canal.
+
+The greatest exertion of the muscles of the body, if those of the chest
+are not brought into strong action in expelling or compressing the air
+within the lungs, does not lead to the contraction of the muscles
+round the eyes. I have observed my sons using great force in gymnastic
+exercises, as in repeatedly raising their suspended bodies by their
+arms alone, and in lifting heavy weights from the ground, but there was
+hardly any trace of contraction in the muscles round the eyes.
+
+As the contraction of these muscles for the protection of the eyes
+during violent expiration is indirectly, as we shall hereafter see, a
+fundamental element in several of our most important expressions, I
+was extremely anxious to ascertain how far Sir C. Bell's view could be
+substantiated. Professor Donders, of Utrecht,[614] well known as one of
+the highest authorities in Europe on vision and on the structure of the
+eye, has most kindly undertaken for me this investigation with the aid
+of the many ingenious mechanisms of modern science, and has published
+the results.[615] He shows that during violent expiration the external,
+the intra-ocular, and the retro-ocular vessels of the eye are all
+affected in two ways, namely by the increased pressure of the blood in
+the arteries, and by the return of the blood in the veins being impeded.
+It is, therefore, certain that both the arteries and the veins of the
+eye are more or less distended during violent expiration. The evidence
+in detail may be found in Professor Donders' valuable memoir. We see the
+effects on the veins of the head, in their prominence, and in the purple
+colour of the face of a man who coughs violently from being half choked.
+I may mention, on the same authority, that the whole eye certainly
+advances a little during each violent expiration. This is due to the
+dilatation of the retro-ocular vessels, and might have been expected
+from the intimate connection of the eye and brain; the brain being known
+to rise and fall with each respiration, when a portion of the skull has
+been removed; and as may be seen along the unclosed sutures of infants'
+heads. This also, I presume, is the reason that the eyes of a strangled
+man appear as if they were starting from their sockets.
+
+With respect to the protection of the eye during violent expiratory
+efforts by the pressure of the eyelids, Professor Donders concludes from
+his various observations that this action certainly limits or entirely
+removes the dilatation of the vessels.[616] At such times, he adds, we
+not unfrequently see the hand involuntarily laid upon the eyelids, as if
+the better to support and defend the eyeball.
+
+Nevertheless much evidence cannot at present be advanced to prove that
+the eye actually suffers injury from the want of support during violent
+expiration; but there is some. It is "a fact that forcible expiratory
+efforts in violent coughing or vomiting, and especially in sneezing,
+sometimes give rise to ruptures of the little (external) vessels" of the
+eye.[617] With respect to the internal vessels, Dr. Gunning has lately
+recorded a case of exophthalmos in consequence of whooping-cough,
+which in his opinion depended on the rupture of the deeper vessels; and
+another analogous case has been recorded. But a mere sense of discomfort
+would probably suffice to lead to the associated habit of protecting
+the eyeball by the contraction of the surrounding muscles. Even the
+expectation or chance of injury would probably be sufficient, in the
+same manner as an object moving too near the eye induces involuntary
+winking of the eyelids. We may, therefore, safely conclude from Sir
+C. Bell's observations, and more especially from the more careful
+investigations by Professor Donders, that the firm closure of the
+eyelids during the screaming of children is an action full of meaning
+and of real service.
+
+We have already seen that the contraction of the orbicular muscles leads
+to the drawing up of the upper lip, and consequently, if the mouth is
+kept widely open, to the drawing down of the corners by the contraction
+of the depressor muscles. The formation of the naso-labial fold on the
+cheeks likewise follows from the drawing up of the upper lip. Thus all
+the chief expressive movements of the face during crying apparently
+result from the contraction of the muscles round the eyes. We shall also
+find that the shedding of tears depends on, or at least stands in some
+connection with, the contraction of these same muscles.
+
+In some of the foregoing cases, especially in those of sneezing and
+coughing, it is possible that the contraction of the orbicular muscles
+may serve in addition to protect the eyes from too severe a jar or
+vibration. I think so, because dogs and cats, in crunching hard bones,
+always close their eyelids, and at least sometimes in sneezing; though
+dogs do not do so whilst barking loudly. Mr. Sutton carefully observed
+for me a young orang and chimpanzee, and he found that both always
+closed their eyes in sneezing and coughing, but not whilst screaming
+violently. I gave a small pinch of snuff to a monkey of the American
+division, namely, a Cebus, and it closed its eyelids whilst sneezing;
+but not on a subsequent occasion whilst uttering loud cries.
+
+_Cause of the secretion of tears_.--It is an important fact which must
+be considered in any theory of the secretion of tears from the mind
+being affected, that whenever the muscles round the eyes are strongly
+and involuntarily contracted in order to compress the blood-vessels
+and thus to protect the eyes, tears are secreted, often in sufficient
+abundance to roll down the cheeks. This occurs under the most opposite
+emotions, and under no emotion at all. The sole exception, and this
+is only a partial one, to the existence of a relation between the
+involuntary and strong contraction of these muscles and the secretion
+of tears is that of young infants, who, whilst screaming violently
+with their eyelids firmly closed, do not commonly weep until they
+have attained the age of from two to three or four months. Their eyes,
+however, become suffused with tears at a much earlier age. It would
+appear, as already remarked, that the lacrymal glands do not, from the
+want of practice or some other cause, come to full functional activity
+at a very early period of life. With children at a somewhat later age,
+crying out or wailing from any distress is so regularly accompanied
+by the shedding of tears, that weeping and crying are synonymous
+terms.[618]
+
+Under the opposite emotion of great joy or amusement, as long as
+laughter is moderate there is hardly any contraction of the muscles
+round the eyes, so that there is no frowning; but when peals of loud
+laughter are uttered, with rapid and violent spasmodic expirations,
+tears stream down the face. I have more than once noticed the face of a
+person, after a paroxysm of violent laughter, and I could see that
+the orbicular muscles and those running to the upper lip were still
+partially contracted, which together with the tear-stained cheeks gave
+to the upper half of the face an expression not to be distinguished from
+that of a child still blubbering from grief. The fact of tears streaming
+down the face during violent laughter is common to all the races of
+mankind, as we shall see in a future chapter.
+
+In violent coughing especially when a person is half-choked, the face
+becomes purple, the veins distended, the orbicular muscles strongly
+contracted, and tears run down the cheeks. Even after a fit of ordinary
+coughing, almost every one has to wipe his eyes. In violent vomiting or
+retching, as I have myself experienced and seen in others, the orbicular
+muscles are strongly contracted, and tears sometimes flow freely
+down the cheeks. It has been suggested to me that this may be due to
+irritating matter being injected into the nostrils, and causing by
+reflex action the secretion of tears. Accordingly I asked one of my
+informants, a surgeon, to attend to the effects of retching when nothing
+was thrown up from the stomach; and, by an odd coincidence, he himself
+suffered the next morning from an attack of retching, and three days
+subsequently observed a lady under a similar attack; and he is certain
+that in neither case an atom of matter was ejected from the stomach;
+yet the orbicular muscles were strongly contracted, and tears freely
+secreted. I can also speak positively to the energetic contraction of
+these same muscles round the eyes, and to the coincident free secretion
+of tears, when the abdominal muscles act with unusual force in a
+downward direction on the intestinal canal.
+
+Yawning commences with a deep inspiration, followed by a long and
+forcible expiration; and at the same time almost all the muscles of the
+body are strongly contracted, including those round the eyes. During
+this act tears are often secreted, and I have seen them even rolling
+down the cheeks.
+
+I have frequently observed that when persons scratch some point which
+itches intolerably, they forcibly close their eyelids; but they do not,
+as I believe, first draw a deep breath and then expel it with force; and
+I have never noticed that the eyes then become filled with tears; but I
+am not prepared to assert that this does not occur. The forcible closure
+of the eyelids is, perhaps, merely a part of that general action by
+which almost all the muscles of the body are at the same time rendered
+rigid. It is quite different from the gentle closure of the eyes which
+often accompanies, as Gratiolet remarks,[619] the smelling a delicious
+odour, or the tasting a delicious morsel, and which probably originates
+in the desire to shut out any disturbing impression through the eyes.
+
+Professor Donders writes to me to the following effect: "I have
+observed some cases of a very curious affection when, after a slight rub
+(_attouchement_), for example, from the friction of a coat, which
+caused neither a wound nor a contusion, spasms of the orbicular muscles
+occurred, with a very profuse flow of tears, lasting about one hour.
+Subsequently, sometimes after an interval of several weeks, violent
+spasms of the same muscles re-occurred, accompanied by the secretion
+of tears, together with primary or secondary redness of the eye." Mr.
+Bowman informs me that he has occasionally observed closely analogous
+cases, and that, in some of these, there was no redness or inflammation
+of the eyes.
+
+I was anxious to ascertain whether there existed in any of the lower
+animals a similar relation between the contraction of the orbicular
+muscles during violent expiration and the secretion of tears; but there
+are very few animals which contract these muscles in a prolonged manner,
+or which shed tears. _The Macacus maurus_, which formerly wept so
+copiously in the Zoological Gardens, would have been a fine case for
+observation; but the two monkeys now there, and which are believed
+to belong to the same species, do not weep. Nevertheless they were
+carefully observed by Mr. Bartlett and myself, whilst screaming loudly,
+and they seemed to contract these muscles; but they moved about their
+cages so rapidly, that it was difficult to observe with certainty. No
+other monkey, as far as I have been able to ascertain, contracts its
+orbicular muscles whilst screaming.
+
+The Indian elephant is known sometimes to weep. Sir E. Tennent, in
+describing these which he saw captured and bound in Ceylon, says, some
+"lay motionless on the ground, with no other indication of suffering
+than the tears which suffused their eyes and flowed incessantly."
+Speaking of another elephant he says, "When overpowered and made fast,
+his grief was most affecting; his violence sank to utter prostration,
+and he lay on the ground, uttering choking cries, with tears trickling
+down his cheeks."[620] In the Zoological Gardens the keeper of the
+Indian elephants positively asserts that he has several times seen tears
+rolling down the face of the old female, when distressed by the removal
+of the young one. Hence I was extremely anxious to ascertain, as an
+extension of the relation between the contraction of the orbicular
+muscles and the shedding of tears in man, whether elephants when
+screaming or trumpeting loudly contract these muscles. At Mr. Bartlett's
+desire the keeper ordered the old and the young elephant to trumpet; and
+we repeatedly saw in both animals that, just as the trumpeting began,
+the orbicular muscles, especially the lower ones, were distinctly
+contracted. On a subsequent occasion the keeper made the old elephant
+trumpet much more loudly, and invariably both the upper and lower
+orbicular muscles were strongly contracted, and now in an equal degree.
+It is a singular fact that the African elephant, which, however, is so
+different from the Indian species that it is placed by some naturalists
+in a distinct sub-genus, when made on two occasions to trumpet loudly,
+exhibited no trace of the contraction of the orbicular muscles.
+
+From the several foregoing cases with respect to Man, there can, I
+think, be no doubt that the contraction of the muscles round the
+eyes, during violent expiration or when the expanded chest is forcibly
+compressed, is, in some manner, intimately connected with the secretion
+of tears. This holds good under widely different emotions, and
+independently of any emotion. It is not, of course, meant that tears
+cannot be secreted without the contraction of these muscles; for it is
+notorious that they are often freely shed with the eyelids not closed,
+and with the brows unwrinkled. The contraction must be both involuntary
+and prolonged, as during a choking fit, or energetic, as during a
+sneeze. The mere involuntary winking of the eyelids, though often
+repeated, does not bring tears into the eyes. Nor does the voluntary and
+prolonged contraction of the several surrounding muscles suffice. As the
+lacrymal glands of children are easily excited, I persuaded my own
+and several other children of different ages to contract these muscles
+repeatedly with their utmost force, and to continue doing so as long
+as they possibly could; but this produced hardly any effect. There was
+sometimes a little moisture in the eyes, but not more than apparently
+could be accounted for by the squeezing out of the already secreted
+tears within the glands.
+
+The nature of the relation between the involuntary and energetic
+contraction of the muscles round the eyes, and the secretion of tears,
+cannot be positively ascertained, but a probable view may be suggested.
+The primary function of the secretion of tears, together with some
+mucus, is to lubricate the surface of the eye; and a secondary one, as
+some believe, is to keep the nostrils damp, so that the inhaled air
+may be moist,[621] and likewise to favour the power of smelling. But
+another, and at least equally important function of tears, is to wash
+out particles of dust or other minute objects which may get into the
+eyes. That this is of great importance is clear from the cases in which
+the cornea has been rendered opaque through inflammation, caused by
+particles of dust not being removed, in consequence of the eye and
+eyelid becoming immovable.[622] The secretion of tears from the
+irritation of any foreign body in the eye is a reflex action;--that
+is, the body irritates a peripheral nerve which sends an impression to
+certain sensory nerve-cells; these transmit an influence to other cells,
+and these again to the lacrymal glands. The influence transmitted to
+these glands causes, as there is good reason to believe, the relaxation
+of the muscular coats of the smaller arteries; this allows more blood
+to permeate the glandular tissue, and this induces a free secretion
+of tears. When the small arteries of the face, including those of the
+retina, are relaxed under very different circumstances, namely, during
+an intense blush, the lacrymal glands are sometimes affected in a like
+manner, for the eyes become suffused with tears.
+
+It is difficult to conjecture how many reflex actions have originated,
+but, in relation to the present case of the affection of the lacrymal
+glands through irritation of the surface of the eye, it may be worth
+remarking that, as soon as some primordial form became semi-terrestrial
+in its habits, and was liable to get particles of dust into its eyes, if
+these were not washed out they would cause much irritation; and on the
+principle of the radiation of nerve-force to adjoining nerve-cells, the
+lacrymal glands would be stimulated to secretion. As this would often
+recur, and as nerve-force readily passes along accustomed channels, a
+slight irritation would ultimately suffice to cause a free secretion of
+tears.
+
+As soon as by this, or by some other means, a reflex action of this
+nature had been established and rendered easy, other stimulants applied
+to the surface of the eye--such as a cold wind, slow inflammatory
+action, or a blow on the eyelids--would cause a copious secretion of
+tears, as we know to be the case. The glands are also excited into
+action through the irritation of adjoining parts. Thus when the nostrils
+are irritated by pungent vapours, though the eyelids may be kept firmly
+closed, tears are copiously secreted; and this likewise follows from a
+blow on the nose, for instance from a boxing-glove. A stinging switch
+on the face produces, as I have seen, the same effect. In these latter
+cases the secretion of tears is an incidental result, and of no direct
+service. As all these parts of the face, including the lacrymal glands,
+are supplied with branches of the same nerve, namely, the fifth, it is
+in some degree intelligible that the effects of the excitement of
+any one branch should spread to the nerve-cells or roots of the other
+branches.
+
+The internal parts of the eye likewise act, under certain conditions,
+in a reflex manner on the lacrymal glands. The following statements have
+been kindly communicated to me by Mr. Bowman; but the subject is a very
+intricate one, as all the parts of the eye are so intimately related
+together, and are so sensitive to various stimulants. A strong light
+acting on the retina, when in a normal condition, has very little
+tendency to cause lacrymation; but with unhealthy children having
+small, old-standing ulcers on the cornea, the retina becomes excessively
+sensitive to light, and exposure even to common daylight causes forcible
+and sustained closure of the lids, and a profuse flow of tears. When
+persons who ought to begin the use of convex glasses habitually strain
+the waning power of accommodation, an undue secretion of tears very
+often follows, and the retina is liable to become unduly sensitive to
+light. In general, morbid affections of the surface of the eye, and of
+the ciliary structures concerned in the accommodative act, are prone
+to be accompanied with excessive secretion of tears. Hardness of the
+eyeball, not rising to inflammation, but implying a want of balance
+between the fluids poured out and again taken up by the intra-ocular
+vessels, is not usually attended with any lacrymation. When the balance
+is on the other side, and the eye becomes too soft, there is a greater
+tendency to lacrymation. Finally, there are numerous morbid states and
+structural alterations of the eyes, and even terrible inflammations,
+which may be attended with little or no secretion of tears.
+
+It also deserves notice, as indirectly bearing on our subject, that the
+eye and adjoining parts are subject to an extraordinary number of
+reflex and associated movements, sensations, and actions, besides those
+relating to the lacrymal glands. When a bright light strikes the retina
+of one eye alone, the iris contracts, but the iris of the other eye
+moves after a measurable interval of time. The iris likewise moves in
+accommodation to near or distant vision, and when the two eyes are made
+to converge.[623] Every one knows how irresistibly the eyebrows
+are drawn down under an intensely bright light. The eyelids also
+involuntarily wink when an object is moved near the eyes, or a sound
+is suddenly heard. The well-known case of a bright light causing some
+persons to sneeze is even more curious; for nerve-force here radiates
+from certain nerve-cells in connection with the retina, to the sensory
+nerve-cells of the nose, causing it to tickle; and from these, to the
+cells which command the various respiratory muscles (the orbiculars
+included) which expel the air in so peculiar a manner that it rushes
+through the nostrils alone.
+
+To return to our point: why are tears secreted during a screaming-fit or
+other violent expiratory efforts? As a slight blow on the eyelids causes
+a copious secretion of tears, it is at least possible that the spasmodic
+contraction of the eyelids, by pressing strongly on the eyeball, should
+in a similar manner cause some secretion. This seems possible, although
+the voluntary contraction of the same muscles does not produce any
+such effect. We know that a man cannot voluntarily sneeze or cough with
+nearly the same force as he does automatically; and so it is with the
+contraction of the orbicular muscles: Sir C. Bell experimented on them,
+and found that by suddenly and forcibly closing the eyelids in the dark,
+sparks of light are seen, like those caused by tapping the eyelids with
+the fingers; "but in sneezing the compression is both more rapid and
+more forcible, and the sparks are more brilliant." That these sparks
+are due to the contraction of the eyelids is clear, because if they
+"are held open during the act of sneezing, no sensation of light will be
+experienced." In the peculiar cases referred to by Professor Donders
+and Mr. Bowman, we have seen that some weeks after the eye has been very
+slightly injured, spasmodic contractions of the eyelids ensue, and these
+are accompanied by a profuse flow of tears. In the act of yawning, the
+tears are apparently due solely to the spasmodic contraction of the
+muscles round the eyes. Notwithstanding these latter cases, it seems
+hardly credible that the pressure of the eyelids on the surface of the
+eye, although effected spasmodically and therefore with much greater
+force than can be done voluntarily, should be sufficient to cause by
+reflex action the secretion of tears in the many cases in which this
+occurs during violent expiratory efforts.
+
+Another cause may come conjointly into play. We have seen that the
+internal parts of the eye, under certain conditions act in a reflex
+manner on the lacrymal glands. We know that during violent expiratory
+efforts the pressure of the arterial blood within the vessels of the
+eye is increased, and that the return of the venous blood is impeded.
+It seems, therefore, not improbable that the distension of the
+ocular vessels, thus induced, might act by reflection on the lacrymal
+glands--the effects due to the spasmodic pressure of the eyelids on the
+surface of the eye being thus increased.
+
+In considering how far this view is probable, we should bear in mind
+that the eyes of infants have been acted on in this double manner
+during numberless generations, whenever they have screamed; and on the
+principle of nerve-force readily passing along accustomed channels, even
+a moderate compression of the eyeballs and a moderate distension of
+the ocular vessels would ultimately come, through habit, to act on the
+glands. We have an analogous case in the orbicular muscles being
+almost always contracted in some slight degree, even during a gentle
+crying-fit, when there can be no distension of the vessels and no
+uncomfortable sensation excited within the eyes.
+
+Moreover, when complex actions or movements have long been performed
+in strict association together, and these are from any cause at first
+voluntarily and afterwards habitually checked, then if the proper
+exciting conditions occur, any part of the action or movement which is
+least under the control of the will, will often still be involuntarily
+performed. The secretion by a gland is remarkably free from the
+influence of the will; therefore, when with the advancing age of the
+individual, or with the advancing culture of the race, the habit of
+crying out or screaming is restrained, and there is consequently no
+distension of the blood-vessels of the eye, it may nevertheless well
+happen that tears should still be secreted. We may see, as lately
+remarked, the muscles round the eyes of a person who reads a pathetic
+story, twitching or trembling in so slight a degree as hardly to be
+detected. In this case there has been no screaming and no distension of
+the blood-vessels, yet through habit certain nerve-cells send a small
+amount of nerve-force to the cells commanding the muscles round the
+eyes; and they likewise send some to the cells commanding the lacrymal
+glands, for the eyes often become at the same time just moistened with
+tears. If the twitching of the muscles round the eyes and the secretion
+of tears had been completely prevented, nevertheless it is almost
+certain that there would have been some tendency to transmit nerve-force
+in these same directions; and as the lacrymal glands are remarkably free
+from the control of the will, they would be eminently liable still
+to act, thus betraying, though there were no other outward signs, the
+pathetic thoughts which were passing through the person's mind.
+
+As a further illustration of the view here advanced, I may remark that
+if, during an early period of life, when habits of all kinds are readily
+established, our infants, when pleased, had been accustomed to utter
+loud peals of laughter (during which the vessels of their eyes are
+distended) as often and as continuously as they have yielded when
+distressed to screaming-fits, then it is probable that in after life
+tears would have been as copiously and as regularly secreted under the
+one state of mind as under the other. Gentle laughter, or a smile,
+or even a pleasing thought, would have sufficed to cause a moderate
+secretion of tears. There does indeed exist an evident tendency in this
+direction, as will be seen in a future chapter, when we treat of
+the tender feelings. With the Sandwich Islanders, according to
+Freycinet,[624] tears are actually recognized as a sign of happiness;
+but we should require better evidence on this head than that of a
+passing voyager. So again if our infants, during many generations,
+and each of them during several years, had almost daily suffered
+from prolonged choking-fits, during which the vessels of the eye are
+distended and tears copiously secreted, then it is probable, such is the
+force of associated habit, that during after life the mere thought of a
+choke, without any distress of mind, would have sufficed to bring tears
+into our eyes.
+
+To sum up this chapter, weeping is probably the result of some such
+chain of events as follows. Children, when wanting food or suffering in
+any way, cry out loudly, like the young of most other animals, partly
+as a call to their parents for aid, and partly from any great exertion
+serving relief. Prolonged screaming inevitably leads to the gorging
+of the blood-vessels of the eye; and this will have led, at first
+consciously and at last habitually, to the contraction of the muscles
+round the eyes in order to protect them. At the same time the spasmodic
+pressure on the surface of the eye, and the distension of the vessels
+within the eye, without necessarily entailing any conscious sensation,
+will have affected, through reflex action, the lacrymal glands. Finally,
+through the three principles of nerve-force readily passing along
+accustomed channels--of association, which is so widely extended in its
+power--and of certain actions, being more under the control of the
+will than others--it has come to pass that suffering readily causes the
+secretion of tears, without being necessarily accompanied by any other
+action.
+
+Although in accordance with this view we must look at weeping as an
+incidental result, as purposeless as the secretion of tears from a blow
+outside the eye, or as a sneeze from the retina being affected by
+a bright light, yet this does not present any difficulty in our
+understanding how the secretion of tears serves as a relief to
+suffering. And by as much as the weeping is more violent or hysterical,
+by so much will the relief be greater,--on the same principle that the
+writhing of the whole body, the grinding of the teeth, and the uttering
+of piercing shrieks, all give relief under an agony of pain.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. -- LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.
+
+General effect of grief on the system--Obliquity of the eyebrows
+under suffering--On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows--On the
+depression of the corners of the mouth.
+
+
+AFTER the mind has suffered from an acute paroxysm of grief, and the
+cause still continues, we fall into a state of low spirits; or we may be
+utterly cast down and dejected. Prolonged bodily pain, if not amounting
+to an agony, generally leads to the same state of mind. If we expect to
+suffer, we are anxious; if we have no hope of relief, we despair.
+
+Persons suffering from excessive grief often seek relief by violent and
+almost frantic movements, as described in a former chapter; but when
+their suffering is somewhat mitigated, yet prolonged, they no longer
+wish for action, but remain motionless and passive, or may occasionally
+rock themselves to and fro. The circulation becomes languid; the face
+pale; the muscles flaccid; the eyelids droop; the head hangs on the
+contracted chest; the lips, cheeks, and lower jaw all sink downwards
+from their own weight. Hence all the features are lengthened; and the
+face of a person who hears bad news is said to fall. A party of natives
+in Tierra del Fuego endeavoured to explain to us that their friend, the
+captain of a sealing vessel, was out of spirits, by pulling down their
+cheeks with both hands, so as to make their faces as long as possible.
+Mr. Bunnet informs me that the Australian aborigines when out of spirits
+have a chop-fallen appearance. After prolonged suffering the eyes become
+dull and lack expression, and are often slightly suffused with tears.
+The eyebrows not rarely are rendered oblique, which is due to their
+inner ends being raised. This produces peculiarly-formed wrinkles on the
+forehead, which are very different from those of a simple frown; though
+in some cases a frown alone may be present. The comers of the mouth are
+drawn downwards, which is so universally recognized as a sign of being
+out of spirits, that it is almost proverbial.
+
+The breathing becomes slow and feeble, and is often interrupted by deep
+sighs. As Gratiolet remarks, whenever our attention is long concentrated
+on any subject, we forget to breathe, and then relieve ourselves by a
+deep inspiration; but the sighs of a sorrowful person, owing to his slow
+respiration and languid circulation, are eminently characteristic.[701]
+As the grief of a person in this state occasionally recurs and increases
+into a paroxysm, spasms affect the respiratory muscles, and he feels
+as if something, the so-called _globus hystericus_, was rising in his
+throat. These spasmodic movements are clearly allied to the sobbing of
+children, and are remnants of those severer spasms which occur when a
+person is said to choke from excessive grief.[702]
+
+
+_Obliquity of the eyebrows_.--Two points alone in the above description
+require further elucidation, and these are very curious ones; namely,
+the raising of the inner ends of the eyebrows, and the drawing down
+of the corners of the mouth. With respect to the eyebrows, they may
+occasionally be seen to assume an oblique position in persons suffering
+from deep dejection or anxiety; for instance, I have observed this
+movement in a mother whilst speaking about her sick son; and it is
+sometimes excited by quite trifling or momentary causes of real or
+pretended distress. The eyebrows assume this position owing to the
+contraction of certain muscles (namely, the orbiculars, corrugators, and
+pyramidals of the nose, which together tend to lower and contract the
+eyebrows) being partially cheeked by the more powerful action of the
+central fasci� of the frontal muscle. These latter fasci� by their
+contraction raise the inner ends alone of the eyebrows; and as the
+corrugators at the same time draw the eyebrows together, their inner
+ends become puckered into a fold or lump. This fold is a highly
+characteristic point in the appearance of the eyebrows when rendered
+oblique, as may be seen in figs. 2 and 5, Plate II. The eyebrows are
+at the same time somewhat roughened, owing to the hairs being made to
+project. Dr. J. Crichton Browne has also often noticed in melancholic
+patients who keep their eyebrows persistently oblique, "a peculiar
+acute arching of the upper eyelid." A trace of this may be observed by
+comparing the right and left eyelids of the young man in the photograph
+(fig. 2, Plate II.); for he was not able to act equally on both
+eyebrows. This is also shown by the unequal furrows on the two sides of
+his forehead. The acute arching of the eyelids depends, I believe, on
+the inner end alone of the eyebrows being raised; for when the whole
+eyebrow is elevated and arched, the upper eyelid follows in a slight
+degree the same movement.
+
+[Illustration:  Obliquity of the eyebrows. Plate II]
+
+But the most conspicuous result of the opposed contraction of the
+above-named muscles, is exhibited by the peculiar furrows formed on the
+forehead. These muscles, when thus in conjoint yet opposed action, may
+be called, for the sake of brevity, the grief-muscles. When a person
+elevates his eyebrows by the contraction of the whole frontal muscle,
+transverse wrinkles extend across the whole breadth of the forehead;
+but in the present case the middle fasciae alone are contracted;
+consequently, transverse furrows are formed across the middle part alone
+of the forehead. The skin over the exterior parts of both eyebrows is
+at the same time drawn downwards and smooth, by the contraction of
+the outer portions of the orbicular muscles. The eyebrows are
+likewise brought together through the simultaneous contraction of the
+corrugators;[703] and this latter action generates vertical furrows,
+separating the exterior and lowered part of the skin of the forehead
+from the central and raised part. The union of these vertical furrows
+with the central and transverse furrows (see figs. 2 and 3) produces a
+mark on the forehead which has been compared to a horse-shoe; but the
+furrows more strictly form three sides of a quadrangle. They are often
+conspicuous on the foreheads of adult or nearly adult persons, when
+their eyebrows are made oblique; but with young children, owing to their
+skin not easily wrinkling, they are rarely seen, or mere traces of them
+can be detected.
+
+These peculiar furrows are best represented in fig. 3, Plate II., on
+the forehead of a young lady who has the power in an unusual degree of
+voluntarily acting on the requisite muscles. As she was absorbed in the
+attempt, whilst being photographed, her expression was not at all one
+of grief; I have therefore given the forehead alone. Fig. 1 on the same
+plate, copied from Dr. Du-chenne's work,[704] represents, on a reduced
+scale, the face, in its natural state, of a young man who was a good
+actor. In fig. 2 he is shown simulating grief, but the two eyebrows, as
+before remarked, are not equally acted on. That the expression is true,
+may be inferred from the fact that out of fifteen persons, to whom the
+original photograph was shown, without any clue to what was intended
+being given them, fourteen immediately answered, "despairing sorrow,"
+"suffering endurance," "melancholy," and so forth. The history of fig. 5
+is rather curious: I saw the photograph in a shop-window, and took it
+to Mr. Rejlander for the sake of finding out by whom it had been made;
+remarking to him how pathetic the expression was. He answered, "I made
+it, and it was likely to be pathetic, for the boy in a few minutes burst
+out crying." He then showed me a photograph of the same boy in a placid
+state, which I have had (fig. 4) reproduced. In fig. 6, a trace of
+obliquity in the eyebrows may be detected; but this figure, as well as
+fig. 7, is given to show the depression of the corners of the mouth, to
+which subject I shall presently refer.
+
+Few persons, without some practice, can voluntarily act on their
+grief-muscles; but after repeated trials a considerable number succeed,
+whilst others never can. The degree of obliquity in the eyebrows,
+whether assumed voluntarily or unconsciously, differs much in different
+persons. With some who apparently have unusually strong pyramidal
+muscles, the contraction of the central fasciae of the frontal muscle,
+although it may be energetic, as shown by the quadrangular furrows on
+the forehead, does not raise the inner ends of the eyebrows, but only
+prevents their being so much lowered as they otherwise would have been.
+As far as I have been able to observe, the grief-muscles are brought
+into action much more frequently by children and women than by men. They
+are rarely acted on, at least with grown-up persons, from bodily pain,
+but almost exclusively from mental distress. Two persons who, after some
+practice, succeeded in acting on their grief-muscles, found by
+looking at a mirror that when they made their eyebrows oblique, they
+unintentionally at the same time depressed the corners of their mouths;
+and this is often the case when the expression is naturally assumed.
+
+The power to bring the grief-muscles freely into play appears to be
+hereditary, like almost every other human faculty. A lady belonging to
+a family famous for having produced an extraordinary number of great
+actors and actresses, and who can herself give this expression "with
+singular precision," told Dr. Crichton Browne that all her family had
+possessed the power in a remarkable degree. The same hereditary tendency
+is said to have extended, as I likewise hear from Dr. Browne, to the
+last descendant of the family, which gave rise to Sir Walter Scott's
+novel of 'Red Gauntlet;' but the hero is described as contracting his
+forehead into a horseshoe mark from any strong emotion. I have also seen
+a young woman whose forehead seemed almost habitually thus contracted,
+independently of any emotion being at the time felt.
+
+The grief-muscles are not very frequently brought into play; and as the
+action is often momentary, it easily escapes observation. Although the
+expression, when observed, is universally and instantly recognized as
+that of grief or anxiety, yet not one person out of a thousand who has
+never studied the subject, is able to say precisely what change passes
+over the sufferer's face. Hence probably it is that this expression is
+not even alluded to, as far as I have noticed, in any work of fiction,
+with the exception of 'Red Gauntlet' and of one other novel; and the
+authoress of the latter, as I am informed, belongs to the famous family
+of actors just alluded to; so that her attention may have been specially
+called to the subject.
+
+The ancient Greek sculptors were familiar with the expression, as shown
+in the statues of the Laocoon and Arretino; but, as Duchenne remarks,
+they carried the transverse furrows across the whole breadth of the
+forehead, and thus committed a great anatomical mistake: this is
+likewise the case in some modern statues. It is, however, more probable
+that these wonderfully accurate observers intentionally sacrificed truth
+for the sake of beauty, than that they made a mistake; for rectangular
+furrows on the forehead would not have had a grand appearance on the
+marble. The expression, in its fully developed condition, is, as far as
+I can discover, not often represented in pictures by the old masters, no
+doubt owing to the same cause; but a lady who is perfectly familiar with
+this expression, informs me that in Fra Angelico's 'Descent from the
+Cross' in Florence, it is clearly exhibited in one of the figures on the
+right-hand; and I could add a few other instances.
+
+Dr. Crichton Browne, at my request, closely attended to this expression
+in the numerous insane patients under his care in the West Biding
+Asylum; and he is familiar with Duchenne's photographs of the action
+of the grief-muscles. He informs me that they may constantly be seen
+in energetic action in cases of melancholia, and especially of
+hypochondria; and that the persistent lines or furrows, due to their
+habitual contraction, are characteristic of the physiognomy of the
+insane belonging to these two classes. Dr. Browne carefully observed for
+me during a considerable period three cases of hypochondria, in which
+the grief-muscles were persistently contracted. In one of these, a
+widow, aged 51, fancied that she had lost all her viscera, and that her
+whole body was empty. She wore an expression of great distress, and beat
+her semi-closed hands rhythmically together for hours. The grief-muscles
+were permanently contracted, and the upper eyelids arched. This
+condition lasted for months; she then recovered, and her countenance
+resumed its natural expression. A second case presented nearly the
+same peculiarities, with the addition that the comers of the mouth were
+depressed.
+
+Mr. Patrick Nicol has also kindly observed for me several cases in the
+Sussex Lunatic Asylum, and has communicated to me full details with
+respect to three of them; but they need not here be given. From his
+observations on melancholic patients, Mr. Nicol concludes that the inner
+ends of the eyebrows are almost always more or less raised, with the
+wrinkles on the forehead more or less plainly marked. In the case of one
+young woman, these wrinkles were observed to be in constant slight play
+or movement. In some cases the comers of the mouth are depressed,
+but often only in a slight degree. Some amount of difference in the
+expression of the several melancholic patients could almost always be
+observed. The eyelids generally droop; and the skin near their outer
+comers and beneath them is wrinkled. The naso-labial fold, which runs
+from the wings of the nostrils to the comers of the mouth, and which is
+so conspicuous in blubbering children, is often plainly marked in these
+patients.
+
+Although with the insane the grief-muscles often act persistently;
+yet in ordinary cases they are sometimes brought unconsciously into
+momentary action by ludicrously slight causes. A gentleman rewarded a
+young lady by an absurdly small present; she pretended to be offended,
+and as she upbraided him, her eyebrows became extremely oblique, with
+the forehead properly wrinkled. Another young lady and a youth, both in
+the highest spirits, were eagerly talking together with extraordinary
+rapidity; and I noticed that, as often as the young lady was beaten,
+and could not get out her words fast enough, her eyebrows went obliquely
+upwards, and rectangular furrows were formed on her forehead. She thus
+each time hoisted a flag of distress; and this she did half-a-dozen
+times in the course of a few minutes. I made no remark on the subject,
+but on a subsequent occasion I asked her to act on her grief-muscles;
+another girl who was present, and who could do so voluntarily, showing
+her what was intended. She tried repeatedly, but utterly failed; yet
+so slight a cause of distress as not being able to talk quickly enough,
+sufficed to bring these muscles over and over again into energetic
+action.
+
+The expression of grief, due to the contraction of the grief-muscles, is
+by no means confined to Europeans, but appears to be common to all the
+races of mankind. I have, at least, received trustworthy accounts in
+regard to Hindoos, Dhangars (one of the aboriginal hill-tribes of India,
+and therefore belonging to a quite distinct race from the Hindoos),
+Malays, Negroes and Australians. With respect to the latter, two
+observers answer my query in the affirmative, but enter into no details.
+Mr. Taplin, however, appends to my descriptive remarks the words
+"this is exact." With respect to negroes, the lady who told me of Fra
+Angelico's picture, saw a negro towing a boat on the Nile, and as he
+encountered an obstruction, she observed his grief-muscles in strong
+action, with the middle of the forehead well wrinkled. Mr. Geach watched
+a Malay man in Malacca, with the comers of his mouth much depressed,
+the eyebrows oblique, with deep short grooves on the forehead. This
+expression lasted for a very short time; and Mr. Geach remarks it "was
+a strange one, very much like a person about to cry at some great loss."
+
+In India Mr. H. Erskine found that the natives were familiar with this
+expression; and Mr. J. Scott, of the Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, has
+obligingly sent me a full description of two cases. He observed during
+some time, himself unseen, a very young Dhangar woman from Nag-pore, the
+wife of one of the gardeners, nursing her baby who was at the point of
+death; and he distinctly saw the eyebrows raised at the inner comers,
+the eyelids drooping, the forehead wrinkled in the middle, the mouth
+slightly open, with the comers much depressed. He then came from behind
+a screen of plants and spoke to the poor woman, who started, burst into
+a bitter flood of tears, and besought him to cure her baby. The second
+case was that of a Hindustani man, who from illness and poverty was
+compelled to sell his favourite goat. After receiving the money, he
+repeatedly looked at the money in his hand and then at the goat, as if
+doubting whether he would not return it. He went to the goat, which was
+tied up ready to be led away, and the animal reared up and licked his
+hands. His eyes then wavered from side to side; his "mouth was partially
+closed, with the corners very decidedly depressed." At last the poor man
+seemed to make up his mind that he must part with his goat, and then,
+as Mr. Scott saw, the eyebrows became slightly oblique, with the
+characteristic puckering or swelling at the inner ends, but the wrinkles
+on the forehead were not present. The man stood thus for a minute, then
+heaving a deep sigh, burst into tears, raised up his two hands, blessed
+the goat, turned round, and without looking again, went away.
+
+
+_On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows under suffering_.--During
+several years no expression seemed to me so utterly perplexing as this
+which we are here considering. Why should grief or anxiety cause the
+central fasciae alone of the frontal muscle together with those round
+the eyes, to contract? Here we seem to have a complex movement for the
+sole purpose of expressing grief; and yet it is a comparatively rare
+expression, and often overlooked. I believe the explanation is not so
+difficult as it at first appears. Dr. Duchenne gives a photograph of the
+young man before referred to, who, when looking upwards at a strongly
+illuminated surface, involuntarily contracted his grief-muscles in an
+exaggerated manner. I had entirely forgotten this photograph, when on
+a very bright day with the sun behind me, I met, whilst on horseback, a
+girl whose eyebrows, as she looked up at me, became extremely oblique,
+with the proper furrows on her forehead. I have observed the same
+movement under similar circumstances on several subsequent occasions. On
+my return home I made three of my children, without giving them any
+clue to my object, look as long and as attentively as they could, at the
+summit of a tall tree standing against an extremely bright sky. With
+all three, the orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal muscles were
+energetically contracted, through reflex action, from the excitement of
+the retina, so that their eyes might be protected from the bright light.
+But they tried their utmost to look upwards; and now a curious struggle,
+with spasmodic twitchings, could be observed between the whole or only
+the central portion of the frontal muscle, and the several muscles
+which serve to lower the eyebrows and close the eyelids. The involuntary
+contraction of the pyramidal caused the basal part of their noses to
+be transversely and deeply wrinkled. In one of the three children, the
+whole eyebrows were momentarily raised and lowered by the alternate
+contraction of the whole frontal muscle and of the muscles surrounding
+the eyes, so that the whole breadth of the forehead was alternately
+wrinkled and smoothed. In the other two children the forehead became
+wrinkled in the middle part alone, rectangular furrows being thus
+produced; and the eyebrows were rendered oblique, with their inner
+extremities puckered and swollen,--in the one child in a slight degree,
+in the other in a strongly marked manner. This difference in the
+obliquity of the eyebrows apparently depended on a difference in their
+general mobility, and in the strength of the pyramidal muscles. In both
+these cases the eyebrows and forehead were acted on under the influence
+of a strong light, in precisely the same manner, in every characteristic
+detail, as under the influence of grief or anxiety.
+
+Duchenne states that the pyramidal muscle of the nose is less under
+the control of the will than are the other muscles round the eyes. He
+remarks that the young man who could so well act on his grief-muscles,
+as well as on most of his other facial muscles, could not contract the
+pyramidals.[705] This power, however, no doubt differs in different
+persons. The pyramidal muscle serves to draw down the skin of the
+forehead between the eyebrows, together with their inner extremities.
+The central fasciae of the frontal are the antagonists of the pyramidal;
+and if the action of the latter is to be specially checked, these
+central fasciae must be contracted. So that with persons having powerful
+pyramidal muscles, if there is under the influence of a bright light an
+unconscious desire to prevent the lowering of the eyebrows, the central
+fasciae of the frontal muscle must be brought into play; and their
+contraction, if sufficiently strong to overmaster the pyramidals,
+together with the contraction of the corrugator and orbicular muscles,
+will act in the manner just described on the eyebrows and forehead.
+
+When children scream or cry out, they contract, as we know, the
+orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal muscles, primarily for the sake of
+compressing their eyes, and thus protecting them from being gorged with
+blood, and secondarily through habit. I therefore expected to find with
+children, that when they endeavoured either to prevent a crying-fit from
+coming on, or to stop crying, they would cheek the contraction of the
+above-named muscles, in the same manner as when looking upwards at a
+bright light; and consequently that the central fasciae of the frontal
+muscle would often be brought into play. Accordingly, I began myself to
+observe children at such times, and asked others, including some medical
+men, to do the same. It is necessary to observe carefully, as the
+peculiar opposed action of these muscles is not nearly so plain in
+children, owing to their foreheads not easily wrinkling, as in adults.
+But I soon found that the grief-muscles were very frequently brought
+into distinct action on these occasions. It would be superfluous to give
+all the cases which have been observed; and I will specify only a few.
+A little girl, a year and a half old, was teased by some other children,
+and before bursting into tears her eyebrows became decidedly oblique.
+With an older girl the same obliquity was observed, with the inner ends
+of the eyebrows plainly puckered; and at the same time the corners of
+the mouth were drawn downwards. As soon as she burst into tears, the
+features all changed and this peculiar expression vanished. Again,
+after a little boy had been vaccinated, which made him scream and cry
+violently, the surgeon gave him an orange brought for the purpose, and
+this pleased the child much; as he stopped crying all the characteristic
+movements were observed, including the formation of rectangular wrinkles
+in the middle of the forehead. Lastly, I met on the road a little girl
+three or four years old, who had been frightened by a dog, and when I
+asked her what was the matter, she stopped whimpering, and her eyebrows
+instantly became oblique to an extraordinary degree.
+
+Here then, as I cannot doubt, we have the key to the problem why the
+central fasciae of the frontal muscle and the muscles round the
+eyes contract in opposition to each other under the influence of
+grief;--whether their contraction be prolonged, as with the melancholic
+insane, or momentary, from some trifling cause of distress. We have all
+of us, as infants, repeatedly contracted our orbicular, corrugator, and
+pyramidal muscles, in order to protect our eyes whilst screaming; our
+progenitors before us have done the same during many generations; and
+though with advancing years we easily prevent, when feeling distressed,
+the utterance of screams, we cannot from long habit always prevent a
+slight contraction of the above-named muscles; nor indeed do we observe
+their contraction in ourselves, or attempt to stop it, if slight. But
+the pyramidal muscles seem to be less under the command of the will
+than the other related muscles; and if they be well developed, their
+contraction can be checked only by the antagonistic contraction of the
+central fasciae of the frontal muscle. The result which necessarily
+follows, if these fasciae contract energetically, is the oblique drawing
+up of the eyebrows, the puckering of their inner ends, and the formation
+of rectangular furrows on the middle of the forehead. As children and
+women cry much more freely than men, and as grown-up persons of both
+sexes rarely weep except from mental distress, we can understand why the
+grief-muscles are more frequently seen in action, as I believe to be
+the case, with children and women than with men; and with adults of both
+sexes from mental distress alone. In some of the cases before recorded,
+as in that of the poor Dhangar woman and of the Hindustani man, the
+action of the grief-muscles was quickly followed by bitter weeping. In
+all cases of distress, whether great or small, our brains tend through
+long habit to send an order to certain muscles to contract, as if we
+were still infants on the point of screaming out; but this order we, by
+the wondrous power of the will, and through habit, are able partially to
+counteract; although this is effected unconsciously, as far as the means
+of counteraction are concerned.
+
+
+_On the depression of the corners of the mouth_.--This action is
+effected by the _depressores anguili oris_ (see letter K in figs. 1
+and 2). The fibres of this muscle diverge downwards, with the upper
+convergent ends attached round the angles of the mouth, and to the lower
+lip a little way within the angles.[706] Some of the fibres appear to
+be antagonistic to the great zygomatic muscle, and others to the several
+muscles running to the outer part of the upper lip. The contraction
+of this muscle draws downwards and outwards the corners of the mouth,
+including the outer part of the upper lip, and even in a slight degree
+the wings of the nostrils. When the mouth is closed and this muscle
+acts, the commissure or line of junction of the two lips forms a curved
+line with the concavity downwards,[707] and the lips themselves are
+generally somewhat protruded, especially the lower one. The mouth in
+this state is well represented in the two photographs (Plate II., figs.
+6 and 7) by Mr. Rejlander. The upper boy (fig. 6) had just stopped
+crying, after receiving a slap on the face from another boy; and the
+right moment was seized for photographing him.
+
+The expression of low spirits, grief or dejection, due to the
+contraction of this muscle has been noticed by every one who has
+written on the subject. To say that a person "is down in the mouth," is
+synonymous with saying that he is out of spirits. The depression of the
+corners may often be seen, as already stated on the authority of Dr.
+Crichton Browne and Mr. Nicol, with the melancholic insane, and was well
+exhibited in some photographs sent to me by the former gentleman, of
+patients with a strong tendency to suicide. It has been observed
+with men belonging to various races, namely with Hindoos, the dark
+hill-tribes of India, Malays, and, as the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer informs me,
+with the aborigines of Australia.
+
+When infants scream they firmly contract the muscles round their eyes,
+and this draws up the upper lip; and as they have to keep their mouths
+widely open, the depressor muscles running to the corners are likewise
+brought into strong action. This generally, but not invariably, causes a
+slight angular bend in the lower lip on both sides, near the corners of
+the mouth. The result of the upper and lower lip being thus acted on
+is that the mouth assumes a squarish outline. The contraction of the
+depressor muscle is best seen in infants when not screaming violently,
+and especially just before they begin, or when they cease to scream.
+Their little faces then acquire an extremely piteous expression, as I
+continually observed with my own infants between the ages of about
+six weeks and two or three months. Sometimes, when they are struggling
+against a crying-fit, the outline of the mouth is curved in so
+exaggerated a manner as to be like a horseshoe; and the expression of
+misery then becomes a ludicrous caricature.
+
+The explanation of the contraction of this muscle, under the influence
+of low spirits or dejection, apparently follows from the same general
+principles as in the case of the obliquity of the eyebrows. Dr. Duchenne
+informs me that he concludes from his observations, now prolonged during
+many years, that this is one of the facial muscles which is least under
+the control of the will. This fact may indeed be inferred from what has
+just been stated with respect to infants when doubtfully beginning to
+cry, or endeavouring to stop crying; for they then generally command all
+the other facial muscles more effectually than they do the depressors of
+the corners of the mouth. Two excellent observers who had no theory on
+the subject, one of them a surgeon, carefully watched for me some older
+children and women as with some opposed struggling they very gradually
+approached the point of bursting out into tears; and both observers felt
+sure that the depressors began to act before any of the other muscles.
+Now as the depressors have been repeatedly brought into strong action
+during infancy in many generations, nerve-force will tend to flow, on
+the principle of long associated habit, to these muscles as well as
+to various other facial muscles, whenever in after life even a slight
+feeling of distress is experienced. But as the depressors are somewhat
+less under the control of the will than most of the other muscles, we
+might expect that they would often slightly contract, whilst the others
+remained passive. It is remarkable how small a depression of the corners
+of the mouth gives to the countenance an expression of low spirits or
+dejection, so that an extremely slight contraction of these muscles
+would be sufficient to betray this state of mind.
+
+I may here mention a trifling observation, as it will serve to sum
+up our present subject. An old lady with a comfortable but absorbed
+expression sat nearly opposite to me in a railway carriage. Whilst I
+was looking at her, I saw that her _depressores anguli oris_ became very
+slightly, yet decidedly, contracted; but as her countenance remained as
+placid as ever, I reflected how meaningless was this contraction, and
+how easily one might be deceived. The thought had hardly occurred to me
+when I saw that her eyes suddenly became suffused with tears almost to
+overflowing, and her whole countenance fell. There could now be no doubt
+that some painful recollection, perhaps that of a long-lost child, was
+passing through her mind. As soon as her sensorium was thus affected,
+certain nerve-cells from long habit instantly transmitted an order to
+all the respiratory muscles, and to those round the mouth, to prepare
+for a fit of crying. But the order was countermanded by the will, or
+rather by a later acquired habit, and all the muscles were obedient,
+excepting in a slight degree the _depressores anguli oris_. The mouth
+was not even opened; the respiration was not hurried; and no muscle was
+affected except those which draw down the corners of the mouth.
+
+As soon as the mouth of this lady began, involuntarily and unconsciously
+on her part, to assume the proper form for a crying-fit, we may feel
+almost sure that some nerve-influence would have been transmitted
+through the long accustomed channels to the various respiratory muscles,
+as well as to those round the eyes, and to the vaso-motor centre which
+governs the supply of blood sent to the lacrymal glands. Of this
+latter fact we have indeed clear evidence in her eyes becoming slightly
+suffused with tears; and we can understand this, as the lacrymal glands
+are less under the control of the will than the facial muscles. No doubt
+there existed at the same time some tendency in the muscles round the
+eyes at contract, as if for the sake of protecting them from being
+gorged with blood, but this contraction was completely overmastered,
+and her brow remained unruffled. Had the pyramidal, corrugator, and
+orbicular muscles been as little obedient to the will, as they are
+in many persons, they would have been slightly acted on; and then
+the central fasciae of the frontal muscle would have contracted in
+antagonism, and her eyebrows would have become oblique, with rectangular
+furrows on her forehead. Her countenance would then have expressed still
+more plainly than it did a state of dejection, or rather one of grief.
+
+Through steps such as these we can understand how it is, that as soon
+as some melancholy thought passes through the brain, there occurs a
+just perceptible drawing down of the corners of the mouth, or a
+slight raising up of the inner ends of the eyebrows, or both movements
+combined, and immediately afterwards a slight suffusion of tears. A
+thrill of nerve-force is transmitted along several habitual channels,
+and produces an effect on any point where the will has not acquired
+through long habit much power of interference. The above actions may be
+considered as rudimental vestiges of the screaming-fits, which are so
+frequent and prolonged during infancy. In this case, as well as in many
+others, the links are indeed wonderful which connect cause and effect
+in giving rise to various expressions on the human countenance; and they
+explain to us the meaning of certain movements, which we involuntarily
+and unconsciously perform, whenever certain transitory emotions pass
+through our minds.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. -- JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
+
+Laughter primarily the expression of joy--Ludicrous ideas--Movements
+of the features during laughter--Nature of the sound produced--The
+secretion of tears during loud laughter--Gradation from loud laughter
+to gentle smiling--High spirits--The expression of love--Tender
+feelings--Devotion.
+
+
+JOY, when intense, leads to various purposeless movements--to dancing
+about, clapping the hands, stamping, &c., and to loud laughter. Laughter
+seems primarily to be the expression of mere joy or happiness. We
+clearly see this in children at play, who are almost incessantly
+laughing. With young persons past childhood, when they are in high
+spirits, there is always much meaningless laughter. The laughter of the
+gods is described by Homer as "the exuberance of their celestial joy
+after their daily banquet." A man smiles--and smiling, as we shall see,
+graduates into laughter--at meeting an old friend in the street, as he
+does at any trifling pleasure, such as smelling a sweet perfume.[801]
+Laura Bridgman, from her blindness and deafness, could not have acquired
+any expression through imitation, yet when a letter from a beloved
+friend was communicated to her by gesture-language, she "laughed and
+clapped her hands, and the colour mounted to her cheeks." On other
+occasions she has been seen to stamp for joy.[802]
+
+Idiots and imbecile persons likewise afford good evidence that laughter
+or smiling primarily expresses mere happiness or joy. Dr. Crichton
+Browne, to whom, as on so many other occasions, I am indebted for the
+results of his wide experience, informs me that with idiots laughter is
+the most prevalent and frequent of all the emotional expressions. Many
+idiots are morose, passionate, restless, in a painful state of mind,
+or utterly stolid, and these never laugh. Others frequently laugh in
+a quite senseless manner. Thus an idiot boy, incapable of speech,
+complained to Dr. Browne, by the aid of signs, that another boy in
+the asylum had given him a black eye; and this was accompanied by
+"explosions of laughter and with his face covered with the broadest
+smiles." There is another large class of idiots who are persistently
+joyous and benign, and who are constantly laughing or smiling.[803]
+Their countenances often exhibit a stereotyped smile; their joyousness
+is increased, and they grin, chuckle, or giggle, whenever food is placed
+before them, or when they are caressed, are shown bright colours, or
+hear music. Some of them laugh more than usual when they walk about, or
+attempt any muscular exertion. The joyousness of most of these idiots
+cannot possibly be associated, as Dr. Browne remarks, with any distinct
+ideas: they simply feel pleasure, and express it by laughter or smiles.
+With imbeciles rather higher in the scale, personal vanity seems to be
+the commonest cause of laughter, and next to this, pleasure arising from
+the approbation of their conduct.
+
+With grown-up persons laughter is excited by causes considerably
+different from those which suffice during childhood; but this remark
+hardly applies to smiling. Laughter in this respect is analogous with
+weeping, which with adults is almost confined to mental distress, whilst
+with children it is excited by bodily pain or any suffering, as well
+as by fear or rage. Many curious discussions have been written on the
+causes of laughter with grown-up persons. The subject is extremely
+complex. Something incongruous or unaccountable, exciting surprise and
+some sense of superiority in the laugher, who must be in a happy frame
+of mind, seems to be the commonest cause.[804] The circumstances must
+not be of a momentous nature: no poor man would laugh or smile on
+suddenly hearing that a large fortune had been bequeathed to him. If
+the mind is strongly excited by pleasurable feelings, and any little
+unexpected event or thought occurs, then, as Mr. Herbert Spencer
+remarks,[805] "a large amount of nervous energy, instead of being
+allowed to expend itself in producing an equivalent amount of the new
+thoughts and emotion which were nascent, is suddenly checked in its
+flow."... "The excess must discharge itself in some other direction, and
+there results an efflux through the motor nerves to various classes of
+the muscles, producing the half-convulsive actions we term laughter." An
+observation, bearing on this point, was made by a correspondent during
+the recent siege of Paris, namely, that the German soldiers, after
+strong excitement from exposure to extreme danger, were particularly
+apt to burst out into loud laughter at the smallest joke. So again
+when young children are just beginning to cry, an unexpected event will
+sometimes suddenly turn their crying into laughter, which apparently
+serves equally well to expend their superfluous nervous energy.
+
+The imagination is sometimes said to be tickled by a ludicrous idea; and
+this so-called tickling of the mind is curiously analogous with that of
+the body. Every one knows how immoderately children laugh, and how their
+whole bodies are convulsed when they are tickled. The anthropoid apes,
+as we have seen, likewise utter a reiterated sound, corresponding with
+our laughter, when they are tickled, especially under the armpits. I
+touched with a bit of paper the sole of the foot of one of my infants,
+when only seven days old, and it was suddenly jerked away and the toes
+curled about, as in an older child. Such movements, as well as laughter
+from being tickled, are manifestly reflex actions; and this is likewise
+shown by the minute unstriped muscles, which serve to erect the separate
+hairs on the body, contracting near a tickled surface.[806] Yet laughter
+from a ludicrous idea, though involuntary, cannot be called a strictly
+reflex action. In this case, and in that of laughter from being tickled,
+the mind must be in a pleasurable condition; a young child, if tickled
+by a strange man, would scream from fear. The touch must be light, and
+an idea or event, to be ludicrous, must not be of grave import. The
+parts of the body which are most easily tickled are those which are not
+commonly touched, such as the armpits or between the toes, or parts
+such as the soles of the feet, which are habitually touched by a broad
+surface; but the surface on which we sit offers a marked exception to
+this rule. According to Gratiolet,[807] certain nerves are much more
+sensitive to tickling than others. From the fact that a child can hardly
+tickle itself, or in a much less degree than when tickled by another
+person, it seems that the precise point to be touched must not be known;
+so with the mind, something unexpected--a novel or incongruous idea
+which breaks through an habitual train of thought--appears to be a
+strong element in the ludicrous.
+
+The sound of laughter is produced by a deep inspiration followed by
+short, interrupted, spasmodic contractions of the chest, and especially
+of the diaphragm.[808] Hence we hear of "laughter holding both his
+sides." From the shaking of the body, the head nods to and fro. The
+lower jaw often quivers up and down, as is likewise the case with some
+species of baboons, when they are much pleased.
+
+[Illustration: Moderate laughter and smiling. Plate III]
+
+During laughter the mouth is opened more or less widely, with the
+corners drawn much backwards, as well as a little upwards; and the upper
+lip is somewhat raised. The drawing back of the corners is best seen in
+moderate laughter, and especially in a broad smile--the latter epithet
+showing how the mouth is widened. In the accompanying figs. 1-3, Plate
+III., different degrees of moderate laughter and smiling have been
+photographed. The figure of the little girl, with the hat is by Dr.
+Wallich, and the expression was a genuine one; the other two are by Mr.
+Rejlander. Dr. Duchenne repeatedly insists[809] that, under the emotion
+of joy, the mouth is acted on exclusively by the great zygomatic
+muscles, which serve to draw the corners backwards and upwards; but
+judging from the manner in which the upper teeth are always exposed
+during laughter and broad smiling, as well as from my own sensations,
+I cannot doubt that some of the muscles running to the upper lip are
+likewise brought into moderate action. The upper and lower orbicular
+muscles of the eyes are at the same time more or less contracted; and
+there is an intimate connection, as explained in the chapter on weeping,
+between the orbiculars, especially the lower ones and some of the
+muscles running to the upper lip. Henle remarks[810] on this head, that
+when a man closely shuts one eye he cannot avoid retracting the upper
+lip on the same side; conversely, if any one will place his finger
+on his lower eyelid, and then uncover his upper incisors as much as
+possible, he will feel, as his upper lip is drawn strongly upwards, that
+the muscles of the lower eyelid contract. In Henle's drawing, given in
+woodcut, fig. 2, the _musculus malaris_ (H) which runs to the upper
+lip may be seen to form an almost integral part of the lower orbicular
+muscle.
+
+Dr. Duchenne has given a large photograph of an old man (reduced on
+Plate III. fig 4), in his usual passive condition, and another of
+the same man (fig. 5), naturally smiling. The latter was instantly
+recognized by every one to whom it was shown as true to nature. He
+has also given, as an example of an unnatural or false smile, another
+photograph (fig. 6) of the same old man, with the corners of his mouth
+strongly retracted by the galvanization of the great zygomatic
+muscles. That the expression is not natural is clear, for I showed this
+photograph to twenty-four persons, of whom three could not in the least
+tell what was meant, whilst the others, though they perceived that the
+expression was of the nature of a smile, answered in such words as "a
+wicked joke," "trying to laugh," "grinning laughter.... half-amazed
+laughter," &c. Dr. Duchenne attributes the falseness of the expression
+altogether to the orbicular muscles of the lower eyelids not being
+sufficiently contracted; for he justly lays great stress on their
+contraction in the expression of joy. No doubt there is much truth
+in this view, but not, as it appears to me, the whole truth. The
+contraction of the lower orbiculars is always accompanied, as we have
+seen, by the drawing up of the upper lip. Had the upper lip, in fig.
+6, been thus acted on to a slight extent, its curvature would have been
+less rigid, the naso-labial farrow would have been slightly different,
+and the whole expression would, as I believe, have been more natural,
+independently of the more conspicuous effect from the stronger
+contraction of the lower eyelids. The corruptor muscle, moreover, in
+fig. 6, is too much contracted, causing a frown; and this muscle never
+acts under the influence of joy except during strongly pronounced or
+violent laughter.
+
+By the drawing backwards and upwards of the corners of the mouth,
+through the contraction of the great zygomatic muscles, and by the
+raising of the upper lip, the cheeks are drawn upwards. Wrinkles are
+thus formed under the eyes, and, with old people, at their outer ends;
+and these are highly characteristic of laughter or smiling. As a gentle
+smile increases into a strong one, or into a laugh, every one may feel
+and see, if he will attend to his own sensations and look at himself
+in a mirror, that as the upper lip is drawn up and the lower orbiculars
+contract, the wrinkles in the lower eyelids and those beneath the
+eyes are much strengthened or increased. At the same time, as I have
+repeatedly observed, the eyebrows are slightly lowered, which shows
+that the upper as well as the lower orbiculars contract at least to some
+degree, though this passes unperecived, as far as our sensations
+are concerned. If the original photograph of the old man, with his
+countenance in its usual placid state (fig. 4), be compared with that
+(fig. 5) in which he is naturally smiling, it may be seen that the
+eyebrows in the latter are a little lowered. I presume that this is
+owing to the upper orbiculars being impelled, through the force of
+long-associated habit, to act to a certain extent in concert with the
+lower orbiculars, which themselves contract in connection with the
+drawing up of the upper lip.
+
+The tendency in the zygomatic muscles to contract under pleasurable
+emotions is shown by a curious fact, communicated to me by Dr. Browne,
+with respect to patients suffering from GENERAL PARALYSIS OF
+THE INSANE.[811] "In this malady there is almost invariably
+optimism--delusions as to wealth, rank, grandeur--insane joyousness,
+benevolence, and profusion, while its very earliest physical symptom is
+trembling at the corners of the mouth and at the outer corners of the
+eyes. This is a well-recognized fact. Constant tremulous agitation of
+the inferior palpebral and great zygomatic muscles is pathognomic of the
+earlier stages of general paralysis. The countenance has a pleased and
+benevolent expression. As the disease advances other muscles become
+involved, but until complete fatuity is reached, the prevailing
+expression is that of feeble benevolence."
+
+As in laughing and broadly smiling the cheeks and upper lip are much
+raised, the nose appears to be shortened, and the skin on the bridge
+becomes finely wrinkled in transverse lines, with other oblique
+longitudinal lines on the sides. The upper front teeth are commonly
+exposed. A well-marked naso-labial fold is formed, which runs from the
+wing of each nostril to the corner of the mouth; and this fold is often
+double in old persons.
+
+A bright and sparkling eye is as characteristic of a pleased or amused
+state of mind, as is the retraction of the corners of the mouth
+and upper lip with the wrinkles thus produced. Even the eyes of
+microcephalous idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn to
+speak, brighten slightly when they are pleased.[812] Under extreme
+laughter the eyes are too much suffused with tears to sparkle; but the
+moisture squeezed out of the glands during moderate laughter or smiling
+may aid in giving them lustre; though this must be of altogether
+subordinate importance, as they become dull from grief, though they
+are then often moist. Their brightness seems to be chiefly due to their
+tenseness,[813] owing to the contraction of the orbicular muscles and
+to the pressure of the raised cheeks. But, according to Dr. Piderit,
+who has discussed this point more fully than any other writer,[814] the
+tenseness may be largely attributed to the eyeballs becoming filled
+with blood and other fluids, from the acceleration of the circulation,
+consequent on the excitement of pleasure. He remarks on the contrast in
+the appearance of the eyes of a hectic patient with a rapid circulation,
+and of a man suffering from cholera with almost all the fluids of his
+body drained from him. Any cause which lowers the circulation deadens
+the eye. I remember seeing a man utterly prostrated by prolonged and
+severe exertion during a very hot day, and a bystander compared his eyes
+to those of a boiled codfish.
+
+To return to the sounds produced during laughter. We can see in a vague
+manner how the utterance of sounds of some kind would naturally become
+associated with a pleasurable state of mind; for throughout a large part
+of the animal kingdom vocal or instrumental sounds are employed either
+as a call or as a charm by one sex for the other. They are also
+employed as the means for a joyful meeting between the parents and
+their offspring, and between the attached members of the same social
+community. But why the sounds which man utters when he is pleased
+have the peculiar reiterated character of laughter we do not know.
+Nevertheless we can see that they would naturally be as different as
+possible from the screams or cries of distress; and as in the production
+of the latter, the expirations are prolonged and continuous, with
+the inspirations short and interrupted, so it might perhaps have been
+expected with the sounds uttered from joy, that the expirations would
+have been short and broken with the inspirations prolonged; and this is
+the case.
+
+It is an equally obscure point why the corners of the mouth are
+retracted and the upper lip raised during ordinary laughter. The mouth
+must not be opened to its utmost extent, for when this occurs during
+a paroxysm of excessive laughter hardly any sound is emitted; or it
+changes its tone and seems to come from deep down in the throat. The
+respiratory muscles, and even those of the limbs, are at the same time
+thrown into rapid vibratory movements. The lower jaw often partakes
+of this movement, and this would tend to prevent the mouth from being
+widely opened. But as a full volume of sound has to be poured forth, the
+orifice of the mouth must be large; and it is perhaps to gain this end
+that the corners are retracted and the upper lip raised. Although we can
+hardly account for the shape of the mouth during laughter, which
+leads to wrinkles being formed beneath the eyes, nor for the peculiar
+reiterated sound of laughter, nor for the quivering of the jaws,
+nevertheless we may infer that all these effects are due to some common
+cause. For they are all characteristic and expressive of a pleased state
+of mind in various kinds of monkeys.
+
+A graduated series can be followed from violent to moderate laughter,
+to a broad smile, to a gentle smile, and to the expression of mere
+cheerfulness. During excessive laughter the whole body is often thrown
+backward and shakes, or is almost convulsed; the respiration is much
+disturbed; the head and face become gorged with blood, with the veins
+distended; and the orbicular muscles are spasmodically contracted in
+order to protect the eyes. Tears are freely shed. Hence, as formerly
+remarked, it is scarcely possible to point out any difference between
+the tear-stained face of a person after a paroxysm of excessive laughter
+and after a bitter crying-fit.[815] It is probably due to the close
+similarity of the spasmodic movements caused by these widely different
+emotions that hysteric patients alternately cry and laugh with violence,
+and that young children sometimes pass suddenly from the one to the
+other state. Mr. Swinhoe informs me that he has often seen the Chinese,
+when suffering from deep grief, burst out into hysterical fits of
+laughter.
+
+I was anxious to know whether tears are freely shed during excessive
+laughter by most of the races of men, and I hear from my correspondents
+that this is the case. One instance was observed with the Hindoos, and
+they themselves said that it often occurred. So it is with the Chinese.
+The women of a wild tribe of Malays in the Malacca peninsula, sometimes
+shed tears when they laugh heartily, though this seldom occurs. With the
+Dyaks of Borneo it must frequently be the case, at least with the women,
+for I hear from the Rajah C. Brooke that it is a common expression with
+them to say "we nearly made tears from laughter." The aborigines of
+Australia express their emotions freely, and they are described by my
+correspondents as jumping about and clapping their hands for joy, and as
+often roaring with laughter. No less than four observers have seen their
+eyes freely watering on such occasions; and in one instance the tears
+rolled down their cheeks. Mr. Bulmer, a missionary in a remote part of
+Victoria, remarks, "that they have a keen sense of the ridiculous;
+they are excellent mimics, and when one of them is able to imitate the
+peculiarities of some absent member of the tribe, it is very common to
+hear all in the camp convulsed with laughter." With Europeans hardly
+anything excites laughter so easily as mimicry; and it is rather curious
+to find the same fact with the savages of Australia, who constitute one
+of the most distinct races in the world.
+
+In Southern Africa with two tribes of Kafirs, especially with the women,
+their eyes often fill with tears during laughter. Gaika, the brother of
+the chief Sandilli, answers my query on this bead, with the words, "Yes,
+that is their common practice." Sir Andrew Smith has seen the painted
+face of a Hottentot woman all furrowed with tears after a fit of
+laughter. In Northern Africa, with the Abyssinians, tears are secreted
+under the same circumstances. Lastly, in North America, the same fact
+has been observed in a remarkably savage and isolated tribe, but chiefly
+with the women; in another tribe it was observed only on a single
+occasion.
+
+Excessive laughter, as before remarked, graduates into moderate
+laughter. In this latter case the muscles round the eyes are much less
+contracted, and there is little or no frowning. Between a gentle laugh
+and a broad smile there is hardly any difference, excepting that in
+smiling no reiterated sound is uttered, though a single rather strong
+expiration, or slight noise--a rudiment of a laugh--may often be heard
+at the commencement of a smile. On a moderately smiling countenance the
+contraction of the upper orbicular muscles can still just be traced by a
+slight lowering of the eyebrows. The contraction of the lower orbicular
+and palpebral muscles is much plainer, and is shown by the wrinkling of
+the lower eyelids and of the skin beneath them, together with a slight
+drawing up of the upper lip. From the broadest smile we pass by the
+finest steps into the gentlest one. In this latter case the features are
+moved in a much less degree, and much more slowly, and the mouth is
+kept closed. The curvature of the naso-labial furrow is also slightly
+different in the two cases. We thus see that no abrupt line of
+demarcation can be drawn between the movement of the features during the
+most violent laughter and a very faint smile.[816]
+
+A smile, therefore, may be said to be the first stage in the development
+of a laugh. But a different and more probable view may be suggested;
+namely, that the habit of uttering load reiterated sounds from a sense
+of pleasure, first led to the retraction of the corners of the mouth and
+of the upper lip, and to the contraction of the orbicular muscles; and
+that now, through association and long-continued habit, the same muscles
+are brought into slight play whenever any cause excites in us a feeling
+which, if stronger, would have led to laughter; and the result is a
+smile.
+
+Whether we look at laughter as the full development of a smile, or, as
+is more probable, at a gentle smile as the last trace of a habit, firmly
+fixed during many generations, of laughing whenever we are joyful, we
+can follow in our infants the gradual passage of the one into the other.
+It is well known to those who have the charge of young infants, that it
+is difficult to feel sure when certain movements about their mouths are
+really expressive; that is, when they really smile. Hence I carefully
+watched my own infants. One of them at the age of forty-five days, and
+being at the time in a happy frame of mind, smiled; that is, the
+corners of the mouth were retracted, and simultaneously the eyes became
+decidedly bright. I observed the same thing on the following day; but on
+the third day the child was not quite well and there was no trace of a
+smile, and this renders it probable that the previous smiles were real.
+Eight days subsequently and during the next succeeding week, it was
+remarkable how his eyes brightened whenever he smiled, and his nose
+became at the same time transversely wrinkled. This was now accompanied
+by a little bleating noise, which perhaps represented a laugh. At the
+age of 113 days these little noises, which were always made during
+expiration, assumed a slightly different character, and were more
+broken or interrupted, as in sobbing; and this was certainly incipient
+laughter. The change in tone seemed to me at the time to be connected
+with the greater lateral extension of the mouth as the smiles became
+broader.
+
+In a second infant the first real smile was observed at about the same
+age, viz. forty-five days; and in a third, at a somewhat earlier age.
+The second infant, when sixty-five days old, smiled much more broadly
+and plainly than did the one first mentioned at the same age; and even
+at this early age uttered noises very like laughter. In this gradual
+acquirement, by infants, of the habit of laughing, we have a case in
+some degree analogous to that of weeping. As practice is requisite with
+the ordinary movements of the body, such as walking, so it seems to be
+with laughing and weeping. The art of screaming, on the other hand,
+from being of service to infants, has become finely developed from the
+earliest days.
+
+
+_High spirits, cheerfulness_.--A man in high spirits, though he may not
+actually smile, commonly exhibits some tendency to the retraction of the
+corners of his mouth. From the excitement of pleasure, the circulation
+becomes more rapid; the eyes are bright, and the colour of the face
+rises. The brain, being stimulated by the increased flow of blood,
+reacts on the mental powers; lively ideas pass still more rapidly
+through the mind, and the affections are warmed. I heard a child, a
+little under four years old, when asked what was meant by being in good
+spirits, answer, "It is laughing, talking, and kissing." It would be
+difficult to give a truer and more practical definition. A man in this
+state holds his body erect, his head upright, and his eyes open. There
+is no drooping of the features, and no contraction of the eyebrows.
+On the contrary, the frontal muscle, as Moreau observes,[817] tends to
+contract slightly; and this smooths the brow, removes every trace of a
+frown, arches the eyebrows a little, and raises the eyelids. Hence the
+Latin phrase, _exporrigere frontem_--to unwrinkle the brow--means, to
+be cheerful or merry. The whole expression of a man in good spirits is
+exactly the opposite of that of one suffering from sorrow. According to
+Sir C. Bell, "In all the exhilarating emotions the eyebrows, eyelids,
+the nostrils, and the angles of the mouth are raised. In the depressing
+passions it is the reverse." Under the influence of the latter the brow
+is heavy, the eyelids, cheeks, mouth, and whole head droop; the eyes are
+dull; the countenance pallid, and the respiration slow. In joy the face
+expands, in grief it lengthens. Whether the principle of antithesis has
+here come into play in producing these opposite expressions, in aid of
+the direct causes which have been specified and which are sufficiently
+plain, I will not pretend to say.
+
+With all the races of man the expression of good spirit appears to be
+the same, and is easily recognized. My informants, from various parts of
+the Old and New Worlds, answer in the affirmative to my queries on this
+head, and they give some particulars with respect to Hindoos, Malays,
+and New Zealanders. The brightness of the eyes of the Australians has
+struck four observers, and the same fact has been noticed with Hindoos,
+New Zealanders, and the Dyaks of Borneo.
+
+Savages sometimes express their satisfaction not only by smiling, but
+by gestures derived from the pleasure of eating. Thus Mr. Wedgwood[818]
+quotes Petherick that the negroes on the Upper Nile began a general
+rubbing of their bellies when he displayed his beads; and Leichhardt
+says that the Australians smacked and clacked their mouths at the sight
+of his horses and bullocks, and more especially of his kangaroo dogs.
+The Greenlanders, "when they affirm anything with pleasure, suck down
+air with a certain sound;"[819] and this may be an imitation of the act
+of swallowing savoury food.
+
+Laughter is suppressed by the firm contraction of the orbicular muscles
+of the mouth, which prevents the great zygomatic and other muscles from
+drawing the lips backwards and upwards. The lower lip is also sometimes
+held by the teeth, and this gives a roguish expression to the face,
+as was observed with the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman.[820] The great
+zygomatic muscle is sometimes variable in its course, and I have seen
+a young woman in whom the _depressores anguli oris_ were brought into
+strong action in suppressing a smile; but this by no means gave to her
+countenance a melancholy expression, owing to the brightness of her
+eyes.
+
+Laughter is frequently employed in a forced manner to conceal or mask
+some other state of mind, even anger. We often see persons laughing in
+order to conceal their shame or shyness. When a person purses up his
+mouth, as if to prevent the possibility of a smile, though there is
+nothing to excite one, or nothing to prevent its free indulgence, an
+affected, solemn, or pedantic expression is given; but of such hybrid
+expressions nothing more need here be said. In the case of derision, a
+real or pretended smile or laugh is often blended with the expression
+proper to contempt, and this may pass into angry contempt or scorn. In
+such cases the meaning of the laugh or smile is to show the offending
+person that he excites only amusement.
+
+_Love, tender feelings, &c_.--Although the emotion of love, for instance
+that of a mother for her infant, is one of the strongest of which the
+mind is capable, it can hardly be said to have any proper or peculiar
+means of expression; and this is intelligible, as it has not habitually
+led to any special line of action. No doubt, as affection is a
+pleasurable sensation, it generally causes a gentle smile and some
+brightening of the eyes. A strong desire to touch the beloved person is
+commonly felt; and love is expressed by this means more plainly than
+by any other.[821] Hence we long to clasp in our arms those whom we
+tenderly love. We probably owe this desire to inherited habit, in
+association with the nursing and tending of our children, and with the
+mutual caresses of lovers.
+
+With the lower animals we see the same principle of pleasure derived
+from contact in association with love. Dogs and cats manifestly take
+pleasure in rubbing against their masters and mistresses, and in being
+rubbed or patted by them. Many kinds of monkeys, as I am assured by the
+keepers in the Zoological Gardens, delight in fondling and being fondled
+by each other, and by persons to whom they are attached. Mr. Bartlett
+has described to me the behaviour of two chimpanzees, rather older
+animals than those generally imported into this country, when they were
+first brought together. They sat opposite, touching each other with
+their much protruded lips; and the one put his hand on the shoulder
+of the other. They then mutually folded each other in their arms.
+Afterwards they stood up, each with one arm on the shoulder of the
+other, lifted up their heads, opened their mouths, and yelled with
+delight.
+
+We Europeans are so accustomed to kissing as a mark of affection, that
+it might be thought to be innate in mankind; but this is not the case.
+Steele was mistaken when he said "Nature was its author, and it began
+with the first courtship." Jemmy Button, the Fuegian, told me that this
+practice was unknown in his land. It is equally unknown with the New
+Zealanders, Tahitians, Papuans, Australians, Somals of Africa, and
+the Esquimaux. But it is so far innate or natural that it apparently
+depends on pleasure from close contact with a beloved person; and it is
+replaced in various parts of the world, by the rubbing of noses, as
+with the New Zealanders and Laplanders, by the rubbing or patting of the
+arms, breasts, or stomachs, or by one man striking his own face with the
+hands or feet of another. Perhaps the practice of blowing, as a mark
+of affection, on various parts of the body may depend on the same
+principle.[823]
+
+The feelings which are called tender are difficult to analyse; they seem
+to be compounded of affection, joy, and especially of sympathy. These
+feelings are in themselves of a pleasurable nature, excepting when pity
+is too deep, or horror is aroused, as in hearing of a tortured man or
+animal. They are remarkable under our present point of view from so
+readily exciting the secretion of tears. Many a father and son have wept
+on meeting after a long separation, especially if the meeting has been
+unexpected. No doubt extreme joy by itself tends to act on the lacrymal
+glands; but on such occasions as the foregoing vague thoughts of the
+grief which would have been felt had the father and son never met, will
+probably have passed through their minds; and grief naturally leads to
+the secretion of tears. Thus on the return of Ulysses:--
+
+    "Telemachus Rose, and clung weeping round his father's breast.
+     There the pent grief rained o'er them, yearning thus.
+     *   *    *    *    *    *
+     Thus piteously they wailed in sore unrest,
+     And on their weepings had gone down the day,
+     But that at last Telemachus found words to say."
+    _Worsley's Translation of the Odyssey_, Book xvi. st. 27.
+
+So again when Penelope at last recognized her husband:--
+
+     "Then from her eyelids the quick tears did start
+     And she ran to him from her place, and threw
+     Her arms about his neck, and a warm dew
+     Of kisses poured upon him, and thus spake:"
+     --Book xxiii.  st.  27.
+
+
+The vivid recollection of our former home, or of long-past happy days,
+readily causes the eyes to be suffused with tears; but here, again,
+the thought naturally occurs that these days will never return. In such
+cases we may be said to sympathize with ourselves in our present, in
+comparison with our former, state. Sympathy with the distresses of
+others, even with the imaginary distresses of a heroine in a pathetic
+story, for whom we feel no affection, readily excites tears. So does
+sympathy with the happiness of others, as with that of a lover, at last
+successful after many hard trials in a well-told tale.
+
+Sympathy appears to constitute a separate or distinct emotion; and it is
+especially apt to excite the lacrymal glands. This holds good whether
+we give or receive sympathy. Every one must have noticed how readily
+children burst out crying if we pity them for some small hurt. With the
+melancholic insane, as Dr. Crichton Browne informs me, a kind word will
+often plunge them into unrestrained weeping. As soon as we express our
+pity for the grief of a friend, tears often come into our own eyes. The
+feeling of sympathy is commonly explained by assuming that, when we see
+or hear of suffering in another, the idea of suffering is called up so
+vividly in our own minds that we ourselves suffer. But this explanation
+is hardly sufficient, for it does not account for the intimate alliance
+between sympathy and affection. We undoubtedly sympathize far more
+deeply with a beloved than with an indifferent person; and the sympathy
+of the one gives us far more relief than that of the other. Yet
+assuredly we can sympathize with those for whom we feel no affection.
+
+Why suffering, when actually experienced by ourselves, excites weeping,
+has been discussed in a former chapter. With respect to joy, its natural
+and universal expression is laughter; and with all the races of man loud
+laughter leads to the secretion of tears more freely than does any other
+cause excepting distress. The suffusion of the eyes with tears, which
+undoubtedly occurs under great joy, though there is no laughter, can, as
+it seems to me, be explained through habit and association on the same
+principles as the effusion of tears from grief, although there is no
+screaming. Nevertheless it is not a little remarkable that sympathy with
+the distresses of others should excite tears more freely than our own
+distress; and this certainly is the case. Many a man, from whose eyes
+no suffering of his own could wring a tear, has shed tears at the
+sufferings of a beloved friend. It is still more remarkable that
+sympathy with the happiness or good fortune of those whom we tenderly
+love should lead to the same result, whilst a similar happiness felt
+by ourselves would leave our eyes dry. We should, however, bear in
+mind that the long-continued habit of restraint which is so powerful in
+checking the free flow of tears from bodily pain, has not been brought
+into play in preventing a moderate effusion of tears in sympathy with
+the sufferings or happiness of others.
+
+Music has a wonderful power, as I have elsewhere attempted to show,[824]
+of recalling in a vague and indefinite manner, those strong emotions
+which were felt during long-past ages, when, as is probable, our early
+progenitors courted each other by the aid of vocal tones. And as several
+of our strongest emotions--grief, great joy, love, and sympathy--lead to
+the free secretion of tears, it is not surprising that music should be
+apt to cause our eyes to become suffused with tears, especially when
+we are already softened by any of the tenderer feelings. Music often
+produces another peculiar effect. We know that every strong sensation,
+emotion, or excitement--extreme pain, rage, terror, joy, or the passion
+of love--all have a special tendency to cause the muscles to tremble;
+and the thrill or slight shiver which runs down the backbone and limbs
+of many persons when they are powerfully affected by music, seems to
+bear the same relation to the above trembling of the body, as a slight
+suffusion of tears from the power of music does to weeping from any
+strong and real emotion.
+
+_Devotion_.--As devotion is, in some degree, related to affection,
+though mainly consisting of reverence, often combined with fear, the
+expression of this state of mind may here be briefly noticed. With some
+sects, both past and present, religion and love have been strangely
+combined; and it has even been maintained, lamentable as the fact may
+be, that the holy kiss of love differs but little from that which a
+man bestows on a woman, or a woman on a man.[825] Devotion is chiefly
+expressed by the face being directed towards the heavens, with the
+eyeballs upturned. Sir C. Bell remarks that, at the approach of sleep,
+or of a fainting-fit, or of death, the pupils are drawn upwards and
+inwards; and he believes that "when we are wrapt in devotional feelings,
+and outward impressions are unheeded, the eyes are raised by an action
+neither taught nor acquired." and that this is due to the same cause as
+in the above cases.[826] That the eyes are upturned during sleep is,
+as I hear from Professor Donders, certain. With babies, whilst sucking
+their mother's breast, this movement of the eyeballs often gives to them
+an absurd appearance of ecstatic delight; and here it may be clearly
+perceived that a struggle is going on against the position naturally
+assumed during sleep. But Sir C. Bell's explanation of the fact, which
+rests on the assumption that certain muscles are more under the control
+of the will than others is, as I hear from Professor Donders, incorrect.
+As the eyes are often turned up in prayer, without the mind being so
+much absorbed in thought as to approach to the unconsciousness of sleep,
+the movement is probably a conventional one--the result of the common
+belief that Heaven, the source of Divine power to which we pray, is
+seated above us.
+
+A humble kneeling posture, with the hands upturned and palms joined,
+appears to us, from long habit, a gesture so appropriate to devotion,
+that it might be thought to be innate; but I have not met with any
+evidence to this effect with the various extra-European races of
+mankind. During the classical period of Roman history it does not
+appear, as I hear from an excellent classic, that the hands were thus
+joined during prayer. Mr. Rensleigh Wedgwood has apparently given[827]
+the true explanation, though this implies that the attitude is one of
+slavish subjection. "When the suppliant kneels and holds up his
+hands with the palms joined, he represents a captive who proves the
+completeness of his submission by offering up his hands to be bound
+by the victor. It is the pictorial representation of the Latin _dare
+manus_, to signify submission." Hence it is not probable that either
+the uplifting of the eyes or the joining of the open hands, under
+the influence of devotional feelings, are innate or truly expressive
+actions; and this could hardly have been expected, for it is very
+doubtful whether feelings, such as we should now rank as devotional,
+affected the hearts of men, whilst they remained during past ages in an
+uncivilized condition.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. -- REFLECTION--MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER--SULKINESS--DETERMINATION.
+
+The act of frowning--Reflection with an effort, or with the
+perception of something difficult or disagreeable--Abstracted
+meditation--Ill-temper--Moroseness--Obstinacy Sulkiness and
+pouting--Decision or determination--The firm closure of the mouth.
+
+
+THE corrugators, by their contraction, lower the eyebrows and bring them
+together, producing vertical furrows on the forehead--that is, a frown.
+Sir C. Bell, who erroneously thought that the corrugator was peculiar to
+man, ranks it as "the most remarkable muscle of the human face. It
+knits the eyebrows with an energetic effort, which unaccountably, but
+irresistibly, conveys the idea of mind." Or, as he elsewhere says, "when
+the eyebrows are knit, energy of mind is apparent, and there is the
+mingling of thought and emotion with the savage and brutal rage of the
+mere animal."[901] There is much truth in these remarks, but hardly
+the whole truth. Dr. Duchenne has called the corrugator the muscle
+of reflection;[902] but this name, without some limitation, cannot be
+considered as quite correct.
+
+A man may be absorbed in the deepest thought, and his brow will remain
+smooth until he encounters some obstacle in his train of reasoning,
+or is interrupted by some disturbance, and then a frown passes like
+a shadow over his brow. A half-starved man may think intently how to
+obtain food, but he probably will not frown unless he encounters either
+in thought or action some difficulty, or finds the food when obtained
+nauseous. I have noticed that almost everyone instantly frowns if he
+perceives a strange or bad taste in what he is eating. I asked several
+persons, without explaining my object, to listen intently to a very
+gentle tapping sound, the nature and source of which they all perfectly
+knew, and not one frowned; but a man who joined us, and who could not
+conceive what we were all doing in profound silence, when asked to
+listen, frowned much, though not in an ill-temper, and said he could
+not in the least understand what we all wanted. Dr. Piderit[903] who
+has published remarks to the same effect, adds that stammerers generally
+frown in speaking, and that a man in doing even so trifling a thing as
+pulling on a boot, frowns if he finds it too tight. Some persons are
+such habitual frowners, that the mere effort of speaking almost always
+causes their brows to contract.
+
+Men of all races frown when they are in any way perplexed in thought,
+as I infer from the answers which I have received to my queries; but
+I framed them badly, confounding absorbed meditation with perplexed
+reflection. Nevertheless, it is clear that the Australians, Malays,
+Hindoos, and Kafirs of South Africa frown, when they are puzzled.
+Dobritzhoffer remarks that the Guaranies of South America on like
+occasions knit their brows.[904]
+
+From these considerations, we may conclude that frowning is not the
+expression of simple reflection, however profound, or of attention,
+however close, but of something difficult or displeasing encountered in
+a train of thought or in action. Deep reflection can, however, seldom
+be long carried on without some difficulty, so that it will generally be
+accompanied by a frown. Hence it is that frowning commonly gives to the
+countenance, as Sir C. Bell remarks, an aspect of intellectual energy.
+But in order that this effect may be produced, the eyes must be clear
+and steady, or they may be cast downwards, as often occurs in deep
+thought. The countenance must not be otherwise disturbed, as in the case
+of an ill-tempered or peevish man, or of one who shows the effects of
+prolonged suffering, with dulled eyes and drooping jaw, or who perceives
+a bad taste in his food, or who finds it difficult to perform some
+trifling act, such as threading a needle. In these cases a frown may
+often be seen, but it will be accompanied by some other expression,
+which will entirely prevent the countenance having an appearance of
+intellectual energy or of profound thought.
+
+We may now inquire how it is that a frown should express the perception
+of something difficult or disagreeable, either in thought or action. In
+the same way as naturalists find it advisable to trace the embryological
+development of an organ in order fully to understand its structure, so
+with the movements of expression it is advisable to follow as nearly
+as possible the same plan. The earliest and almost sole expression
+seen during the first days of infancy, and then often exhibited is that
+displayed during the act of screaming; and screaming is excited, both at
+first and for some time afterwards, by every distressing or displeasing
+sensation and emotion,--by hunger, pain, anger, jealousy, fear, &c. At
+such times the muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted; and this,
+as I believe, explains to a large extent the act of frowning during the
+remainder of our lives. I repeatedly observed my own infants, from under
+the age of one week to that of two or three months, and found that when
+a screaming-fit came on gradually, the first sign was the contraction of
+the corrugators, which produced a slight frown, quickly followed by
+the contraction of the other muscles round the eyes. When an infant is
+uncomfortable or unwell, little frowns--as I record in my notes--may
+be seen incessantly passing like shadows over its face; these being
+generally, but not always, followed sooner or later by a crying-fit. For
+instance, I watched for some time a baby, between seven and eight weeks
+old, sucking some milk which was cold, and therefore displeasing to him;
+and a steady little frown was maintained all the time. This was never
+developed into an actual crying-fit, though occasionally every stage of
+close approach could be observed.
+
+As the habit of contracting the brows has been followed by infants
+during innumerable generations, at the commencement of every crying or
+screaming fit, it has become firmly associated with the incipient
+sense of something distressing or disagreeable. Hence under similar
+circumstances it would be apt to be continued during maturity, although
+never then developed into a crying-fit. Screaming or weeping begins to
+be voluntarily restrained at an early period of life, whereas frowning
+is hardly ever restrained at any age. It is perhaps worth notice that
+with children much given to weeping, anything which perplexes their
+minds, and which would cause most other children merely to frown,
+readily makes them weep. So with certain classes of the insane, any
+effort of mind, however slight, which with an habitual frowner would
+cause a slight frown, leads to their weeping in an unrestrained manner.
+It is not more surprising that the habit of contracting the brows at
+the first perception of something distressing, although gained during
+infancy, should be retained during the rest of our lives, than that many
+other associated habits acquired at an early age should be permanently
+retained both by man and the lower animals. For instance, full-grown
+cats, when feeling warm and comfortable, often retain the habit of
+alternately protruding their fore-feet with extended toes, which habit
+they practised for a definite purpose whilst sucking their mothers.
+
+Another and distinct cause has probably strengthened the habit of
+frowning, whenever the mind is intent on any subject and encounters some
+difficulty. Vision is the most important of all the senses, and during
+primeval times the closest attention must have been incessantly:
+directed towards distant objects for the sake of obtaining prey and
+avoiding danger. I remember being struck, whilst travelling in parts of
+South America, which were dangerous from the presence of Indians, how
+incessantly, yet as it appeared unconsciously, the half-wild Gauchos
+closely scanned the whole horizon. Now, when any one with no covering on
+his head (as must have been aboriginally the case with mankind), strives
+to the utmost to distinguish in broad daylight, and especially if the
+sky is bright, a distant object, he almost invariably contracts his
+brows to prevent the entrance of too much light; the lower eyelids,
+cheeks, and upper lip being at the same time raised, so as to lessen the
+orifice of the eyes. I have purposely asked several persons, young and
+old, to look, under the above circumstances, at distant objects, making
+them believe that I only wished to test the power of their vision; and
+they all behaved in the manner just described. Some of them, also, put
+their open, flat hands over their eyes to keep out the excess of light.
+Gratiolet, after making some remarks to nearly the same effect,[905]
+says, "Ce sont la des attitudes de vision difficile." He concludes that
+the muscles round the eyes contract partly for the sake of excluding too
+much light (which appears to me the more important end), and partly to
+prevent all rays striking the retina, except those which come direct
+from the object that is scrutinized. Mr. Bowman, whom I consulted on
+this point, thinks that the contraction of the surrounding muscles may,
+in addition, "partly sustain the consensual movements of the two eyes,
+by giving a firmer support while the globes are brought to binocular
+vision by their own proper muscles."
+
+As the effort of viewing with care under a bright light a distant object
+is both difficult and irksome, and as this effort has been habitually
+accompanied, during numberless generations, by the contraction of the
+eyebrows, the habit of frowning will thus have been much strengthened;
+although it was originally practised during infancy from a quite
+independent cause, namely as the first step in the protection of the
+eyes during screaming. There is, indeed, much analogy, as far as the
+state of the mind is concerned, between intently scrutinizing a distant
+object, and following out an obscure train of thought, or performing
+some little and troublesome mechanical work. The belief that the habit
+of contracting the brows is continued when there is no need whatever to
+exclude too much light, receives support from the cases formerly
+alluded to, in which the eyebrows or eyelids are acted on under certain
+circumstances in a useless manner, from having been similarly used,
+under analogous circumstances, for a serviceable purpose. For instance,
+we voluntarily close our eyes when we do not wish to see any object, and
+we are apt to close them, when we reject a proposition, as if we could
+not or would not see it; or when we think about something horrible.
+We raise our eyebrows when we wish to see quickly all round us, and
+we often do the same, when we earnestly desire to remember something;
+acting as if we endeavoured to see it.
+
+
+_Abstraction. Meditation_.--When a person is lost in thought with his
+mind absent, or, as it is sometimes said, "when he is in a brown study,"
+he does not frown, but his eyes appear vacant. The lower eyelids
+are generally raised and wrinkled, in the same manner as when a
+short-sighted person tries to distinguish a distant object; and the
+upper orbicular muscles are at the same time slightly contracted.
+The wrinkling of the lower eyelids under these circumstances has been
+observed with some savages, as by Mr. Dyson Lacy with the Australians
+of Queensland, and several times by Mr. Geach with the Malays of the
+interior of Malacca. What the meaning or cause of this action may be,
+cannot at present be explained; but here we have another instance of
+movement round the eyes in relation to the state of the mind.
+
+The vacant expression of the eyes is very peculiar, and at once shows
+when a man is completely lost in thought. Professor Donders has, with
+his usual kindness, investigated this subject for me. He has observed
+others in this condition, and has been himself observed by Professor
+Engelmann. The eyes are not then fixed on any object, and therefore not,
+as I had imagined, on some distant object. The lines of vision of the
+two eyes even often become slightly divergent; the divergence, if the
+head be held vertically, with the plane of vision horizontal, amounting
+to an angle of 2'0 as a maximum. This was ascertained by observing the
+crossed double image of a distant object. When the head droops forward,
+as often occurs with a man absorbed in thought, owing to the general
+relaxation of his muscles, if the plane of vision be still horizontal,
+the eyes are necessarily a little turned upwards, and then the
+divergence is as much as 3'0, or 3'0 5': if the eyes are turned still
+more upwards, it amounts to between 6'0 and 7'0. Professor Donders
+attributes this divergence to the almost complete relaxation of certain
+muscles of the eyes, which would be apt to follow from the mind being
+wholly absorbed.[906] The active condition of the muscles of the eyes is
+that of convergence; and Professor Donders remarks, as bearing on their
+divergence during a period of complete abstraction, that when one eye
+becomes blind, it almost always, after a short lapse of time, deviates
+outwards; for its muscles are no longer used in moving the eyeball
+inwards for the sake of binocular vision.
+
+Perplexed reflection is often accompanied by certain movements or
+gestures. At such times we commonly raise our hands to our foreheads,
+mouths, or chins; but we do not act thus, as far as I have seen, when we
+are quite lost in meditation, and no difficulty is encountered. Plautus,
+describing in one of his plays[907] a puzzled man, says, "Now look, he
+has pillared his chin upon his hand." Even so trifling and apparently
+unmeaning a gesture as the raising of the hand to the face has been
+observed with some savages. Al. J. Mansel Weale has seen it with the
+Kafirs of South Africa; and the native chief Gaika adds, that men then
+"sometimes pull their beards." Mr. Washington Matthews, who attended
+to some of the wildest tribes of Indians in the western regions of the
+United States, remarks that he has seen them when concentrating their
+thoughts, bring their "hands, usually the thumb and index finger, in
+contact with some part of the face, commonly the upper lip." We can
+understand why the forehead should be pressed or rubbed, as deep thought
+tries the brain; but why the hand should be raised to the mouth or face
+is far from clear.
+
+_Ill-temper_.--We have seen that frowning is the natural expression of
+some difficulty encountered, or of something disagreeable experienced
+either in thought or action, and he whose mind is often and readily
+affected in this way, will be apt to be ill-tempered, or slightly
+angry, or peevish, and will commonly show it by frowning. But a cross
+expression, due to a frown, may be counteracted, if the mouth appears
+sweet, from being habitually drawn into a smile, and the eyes are bright
+and cheerful. So it will be if the eye is clear and steady, and there is
+the appearance of earnest reflection. Frowning, with some depression
+of the corners of the mouth, which is a sign of grief, gives an air of
+peevishness. If a child (see Plate IV., fig. 2)[908] frowns much whilst
+crying, but does not strongly contract in the usual manner the orbicular
+muscles, a well-marked expression of anger or even of rage, together
+with misery, is displayed.
+
+[Illustration: Ill-temper. Plate IV]
+
+If the whole frowning brow be drawn much downward by the contraction of
+the pyramidal muscles of the nose, which produces transverse wrinkles
+or folds across the base of the nose, the expression becomes one of
+moroseness. Duchenne believes that the contraction of this muscle,
+without any frowning, gives the appearance of extreme and aggressive
+hardness.[909] But I much doubt whether this is a true or natural
+expression. I have shown Duchenne's photograph of a young man, with this
+muscle strongly contracted by means of galvanism, to eleven persons,
+including some artists, and none of them could form an idea what was
+intended, except one, a girl, who answered correctly, "surely reserve."
+When I first looked at this photograph, knowing what was intended, my
+imagination added, as I believe, what was necessary, namely, a frowning
+brow; and consequently the expression appeared to me true and extremely
+morose.
+
+A firmly closed mouth, in addition to a lowered and frowning brow, gives
+determination to the expression, or may make it obstinate and sullen.
+How it comes that the firm closure of the mouth gives the appearance
+of determination will presently be discussed. An expression of sullen
+obstinacy has been clearly recognized by my informants, in the natives
+of six different regions of Australia. It is well marked, according to
+Mr. Scott, with the Hindoos. It has been recognized with the Malays,
+Chinese, Kafirs, Abyssinians, and in a conspicuous degree, according to
+Dr. Rothrock, with the wild Indians of North America, and according to
+Mr. D. Forbes, with the Aymaras of Bolivia. I have also observed it with
+the Araucanos of southern Chili. Mr. Dyson Lacy remarks that the natives
+of Australia, when in this frame of mind, sometimes fold their arms
+across their breasts, an attitude which may be seen with us. A firm
+determination, amounting to obstinacy, is, also, sometimes expressed by
+both shoulders being kept raised, the meaning of which gesture will be
+explained in the following chapter.
+
+With young children sulkiness is shown by pouting, or, as it is
+sometimes called, "making a snout."[910] When the corners of the mouth
+are much depressed, the lower lip is a little everted and protruded;
+and this is likewise called a pout. But the pouting here referred to,
+consists of the protrusion of both lips into a tubular form, sometimes
+to such an extent as to project as far as the end of the nose, if this
+be short. Pouting is generally accompanied by frowning, and sometimes
+by the utterance of a booing or whooing noise. This expression is
+remarkable, as almost the sole one, as far as I know, which is exhibited
+much more plainly during childhood, at least with Europeans, than during
+maturity. There is, however, some tendency to the protrusion of the lips
+with the adults of all races under the influence of great rage. Some
+children pout when they are shy, and they can then hardly be called
+sulky.
+
+From inquiries which I have made in several large families, pouting does
+not seem very common with European children; but it prevails throughout
+the world, and must be both common and strongly marked with most savage
+races, as it has caught the attention of many observers. It has been
+noticed in eight different districts of Australia; and one of my
+informants remarks how greatly the lips of the children are then
+protruded. Two observers have seen pouting with the children of Hindoos;
+three, with those of the Kafirs and Fingoes of South Africa, and with
+the Hottentots; and two, with the children of the wild Indians of North
+America. Pouting has also been observed with the Chinese, Abyssinians,
+Malays of Malacca, Dyaks of Borneo, and often with the New Zealanders.
+Mr. Mansel Weale informs me that he has seen the lips much protruded,
+not only with the children of the Kafirs, but with the adults of both
+sexes when sulky; and Mr. Stack has sometimes observed the same thing
+with the men, and very frequently with the women of New Zealand. A trace
+of the same expression may occasionally be detected even with adult
+Europeans.
+
+We thus see that the protrusion of the lips, especially with young
+children, is characteristic of sulkiness throughout the greater part of
+the world. This movement apparently results from the retention, chiefly
+during youth, of a primordial habit, or from an occasional reversion to
+it. Young orangs and chimpanzees protrude their lips to an extraordinary
+degree, as described in a former chapter, when they are discontented,
+somewhat angry, or sulky; also when they are surprised, a little
+frightened, and even when slightly pleased. Their mouths are protruded
+apparently for the sake of making the various noises proper to
+these several states of mind; and its shape, as I observed with the
+chimpanzee, differed slightly when the cry of pleasure and that of anger
+were uttered. As soon as these animals become enraged, the shape of the
+month wholly changes, and the teeth are exposed. The adult orang when
+wounded is said to emit "a singular cry, consisting at first of high
+notes, which at length deepen into a low roar. While giving out the high
+notes he thrusts out his lips into a funnel shape, but in uttering the
+low notes he holds his mouth wide open."[911] With the gorilla, the
+lower lip is said to be capable of great elongation. If then our
+semi-human progenitors protruded their lips when sulky or a little
+angered, in the same manner as do the existing anthropoid apes, it
+is not an anomalous, though a curious fact, that our children should
+exhibit, when similarly affected, a trace of the same expression,
+together with some tendency to utter a noise. For it is not at all
+unusual for animals to retain, more or less perfectly, during early
+youth, and subsequently to lose, characters which were aboriginally
+possessed by their adult progenitors, and which are still retained by
+distinct species, their near relations.
+
+Nor is it an anomalous fact that the children of savages should exhibit
+a stronger tendency to protrude their lips, when sulky, than the
+children of civilized Europeans; for the essence of savagery seems
+to consist in the retention of a primordial condition, and this
+occasionally holds good even with bodily peculiarities.[912] It may be
+objected to this view of the origin of pouting, that the anthropoid
+apes likewise protrude their lips when astonished and even when a little
+pleased; whilst with us this expression is generally confined to a sulky
+frame of mind. But we shall see in a future chapter that with men of
+various races surprise does sometimes lead to a slight protrusion of the
+lips, though great surprise or astonishment is more commonly shown by
+the mouth being widely opened. As when we smile or laugh we draw back
+the corners of the mouth, we have lost any tendency to protrude the
+lips, when pleased, if indeed our early progenitors thus expressed
+pleasure.
+
+A little gesture made by sulky children may here be noticed, namely,
+their "showing a cold shoulder." This has a different meaning, as, I
+believe, from the keeping both shoulders raised. A cross child, sitting
+on its parent's knee, will lift up the near shoulder, then jerk it away,
+as if from a caress, and afterwards give a backward push with it, as
+if to push away the offender. I have seen a child, standing at some
+distance from any one, clearly express its feelings by raising one
+shoulder, giving it a little backward movement, and then turning away
+its whole body.
+
+
+_Decision or determination_.--The firm closure of the mouth tends to
+give an expression of determination or decision to the countenance.
+No determined man probably ever had an habitually gaping mouth. Hence,
+also, a small and weak lower jaw, which seems to indicate that the
+mouth is not habitually and firmly closed, is commonly thought to be
+characteristic of feebleness of character. A prolonged effort of any
+kind, whether of body or mind, implies previous determination; and if it
+can be shown that the mouth is generally closed with firmness before
+and during a great and continued exertion of the muscular system, then,
+through the principle of association, the mouth would almost certainly
+be closed as soon as any determined resolution was taken. Now several
+observers have noticed that a man, in commencing any violent muscular
+effort, invariably first distends his lungs with air, and then
+compresses it by the strong contraction of the muscles of the chest; and
+to effect this the mouth must be firmly closed. Moreover, as soon as
+the man is compelled to draw breath, he still keeps his chest as much
+distended as possible.
+
+Various causes have been assigned for this manner of acting. Sir C.
+Bell maintains[913] that the chest is distended with air, and is kept
+distended at such times, in order to give a fixed support to the muscles
+which are thereto attached. Hence, as he remarks, when two men are
+engaged in a deadly contest, a terrible silence prevails, broken only
+by hard stifled breathing. There is silence, because to expel the air in
+the utterance of any sound would be to relax the support for the muscles
+of the arms. If an outcry is heard, supposing the struggle to take
+place in the dark, we at once know that one of the two has given up in
+despair.
+
+Gratiolet admits[914] that when a man has to struggle with another to
+his utmost, or has to support a great weight, or to keep for a long time
+the same forced attitude, it is necessary for him first to make a deep
+inspiration, and then to cease breathing; but he thinks that Sir C.
+Bell's explanation is erroneous. He maintains that arrested respiration
+retards the circulation of the blood, of which I believe there is no
+doubt, and he adduces some curious evidence from the structure of the
+lower animals, showing, on the one hand, that a retarded circulation is
+necessary for prolonged muscular exertion, and, on the other hand, that
+a rapid circulation is necessary for rapid movements. According to this
+view, when we commence any great exertion, we close our mouths and stop
+breathing, in order to retard the circulation of the blood. Gratiolet
+sums up the subject by saying, "C'est la la vraie theorie de l'effort
+continu;" but how far this theory is admitted by other physiologists I
+do not know.
+
+Dr. Piderit accounts[915] for the firm closure of the mouth during
+strong muscular exertion, on the principle that the influence of the
+will spreads to other muscles besides those necessarily brought into
+action in making any particular exertion; and it is natural that the
+muscles of respiration and of the mouth, from being so habitually used,
+should be especially liable to be thus acted on. It appears to me that
+there probably is some truth in this view, for we are apt to press the
+teeth hard together during violent exertion, and this is not requisite
+to prevent expiration, whilst the muscles of the chest are strongly
+contracted.
+
+Lastly, when a man has to perform some delicate and difficult operation,
+not requiring the exertion of any strength, he nevertheless generally
+closes his mouth and ceases for a time to breathe; but he acts thus
+in order that the movements of his chest may not disturb, those of his
+arms. A person, for instance, whilst threading a needle, may be seen to
+compress his lips and either to stop breathing, or to breathe as quietly
+as possible. So it was, as formerly stated, with a young and sick
+chimpanzee, whilst it amused itself by killing flies with its knuckles,
+as they buzzed about on the window-panes. To perform an action, however
+trifling, if difficult, implies some amount of previous determination.
+
+There appears nothing improbable in all the above assigned causes having
+come into play in different degrees, either conjointly or separately,
+on various occasions. The result would be a well-established habit, now
+perhaps inherited, of firmly closing the mouth at the commencement
+of and during any violent and prolonged exertion, or any delicate
+operation. Through the principle of association there would also be
+a strong tendency towards this same habit, as soon as the mind had
+resolved on any particular action or line of conduct, even before there
+was any bodily exertion, or if none were requisite. The habitual and
+firm closure of the mouth would thus come to show decision of character;
+and decision readily passes into obstinacy.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X. -- HATRED AND ANGER.
+
+Hatred--Rage, effects of on the system--Uncovering of the teeth--Rage in
+the insane--Anger and indignation--As expressed by the various races of
+man--Sneering and defiance--The uncovering of the canine tooth on one
+side of the face.
+
+
+IF we have suffered or expect to suffer some wilful injury from a man,
+or if he is in any way offensive to us, we dislike him; and dislike
+easily rises into hatred. Such feelings, if experienced in a moderate
+degree, are not clearly expressed by any movement of the body or
+features, excepting perhaps by a certain gravity of behaviour, or by
+some ill-temper. Few individuals, however, can long reflect about a
+hated person, without feeling and exhibiting signs of indignation or
+rage. But if the offending person be quite insignificant, we experience
+merely disdain or contempt. If, on the other hand, he is all-powerful,
+then hatred passes into terror, as when a slave thinks about a cruel
+master, or a savage about a bloodthirsty malignant deity.[1001] Most of
+our emotions are so closely connected with their expression, that they
+hardly exist if the body remains passive--the nature of the expression
+depending in chief part on the nature of the actions which have been
+habitually performed under this particular state of the mind. A man,
+for instance, may know that his life is in the extremest peril, and may
+strongly desire to save if; yet, as Louis XVI. said, when surrounded by
+a fierce mob, "Am I afraid? feel my pulse." So a man may intensely hate
+another, but until his bodily frame is affected, he cannot be said to be
+enraged.
+
+
+_Rage_.--I have already had occasion to treat of this emotion in the
+third chapter, when discussing the direct influence of the excited
+sensorium on the body, in combination with the effects of habitually
+associated actions. Rage exhibits itself in the most diversified manner.
+The heart and circulation are always affected; the face reddens or
+becomes purple, with the veins on the forehead and neck distended. The
+reddening of the skin has been observed with the copper-coloured Indians
+of South America,[1002] and even, as it is said, on the white cicatrices
+left by old wounds on negroes.[1003] Monkeys also redden from passion.
+With one of my own infants, under four months old, I repeatedly observed
+that the first symptom of an approaching passion was the rushing of the
+blood into his bare scalp. On the other hand, the action of the heart
+is sometimes so much impeded by great rage, that the countenance becomes
+pallid or livid,[1004] and not a few men with heart-disease have dropped
+down dead under this powerful emotion.
+
+The respiration is likewise affected; the chest heaves, and the dilated
+nostrils quiver.[1005] As Tennyson writes, "sharp breaths of anger
+puffed her fairy nostrils out." Hence we have such expressions as
+"breathing out vengeance," and "fuming with anger."[1006]
+
+The excited brain gives strength to the muscles, and at the same time
+energy to the will. The body is commonly held erect ready for instant
+action, but sometimes it is bent forward towards the offending person,
+with the limbs more or less rigid. The mouth is generally closed with
+firmness, showing fixed determination, and the teeth are clenched or
+ground together. Such gestures as the raising of the arms, with the
+fists clenched, as if to strike the offender, are common. Few men in a
+great passion, and telling some one to begone, can resist acting as
+if they intended to strike or push the man violently away. The desire,
+indeed, to strike often becomes so intolerably strong, that inanimate
+objects are struck or dashed to the ground; but the gestures frequently
+become altogether purposeless or frantic. Young children, when in a
+violent rage roll on the ground on their backs or bellies, screaming,
+kicking, scratching, or biting everything within reach. So it is, as I
+hear from Mr. Scott, with Hindoo children; and, as we have seen, with
+the young of the anthropomorphous apes.
+
+But the muscular system is often affected in a wholly different way; for
+trembling is a frequent consequence of extreme rage. The paralysed
+lips then refuse to obey the will, "and the voice sticks in the
+throat;"[1007] or it is rendered loud, harsh, and discordant. If
+there be much and rapid speaking, the mouth froths. The hair sometimes
+bristles; but I shall return to this subject in another chapter, when I
+treat of the mingled emotions of rage and terror. There is in most cases
+a strongly-marked frown on the forehead; for this follows from the sense
+of anything displeasing or difficult, together with concentration of
+mind. But sometimes the brow, instead of being much contracted and
+lowered, remains smooth, with the glaring eyes kept widely open. The
+eyes are always bright, or may, as Homer expresses it, glisten with
+fire. They are sometimes bloodshot, and are said to protrude from their
+sockets--the result, no doubt, of the head being gorged with blood, as
+shown by the veins being distended. According to Gratiolet, "the pupils
+are always contracted in rage," and I hear from Dr. Crichton Browne that
+this is the case in the fierce delirium of meningitis; but the movements
+of the iris under the influence of the different emotions is a very
+obscure subject.
+
+Shakspeare sums up the chief characteristics of rage as follows:--
+
+      "In peace there's nothing so becomes a man,
+      As modest stillness and humility;
+      But when the blast of war blows in our ears,
+      Then imitate the action of the tiger:
+      Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood,
+      Then lend the eye a terrible aspect;
+      Now set the teeth, and stretch the nostril wide,
+      Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit
+      To his full height! On, on, you noblest English."
+     _Henry V_., act iii. sc. 1.
+
+
+The lips are sometimes protruded during rage in a manner, the meaning
+of which I do not understand, unless it depends on our descent from some
+ape-like animal. Instances have been observed, not only with Europeans,
+but with the Australians and Hindoos. The lips, however, are much more
+commonly retracted, the grinning or clenched teeth being thus
+exposed. This has been noticed by almost every one who has written on
+expression.[1009] The appearance is as if the teeth were uncovered,
+ready for seizing or tearing an enemy, though there may be no intention
+of acting in this manner. Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen this grinning
+expression with the Australians, when quarrelling, and so has Gaika with
+the Kafirs of South America. Dickens,[1010] in speaking of an atrocious
+murderer who had just been caught, and was surrounded by a furious mob,
+describes "the people as jumping up one behind another, snarling with
+their teeth, and making at him like wild beasts." Every one who has had
+much to do with young children must have seen how naturally they take to
+biting, when in a passion. It seems as instinctive in them as in young
+crocodiles, who snap their little jaws as soon as they emerge from the
+egg.
+
+A grinning expression and the protrusion of the lips appear sometimes
+to go together. A close observer says that he has seen many instances
+of intense hatred (which can hardly be distinguished from rage, more or
+less suppressed) in Orientals, and once in an elderly English woman. In
+all these cases there "was a grin, not a scowl--the lips lengthening,
+the cheeks settling downwards, the eyes half-closed, whilst the brow
+remained perfectly calm."[1011]
+
+This retraction of the lips and uncovering of the teeth during paroxysms
+of rage, as if to bite the offender, is so remarkable, considering how
+seldom the teeth are used by men in fighting, that I inquired from Dr.
+J. Crichton Browne whether the habit was common in the insane whose
+passions are unbridled. He informs me that he has repeatedly observed
+it both with the insane and idiotic, and has given me the following
+illustrations:--
+
+Shortly before receiving my letter, he witnessed an uncontrollable
+outbreak of anger and delusive jealousy in an insane lady. At first she
+vituperated her husband, and whilst doing so foamed at the mouth. Next
+she approached close to him with compressed lips, and a virulent set
+frown. Then she drew back her lips, especially the corners of the upper
+lip, and showed her teeth, at the same time aiming a vicious blow at
+him. A second case is that of an old soldier, who, when he is requested
+to conform to the rules of the establishment, gives way to discontent,
+terminating in fury. He commonly begins by asking Dr. Browne whether
+he is not ashamed to treat him in such a manner. He then swears and
+blasphemes, paces tip and down, tosses his arms wildly about, and
+menaces any one near him. At last, as his exasperation culminates, he
+rushes up towards Dr. Browne with a peculiar sidelong movement, shaking
+his doubled fist, and threatening destruction. Then his upper lip may
+be seen to be raised, especially at the corners, so that his huge canine
+teeth are exhibited. He hisses forth his curses through his set teeth,
+and his whole expression assumes the character of extreme ferocity.
+A similar description is applicable to another man, excepting that he
+generally foams at the mouth and spits, dancing and jumping about in
+a strange rapid manner, shrieking out his maledictions in a shrill
+falsetto voice.
+
+Dr. Browne also informs me of the case of an epileptic idiot, incapable
+of independent movements, and who spends the whole day in playing with
+some toys; but his temper is morose and easily roused into fierceness.
+When any one touches his toys, he slowly raises his head from its
+habitual downward position, and fixes his eyes on the offender, with a
+tardy yet angry scowl. If the annoyance be repeated, he draws back his
+thick lips and reveals a prominent row of hideous fangs (large canines
+being especially noticeable), and then makes a quick and cruel clutch
+with his open hand at the offending person. The rapidity of this clutch,
+as Dr. Browne remarks, is marvellous in a being ordinarily so torpid
+that he takes about fifteen seconds, when attracted by any noise, to
+turn his head from one side to the other. If, when thus incensed, a
+handkerchief, book, or other article, be placed into his hands, he drags
+it to his mouth and bites it. Mr. Nicol has likewise described to me two
+cases of insane patients, whose lips are retracted during paroxysms of
+rage.
+
+Dr. Maudsley, after detailing various strange animal-like traits in
+idiots, asks whether these are not due to the reappearance of primitive
+instincts--"a faint echo from a far-distant past, testifying to a
+kinship which man has almost outgrown." He adds, that as every human
+brain passes, in the course of its development, through the same stages
+as those occurring in the lower vertebrate animals, and as the brain
+of an idiot is in an arrested condition, we may presume that it "will
+manifest its most primitive functions, and no higher functions." Dr.
+Maudsley thinks that the same view may be extended to the brain in its
+degenerated condition in some insane patients; and asks, whence come
+"the savage snarl, the destructive disposition, the obscene language,
+the wild howl, the offensive habits, displayed by some of the insane?
+Why should a human being, deprived of his reason, ever become so
+brutal in character, as some do, unless he has the brute nature within
+him?"[1012] This question must, as it would appear, he answered in the
+affirmative.
+
+_Anger, Indignation_.--These states of the mind differ from rage only
+in degree, and there is no marked distinction in their characteristic
+signs. Under moderate anger the action of the heart is a little
+increased, the colour heightened, and the eyes become bright. The
+respiration is likewise a little hurried; and as all the muscles serving
+for this function act in association, the wings of the nostrils are
+somewhat raised to allow of a free indraught of air; and this is
+a highly characteristic sign of indignation. The mouth is commonly
+compressed, and there is almost always a frown on the brow. Instead of
+the frantic gestures of extreme rage, an indignant man unconsciously
+throws himself into an attitude ready for attacking or striking his
+enemy, whom he will perhaps scan from head to foot in defiance. He
+carries his head erect, with his chest well expanded, and the feet
+planted firmly on the ground. He holds his arms in various positions,
+with one or both elbows squared, or with the arms rigidly suspended by
+his sides. With Europeans the fists are commonly clenched.[1013] The
+figures 1 and 2 in Plate VI. are fairly good representations of men
+simulating indignation. Any one may see in a mirror, if he will vividly
+imagine that he has been insulted and demands an explanation in an angry
+tone of voice, that he suddenly and unconsciously throws himself into
+some such attitude.
+
+[Illustration: Anger and Indignation.  Plate VI]
+
+Rage, anger, and indignation are exhibited in nearly the same manner
+throughout the world; and the following descriptions may be worth giving
+as evidence of this, and as illustrations of some of the foregoing
+remarks. There is, however, an exception with respect to clenching the
+fists, which seems confined chiefly to the men who fight with their
+fists. With the Australians only one of my informants has seen the fists
+clenched. All agree about the body being held erect; and all, with two
+exceptions, state that the brows are heavily contracted. Some of them
+allude to the firmly-compressed mouth, the distended nostrils, and
+flashing eyes. According to the Rev. Mr. Taplin, rage, with the
+Australians, is expressed by the lips being protruded, the eyes being
+widely open; and in the case of the women by their dancing about and
+casting dust into the air. Another observer speaks of the native men,
+when enraged, throwing their arms wildly about.
+
+I have received similar accounts, except as to the clenching of
+the fists, in regard to the Malays of the Malacca peninsula, the
+Abyssinians, and the natives of South Africa. So it is with the Dakota
+Indians of North America; and, according to Mr. Matthews, they then hold
+their heads erect, frown, and often stalk away with long strides. Mr.
+Bridges states that the Fuegians, when enraged, frequently stamp on the
+ground, walk distractedly about, sometimes cry and grow pale. The Rev.
+Mr. Stack watched a New Zealand man and woman quarrelling, and made the
+following entry in his note-book: "Eyes dilated, body swayed violently
+backwards and forwards, head inclined forwards, fists clenched, now
+thrown behind the body, now directed towards each other's faces." Mr.
+Swinhoe says that my description agrees with what he has seen of the
+Chinese, excepting that an angry man generally inclines his body towards
+his antagonist, and pointing at him, pours forth a volley of abuse.
+
+Lastly, with respect to the natives of India, Mr. J. Scott has sent me
+a full description of their gestures and expression when enraged. Two
+low-caste Bengalees disputed about a loan. At first they were calm, but
+soon grew furious and poured forth the grossest abuse on each other's
+relations and progenitors for many generations past. Their gestures were
+very different from those of Europeans; for though their chests were
+expanded and shoulders squared, their arms remained rigidly suspended,
+with the elbows turned inwards and the hands alternately clenched and
+opened. Their shoulders were often raised high, and then again lowered.
+They looked fiercely at each other from under their lowered and strongly
+wrinkled brows, and their protruded lips were firmly closed. They
+approached each other, with heads and necks stretched forwards, and
+pushed, scratched, and grasped at each other. This protrusion of the
+head and body seems a common gesture with the enraged; and I have
+noticed it with degraded English women whilst quarrelling violently in
+the streets. In such cases it may be presumed that neither party expects
+to receive a blow from the other.
+
+A Bengalee employed in the Botanic Gardens was accused, in the presence
+of Mr. Scott, by the native overseer of having stolen a valuable plant.
+He listened silently and scornfully to the accusation; his attitude
+erect, chest expanded, mouth closed, lips protruding, eyes firmly
+set and penetrating. He then defiantly maintained his innocence, with
+upraised and clenched hands, his head being now pushed forwards, with
+the eyes widely open and eyebrows raised. Mr. Scott also watched two
+Mechis, in Sikhim, quarrelling about their share of payment. They soon
+got into a furious passion, and then their bodies became less erect,
+with their heads pushed forwards; they made grimaces at each other;
+their shoulders were raised; their arms rigidly bent inwards at the
+elbows, and their hands spasmodically closed, but not properly clenched.
+They continually approached and retreated from each other, and often
+raised their arms as if to strike, but their hands were open, and no
+blow was given. Mr. Scott made similar observations on the Lepchas whom
+he often saw quarrelling, and he noticed that they kept their arms rigid
+and almost parallel to their bodies, with the hands pushed somewhat
+backwards and partially closed, but not clenched.
+
+
+_Sneering, Defiance: Uncovering the canine tooth on one side_.--The
+expression which I wish here to consider differs but little from that
+already described, when the lips are retracted and the grinning teeth
+exposed. The difference consists solely in the upper lip being retracted
+in such a manner that the canine tooth on one side of the face alone
+is shown; the face itself being generally a little upturned and half
+averted from the person causing offence. The other signs of rage are not
+necessarily present. This expression may occasionally be observed in
+a person who sneers at or defies another, though there may be no real
+anger; as when any one is playfully accused of some fault, and answers,
+"I scorn the imputation." The expression is not a common one, but I
+have seen it exhibited with perfect distinctness by a lady who was being
+quizzed by another person. It was described by Parsons as long ago as
+1746, with an engraving, showing the uncovered canine on one side.[1014]
+Mr. Rejlander, without my having made any allusion to the subject,
+asked me whether I had ever noticed this expression, as he had been much
+struck by it. He has photographed for me (Plate IV. fig 1) a lady, who
+sometimes unintentionally displays the canine on one side, and who can
+do so voluntarily with unusual distinctness.
+
+The expression of a half-playful sneer graduates into one of great
+ferocity when, together with a heavily frowning brow and fierce eye, the
+canine tooth is exposed. A Bengalee boy was accused before Mr. Scott of
+some misdeed. The delinquent did not dare to give vent to his wrath
+in words, but it was plainly shown on his countenance, sometimes by a
+defiant frown, and sometimes "by a thoroughly canine snarl." When this
+was exhibited, "the corner of the lip over the eye-tooth, which happened
+in this case to be large and projecting, was raised on the side of his
+accuser, a strong frown being still retained on the brow." Sir C. Bell
+states[1015] that the actor Cooke could express the most determined hate
+"when with the oblique cast of his eyes he drew up the outer part of the
+upper lip, and discovered a sharp angular tooth."
+
+The uncovering of the canine tooth is the result of a double movement.
+The angle or corner of the mouth is drawn a little backwards, and at the
+same time a muscle which runs parallel to and near the nose draws up the
+outer part of the upper lip, and exposes the canine on this side of
+the face. The contraction of this muscle makes a distinct furrow on the
+cheek, and produces strong wrinkles under the eye, especially at its
+inner corner. The action is the same as that of a snarling dog; and a
+dog when pretending to fight often draws up the lip on one side alone,
+namely that facing his antagonist. Our word _sneer_ is in fact the
+same as _snarl_, which was originally _snar_, the _l_ "being merely an
+element implying continuance of action."[1016]
+
+I suspect that we see a trace of this same expression in what is called
+a derisive or sardonic smile. The lips are then kept joined or almost
+joined, but one corner of the mouth is retracted on the side towards the
+derided person; and this drawing back of the corner is part of a true
+sneer. Although some persons smile more on one side of their face than
+on the other, it is not easy to understand why in cases of derision the
+smile, if a real one, should so commonly be confined to one side. I have
+also on these occasions noticed a slight twitching of the muscle which
+draws up the outer part of the upper lip; and this movement, if fully
+carried out, would have uncovered the canine, and would have produced a
+true sneer.
+
+Mr. Bulmer, an Australian missionary in a remote part of Gipps' Land,
+says, in answer to my query about the uncovering of the canine on one
+side, "I find that the natives in snarling at each other speak with
+the teeth closed, the upper lip drawn to one side, and a general angry
+expression of face; but they look direct at the person addressed." Three
+other observers in Australia, one in Abyssinia, and one in China, answer
+my query on this head in the affirmative; but as the expression is rare,
+and as they enter into no details, I am afraid of implicitly trusting
+them. It is, however, by no means improbable that this animal-like
+expression may be more common with savages than with civilized races.
+Mr. Geach is an observer who may be fully trusted, and he has observed
+it on one occasion in a Malay in the interior of Malacca. The Rev. S.
+O. Glenie answers, "We have observed this expression with the natives of
+Ceylon, but not often." Lastly, in North America, Dr. Rothrock has seen
+it with some wild Indians, and often in a tribe adjoining the Atnahs.
+
+Although the upper lip is certainly sometimes raised on one side alone
+in sneering at or defying any one, I do not know that this is always the
+case, for the face is commonly half averted, and the expression is
+often momentary. The movement being confined to one side may not be an
+essential part of the expression, but may depend on the proper muscles
+being incapable of movement excepting on one side. I asked four persons
+to endeavour to act voluntarily in this manner; two could expose the
+canine only on the left side, one only on the right side, and the fourth
+on neither side. Nevertheless it is by no means certain that these same
+persons, if defying any one in earnest, would not unconsciously
+have uncovered their canine tooth on the side, whichever it might
+be, towards the offender. For we have seen that some persons cannot
+voluntarily make their eyebrows oblique, yet instantly act in this
+manner when affected by any real, although most trifling, cause of
+distress. The power of voluntarily uncovering the canine on one side
+of the face being thus often wholly lost, indicates that it is a rarely
+used and almost abortive action. It is indeed a surprising fact that man
+should possess the power, or should exhibit any tendency to its use; for
+Mr. Sutton has never noticed a snarling action in our nearest allies,
+namely, the monkeys in the Zoological Gardens, and he is positive that
+the baboons, though furnished with great canines, never act thus, but
+uncover all their teeth when feeling savage and ready for an attack.
+Whether the adult anthropomorphous apes, in the males of whom the
+canines are much larger than in the females, uncover them when prepared
+to fight, is not known.
+
+The expression here considered, whether that of a playful sneer or
+ferocious snarl, is one of the most curious which occurs in man. It
+reveals his animal descent; for no one, even if rolling on the ground in
+a deadly grapple with an enemy, and attempting to bite him, would try to
+use his canine teeth more than his other teeth. We may readily believe
+from our affinity to the anthropomorphous apes that our male semi-human
+progenitors possessed great canine teeth, and men are now occasionally
+born having them of unusually large size, with interspaces in the
+opposite jaw for their reception.[1017] We may further suspect,
+notwithstanding that we have no support from analogy, that our
+semi-human progenitors uncovered their canine teeth when prepared for
+battle, as we still do when feeling ferocious, or when merely sneering
+at or defying some one, without any intention of making a real attack
+with our teeth.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI. -- DISDAIN--CONTEMPT--DISGUST-GUILT--PRIDE, ETC.--HELPLESSNESS--PATIENCE--AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.
+
+Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed--Derisive
+smile--Gestures expressive of contempt--Disgust--Guilt, deceit, pride,
+&c.--Helplessness or impotence--Patience--Obstinacy--Shrugging the
+shoulders common to most of the races of man--Signs of affirmation and
+negation.
+
+
+SCORN and disdain can hardly be distinguished from contempt, excepting
+that they imply a rather more angry frame of mind. Nor can they be
+clearly distinguished from the feelings discussed in the last chapter
+under the terms of sneering and defiance. Disgust is a sensation rather
+more distinct in its nature and refers to something revolting, primarily
+in relation to the sense of taste, as actually perceived or vividly
+imagined; and secondarily to anything which causes a similar feeling,
+through the sense of smell, touch, and even of eyesight. Nevertheless,
+extreme contempt, or as it is often called loathing contempt, hardly
+differs from disgust. These several conditions of the mind are,
+therefore, nearly related; and each of them may be exhibited in many
+different ways. Some writers have insisted chiefly on one mode of
+expression, and others on a different mode. From this circumstance M.
+Lemoine has argued[1101] that their descriptions are not trustworthy.
+But we shall immediately see that it is natural that the feelings which
+we have here to consider should be expressed in many different ways,
+inasmuch as various habitual actions serve equally well, through the
+principle of association, for their expression.
+
+Scorn and disdain, as well as sneering and defiance, may be displayed
+by a slight uncovering of the canine tooth on one side of the face; and
+this movement appears to graduate into one closely like a smile. Or the
+smile or laugh may be real, although one of derision; and this implies
+that the offender is so insignificant that he excites only amusement;
+but the amusement is generally a pretence. Gaika in his answers to my
+queries remarks, that contempt is commonly shown by his countrymen, the
+Kafirs, by smiling; and the Rajah Brooke makes the same observation with
+respect to the Dyaks of Borneo. As laughter is primarily the expression
+of simple joy, very young children do not, I believe, ever laugh in
+derision.
+
+The partial closure of the eyelids, as Duchenne[1102] insists, or the
+turning away of the eyes or of the whole body, are likewise highly
+expressive of disdain. These actions seem to declare that the despised
+person is not worth looking at or is disagreeable to behold. The
+accompanying photograph (Plate V. fig. 1) by Mr. Rejlander, shows this
+form of disdain. It represents a young lady, who is supposed to be
+tearing up the photograph of a despised lover.
+
+[Illustration: Scorn and Disdain.  Plate V]
+
+The most common method of expressing contempt is by movements about
+the nose, or round the mouth; but the latter movements, when strongly
+pronounced, indicate disgust. The nose may be slightly turned up, which
+apparently follows from the turning up of the upper lip; or the movement
+may be abbreviated into the mere wrinkling of the nose. The nose is
+often slightly contracted, so as partly to close the passage;[1103] and
+this is commonly accompanied by a slight snort or expiration. All these
+actions are the same with those which we employ when we perceive an
+offensive odour, and wish to exclude or expel it. In extreme cases, as
+Dr. Piderit remarks,[1104] we protrude and raise both lips, or the upper
+lip alone, so as to close the nostrils as by a valve, the nose being
+thus turned up. We seem thus to say to the despised person that he
+smells offensively,[1105] in nearly the same manner as we express to him
+by half-closing our eyelids, or turning away our faces, that he is not
+worth looking at. It must not, however, be supposed that such ideas
+actually pass through the mind when we exhibit our contempt; but as
+whenever we have perceived a disagreeable odour or seen a disagreeable
+sight, actions of this kind have been performed, they have become
+habitual or fixed, and are now employed under any analogous state of
+mind.
+
+Various odd little gestures likewise indicate contempt; for instance,
+_snapping one's fingers_. This, as Mr. Taylor remarks,[1106] "is not
+very intelligible as we generally see it; but when we notice that the
+same sign made quite gently, as if rolling some tiny object away
+between the finger and thumb, or the sign of flipping it away with the
+thumb-nail and forefinger, are usual and well-understood deaf-and-dumb
+gestures, denoting anything tiny, insignificant, contemptible, it seems
+as though we had exaggerated and conventionalized a perfectly natural
+action, so as to lose sight of its original meaning. There is a curious
+mention of this gesture by Strabo." Mr. Washington Matthews informs me
+that, with the Dakota Indians of North America, contempt is shown
+not only by movements of the face, such as those above described, but
+"conventionally, by the hand being closed and held near the breast,
+then, as the forearm is suddenly extended, the hand is opened and the
+fingers separated from each other. If the person at whose expense the
+sign is made is present, the hand is moved towards him, and the head
+sometimes averted from him." This sudden extension and opening of the
+hand perhaps indicates the dropping or throwing away a valueless object.
+
+The term 'disgust,' in its simplest sense, means something offensive to
+the taste. It is curious how readily this feeling is excited by anything
+unusual in the appearance, odour, or nature of our food. In Tierra del
+Fuego a native touched with his finger some cold preserved meat which
+I was eating at our bivouac, and plainly showed utter disgust at its
+softness; whilst I felt utter disgust at my food being touched by a
+naked savage, though his hands did not appear dirty. A smear of soup
+on a man's beard looks disgusting, though there is of course nothing
+disgusting in the soup itself. I presume that this follows from the
+strong association in our minds between the sight of food, however
+circumstanced, and the idea of eating it.
+
+As the sensation of disgust primarily arises in connection with the act
+of eating or tasting, it is natural that its expression should consist
+chiefly in movements round the mouth. But as disgust also causes
+annoyance, it is generally accompanied by a frown, and often by gestures
+as if to push away or to guard oneself against the offensive object.
+In the two photographs (figs. 2 and 3, on Plate V.) Mr. Rejlander has
+simulated this expression with some success. With respect to the face,
+moderate disgust is exhibited in various ways; by the mouth being widely
+opened, as if to let an offensive morsel drop out; by spitting; by
+blowing out of the protruded lips; or by a sound as of clearing the
+throat. Such guttural sounds are written _ach_ or _ugh_; and their
+utterance is sometimes accompanied by a shudder, the arms being pressed
+close to the sides and the shoulders raised in the same manner as when
+horror is experienced.[1107] Extreme disgust is expressed by movements
+round the month identical with those preparatory to the act of vomiting.
+The mouth is opened widely, with the upper lip strongly retracted, which
+wrinkles the sides of the nose, and with the lower lip protruded
+and everted as much as possible. This latter movement requires the
+contraction of the muscles which draw downwards the corners of the
+mouth.[1108]
+
+It is remarkable how readily and instantly retching or actual vomiting
+is induced in some persons by the mere idea of having partaken of any
+unusual food, as of an animal which is not commonly eaten; although
+there is nothing in such food to cause the stomach to reject it. When
+vomiting results, as a reflex action, from some real cause--as from
+too rich food, or tainted meat, or from an emetic--it does not ensue
+immediately, but generally after a considerable interval of time.
+Therefore, to account for retching or vomiting being so quickly and
+easily excited by a mere idea, the suspicion arises that our progenitors
+must formerly have had the power (like that possessed by ruminants and
+some other animals) of voluntarily rejecting food which disagreed with
+them, or which they thought would disagree with them; and now, though
+this power has been lost, as far as the will is concerned, it is
+called into involuntary action, through the force of a formerly
+well-established habit, whenever the mind revolts at the idea of having
+partaken of any kind of food, or at anything disgusting. This suspicion
+receives support from the fact, of which I am assured by Mr. Sutton,
+that the monkeys in the Zoological Gardens often vomit whilst in perfect
+health, which looks as if the act were voluntary. We can see that as
+man is able to communicate by language to his children and others,
+the knowledge of the kinds of food to be avoided, he would have little
+occasion to use the faculty of voluntary rejection; so that this power
+would tend to be lost through disuse.
+
+As the sense of smell is so intimately connected with that of taste, it
+is not surprising that an excessively bad odour should excite retching
+or vomiting in some persons, quite as readily as the thought of
+revolting food does; and that, as a further consequence, a moderately
+offensive odour should cause the various expressive movements of
+disgust. The tendency to retch from a fetid odour is immediately
+strengthened in a curious manner by some degree of habit, though soon
+lost by longer familiarity with the cause of offence and by voluntary
+restraint. For instance, I wished to clean the skeleton of a bird, which
+had not been sufficiently macerated, and the smell made my servant
+and myself (we not having had much experience in such work) retch so
+violently, that we were compelled to desist. During the previous days I
+had examined some other skeletons, which smelt slightly; yet the odour
+did not in the least affect me, but, subsequently for several days,
+whenever I handled these same skeletons, they made me retch.
+
+From the answers received from my correspondents it appears that the
+various movements, which have now been described as expressing contempt
+and disgust, prevail throughout a large part of the world. Dr. Rothrock,
+for instance, answers with a decided affirmative with respect to certain
+wild Indian tribes of North America. Crantz says that when a Greenlander
+denies anything with contempt or horror he turns up his nose, and
+gives a slight sound through it.[1109] Mr. Scott has sent me a graphic
+description of the face of a young Hindoo at the sight of castor-oil,
+which he was compelled occasionally to take. Mr. Scott has also seen the
+same expression on the faces of high-caste natives who have approached
+close to some defiling object. Mr. Bridges says that the Fuegians
+"express contempt by shooting out the lips and hissing through them, and
+by turning up the nose." The tendency either to snort through the nose,
+or to make a noise expressed by _ugh_ or _ach_, is noticed by several of
+my correspondents.
+
+Spitting seems an almost universal sign of contempt or disgust; and
+spitting obviously represents the rejection of anything offensive
+from the mouth. Shakspeare makes the Duke of Norfolk say, "I spit at
+him--call him a slanderous coward and a villain." So, again, Falstaff
+says, "Tell thee what, Hal,--if I tell thee a lie, spit in my face."
+Leichhardt remarks that the Australians "interrupted their speeches by
+spitting, and uttering a noise like pooh! pooh! apparently expressive of
+their disgust." And Captain Burton speaks of certain negroes "spitting
+with disgust upon the ground." Captain Speedy informs me that this is
+likewise the case with the Abyssinians. Mr. Geach says that with the
+Malays of Malacca the expression of disgust "answers to spitting from
+the mouth;" and with the Fuegians, according to Mr. Bridges "to spit at
+one is the highest mark of contempt."
+
+I never saw disgust more plainly expressed than on the face of one of my
+infants at the age of five months, when, for the first time, some cold
+water, and again a month afterwards, when a piece of ripe cherry was put
+into his mouth. This was shown by the lips and whole mouth assuming a
+shape which allowed the contents to run or fall quickly out; the tongue
+being likewise protruded. These movements were accompanied by a little
+shudder. It was all the more comical, as I doubt whether the child
+felt real disgust--the eyes and forehead expressing much surprise and
+consideration. The protrusion of the tongue in letting a nasty object
+fall out of the mouth, may explain how it is that lolling out the tongue
+universally serves as a sign of contempt and hatred.[1111]
+
+We have now seen that scorn, disdain, contempt, and disgust are
+expressed in many different ways, by movements of the features, and by
+various gestures; and that these are the same throughout the world. They
+all consist of actions representing the rejection or exclusion of some
+real object which we dislike or abhor, but which does not excite in us
+certain other strong emotions, such as rage or terror; and through the
+force of habit and association similar actions are performed, whenever
+any analogous sensation arises in our minds.
+
+_Jealousy, Envy, Avarice, Revenge, Suspicion, Deceit, Slyness, Guilt,
+Vanity, Conceit, Ambition, Pride, Humility, &c_.--It is doubtful whether
+the greater number of the above complex states of mind are revealed
+by any fixed expression, sufficiently distinct to be described or
+delineated. When Shakspeare speaks of Envy as _lean-faced_, or _black_,
+or _pale_, and Jealousy as "_the green-eyed monster_;" and when Spenser
+describes Suspicion as "_foul, ill-favoured, and grim_," they must have
+felt this difficulty. Nevertheless, the above feelings--at least many
+of them--can be detected by the eye; for instance, conceit; but we are
+often guided in a much greater degree than we suppose by our previous
+knowledge of the persons or circumstances.
+
+My correspondents almost unanimously answer in the affirmative to my
+query, whether the expression of guilt and deceit can be recognized
+amongst the various races of man; and I have confidence in their
+answers, as they generally deny that jealousy can thus be recognized.
+In the cases in which details are given, the eyes are almost always
+referred to. The guilty man is said to avoid looking at his accuser, or
+to give him stolen looks. The eyes are said "to be turned askant," or
+"to waver from side to side," or "the eyelids to be lowered and partly
+closed." This latter remark is made by Mr. Hagenauer with respect to
+the Australians, and by Gaika with respect to the Kafirs. The restless
+movements of the eyes apparently follow, as will be explained when we
+treat of blushing, from the guilty man not enduring to meet the gaze
+of his accuser. I may add, that I have observed a guilty expression,
+without a shade of fear, in some of my own children at a very early age.
+In one instance the expression was unmistakably clear in a child two
+years and seven months old, and led to the detection of his little
+crime. It was shown, as I record in my notes made at the time, by
+an unnatural brightness in the eyes, and by an odd, affected manner,
+impossible to describe.
+
+Slyness is also, I believe, exhibited chiefly by movements about the
+eyes; for these are less under the control of the will, owing to the
+force of long-continued habit, than are the movements of the body. Mr.
+Herbert Spencer remarks,[1112] "When there is a desire to see something
+on one side of the visual field without being supposed to see it, the
+tendency is to check the conspicuous movement of the head, and to make
+the required adjustment entirely with the eyes; which are, therefore,
+drawn very much to one side. Hence, when the eyes are turned to one
+side, while the face is not turned to the same side, we get the natural
+language of what is called slyness."
+
+Of all the above-named complex emotions, Pride, perhaps, is the most
+plainly expressed. A proud man exhibits his sense of superiority over
+others by holding his head and body erect. He is haughty (_haut_),
+or high, and makes himself appear as large as possible; so that
+metaphorically he is said to be swollen or puffed up with pride. A
+peacock or a turkey-cock strutting about with puffed-up feathers, is
+sometimes said to be an emblem of pride.[1113] The arrogant man looks
+down on others, and with lowered eyelids hardly condescends to see them;
+or he may show his contempt by slight movements, such as those before
+described, about the nostrils or lips. Hence the muscle which everts the
+lower lip has been called the _musculus superbus_. In some photographs
+of patients affected by a monomania of pride, sent me by Dr. Crichton
+Browne, the head and body were held erect, and the mouth firmly closed.
+This latter action, expressive of decision, follows, I presume, from
+the proud man feeling perfect self-confidence in himself. The whole
+expression of pride stands in direct antithesis to that of humility; so
+that nothing need here be said of the latter state of mind.
+
+
+_Helplessness, Impotence: Shrugging the shoulders_.--When a man wishes
+to show that he cannot do something, or prevent something being done, he
+often raises with a quick movement both shoulders. At the same time,
+if the whole gesture is completed, he bends his elbows closely
+inwards, raises his open hands, turning them outwards, with the fingers
+separated. The head is often thrown a little on one side; the eyebrows
+are elevated, and this causes wrinkles across the forehead. The mouth is
+generally opened. I may mention, in order to show how unconsciously
+the features are thus acted on, that though I had often intentionally
+shrugged my shoulders to observe how my arms were placed, I was not at
+all aware that my eyebrows were raised and mouth opened, until I looked
+at myself in a glass; and since then I have noticed the same movements
+in the faces of others. In the accompanying Plate VI., figs. 3 and
+4, Mr. Rejlander has successfully acted the gesture of shrugging the
+shoulders.
+
+Englishmen are much less demonstrative than the men of most other
+European nations, and they shrug their shoulders far less frequently and
+energetically than Frenchmen or Italians do. The gesture varies in all
+degrees from the complex movement, just described, to only a momentary
+and scarcely perceptible raising of both shoulders; or, as I have
+noticed in a lady sitting in an arm-chair, to the mere turning slightly
+outwards of the open hands with separated fingers. I have never seen
+very young English children shrug their shoulders, but the following
+case was observed with care by a medical professor and excellent
+observer, and has been communicated to me by him. The father of this
+gentleman was a Parisian, and his mother a Scotch lady. His wife is of
+British extraction on both sides, and my informant does not believe
+that she ever shrugged her shoulders in her life. His children have been
+reared in England, and the nursemaid is a thorough Englishwoman, who
+has never been seen to shrug her shoulders. Now, his eldest daughter
+was observed to shrug her shoulders at the age of between sixteen and
+eighteen months; her mother exclaiming at the time, "Look at the little
+French girl shrugging her shoulders!" At first she often acted thus,
+sometimes throwing her head a little backwards and on one side, but she
+did not, as far as was observed, move her elbows and hands in the usual
+manner. The habit gradually wore away, and now, when she is a little
+over four years old, she is never seen to act thus. The father is told
+that he sometimes shrugs his shoulders, especially when arguing with
+any one; but it is extremely improbable that his daughter should have
+imitated him at so early an age; for, as he remarks, she could not
+possibly have often seen this gesture in him. Moreover, if the habit
+had been acquired through imitation, it is not probable that it would
+so soon have been spontaneously discontinued by this child, and, as we
+shall immediately see, by a second child, though the father still
+lived with his family. This little girl, it may be added, resembles her
+Parisian grandfather in countenance to an almost absurd degree. She
+also presents another and very curious resemblance to him, namely, by
+practising a singular trick. When she impatiently wants something, she
+holds out her little hand, and rapidly rubs the thumb against the index
+and middle finger: now this same trick was frequently performed under
+the same circumstances by her grandfather.
+
+This gentleman's second daughter also shrugged her shoulders before the
+age of eighteen months, and afterwards discontinued the habit. It is
+of course possible that she may have imitated her elder sister; but she
+continued it after her sister had lost the habit. She at first resembled
+her Parisian grandfather in a less degree than did her sister at the
+same age, but now in a greater degree. She likewise practises to the
+present time the peculiar habit of rubbing together, when impatient, her
+thumb and two of her fore-fingers.
+
+In this latter case we have a good instance, like those given in a
+former chapter, of the inheritance of a trick or gesture; for no one, I
+presume, will attribute to mere coincidence so peculiar a habit as this,
+which was common to the grandfather and his two grandchildren who had
+never seen him.
+
+Considering all the circumstances with reference to these children
+shrugging their shoulders, it can hardly be doubted that they have
+inherited the habit from their French progenitors, although they
+have only one quarter French blood in their veins, and although their
+grandfather did not often shrug his shoulders. There is nothing very
+unusual, though the fact is interesting, in these children having gained
+by inheritance a habit during early youth, and then discontinuing it;
+for it is of frequent occurrence with many kinds of animals that certain
+characters are retained for a period by the young, and are then lost.
+
+As it appeared to me at one time improbable in a high degree that
+so complex a gesture as shrugging the shoulders, together with the
+accompanying movements, should be innate, I was anxious to ascertain
+whether the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman, who could not have learnt the
+habit by imitation, practised it. And I have heard, through Dr. Innes,
+from a lady who has lately had charge of her, that she does shrug her
+shoulders, turn in her elbows, and raise her eyebrows in the same manner
+as other people, and under the same circumstances. I was also anxious
+to learn whether this gesture was practised by the various races of man,
+especially by those who never have had much intercourse with Europeans.
+We shall see that they act in this manner; but it appears that the
+gesture is sometimes confined to merely raising or shrugging the
+shoulders, without the other movements.
+
+Mr. Scott has frequently seen this gesture in the Bengalees and Dhangars
+(the latter constituting a distinct race) who are employed in the
+Botanic Garden at Calcutta; when, for instance, they have declared that
+they could not do some work, such as lifting a heavy weight. He ordered
+a Bengalee to climb a lofty tree; but the man, with a shrug of his
+shoulders and a lateral shake of his head, said he could not. Mr. Scott
+knowing that the man was lazy, thought he could, and insisted on his
+trying. His face now became pale, his arms dropped to his sides, his
+mouth and eyes were widely opened, and again surveying the tree, he
+looked askant at Mr. Scott, shrugged his shoulders, inverted his elbows,
+extended his open hands, and with a few quick lateral shakes of the head
+declared his inability. Mr. H. Erskine has likewise seen the natives of
+India shrugging their shoulders; but he has never seen the elbows turned
+so much inwards as with us; and whilst shrugging their shoulders they
+sometimes lay their uncrossed hands on their breasts.
+
+With the wild Malays of the interior of Malacca, and with the Bugis
+(true Malays, though speaking a different, language), Mr. Geach has
+often seen this gesture. I presume that it is complete, as, in answer to
+my query descriptive of the movements of the shoulders, arms, hands, and
+face, Mr. Geach remarks, "it is performed in a beautiful style." I
+have lost an extract from a scientific voyage, in which shrugging the
+shoulders by some natives (Micronesians) of the Caroline Archipelago in
+the Pacific Ocean, was well described. Capt. Speedy informs me that the
+Abyssinians shrug their shoulders but enters into no details. Mrs. Asa
+Gray saw an Arab dragoman in Alexandria acting exactly as described in
+my query, when an old gentleman, on whom he attended, would not go in
+the proper direction which had been pointed out to him.
+
+Mr. Washington Matthews says, in reference to the wild Indian tribes
+of the western parts of the United States, "I have on a few occasions
+detected men using a slight apologetic shrug, but the rest of the
+demonstration which you describe I have not witnessed." Fritz Muller
+informs me that he has seen the negroes in Brazil shrugging their
+shoulders; but it is of course possible that they may have learnt to do
+so by imitating the Portuguese. Mrs. Barber has never seen this gesture
+with the Kafirs of South Africa; and Gaika, judging from his answer,
+did not even understand what was meant by my description. Mr. Swinhoe
+is also doubtful about the Chinese; but he has seen them, under the
+circumstances which would make us shrug our shoulders, press their right
+elbow against their side, raise their eyebrows, lift up their hand with
+the palm directed towards the person addressed, and shake it from right
+to left. Lastly, with respect to the Australians, four of my informants
+answer by a simple negative, and one by a simple affirmative. Mr.
+Bunnett, who has had excellent opportunities for observation on the
+borders of the Colony of Victory, also answers by a "yes," adding that
+the gesture is performed "in a more subdued and less demonstrative
+manner than is the case with civilized nations." This circumstance may
+account for its not having been noticed by four of my informants.
+
+These statements, relating to Europeans, Hindoos, the hill-tribes of
+India, Malays, Micronesians, Abyssinians, Arabs, Negroes, Indians of
+North America, and apparently to the Australians--many of these natives
+having had scarcely any intercourse with Europeans--are sufficient to
+show that shrugging the shoulders, accompanied in some cases by the
+other proper movements, is a gesture natural to mankind.
+
+This gesture implies an unintentional or unavoidable action on our own
+part, or one that we cannot perform; or an action performed by another
+person which we cannot prevent. It accompanies such speeches as, "It was
+not my fault;" "It is impossible for me to grant this favour;" "He
+must follow his own course, I cannot stop him." Shrugging the shoulders
+likewise expresses patience, or the absence of any intention to resist.
+Hence the muscles which raise the shoulders are sometimes called, as I
+have been informed by an artist, the patience muscles. Shylock the Jew,
+says,
+
+      "Signor Antonio, many a time and oft
+      In the Rialto have you rated me
+      About my monies and usances;
+      Still have I borne it with a patient shrug."
+     _Merchant of Venice_, act 1. sc. 3.
+
+
+Sir C. Bell has given[1114] a life-like figure of a man, who is
+shrinking back from some terrible danger, and is on the point of
+screaming out in abject terror. He is represented with his shoulders
+lifted up almost to his ears; and this at once declares that there is no
+thought of resistance.
+
+As shrugging the shoulders generally implies "I cannot do this or
+that," so by a slight change, it sometimes implies "I won't do it."
+The movement then expresses a dogged determination not to act. Olmsted
+describes[1115] an Indian in Texas as giving a great shrug to his
+shoulders, when he was informed that a party of men were Germans and not
+Americans, thus expressing that he would have nothing to do with them.
+Sulky and obstinate children may be seen with both their shoulders
+raised high up; but this movement is not associated with the others
+which generally accompany a true shrug. An excellent observer[1116] in
+describing a young man who was determined not to yield to his father's
+desire, says, "He thrust his hands deep down into his pockets, and set
+up his shoulders to his ears, which was a good warning that, come right
+or wrong, this rock should fly from its firm base as soon as Jack would;
+and that any remonstrance on the subject was purely futile." As soon
+as the son got his own way, he "put his shoulders into their natural
+position."
+
+Resignation is sometimes shown by the open hands being placed, one over
+the other, on the lower part of the body. I should not have thought this
+little gesture worth even a passing notice, had not Dr. W. Ogle remarked
+to me that he had two or three times observed it in patients who were
+preparing for operations under chloroform. They exhibited no great fear,
+but seemed to declare by this posture of their hands, that they had made
+up their minds, and were resigned to the inevitable.
+
+We may now inquire why men in all parts of the world when they
+feel,--whether or not they wish to show this feeling,--that they cannot
+or will not do something, or will not resist something if done by
+another, shrug their shoulders, at the same time often bending in their
+elbows, showing the palms of their hands with extended fingers, often
+throwing their heads a little on one side, raising their eyebrows,
+and opening their mouths. These states of the mind are either simply
+passive, or show a determination not to act. None of the above movements
+are of the least service. The explanation lies, I cannot doubt, in the
+principle of unconscious antithesis. This principle here seems to come
+into play as clearly as in the case of a dog, who, when feeling savage,
+puts himself in the proper attitude for attacking and for making himself
+appear terrible to his enemy; but as soon as he feels affectionate,
+throws his whole body into a directly opposite attitude, though this is
+of no direct use to him.
+
+Let it be observed how an indignant man, who resents, and will not
+submit to some injury, holds his head erect, squares his shoulders, and
+expands his chest. He often clenches his fists, and puts one or both
+arms in the proper position for attack or defence, with the muscles
+of his limbs rigid. He frowns,--that is, he contracts and lowers
+his brows,--and, being determined, closes his mouth. The actions and
+attitude of a helpless man are, in every one of these respects, exactly
+the reverse. In Plate VI. we may imagine one of the figures on the left
+side to have just said, "What do you mean by insulting me?" and one of
+the figures on the right side to answer, "I really could not help it."
+The helpless man unconsciously contracts the muscles of his forehead
+which are antagonistic to those that cause a frown, and thus raises his
+eyebrows; at the same time he relaxes the muscles about the mouth, so
+that the lower jaw drops. The antithesis is complete in every detail,
+not only in the movements of the features, but in the position of the
+limbs and in the attitude of the whole body, as may be seen in the
+accompanying plate. As the helpless or apologetic man often wishes to
+show his state of mind, he then acts in a conspicuous or demonstrative
+manner.
+
+In accordance with the fact that squaring the elbows and clenching the
+fists are gestures by no means universal with the men of all races,
+when they feel indignant and are prepared to attack their enemy, so it
+appears that a helpless or apologetic frame of mind is expressed in many
+parts of the world by merely shrugging the shoulders, without turning
+inwards the elbows and opening the hands. The man or child who is
+obstinate, or one who is resigned to some great misfortune, has in
+neither case any idea of resistance by active means; and he expresses
+this state of mind, by simply keeping his shoulders raised; or he may
+possibly fold his arms across his breast.
+
+_Signs of affirmation or approval, and of negation or disapproval:
+nodding and shaking the head_.--I was curious to ascertain how far
+the common signs used by us in affirmation and negation were general
+throughout the world. These signs are indeed to a certain extent
+expressive of our feelings, as we give a vertical nod of approval with
+a smile to our children, when we approve of their conduct; and shake
+our heads laterally with a frown, when we disapprove. With infants, the
+first act of denial consists in refusing food; and I repeatedly noticed
+with my own infants, that they did so by withdrawing their heads
+laterally from the breast, or from anything offered them in a spoon. In
+accepting food and taking it into their mouths, they incline their heads
+forwards. Since making these observations I have been informed that
+the same idea had occurred to Charma.[1117] It deserves notice that in
+accepting or taking food, there is only a single movement forward, and a
+single nod implies an affirmation. On the other hand, in refusing food,
+especially if it be pressed on them, children frequently move their
+heads several times from side to side, as we do in shaking our heads
+in negation. Moreover, in the case of refusal, the head is not rarely
+thrown backwards, or the mouth is closed, so that these movements might
+likewise come to serve as signs of negation. Mr. Wedgwood remarks on
+this subject,[1118] that "when the voice is exerted with closed teeth
+or lips, it produces the sound of the letter _n_ or _m_. Hence we
+may account for the use of the particle _ne_ to signify negation, and
+possibly also of the Greek mh in the same sense."
+
+That these signs are innate or instinctive, at least with Anglo-Saxons,
+is rendered highly probable by the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman
+"constantly accompanying her _yes_ with the common affirmative nod, and
+her _no_ with our negative shake of the head." Had not Mr. Lieber stated
+to the contrary,[1119] I should have imagined that these gestures might
+have been acquired or learnt by her, considering her wonderful sense of
+touch and appreciation of the movements of others. With microcephalous
+idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn to speak, one of them
+is described by Vogt,[1120] as answering, when asked whether he wished
+for more food or drink, by inclining or shaking his head. Schmalz, in
+his remarkable dissertation on the education of the deaf and dumb, as
+well as of children raised only one degree above idiotcy, assumes that
+they can always both make and understand the common signs of affirmation
+and negation.
+
+Nevertheless if we look to the various races of man, these signs are
+not so universally employed as I should have expected; yet they seem
+too general to be ranked as altogether conventional or artificial. My
+informants assert that both signs are used by the Malays, by the natives
+of Ceylon, the Chinese, the negroes of the Guinea coast, and, according
+to Gaika, by the Kafirs of South Africa, though with these latter people
+Mrs. Barber has never seen a lateral shake used as a negative. With
+respect to the Australians, seven observers agree that a nod is given in
+affirmation; five agree about a lateral shake in negation, accompanied
+or not by some word; but Mr. Dyson Lacy has never seen this latter sign
+in Queensland, and Mr. Bulmer says that in Gipps' Land a negative is
+expressed by throwing the head a little backwards and putting out the
+tongue. At the northern extremity of the continent, near Torres Straits,
+the natives when uttering a negative "don't shake the head with it, but
+holding up the right hand, shake it by turning it half round and back
+again two or three times."[1122] The throwing back of the head with
+a cluck of the tongue is said to be used as a negative by the modern
+Greeks and Turks, the latter people expressing _yes_ by a movement like
+that made by us when we shake our heads.[1123] The Abyssinians, as I am
+informed by Captain Speedy, express a negative by jerking the head
+to the right shoulder, together with a slight cluck, the mouth being
+closed; an affirmation is expressed by the head being thrown backwards
+and the eyebrows raised for an instant. The Tagals of Luzon, in the
+Philippine Archipelago, as I hear from Dr. Adolf Meyer, when they say
+"yes," also throw the head backwards. According to the Rajah Brooke, the
+Dyaks of Borneo express an affirmation by raising the eyebrows, and a
+negation by slightly contracting them, together with a peculiar look
+from the eyes. With the Arabs on the Nile, Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray
+concluded that nodding in affirmation was rare, whilst shaking the head
+in negation was never used, and was not even understood by them.
+With the Esquimaux[1124] a nod means _yes_ and a wink _no_. The
+New Zealanders "elevate the head and chin in place of nodding
+acquiescence."[1125]
+
+With the Hindoos Mr. H. Erskine concludes from inquiries made from
+experienced Europeans, and from native gentlemen, that the signs of
+affirmation and negation vary--a nod and a lateral shake being sometimes
+used as we do; but a negative is more commonly expressed by the head
+being thrown suddenly backwards and a little to one side, with a cluck
+of the tongue. What the meaning may be of this cluck of the tongue,
+which has been observed with various people, I cannot imagine. A native
+gentleman stated that affirmation is frequently shown by the head being
+thrown to the left. I asked Mr. Scott to attend particularly to this
+point, and, after repeated observations, he believes that a vertical nod
+is not commonly used by the natives in affirmation, but that the head
+is first thrown backwards either to the left or right, and then jerked
+obliquely forwards only once. This movement would perhaps have been
+described by a less careful observer as a lateral shake. He also states
+that in negation the head is usually held nearly upright, and shaken
+several times.
+
+Mr. Bridges informs me that the Fuegians nod their heads vertically in
+affirmation, and shake them laterally in denial. With the wild Indians
+of North America, according to Mr. Washington Matthews, nodding and
+shaking the head have been learnt from Europeans, and are not naturally
+employed. They express affirmation by describing with the hand (all the
+fingers except the index being flexed) a curve downwards and outwards
+from the body, whilst negation is expressed by moving the open hand
+outwards, with the palm facing inwards. Other observers state that the
+sign of affirmation with these Indians is the forefinger being raised,
+and then lowered and pointed to the ground, or the hand is waved
+straight forward from the face; and that the sign of negation is
+the finger or whole hand shaken from side to side.[1126] This latter
+movement probably represents in all cases the lateral shaking of the
+head. The Italians are said in like manner to move the lifted finger
+from right to left in negation, as indeed we English sometimes do.
+
+On the whole we find considerable diversity in the signs of affirmation
+and negation in the different races of man. With respect to negation,
+if we admit that the shaking of the finger or hand from side to side is
+symbolic of the lateral movement of the head; and if we admit that the
+sudden backward movement of the head represents one of the actions
+often practised by young children in refusing food, then there is much
+uniformity throughout the world in the signs of negation, and we can
+see how they originated. The most marked exceptions are presented by the
+Arabs, Esquimaux, some Australian tribes, and Dyaks. With the latter a
+frown is the sign of negation, and with us frowning often accompanies a
+lateral shake of the head.
+
+With respect to nodding in affirmation, the exceptions are rather more
+numerous, namely with some of the Hindoos, with the Turks, Abyssinians,
+Dyaks, Tagals, and New Zealanders. The eyebrows are sometimes raised in
+affirmation, and as a person in bending his head forwards and downwards
+naturally looks up to the person whom he addresses, he will be apt
+to raise his eyebrows, and this sign may thus have arisen as an
+abbreviation. So again with the New Zealanders, the lifting up the chin
+and head in affirmation may perhaps represent in an abbreviated form
+the upward movement of the head after it has been nodded forwards and
+downwards.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII. -- SURPRISE--ASTONISHMENT--FEAR--HORROR.
+
+Surprise, astonishment--Elevation of the eyebrows--Opening
+the mouth--Protrusion of the lips--Gestures accompanying
+surprise--Admiration--Fear--Terror--Erection of the hair--Contraction of
+the platysma muscle--Dilatation of the pupils--Horror--Conclusion.
+
+
+ATTENTION, if sudden and close, graduates into surprise; and this into
+astonishment; and this into stupefied amazement. The latter frame of
+mind is closely akin to terror. Attention is shown by the eyebrows being
+slightly raised; and as this state increases into surprise, they are
+raised to a much greater extent, with the eyes and mouth widely open.
+The raising of the eyebrows is necessary in order that the eyes should
+be opened quickly and widely; and this movement produces transverse
+wrinkles across the forehead. The degree to which the eyes and mouth are
+opened corresponds with the degree of surprise felt; but these movements
+must be coordinated; for a widely opened mouth with eyebrows only
+slightly raised results in a meaningless grimace, as Dr. Duchenne has
+shown in one of his photographs.[1201] On the other hand, a person may
+often be seen to pretend surprise by merely raising his eyebrows.
+
+Dr. Duchenne has given a photograph of an old man with his eyebrows well
+elevated and arched by the galvanization of the frontal muscle; and with
+his mouth voluntarily opened. This figure expresses surprise with much
+truth. I showed it to twenty-four persons without a word of explanation,
+and one alone did not at all understand what was intended. A second
+person answered terror, which is not far wrong; some of the others,
+however, added to the words surprise or astonishment, the epithets
+horrified, woful, painful, or disgusted.
+
+The eyes and mouth being widely open is an expression universally
+recognized as one of surprise or astonishment. Thus Shakespeare says,
+"I saw a smith stand with open mouth swallowing a tailor's news." ('King
+John,' act iv. scene ii.) And again, "They seemed almost, with staring
+on one another, to tear the cases of their eyes; there was speech in the
+dumbness, language in their very gesture; they looked as they had heard
+of a world destroyed." ('Winter's Tale,' act v. scene ii.)
+
+My informants answer with remarkable uniformity to the same effect, with
+respect to the various races of man; the above movements of the features
+being often accompanied by certain gestures and sounds, presently to
+be described. Twelve observers in different parts of Australia agree
+on this head. Mr. Winwood Reade has observed this expression with the
+negroes on the Guinea coast. The chief Gaika and others answer _yes_ to
+my query with respect to the Kafirs of South Africa; and so do others
+emphatically with reference to the Abyssinians, Ceylonese, Chinese,
+Fuegians, various tribes of North America, and New Zealanders. With the
+latter, Mr. Stack states that the expression is more plainly shown by
+certain individuals than by others, though all endeavour as much as
+possible to conceal their feelings. The Dyaks of Borneo are said by the
+Rajah Brooke to open their eyes widely, when astonished, often swinging
+their heads to and fro, and beating their breasts. Mr. Scott informs me
+that the workmen in the Botanic Gardens at Calcutta are strictly ordered
+not to smoke; but they often disobey this order, and when suddenly
+surprised in the act, they first open their eyes and mouths widely.
+They then often slightly shrug their shoulders, as they perceive that
+discovery is inevitable, or frown and stamp on the ground from vexation.
+Soon they recover from their surprise, and abject fear is exhibited by
+the relaxation of all their muscles; their heads seem to sink between
+their shoulders; their fallen eyes wander to and fro; and they
+supplicate forgiveness.
+
+The well-known Australian explorer, Mr. Stuart, has given[1202] a
+striking account of stupefied amazement together with terror in a native
+who had never before seen a man on horseback. Mr. Stuart approached
+unseen and called to him from a little distance. "He turned round and
+saw me. What he imagined I was I do not know; but a finer picture of
+fear and astonishment I never saw. He stood incapable of moving a
+limb, riveted to the spot, mouth open and eyes staring.... He remained
+motionless until our black got within a few yards of him, when suddenly
+throwing down his waddies, he jumped into a mulga bush as high as he
+could get." He could not speak, and answered not a word to the inquiries
+made by the black, but, trembling from head to foot, "waved with his
+hand for us to be off."
+
+That the eyebrows are raised by an innate or instinctive impulse may
+be inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman invariably acts thus when
+astonished, as I have been assured by the lady who has lately had charge
+of her. As surprise is excited by something unexpected or unknown, we
+naturally desire, when startled, to perceive the cause as quickly as
+possible; and we consequently open our eyes fully, so that the field of
+vision may be increased, and the eyeballs moved easily in any direction.
+But this hardly accounts for the eyebrows being so greatly raised as
+is the case, and for the wild staring of the open eyes. The explanation
+lies, I believe, in the impossibility of opening the eyes with great
+rapidity by merely raising the upper lids. To effect this the eyebrows
+must be lifted energetically. Any one who will try to open his eyes as
+quickly as possible before a mirror will find that he acts thus; and the
+energetic lifting up of the eyebrows opens the eyes so widely that
+they stare, the white being exposed all round the iris. Moreover, the
+elevation of the eyebrows is an advantage in looking upwards; for as
+long as they are lowered they impede our vision in this direction.
+Sir C. Bell gives[1203] a curious little proof of the part which the
+eyebrows play in opening the eyelids. In a stupidly drunken man all the
+muscles are relaxed, and the eyelids consequently droop, in the same
+manner as when we are falling asleep. To counteract this tendency the
+drunkard raises his eyebrows; and this gives to him a puzzled, foolish
+look, as is well represented in one of Hogarth's drawings. The habit of
+raising the eyebrows having once been gained in order to see as quickly
+as possible all around us, the movement would follow from the force of
+association whenever astonishment was felt from any cause, even from a
+sudden sound or an idea.
+
+With adult persons, when the eyebrows are raised, the whole forehead
+becomes much wrinkled in transverse lines; but with children this occurs
+only to a slight degree. The wrinkles run in lines concentric with each
+eyebrow, and are partially confluent in the middle. They are highly
+characteristic of the expression of surprise or astonishment. Each
+eyebrow, when raised, becomes also, as Duchenne remarks,[1204] more
+arched than it was before.
+
+The cause of the mouth being opened when astonishment is felt, is a much
+more complex affair; and several causes apparently concur in leading
+to this movement. It has often been supposed[1205] that the sense
+of hearing is thus rendered more acute; but I have watched persons
+listening intently to a slight noise, the nature and source of which
+they knew perfectly, and they did not open their mouths. Therefore I at
+one time imagined that the open mouth might aid in distinguishing the
+direction whence a sound proceeded, by giving another channel for its
+entrance into the ear through the eustachian tube, But Dr. W. Ogle[1206]
+has been so kind as to search the best recent authorities on the
+functions of the eustachian tube, and he informs me that it is almost
+conclusively proved that it remains closed except during the act of
+deglutition; and that in persons in whom the tube remains abnormally
+open, the sense of hearing, as far as external sounds are concerned, is
+by no means improved; on the contrary, it is impaired by the respiratory
+sounds being rendered more distinct. If a watch be placed within the
+mouth, but not allowed to touch the sides, the ticking is heard much
+less plainly than when held outside. In persons in whom from disease
+or a cold the eustachian tube is permanently or temporarily closed,
+the sense of hearing is injured; but this may be accounted for by mucus
+accumulating within the tube, and the consequent exclusion of air. We
+may therefore infer that the mouth is not kept open under the sense
+of astonishment for the sake of hearing sounds more distinctly;
+notwithstanding that most deaf people keep their mouths open.
+
+Every sudden emotion, including astonishment, quickens the action of
+the heart, and with it the respiration. Now we can breathe, as Gratiolet
+remarks[1207] and as appears to me to be the case, much more quietly
+through the open mouth than through the nostrils. Therefore, when we
+wish to listen intently to any sound, we either stop breathing, or
+breathe as quietly as possible, by opening our mouths, at the same time
+keeping our bodies motionless. One of my sons was awakened in the night
+by a noise under circumstances which naturally led to great care, and
+after a few minutes he perceived that his mouth was widely open. He
+then became conscious that he had opened it for the sake of breathing as
+quietly as possible. This view receives support from the reversed case
+which occurs with dogs. A dog when panting after exercise, or on a
+hot day, breathes loudly; but if his attention be suddenly aroused,
+he instantly pricks his ears to listen, shuts his mouth, and breathes
+quietly, as he is enabled to do, through his nostrils.
+
+When the attention is concentrated for a length of time with fixed
+earnestness on any object or subject, all the organs of the body
+are forgotten and neglected;[1208] and as the nervous energy of each
+individual is limited in amount, little is transmitted to any part of
+the system, excepting that which is at the time brought into energetic
+action. Therefore many of the muscles tend to become relaxed, and the
+jaw drops from its own weight. This will account for the dropping of the
+jaw and open mouth of a man stupefied with amazement, and perhaps
+when less strongly affected. I have noticed this appearance, as I
+find recorded in my notes, in very young children when they were only
+moderately surprised.
+
+There is still another and highly effective cause, leading to the mouth
+being opened, when we are astonished, and more especially when we are
+suddenly startled. We can draw a full and deep inspiration much more
+easily through the widely open mouth than through the nostrils. Now when
+we start at any sudden sound or sight, almost all the muscles of the
+body are involuntarily and momentarily thrown into strong action, for
+the sake of guarding ourselves against or jumping away from the danger,
+which we habitually associate with anything unexpected. But we always
+unconsciously prepare ourselves for any great exertion, as formerly
+explained, by first taking a deep and full inspiration, and we
+consequently open our mouths. If no exertion follows, and we still
+remain astonished, we cease for a time to breathe, or breathe as quietly
+as possible, in order that every sound may be distinctly heard. Or
+again, if our attention continues long and earnestly absorbed, all our
+muscles become relaxed, and the jaw, which was at first suddenly opened,
+remains dropped. Thus several causes concur towards this same movement,
+whenever surprise, astonishment, or amazement is felt.
+
+Although when thus affected, our mouths are generally opened, yet the
+lips are often a little protruded. This fact reminds us of the
+same movement, though in a much more strongly marked degree, in the
+chimpanzee and orang when astonished. As a strong expiration naturally
+follows the deep inspiration which accompanies the first sense of
+startled surprise, and as the lips are often protruded, the various
+sounds which are then commonly uttered can apparently be accounted for.
+But sometimes a strong expiration alone is heard; thus Laura Bridgman,
+when amazed, rounds and protrudes her lips, opens them, and breathes
+strongly.[1209] One of the commonest sounds is a deep _Oh_; and this
+would naturally follow, as explained by Helmholtz, from the mouth being
+moderately opened and the lips protruded. On a quiet night some rockets
+were fired from the 'Beagle,' in a little creek at Tahiti, to amuse the
+natives; and as each rocket, was let off there was absolute silence,
+but this was invariably followed by a deep groaning _Oh_, resounding
+all round the bay. Mr. Washington Matthews says that the North American
+Indians express astonishment by a groan; and the negroes on the West
+Coast of Africa, according to Mr. Winwood Reade, protrude their lips,
+and make a sound like _heigh, heigh_. If the mouth is not much opened,
+whilst the lips are considerably protruded, a blowing, hissing, or
+whistling noise is produced. Mr. R. Brough Smith informs me that an
+Australian from the interior was taken to the theatre to see an acrobat
+rapidly turning head over heels: "he was greatly astonished, and
+protruded his lips, making a noise with his mouth as if blowing out a
+match." According to Mr. Bulmer the Australians, when surprised, utter
+the exclamation _korki_, "and to do this the mouth is drawn out as if
+going to whistle." We Europeans often whistle as a sign of surprise;
+thus, in a recent novel[1210] it is said, "here the man expressed his
+astonishment and disapprobation by a prolonged whistle." A Kafir girl,
+as Mr. J. Mansel Weale informs me, "on hearing of the high price of an
+article, raised her eyebrows and whistled just as a European would." Mr.
+Wedgwood remarks that such sounds are written down as _whew_, and they
+serve as interjections for surprise.
+
+According to three other observers, the Australians often evince
+astonishment by a clucking noise. Europeans also sometimes express
+gentle surprise by a little clicking noise of nearly the same kind. We
+have seen that when we are startled, the mouth is suddenly opened; and
+if the tongue happens to be then pressed closely against the palate, its
+sudden withdrawal will produce a sound of this kind, which might thus
+come to express surprise.
+
+[Illustration: Gestures of the body. Plate VII]
+
+Turning to gestures of the body. A surprised person often raises his
+opened hands high above his head, or by bending his arms only to the
+level of his face. The flat palms are directed towards the person who
+causes this feeling, and the straightened fingers are separated. This
+gesture is represented by Mr. Rejlander in Plate VII. fig. 1. In the
+'Last Supper,' by Leonardo da Vinci, two of the Apostles have their
+hands half uplifted, clearly expressive of their astonishment. A
+trustworthy observer told me that he had lately met his wife under most
+unexpected circumstances: "She started, opened her mouth and eyes very
+widely, and threw up both her arms above her head." Several years ago
+I was surprised by seeing several of my young children earnestly doing
+something together on the ground; but the distance was too great for
+me to ask what they were about. Therefore I threw up my open hands with
+extended fingers above my head; and as soon as I had done this, I became
+conscious of the action. I then waited, without saying a word, to see if
+my children had understood this gesture; and as they came running to me
+they cried out, "We saw that you were astonished at us." I do not
+know whether this gesture is common to the various races of man, as I
+neglected to make inquiries on this head. That it is innate or natural
+may be inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman, when amazed, "spreads
+her arms and turns her hands with extended fingers upwards;"[1211] nor
+is it likely, considering that the feeling of surprise is generally a
+brief one, that she should have learnt this gesture through her keen
+sense of touch.
+
+Huschke describes[1212] a somewhat different yet allied gesture, which
+he says is exhibited by persons when astonished. They hold themselves
+erect, with the features as before described, but with the straightened
+arms extended backwards--the stretched fingers being separated from each
+other. I have never myself seen this gesture; but Huschke is probably
+correct; for a friend asked another man how he would express great
+astonishment, and he at once threw himself into this attitude.
+
+These gestures are, I believe, explicable on the principle of
+antithesis. We have seen that an indignant man holds his head erect,
+squares his shoulders, turns out his elbows, often clenches his fist,
+frowns, and closes his mouth; whilst the attitude of a helpless man is
+in every one of these details the reverse. Now, a man in an ordinary
+frame of mind, doing nothing and thinking of nothing in particular,
+usually keeps his two arms suspended laxly by his sides, with his hands
+somewhat flexed, and the fingers near together. Therefore, to raise the
+arms suddenly, either the whole arms or the fore-arms, to open the palms
+flat, and to separate the fingers,--or, again, to straighten the arms,
+extending them backwards with separated fingers,--are movements in
+complete antithesis to those preserved under an indifferent frame
+of mind, and they are, in consequence, unconsciously assumed by an
+astonished man. There is, also, often a desire to display surprise in
+a conspicuous manner, and the above attitudes are well fitted for this
+purpose. It may be asked why should surprise, and only a few other
+states of the mind, be exhibited by movements in antithesis to others.
+But this principle will not be brought into play in the case of those
+emotions, such as terror, great joy, suffering, or rage, which naturally
+lead to certain lines of action and produce certain effects on the body,
+for the whole system is thus preoccupied; and these emotions are already
+thus expressed with the greatest plainness.
+
+There is another little gesture, expressive of astonishment of which I
+can offer no explanation; namely, the hand being placed over the mouth
+or on some part of the head. This has been observed with so many races
+of man, that it must have some natural origin. A wild Australian was
+taken into a large room full of official papers, which surprised him
+greatly, and he cried out, _cluck, cluck, cluck_, putting the back of
+his hand towards his lips. Mrs. Barber says that the Kafirs and Fingoes
+express astonishment by a serious look and by placing the right hand
+upon the mouth, Littering the word _mawo_, which means 'wonderful.' The
+Bushmen are said[1213] to put their right hands to their necks, bending
+their heads backwards. Mr. Winwood Reade has observed that the negroes
+on the West Coast of Africa, when surprised, clap their hands to their
+mouths, saying at the same time, "My mouth cleaves to me," i. e. to
+my hands; and he has heard that this is their usual gesture on such
+occasions. Captain Speedy informs me that the Abyssinians place
+their right hand to the forehead, with the palm outside. Lastly, Mr.
+Washington Matthews states that the conventional sign of astonishment
+with the wild tribes of the western parts of the United States "is made
+by placing the half-closed hand over the mouth; in doing this, the head
+is often bent forwards, and words or low groans are sometimes uttered."
+Catlin[1214] makes the same remark about the hand being pressed over the
+mouth by the Mandans and other Indian tribes.
+
+
+_Admiration_.--Little need be said on this head. Admiration apparently
+consists of surprise associated with some pleasure and a sense of
+approval. When vividly felt, the eyes are opened and the eyebrows
+raised; the eyes become bright, instead of remaining blank, as under
+simple astonishment; and the mouth, instead of gaping open, expands into
+a smile.
+
+
+_Fear, Terror_.--The word 'fear' seems to be derived from what is sudden
+and dangerous;[1215] and that of terror from the trembling of the vocal
+organs and body. I use the word 'terror' for extreme fear; but some
+writers think it ought to be confined to cases in which the imagination
+is more particularly concerned. Fear is often preceded by astonishment,
+and is so far akin to it, that both lead to the senses of sight and
+hearing being instantly aroused. In both cases the eyes and mouth are
+widely opened, and the eyebrows raised. The frightened man at first
+stands like a statue motionless and breathless, or crouches down as if
+instinctively to escape observation.
+
+The heart beats quickly and violently, so that it palpitates or knocks
+against the ribs; but it is very doubtful whether it then works more
+efficiently than usual, so as to send a greater supply of blood to
+all parts of the body; for the skin instantly becomes pale, as during
+incipient faintness. This paleness of the surface, however, is probably
+in large part, or exclusively, due to the vasomotor centre being
+affected in such a manner as to cause the contraction of the small
+arteries of the skin. That the skin is much affected under the sense of
+great fear, we see in the marvellous and inexplicable manner in which
+perspiration immediately exudes from it. This exudation is all the
+more remarkable, as the surface is then cold, and hence the term a cold
+sweat; whereas, the sudorific glands are properly excited into action
+when the surface is heated. The hairs also on the skin stand erect; and
+the superficial muscles shiver. In connection with the disturbed
+action of the heart, the breathing is hurried. The salivary glands act
+imperfectly; the mouth becomes dry,[1216] and is often opened and shut.
+I have also noticed that under slight fear there is a strong tendency
+to yawn. One of the best-marked symptoms is the trembling of all the
+muscles of the body; and this is often first seen in the lips. From this
+cause, and from the dryness of the mouth, the voice becomes husky or
+indistinct, or may altogether fail. "Obstupui, steteruntque comae, et
+vox faucibus haesit."
+
+Of vague fear there is a well-known and grand description in Job:--"In
+thoughts from the visions of the night, when deep sleep falleth on men,
+fear came upon me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake. Then
+a spirit passed before my face; the hair of my flesh stood up. It stood
+still, but I could not discern the form thereof: an image was before my
+eyes, there was silence, and I heard a voice, saying, Shall mortal man
+be more just than God? Shall a man be more pure than his Maker?" (Job
+iv. 13)
+
+As fear increases into an agony of terror, we behold, as under all
+violent emotions, diversified results. The heart beats wildly, or may
+fail to act and faintness ensue; there is a death-like pallor; the
+breathing is laboured; the wings of the nostrils are wildly dilated;
+"there is a gasping and convulsive motion of the lips, a tremor on the
+hollow cheek, a gulping and catching of the throat;"[1217] the uncovered
+and protruding eyeballs are fixed on the object of terror; or they may
+roll restlessly from side to side, _huc illuc volvens oculos totumque
+pererrat_.[1218] The pupils are said to be enormously dilated. All the
+muscles of the body may become rigid, or may be thrown into convulsive
+movements. The hands are alternately clenched and opened, often with
+a twitching movement. The arms may be protruded, as if to avert some
+dreadful danger, or may be thrown wildly over the head. The Rev. Mr.
+Hagenauer has seen this latter action in a terrified Australian. In
+other cases there is a sudden and uncontrollable tendency to headlong
+flight; and so strong is this, that the boldest soldiers may be seized
+with a sudden panic.
+
+As fear rises to an extreme pitch, the dreadful scream of terror is
+heard. Great beads of sweat stand on the skin. All the muscles of the
+body are relaxed. Utter prostration soon follows, and the mental powers
+fail. The intestines are affected. The sphincter muscles cease to act,
+and no longer retain the contents of the body.
+
+[Illustration: Photograph of an insane woman. Fig. 19]
+
+Dr. J. Crichton Browne has given me so striking an account of intense
+fear in an insane woman, aged thirty-five, that the description though
+painful ought not to be omitted. When a paroxysm seizes her, she screams
+out, "This is hell!" "There is a black woman!" "I can't get out!"--and
+other such exclamations. When thus screaming, her movements are those
+of alternate tension and tremor. For one instant she clenches her hands,
+holds her arms out before her in a stiff semi-flexed position; then
+suddenly bends her body forwards, sways rapidly to and fro, draws her
+fingers through her hair, clutches at her neck, and tries to tear off
+her clothes. The sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles (which serve to bend the
+head on the chest) stand out prominently, as if swollen, and the skin in
+front of them is much wrinkled. Her hair, which is cut short at the back
+of her head, and is smooth when she is calm, now stands on end; that in
+front being dishevelled by the movements of her hands. The countenance
+expresses great mental agony. The skin is flushed over the face and
+neck, down to the clavicles, and the veins of the forehead and neck
+stand out like thick cords. The lower lip drops, and is somewhat
+everted. The mouth is kept half open, with the lower jaw projecting. The
+cheeks are hollow and deeply furrowed in curved lines running from
+the wings of the nostrils to the corners of the mouth. The nostrils
+themselves are raised and extended. The eyes are widely opened, and
+beneath them the skin appears swollen; the pupils are large. The
+forehead is wrinkled transversely in many folds, and at the inner
+extremities of the eyebrows it is strongly furrowed in diverging lines,
+produced by the powerful and persistent contraction of the corrugators.
+
+[Illustration: Terror. Fig. 20]
+
+Mr. Bell has also described[1219] an agony of terror and of despair,
+which he witnessed in a murderer, whilst carried to the place of
+execution in Turin. "On each side of the car the officiating priests
+were seated; and in the centre sat the criminal himself. It was
+impossible to witness the condition of this unhappy wretch without
+terror; and yet, as if impelled by some strange infatuation, it was
+equally impossible not to gaze upon an object so wild, so full of
+horror. He seemed about thirty-five years of age; of large and muscular
+form; his countenance marked by strong and savage features; half naked,
+pale as death, agonized with terror, every limb strained in anguish,
+his hands clenched convulsively, the sweat breaking out on his bent
+and contracted brow, he kissed incessantly the figure of our Saviour,
+painted on the flag which was suspended before him; but with an agony of
+wildness and despair, of which nothing ever exhibited on the stage can
+give the slightest conception."
+
+I will add only one other case, illustrative of a man utterly prostrated
+by terror. An atrocious murderer of two persons was brought into a
+hospital, under the mistaken impression that he had poisoned himself;
+and Dr. W. Ogle carefully watched him the next morning, while he was
+being handcuffed and taken away by the police. His pallor was extreme,
+and his prostration so great that he was hardly able to dress himself.
+His skin perspired; and his eyelids and head drooped so much that it was
+impossible to catch even a glimpse of his eyes. His lower jaw hung down.
+There was no contraction of any facial muscle, and Dr. Ogle is almost
+certain that the hair did not stand on end, for he observed it narrowly,
+as it had been dyed for the sake of concealment.
+
+With respect to fear, as exhibited by the various races of man, my
+informants agree that the signs are the same as with Europeans. They
+are displayed in an exaggerated degree with the Hindoos and natives of
+Ceylon. Mr. Geach has seen Malays when terrified turn pale and shake;
+and Mr. Brough Smyth states that a native Australian "being on one
+occasion much frightened, showed a complexion as nearly approaching to
+what we call paleness, as can well be conceived in the case of a very
+black man." Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen extreme fear shown in an Australian,
+by a nervous twitching of the hands, feet, and lips; and by the
+perspiration standing on the skin. Many savages do not repress the signs
+of fear so much as Europeans; and they often tremble greatly. With the
+Kafir, Gaika says, in his rather quaint English, the shaking "of the
+body is much experienced, and the eyes are widely open." With savages,
+the sphincter muscles are often relaxed, just as may be observed in much
+frightened dogs, and as I have seen with monkeys when terrified by being
+caught.
+
+
+_The erection of the hair_.--Some of the signs of fear deserve a little
+further consideration. Poets continually speak of the hair standing on
+end; Brutus says to the ghost of Caesar, "that mak'st my blood cold, and
+my hair to stare." And Cardinal Beaufort, after the murder of Gloucester
+exclaims, "Comb down his hair; look, look, it stands upright." As I did
+not feel sure whether writers of fiction might not have applied to man
+what they had often observed in animals, I begged for information from
+Dr. Crichton Browne with respect to the insane. He states in answer that
+he has repeatedly seen their hair erected under the influence of sudden
+and extreme terror. For instance, it is occasionally necessary to inject
+morphia, under the skin of an insane woman, who dreads the operation
+extremely, though it causes very little pain; for she believes that
+poison is being introduced into her system, and that her bones will be
+softened, and her flesh turned into dust. She becomes deadly pale;
+her limbs are stiffened by a sort of tetanic spasm, and her hair is
+partially erected on the front of the head.
+
+Dr. Browne further remarks that the bristling of the hair which is
+so common in the insane, is not always associated with terror. It is
+perhaps most frequently seen in chronic maniacs, who rave incoherently
+and have destructive impulses; but it is during their paroxysms of
+violence that the bristling is most observable. The fact of the
+hair becoming erect under the influence both of rage and fear agrees
+perfectly with what we have seen in the lower animals. Dr. Browne
+adduces several cases in evidence. Thus with a man now in the Asylum,
+before the recurrence of each maniacal paroxysm, "the hair rises up
+from his forehead like the mane of a Shetland pony." He has sent
+me photographs of two women, taken in the intervals between their
+paroxysms, and he adds with respect to one of these women, "that the
+state of her hair is a sure and convenient criterion of her mental
+condition." I have had one of these photographs copied, and the
+engraving gives, if viewed from a little distance, a faithful
+representation of the original, with the exception that the hair appears
+rather too coarse and too much curled. The extraordinary condition of
+the hair in the insane is due, not only to its erection, but to its
+dryness and harshness, consequent on the subcutaneous glands failing
+to act. Dr. Bucknill has said[1220] that a lunatic "is a lunatic to his
+finger's ends;" he might have added, and often to the extremity of each
+particular hair.
+
+Dr. Browne mentions as an empirical confirmation of the relation which
+exists in the insane between the state of their hair and minds, that
+the wife of a medical man, who has charge of a lady suffering from acute
+melancholia, with a strong fear of death, for herself, her husband and
+children, reported verbally to him the day before receiving my letter as
+follows, "I think Mrs. ---- will soon improve, for her hair is getting
+smooth; and I always notice that our patients get better whenever their
+hair ceases to be rough and unmanageable."
+
+Dr. Browne attributes the persistently rough condition of the hair
+in many insane patients, in part to their minds being always somewhat
+disturbed, and in part to the effects of habit,--that is, to the hair
+being frequently and strongly erected during their many recurrent
+paroxysms. In patients in whom the bristling of the hair is extreme, the
+disease is generally permanent and mortal; but in others, in whom the
+bristling is moderate, as soon as they recover their health of mind the
+hair recovers its smoothness.
+
+In a previous chapter we have seen that with animals the hairs are
+erected by the contraction of minute, unstriped, and involuntary
+muscles, which run to each separate follicle. In addition to this
+action, Mr. J. Wood has clearly ascertained by experiment, as he
+informs me, that with man the hairs on the front of the head which slope
+forwards, and those on the back which slope backwards, are raised in
+opposite directions by the contraction of the occipito-frontalis or
+scalp muscle. So that this muscle seems to aid in the erection of
+the hairs on the head of man in the same manner as the homologous
+_panniculus carnosus_ aids, or takes the greater part, in the erection
+of the spines on the backs of some of the lower animals.
+
+
+_Contraction of the platysma myoides muscle_.--This muscle is spread
+over the sides of the neck, extending downwards to a little beneath the
+collar-bones, and upwards to the lower part of the cheeks. A portion,
+called the risorius, is represented in the woodcut (M) fig. 2. The
+contraction of this muscle draws the corners of the mouth and the lower
+parts of the checks downwards and backwards. It produces at the same
+time divergent, longitudinal, prominent ridges on the sides of the neck
+in the young; and, in old thin persons, fine transverse wrinkles. This
+muscle is sometimes said not to be under the control of the will; but
+almost every one, if told to draw the corners of his mouth backwards
+and downwards with great force, brings it into action. I have, however,
+heard of a man who can voluntarily act on it only on one side of his
+neck.
+
+Sir C. Bell[1221] and others have stated that this muscle is strongly
+contracted under the influence of fear; and Duchenne insists so strongly
+on its importance in the expression of this emotion, that he calls it
+the _muscle of fright_.[1222] He admits, however, that its contraction
+is quite inexpressive unless associated with widely open eyes and
+mouth. He has given a photograph (copied and reduced in the accompanying
+woodcut) of the same old man as on former occasions, with his eyebrows
+strongly raised, his mouth opened, and the platysma contracted, all by
+means of galvanism. The original photograph was shown to twenty-four
+persons, and they were separately asked, without any explanation being
+given, what expression was intended: twenty instantly answered, "intense
+fright" or "horror"; three said pain, and one extreme discomfort. Dr.
+Duchenne has given another photograph of the same old man, with the
+platysma contracted, the eyes and mouth opened, and the eyebrows
+rendered oblique, by means of galvanism. The expression thus induced
+is very striking (see Plate VII. fig. 2); the obliquity of the eyebrows
+adding the appearance of great mental distress. The original was shown
+to fifteen persons; twelve answered terror or horror, and three agony or
+great suffering. From these cases, and from an examination of the other
+photographs given by Dr. Duchenne, together with his remarks thereon,
+I think there can be little doubt that the contraction of the platysma
+does add greatly to the expression of fear. Nevertheless this muscle
+ought hardly to be called that of fright, for its contraction is
+certainly not a necessary concomitant of this state of mind.
+
+A man may exhibit extreme terror in the plainest manner by death-like
+pallor, by drops of perspiration on his skin, and by utter prostration,
+with all the muscles of his body, including the platysma, completely
+relaxed. Although Dr. Browne has often seen this muscle quivering and
+contracting in the insane, he has not been able to connect its action
+with any emotional condition in them, though he carefully attended to
+patients suffering from great fear. Mr. Nicol, on the other hand, has
+observed three cases in which this muscle appeared to be more or less
+permanently contracted under the influence of melancholia, associated
+with much dread; but in one of these cases, various other muscles about
+the neck and head were subject to spasmodic contractions.
+
+Dr. W. Ogle observed for me in one of the London hospitals about twenty
+patients, just before they were put under the influence of chloroform
+for operations. They exhibited some trepidation, but no great terror. In
+only four of the cases was the platysma visibly contracted; and it did
+not begin to contract until the patients began to cry. The muscle seemed
+to contract at the moment of each deep-drawn inspiration; so that it is
+very doubtful whether the contraction depended at all on the emotion of
+fear. In a fifth case, the patient, who was not chloroformed, was
+much terrified; and his platysma was more forcibly and persistently
+contracted than in the other cases. But even here there is room for
+doubt, for the muscle which appeared to be unusually developed, was seen
+by Dr. Ogle to contract as the man moved his head from the pillow, after
+the operation was over.
+
+As I felt much perplexed why, in any case, a superficial muscle on
+the neck should be especially affected by fear, I applied to my many
+obliging correspondents for information about the contraction of this
+muscle under other circumstances. It would be superfluous to give all
+the answers which I have received. They show that this muscle acts,
+often in a variable manner and degree, under many different conditions.
+It is violently contracted in hydrophobia, and in a somewhat less degree
+in lockjaw; sometimes in a marked manner during the insensibility from
+chloroform. Dr. W. Ogle observed two male patients, suffering from such
+difficulty in breathing, that the trachea had to be opened, and in both
+the platysma was strongly contracted. One of these men overheard the
+conversation of the surgeons surrounding him, and when he was able to
+speak, declared that he had not been frightened. In some other cases
+of extreme difficulty of respiration, though not requiring tracheotomy,
+observed by Drs. Ogle and Langstaff, the platysma was not contracted.
+
+Mr. J. Wood, who has studied with such care the muscles of the human
+body, as shown by his various publications, has often seen the platysma
+contracted in vomiting, nausea, and disgust; also in children and adults
+under the influence of rage,--for instance, in Irishwomen, quarrelling
+and brawling together with angry gesticulations. This may possibly have
+been due to their high and angry tones; for I know a lady, an excellent
+musician, who, in singing certain high notes, always contracts her
+platysma. So does a young man, as I have observed, in sounding certain
+notes on the flute. Mr. J. Wood informs me that he has found the
+platysma best developed in persons with thick necks and broad shoulders;
+and that in families inheriting these peculiarities, its development
+is usually associated with much voluntary power over the homologous
+occipito-frontalis muscle, by which the scalp can be moved.
+
+None of the foregoing cases appear to throw any light on the contraction
+of the platysma from fear; but it is different, I think, with the
+following cases. The gentleman before referred to, who can voluntarily
+act on this muscle only on one side of his neck, is positive that it
+contracts on both sides whenever he is startled. Evidence has already
+been given showing that this muscle sometimes contracts, perhaps for
+the sake of opening the mouth widely, when the breathing is rendered
+difficult by disease, and during the deep inspirations of crying-fits
+before an operation. Now, whenever a person starts at any sudden
+sight or sound, he instantaneously draws a deep breath; and thus the
+contraction of the platysma may possibly have become associated with the
+sense of fear. But there is, I believe, a more efficient relation.
+The first sensation of fear, or the imagination of something dreadful,
+commonly excites a shudder. I have caught myself giving a little
+involuntary shudder at a painful thought, and I distinctly perceived
+that my platysma contracted; so it does if I simulate a shudder. I have
+asked others to act in this manner; and in some the muscle contracted,
+but not in others. One of my sons, whilst getting out of bed, shuddered
+from the cold, and, as he happened to have his hand on his neck, he
+plainly felt that this muscle strongly contracted. He then voluntarily
+shuddered, as he had done on former occasions, but the platysma was not
+then affected. Mr. J. Wood has also several times observed this muscle
+contracting in patients, when stripped for examination, and who were not
+frightened, but shivered slightly from the cold. Unfortunately I have
+not been able to ascertain whether, when the whole body shakes, as
+in the cold stage of an ague fit, the platysma contracts. But as it
+certainly often contracts during a shudder; and as a shudder or shiver
+often accompanies the first sensation of fear, we have, I think, a clue
+to its action in this latter case.[1223] Its contraction, however, is
+not an invariable concomitant of fear; for it probably never acts under
+the influence of extreme, prostrating terror.
+
+
+_Dilatation of the Pupils_.--Gratiolet repeatedly insists[1224] that the
+pupils are enormously dilated whenever terror is felt. I have no reason
+to doubt the accuracy of this statement, but have failed to obtain
+confirmatory evidence, excepting in the one instance before given of an
+insane woman suffering from great fear. When writers of fiction speak of
+the eyes being widely dilated, I presume that they refer to the eyelids.
+Munro's statement, that with parrots the iris is affected by the
+passions, independently of the amount of light, seems to bear on this
+question; but Professor Donders informs me, that he has often seen
+movements in the pupils of these birds which he thinks may be related to
+their power of accommodation to distance, in nearly the same manner
+as our own pupils contract when our eyes converge for near vision.
+Gratiolet remarks that the dilated pupils appear as if they were gazing
+into profound darkness. No doubt the fears of man have often been
+excited in the dark; but hardly so often or so exclusively, as to
+account for a fixed and associated habit having thus arisen. It seems
+more probable, assuming that Gratiolet's statement is correct, that the
+brain is directly affected by the powerful emotion of fear and reacts on
+the pupils; but Professor Donders informs me that this is an extremely
+complicated subject. I may add, as possibly throwing light on the
+subject, that Dr. Fyffe, of Netley Hospital, has observed in two
+patients that the pupils were distinctly dilated during the cold stage
+of an ague fit. Professor Donders has also often seen dilatation of the
+pupils in incipient faintness.
+
+
+_Horror_.--The state of mind expressed by this term implies terror, and
+is in some, cases almost synonymous with it. Many a man must have felt,
+before the blessed discovery of chloroform, great horror at the thought
+of an impending surgical operation. He who dreads, as well as hates a
+man, will feel, as Milton uses the word, a horror of him. We feel horror
+if we see any one, for instance a child, exposed to some instant and
+crushing danger. Almost every one would experience the same feeling in
+the highest degree in witnessing a man being tortured or going to be
+tortured. In these cases there is no danger to ourselves; but from
+the power of the imagination and of sympathy we put ourselves in the
+position of the sufferer, and feel something akin to fear.
+
+[Illustration: Horror and Agony. Fig. 21]
+
+Sir C. Bell remarks,[1226] that "horror is full of energy; the body is
+in the utmost tension, not unnerved by fear." It is, therefore, probable
+that horror would generally be accompanied by the strong contraction of
+the brows; but as fear is one of the elements, the eyes and mouth would
+be opened, and the eyebrows would be raised, as far as the antagonistic
+action of the corrugators permitted this movement. Duchenne has given a
+photograph[1227] (fig. 21) of the same old man as before, with his eyes
+somewhat staring, the eyebrows partially raised, and at the same time
+strongly contracted, the mouth opened, and the platysma in action, all
+effected by the means of galvanism. He considers that the expression
+thus produced shows extreme terror with horrible pain or torture. A
+tortured man, as long as his sufferings allowed him to feel any dread
+for the future, would probably exhibit horror in an extreme degree. I
+have shown the original of this photograph to twenty-three persons of
+both sexes and various ages; and thirteen immediately answered horror,
+great pain, torture, or agony; three answered extreme fright; so that
+sixteen answered nearly in accordance with Duchenne's belief. Six,
+however, said anger, guided no doubt, by the strongly contracted brows,
+and overlooking the peculiarly opened mouth. One said disgust. On
+the whole, the evidence indicates that we have here a fairly good
+representation of horror and agony. The photograph before referred to
+(Pl. VII. fig. 2) likewise exhibits horror; but in this the oblique
+eyebrows indicate great mental distress in place of energy.
+
+Horror is generally accompanied by various gestures, which differ in
+different individuals. Judging from pictures, the whole body is often
+turned away or shrinks; or the arms are violently protruded as if to
+push away some dreadful object. The most frequent gesture, as far as
+can be inferred from the action of persons who endeavour to express a
+vividly-imagined scene of horror, is the raising of both shoulders,
+with the bent arms pressed closely against the sides or chest. These
+movements are nearly the same with those commonly made when we feel very
+cold; and they are generally accompanied by a shudder, as well as by a
+deep expiration or inspiration, according as the chest happens at the
+time to be expanded or contracted. The sounds thus made are expressed by
+words like _uh_ or _ugh_.[1228] It is not, however, obvious why, when we
+feel cold or express a sense of horror, we press our bent arms against
+our bodies, raise our shoulders, and shudder.
+
+
+_Conclusion_.--I have now endeavoured to describe the diversified
+expressions of fear, in its gradations from mere attention to a start
+of surprise, into extreme terror and horror. Some of the signs may
+be accounted for through the principles of habit, association, and
+inheritance,--such as the wide opening of the mouth and eyes, with
+upraised eyebrows, so as to see as quickly as possible all around us,
+and to hear distinctly whatever sound may reach our ears. For we have
+thus habitually prepared ourselves to discover and encounter any danger.
+Some of the other signs of fear may likewise be accounted for, at
+least in part, through these same principles. Men, during numberless
+generations, have endeavoured to escape from their enemies or danger by
+headlong flight, or by violently struggling with them; and such great
+exertions will have caused the heart to beat rapidly, the breathing to
+be hurried, the chest to heave, and the nostrils to be dilated. As these
+exertions have often been prolonged to the last extremity, the final
+result will have been utter prostration, pallor, perspiration, trembling
+of all the muscles, or their complete relaxation. And now, whenever
+the emotion of fear is strongly felt, though it may not lead to any
+exertion, the same results tend to reappear, through the force of
+inheritance and association.
+
+Nevertheless, it is probable that many or most of the above symptoms of
+terror, such as the beating of the heart, the trembling of the muscles,
+cold perspiration, &c., are in large part directly due to the disturbed
+or interrupted transmission of nerve-force from the cerebro-spinal
+system to various parts of the body, owing to the mind being
+so powerfully affected. We may confidently look to this cause,
+independently of habit and association, in such cases as the modified
+secretions of the intestinal canal, and the failure of certain glands to
+act. With respect to the involuntary bristling of the hair, we have good
+reason to believe that in the case of animals this action, however it
+may have originated, serves, together with certain voluntary movements,
+to make them appear terrible to their enemies; and as the same
+involuntary and voluntary actions are performed by animals nearly
+related to man, we are led to believe that man has retained through
+inheritance a relic of them, now become useless. It is certainly a
+remarkable fact, that the minute unstriped muscles, by which the hairs
+thinly scattered over man's almost naked body are erected, should have
+been preserved to the present day; and that they should still contract
+under the same emotions, namely, terror and rage, which cause the hairs
+to stand on end in the lower members of the Order to which man belongs.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII. -- SELF-ATTENTION--SHAME--SHYNESS--MODESTY: BLUSHING.
+
+Nature of a blush--Inheritance--The parts of the body most
+affected--Blushing in the various races of man--Accompanying
+gestures--Confusion of mind--Causes of blushing--Self-attention,
+the fundamental element--Shyness--Shame, from broken moral laws and
+conventional rules--Modesty--Theory of blushing--Recapitulation.
+
+
+BLUSHING is the most peculiar and the most human of all expressions.
+Monkeys redden from passion, but it would require an overwhelming
+amount of evidence to make us believe that any animal could blush.
+The reddening of the face from a blush is due to the relaxation of the
+muscular coats of the small arteries, by which the capillaries become
+filled with blood; and this depends on the proper vaso-motor centre
+being affected. No doubt if there be at the same time much mental
+agitation, the general circulation will be affected; but it is not due
+to the action of the heart that the network of minute vessels covering
+the face becomes under a sense of shame gorged with blood. We can cause
+laughing by tickling the skin, weeping or frowning by a blow, trembling
+from the fear of pain, and so forth; but we cannot cause a blush, as Dr.
+Burgess remarks,[1301] by any physical means,--that is by any action on
+the body. It is the mind which must be affected. Blushing is not only
+involuntary; but the wish to restrain it, by leading to self-attention
+actually increases the tendency.
+
+The young blush much more freely than the old, but not during
+infancy,[1302] which is remarkable, as we know that infants at a very
+early age redden from passion. I have received authentic accounts of two
+little girls blushing at the ages of between two and three years; and
+of another sensitive child, a year older, blushing, when reproved for
+a fault. Many children, at a somewhat more advanced age blush in a
+strongly marked manner. It appears that the mental powers of infants
+are not as yet sufficiently developed to allow of their blushing. Hence,
+also, it is that idiots rarely blush. Dr. Crichton Browne observed for
+me those under his care, but never saw a genuine blush, though he has
+seen their faces flash, apparently from joy, when food was placed before
+them, and from anger. Nevertheless some, if not utterly degraded, are
+capable of blushing. A microcephalous idiot, for instance, thirteen
+years old, whose eyes brightened a little when he was pleased or amused,
+has been described by Dr. Behn,[1303] as blushing and turning to one
+side, when undressed for medical examination.
+
+Women blush much more than men. It is rare to see an old man, but not
+nearly so rare to see an old woman blushing. The blind do not escape.
+Laura Bridgman, born in this condition, as well as completely deaf,
+blushes.[1304] The Rev. R. H. Blair, Principal of the Worcester College,
+informs me that three children born blind, out of seven or eight then
+in the Asylum, are great blushers. The blind are not at first conscious
+that they are observed, and it is a most important part of their
+education, as Mr. Blair informs me, to impress this knowledge on their
+minds; and the impression thus gained would greatly strengthen the
+tendency to blush, by increasing the habit of self-attention.
+
+The tendency to blush is inherited. Dr. Burgess gives the case[1305] of
+a family consisting of a father, mother, and ten children, all of whom,
+without exception, were prone to blush to a most painful degree. The
+children were grown up; "and some of them were sent to travel in order
+to wear away this diseased sensibility, but nothing was of the slightest
+avail." Even peculiarities in blushing seem to be inherited. Sir James
+Paget, whilst examining the spine of a girl, was struck at her singular
+manner of blushing; a big splash of red appeared first on one cheek,
+and then other splashes, variously scattered over the face and neck.
+He subsequently asked the mother whether her daughter always blushed in
+this peculiar manner; and was answered, "Yes, she takes after me." Sir
+J. Paget then perceived that by asking this question he had caused the
+mother to blush; and she exhibited the same peculiarity as her daughter.
+
+In most cases the face, ears and neck are the sole parts which redden;
+but many persons, whilst blushing intensely, feel that their whole
+bodies grow hot and tingle; and this shows that the entire surface must
+be in some manner affected. Blushes are said sometimes to commence on
+the forehead, but more commonly on the cheeks, afterwards spreading to
+the ears and neck.[1306] In two Albinos examined by Dr. Burgess, the
+blushes commenced by a small circumscribed spot on the cheeks, over the
+parotidean plexus of nerves, and then increased into a circle; between
+this blushing circle and the blush on the neck there was an evident line
+of demarcation; although both arose simultaneously. The retina, which
+is naturally red in the Albino, invariably increased at the same time
+in redness.[1307] Every one must have noticed how easily after one blush
+fresh blushes chase each other over the face. Blushing is preceded by a
+peculiar sensation in the skin. According to Dr. Burgess the reddening
+of the skin is generally succeeded by a slight pallor, which shows
+that the capillary vessels contract after dilating. In some rare cases
+paleness instead of redness is caused under conditions which would
+naturally induce a blush. For instance, a young lady told me that in a
+large and crowded party she caught her hair so firmly on the button of a
+passing servant, that it took some time before she could be extricated;
+from her sensations she imagined that she had blushed crimson; but was
+assured by a friend that she had turned extremely pale.
+
+I was desirous to learn how far down the body blushes extend; and Sir J.
+Paget, who necessarily has frequent opportunities for observation, has
+kindly attended to this point for me during two or three years. He finds
+that with women who blush intensely on the face, ears, and nape of neck,
+the blush does not commonly extend any lower down the body. It is rare
+to see it as low down as the collar-bones and shoulder-blades; and he
+has never himself seen a single instance in which it extended below the
+upper part of the chest. He has also noticed that blushes sometimes die
+away downwards, not gradually and insensibly, but by irregular ruddy
+blotches. Dr. Langstaff has likewise observed for me several women whose
+bodies did not in the least redden while their faces were crimsoned with
+blushes. With the insane, some of whom appear to be particularly liable
+to blushing, Dr. J. Crichton Browne has several times seen the blush
+extend as far down as the collar-bones, and in two instances to the
+breasts. He gives me the case of a married woman, aged twenty-seven, who
+suffered from epilepsy. On the morning after her arrival in the Asylum,
+Dr. Browne, together with his assistants, visited her whilst she was in
+bed. The moment that he approached, she blushed deeply over her cheeks
+and temples; and the blush spread quickly to her ears. She was much
+agitated and tremulous. He unfastened the collar of her chemise in order
+to examine the state of her lungs; and then a brilliant blush rushed
+over her chest, in an arched line over the upper third of each breast,
+and extended downwards between the breasts nearly to the ensiform
+cartilage of the sternum. This case is interesting, as the blush did
+not thus extend downwards until it became intense by her attention
+being drawn to this part of her person. As the examination proceeded she
+became composed, and the blush disappeared; but on several subsequent
+occasions the same phenomena were observed.
+
+The foregoing facts show that, as a general rule, with English women,
+blushing does not extend beneath the neck and upper part of the chest.
+Nevertheless Sir J. Paget informs me that he has lately heard of a case,
+on which he can fully rely, in which a little girl, shocked by what she
+imagined to be an act of indelicacy, blushed all over her abdomen and
+the upper parts of her legs. Moreau also[1308] relates, on the authority
+of a celebrated painter, that the chest, shoulders, arms, and whole body
+of a girl, who unwillingly consented to serve as a model, reddened when
+she was first divested of her clothes.
+
+It is a rather curious question why, in most cases the face, ears,
+and neck alone redden, inasmuch as the whole surface of the body often
+tingles and grows hot. This seems to depend, chiefly, on the face and
+adjoining parts of the skin having been habitually exposed to the air,
+light, and alternations of temperature, by which the small arteries not
+only have acquired the habit of readily dilating and contracting, but
+appear to have become unusually developed in comparison with other parts
+of the surface.[1309] It is probably owing to this same cause, as M.
+Moreau and Dr. Burgess have remarked, that the face is so liable to
+redden under various circumstances, such as a fever-fit, ordinary heat,
+violent exertion, anger, a slight blow, &c.; and on the other hand that
+it is liable to grow pale from cold and fear, and to be discoloured
+during pregnancy. The face is also particularly liable to be affected
+by cutaneous complaints, by small-pox, erysipelas, &c. This view is
+likewise supported by the fact that the men of certain races, who
+habitually go nearly naked, often blush over their arms and chests and
+even down to their waists. A lady, who is a great blusher, informs Dr.
+Crichton Browne, that when she feels ashamed or is agitated, she blushes
+over her face, neck, wrists, and hands,--that is, over all the exposed
+portions of her skin. Nevertheless it may be doubted whether the
+habitual exposure of the skin of the face and neck, and its consequent
+power of reaction under stimulants of all kinds, is by itself sufficient
+to account for the much greater tendency in English women of these parts
+than of others to blush; for the hands are well supplied with nerves and
+small vessels, and have been as much exposed to the air as the face or
+neck, and yet the hands rarely blush. We shall presently see that the
+attention of the mind having been directed much more frequently and
+earnestly to the face than to any other part of the body, probably
+affords a sufficient explanation.
+
+
+_Blushing in the various races of man_.--The small vessels of the face
+become filled with blood, from the emotion of shame, in almost all the
+races of man, though in the very dark races no distinct change of
+colour can be perceived. Blushing is evident in all the Aryan nations of
+Europe, and to a certain extent with those of India. But Mr. Erskine has
+never noticed that the necks of the Hindoos are decidedly affected. With
+the Lepchas of Sikhim, Mr. Scott has often observed a faint blush on the
+cheeks, base of the ears, and sides of the neck, accompanied by sunken
+eyes and lowered head. This has occurred when he has detected them in
+a falsehood, or has accused them of ingratitude. The pale, sallow
+complexions of these men render a blush much more conspicuous than in
+most of the other natives of India. With the latter, shame, or it may be
+in part fear, is expressed, according to Mr. Scott, much more plainly
+by the head being averted or bent down, with the eyes wavering or turned
+askant, than by any change of colour in the skin.
+
+The Semitic races blush freely, as might have been expected, from their
+general similitude to the Aryans. Thus with the Jews, it is said in the
+Book of Jeremiah (chap. vi. 15), "Nay, they were not at all ashamed,
+neither could they blush." Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab managing his boat
+clumsily on the Nile, and when laughed at by his companions, "he blushed
+quite to the back of his neck." Lady Duff Gordon remarks that a young
+Arab blushed on coming into her presence.[1310]
+
+Mr. Swinhoe has seen the Chinese blushing, but he thinks it is rare; yet
+they have the expression "to redden with shame." Mr. Geach informs
+me that the Chinese settled in Malacca and the native Malays of the
+interior both blush. Some of these people go nearly naked, and he
+particularly attended to the downward extension of the blush. Omitting
+the cases in which the face alone was seen to blush, Mr. Geach observed
+that the face, arms, and breast of a Chinaman, aged 24 years, reddened
+from shame; and with another Chinese, when asked why he had not done
+his work in better style, the whole body was similarly affected. In two
+Malays[1311] he saw the face, neck, breast, and arms blushing; and in a
+third Malay (a Bugis) the blush extended down to the waist.
+
+The Polynesians blush freely. The Rev. Mr. Stack has seen hundreds of
+instances with the New Zealanders. The following case is worth giving,
+as it relates to an old man who was unusually dark-coloured and partly
+tattooed. After having let his land to an Englishman for a small yearly
+rental, a strong passion seized him to buy a gig, which had lately
+become the fashion with the Maoris. He consequently wished to draw all
+the rent for four years from his tenant, and consulted Mr. Stack whether
+he could do so. The man was old, clumsy, poor, and ragged, and the idea
+of his driving himself about in his carriage for display amused Mr.
+Stack so much that he could not help bursting out into a laugh; and then
+"the old man blushed up to the roots of his hair." Forster says that
+"you may easily distinguish a spreading blush" on the cheeks of the
+fairest women in Tahiti.[1312] The natives also of several of the other
+archipelagoes in the Pacific have been seen to blush.
+
+Mr. Washington Matthews has often seen a blush on the faces of the young
+squaws belonging to various wild Indian tribes of North America. At the
+opposite extremity of the continent in Tierra del Fuego, the natives,
+according to Mr. Bridges, "blush much, but chiefly in regard to women;
+but they certainly blush also at their own personal appearance." This
+latter statement agrees with what I remember of the Fuegian, Jemmy
+Button, who blushed when he was quizzed about the care which he took in
+polishing his shoes, and in otherwise adorning himself. With respect
+to the Aymara Indians on the lofty plateaus of Bolivia, Mr. Forbes
+says,[1313] that from the colour of their skins it is impossible that
+their blushes should be as clearly visible as in the white races; still
+under such circumstances as would raise a blush in us, "there can always
+be seen the same expression of modesty or confusion; and even in the
+dark, a rise of temperature of the skin of the face can be felt, exactly
+as occurs in the European." With the Indians who inhabit the hot,
+equable, and damp parts of South America, the skin apparently does
+not answer to mental excitement so readily as with the natives of the
+northern and southern parts of the continent, who have long been exposed
+to great vicissitudes of climate; for Humboldt quotes without a protest
+the sneer of the Spaniard, "How can those be trusted, who know not how
+to blush?"[1314] Von Spix and Martius, in speaking of the aborigines of
+Brazil, assert that they cannot properly be said to blush; "it was
+only after long intercourse with the whites, and after receiving
+some education, that we perceived in the Indians a change of colour
+expressive of the emotions of their minds."[1315] It is, however,
+incredible that the power of blushing could have thus originated; but
+the habit of self-attention, consequent on their education and new
+course of life, would have much increased any innate tendency to blush.
+
+Several trustworthy observers have assured me that they have seen on the
+faces of negroes an appearance resembling a blush, under circumstances
+which would have excited one in us, though their skins were of an
+ebony-black tint. Some describe it as blushing brown, but most say that
+the blackness becomes more intense. An increased supply of blood in
+the skin seems in some manner to increase its blackness; thus certain
+exanthematous diseases cause the affected places in the negro to appear
+blacker, instead of, as with us, redder.[1316] The skin, perhaps, from
+being rendered more tense by the filling of the capillaries, would
+reflect a somewhat different tint to what it did before. That the
+capillaries of the face in the negro become filled with blood, under
+the emotion of shame, we may feel confident; because a perfectly
+characterized albino negress, described by Buffon,[1317] showed a
+faint tinge of crimson on her cheeks when she exhibited herself naked.
+Cicatrices of the skin remain for a long time white in the negro, and
+Dr. Burgess, who had frequent opportunities of observing a scar of this
+kind on the face of a negress, distinctly saw that it "invariably became
+red whenever she was abruptly spoken to, or charged with any
+trivial offence."[1318] The blush could be seen proceeding from the
+circumference of the scar towards the middle, but it did not reach the
+centre. Mulattoes are often great blushers, blush succeeding blush over
+their faces. From these facts there can be no doubt that negroes blush,
+although no redness is visible on the skin.
+
+I am assured by Gaika and by Mrs. Barber that the Kafirs of South
+Africa never blush; but this may only mean that no change of colour is
+distinguishable. Gaika adds that under the circumstances which would
+make a European blush, his countrymen "look ashamed to keep their heads
+up."
+
+It is asserted by four of my informants that the Australians, who are
+almost as black as negroes, never blush. A fifth answers doubtfully,
+remarking that only a very strong blush could be seen, on account of
+the dirty state of their skins. Three observers state that they do
+blush;[1319] Mr. S. Wilson adding that this is noticeable only under a
+strong emotion, and when the skin is not too dark from long exposure and
+want of cleanliness. Mr. Lang answers, "I have noticed that shame almost
+always excites a blush, which frequently extends as low as the neck."
+Shame is also shown, as he adds, "by the eyes being turned from side to
+side." As Mr. Lang was a teacher in a native school, it is probable
+that he chiefly observed children; and we know that they blush more than
+adults. Mr. G. Taplin has seen half-castes blushing, and he says that
+the aborigines have a word expressive of shame. Mr. Hagenauer, who is
+one of those who has never observed the Australians to blush, says that
+he has "seen them looking down to the ground on account of shame;" and
+the missionary, Mr. Bulmer, remarks that though "I have not been able to
+detect anything like shame in the adult aborigines, I have noticed
+that the eyes of the children, when ashamed, present a restless, watery
+appearance, as if they did not know where to look."
+
+The facts now given are sufficient to show that blushing, whether or not
+there is any change of colour, is common to most, probably to all, of
+the races of man.
+
+_Movements and gestures which accompany Blushing_.--Under a keen sense
+of shame there is a strong desire for concealment.[1320] We turn away
+the whole body, more especially the face, which we endeavour in some
+manner to hide. An ashamed person can hardly endure to meet the gaze of
+those present, so that he almost invariably casts down his eyes or looks
+askant. As there generally exists at the same time a strong wish to
+avoid the appearance of shame, a vain attempt is made to look direct
+at the person who causes this feeling; and the antagonism between these
+opposite tendencies leads to various restless movements in the eyes.
+I have noticed two ladies who, whilst blushing, to which they are
+very liable, have thus acquired, as it appears, the oddest trick of
+incessantly blinking their eyelids with extraordinary rapidity.
+An intense blush is sometimes accompanied by a slight effusion of
+tears;[1321] and this, I presume, is due to the lacrymal glands
+partaking of the increased supply of blood, which we know rushes into
+the capillaries of the adjoining parts, including the retina.
+
+Many writers, ancient and modern, have noticed the foregoing movements;
+and it has already been shown that the aborigines in various parts of
+the world often exhibit their shame by looking downwards or askant, or
+by restless movements of their eyes. Ezra cries out (ch. ix. 6), "O,
+my God! I am ashamed, and blush to lift up my head to thee, my God."
+In Isaiah (ch. I. 6) we meet with the words, "I hid not my face from
+shame." Seneca remarks (Epist. xi. 5) "that the Roman players hang down
+their heads, fix their eyes on the ground and keep them lowered, but are
+unable to blush in acting shame." According to Macrobius, who lived in
+the filth century ('Saturnalia,' B. vii. C. 11), "Natural philosophers
+assert that nature being moved by shame spreads the blood before herself
+as a veil, as we see any one blushing often puts his hands before his
+face." Shakspeare makes Marcus ('Titus Andronicus,' act ii, sc. 5) say
+to his niece, "Ah! now thou turn'st away thy face for shame." A lady
+informs me that she found in the Lock Hospital a girl whom she had
+formerly known, and who had become a wretched castaway, and the poor
+creature, when approached, hid her face under the bed-clothes, and could
+not be persuaded to uncover it. We often see little children, when shy
+or ashamed, turn away, and still standing up, bury their faces in their
+mother's gown; or they throw themselves face downwards on her lap.
+
+
+_Confusion of mind_.--Most persons, whilst blushing intensely, have
+their mental powers confused. This is recognized in such common
+expressions as "she was covered with confusion." Persons in
+this condition lose their presence of mind, and utter singularly
+inappropriate remarks. They are often much distressed, stammer, and
+make awkward movements or strange grimaces. In certain cases involuntary
+twitchings of some of the facial muscles may be observed. I have been
+informed by a young lady, who blushes excessively, that at such times
+she does not even know what she is saying. When it was suggested to her
+that this might be due to her distress from the consciousness that her
+blushing was noticed, she answered that this could not be the case, "as
+she had sometimes felt quite as stupid when blushing at a thought in her
+own room."
+
+I will give an instance of the extreme disturbance of mind to which some
+sensitive men are liable. A gentleman, on whom I can rely, assured
+me that he had been an eye-witness of the following scene:--A small
+dinner-party was given in honour of an extremely shy man, who, when
+he rose to return thanks, rehearsed the speech, which he had evidently
+learnt by heart, in absolute silence, and did not utter a single word;
+but he acted as if he were speaking with much emphasis. His friends,
+perceiving how the case stood, loudly applauded the imaginary bursts of
+eloquence, whenever his gestures indicated a pause, and the man never
+discovered that he had remained the whole time completely silent. On the
+contrary, he afterwards remarked to my friend, with much satisfaction,
+that he thought he had succeeded uncommonly well.
+
+When a person is much ashamed or very shy, and blushes intensely, his
+heart beats rapidly and his breathing is disturbed. This can hardly fail
+to affect the circulation of the blood within the brain, and perhaps the
+mental powers. It seems however doubtful, judging from the still more
+powerful influence of anger and fear on the circulation, whether we can
+thus satisfactorily account for the confused state of mind in persons
+whilst blushing intensely.
+
+The true explanation apparently lies in the intimate sympathy which
+exists between the capillary circulation of the surface of the head and
+face, and that of the brain. On applying to Dr. J. Crichton Browne for
+information, he has given me various facts bearing on this subject.
+When the sympathetic nerve is divided on one side of the head, the
+capillaries on this side are relaxed and become filled with blood,
+causing the skin to redden and to grow hot, and at the same time the
+temperature within the cranium on the same side rises. Inflammation of
+the membranes of the brain leads to the engorgement of the face, ears,
+and eyes with blood. The first stage of an epileptic fit appears to
+be the contraction of the vessels of the brain, and the first outward
+manifestation is, an extreme pallor of countenance. Erysipelas of
+the head commonly induces delirium. Even the relief given to a severe
+headache by burning the skin with strong lotion, depends, I presume, on
+the same principle.
+
+Dr. Browne has often administered to his patients the vapour of the
+nitrite of amyl,[1322] which has the singular property of causing vivid
+redness of the face in from thirty to sixty seconds. This flushing
+resembles blushing in almost every detail: it begins at several distinct
+points on the face, and spreads till it involves the whole surface of
+the head, neck, and front of the chest; but has been observed to extend
+only in one case to the abdomen. The arteries in the retina become
+enlarged; the eyes glisten, and in one instance there was a slight
+effusion of tears. The patients are at first pleasantly stimulated,
+but, as the flushing increases, they become confused and bewildered. One
+woman to whom the vapour had often been administered asserted that, as
+soon as she grew hot, she grew MUDDLED. With persons just commencing to
+blush it appears, judging from their bright eyes and lively behaviour,
+that their mental powers are somewhat stimulated. It is only when the
+blushing is excessive that the mind grows confused. Therefore it would
+seem that the capillaries of the face are affected, both during the
+inhalation of the nitrite of amyl and during blushing, before that part
+of the brain is affected on which the mental powers depend.
+
+Conversely when the brain is primarily affected; the circulation of the
+skin is so in a secondary manner. Dr. Browne has frequently observed,
+as he informs me, scattered red blotches and mottlings on the chests
+of epileptic patients. In these cases, when the skin on the thorax
+or abdomen is gently rubbed with a pencil or other object, or, in
+strongly-marked cases, is merely touched by the finger, the surface
+becomes suffused in less than half a minute with bright red marks, which
+spread to some distance on each side of the touched point, and persist
+for several minutes. These are the _cerebral maculae_ of Trousseau; and
+they indicate, as Dr. Browne remarks, a highly modified condition of the
+cutaneous vascular system. If, then, there exists, as cannot be doubted,
+an intimate sympathy between the capillary circulation in that part
+of the brain on which our mental powers depend, and in the skin of the
+face, it is not surprising that the moral causes which induce intense
+blushing should likewise induce, independently of their own disturbing
+influence, much confusion of mind.
+
+
+_The Nature of the Mental States which induce Blushing_.--These consist
+of shyness, shame, and modesty; the essential element in all being
+self-attention. Many reasons can be assigned for believing that
+originally self-attention directed to personal appearance, in relation
+to the opinion of others, was the exciting cause; the same effect
+being subsequently produced, through the force of association, by
+self-attention in relation to moral conduct. It is not the simple act of
+reflecting on our own appearance, but the thinking what others think
+of us, which excites a blush. In absolute solitude the most sensitive
+person would be quite indifferent about his appearance. We feel blame
+or disapprobation more acutely than approbation; and consequently
+depreciatory remarks or ridicule, whether of our appearance or conduct,
+causes us to blush much more readily than does praise. But undoubtedly
+praise and admiration are highly efficient: a pretty girl blushes when a
+man gazes intently at her, though she may know perfectly well that he
+is not depreciating her. Many children, as well as old and sensitive
+persons blush, when they are much praised. Hereafter the question will
+be discussed, how it has arisen that the consciousness that others are
+attending to our personal appearance should have led to the capillaries,
+especially those of the face, instantly becoming filled with blood.
+
+My reasons for believing that attention directed to personal appearance,
+and not to moral conduct, has been the fundamental element in the
+acquirement of the habit of blushing, will now be given. They
+are separately light, but combined possess, as it appears to me,
+considerable weight. It is notorious that nothing makes a shy person
+blush so much as any remark, however slight, on his personal appearance.
+One cannot notice even the dress of a woman much given to blushing,
+without causing her face to crimson. It is sufficient to stare hard at
+some persons to make them, as Coleridge remarks, blush,--"account for
+that he who can."[1323]
+
+With the two albinos observed by Dr. Burgess,[1324] "the slightest
+attempt to examine their peculiarities invariably caused them to blush
+deeply." Women are much more sensitive about their personal appearance
+than men are, especially elderly women in comparison with elderly men,
+and they blush much more freely. The young of both sexes are much more
+sensitive on this same head than the old, and they also blush much more
+freely than the old. Children at a very early age do not blush; nor
+do they show those other signs of self-consciousness which generally
+accompany blushing; and it is one of their chief charms that they think
+nothing about what others think of them. At this early age they will
+stare at a stranger with a fixed gaze and un-blinking eyes, as on an
+inanimate object, in a manner which we elders cannot imitate.
+
+It is plain to every one that young men and women are highly sensitive
+to the opinion of each other with reference to their personal
+appearance; and they blush incomparably more in the presence of the
+opposite sex than in that of their own.[1325] A young man, not very
+liable to blush, will blush intensely at any slight ridicule of his
+appearance from a girl whose judgment on any important subject lie
+would disregard. No happy pair of young lovers, valuing each other's
+admiration and love more than anything else in the world, probably ever
+courted each other without many a blush. Even the barbarians of Tierra
+del Fuego, according to Mr. Bridges, blush "chiefly in regard to women,
+but certainly also at their own personal appearance."
+
+Of all parts of the body, the face is most considered and regarded, as
+is natural from its being the chief seat of expression and the source
+of the voice. It is also the chief seat of beauty and of ugliness, and
+throughout the world is the most ornamented.[1326] The face, therefore,
+will have been subjected during many generations to much closer and
+more earnest self-attention than any other part of the body; and in
+accordance with the principle here advanced we can understand why it
+should be the most liable to blush. Although exposure to alternations
+of temperature, &c., has probably much increased the power of dilatation
+and contraction in the capillaries of the face and adjoining parts, yet
+this by itself will hardly account for these parts blushing much more
+than the rest of the body; for it does not explain the fact of the hands
+rarely blushing. With Europeans the whole body tingles slightly when
+the face blushes intensely; and with the races of men who habitually go
+nearly naked, the blushes extend over a much larger surface than
+with us. These facts are, to a certain extent, intelligible, as the
+self-attention of primeval man, as well as of the existing races which
+still go naked, will not have been so exclusively confined to their
+faces, as is the case with the people who now go clothed.
+
+We have seen that in all parts of the world persons who feel shame
+for some moral delinquency, are apt to avert, bend down, or hide their
+faces, independently of any thought about their personal appearance.
+The object can hardly be to conceal their blushes, for the face is
+thus averted or hidden under circumstances which exclude any desire to
+conceal shame, as when guilt is fully confessed and repented of. It is,
+however, probable that primeval man before he had acquired much moral
+sensitiveness would have been highly sensitive about his personal
+appearance, at least in reference to the other sex, and he would
+consequently have felt distress at any depreciatory remarks about his
+appearance; and this is one form of shame. And as the face is the part
+of the body which is most regarded, it is intelligible that any one
+ashamed of his personal appearance would desire to conceal this part
+of his body. The habit having been thus acquired, would naturally be
+carried on when shame from strictly moral causes was felt; and it is not
+easy otherwise to see why under these circumstances there should be a
+desire to hide the face more than any other part of the body.
+
+The habit, so general with every one who feels ashamed, of turning
+away, or lowering his eyes, or restlessly moving them from side to
+side, probably follows from each glance directed towards those present,
+bringing home the conviction that he is intently regarded; and he
+endeavours, by not looking at those present, and especially not at their
+eyes, momentarily to escape from this painful conviction.
+
+
+_Shyness_.--This odd state of mind, often called shamefacedness,
+or false shame, or _mauvaise honte_, appears to be one of the most
+efficient of all the causes of blushing. Shyness is, indeed, chiefly
+recognized by the face reddening, by the eyes being averted or cast
+down, and by awkward, nervous movements of the body. Many a woman
+blushes from this cause, a hundred, perhaps a thousand times, to once
+that she blushes from having done anything deserving blame, and of which
+she is truly ashamed. Shyness seems to depend on sensitiveness to the
+opinion, whether good or bad, of others, more especially with respect to
+external appearance. Strangers neither know nor care anything about
+our conduct or character, but they may, and often do, criticize our
+appearance: hence shy persons are particularly apt to be shy and to
+blush in the presence of strangers. The consciousness of anything
+peculiar, or even new, in the dress, or any slight blemish on the
+person, and more especially, on the face--points which are likely to
+attract the attention of strangers--makes the shy intolerably shy.
+On the other hand, in those cases in which conduct and not personal
+appearance is concerned, we are much more apt to be shy in the presence
+of acquaintances, whose judgment we in some degree value, than in that
+of strangers. A physician told me that a young man, a wealthy duke, with
+whom he had travelled as medical attendant, blushed like a girl, when he
+paid him his fee; yet this young man probably would not have blushed
+and been shy, had he been paying a bill to a tradesman. Some persons,
+however, are so sensitive, that the mere act of speaking to almost any
+one is sufficient to rouse their self-consciousness, and a slight blush
+is the result.
+
+Disapprobation or ridicule, from our sensitiveness on this head, causes
+shyness and blushing much more readily than does approbation; though the
+latter with some persons is highly efficient. The conceited are rarely
+shy; for they value themselves much too highly to expect depreciation.
+Why a proud man is often shy, as appears to be the case, is not so
+obvious, unless it be that, with all his self-reliance, he really
+thinks much about the opinion of others although in a disdainful spirit.
+Persons who are exceedingly shy are rarely shy in the presence of
+those with whom they are quite familiar, and of whose good opinion
+and sympathy they are perfectly assured;--for instance, a girl in the
+presence of her mother. I neglected to inquire in my printed paper
+whether shyness can be detected in the different races of man; but a
+Hindoo gentleman assured Mr. Erskine that it is recognizable in his
+countrymen.
+
+Shyness, as the derivation of the word indicates in several
+languages,[1327] is closely related to fear; yet it is distinct from
+fear in the ordinary sense. A shy man no doubt dreads the notice of
+strangers, but can hardly be said to be afraid of them, he may be as
+bold as a hero in battle, and yet have no self-confidence about trifles
+in the presence of strangers. Almost every one is extremely nervous when
+first addressing a public assembly, and most men remain so throughout
+their lives; but this appears to depend on the consciousness of a great
+coming exertion, with its associated effects on the system, rather than
+on shyness;[1328] although a timid or shy man no doubt suffers on such
+occasions infinitely more than another. With very young children it
+is difficult to distinguish between fear and shyness; but this latter
+feeling with them has often seemed to me to partake of the character of
+the wildness of an untamed animal. Shyness comes on at a very early age.
+In one of my own children, when two years and three months old, I saw a
+trace of what certainly appeared to be shyness, directed towards myself
+after an absence from home of only a week. This was shown not by a
+blush, but by the eyes being for a few minutes slightly averted from
+me. I have noticed on other occasions that shyness or shamefacedness and
+real shame are exhibited in the eyes of young children before they have
+acquired the power of blushing.
+
+As shyness apparently depends on self-attention, we can perceive how
+right are those who maintain that reprehending children for shyness,
+instead of doing them any good, does much harm, as it calls their
+attention still more closely to themselves. It has been well urged that
+"nothing hurts young people more than to be watched continually about
+their feelings, to have their countenances scrutinized, and the degrees
+of their sensibility measured by the surveying eye of the unmerciful
+spectator. Under the constraint of such examinations they can think
+of nothing but that they are looked at, and feel nothing but shame or
+apprehension."[1329]
+
+
+_Moral causes: guilt_.--With respect to blushing from strictly moral
+causes, we meet with the same fundamental principle as before, namely,
+regard for the opinion of others. It is not the conscience which raises
+a blush, for a man may sincerely regret some slight fault committed in
+solitude, or he may suffer the deepest remorse for an undetected crime,
+but he will not blush. "I blush," says Dr. Burgess,[1330] "in the
+presence of my accusers." It is not the sense of guilt, but the thought
+that others think or know us to be guilty which crimsons the face. A man
+may feel thoroughly ashamed at having told a small falsehood, without
+blushing; but if he even suspects that he is detected he will instantly
+blush, especially if detected by one whom he reveres.
+
+On the other hand, a man may be convinced that God witnesses all his
+actions, and he may feel deeply conscious of some fault and pray
+for forgiveness; but this will not, as a lady who is a great blusher
+believes, ever excite a blush. The explanation of this difference
+between the knowledge by God and man of our actions lies, I presume, in
+man's disapprobation of immoral conduct being somewhat akin in nature to
+his depreciation of our personal appearance, so that through association
+both lead to similar results; whereas the disapprobation of God brings
+up no such association.
+
+Many a person has blushed intensely when accused of some crime, though
+completely innocent of it. Even the thought, as the lady before referred
+to has observed to me, that others think that we have made an unkind or
+stupid remark, is amply sufficient to cause a blush, although we know
+all the time that we have been completely misunderstood. An action may
+be meritorious or of an indifferent nature, but a sensitive person, if
+he suspects that others take a different view of it, will blush. For
+instance, a lady by herself may give money to a beggar without a trace
+of a blush, but if others are present, and she doubts whether they
+approve, or suspects that they think her influenced by display, she will
+blush. So it will be, if she offers to relieve the distress of a decayed
+gentlewoman, more particularly of one whom she had previously known
+under better circumstances, as she cannot then feel sure how her conduct
+will be viewed. But such cases as these blend into shyness.
+
+
+_Breaches of etiquette_.--The rules of _etiquette_ always refer to
+conduct in the presence of, or towards others. They have no necessary
+connection with the moral sense, and are often meaningless. Nevertheless
+as they depend on the fixed custom of our equals and superiors, whose
+opinion we highly regard, they are considered almost as binding as are
+the laws of honour to a gentleman. Consequently the breach of the laws
+of etiquette, that is, any impoliteness or _gaucherie_, any impropriety,
+or an inappropriate remark, though quite accidental, will cause the most
+intense blushing of which a man is capable. Even the recollection of
+such an act, after an interval of many years, will make the whole body
+to tingle. So strong, also, is the power of sympathy that a sensitive
+person, as a lady has assured me, will sometimes blush at a flagrant
+breach of etiquette by a perfect stranger, though the act may in no way
+concern her.
+
+
+_Modesty_.--This is another powerful agent in exciting blushes; but
+the word modesty includes very different states of the mind. It implies
+humility, and we often judge of this by persons being greatly pleased
+and blushing at slight praise, or by being annoyed at praise which seems
+to them too high according to their own humble standard of themselves.
+Blushing here has the usual signification of regard for the opinion
+of others. But modesty frequently relates to acts of indelicacy; and
+indelicacy is an affair of etiquette, as we clearly see with the nations
+that go altogether or nearly naked. He who is modest, and blushes easily
+at acts of this nature, does so because they are breaches of a firmly
+and wisely established etiquette. This is indeed shown by the derivation
+of the word _modest_ from _modus_, a measure or standard of behaviour.
+A blush due to this form of modesty is, moreover, apt to be intense,
+because it generally relates to the opposite sex; and we have seen how
+in all cases our liability to blush is thus increased. We apply the term
+'modest,' as it would appear, to those who have an humble opinion of
+themselves, and to those who are extremely sensitive about an indelicate
+word or deed, simply because in both cases blushes are readily excited,
+for these two frames of mind have nothing else in common. Shyness also,
+from this same cause, is often mistaken for modesty in the sense of
+humility.
+
+Some persons flush up, as I have observed and have been assured, at any
+sudden and disagreeable recollection. The commonest cause seems to be
+the sudden remembrance of not having done something for another person
+which had been promised. In this case it may be that the thought passes
+half unconsciously through the mind, "What will he think of me?" and
+then the flush would partake of the nature of a true blush. But whether
+such flushes are in most cases due to the capillary circulation being
+affected, is very doubtful; for we must remember that almost every
+strong emotion, such as anger or great joy, acts on the heart, and
+causes the face to redden.
+
+The fact that blushes may be excited in absolute solitude seems opposed
+to the view here taken, namely that the habit originally arose from
+thinking about what others think of us. Several ladies, who are great
+blushers, are unanimous in regard to solitude; and some of them believe
+that they have blushed in the dark. From what Mr. Forbes has stated with
+respect to the Aymaras, and from my own sensations, I have no doubt that
+this latter statement is correct. Shakspeare, therefore, erred when
+he made Juliet, who was not even by herself, say to Romeo (act ii. sc.
+2):--
+
+    "Thou know'st the mask of night is on my face;
+    Else would a maiden blush bepaint my cheek,
+    For that which thou hast heard me speak to-night."
+
+But when a blush is excited in solitude, the cause almost always relates
+to the thoughts of others about us--to acts done in their presence,
+or suspected by them; or again when we reflect what others would have
+thought of us had they known of the act. Nevertheless one or two of my
+informants believe that they have blushed from shame at acts in no way
+relating to others. If this be so, we must attribute the result to the
+force of inveterate habit and association, under a state of mind closely
+analogous to that which ordinarily excites a blush; nor need we feel
+surprise at this, as even sympathy with another person who commits
+a flagrant breach of etiquette is believed, as we have just seen,
+sometimes to cause a blush.
+
+Finally, then, I conclude that blushing,--whether due to shyness--to
+shame for a real crime--to shame from a breach of the laws
+of etiquette--to modesty from humility--to modesty from an
+indelicacy--depends in all cases on the same principle; this principle
+being a sensitive regard for the opinion, more particularly for
+the depreciation of others, primarily in relation to our personal
+appearance, especially of our faces; and secondarily, through the force
+of association and habit, in relation to the opinion of others on our
+conduct.
+
+
+_Theory of Blushing_.--We have now to consider, why should the thought
+that others are thinking about us affect our capillary circulation? Sir
+C. Bell insists[1331] that blushing "is a provision for expression, as
+may be inferred from the colour extending only to the surface of the
+face, neck, and breast, the parts most exposed. It is not acquired; it
+is from the beginning." Dr. Burgess believes that it was designed by the
+Creator in "order that the soul might have sovereign power of displaying
+in the cheeks the various internal emotions of the moral feelings;" so
+as to serve as a check on ourselves, and as a sign to others, that we
+were violating rules which ought to be held sacred. Gratiolet merely
+remarks,--"Or, comme il est dans l'ordre de la nature que l'etre social
+le plus intelligent soit aussi le plus intelligible, cette faculte de
+rougeur et de paleur qui distingue l'homme, est un signe naturel de sa
+haute perfection."
+
+The belief that blushing was SPECIALLY designed by the Creator is
+opposed to the general theory of evolution, which is now so largely
+accepted; but it forms no part of my duty here to argue on the general
+question. Those who believe in design, will find it difficult to account
+for shyness being the most frequent and efficient of all the causes
+of blushing, as it makes the blusher to suffer and the beholder
+uncomfortable, without being of the least service to either of them.
+They will also find it difficult to account for negroes and other
+dark-coloured races blushing, in whom a change of colour in the skin is
+scarcely or not at all visible.
+
+No doubt a slight blush adds to the beauty of a maiden's face; and the
+Circassian women who are capable of blushing, invariably fetch a higher
+price in the seraolio of the Sultan than less susceptible women.[1332]
+But the firmest believer in the efficacy of sexual selection will hardly
+suppose that blushing was acquired as a sexual ornament. This view would
+also be opposed to what has just been said about the dark-coloured
+races blushing in an invisible manner.
+
+The hypothesis which appears to me the most probable, though it may at
+first seem rash, is that attention closely directed to any part of the
+body tends to interfere with the ordinary and tonic contraction of the
+small arteries of that part. These vessels, in consequence, become at
+such times more or less relaxed, and are instantly filled with arterial
+blood. This tendency will have been much strengthened, if frequent
+attention has been paid during many generations to the same part, owing
+to nerve-force readily flowing along accustomed channels, and by the
+power of inheritance. Whenever we believe that others are depreciating
+or even considering our personal appearance, our attention is vividly
+directed to the outer and visible parts of our bodies; and of all such
+parts we are most sensitive about our faces, as no doubt has been the
+case during many past generations. Therefore, assuming for the moment
+that the capillary vessels can be acted on by close attention, those of
+the face will have become eminently susceptible. Through the force of
+association, the same effects will tend to follow whenever we think that
+others are considering or censuring our actions or character.
+
+As the basis of this theory rests on mental attention having some power
+to influence the capillary circulation, it will be necessary to give
+a considerable body of details, bearing more or less directly on this
+subject. Several observers,[1333] who from their wide experience
+and knowledge are eminently capable of forming a sound judgment, are
+convinced that attention or consciousness (which latter term Sir H.
+Holland thinks the more explicit) concentrated on almost any part of
+the body produces some direct physical effect on it. This applies to the
+movements of the involuntary muscles, and of the voluntary muscles when
+acting involuntarily,--to the secretion of the glands,--to the activity
+of the senses and sensations,--and even to the nutrition of parts.
+
+It is known that the involuntary movements of the heart are affected
+if close attention be paid to them. Gratiolet[1334] gives the case of
+a man, who by continually watching and counting his own pulse, at last
+caused one beat out of every six to intermit. On the other hand, my
+father told me of a careful observer, who certainly had heart-disease
+and died from it, and who positively stated that his pulse was
+habitually irregular to an extreme degree; yet to his great
+disappointment it invariably became regular as soon as my father entered
+the room. Sir H. Holland remarks,[1335] that "the effect upon the
+circulation of a part from the consciousness suddenly directed and fixed
+upon it, is often obvious and immediate." Professor Laycock, who has
+particularly attended to phenomena of this nature,[1336] insists that
+"when the attention is directed to any portion of the body, innervation
+and circulation are excited locally, and the functional activity of that
+portion developed."
+
+It is generally believed that the peristaltic movements of the
+intestines are influenced by attention being paid to them at fixed
+recurrent periods; and these movements depend on the contraction of
+unstriped and involuntary muscles. The abnormal action of the voluntary
+muscles in epilepsy, chorea, and hysteria is known to be influenced
+by the expectation of an attack, and by the sight of other patients
+similarly affected.[1337] So it is with the involuntary acts of yawning
+and laughing.
+
+Certain glands are much influenced by thinking of them, or of the
+conditions under which they have been habitually excited. This is
+familiar to every one in the increased flow of saliva, when the thought,
+for instance, of intensely acid fruit is kept before the mind. It was
+shown in our sixth chapter, that an earnest and long-continued desire
+either to repress, or to increase, the action of the lacrymal glands is
+effectual. Some curious cases have been recorded in the case of
+women, of the power of the mind on the mammary glands; and still more
+remarkable ones in relation to the uterine functions.[1339]
+
+
+[1335] 'Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, p. 111. [1336] 'Mind find
+Brain,' vol. ii. 1860, p. 327. [1337] 'Chapters on Mental Physiology,'
+pp. 104-106. [1338] See Gratiolet on this subject, De la Phys. p. 287.
+[1339] Dr. J. Crichton Browne, from his observations on the insane, is
+convinced that attention directed for a prolonged period on any part or
+organ may ultimately influence its capillary circulation and nutrition.
+He has given me some extraordinary cases; one of these, which cannot
+here be related in full, refers to a married woman fifty years of age,
+who laboured under the firm and long-continued delusion that she was
+pregnant. When the expected period arrived, she acted precisely as if
+she had been really delivered of a child, and seemed to suffer extreme
+pain, so that the perspiration broke out on her forehead. The result was
+that a state of things returned, continuing for three days, which had
+ceased during the six previous years. Mr. Braid gives, in his 'Magic,
+Hypnotism,' &c., 1852, p. 95, and in his other works analogous cases,
+as well as other facts showing the great influence of the will on the
+mammary glands, even on one breast alone.
+
+When we direct our whole attention to any one sense, its acuteness is
+increased;[1340] and the continued habit of close attention, as with
+blind people to that of hearing, and with the blind and deaf to that of
+touch, appears to improve the sense in question permanently. There is,
+also, some reason to believe, judging from the capacities of different
+races of man, that the effects are inherited. Turning to ordinary
+sensations, it is well known that pain is increased by attending to it;
+and Sir B. Brodie goes so far as to believe that pain may be felt in
+any part of the body to which attention is closely drawn.[1341] Sir H.
+Holland also remarks that we become not only conscious of the existence
+of a part subjected to concentrated attention, but we experience in
+it various odd sensations as of weight, heat, cold, tingling, or
+itching.[1342]
+
+Lastly, some physiologists maintain that the mind can influence the
+nutrition of parts. Sir J. Paget has given a curious instance of the
+power, not indeed of the mind, but of the nervous system, on the hair.
+A lady "who is subject to attacks of what is called nervous headache,
+always finds in the morning after such an one, that some patches of her
+hair are white, as if powdered with starch. The change is effected in
+a night, and in a few days after, the hairs gradually regain their dark
+brownish colour."[1343]
+
+We thus see that close attention certainly affects various parts and
+organs, which are not properly under the control of the will. By what
+means attention--perhaps the most wonderful of all the wondrous powers
+of the mind--is effected, is an extremely obscure subject. According to
+Muller,[1344] the process by which the sensory cells of the brain are
+rendered, through the will, susceptible of receiving more intense and
+distinct impressions, is closely analogous to that by which the motor
+cells are excited to send nerve-force to the voluntary muscles. There
+are many points of analogy in the action of the sensory and motor
+nerve-cells; for instance, the familiar fact that close attention to
+any one sense causes fatigue, like the prolonged exertion of any one
+muscle.[1345] When therefore we voluntarily concentrate our attention on
+any part of the body, the cells of the brain which receive impressions
+or sensations from that part are, it is probable, in some unknown manner
+stimulated into activity. This may account, without any local change in
+the part to which our attention is earnestly directed, for pain or odd
+sensations being there felt or increased.
+
+If, however, the part is furnished with muscles, we cannot feel sure, as
+Mr. Michael Foster has remarked to me, that some slight impulse may not
+be unconsciously sent to such muscles; and this would probably cause an
+obscure sensation in the part.
+
+In a large number of cases, as with the salivary and lacrymal glands,
+intestinal canal, &c., the power of attention seems to rest, either
+chiefly, or as some physiologists think, exclusively, on the vaso-motor
+system being affected in such a manner that more blood is allowed to
+flow into the capillaries of the part in question. This increased action
+of the capillaries may in some cases be combined with the simultaneously
+increased activity of the sensorium.
+
+The manner in which the mind affects the vasomotor system may be
+conceived in the following manner. When we actually taste sour fruit, an
+impression is sent through the gustatory nerves to a certain part of
+the sensorium; this transmits nerve-force to the vasomotor centre,
+which consequently allows the muscular coats of the small arteries that
+permeate the salivary glands to relax. Hence more blood flows into these
+glands, and they secrete a copious supply of saliva. Now it does not
+seem an improbable assumption, that, when we reflect intently on a
+sensation, the same part of the sensorium, or a closely connected part
+of it, is brought into a state of activity, in the same manner as when
+we actually perceive the sensation. If so, the same cells in the brain
+will be excited, though, perhaps, in a less degree, by vividly thinking
+about a sour taste, as by perceiving it; and they will transmit in the
+one case, as in the other, nerve-force to the vaso-motor centre with the
+same results.
+
+To give another, and, in some respects, more appropriate illustration.
+If a man stands before a hot fire, his face reddens. This appears to be
+due, as Mr. Michael Foster informs me, in part to the local action
+of the heat, and in part to a reflex action from the vaso-motor
+centres.[1346] In this latter case, the heat affects the nerves of the
+face; these transmit an impression to the sensory cells of the brain,
+which act on the vaso-motor centre, and this reacts on the small
+arteries of the face, relaxing them and allowing them to become filled
+with blood. Here, again, it seems not improbable that if we were
+repeatedly to concentrate with great earnestness our attention on the
+recollection of our heated faces, the same part of the sensorium which
+gives us the consciousness of actual heat would be in some slight degree
+stimulated, and would in consequence tend to transmit some nerve-force
+to the vaso-motor centres, so as to relax the capillaries of the face.
+Now as men during endless generations have had their attention often and
+earnestly directed to their personal appearance, and especially to
+their faces, any incipient tendency in the facial capillaries to be thus
+affected will have become in the course of time greatly strengthened
+through the principles just referred to, namely, nerve-force passing
+readily along accustomed channels, and inherited habit. Thus, as it
+appears to me, a plausible explanation is afforded of the leading
+phenomena connected with the act of blushing.
+
+
+_Recapitulation_.--Men and women, and especially the young, have always
+valued, in a high degree, their personal appearance; and have likewise
+regarded the appearance of others. The face has been the chief object of
+attention, though, when man aboriginally went naked, the whole surface
+of his body would have been attended to. Our self-attention is excited
+almost exclusively by the opinion of others, for no person living in
+absolute solitude would care about his appearance. Every one feels blame
+more acutely than praise. Now, whenever we know, or suppose, that others
+are depreciating our personal appearance, our attention is strongly
+drawn towards ourselves, more especially to our faces. The probable
+effect of this will be, as has just been explained, to excite into
+activity that part of the sensorium, which receives the sensory nerves
+of the face; and this will react through the vaso-motor system on
+the facial capillaries. By frequent reiteration during numberless
+generations, the process will have become so habitual, in association
+with the belief that others are thinking of us, that even a suspicion
+of their depreciation suffices to relax the capillaries, without any
+conscious thought about our faces. With some sensitive persons it is
+enough even to notice their dress to produce the same effect. Through
+the force, also, of association and inheritance our capillaries are
+relaxed, whenever we know, or imagine, that any one is blaming, though
+in silence, our actions, thoughts, or character; and, again, when we are
+highly praised.
+
+On this hypothesis we can understand how it is that the face blushes
+much more than any other part of the body, though the whole surface is
+somewhat affected, more especially with the races which still go nearly
+naked. It is not at all surprising that the dark-coloured races should
+blush, though no change of colour is visible in their skins. From the
+principle of inheritance it is not surprising that persons born blind
+should blush. We can understand why the young are much more affected
+than the old, and women more than men; and why the opposite sexes
+especially excite each other's blushes. It becomes obvious why personal
+remarks should be particularly liable to cause blushing, and why the
+most powerful of all the causes is shyness; for shyness relates to the
+presence and opinion of others, and the shy are always more or less
+self-conscious. With respect to real shame from moral delinquencies, we
+can perceive why it is not guilt, but the thought that others think us
+guilty, which raises a blush. A man reflecting on a crime committed in
+solitude, and stung by his conscience, does not blush; yet he will blush
+under the vivid recollection of a detected fault, or of one committed in
+the presence of others, the degree of blushing being closely related
+to the feeling of regard for those who have detected, witnessed, or
+suspected his fault. Breaches of conventional rules of conduct, if they
+are rigidly insisted on by our equals or superiors, often cause more
+intense blushes even than a detected crime, and an act which is really
+criminal, if not blamed by our equals, hardly raises a tinge of colour
+on our cheeks. Modesty from humility, or from an indelicacy, excites a
+vivid blush, as both relate to the judgment or fixed customs of others.
+
+From the intimate sympathy which exists between the capillary
+circulation of the surface of the head and of the brain, whenever there
+is intense blushing, there will be some, and often great, confusion of
+mind. This is frequently accompanied by awkward movements, and sometimes
+by the involuntary twitching of certain muscles.
+
+As blushing, according to this hypothesis, is an indirect result of
+attention, originally directed to our personal appearance, that is
+to the surface of the body, and more especially to the face, we
+can understand the meaning of the gestures which accompany blushing
+throughout the world. These consist in hiding the face, or turning it
+towards the ground, or to one side. The eyes are generally averted or
+are restless, for to look at the man who causes us to feel shame
+or shyness, immediately brings home in an intolerable manner the
+consciousness that his gaze is directed on us. Through the principle of
+associated habit, the same movements of the face and eyes are practised,
+and can, indeed, hardly be avoided, whenever we know or believe that,
+others are blaming, or too strongly praising, our moral conduct.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV. -- CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
+
+The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements
+of expression--Their inheritance--On the part which the will and
+intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions--The
+instinctive recognition of expression--The bearing of our subject on
+the specific unity of the races of man--On the successive acquirement
+of various expressions by the progenitors of man--The importance of
+expression--Conclusion.
+
+
+I HAVE now described, to the best of my ability, the chief expressive
+actions in man, and in some few of the lower animals. I have also
+attempted to explain the origin or development of these actions through
+the three principles given in the first chapter. The first of these
+principles is, that movements which are serviceable in gratifying some
+desire, or in relieving some sensation, if often repeated, become
+so habitual that they are performed, whether or not of any service,
+whenever the same desire or sensation is felt, even in a very weak
+degree.
+
+Our second principle is that of antithesis. The habit of voluntarily
+performing opposite movements under opposite impulses has become firmly
+established in us by the practice of our whole lives. Hence, if certain
+actions have been regularly performed, in accordance with our first
+principle, under a certain frame of mind, there will be a strong and
+involuntary tendency to the performance of directly opposite actions,
+whether or not these are of any use, under the excitement of an opposite
+frame of mind.
+
+Our third principle is the direct action of the excited nervous system
+on the body, independently of the will, and independently, in large
+part, of habit. Experience shows that nerve-force is generated and set
+free whenever the cerebro-spinal system is excited. The direction which
+this nerve-force follows is necessarily determined by the lines of
+connection between the nerve-cells, with each other and with various
+parts of the body. But the direction is likewise much influenced by
+habit; inasmuch as nerve-force passes readily along accustomed channels.
+
+The frantic and senseless actions of an enraged man may be attributed in
+part to the undirected flow of nerve-force, and in part to the effects
+of habit, for these actions often vaguely represent the act of striking.
+They thus pass into gestures included under our first principle; as when
+an indignant man unconsciously throws himself into a fitting attitude
+for attacking his opponent, though without any intention of making an
+actual attack. We see also the influence of habit in all the emotions
+and sensations which are called exciting; for they have assumed this
+character from having habitually led to energetic action; and action
+affects, in an indirect manner, the respiratory and circulatory
+system; and the latter reacts on the brain. Whenever these emotions or
+sensations are even slightly felt by us, though they may not at the time
+lead to any exertion, our whole system is nevertheless disturbed through
+the force of habit and association. Other emotions and sensations are
+called depressing, because they have not habitually led to energetic
+action, excepting just at first, as in the case of extreme pain, fear,
+and grief, and they have ultimately caused complete exhaustion; they
+are consequently expressed chiefly by negative signs and by prostration.
+Again, there are other emotions, such as that of affection, which do not
+commonly lead to action of any kind, and consequently are not exhibited
+by any strongly marked outward signs. Affection indeed, in as far as it
+is a pleasurable sensation, excites the ordinary signs of pleasure.
+
+On the other hand, many of the effects due to the excitement of the
+nervous system seem to be quite independent of the flow of nerve-force
+along the channels which have been rendered habitual by former exertions
+of the will. Such effects, which often reveal the state of mind of the
+person thus affected, cannot at present be explained; for instance, the
+change of colour in the hair from extreme terror or grief,--the
+cold sweat and the trembling of the muscles from fear,--the modified
+secretions of the intestinal canal,--and the failure of certain glands
+to act.
+
+Notwithstanding that much remains unintelligible in our present subject,
+so many expressive movements and actions can be explained to a certain
+extent through the above three principles, that we may hope hereafter to
+see all explained by these or by closely analogous principles.
+
+Actions of all kinds, if regularly accompanying any state of the mind,
+are at once recognized as expressive. These may consist of movements of
+any part of the body, as the wagging of a dog's tail, the shrugging of
+a man's shoulders, the erection of the hair, the exudation of
+perspiration, the state of the capillary circulation, laboured
+breathing, and the use of the vocal or other sound-producing
+instruments. Even insects express anger, terror, jealousy, and love
+by their stridulation. With man the respiratory organs are of especial
+importance in expression, not only in a direct, but in a still higher
+degree in an indirect manner.
+
+Few points are more interesting in our present subject than the
+extraordinarily complex chain of events which lead to certain expressive
+movements. Take, for instance, the oblique eyebrows of a man suffering
+from grief or anxiety. When infants scream loudly from hunger or pain,
+the circulation is affected, and the eyes tend to become gorged with
+blood: consequently the muscles surrounding the eyes are strongly
+contracted as a protection: this action, in the course of many
+generations, has become firmly fixed and inherited: but when, with
+advancing years and culture, the habit of screaming is partially
+repressed, the muscles round the eyes still tend to contract, whenever
+even slight distress is felt: of these muscles, the pyramidals of the
+nose are less under the control of the will than are the others and
+their contraction can be checked only by that of the central fasciae of
+the frontal muscle: these latter fasciae draw up the inner ends of
+the eyebrows, and wrinkle the forehead in a peculiar manner, which
+we instantly recognize as the expression of grief or anxiety. Slight
+movements, such as these just described, or the scarcely perceptible
+drawing down of the corners of the mouth, are the last remnants or
+rudiments of strongly marked and intelligible movements. They are as
+full of significance to us in regard to expression, as are ordinary
+rudiments to the naturalist in the classification and genealogy of
+organic beings.
+
+That the chief expressive actions, exhibited by man and by the lower
+animals, are now innate or inherited,--that is, have not been learnt
+by the individual,--is admitted by every one. So little has learning
+or imitation to do with several of them that they are from the earliest
+days and throughout life quite beyond our control; for instance, the
+relaxation of the arteries of the skin in blushing, and the increased
+action of the heart in anger. We may see children, only two or three
+years old, and even those born blind, blushing from shame; and the naked
+scalp of a very young infant reddens from passion. Infants scream from
+pain directly after birth, and all their features then assume the same
+form as during subsequent years. These facts alone suffice to show that
+many of our most important expressions have not been learnt; but it is
+remarkable that some, which are certainly innate, require practice in
+the individual, before they are performed in a full and perfect manner;
+for instance, weeping and laughing. The inheritance of most of our
+expressive actions explains the fact that those born blind display them,
+as I hear from the Rev. R. H. Blair, equally well with those gifted with
+eyesight. We can thus also understand the fact that the young and the
+old of widely different races, both with man and animals, express the
+same state of mind by the same movements.
+
+We are so familiar with the fact of young and old animals displaying
+their feelings in the same manner, that we hardly perceive how
+remarkable it is that a young puppy should wag its tail when pleased,
+depress its ears and uncover its canine teeth when pretending to be
+savage, just like an old dog; or that a kitten should arch its little
+back and erect its hair when frightened and angry, like an old cat.
+When, however, we turn to less common gestures in ourselves, which
+we are accustomed to look at as artificial or conventional,--such as
+shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence, or the raising the
+arms with open hands and extended fingers, as a sign of wonder,--we feel
+perhaps too much surprise at finding that they are innate. That these
+and some other gestures are inherited, we may infer from their being
+performed by very young children, by those born blind, and by the most
+widely distinct races of man. We should also bear in mind that new and
+highly peculiar tricks, in association with certain states of the
+mind, are known to have arisen in certain individuals, and to have been
+afterwards transmitted to their offspring, in some cases, for more than
+one generation.
+
+Certain other gestures, which seem to us so natural that we might easily
+imagine that they were innate, apparently have been learnt like the
+words of a language. This seems to be the case with the joining of the
+uplifted hands, and the turning up of the eyes, in prayer. So it is
+with kissing as a mark of affection; but this is innate, in so far as it
+depends on the pleasure derived from contact with a beloved person.
+The evidence with respect to the inheritance of nodding and shaking the
+head, as signs of affirmation and negation, is doubtful; for they are
+not universal, yet seem too general to have been independently acquired
+by all the individuals of so many races.
+
+
+We will now consider how far the will and consciousness have come into
+play in the development of the various movements of expression. As far
+as we can judge, only a few expressive movements, such as those just
+referred to, are learnt by each individual; that is, were consciously
+and voluntarily performed during the early years of life for some
+definite object, or in imitation of others, and then became habitual.
+The far greater number of the movements of expression, and all the more
+important ones, are, as we have seen, innate or inherited; and such
+cannot be said to depend on the will of the individual. Nevertheless,
+all those included under our first principle were at first voluntarily
+performed for a definite object,--namely, to escape some danger, to
+relieve some distress, or to gratify some desire. For instance, there
+can hardly be a doubt that the animals which fight with their teeth,
+have acquired the habit of drawing back their ears closely to their
+heads, when feeling savage, from their progenitors having voluntarily
+acted in this manner in order to protect their ears from being torn by
+their antagonists; for those animals which do not fight with their
+teeth do not thus express a savage state of mind. We may infer as highly
+probable that we ourselves have acquired the habit of contracting the
+muscles round the eyes, whilst crying gently, that is, without the
+utterance of any loud sound, from our progenitors, especially
+during infancy, having experienced, during the act of screaming, an
+uncomfortable sensation in their eyeballs. Again, some highly expressive
+movements result from the endeavour to cheek or prevent other expressive
+movements; thus the obliquity of the eyebrows and the drawing down
+of the corners of the mouth follow from the endeavour to prevent a
+screaming-fit from coming on, or to cheek it after it has come on. Here
+it is obvious that the consciousness and will must at first have come
+into play; not that we are conscious in these or in other such cases
+what muscles are brought into action, any more than when we perform the
+most ordinary voluntary movements.
+
+With respect to the expressive movements due to the principle of
+antithesis, it is clear that the will has intervened, though in a remote
+and indirect manner. So again with the movements coming under our
+third principle; these, in as far as they are influenced by nerve-force
+readily passing along habitual channels, have been determined by former
+and repeated exertions of the will. The effects indirectly due to this
+latter agency are often combined in a complex manner, through the
+force of habit and association, with those directly resulting from the
+excitement of the cerebro-spinal system. This seems to be the case with
+the increased action of the heart under the influence of any strong
+emotion. When an animal erects its hair, assumes a threatening attitude,
+and utters fierce sounds, in order to terrify an enemy, we see a curious
+combination of movements which were originally voluntary with those that
+are involuntary. It is, however, possible that even strictly involuntary
+actions, such as the erection of the hair, may have been affected by the
+mysterious power of the will.
+
+Some expressive movements may have arisen spontaneously, in association
+with certain states of the mind, like the tricks lately referred to, and
+afterwards been inherited. But I know of no evidence rendering this view
+probable.
+
+The power of communication between the members of the same tribe by
+means of language has been of paramount importance in the development of
+man; and the force of language is much aided by the expressive movements
+of the face and body. We perceive this at once when we converse on an
+important subject with any person whose face is concealed. Nevertheless
+there are no grounds, as far as I can discover, for believing that any
+muscle has been developed or even modified exclusively for the sake of
+expression. The vocal and other sound-producing organs, by which various
+expressive noises are produced, seem to form a partial exception; but I
+have elsewhere attempted to show that these organs were first developed
+for sexual purposes, in order that one sex might call or charm the
+other. Nor can I discover grounds for believing that any inherited
+movement, which now serves as a means of expression, was at first
+voluntarily and consciously performed for this special purpose,--like
+some of the gestures and the finger-language used by the deaf and dumb.
+On the contrary, every true or inherited movement of expression seems
+to have had some natural and independent origin. But when once acquired,
+such movements may be voluntarily and consciously employed as a means
+of communication. Even infants, if carefully attended to, find out at
+a very early age that their screaming brings relief, and they soon
+voluntarily practise it. We may frequently see a person voluntarily
+raising his eyebrows to express surprise, or smiling to express
+pretended satisfaction and acquiescence. A man often wishes to make
+certain gestures conspicuous or demonstrative, and will raise his
+extended arms with widely opened fingers above his head, to show
+astonishment, or lift his shoulders to his ears, to show that he
+cannot or will not do something. The tendency to such movements will be
+strengthened or increased by their being thus voluntarily and repeatedly
+performed; and the effects may be inherited.
+
+It is perhaps worth consideration whether movements at first used only
+by one or a few individuals to express a certain state of mind may not
+sometimes have spread to others, and ultimately have become universal,
+through the power of conscious and unconscious imitation. That there
+exists in man a strong tendency to imitation, independently of the
+conscious will, is certain. This is exhibited in the most extraordinary
+manner in certain brain diseases, especially at the commencement of
+inflammatory softening of the brain, and has been called the "echo
+sign." Patients thus affected imitate, without understanding every
+absurd gesture which is made, and every word which is uttered near them,
+even in a foreign language.[1401] In the case of animals, the jackal and
+wolf have learnt under confinement to imitate the barking of the dog.
+How the barking of the dog, which serves to express various emotions and
+desires, and which is so remarkable from having been acquired since the
+animal was domesticated, and from being inherited in different degrees
+by different breeds, was first learnt we do not know; but may we not
+suspect that imitation has had something to do with its acquisition,
+owing to dogs having long lived in strict association with so loquacious
+an animal as man?
+
+In the course of the foregoing remarks and throughout this volume, I
+have often felt much difficulty about the proper application of the
+terms, will, consciousness, and intention. Actions, which were at first
+voluntary, soon became habitual, and at last hereditary, and may then be
+performed even in opposition to the will. Although they often reveal
+the state of the mind, this result was not at first either intended or
+expected. Even such words as that "certain movements serve as a means
+of expression," are apt to mislead, as they imply that this was their
+primary purpose or object. This, however, seems rarely or never to have
+been the case; the movements having been at first either of some direct
+use, or the indirect effect of the excited state of the sensorium. An
+infant may scream either intentionally or instinctively to show that it
+wants food; but it has no wish or intention to draw its features into
+the peculiar form which so plainly indicates misery; yet some of the
+most characteristic expressions exhibited by man are derived from the
+act of screaming, as has been explained.
+
+Although most of our expressive actions are innate or instinctive, as
+is admitted by everyone, it is a different question whether we have any
+instinctive power of recognizing them. This has generally been assumed
+to be the case; but the assumption has been strongly controverted by M.
+Lemoine.[1402] Monkeys soon learn to distinguish, not only the tones
+of voice of their masters, but the expression of their faces, as is
+asserted by a careful observer.[1403] Dogs well know the difference
+between caressing and threatening gestures or tones; and they seem to
+recognize a compassionate tone. But as far as I can make out, after
+repeated trials, they do not understand any movement confined to the
+features, excepting a smile or laugh; and this they appear, at least in
+some cases, to recognize. This limited amount of knowledge has probably
+been gained, both by monkeys and dogs, through their associating harsh
+or kind treatment with our actions; and the knowledge certainly is
+not instinctive. Children, no doubt, would soon learn the movements of
+expression in their elders in the same manner as animals learn those
+of man. Moreover, when a child cries or laughs, he knows in a general
+manner what he is doing and what he feels; so that a very small exertion
+of reason would tell him what crying or laughing meant in others. But
+the question is, do our children acquire their knowledge of expression
+solely by experience through the power of association and reason?
+
+As most of the movements of expression must have been gradually
+acquired, afterwards becoming instinctive, there seems to be some degree
+of _a priori_ probability that their recognition would likewise have
+become instinctive. There is, at least, no greater difficulty in
+believing this than in admitting that, when a female quadruped first
+bears young, she knows the cry of distress of her offspring, or than
+in admitting that many animals instinctively recognize and fear their
+enemies; and of both these statements there can be no reasonable
+doubt. It is however extremely difficult to prove that our children
+instinctively recognize any expression. I attended to this point in my
+first-born infant, who could not have learnt anything by associating
+with other children, and I was convinced that he understood a smile and
+received pleasure from seeing one, answering it by another, at much too
+early an age to have learnt anything by experience. When this child
+was about four months old, I made in his presence many odd noises and
+strange grimaces, and tried to look savage; but the noises, if not
+too loud, as well as the grimaces, were all taken as good jokes; and I
+attributed this at the time to their being preceded or accompanied by
+smiles. When five months old, he seemed to understand a compassionate,
+expression and tone of voice. When a few days over six months old, his
+nurse pretended to cry, and I saw that his face instantly assumed a
+melancholy expression, with the corners of the mouth strongly depressed;
+now this child could rarely have seen any other child crying, and never
+a grown-up person crying, and I should doubt whether at so early an age
+he could have reasoned on the subject. Therefore it seems to me that an
+innate feeling must have told him that the pretended crying of his nurse
+expressed grief; and this through the instinct of sympathy excited grief
+in him.
+
+M. Lemoine argues that, if man possessed an innate knowledge of
+expression, authors and artists would not have found it so difficult, as
+is notoriously the case, to describe and depict the characteristic signs
+of each particular state of mind. But this does not seem to me a
+valid argument. We may actually behold the expression changing in an
+unmistakable manner in a man or animal, and yet be quite unable, as I
+know from experience, to analyse the nature of the change. In the two
+photographs given by Duchenne of the same old man (Plate III. figs. 5
+and 6), almost every one recognized that the one represented a true, and
+the other a false smile; but I have found it very difficult to decide in
+what the whole amount of difference consists. It has often struck me
+as a curious fact that so many shades of expression are instantly
+recognized without any conscious process of analysis on our part. No
+one, I believe, can clearly describe a sullen or sly expression; yet
+many observers are unanimous that these expressions can be recognized
+in the various races of man. Almost everyone to whom I showed Duchenne's
+photograph of the young man with oblique eyebrows (Plate II. fig. 2) at
+once declared that it expressed grief or some such feeling; yet probably
+not one of these persons, or one out of a thousand persons, could
+beforehand have told anything precise about the obliquity of the
+eyebrows with their inner ends puckered, or about the rectangular
+furrows on the forehead. So it is with many other expressions, of which
+I have had practical experience in the trouble requisite in instructing
+others what points to observe. If, then, great ignorance of details
+does not prevent our recognizing with certainty and promptitude various
+expressions, I do not see how this ignorance can be advanced as an
+argument that our knowledge, though vague and general, is not innate.
+
+I have endeavoured to show in considerable detail that all the chief
+expressions exhibited by man are the same throughout the world. This
+fact is interesting, as it affords a new argument in favour of the
+several races being descended from a single parent-stock, which must
+have been almost completely human in structure, and to a large extent in
+mind, before the period at which the races diverged from each other. No
+doubt similar structures, adapted for the same purpose, have often
+been independently acquired through variation and natural selection
+by distinct species; but this view will not explain close similarity
+between distinct species in a multitude of unimportant details. Now if
+we bear in mind the numerous points of structure having no relation to
+expression, in which all the races of man closely agree, and then add to
+them the numerous points, some of the highest importance and many of the
+most trifling value, on which the movements of expression directly or
+indirectly depend, it seems to me improbable in the highest degree that
+so much similarity, or rather identity of structure, could have been
+acquired by independent means. Yet this must have been the case if the
+races of man are descended from several aboriginally distinct species.
+It is far more probable that the many points of close similarity in the
+various races are due to inheritance from a single parent-form, which
+had already assumed a human character.
+
+It is a curious, though perhaps an idle speculation, how early in the
+long line of our progenitors the various expressive movements, now
+exhibited by man, were successively acquired. The following remarks
+will at least serve to recall some of the chief points discussed in this
+volume. We may confidently believe that laughter, as a sign of pleasure
+or enjoyment, was practised by our progenitors long before they deserved
+to be called human; for very many kinds of monkeys, when pleased, utter
+a reiterated sound, clearly analogous to our laughter, often accompanied
+by vibratory movements of their jaws or lips, with the corners of the
+mouth drawn backwards and upwards, by the wrinkling of the cheeks, and
+even by the brightening of the eyes.
+
+We may likewise infer that fear was expressed from an extremely remote
+period, in almost the same manner as it now is by man; namely, by
+trembling, the erection of the hair, cold perspiration, pallor, widely
+opened eyes, the relaxation of most of the muscles, and by the whole
+body cowering downwards or held motionless.
+
+Suffering, if great, will from the first have caused screams or groans
+to be uttered, the body to be contorted, and the teeth to be ground
+together. But our progenitors will not have exhibited those highly
+expressive movements of the features which accompany screaming and
+crying until their circulatory and respiratory organs, and the muscles
+surrounding the eyes, had acquired their present structure. The shedding
+of tears appears to have originated through reflex action from the
+spasmodic contraction of the eyelids, together perhaps with the eyeballs
+becoming gorged with blood during the act of screaming. Therefore
+weeping probably came on rather late in the line of our descent; and
+this conclusion agrees with the fact that our nearest allies, the
+anthropomorphous apes, do not weep. But we must here exercise some
+caution, for as certain monkeys, which are not closely related to man,
+weep, this habit might have been developed long ago in a sub-branch
+of the group from which man is derived. Our early progenitors, when
+suffering from grief or anxiety, would not have made their eyebrows
+oblique, or have drawn down the corners of their mouth, until they
+had acquired the habit of endeavouring to restrain their screams. The
+expression, therefore, of grief and anxiety is eminently human.
+
+Rage will have been expressed at a very early period by threatening or
+frantic gestures, by the reddening of the skin, and by glaring eyes, but
+not by frowning. For the habit of frowning seems to have been acquired
+chiefly from the corrugators being the first muscles to contract round
+the eyes, whenever during infancy pain, anger, or distress is felt, and
+there consequently is a near approach to screaming; and partly from
+a frown serving as a shade in difficult and intent vision. It seems
+probable that this shading action would not have become habitual until
+man had assumed a completely upright position, for monkeys do not frown
+when exposed to a glaring light. Our early progenitors, when enraged,
+would probably have exposed their teeth more freely than does man, even
+when giving full vent to his rage, as with the insane. We may, also,
+feel almost certain that they would have protruded their lips, when
+sulky or disappointed, in a greater degree than is the case with our own
+children, or even with the children of existing savage races.
+
+Our early progenitors, when indignant or moderately angry, would
+not have held their heads erect, opened their chests, squared their
+shoulders, and clenched their fists, until they had acquired the
+ordinary carriage and upright attitude of man, and had learnt to
+fight with their fists or clubs. Until this period had arrived the
+antithetical gesture of shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence
+or of patience, would not have been developed. From the same reason
+astonishment would not then have been expressed by raising the arms
+with open hands and extended fingers. Nor, judging from the actions
+of monkeys, would astonishment have been exhibited by a widely opened
+mouth; but the eyes would have been opened and the eyebrows arched.
+Disgust would have been shown at a very early period by movements round
+the mouth, like those of vomiting,--that is, if the view which I have
+suggested respecting the source of the expression is correct, namely,
+that our progenitors had the power, and used it, of voluntarily and
+quickly rejecting any food from their stomachs which they disliked. But
+the more refined manner of showing contempt or disdain, by lowering the
+eyelids, or turning away the eyes and face, as if the despised person
+were not worth looking at, would not probably have been acquired until a
+much later period.
+
+Of all expressions, blushing seems to be the most strictly human; yet
+it is common to all or nearly all the races of man, whether or not any
+change of colour is visible in their skin. The relaxation of the small
+arteries of the surface, on which blushing depends, seems to have
+primarily resulted from earnest attention directed to the appearance of
+our own persons, especially of our faces, aided by habit, inheritance,
+and the ready flow of nerve-force along accustomed channels; and
+afterwards to have been extended by the power of association to
+self-attention directed to moral conduct. It can hardly be doubted that
+many animals are capable of appreciating beautiful colours and even
+forms, as is shown by the pains which the individuals of one sex take
+in displaying their beauty before those of the opposite sex. But it
+does not seem possible that any animal, until its mental powers had been
+developed to an equal or nearly equal degree with those of man, would
+have closely considered and been sensitive about its own personal
+appearance. Therefore we may conclude that blushing originated at a very
+late period in the long line of our descent.
+
+From the various facts just alluded to, and given in the course of this
+volume, it follows that, if the structure of our organs of respiration
+and circulation had differed in only a slight degree from the state
+in which they now exist, most of our expressions would have been
+wonderfully different. A very slight change in the course of the
+arteries and veins which run to the head, would probably have prevented
+the blood from accumulating in our eyeballs during violent expiration;
+for this occurs in extremely few quadrupeds. In this case we should not
+have displayed some of our most characteristic expressions. If man had
+breathed water by the aid of external branchiae (though the idea is
+hardly conceivable), instead of air through his mouth and nostrils, his
+features would not have expressed his feelings much more efficiently
+than now do his hands or limbs. Rage and disgust, however, would still
+have been shown by movements about the lips and mouth, and the eyes
+would have become brighter or duller according to the state of the
+circulation. If our ears had remained movable, their movements would
+have been highly expressive, as is the case with all the animals which
+fight with their teeth; and we may infer that our early progenitors thus
+fought, as we still uncover the canine tooth on one side when we sneer
+at or defy any one, and we uncover all our teeth when furiously enraged.
+
+
+The movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin
+may have been, are in themselves of much importance for our welfare.
+They serve as the first means of communication between the mother and
+her infant; she smiles approval, and thus encourages her child on the
+right path, or frowns disapproval. We readily perceive sympathy in
+others by their expression; our sufferings are thus mitigated and our
+pleasures increased; and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened. The
+movements of expression give vividness and energy to our spoken words.
+They reveal the thoughts and intentions of others more truly than do
+words, which may be falsified. Whatever amount of truth the so-called
+science of physiognomy may contain, appears to depend, as Haller long
+ago remarked,[1404] on different persons bringing into frequent
+use different facial muscles, according to their dispositions; the
+development of these muscles being perhaps thus increased, and the lines
+or furrows on the face, due to their habitual contraction, being thus
+rendered deeper and more conspicuous. The free expression by outward
+signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the repression,
+as far as this is possible, of all outward signs softens our
+emotions.[1405] He who gives way to violent gestures will increase his
+rage; he who does not control the signs of fear will experience fear in
+a greater degree; and he who remains passive when overwhelmed with grief
+loses his best chance of recovering elasticity of mind. These results
+follow partly from the intimate relation which exists between almost
+all the emotions and their outward manifestations; and partly from
+the direct influence of exertion on the heart, and consequently on
+the brain. Even the simulation of an emotion tends to arouse it in our
+minds. Shakespeare, who from his wonderful knowledge of the human mind
+ought to be an excellent judge, says:--
+
+      Is it not monstrous that this player here,
+      But in a fiction, in a dream of passion,
+      Could force his soul so to his own conceit,
+      That, from her working, all his visage wann'd;
+      Tears in his eyes, distraction in 's aspect,
+      A broken voice, and his whole function suiting
+      With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing!
+     _Hamlet_, act ii. sc. 2.
+
+
+We have seen that the study of the theory of expression confirms to
+a certain limited extent the conclusion that man is derived from
+some lower animal form, and supports the belief of the specific or
+sub-specific unity of the several races; but as far as my judgment
+serves, such confirmation was hardly needed. We have also seen that
+expression in itself, or the language of the emotions, as it has
+sometimes been called, is certainly of importance for the welfare of
+mankind. To understand, as far as possible, the source or origin of the
+various expressions which may be hourly seen on the faces of the men
+around us, not to mention our domesticated animals, ought to possess
+much interest for us. From these several causes, we may conclude that
+the philosophy of our subject has well deserved the attention which
+it has already received from several excellent observers, and that it
+deserves still further attention, especially from any able physiologist.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[Footnote 1: J. Parsons, in his paper in the Appendix to the
+'Philosophical Transactions' for 1746, p. 41, gives a list of forty-one
+old authors who have written on Expression.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Conferences sur l'expression des differents Caracteres des
+Passions.' Paris, 4to, 1667. I always quote from the republication of
+the 'Conferences' in the edition of Lavater, by Moreau, which appeared
+in 1820, as given in vol. ix. p. 257.]
+
+[Footnote 3: 'Discours par Pierre Camper sur le moyen de representer les
+diverses passions,' &c. 1792. 1844]
+
+[Footnote 4: I always quote from the third edition, 1844, which was
+published after the death of Sir C. Bell, and contains his latest
+corrections. The first edition of 1806 is much inferior in merit, and
+does not include some of his more important views.]
+
+[Footnote 5: 'De la Physionomie et de la Parole,' par Albert Lemoine,
+1865, p. 101.]
+
+[Footnote 6: 'L'Art de connaitre les Hommes,' &c., par G. Lavater.]
+
+[Footnote 7: 'Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.' Band
+I. Dritte Abtheilung, 1858.]
+
+[Footnote 8: 'The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit. 1864, pp. 96 and
+288. The preface to the first edition of this work is dated June, 1855.
+See also the 2nd edition of Mr. Bain's work on the 'Emotions and Will.']
+
+[Footnote 9: 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 121.]
+
+[Footnote 10: 'Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' Second
+Series, 1863, p. 111. There is a discussion on Laughter in the First
+Series of Essays, which discussion seems to me of very inferior value.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Since the publication of the essay just referred to, Mr.
+Spencer has written another, on "Morals and Moral Sentiments," in the
+'Fortnightly Review,' April 1, 1871, p. 426. He has, also, now published
+his final conclusions in vol. ii. of the second edit. of the 'Principles
+of Psychology,' 1872, p. 539. I may state, in order that I may not be
+accused of trespassing on Mr. Spencer's domain, that I announced in my
+'Descent of Man,' that I had then written a part of the present volume:
+my first MS. notes on the subject of expression bear the date of the
+year 1838.]
+
+[Footnote 12: 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Professor Owen expressly states (Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1830,
+p. 28) that this is the case with respect to the Orang, and specifies
+all the more important muscles which are well known to serve with man
+for the expression of his feelings. See, also, a description of several
+of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof. Macalister, in 'Annals
+and Magazine of Natural History,' vol. vii. May, 1871, p. 342.]
+
+[Footnote 14: 'Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 121, 138.]
+
+[Footnote 15: 'De la Physionomie,' pp. 12, 73.]
+
+[Footnote 16: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 8vo edit. p. 31.]
+
+[Footnote 17: 'Elements of Physiology,' English translation, vol. ii. p.
+934.]
+
+[Footnote 18: 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 198.]
+
+[Footnote 19: See remarks to this effect in Lessing's 'Lacooon,'
+translated by W. Ross, 1836, p. 19.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Mr. Partridge in Todd's 'Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and
+Physiology,' vol. ii. p. 227.]
+
+[Footnote 21: 'La Physionomie,' par G. Lavater, tom. iv. 1820, p. 274.
+On the number of the facial muscles, see vol. iv. pp. 209-211.]
+
+[Footnote 22: 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 91.]
+
+[Footnote 101: Mr. Herbert Spencer ('Essays,' Second Series, 1863, p.
+138) has drawn a clear distinction between emotions and sensations,
+the latter being "generated in our corporeal framework." He classes as
+Feelings both emotions and-sensations.]
+
+[Footnote 102: Muller, 'Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii.
+p. 939. See also Mr. H. Spencer's interesting speculations on the same
+subject, and on the genesis of nerves, in his 'Principles of Biology,'
+vol. ii. p. 346; and in his 'Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit. pp.
+511-557.]
+
+[Footnote 103: A remark to much the same effect was made long ago by
+Hippocrates and by the illustrious Harvey; for both assert that a young
+animal forgets in the course of a few days the art of sucking, and
+cannot without some difficulty again acquire it. I give these assertions
+on the authority of Dr. Darwin, 'Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 140.]
+
+[Footnote 104: See for my authorities, and for various analogous facts,
+'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' 1868, vol.
+ii. p. 304.]
+
+[Footnote 105: 'The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit. 1864, p. 332.
+Prof. Huxley remarks ('Elementary Lessons in Physiology,' 5th edit.
+1872, p. 306), "It may be laid down as a rule, that, if any two mental
+states be called up together, or in succession, with due frequency and
+vividness, the subsequent production of the one of them will suffice to
+call up the other, and that whether we desire it or not."]
+
+[Footnote 106: Gratiolet ('De la Physionomie,' p. 324), in his
+discussion on this subject, gives many analogous instances. See p. 42,
+on the opening and shutting of the eyes. Engel is quoted (p. 323) on the
+changed paces of a man, as his thoughts change.]
+
+[Footnote 107: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 1862, p. 17.]
+
+[Footnote 108: 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 6. The inheritance of habitual gestures
+is so important for us, that I gladly avail myself of Mr. F. Galton's
+permission to give in his own words the following remarkable case:--"The
+following account of a habit occurring in individuals of three
+consecutive generations {footnote continues:} is of peculiar interest,
+because it occurs only during sound sleep, and therefore cannot be
+due to imitation, but must be altogether natural. The particulars are
+perfectly trustworthy, for I have enquired fully into them, and speak
+from abundant and independent evidence. A gentleman of considerable
+position was found by his wife to have the curious trick, when he lay
+fast asleep on his back in bed, of raising his right arm slowly in front
+of his face, up to his forehead, and then dropping it with a jerk, so
+that the wrist fell heavily on the bridge of his nose. The trick did
+not occur every night, but occasionally, and was independent of any
+ascertained cause. Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an hour or
+more. The gentleman's nose was prominent, and its bridge often became
+sore from the blows which it received. At one time an awkward sore was
+produced, that was long in healing, on account of the recurrence, night
+after night, of the blows which first caused it. His wife had to remove
+the button from the wrist of his night-gown as it made severe scratches,
+and some means were attempted of tying his arm.
+
+"Many years after his death, his son married a lady who had never
+heard of the family incident. She, however, observed precisely the same
+peculiarity in her husband; but his nose, from not being particularly
+prominent, has never as yet suffered from the blows. The trick does
+not occur when he is half-asleep, as, for example, when dozing in his
+arm-chair, but the moment he is fast asleep it is apt to begin. It is,
+as with his father, intermittent; sometimes ceasing for many nights,
+and sometimes almost incessant during a part of every night. It is
+performed, as it was by his father, with his right hand.
+
+"One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick. She performs
+it, likewise, with the right hand, but in a slightly modified form; for,
+after raising the arm, she does not allow the wrist to drop upon the
+bridge of the nose, but the palm of the half-closed hand falls over and
+down the nose, striking it rather rapidly. It is also very intermittent
+with this child, not occurring for periods of some months, but sometimes
+occurring almost incessantly."]
+
+[Footnote 109: Prof. Huxley remarks ('Elementary Physiology,' 5th edit.
+p. 305) that reflex actions proper to the spinal cord are NATURAL;
+but, by the help of the brain, that is through habit, an infinity of
+ARTIFICIAL reflex actions may be acquired. Virchow admits ('Sammlung
+wissenschaft. Vortrage,' &c., "Ueber das Ruckeninark," 1871, ss. 24,
+31) that some reflex actions can hardly be distinguished from instincts;
+and, of the latter, it may be added, some cannot be distinguished from
+inherited habits.]
+
+[Footnote 110: Dr. Maudsley, 'Body and Mind,' 1870, p. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 111: See the very interesting discussion on the whole subject
+by Claude Bernard, 'Tissus Vivants,' 1866, p. 353-356.]
+
+[Footnote 112: 'Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, p. 85.]
+
+[Footnote 113: Muller remarks ('Elements of Physiology,' Eng. tr. vol.
+ii. p. 1311) on starting being always accompanied by the closure of the
+eyelids.]
+
+[Footnote 114: Dr. Maudsley remarks ('Body and Mind,' p. 10) that
+"reflex movements which commonly effect a useful end may, under the
+changed circumstances of disease, do great mischief, becoming even the
+occasion of violent suffering and of a most painful death."]
+
+[Footnote 115: See Mr. F. H. Salvin's account of a tame jackal in 'Land
+and Water,' October, 1869.]
+
+[Footnote 116: "Dr. Darwin, 'Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 160. I find that
+the fact of cats protruding their feet when pleased is also noticed (p.
+151) in this work.]
+
+[Footnote 117: Carpenter, 'Principles of Comparative Physiology,' 1854,
+p. 690, and Muller's 'Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii.
+p. 936.]
+
+[Footnote 118: Mowbray on 'Poultry,' 6th edit. 1830, p. 54.]
+
+[Footnote 119: See the account given by this excellent observer in 'Wild
+Sports of the Highlands,' 1846, p. 142.]
+
+[Footnote 120: 'Philosophical Translations,' 1823, p. 182.]
+
+[Footnote 201: 'Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s.
+55.]
+
+[Footnote 202: Mr. Tylor gives an account of the Cistercian
+gesture-language in his 'Early History of Mankind' (2nd edit. 1870, p.
+40), and makes some remarks on the principle of opposition in gestures.]
+
+[Footnote 203: See on this subject Dr. W. R. Scott's interesting work,
+'The Deaf and Dumb,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 12. He says, "This contracting
+of natural gestures into much shorter gestures than the natural
+expression requires, is very common amongst the deaf and dumb. This
+contracted gesture is frequently so shortened as nearly to lose all
+semblance of the natural one, but to the deaf and dumb who use it, it
+still has the force of the original expression."]
+
+[Footnote 301: See the interesting cases collected by M. G. Pouchet in
+the 'Revue des Deux Mondes,' January 1, 1872, p. 79. An instance was
+also brought some years ago before the British Association at Belfast.]
+
+[Footnote 302: Muller remarks ('Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat.
+vol. ii. p. 934) that when the feelings are very intense, "all the
+spinal nerves become affected to the extent of imperfect paralysis, or
+the excitement of trembling of the whole body."]
+
+[Footnote 303: 'Lecons sur les Prop. des Tissus Vivants,' 1866, pp.
+457-466.]
+
+[Footnote 304: Mr. Bartlett, "Notes on the Birth of a Hippopotamus,"
+Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1871, p. 255.]
+
+[Footnote 305: See, on this subject, Claude Bernard, 'Tissus Vivants,'
+1866, pp. 316, 337, 358. Virchow expresses himself to almost exactly the
+same effect in his essay "Ueber das Ruckenmark" (Sammlung wissenschaft.
+Vortrage, 1871, s. 28).]
+
+[Footnote 306: Muller ('Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii.
+p. 932) in speaking of the nerves, says, "any sudden change of condition
+of whatever kind sets the nervous principle into action." See Virchow
+and Bernard on the same subject in passages in the two works referred to
+in my last foot-note.]
+
+[Footnote 307: H. Spencer, 'Essays, Scientific, Political,' &c., Second
+Series, 1863, pp. 109, 111.]
+
+[Footnote 308: Sir H. Holland, in speaking ('Medical Notes and
+Reflexions,' 1839, p. 328) of that curious state of body called the
+_fidgets_, remarks that it seems due to "an accumulation of some cause
+of irritation which requires muscular action for its relief."]
+
+[Footnote 309: I am much indebted to Mr. A. H. Garrod for having
+informed me of M. Lorain's work on the pulse, in which a sphygmogram of
+a woman in a rage is given; and this shows much difference in the rate
+and other characters from that of the same woman in her ordinary state.]
+
+[Footnote 310: How powerfully intense joy excites the brain, and how the
+brain reacts on the body, is well shown in the rare cases of Psychical
+Intoxication. Dr. J. Crichton Browne ('Medical Mirror,' 1865) records
+the case of a young man of strongly nervous temperament, who, on hearing
+by a telegram that a fortune had been bequeathed him, first became pale,
+then exhilarated, and soon in the highest spirits, but flushed and
+very restless. He then took a walk with a friend for the sake
+of tranquillising himself, but returned staggering in his gait,
+uproariously laughing, yet irritable in temper, incessantly talking, and
+singing loudly in the public streets. It was positively ascertained that
+he had not touched any spirituous liquor, though every one thought that
+he was intoxicated. Vomiting after a time came on, and the half-digested
+contents of his stomach were examined, but no odour of alcohol could be
+detected. He then slept heavily, and on awaking was well, except that he
+suffered from headache, nausea, and prostration of strength.]
+
+[Footnote 311: Dr. Darwin, 'Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 148.]
+
+[Footnote 312: Mrs. Oliphant, in her novel of 'Miss Majoribanks,' p.
+362. All this reacts on the brain, and prostration soon follows with
+collapsed muscles and dulled eyes. As associated habit no longer
+prompts the sufferer to action, he is urged by his friends to voluntary
+exertion, and not to give way to silent, motionless grief. Exertion
+stimulates the heart, and this reacts on the brain, and aids the mind to
+bear its heavy load.]
+
+[Footnote 401: See the evidence on this head in my 'Variation of
+Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 27. On the cooing of
+pigeons, vol. i. pp. 154, 155.]
+
+[Footnote 402: 'Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' 1858.
+'The Origin and Function of Music,' p. 359.]
+
+[Footnote 403: 'The Descent of Man,' 1870, vol. ii. p. 332. The words
+quoted are from Professor Owen. It has lately been shown that some
+quadrupeds much lower in the scale than monkeys, namely Rodents, are
+able to produce correct musical tones: see the account of a singing
+Hesperomys, by the Rev. S. Lockwood, in the 'American Naturalist,' vol.
+v. December, 1871, p. 761.]
+
+[Footnote 404: Mr. Tylor ('Primitive Culture,' 1871, vol. i. p. 166), in
+his discussion on this subject, alludes to the whining of the dog.]
+
+[Footnote 405: 'Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s.
+46.]
+
+[Footnote 406: Quoted by Gratiolet, 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 115.]
+
+[Footnote 407: 'Theorie Physiologique de la Musique,' Paris, 1868,
+P. 146. Helmholtz has also fully discussed in this profound work the
+relation of the form of the cavity of the mouth to the production of
+vowel-sounds.]
+
+[Footnote 408: I have given some details on this subject in my 'Descent
+of Man,' vol. i. pp. 352, 384.]
+
+[Footnote 409: As quoted in Huxley's 'Evidence as to Man's Place in
+Nature,' 1863, p. 52.]
+
+[Footnote 410: Illust. Thierleben, 1864, B. i. s. 130.]
+
+[Footnote 411: The Hon. J. Caton, Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences, May,
+1868, pp. 36, 40. For the _Capra, AEgagrus_, 'Land and Water,' 1867, p.
+37.]
+
+[Footnote 412: 'Land and Water,' July 20, 1867, p. 659.]
+
+[Footnote 413: _Phaeton rubricauda_: 'Ibis,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 180.]
+
+[Footnote 414: On the _Strix flammea_, Audubon, 'Ornithological
+Biography,' 1864, vol. ii. p. 407. I have observed other cases in the
+Zoological Gardens.]
+
+[Footnote 415: _Melopsittacus undulatus_. See an account of its habits
+by Gould, 'Handbook of Birds of Australia,' 1865, vol. ii. p. 82.]
+
+[Footnote 416: See, for instance, the account which I have given
+('Descent of Man,' vol. ii. p. 32) of an Anolis and Draco.]
+
+[Footnote 417: These muscles are described in his well-known works. I am
+greatly indebted to this distinguished observer for having given me in
+a letter information on this same subject.]
+
+[Footnote 418: 'Lehrbuch der Histologie des Menschen,' 1857, s. 82. I
+owe to Prof. W. Turner's kindness an extract from this work.]
+
+[Footnote 419: 'Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,' 1853, vol.
+i. p. 262.]
+
+[Footnote 420: 'Lehrbuch der Histologie,' 1857, s. 82.]
+
+[Footnote 421: 'Dictionary of English Etymology,' p. 403.]
+
+[Footnote 421: See the account of the habits of this animal by Dr.
+Cooper, as quoted in 'Nature,' April 27, 1871, p. 512.]
+
+[Footnote 422: Dr. Gunther, 'Reptiles of British India,' p. 262.]
+
+[Footnote 424: Mr. J. Mansel Weale, 'Nature,' April 27, 1871, p. 508.]
+
+[Footnote 425: 'Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the "Beagle,"'
+1845, p. 96. I have compared the rattling thus produced with that of
+the Rattle-snake.]
+
+[Footnote 426: See the account by Dr. Anderson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871,
+p. 196.]
+
+[Footnote 427: The 'American Naturalist,' Jan. 1872, p. 32. I regret
+that I cannot follow Prof. Shaler in believing that the rattle has been
+developed, by the aid of natural selection, for the sake of producing
+sounds which deceive and attract birds, so that they may serve as prey
+to the snake. I do not, however, wish to doubt that the sounds may
+occasionally subserve this end. But the conclusion at which I have
+arrived, viz. that the rattling serves as a warning to would-be
+devourers, appears to me much more probable, as it connects together
+various classes of facts. If this snake had acquired its rattle and the
+habit of rattling, for the sake of attracting prey, it does not seem
+probable that it would have invariably used its instrument when angered
+or disturbed. Prof. Shaler takes nearly the same view as I do of the
+manner of development of the rattle; and I have always held this opinion
+since observing the Trigonocephalus in South America.]
+
+[Footnote 428: From the accounts lately collected, and given in the
+'Journal of the Linnean Society,' by Airs. Barber, on the habits of
+the snakes of South Africa; and from the accounts published by
+several writers, for instance by Lawson, of the rattle-snake in North
+America,--it does not seem improbable that the terrific appearance of
+snakes and the sounds produced by them, may likewise serve in procuring
+prey, by paralysing, or as it is sometimes called fascinating, the
+smaller animals.]
+
+[Footnote 429: See the account by Dr. R. Brown, in Proc. Zool. Soc.
+1871, p. 39. He says that as soon as a pig sees a snake it rushes upon
+it; and a snake makes off immediately on the appearance of a pig.]
+
+[Footnote 430: Dr. Gunther remarks ('Reptiles of British India,' p. 340)
+on the destruction of cobras by the ichneumon or herpestes, and whilst
+the cobras are young by the jungle-fowl. It is well known that the
+peacock also eagerly kills snakes.]
+
+[Footnote 431: Prof. Cope enumerates a number of kinds in his 'Method
+of Creation of Organic Types,' read before the American Phil. Soc.,
+December 15th, 1871, p. 20. Prof. Cope takes the same view as I do of
+the use of the gestures and sounds made by snakes. I briefly alluded to
+this subject in the last edition of my 'Origin of Species.' Since the
+passages in the text above have been printed, I have been pleased to
+find that Mr. Henderson ('The American Naturalist,' May, 1872, p.
+260) also takes a similar view of the use of the rattle, namely "in
+preventing an attack from being made."]
+
+[Footnote 432: Mr. des Voeux, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 433: 'The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada,' 1866, p. 53. p.
+53.{sic}]
+
+[Footnote 434: 'The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,' 1867, p. 443.]
+
+[Footnote 501: 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 190.]
+
+[Footnote 502: 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, pp. 187, 218.]
+
+[Footnote 503: 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 140.]
+
+[Footnote 504: Many particulars are given by Gueldenstadt in his account
+of the jackal in Nov. Comm. Acad. Sc. Imp. Petrop. 1775, tom. xx. p.
+449. See also another excellent account of the manners of this animal
+and of its play, in 'Land and Water,' October, 1869. Lieut. Annesley,
+R. A., has also communicated to me some particulars with respect to
+the jackal. I have made many inquiries about wolves and jackals in the
+Zoological Gardens, and have observed them for myself.]
+
+[Footnote 505: 'Land and Water,' November 6, 1869.]
+
+[Footnote 506: Azara, 'Quadrupedes du Paraquay,' 1801, tom. 1. p. 136.]
+
+[Footnote 507: 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 657. See also Azara on the
+Puma, in the work above quoted.]
+
+[Footnote 508: Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 123.
+See also p. 126, on horses not breathing through their mouths, with
+reference to their distended nostrils.]
+
+[Footnote 509: 'Land and Water,' 1869, p. 152.]
+
+[Footnote 510: 'Natural History of Mammalia,' 1841, vol. 1. pp. 383,
+410.]
+
+[Footnote 511: Rengger ('Sagetheire von Paraquay', 1830, s. 46) kept
+these monkeys in confinement for seven years in their native country of
+Paraguay.]
+
+[Footnote 512: Rengger, ibid. s. 46. Humboldt, 'Personal Narrative, Eng.
+translat. vol. iv. p. 527.]
+
+[Footnote 513: Nat. Hist. of Mammalia, 1841, p. 351.]
+
+[Footnote 514: Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 84. On baboons striking the
+ground, s. 61.]
+
+[Footnote 515: Brehm remarks ('Thierleben,' s. 68) that the eyebrows of
+the _Inuus ecaudatus_ are frequently moved up and down when the animal
+is angered.]
+
+[Footnote 516: G. Bennett, 'Wanderings in New South Wales,' &c. vol.
+ii. 1834, p. 153. FIG. 18.-Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky. Drawn from
+life by Mr. Wood.]
+
+[Footnote 517: W. L. Martin, Nat. Hist. of Mamm. Animals, 1841, p. 405.]
+
+[Footnote 518: Prof. Owen on the Orang, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1830, p. 28. On
+the Chimpanzee, see Prof. Macalister, in Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.
+vol. vii. 1871, p. 342, who states that the _corrugator supercilii_ is
+inseparable from the _orbicularis palpebrarum_.]
+
+[Footnote 519: Boston Journal of Nat. Hist. 1845---47, vol. v. p. 423.
+On the Chimpanzee, ibid. 1843-44, vol. iv. p. 365.]
+
+[Footnote 520: See on this subject, 'Descent of Man,' vol. i. p. 20.]
+
+[Footnote 521: 'Descent of Man,' vol, i. p, 43.]
+
+[Footnote 522: 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. 1844, pp. 138, 121.]
+
+[Footnote 601: The best photographs in my collection are by Mr.
+Rejlander, of Victoria Street, London, and by Herr Kindermann, of
+Hamburg. Figs. 1, 3, 4, and 6 are by the former; and figs. 2 and 5,
+by the latter gentleman. Fig. 6 is given to show moderate crying in an
+older child.]
+
+[Footnote 602: Henle ('Handbuch d. Syst. Anat. 1858, B. i. s. 139)
+agrees with Duchenne that this is the effect of the contraction of the
+_pyramidalis nasi_.]
+
+[Footnote 603: These consist of the _levator labii superioris alaeque
+nasi_, the _levator labii proprius_, the _malaris_, and the _zygomaticus
+minor_, or little zygomatic. This latter muscle runs parallel to and
+above the great zygomatic, and is attached to the outer part of the
+upper lip. It is represented in fig. 2 (I. p. 24), but not in figs. 1
+and 3. Dr. Duchenne first showed ('Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,'
+Album, 1862, p. 39) the importance of the contraction of this muscle
+in the shape assumed by the features in crying. Henle considers the
+above-named muscles (excepting the _malaris_) as subdivisions of the
+_quadratus labii superioris_.]
+
+[Footnote 604: Although Dr. Duchenne has so carefully studied the
+contraction of the different muscles during the act of crying, and
+the furrows on the face thus produced, there seems to be something
+incomplete in his account; but what this is I cannot say. He has given
+a figure (Album, fig. 48) in which one half of the face is made, by
+galvanizing the proper muscles, to smile; whilst the other half is
+similarly made to begin crying. Almost all those (viz. nineteen out
+of twenty-one persons) to whom I showed the smiling half of the face
+instantly recognized the expression; but, with respect to the other
+half, only six persons out of twenty-one recognized it,--that is, if
+we accept such terms as "grief," "misery," "annoyance," as
+correct;--whereas, fifteen persons were ludicrously mistaken; some
+of them saying the face expressed "fun," "satisfaction," "cunning,"
+"disgust," &c. We may infer from this that there is something wrong
+in the expression. Some of the fifteen persons may, however, have been
+partly misled by not expecting to see an old man crying, and by tears
+not being secreted. With respect to another figure by Dr. Duchenne (fig.
+49), in which the muscles of half the face are galvanized in order to
+represent a man beginning to cry, with the eyebrow on the same side
+rendered oblique, which is characteristic of misery, the expression
+was recognized by a greater proportional number of persons. Out of
+twenty-three persons, fourteen answered correctly, "sorrow," "distress,"
+"grief," "just going to cry," "endurance of pain," &c. On the other
+hand, nine persons either could form no opinion or were entirely wrong,
+answering, "cunning leer," "jocund," "looking at an intense light,"
+"looking at a distant object," &c.]
+
+[Footnote 605: Mrs. Gaskell, 'Mary Barton,' new edit. p. 84.]
+
+[Footnote 606: 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 102. Duchenne,
+Mecanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, p. 34.]
+
+[Footnote 607: Dr. Duchenne makes this remark, ibid. p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 608: 'The Origin of Civilization,' 1870, p. 355.]
+
+[Footnote 609: See, for instance, Mr. Marshall's account of an idiot
+in Philosoph. Transact. 1864, p. 526. With respect to cretins, see Dr.
+Piderit, 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 61.]
+
+[Footnote 610: 'New Zealand and its Inhabitants,' 1855, p. 175.]
+
+[Footnote 611: 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 126.]
+
+[Footnote 612: 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 106. See also his
+paper in the 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1822, p. 284, ibid. 1823,
+pp. 166 and 289. Also 'The Nervous System of the Human Body,' 3rd edit.
+1836, p. 175.]
+
+[Footnote 613: See Dr. Brinton's account of the act of vomiting, in
+Todd's Cyclop. of Anatomy and Physiology, 1859, vol. v. Supplement, p.
+318.]
+
+[Footnote 614: I am greatly indebted to Mr. Bowman for having
+introduced me to Prof. Donders, and for his aid in persuading this great
+physiologist to undertake the investigation of the present subject. I
+am likewise much indebted to Mr. Bowman for having given me, with the
+utmost kindness, information on many points.]
+
+[Footnote 615: This memoir first appeared in the 'Nederlandsch Archief
+voor Genees en Natuurkiinde,' Deel 5, 1870. It has been translated by
+Dr. W. D. Moore, under the title of "On the Action of the Eyelids
+in determination of Blood from expiratory effort," in 'Archives of
+Medicine,' edited by Dr. L. S. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 20.]
+
+[Footnote 616: Prof. Donders remarks (ibid. p. 28), that, "After
+injury to the eye, after operations, and in some forms of internal
+inflammation, we attach great value to the uniform support of the closed
+eyelids, and we increase this in many instances by the application of a
+bandage. In both cases we carefully endeavour to avoid great expiratory
+pressure, the disadvantage of which is well known." Mr. Bowman informs
+me that in the excessive photophobia, accompanying what is called
+scrofulous ophthalmia in children, when the light is so very painful
+that during weeks or months it is constantly excluded by the most
+forcible closure of the lids, he has often been struck on opening the
+lids by the paleness of the eye,--not an unnatural paleness, but an
+absence of the redness that might have been expected when the surface is
+somewhat inflamed, as is then usually the case; and this paleness he is
+inclined to attribute to the forcible closure of the eyelids.]
+
+[Footnote 617: Donders, ibid. p. 36.]
+
+[Footnote 618: Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood (Dict. of English Etymology, 1859,
+vol. i. p. 410) says, "the verb to weep comes from Anglo-Saxon _wop_,
+the primary meaning of which is simply outcry."]
+
+[Footnote 619: 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 217.]
+
+[Footnote 620: 'Ceylon,' 3rd edit. 1859, vol. ii. pp. 364, 376. I
+applied to Mr. Thwaites, in Ceylon, for further information with respect
+to the weeping of the elephant; and in consequence received a letter
+from the Rev. Mr Glenie, who, with others, kindly observed for me a
+herd of recently captured elephants. These, when irritated, screamed
+violently; but it is remarkable that they never when thus screaming
+contracted the muscles round the eyes. Nor did they shed tears; and the
+native hunters asserted that they had never observed elephants weeping.
+Nevertheless, it appears to me impossible to doubt Sir E. Tennent's
+distinct details about their weeping, supported as they are by the
+positive assertion of the keeper in the Zoological Gardens. It is
+certain that the two elephants in the Gardens, when they began to
+trumpet loudly, invariably contracted their orbicular muscles. I can
+reconcile these conflicting statements only by supposing that the
+recently captured elephants in Ceylon, from being enraged or frightened,
+desired to observe their persecutors, and consequently did not contract
+their orbicular muscles, so that their vision might not be impeded.
+Those seen weeping by Sir E. Tennent were prostrate, and had given up
+the contest in despair. The elephants which trumpeted in the Zoological
+Gardens at the word of command, were, of course, neither alarmed nor
+enraged.]
+
+[Footnote 621: Bergeon, as quoted in the 'Journal of Anatomy and
+Physiology,' Nov. 1871, p. 235.]
+
+[Footnote 622: See, for instance, a case given by Sir Charles Bell,
+'Philosophical Transactions,' 1823, p. 177.]
+
+[Footnote 623: See, on these several points, Prof. Donders 'On the
+Anomalies of Accommodation and Refraction of the Eye,' 1864, p. 573.]
+
+[Footnote 624: Quoted by Sir J. Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' 1865, p.
+458.]
+
+[Footnote 701: The above descriptive remarks are taken in part from my
+own observations, but chiefly from Gratiolet ('De la Physionomie,' pp.
+53, 337; on Sighing, 232), who has well treated this whole subject. See,
+also, Huschke, 'Mimices et Physiognomices, Fragmentum Physiologi-cum,'
+1821, p. 21. On the dulness of the eyes, Dr. Piderit, 'Mimik und
+Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 65.]
+
+[Footnote 702: On the action of grief on the organs of respiration, see
+more especially Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. 1844, p.
+151.]
+
+[Footnote 703: In the foregoing remarks on the manner in which the
+eyebrows are made oblique, I have followed what seems to be the
+universal opinion of all the anatomists, whose works I have consulted
+on the action of the above-named muscles, or with whom I have conversed.
+Hence throughout this work I shall take a similar view of the action of
+the corrugator supercilii, orbicularis, pyramidalis nasi, and frontalis
+muscles. Dr. Duchenne, however, believes, and every conclusion at which
+he arrives deserves serious consideration, that it is the corrugator,
+called by him the sourcilier, which raises the inner corner of the
+eyebrows and is antagonistic to the upper and inner part of the
+orbicular muscle, as well as to the pyramidalis nasi (see M�canisme
+de la Phys. Humaine, 1862, folio, art. v., text and figures 19 to 29:
+octavo edit. 1862, p. 43 text). He admits, however, that the corrugator
+draws together the eyebrows, causing vertical furrows above the base
+of the nose, or a frown. He further believes that towards the outer
+two-thirds of the eyebrow the corrugator acts in conjunction with the
+upper orbicular muscle; both here standing in antagonism to the frontal
+muscle. I am unable to understand, judging from Henle's drawings
+(woodcut, fig. 3), how the corrugator can act in the manner described
+by Duchenne. See, also, on this subject, Prof. Donders' remarks in the
+'Archives of Medicine,' 1870, vol. v. p. 34. Mr. J. Wood, who is so well
+known for his careful study of the muscles of the human frame, informs
+me that he believes the account which I have given of the action of the
+corrugator to be correct. But this is not a point of any importance
+with respect to the expression which is caused by the obliquity of the
+eyebrows, nor of much importance to the theory of its origin.]
+
+[Footnote 704: I am greatly indebted to Dr. Duchenne for permission to
+have these two photographs (figs. 1 and 2) reproduced by the heliotype
+process from his work in folio. Many of the foregoing remarks on the
+furrowing of the skin, when the eyebrows are rendered oblique, are taken
+from his excellent discussion on this subject.]
+
+[Footnote 705: Mecanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, p. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 706: Henle, Handbuch der Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s.
+148, figs. 68 and 69.]
+
+[Footnote 707: See the account of the action of this muscle by Dr.
+Duchenne, 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine, Album (1862), viii. p.
+34.]
+
+[Footnote 801: Herbert Spencer, 'Essays Scientific,' &c., 1858, p. 360.]
+
+[Footnote 802: F. Lieber on the vocal sounds of L. Bridgman,
+'Smithsonian Contributions,' 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 803: See, also, Mr. Marshall, in Phil. Transact. 1864, p.
+526.]
+
+[Footnote 804: Mr. Bain ('The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p. 247) has
+a long and interesting discussion on the Ludicrous. The quotation above
+given about the laughter of the gods is taken from this work. See, also,
+Mandeville, 'The Fable of the Bees,' vol. ii. p. 168.]
+
+[Footnote 805: 'The Physiology of Laughter,' Essays, Second Series,
+1863, p. 114.]
+
+[Footnote 806: J. Lister in 'Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
+Science,' 1853, vol. 1. p. 266.]
+
+[Footnote 807: 'De la Physionomie,' p. 186.]
+
+[Footnote 808: Sir C. Bell (Anat. of Expression, p. 147) makes some
+remarks on the movement of the diaphragm during laughter.]
+
+[Footnote 809: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legende
+vi.]
+
+[Footnote 810: Handbuch der System. Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s.
+144. See my woodcut (H. fig. 2).]
+
+[Footnote 811: See, also, remarks to the same effect by Dr. J. Crichton
+Browne in 'Journal of Mental Science,' April, 1871, p. 149.]
+
+[Footnote 812: C. Vogt, 'Memoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, p. 21.]
+
+[Footnote 813: Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 133.]
+
+[Footnote 814: 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 63-67.]
+
+[Footnote 815: Sir T. Reynolds remarks ('Discourses,' xii. p. 100), "it
+is curious to observe, and it is certainly true, that the extremes of
+contrary passions are, with very little variation, expressed by the same
+action." He gives as an instance the frantic joy of a Bacchante and the
+grief of a Mary Magdalen.]
+
+[Footnote 816: Dr. Piderit has come to the same conclusion, ibid. s.
+99.]
+
+[Footnote 817: 'La Physionomie,' par G. Lavater, edit. of 1820, vol. iv.
+p. 224. See, also, Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 172, for the
+quotation given below.]
+
+[Footnote 818: A 'Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit. 1872,
+Introduction, p. xliv.]
+
+[Footnote 819: Crantz, quoted by Tylor, 'Primitive Culture,' 1871, Vol.
+i. P. 169.]
+
+[Footnote 820: F. Lieber, 'Smithsonian Contributions,' 1851, vol. ii. p.
+7.]
+
+[Footnote 821: Mr. Bain remarks ('Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, p.
+239), "Tenderness is a pleasurable emotion, variously stimulated, whose
+effort is to draw human beings into mutual embrace."]
+
+[Footnote 822: Sir J. Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. 1869, p.
+552, gives full authorities for these statements. The quotation from
+Steele is taken from this work.]
+
+[Footnote 823: See a full acount,{sic} with references, by E. B. Tylor,
+'Researches into the Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 51.]
+
+[Footnote 824: 'The Descent of Man,' vol. ii. p. 336.]
+
+[Footnote 825: Dr. Mandsley has a discussion to this effect in his 'Body
+and Mind,' 1870, p. 85.]
+
+[Footnote 826: 'The Anatomy of Expression,' p. 103, and 'Philosophical
+Transactions,' 1823, p. 182.]
+
+[Footnote 827: 'The Origin of Language,' 1866, p. 146. Mr. Tylor ('Early
+History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 48) gives a more complex origin
+to the position of the hands during prayer.]
+
+[Footnote 901: 'Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 137, 139. It is not
+surprising that the corrugators should have become much more developed
+in man than in the anthropoid apes; for they are brought into
+incessant action by him under various circumstances, and will have been
+strengthened and modified by the inherited effects of use. We have
+seen how important a part they play, together with the orbiculares, in
+protecting the eyes from being too much gorged with blood during
+violent expiratory movements. When the eyes are closed as quickly and
+as forcibly as possible, to save them from being injured by a blow,
+the corrugators contract. With savages or other men whose heads are
+uncovered, the eyebrows are continually lowered and contracted to serve
+as a shade against a too strong light; and this is effected partly
+by the corrugators. This movement would have been more especially
+serviceable to man, as soon as his early progenitors held their heads
+erect. Lastly, Prof. Donders believes ('Archives of Medicine,' ed. by
+L. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 34), that the corrugators are brought into
+action in causing the eyeball to advance in accommodation for proximity
+in vision.]
+
+[Footnote 902: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legende
+iii.]
+
+[Footnote 903: 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' s. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 904: 'History of the Abipones,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 59,
+as quoted by Lubbock, 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 355.]
+
+[Footnote 905: 'De la Physionomie,' pp. 15, 144, 146. Mr. Herbert
+Spencer accounts for frowning exclusively by the habit of contracting
+the brows as a shade to the eyes in a bright light: see 'Principles of
+Physiology,' 2nd edit. 1872, p. 546.]
+
+[Footnote 906: Gratiolet remarks (De la Phys. p. 35), "Quand l'attention
+est fixee sur quelque image interieure, l'oeil regarde dons le vide et
+s'associe automatiquement a la contemplation de l'esprit." But this view
+hardly deserves to be called an explanation.]
+
+[Footnote 907: 'Miles Gloriosus,' act ii. sc. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 908: The original photograph by Herr Kindermann is much
+more expressive than this copy, as it shows the frown on the brow more
+plainly.]
+
+[Footnote 909: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legende iv.
+figs. 16-18.]
+
+[Footnote 910: Hensleigh Wedgwood on 'The Origin of Language,' 1866, p.
+78.]
+
+[Footnote 911: Muller, as quoted by Huxley, 'Man's Place in Nature,'
+1863, p. 38.]
+
+[Footnote 912: I have given several instances in my 'Descent of Man,'
+vol. i. chap. iv.]
+
+[Footnote 913: 'Anatomy of Expression.' p. 190.]
+
+[Footnote 914: 'De la Physionomie,' pp. 118-121.]
+
+[Footnote 915: 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' s. 79.]
+
+[Footnote 1001: See some remarks to this effect by Mr. Bain, 'The
+Emotions and the Will,' 2nd edit. 1865, p. 127.]
+
+[Footnote 1002: Rengger, Naturgesch. der Saugethiere von Paraguay, 1830,
+s. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 1003: Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 96. On the
+other hand, Dr. Burgess ('Physiology of Blushing,' 1839, p. 31) speaks
+of the reddening of a cicatrix in a negress as of the nature of a
+blush.]
+
+[Footnote 1004: Moreau and Gratiolet have discussed the colour of the
+face under the influence of intense passion: see the edit. of 1820 of
+Lavater, vol. iv. pp. 282 and 300; and Gratiolet, 'De la Physionomie,'
+p. 345.]
+
+[Footnote 1005: Sir C. Bell 'Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 91, 107, has
+fully discussed this subject. Moreau remarks (in the edit. of 1820 of
+'La Physionomie, par G. Lavater,' vol. iv. p. 237), and quotes Portal
+in confirmation, that asthmatic patients acquire permanently expanded
+nostrils, owing to the habitual contraction of the elevatory muscles
+of the wings of the nose. The explanation by Dr. Piderit ('Mimik und
+Physiognomik,' s. 82) of the distension of the nostrils, namely, to
+allow free breathing whilst the mouth is closed and the teeth clenched,
+does not appear to be nearly so correct as that by Sir C. Bell, who
+attributes it to the sympathy (_i. e_. habitual co-action) of all the
+respiratory muscles. The nostrils of an angry man may be seen to become
+dilated, although his mouth is open.]
+
+[Footnote 1006: Mr. Wedgwood, 'On the Origin of Language,' 1866, p. 76.
+He also observes that the sound of hard breathing "is represented by the
+syllables _puff, huff, whiff_, whence a _huff_ is a fit of ill-temper."]
+
+[Footnote 1007: Sir C. Bell 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 95) has some
+excellent remarks on the expression of rage.]
+
+[Footnote 1008: 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 346.]
+
+[Footnote 1009: Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 177. Gratiolet
+(De la Phys. p. 369) says, 'les dents se decouvrent, et imitent
+symboliquement l'action de dechirer et de mordre.'I If, instead of using
+the vague term _symboliquement_, Gratiolet had said that the action was
+a remnant of a habit acquired during primeval times when our semi-human
+progenitors fought together with their teeth, like gorillas and orangs
+at the present day, he would have been more intelligible. Dr. Piderit
+('Mimik,' &c., s. 82) also speaks of the retraction of the upper lip
+during rage. In an engraving of one of Hogarth's wonderful pictures,
+passion is represented in the plainest manner by the open glaring eyes,
+frowning forehead, and exposed grinning teeth.]
+
+[Footnote 1010: 'Oliver Twist,' vol. iii. p. 245.]
+
+[Footnote 1011: 'The Spectator,' July 11, 1868, p. 810.]
+
+[Footnote 1012: 'Body and Mind,' 1870, pp. 51-53.]
+
+[Footnote 1013: Le Brun, in his well-known 'Conference sur l'Expression'
+('La Physionomie, par Lavater,' edit. of 1820, vol. lx. p. 268), remarks
+that anger is expressed by the clenching of the fists. See, to the same
+effect, Huschke, 'Mimices et Physiognomices, Fragmentum Physiologicum,'
+1824, p. 20. Also Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 219.]
+
+[Footnote 1014: Transact. Philosoph. Soc., Appendix, 1746, p. 65.]
+
+[Footnote 1015: 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 136. Sir C. Bell calls (p.
+131) the muscles which uncover the canines the snarling muscles.]
+
+[Footnote 1016: Hensleigh Wedgwood, 'Dictionary of English Etymology,'
+1865, vol. iii. pp. 240, 243.]
+
+[Footnote 1017: 'The Descent of Man,' 1871, vol. L p. 126.]
+
+[Footnote 1101: 'De In Physionomie et la Parole,' 1865, p. 89.]
+
+[Footnote 1102: 'Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legende viii. p. 35.
+Gratiolet also speaks (De la Phys. 1865, p. 52) of the turning away of
+the eyes and body.]
+
+[Footnote 1103: Dr. W. Ogle, in an interesting paper on the Sense of
+Smell ('Medico-Chirurgical Transactions,' vol. liii. p. 268), shows
+that when we wish to smell carefully, instead of taking one deep nasal
+inspiration, we draw in the air by a succession of rapid short sniffs.
+If "the nostrils be watched during this process, it will be seen
+that, so far from dilating, they actually contract at each sniff. The
+contraction does not include the whole anterior opening, but only the
+posterior portion." He then explains the cause of this movement. When,
+on the other hand, we wish to exclude any odour, the contraction, I
+presume, affects only the anterior part of the nostrils.]
+
+[Footnote 1104: 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' ss. 84, 93. Gratiolet (ibid.
+p. 155) takes nearly the same view with Dr. Piderit respecting the
+expression of contempt and disgust.]
+
+[Footnote 1105: Scorn implies a strong form of contempt; and one of the
+roots of the word 'scorn' means, according to Mr. Wedgwood (Dict. of
+English Etymology, vol. iii. p. 125), ordure or dirt. A person who is
+scorned is treated like dirt.]
+
+[Footnote 1106: 'Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 1107: See, to this effect, Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood's
+Introduction to the 'Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit. 1872,
+p. xxxvii.]
+
+[Footnote 1108: Duchenne believes that in the eversion of the lower lip,
+the corners are drawn downwards by the _depressores anguli oris_. Henle
+(Handbuch d. Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s. 151) concludes that this
+is effected by the _musculus quadratus menti_.]
+
+[Footnote 1109: As quoted by Tylor, 'Primitive Culture,' 1871, vol. i.
+p. 169.]
+
+[Footnote 1110: Both these quotations are given by Mr. H. Wedgwood, 'On
+the Origin of Language,' 1866, p. 75.]
+
+[Footnote 1111: This is stated to be the case by Mr. Tylor (Early Hist.
+of Mankind, 2nd edit. 1870, p. 52); and he adds, "it is not clear why
+this should be so."]
+
+[Footnote 1112: 'Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit. 1872, p. 552.]
+
+[Footnote 1113: Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 351) makes this remark, and
+has some good observations on the expression of pride. See Sir C.
+Bell ('Anatomy of Expression,' p. 111) on the action of the _musculus
+superbus_.]
+
+[Footnote 1114: 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 166.]
+
+[Footnote 1115: 'Journey through Texas,' p. 352.]
+
+[Footnote 1116: Mrs. Oliphant, 'The Brownlows,' vol. ii. p. 206.]
+
+[Footnote 1117: 'Essai sur le Langage,' 2nd edit. 1846. I am much
+indebted to Miss Wedgwood for having given me this information, with an
+extract from the work.]
+
+[Footnote 1118: 'On the Origin of Language,' 1866, p. 91.]
+
+[Footnote 1119: 'On the Vocal Sounds of L. Bridgman;' Smithsonian
+Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 11.]
+
+[Footnote 1120: 'Memoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, p. 27.]
+
+[Footnote 1121: Quoted by Tylor, 'Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit.
+1870, p. 38.]
+
+[Footnote 1122: Mr. J. B. Jukes, 'Letters and Extracts,' &c. 1871, p.
+248.]
+
+[Footnote 1123: F. Lieber, 'On the Vocal Sounds,' &c. p. 11. Tylor,
+ibid. p. 53.]
+
+[Footnote 1124: Dr. King, Edinburgh Phil. Journal, 1845, p. 313.]
+
+[Footnote 1125: Tylor, 'Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p.
+53.]
+
+[Footnote 1126: Lubbock, 'The Origin of Civilization,' 1870, p. 277.
+Tylor, ibid. p. 38. Lieber (ibid. p. 11) remarks on the negative of the
+Italians.]
+
+[Footnote 1201: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie,' Album, 1862, p. 42.]
+
+[Footnote 1202: 'The Polyglot News Letter,' Melbourne, Dec. 1858, p. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 1203: 'The Anatomy of Expression,' p. 106.]
+
+[Footnote 1204: Mecanisme de la Physionomie,' Album, p. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 1205: See, for instance, Dr. Piderit ('Mimik und
+Physiognomik,' s. 88), who has a good discussion on the expression of
+surprise.]
+
+[Footnote 1206: Dr. Murie has also given me information leading to the
+same conclusion, derived in part from comparative anatomy.]
+
+[Footnote 1207: 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 234.]
+
+[Footnote 1208: See, on this subject, Gratiolet, ibid. p. 254.]
+
+[Footnote 1209: Lieber, 'On the Vocal Sounds of Laura Bridgman,'
+Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 1210: 'Wenderholme,' vol. ii. p. 91.]
+
+[Footnote 1211: Lieber, 'On the Vocal Sounds,' &c., ibid. p. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 1212: Huschke, 'Mimices et Physiognomices,' 1821, p. 18.
+Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 255) gives a figure of a man in this
+attitude, which, however, seems to me expressive of fear combined with
+astonishment. Le Brun also refers (Lavater, vol. ix. p. 299) to the
+hands of an astonished man being opened.]
+
+[Footnote 1213: Huschke, ibid. p. 18.]
+
+[Footnote 1214: 'North American Indians,' 3rd edit. 1842, vol. i. p.
+105.]
+
+[Footnote 1215: H. Wedgwood, Dict. of English Etymology, vol. ii. 1862,
+p. 35. See, also, Gratiolet ('De la Physionomie,' p. 135) on the sources
+of such words as 'terror, horror, rigidus, frigidus,' &c.]
+
+[Footnote 1216: Mr. Bain ('The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p. 54)
+explains in the following manner the origin of the custom "of subjecting
+criminals in India to the ordeal of the morsel of rice. The accused is
+made to take a mouthful of rice, and after a little time to throw
+it out. If the morsel is quite dry, the party is believed to be
+guilty,--his own evil conscience operating to paralyse the salivating
+organs."]
+
+[Footnote 1217: Sir C. Bell, Transactions of Royal Phil. Soc. 1822, p.
+308. 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 88 and pp. 164-469.]
+
+[Footnote 1218: See Moreau on the rolling of the eyes, in the edit. of
+1820 of Lavater, tome iv. p. 263. Also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 17.]
+
+[Footnote 1219: 'Observations on Italy,' 1825, p. 48, as quoted in 'The
+Anatomy of Expression,' p. 168.]
+
+[Footnote 1220: Quoted by Dr. Maudsley, 'Body and Mind,' 1870, p. 41.]
+
+[Footnote 1221: 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 168.]
+
+[Footnote 1222: Mecanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, Legende xi.]
+
+[Footnote 1223: Ducheinne takes, in fact, this view (ibid. p. 45), as
+he attributes the contraction of the platysma to the shivering of fear
+(_frisson de la peur_); but he elsewhere compares the action with that
+which causes the hair of frightened quadrupeds to stand erect; and this
+can hardly be considered as quite correct.]
+
+[Footnote 1224: 'De la Physionomie,' pp. 51, 256, 346.]
+
+[Footnote 1225: As quoted in White's 'Gradation in Man,' p. 57.]
+
+[Footnote 1226: 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 169.]
+
+[Footnote 1227: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie,' Album, pl. 65, pp. 44,
+45.]
+
+[Footnote 1228: See remarks to this effect by Mr. Wedgwood, in the
+Introduction to his 'Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit. 1872,
+p. xxxvii. He shows by intermediate forms that the sounds here referred
+to have probably given rise to many words, such as _ugly, huge_, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 1301: 'The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,' 1839, p. 156.
+I shall have occasion often to quote this work in the present chapter.]
+
+[Footnote 1302: Dr. Burgess, ibid. p. 56. At p. 33 he also remarks on
+women blushing more freely than men, as stated below.]
+
+[Footnote 1303: Quoted by Vogt, 'Memoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867,
+p. 20. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 56) doubts whether idiots ever blush.]
+
+[Footnote 1304: Lieber 'On the Vocal Sounds,' &c.; Smithsonian
+Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 1305: Ibid. p. 182.]
+
+[Footnote 1306: Moreau, in edit. of 1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. p. 303.]
+
+[Footnote 1307: Burgess. ibid. p. 38, on paleness after blushing, p.
+177.]
+
+[Footnote 1308: See Lavater, edit. of 1820, vol. iv. p. 303.]
+
+[Footnote 1309: Burgess, ibid. pp. 114, 122. Moreau in Lavater, ibid.
+vol. iv. p. 293.]
+
+[Footnote 1310: 'Letters from Egypt,' 1865, p. 66. Lady Gordon is
+mistaken when she says Malays and Mulattoes never blush.]
+
+[Footnote 1311: Capt. Osborn ('Quedah,' p. 199), in speaking of a Malay,
+whom he reproached for cruelty, says he was glad to see that the man
+blushed.]
+
+[Footnote 1312: J. R. Forster, 'Observations during a Voyage round the
+World,' 4to, 1778, p. 229. Waitz gives ('Introduction to Anthropology,'
+Eng. translat. 1863, vol. i. p. 135) references for other islands in the
+Pacific. See, also, Dampier 'On the Blushing of the Tunquinese' (vol.
+ii. p. 40); but I have not consulted this work. Waitz quotes Bergmann,
+that the Kalmucks do not blush, but this may be doubted after what we
+have seen with respect to the Chinese. He also quotes Roth, who denies
+that the Abyssinians are capable of blushing. Unfortunately, Capt.
+Speedy, who lived so long with the Abyssinians, has not answered my
+inquiry on this head. Lastly, I must add that the Rajah Brooke has never
+observed the least sign of a blush with the Dyaks of Borneo; on the
+contrary under circumstances which would excite a blush in us, they
+assert "that they feel the blood drawn from their faces."]
+
+[Footnote 1313: Transact. of the Ethnological Soc. 1870, vol. ii. p.
+16.]
+
+[Footnote 1314: Humboldt, 'Personal Narrative,' Eng. translat. vol. iii.
+p. 229.]
+
+[Footnote 1315: Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit
+1851, vol. i. p. 271.]
+
+[Footnote 1316: See, on this head, Burgess, ibid. p. 32. Also Waitz,
+'Introduction to Anthropology,' Eng. edit. vol. i. p. 139. Moreau gives
+a detailed account ('Lavater,' 1820, tom. iv. p. 302) of the blushing of
+a Madagascar negress-slave when forced by her brutal master to exhibit
+her naked bosom.]
+
+[Footnote 1317: Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit.
+1851, vol. i. p. 225.]
+
+[Footnote 1318: Burgess, ibid. p. 31. On mulattoes blushing, see p. 33.
+I have received similar accounts with respect to, mulattoes.]
+
+[Footnote 1319: Barrington also says that the Australians of New South
+Wales blush, as quoted by Waitz, ibid. p. 135.]
+
+[Footnote 1320: Mr. Wedgwood says (Dict. of English Etymology, vol. iii.
+1865, p. 155) that the word shame "may well originate in the idea of
+shade or concealment, and may be illustrated by the Low German _scheme_,
+shade or shadow." Gratiolet (De la Phys. pp. 357-362) has a good
+discussion on the gestures accompanying shame; but some of his remarks
+seem to me rather fanciful. See, also, Burgess (ibid. pp. 69, 134) on
+the same subject.]
+
+[Footnote 1321: Burgess, ibid. pp. 181, 182. Boerhaave also noticed
+(as quoted by Gratiolet, ibid. p. 361) the tendency to the secretion of
+tears during intense blushing. Mr. Bulmer, as we have seen, speaks of
+the "watery eyes" of the children of the Australian aborigines when
+ashamed.]
+
+[Footnote 1322: See also Dr. J. Crichton Browne's Memoir on this subject
+in the 'West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Report,' 1871, pp. 95-98.]
+
+[Footnote 1323: In a discussion on so-called animal magnetism in 'Table
+Talk,' vol. i.]
+
+[Footnote 1324: Ibid. p. 40.]
+
+[Footnote 1325: Mr. Bain ('The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p.
+65) remarks on "the shyness of manners which is induced between the
+sexes.... from the influence of mutual regard, by the apprehension on
+either side of not standing well with the other."]
+
+[Footnote 1326: See, for evidence on this subject, 'The Descent of Man,'
+&c., vol. ii. pp. 71, 341.]
+
+[Footnote 1327: H. Wedgwood, Dict. English Etymology, vol. iii. 1865, p.
+184. So with the Latin word _verecundus_.]
+
+[Footnote 1328: Mr. Bain ('The Emotions and the Will,' p. 64) has
+discussed the "abashed" feelings experienced on these occasions, as well
+as the _stage-fright_ of actors unused to the stage. Mr. Bain apparently
+attributes these feelings to simple apprehension or dread.]
+
+[Footnote 1329: 'Essays on Practical Education,' by Maria and R. L.
+Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 38. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 187)
+insists strongly to the same effect.]
+
+[Footnote 1330: 'Essays on Practical Education,' by Maria and R. L.
+Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 50.]
+
+[Footnote 1331: Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 95. Burgess, as quoted
+below, ibid. p. 49. Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 94.]
+
+[Footnote 1332: On the authority of Lady Mary Wortley Montague; see
+Burgess, ibid. p. 43.]
+
+[Footnote 1333: In England, Sir H. Holland was, I believe, the first to
+consider the influence of mental attention on various parts of the body,
+in his 'Medical Notes and Reflections,' 1839 p. 64. This essay, much
+enlarged, was reprinted by Sir H. Holland in his 'Chapters on Mental
+Physiology,' 1858, p. 79, from which work I always quote. At nearly the
+same time, as well as subsequently, Prof. Laycock discussed the same
+subject: see 'Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,' 1839, July, pp.
+17-22. Also his 'Treatise on the Nervous Diseases of Women,' 1840, p.
+110; and 'Mind and Brain,' vol. ii. 1860, p. 327. Dr. Carpenter's views
+on mesmerism have a nearly similar bearing. The great physiologist
+Muller treated ('Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. pp.
+937, 1085) of the influence of the attention on the senses. Sir J. Paget
+discusses the influence of the mind on the nutrition of parts, in his
+'Lectures on Surgical Pathology,' 1853, vol. i. p. 39: 1 quote from the
+3rd edit. revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, p. 28. See, also, Gratiolet, De
+la Phys. pp. 283-287.]
+
+[Footnote 1334: De la Phys. p. 283.]
+
+[Footnote 1340: Dr. Maudsley has given ('The Physiology and Pathology
+of Mind,' 2nd edit. 1868, p. 105), on good authority, some curious
+statements with respect to the improvement of the sense of touch by
+practice and attention. It is remarkable that when this sense has thus
+been rendered more acute at any point of the body, for instance, in
+a finger, it is likewise improved at the corresponding point on the
+opposite side of the body.]
+
+[Footnote 1341: The Lancet,' 1838, pp. 39-40, as quoted by Prof.
+Laycock, 'Nervous Diseases of Women,' 1840, p. 110.]
+
+[Footnote 1342: 'Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, pp. 91-93.]
+
+[Footnote 1343: 'Lectures on Surgical Pathology,' 3rd edit. revised by
+Prof. Turner, 1870, pp. 28, 31.]
+
+[Footnote 1344: 'Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p.
+938.]
+
+[Footnote 1345: Prof. Laycock has discussed this point in a very
+interesting manner. See his 'Nervous Diseases of Women,' 1840, p. 110.]
+
+[Footnote 1346: See, also, Mr. Michael Foster, on the action of
+the vaso-motor system, in his interesting Lecture before the royal
+Institution, as translated in the 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' Sept.
+25, 1869, p. 683.]
+
+[Footnote 1401: See the interesting facts given by Dr. Bateman on
+'Aphasia,' 1870, p. 110.]
+
+[Footnote 1402: 'La Physionomie et la Parole,' 1865, pp. 103, 118.]
+
+[Footnote 1403: Rengger, 'Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,'
+1830, s. 55.]
+
+[Footnote 1404: Quoted by Moreau, in his edition of Lavater, 1820, tom.
+iv. p. 211.]
+
+[Footnote 1405: Gratiolet ('De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 66) insists on
+the truth of this conclusion.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Expression of Emotion in Man and
+Animals, by Charles Darwin
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMOTION IN MAN AND ANIMALS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 1227-8.txt or 1227-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/2/1227/
+
+Produced by Charles Keller and David Widger
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
+  www.gutenberg.org/license.
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at 809
+North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887.  Email
+contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the
+Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit:  www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For forty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
diff --git a/old/old/1227-8.zip b/old/old/1227-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ee60538
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/old/1227-8.zip
diff --git a/old/old/1227.txt b/old/old/1227.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1cb7456
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/old/1227.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11116 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals, by
+Charles Darwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals
+
+Author: Charles Darwin
+
+Release Date: March, 1998 [EBook #1227]
+Last Updated: August 2, 2012
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMOTION IN MAN AND ANIMALS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Keller and David Widger
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS
+
+By Charles Darwin
+
+
+_With Photographic And Other Illustrations_
+
+New York
+
+D. Appleton And Company
+
+1899
+
+
+
+
+DETAILED CONTENTS.
+INTRODUCTION......................................................Pages
+1-26
+
+CHAP. I--GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.The three chief principles
+stated--The first principle--Serviceable actions become habitual in
+association with certain states of the mind, and are performed
+whether or not of service in each particular case--The force of
+habit--Inheritance--Associated habitual movements in man--Reflex
+actions--Passage of habits into reflex actions--Associated habitual
+movements in the lower animals--Concluding remarks............27-49
+
+CHAP. II--GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION--_continued_. The
+Principle of Antithesis--Instances in the dog and cat--Origin of the
+principle--Conventional signs--The principle of antithesis has not
+arisen from opposite actions being consciously performed under opposite
+impulses..........50-65
+
+CHAP. III--GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION--_concluded_.
+The principle of the direct action of the excited nervous system on the
+body, independently of the will and in part of habit--Change of
+colour in the hair--Trembling of the muscles--Modified
+secretions--Perspiration--Expression of extreme pain--Of rage, great
+joy, and terror--Contrast between the emotions which cause and do
+not cause expressive movements--Exciting and depressing states of the
+mind--Summary............................................ 66-82
+
+CHAP. IV--MEANS OF EXPRESSION. IN ANIMALS. The emission of sounds--Vocal
+sounds--Sounds otherwise produced--Erection of the dermal appendages,
+hairs, feathers, &c., under the emotions of anger and terror--The
+drawing back of the ears as a preparation for fighting, and as an
+expression of anger--Erection of the ears and raising the head, a sign
+of attention 88-114
+
+CHAP. V.--SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS. The Dog, various expressive
+movements of--Cats--Horses--Ruminants--Monkeys, their expression of joy
+and affection--Of pain--Anger Astonishment and Terror Pages 115-145
+
+CHAP. VI.--SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING. The
+screaming and weeping of infants--Form of features--Age at which weeping
+commences--The effects of habitual restraint on weeping--Sobbing--Cause
+of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during screaming--Cause
+of the secretion of tears 146-175
+
+CHAP. VII.--LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR. General
+effect of grief on the system--Obliquity of the eyebrows under
+suffering--On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows--On the
+depression of the corners of the mouth 176-195
+
+CHAP. VIII.--JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
+Laughter primarily the expression of joy--Ludicrous ideas--Movements
+of the features during laughter--Nature of the sound produced--The
+secretion of tears during loud laughter--Gradation from loud laughter
+to gentle smiling--High spirits--The expression of love--Tender
+feelings--Devotion 196-219
+
+CHAP. IX.--REFLECTION--MEDITATION--ILL--TEMPER--SULKINESS DETERMINATION.
+The act of frowning--Reflection with an effort or with the perception
+of something difficult or disagreeable--Abstracted
+meditation--Ill-temper--Moroseness--Obstinacy--Sulkiness and
+pouting--Decision or determination--The firm closure of the mouth
+220-236
+
+CHAP. X.-HATRED AND ANGER. Hatred--Rage, effects of on the
+system--Uncovering of the teeth--Rage in the insane--Anger and
+indignation--As expressed by the various races of man--Sneering and
+defiance--The uncovering of the canine teeth on one side of the face
+237-252
+
+CHAP. XI.--DISDAIN--CONTEMPT--DISGUST--GUILT--PRIDE,
+ETC.--HELPLESSNESS--PATIENCE--AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION. Contempt, scorn
+and disdain, variously expressed--Derisive Smile--Gestures expressive
+of contempt--Disgust--Guilt, deceit, pride, etc.--Helplessness or
+impotence--Patience--Obstinacy--Shrugging the shoulders common to most
+of the races of man--Signs of affirmation and negation 253-277
+
+CHAP. XII.--SURPRISE--ASTONISHMENT--FEAR--HORROR.
+Surprise, astonishment--Elevation of the eyebrows--Opening
+the mouth--Protrusion of the lips--Gestures accompanying
+surprise--Admiration Fear--Terror--Erection of the hair--Contraction of
+the platysma muscle--Dilatation of the pupils--horror--Conclusion. Pages
+278-308
+
+CHAP. XIII.--SELF-ATTENTION--SHAME--SHYNESS--MODESTY: BLUSHING.
+Nature of a blush--Inheritance--The parts of the body most
+affected--Blushing in the various races of man--Accompanying
+gestures--Confusion of mind--Causes of blushing--Self-attention,
+the fundamental element--Shyness--Shame, from broken moral laws and
+conventional rules--Modesty--Theory of blushing--Recapitulation 309-346
+
+CHAP. XIV.--CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
+The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements
+of expression--Their inheritance--On the part which the will and
+intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions--The
+instinctive recognition of expression--The bearing of our subject on
+the specific unity of the races of man--On the successive acquirement
+of various expressions by the progenitors of man--The importance of
+expression--Conclusion 347-366
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+    FIG.  PAGE
+     1. Diagram of the muscles of the face, from Sir C. Bell     24
+     2.   "   "   "   Henle................ 24
+     3.   "   "   "   "................ 25
+     4 Small dog watching a cat on a table   43
+     5 Dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions  52
+     6. Dog in a humble and affectionate frame of mind      53
+     7. Half-bred Shepherd Dog     54
+     8. Dog caressing his master   55
+     9. Cat, savage, and prepared to fight   58
+     10. Cat in an affectionate frame of mind     59
+     11. Sound-producing quills from the tail of the Porcupine   93
+     12. Hen driving away a dog from her chickens......98
+     13. Swan driving away an intruder.................99
+     14. Head of snarling dog.........................117
+     15. Cat terrified at a dog.......................125
+     16. Cynopithecus niger, in a placid condition....135
+     17. The same, when pleased by being caressed.....135
+     18. Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky............139
+     19. Photograph of an insane woman................296
+     20. Terror.......................................299
+     21. Horror and Agony.............................306
+
+  Plate I. to face page 147    Plate V. to face page 254.
+  "  II.  "   178.      "   VI.  "   264.
+  "  III. "   200.      "   VII. "   300.
+  "  IV.  "   248.
+
+_N. B_.--Several of the figures in these seven Heliotype Plates
+have been reproduced from photographs, instead of from the original
+negatives; and they are in consequence somewhat indistinct. Nevertheless
+they are faithful copies, and are much superior for my purpose to any
+drawing, however carefully executed.
+
+
+
+
+ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+MANY works have been written on Expression, but a greater number on
+Physiognomy,--that is, on the recognition of character through the study
+of the permanent form of the features. With this latter subject I am
+not here concerned. The older treatises,[1] which I have consulted, have
+been of little or no service to me. The famous 'Conferences'[2] of the
+painter Le Brun, published in 1667, is the best known ancient work,
+and contains some good remarks. Another somewhat old essay, namely,
+the 'Discours,' delivered 1774-1782, by the well-known Dutch anatomist
+Camper,[3] can hardly be considered as having made any marked advance in
+the subject. The following works, on the contrary, deserve the fullest
+consideration.
+
+Sir Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in physiology,
+published in 1806 the first edition, and in the third edition of his
+'Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression.'[4] He may with justice be said,
+not only to have laid the foundations of the subject as a branch of
+science, but to have built up a noble structure. His work is in every
+way deeply interesting; it includes graphic descriptions of the various
+emotions, and is admirably illustrated. It is generally admitted that
+his service consists chiefly in having shown the intimate relation which
+exists between the movements of expression and those of respiration. One
+of the most important points, small as it may at first appear, is that
+the muscles round the eyes are involuntarily contracted during violent
+expiratory efforts, in order to protect these delicate organs from the
+pressure of the blood. This fact, which has been fully investigated for
+me with the greatest kindness by Professors Donders of Utrecht, throws,
+as we shall hereafter see, a flood of light on several of the most
+important expressions of the human countenance. The merits of Sir C.
+Bell's work have been undervalued or quite ignored by several foreign
+writers, but have been fully admitted by some, for instance by M.
+Lemoine,[5] who with great justice says:--"Le livre de Ch. Bell devrait
+etre medite par quiconque essaye de faire parler le visage de l'homme,
+par les philosophes aussi bien que par les artistes, car, sous une
+apparence plus legere et sous le pretexte de l'esthetique, c'est un
+des plus beaux monuments de la science des rapports du physique et du
+moral."
+
+From reasons which will presently be assigned, Sir C. Bell did not
+attempt to follow out his views as far as they might have been carried.
+He does not try to explain why different muscles are brought into action
+under different emotions; why, for instance, the inner ends of the
+eyebrows are raised, and the corners of the mouth depressed, by a person
+suffering from grief or anxiety.
+
+In 1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater on Physiognomy,[6] in
+which he incorporated several of his own essays, containing excellent
+descriptions of the movements of the facial muscles, together with
+many valuable remarks. He throws, however, very little light on the
+philosophy of the subject. For instance, M. Moreau, in speaking of the
+act of frowning, that is, of the contraction of the muscle called by
+French writers the _soucilier_ (_corrigator supercilii_), remarks with
+truth:--"Cette action des sourciliers est un des symptomes les plus
+tranches de l'expression des affections penibles ou concentrees." He
+then adds that these muscles, from their attachment and position, are
+fitted "a resserrer, a concentrer les principaux traits de la _face_,
+comme il convient dans toutes ces passions vraiment oppressives
+ou profondes, dans ces affections dont le sentiment semble porter
+l'organisation a revenir sur elle-meme, a se contracter et a
+_s'amoindrir_, comme pour offrir moins de prise et de surface a des
+impressions redoutables ou importunes." He who thinks that remarks of
+this kind throw any light on the meaning or origin of the different
+expressions, takes a very different view of the subject to what I do.
+
+The earliest edition of this work, referred to in the preface to the
+edition of 1820 in ten volumes, as containing the observations of M.
+Moreau, is said to have been published in 1807; and I have no doubt that
+this is correct, because the 'Notice sur Lavater' at the commencement
+of volume i. is dated April 13, 1806. In some bibliographical works,
+however, the date of 1805--1809 is given, but it seems impossible that
+1805 can be correct. Dr. Duchenne remarks ('Mecanisme de la Physionomie
+Humaine,'-8vo edit. 1862, p. 5, and 'Archives Generales de Medecine,'
+Jan. et Fev. 1862) that M. Moreau "_a compose pour son ouvrage un
+article important_," &c., in the year 1805; and I find in volume i. of
+the edition of 1820 passages bearing the dates of December 12, 1805, and
+another January 5, 1806, besides that of April 13, 1806, above referred
+to. In consequence of some of these passages having thus been COMPOSED
+in 1805, Dr. Duchenne assigns to M. Moreau the priority over Sir C.
+Bell, whose work, as we have seen, was published in 1806. This is a very
+unusual manner of determining the priority of scientific works; but such
+questions are of extremely little importance in comparison with their
+relative merits. The passages above quoted from M. Moreau and from Le
+Brun are taken in this and all other cases from the edition of 1820 of
+Lavater, tom. iv. p. 228, and tom. ix. p. 279. In the above passage
+there is but a slight, if any, advance in the philosophy of the subject,
+beyond that reached by the painter Le Brun, who, in 1667, in describing
+the expression of fright, says:--"Le sourcil qui est abaisse d'un cote
+et eleve de l'autre, fait voir que la partie elevee semble le vouloir
+joindre au cerveau pour le garantir du mal que l'ame apercoit, et le
+cote qui est abaisse et qui parait enfle,--nous fait trouver dans cet
+etat par les esprits qui viennent du cerveau en abondance, comme polir
+couvrir l'aine et la defendre du mal qu'elle craint; la bouche fort
+ouverte fait voir le saisissement du coeur, par le sang qui se retire
+vers lui, ce qui l'oblige, voulant respirer, a faire un effort qui est
+cause que la bouche s'ouvre extremement, et qui, lorsqu'il passe par les
+organes de la voix, forme un son qui n'est point articule; que si les
+muscles et les veines paraissent enfles, ce n'est que par les esprits
+que le cerveau envoie en ces parties-la." I have thought the foregoing
+sentences worth quoting, as specimens of the surprising nonsense which
+has been written on the subject.
+
+'The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,' by Dr. Burgess, appeared
+in 1839, and to this work I shall frequently refer in my thirteenth
+Chapter.
+
+In 1862 Dr. Duchenne published two editions, in folio and octavo, of his
+'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' in which he analyses by means of
+electricity, and illustrates by magnificent photographs, the movements
+of the facial muscles. He has generously permitted me to copy as many of
+his photographs as I desired. His works have been spoken lightly of, or
+quite passed over, by some of his countrymen. It is possible that Dr.
+Duchenne may have exaggerated the importance of the contraction of
+single muscles in giving expression; for, owing to the intimate manner
+in which the muscles are connected, as may be seen in Henle's anatomical
+drawings[7]--the best I believe ever published it is difficult to
+believe in their separate action. Nevertheless, it is manifest that Dr.
+Duchenne clearly apprehended this and other sources of error, and as it
+is known that he was eminently successful in elucidating the physiology
+of the muscles of the hand by the aid of electricity, it is probable
+that he is generally in the right about the muscles of the face. In my
+opinion, Dr. Duchenne has greatly advanced the subject by his treatment
+of it. No one has more carefully studied the contraction of each
+separate muscle, and the consequent furrows produced on the skin. He
+has also, and this is a very important service, shown which muscles are
+least under the separate control of the will. He enters very little into
+theoretical considerations, and seldom attempts to explain why certain
+muscles and not others contract under the influence of certain emotions.
+A distinguished French anatomist, Pierre Gratiolet, gave a course of
+lectures on Expression at the Sorbonne, and his notes were published
+(1865) after his death, under the title of 'De la Physionomie et des
+Mouvements d'Expression.' This is a very interesting work, full of
+valuable observations. His theory is rather complex, and, as far as it
+can be given in a single sentence (p. 65), is as follows:--"Il resulte,
+de tous les faits que j'ai rappeles, que les sens, l'imagination et la
+pensee ellememe, si elevee, si abstraite qu'on la suppose, ne peuvent
+s'exercer sans eveiller un sentiment correlatif, et que ce sentiment
+se traduit directement, sympathiquement, symboliquement ou
+metaphoriquement, dans toutes les spheres des organs exterieurs, qui la
+racontent tous, suivant leur mode d'action propre, comme si chacun d'eux
+avait ete directement affecte."
+
+Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit, and even to some extent
+habit in the individual; and therefore he fails, as it seems to me, to
+give the right explanation, or any explanation at all, of many gestures
+and expressions. As an illustration of what he calls symbolic movements,
+I will quote his remarks (p. 37), taken from M. Chevreul, on a man
+playing at billiards. "Si une bille devie legerement de la direction
+que le joueur pretend zlui imprimer, ne l'avez-vous pas vu cent fois
+la pousser du regard, de la tete et meme des epaules, comme si ces
+mouvements, purement symboliques, pouvaient rectifier son trajet? Des
+mouvements non moins significatifs se produisent quand la bille manque
+d'une impulsion suffisante. Et cliez les joueurs novices, ils sont
+quelquefois accuses au point d'eveiller le sourire sur les levres des
+spectateurs." Such movements, as it appeirs to me, may be attributed
+simply to habit. As often as a man has wished to move an object to one
+side, he has always pushed it to that side when forwards, he has pushed
+it forwards; and if he has wished to arrest it, he has pulled backwards.
+Therefore, when a man sees his ball travelling in a wrong direction, and
+he intensely wishes it to go in another direction, he cannot avoid, from
+long habit, unconsciously performing movements which in other cases he
+has found effectual.
+
+As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet gives (p. 212) the
+following case:--"un jeune chien A oreilles droites, auquel son maitre
+presente de loin quelque viande appetissante, fixe avec ardeur ses yeux
+sur cet objet dont il suit tous les mouvements, et pendant que les yeux
+regardent, les deux oreilles se portent en avant comme si cet objet
+pouvait etre entendu." Here, instead of speaking of sympathy between
+the ears and eyes, it appears to me more simple to believe, that as dogs
+during many generations have, whilst intently looking at any object,
+pricked their ears in order to perceive any sound; and conversely have
+looked intently in the direction of a sound to which they may have
+listened, the movements of these organs have become firmly associated
+together through long-continued habit.
+
+Dr. Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, which I have not
+seen, but in which, as he states, he forestalled Gratiolet in many of
+his views. In 1867 he published his 'Wissenschaftliches System der Mimik
+und Physiognomik.' It is hardly possible to give in a few sentences a
+fair notion of his views; perhaps the two following sentences will tell
+as much as can be briefly told: "the muscular movements of expression
+are in part related to imaginary objects, and in part to imaginary
+sensorial impressions. In this proposition lies the key to the
+comprehension of all expressive muscular movements." (s. 25) Again,
+"Expressive movements manifest themselves chiefly in the numerous and
+mobile muscles of the face, partly because the nerves by which they
+are set into motion originate in the most immediate vicinity of the
+mind-organ, but partly also because these muscles serve to support the
+organs of sense." (s. 26.) If Dr. Piderit had studied Sir C. Bell's
+work, he would probably not have said (s. 101) that violent laughter
+causes a frown from partaking of the nature of pain; or that with
+infants (s. 103) the tears irritate the eyes, and thus excite the
+contraction of the surrounding in muscles. Many good remarks are
+scattered throughout this volume, to which I shall hereafter refer.
+
+Short discussions on Expression may be found in various works, which
+need not here be particularised. Mr. Bain, however, in two of his works
+has treated the subject at some length. He says,[8] "I look upon the
+expression so-called as part and parcel of the feeling. I believe it to
+be a general law of the mind that along with the fact of inward feeling
+or consciousness, there is a diffusive action or excitement over the
+bodily members." In another place he adds, "A very considerable number
+of the facts may be brought under the following principle: namely, that
+states of pleasure are connected with an increase, and states of pain
+with an abatement, of some, or all, of the vital functions." But the
+above law of the diffusive action of feelings seems too general to throw
+much light on special expressions.
+
+Mr. Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in his 'Principles of
+Psychology' (1855), makes the following remarks:--"Fear, when strong,
+expresses itself in cries, in efforts to hide or escape, in palpitations
+and tremblings; and these are just the manifestations that would
+accompany an actual experience of the evil feared. The destructive
+passions are shown in a general tension of the muscular system, in
+gnashing of the teeth and protrusion of the claws, in dilated eyes
+and nostrils in growls; and these are weaker forms of the actions that
+accompany the killing of prey." Here we have, as I believe, the true
+theory of a large number of expressions; but the chief interest and
+difficulty of the subject lies in following out the wonderfully complex
+results. I infer that some one (but who he is I have not been able to
+ascertain) formerly advanced a nearly similar view, for Sir C. Bell
+says,[9] "It has been maintained that what are called the external signs
+of passion, are only the concomitants of those voluntary movements which
+the structure renders necessary." Mr. Spencer has also published[10]
+a valuable essay on the physiology of Laughter, in which he insists on
+"the general law that feeling passing a certain pitch, habitually
+vents itself in bodily action," and that "an overflow of nerve-force
+undirected by any motive, will manifestly take first the most habitual
+routes; and if these do not suffice, will next overflow into the less
+habitual ones." This law I believe to be of the highest importance in
+throwing light on our subject.'
+
+All the authors who have written on Expression, with the exception of
+Mr. Spencer--the great expounder of the principle of Evolution--appear
+to have been firmly convinced that species, man of course included,
+came into existence in their present condition. Sir C. Bell, being
+thus convinced, maintains that many of our facial muscles are "purely
+instrumental in expression;" or are "a special provision" for this sole
+object.[12] But the simple fact that the anthropoid apes possess the
+same facial muscles as we do,[13] renders it very improbable that these
+muscles in our case serve exclusively for expression; for no one, I
+presume, would be inclined to admit that monkeys have been endowed with
+special muscles solely for exhibiting their hideous grimaces. Distinct
+uses, independently of expression, can indeed be assigned with much
+probability for almost all the facial muscles.
+
+Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a distinction as possible
+between man and the lower animals; and he consequently asserts that with
+"the lower creatures there is no expression but what may be referred,
+more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary instincts."
+He further maintains that their faces "seem chiefly capable of
+expressing rage and fear."[14] But man himself cannot express love and
+humility by external signs, so plainly as does a dog, when with drooping
+ears, hanging lips, flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets his
+beloved master. Nor can these movements in the dog be explained by acts
+of volition or necessary instincts, any more than the beaming eyes and
+smiling cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir C. Bell had
+been questioned about the expression of affection in the dog, he would
+no doubt have answered that this animal had been created with special
+instincts, adapting him for association with man, and that all further
+enquiry on the subject was superfluous.
+
+Although Gratiolet emphatically denies[15] that any muscle has been
+developed solely for the sake of expression, he seems never to have
+reflected on the principle of evolution. He apparently looks at each
+species as a separate creation. So it is with the other writers on
+Expression. For instance, Dr. Duchenne, after speaking of the movements
+of the limbs, refers to those which give expression to the face, and
+remarks:[16] "Le createur n'a donc pas eu a se preoccuper ici des
+besoins de la mecanique; il a pu, selon sa sagesse, ou--que l'on me
+pardonne cette maniere de parler--par une divine fantaisie, mettre
+en action tel ou tel muscle, un seul ou plusieurs muscles a la fois,
+lorsqu'il a voulu que les signes caracteristiques des passions, meme les
+plus fugaces, lussent ecrits passagerement sur la face de l'homme. Ce
+langage de la physionomie une fois cree, il lui a suffi, pour le
+rendre universel et immuable, de donner a tout etre humain la faculte
+instinctive d'exprimer toujours ses sendments par la contraction des
+memes muscles."
+
+Many writers consider the whole subject of Expression as inexplicable.
+Thus the illustrious physiologist Muller, says,[17] "The completely
+different expression of the features in different passions shows that,
+according to the kind of feeling excited, entirely different groups of
+the fibres of the facial nerve are acted on. Of the cause of this we are
+quite ignorant."
+
+No doubt as long as man and all other animals are viewed as independent
+creations, an effectual stop is put to our natural desire to investigate
+as far as possible the causes of Expression. By this doctrine, anything
+and everything can be equally well explained; and it has proved as
+pernicious with respect to Expression as to every other branch of
+natural history. With mankind some expressions, such as the bristling of
+the hair under the influence of extreme terror, or the uncovering of the
+teeth under that of furious rage, can hardly be understood, except
+on the belief that man once existed in a much lower and animal-like
+condition. The community of certain expressions in distinct though
+allied species, as in the movements of the same facial muscles during
+laughter by man and by various monkeys, is rendered somewhat more
+intelligible, if we believe in their descent from a common progenitor.
+He who admits on general grounds that the structure and habits of all
+animals have been gradually evolved, will look at the whole subject of
+Expression in a new and interesting light.
+
+The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements being often
+extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature. A difference may be clearly
+perceived, and yet it may be impossible, at least I have found it so, to
+state in what the difference consists. When we witness any deep emotion,
+our sympathy is so strongly excited, that close observation is forgotten
+or rendered almost impossible; of which fact I have had many curious
+proofs. Our imagination is another and still more serious source of
+error; for if from the nature of the circumstances we expect to see
+any expression, we readily imagine its presence. Notwithstanding Dr.
+Duchenne's great experience, he for a long time fancied, as he states,
+that several muscles contracted under certain emotions, whereas he
+ultimately convinced himself that the movement was confined to a single
+muscle.
+
+In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to ascertain,
+independently of common opinion, how far particular movements of the
+features and gestures are really expressive of certain states of the
+mind, I have found the following means the most serviceable. In the
+first place, to observe infants; for they exhibit many emotions, as Sir
+C. Bell remarks, "with extraordinary force;" whereas, in after life,
+some of our expressions "cease to have the pure and simple source from
+which they spring in infancy."[18]
+
+In the second place, it occurred to me that the insane ought to
+be studied, as they are liable to the strongest passions, and give
+uncontrolled vent to them. I had, myself, no opportunity of doing this,
+so I applied to Dr. Maudsley and received from him an introduction
+to Dr. J. Crichton Browne, who has charge of an immense asylum near
+Wakefield, and who, as I found, had already attended to the subject.
+This excellent observer has with unwearied kindness sent me copious
+notes and descriptions, with valuable suggestions on many points; and I
+can hardly over-estimate the value of his assistance. I owe also, to the
+kindness of Mr. Patrick Nicol, of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, interesting
+statements on two or three points.
+
+Thirdly Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already seen, certain
+muscles in the face of an old man, whose skin was little sensitive, and
+thus produced various expressions which were photographed on a large
+scale. It fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best plates,
+without a word of explanation, to above twenty educated persons of
+various ages and both sexes, asking them, in each case, by what emotion
+or feeling the old man was supposed to be agitated; and I recorded their
+answers in the words which they used. Several of the expressions were
+instantly recognised by almost everyone, though described in not exactly
+the same terms; and these may, I think, be relied on as truthful,
+and will hereafter be specified. On the other hand, the most widely
+different judgments were pronounced in regard to some of them. This
+exhibition was of use in another way, by convincing me how easily we
+may be misguided by our imagination; for when I first looked through
+Dr. Duchenne's photographs, reading at the same time the text, and
+thus learning what was intended, I was struck with admiration at the
+truthfulness of all, with only a few exceptions. Nevertheless, if I had
+examined them without any explanation, no doubt I should have been as
+much perplexed, in some cases, as other persons have been.
+
+Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters in
+painting and sculpture, who are such close observers. Accordingly, I
+have looked at photographs and engravings of many well-known works; but,
+with a few exceptions, have not thus profited. The reason no doubt
+is, that in works of art, beauty is the chief object; and strongly
+contracted facial muscles destroy beauty.[19] The story of the
+composition is generally told with wonderful force and truth by
+skilfully given accessories.
+
+Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascertain whether the same
+expressions and gestures prevail, as has often been asserted without
+much evidence, with all the races of mankind, especially with those who
+have associated but little with Europeans. Whenever the same movements
+of the features or body express the same emotions in several distinct
+races of man, we may infer with much probability, that such expressions
+are true ones,--that is, are innate or instinctive. Conventional
+expressions or gestures, acquired by the individual during early life,
+would probably have differed in the different races, in the same manner
+as do their languages. Accordingly I circulated, early in the year
+1867, the following printed queries with a request, which has been
+fully responded to, that actual observations, and not memory, might be
+trusted. These queries were written after a considerable interval of
+time, during which my attention had been otherwise directed, and I can
+now see that they might have been greatly improved. To some of the later
+copies, I appended, in manuscript, a few additional remarks:--
+
+(1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide,
+and by the eyebrows being raised?
+
+(2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows it to
+be visible? and especially how low down the body does the blush extend?
+
+(3.) When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his body and
+head erect, square his shoulders and clench his fists?
+
+(4) When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to understand any
+puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids?
+
+(5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed, and
+the inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which the French
+call the "Grief muscle"? The eyebrow in this state becomes slightly
+oblique, with a little swelling at the Inner end; and the forehead
+is transversely wrinkled in the middle part, but not across the whole
+breadth, as when the eyebrows are raised in surprise. (6.) When in good
+spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little wrinkled round and
+under them, and with the mouth a little drawn back at the corners?
+
+(7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the upper
+lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side facing the man whom
+he addresses?
+
+(8) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized, which is chiefly
+shown by the mouth being firmly closed, a lowering brow and a slight
+frown?
+
+(9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips and by
+turning up the nose, and with a slight expiration?
+
+(10) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down, the upper
+lip slightly raised, with a sudden expiration, something like incipient
+vomiting, or like something spit out of the mouth?
+
+(11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as with
+Europeans?
+
+(12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears into
+the eyes?
+
+(13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something being
+done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his shoulders, turn
+inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands and open the palms; with
+the eyebrows raised?
+
+(14) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the lips?
+
+(15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized? though I
+know not how these can be defined.
+
+(16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken laterally
+in negation?
+
+
+Observations on natives who have had little communication with Europeans
+would be of course the most valuable, though those made on any natives
+would be of much interest to me. General remarks on expression are of
+comparatively little value; and memory is so deceptive that I earnestly
+beg it may not be trusted. A definite description of the countenance
+under any emotion or frame of mind, with a statement of the
+circumstances under which it occurred, would possess much value.
+
+To these queries I have received thirty-six answers from different
+observers, several of them missionaries or protectors of the aborigines,
+to all of whom I am deeply indebted for the great trouble which they
+have taken, and for the valuable aid thus received. I will specify their
+names, &c., towards the close of this chapter, so as not to interrupt my
+present remarks. The answers relate to several of the most distinct
+and savage races of man. In many instances, the circumstances have been
+recorded under which each expression was observed, and the expression
+itself described. In such cases, much confidence may be placed in the
+answers. When the answers have been simply yes or no, I have always
+received them with caution. It follows, from the information thus
+acquired, that the same state of mind is expressed throughout the world
+with remarkable uniformity; and this fact is in itself interesting
+as evidence of the close similarity in bodily structure and mental
+disposition of all the races, of mankind.
+
+Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended as closely as I could, to the
+expression of the several passions in some of the commoner animals; and
+this I believe to be of paramount importance, not of course for deciding
+how far in man certain expressions are characteristic of certain states
+of mind, but as affording the safest basis for generalisation on the
+causes, or origin, of the various movements of Expression. In observing
+animals, we are not so likely to be biassed by our imagination; and we
+may feel safe that their expressions are not conventional.
+
+From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting nature of some
+expressions (the changes in the features being often extremely slight);
+our sympathy being easily aroused when we behold any strong emotion,
+and our attention thus distracted; our imagination deceiving us, from
+knowing in a vague manner what to expect, though certainly few of us
+know what the exact changes in the countenance are; and lastly, even our
+long familiarity with the subject,--from all these causes combined, the
+observation of Expression is by no means easy, as many persons, whom I
+have asked to observe certain points, have soon discovered. Hence it is
+difficult to determine, with certainty, what are the movements of the
+features and of the body, which commonly characterize certain states of
+the mind. Nevertheless, some of the doubts and difficulties have, as
+I hope, been cleared away by the observation of infants,--of the
+insane,--of the different races of man,--of works of art,--and lastly,
+of the facial muscles under the action of galvanism, as effected by Dr.
+Duchenne.
+
+But there remains the much greater difficulty of understanding the
+cause or origin of the several expressions, and of judging whether any
+theoretical explanation is trustworthy. Besides, judging as well as we
+can by our reason, without the aid of any rules, which of two or more
+explanations is the most satisfactory, or are quite unsatisfactory, I
+see only one way of testing our conclusions. This is to observe whether
+the same principle by which one expression can, as it appears, be
+explained, is applicable in other allied cases; and especially, whether
+the same general principles can be applied with satisfactory results,
+both to man and the lower animals. This latter method, I am inclined to
+think, is the most serviceable of all. The difficulty of judging of the
+truth of any theoretical explanation, and of testing it by some distinct
+line of investigation, is the great drawback to that interest which the
+study seems well fitted to excite.
+
+Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may state that they were
+commenced in the year 1838; and from that time to the present day, I
+have occasionally attended to the subject. At the above date, I was
+already inclined to believe in the principle of evolution, or of the
+derivation of species from other and lower forms. Consequently, when I
+read Sir C. Bell's great work, his view, that man had been created with
+certain muscles specially adapted for the expression of his feelings,
+struck me as unsatisfactory. It seemed probable that the habit of
+expressing our feelings by certain movements, though now rendered
+innate, had been in some manner gradually acquired. But to discover how
+such habits had been acquired was perplexing in no small degree. The
+whole subject had to be viewed under a new aspect, and each expression
+demanded a rational explanation. This belief led me to attempt the
+present work, however imperfectly it may have been executed.--------
+
+I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, as I have said, I am
+deeply indebted for information in regard to the expressions exhibited
+by various races of man, and I will specify some of the circumstances
+under which the observations were in each case made. Owing to the great
+kindness and powerful influence of Mr. Wilson, of Hayes Place, Kent, I
+have received from Australia no less than thirteen sets of answers to
+my queries. This has been particularly fortunate, as the Australian
+aborigines rank amongst the most distinct of all the races of man. It
+will be seen that the observations have been chiefly made in the south,
+in the outlying parts of the colony of Victoria; but some excellent
+answers have been received from the north.
+
+Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valuable observations, made
+several hundred miles in the interior of Queensland. To Mr. R. Brough
+Smyth, of Melbourne, I am much indebted for observations made
+by himself, and for sending me several of the following letters,
+namely:--From the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer, of Lake Wellington, a missionary
+in Gippsland, Victoria, who has had much experience with the natives.
+From Mr. Samuel Wilson, a landowner, residing at Langerenong, Wimmera,
+Victoria. From the Rev. George Taplin, superintendent of the native
+Industrial Settlement at Port Macleay. From Mr. Archibald G. Lang, of
+Coranderik, Victoria, a teacher at a school where aborigines, old and
+young, are collected from all parts of the colony. From Mr. H. B.
+Lane, of Belfast, Victoria, a police magistrate and warden, whose
+observations, as I am assured, are highly trustworthy. From Mr.
+Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose station is on the borders of
+the colony of Victoria, and who has thus been able to observe many
+aborigines who have had little intercourse with white men. He compared
+his observations with those made by two other gentlemen long resident
+in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr. J. Bulmer, a missionary in a remote
+part of Gippsland, Victoria.
+
+I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr. Ferdinand Muller,
+of Victoria, for some observations made by himself, and for sending me
+others made by Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing letters.
+
+In regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Rev. J. W. Stack has
+answered only a few of my queries; but the answers have been remarkably
+full, clear, and distinct, with the circumstances recorded under which
+the observations were made.
+
+The Rajah Brooke has given me some information with respect to the Dyaks
+of Borneo.
+
+Respecting the Malays, I have been highly successful; for Mr. F. Geach
+(to whom I was introduced by Mr. Wallace), during his residence as a
+mining engineer in the interior of Malacca, observed many natives, who
+had never before associated with white men. He wrote me two long
+letters with admirable and detailed observations on their expression. He
+likewise observed the Chinese immigrants in the Malay archipelago.
+
+The well-known naturalist, H. M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, also observed
+for me the Chinese in their native country; and he made inquiries from
+others whom he could trust.
+
+In India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official capacity in the
+Admednugur District in the Bombay Presidency, attended to the expression
+of the inhabitants, but found much difficulty in arriving at any safe
+conclusions, owing to their habitual concealment of all emotions in
+the presence of Europeans. He also obtained information for me from
+Mr. West, the Judge in Canara, and he consulted some intelligent native
+gentlemen on certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J. Scott, curator of the
+Botanic Gardens, carefully observed the various tribes of men therein
+employed during a considerable period, and no one has sent me such full
+and valuable details. The habit of accurate observation, gained by his
+botanical studies, has been brought to bear on our present subject. For
+Ceylon I am much indebted to the Rev. S. O. Glenie for answers to some
+of my queries.
+
+Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with respect to the negroes,
+though Mr. Winwood Reade aided me as far as lay in his power. It would
+have been comparatively easy to have obtained information in regard to
+the negro slaves in America; but as they have long associated with
+white men, such observations would have possessed little value. In the
+southern parts of the continent Mrs. Barber observed the Kafirs and
+Fingoes, and sent me many distinct answers. Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale also
+made some observations on the natives, and procured for me a curious
+document, namely, the opinion, written in English, of Christian
+Gaika, brother of the Chief Sandilli, on the expressions of his
+fellow-countrymen. In the northern regions of Africa Captain Speedy,
+who long resided with the Abyssinians, answered my queries partly from
+memory and partly from observations made on the son of King Theodore,
+who was then under his charge. Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray attended
+to some points in the expressions of the natives, as observed by them
+whilst ascending the Nile.
+
+On the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a catechist residing
+with the Fuegians, answered some few questions about their expression,
+addressed to him many years ago. In the northern half of the continent
+Dr. Rothrock attended to the expressions of the wild Atnah and Espyox
+tribes on the Nasse River, in North-Western America. Mr. Washington
+Matthews Assistant-Surgeon in the United States Army, also observed
+with special care (after having seen my queries, as printed in the
+'Smithsonian Report') some of the wildest tribes in the Western parts
+of the United States, namely, the Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans, and
+Assinaboines; and his answers have proved of the highest value.
+
+Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I have collected
+some few facts incidentally given in books of travels.----
+
+[Illustration: Muscles of the human face. Fig 1-2]
+
+[Illustration: Muscles of the human face. Fig 3]
+
+As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the latter part of
+this volume, to the muscles of the human face, I have had a diagram
+(fig. 1) copied and reduced from Sir C. Bell's work, and two others,
+with more accurate details (figs. 2 and 3), from Herde's well-known
+'Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.' The same letters
+refer to the same muscles in all three figures, but the names are given
+of only the more important ones to which I shall have to allude. The
+facial muscles blend much together, and, as I am informed, hardly appear
+on a dissected face so distinct as they are here represented. Some
+writers consider that these muscles consist of nineteen pairs, with one
+unpaired;[20] but others make the number much larger, amounting even to
+fifty-five, according to Moreau. They are, as is admitted by everyone
+who has written on the subject, very variable in structure; and Moreau
+remarks that they are hardly alike in half-a-dozen subjects.[21] They
+are also variable in function. Thus the power of uncovering the canine
+tooth on one side differs much in different persons. The power of
+raising the wings of the nostrils is also, according to Dr. Piderit,[22]
+variable in a remarkable degree; and other such cases could be given.
+
+Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing my obligations to Mr.
+Rejlander for the trouble which he has taken in photographing for me
+various expressions and gestures. I am also indebted to Herr Kindermann,
+of Hamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of crying infants;
+and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one of a smiling girl. I have already
+expressed my obligations to Dr. Duchenne for generously permitting me
+to have some of his large photographs copied and reduced. All these
+photographs have been printed by the Heliotype process, and the accuracy
+of the copy is thus guaranteed. These plates are referred to by Roman
+numerals.
+
+I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme pains which
+he has taken in drawing from life the expressions of various animals. A
+distinguished artist, Mr. Riviere, has had the kindness to give me
+two drawings of dogs--one in a hostile and the other in a humble and
+caressing frame of mind. Mr. A. May has also given me two similar
+sketches of dogs. Mr. Cooper has taken much care in cutting the blocks.
+Some of the photographs and drawings, namely, those by Mr. May, and
+those by Mr. Wolf of the Cynopithecus, were first reproduced by Mr.
+Cooper on wood by means of photography, and then engraved: by this means
+almost complete fidelity is ensured.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I. -- GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
+
+The three chief principles stated--The first principle--Serviceable
+actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind,
+and are performed whether or not of service in each particular
+case--The force of habit--Inheritance--Associated habitual movements in
+man--Reflex actions--Passage of habits into reflex actions--Associated
+habitual movements in the lower animals--Concluding remarks.
+
+
+I WILL begin by giving the three Principles, which appear to me to
+account for most of the expressions and gestures involuntarily used by
+man and the lower animals, under the influence of various emotions and
+sensations.[101] I arrived, however, at these three Principles only at
+the close of my observations. They will be discussed in the present and
+two following chapters in a general manner. Facts observed both with man
+and the lower animals will here be made use of; but the latter facts
+are preferable, as less likely to deceive us. In the fourth and fifth
+chapters, I will describe the special expressions of some of the lower
+animals; and in the succeeding chapters those of man. Everyone will thus
+be able to judge for himself, how far my three principles throw light on
+the theory of the subject. It appears to me that so many expressions are
+thus explained in a fairly satisfactory manner, that probably all will
+hereafter be found to come under the same or closely analogous heads.
+I need hardly premise that movements or changes in any part of the
+body,--as the wagging of a dog's tail, the drawing back of a horse's
+ears, the shrugging of a man's shoulders, or the dilatation of
+the capillary vessels of the skin,--may all equally well serve for
+expression. The three Principles are as follows.
+
+I. _The principle of serviceable associated Habits_.--Certain complex
+actions are of direct or indirect service under certain states of the
+mind, in order to relieve or gratify certain sensations, desires, &c.;
+and whenever the same state of mind is induced, however feebly, there
+is a tendency through the force of habit and association for the same
+movements to be performed, though they may not then be of the least use.
+Some actions ordinarily associated through habit with certain states of
+the mind may be partially repressed through the will, and in such cases
+the muscles which are least under the separate control of the will are
+the most liable still to act, causing movements which we recognize as
+expressive. In certain other cases the checking of one habitual movement
+requires other slight movements; and these are likewise expressive.
+
+II. _The principle of Antithesis_.--Certain states of the mind lead
+to certain habitual actions, which are of service, as under our first
+principle. Now when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, there
+is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements
+of a directly opposite nature, though these are of no use; and such
+movements are in some cases highly expressive.
+
+III. _The principle of actions due to the constitution of the Nervous
+System, independently from the first of the Will, and independently to
+a certain extent of Habit_.--When the sensorium is strongly excited,
+nerve-force is generated in excess, and is transmitted in certain
+definite directions, depending on the connection of the nerve-cells,
+and partly on habit: or the supply of nerve-force may, as it appears, be
+interrupted. Effects are thus produced which we recognize as expressive.
+This third principle may, for the sake of brevity, be called that of the
+direct action of the nervous system.
+
+
+With respect to our _first Principle_, it is notorious how powerful is
+the force of habit. The most complex and difficult movements can in
+time be performed without the least effort or consciousness. It is not
+positively known how it comes that habit is so efficient in facilitating
+complex movements; but physiologists admit[102] "that the conducting
+power of the nervous fibres increases with the frequency of their
+excitement." This applies to the nerves of motion and sensation, as
+well as to those connected with the act of thinking. That some physical
+change is produced in the nerve-cells or nerves which are habitually
+used can hardly be doubted, for otherwise it is impossible to understand
+how the tendency to certain acquired movements is inherited. That they
+are inherited we see with horses in certain transmitted paces, such as
+cantering and ambling, which are not natural to them,--in the pointing
+of young pointers and the setting of young setters--in the peculiar
+manner of flight of certain breeds of the pigeon, &c. We have analogous
+cases with mankind in the inheritance of tricks or unusual gestures, to
+which we shall presently recur. To those who admit the gradual evolution
+of species, a most striking instance of the perfection with which the
+most difficult consensual movements can be transmitted, is afforded by
+the humming-bird Sphinx-moth (_Macroglossa_); for this moth, shortly
+after its emergence from the cocoon, as shown by the bloom on its
+unruffled scales, may be seen poised stationary in the air, with its
+long hair-like proboscis uncurled and inserted into the minute orifices
+of flowers; and no one, I believe, has ever seen this moth learning to
+perform its difficult task, which requires such unerring aim.
+
+When there exists an inherited or instinctive tendency to the
+performance of an action, or an inherited taste for certain kinds of
+food, some degree of habit in the individual is often or generally
+requisite. We find this in the paces of the horse, and to a certain
+extent in the pointing of dogs; although some young dogs point
+excellently the first time they are taken out, yet they often associate
+the proper inherited attitude with a wrong odour, and even with
+eyesight. I have heard it asserted that if a calf be allowed to suck
+its mother only once, it is much more difficult afterwards to rear it by
+hand.[103] Caterpillars which have been fed on the leaves of one kind
+of tree, have been known to perish from hunger rather than to eat the
+leaves of another tree, although this afforded them their proper food,
+under a state of nature;[104] and so it is in many other cases.
+
+The power of Association is admitted by everyone. Mr. Bain remarks, that
+"actions, sensations and states of feeling, occurring together or in
+close succession, tend to grow together, or cohere, in such a way that
+when any one of them is afterwards presented to the mind, the others are
+apt to be brought up in idea."[105] It is so important for our purpose
+fully to recognize that actions readily become associated with other
+actions and with various states of the mind, that I will give a good
+many instances, in the first place relating to man, and afterwards to
+the lower animals. Some of the instances are of a very trifling nature,
+but they are as good for our purpose as more important habits. It is
+known to everyone how difficult, or even impossible it is, without
+repeated trials, to move the limbs in certain opposed directions which
+have never been practised. Analogous cases occur with sensations, as
+in the common experiment of rolling a marble beneath the tips of two
+crossed fingers, when it feels exactly like two marbles. Everyone
+protects himself when falling to the ground by extending his arms,
+and as Professor Alison has remarked, few can resist acting thus, when
+voluntarily falling on a soft bed. A man when going out of doors puts
+on his gloves quite unconsciously; and this may seem an extremely simple
+operation, but he who has taught a child to put on gloves, knows that
+this is by no means the case.
+
+When our minds are much affected, so are the movements of our bodies;
+but here another principle besides habit, namely the undirected overflow
+of nerve-force, partially comes into play. Norfolk, in speaking of
+Cardinal Wolsey, says--
+
+    "Some strange commotion
+     Is in his brain; he bites his lip and starts;
+     Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground,
+     Then, lays his finger on his temple: straight,
+     Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again,
+     Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he casts
+     His eye against the moon: in most strange postures
+     We have seen him set himself."--_Hen. VIII_., act 3, sc. 2.
+
+
+A vulgar man often scratches his head when perplexed in mind; and I
+believe that he acts thus from habit, as if he experienced a slightly
+uncomfortable bodily sensation, namely, the itching of his head, to
+which he is particularly liable, and which he thus relieves. Another man
+rubs his eyes when perplexed, or gives a little cough when embarrassed,
+acting in either case as if he felt a slightly uncomfortable sensation
+in his eyes or windpipe.[106]
+
+From the continued use of the eyes, these organs are especially liable
+to be acted on through association under various states of the mind,
+although there is manifestly nothing to be seen. A man, as Gratiolet
+remarks, who vehemently rejects a proposition, will almost certainly
+shut his eyes or turn away his face; but if he accepts the proposition,
+he will nod his head in affirmation and open his eyes widely. The man
+acts in this latter case as if he clearly saw the thing, and in the
+former case as if he did not or would not see it. I have noticed that
+persons in describing a horrid sight often shut their eyes momentarily
+and firmly, or shake their heads, as if not to see or to drive away
+something disagreeable; and I have caught myself, when thinking in the
+dark of a horrid spectacle, closing my eyes firmly. In looking suddenly
+at any object, or in looking all around, everyone raises his eyebrows,
+so that the eyes may be quickly and widely opened; and Duchenne remarks
+that[107] a person in trying to remember something often raises his
+eyebrows, as if to see it. A Hindoo gentleman made exactly the same
+remark to Mr. Erskine in regard to his countrymen. I noticed a young
+lady earnestly trying to recollect a painter's name, and she first
+looked to one corner of the ceiling and then to the opposite corner,
+arching the one eyebrow on that side; although, of course, there was
+nothing to be seen there.
+
+In most of the foregoing cases, we can understand how the associated
+movements were acquired through habit; but with some individuals,
+certain strange gestures or tricks have arisen in association with
+certain states of the mind, owing to wholly inexplicable causes, and are
+undoubtedly inherited. I have elsewhere given one instance from my own
+observation of an extraordinary and complex gesture, associated with
+pleasurable feelings, which was transmitted from a father to his
+daughter, as well as some other analogous facts.[108]
+
+Another curious instance of an odd inherited movement, associated
+with the wish to obtain an object, will be given in the course of this
+volume.
+
+There are other actions which are commonly performed under certain
+circumstances, independently of habit, and which seem to be due to
+imitation or some sort of sympathy. Thus persons cutting anything with a
+pair of scissors may be seen to move their jaws simultaneously with the
+blades of the scissors. Children learning to write often twist about
+their tongues as their fingers move, in a ridiculous fashion. When a
+public singer suddenly becomes a little hoarse, many of those present
+may be heard, as I have been assured by a gentleman on whom I can rely,
+to clear their throats; but here habit probably comes into play, as we
+clear our own throats under similar circumstances. I have also been told
+that at leaping matches, as the performer makes his spring, many of
+the spectators, generally men and boys, move their feet; but here again
+habit probably comes into play, for it is very doubtful whether women
+would thus act.
+
+_Reflex actions_--Reflex actions, in the strict sense of the term,
+are due to the excitement of a peripheral nerve, which transmits its
+influence to certain nerve-cells, and these in their turn excite certain
+muscles or glands into action; and all this may take place without any
+sensation or consciousness on our part, though often thus accompanied.
+As many reflex actions are highly expressive, the subject must here
+be noticed at some little length. We shall also see that some of them
+graduate into, and can hardly be distinguished from actions which have
+arisen through habit? Coughing and sneezing are familiar instances of
+reflex actions. With infants the first act of respiration is often a
+sneeze, although this requires the co-ordinated movement of numerous
+muscles. Respiration is partly voluntary, but mainly reflex, and is
+performed in the most natural and best manner without the interference
+of the will. A vast number of complex movements are reflex. As good an
+instance as can be given is the often-quoted one of a decapitated
+frog, which cannot of course feel, and cannot consciously perform, any
+movement. Yet if a drop of acid be placed on the lower surface of the
+thigh of a frog in this state, it will rub off the drop with the upper
+surface of the foot of the same leg. If this foot be cut off, it cannot
+thus act. "After some fruitless efforts, therefore, it gives up trying
+in that way, seems restless, as though, says Pfluger, it was seeking
+some other way, and at last it makes use of the foot of the other leg
+and succeeds in rubbing off the acid. Notably we have here not merely
+contractions of muscles, but combined and harmonized contractions in
+due sequence for a special purpose. These are actions that have all the
+appearance of being guided by intelligence and instigated by will in
+an animal, the recognized organ of whose intelligence and will has been
+removed."[110]
+
+We see the difference between reflex and voluntary movements in very
+young children not being able to perform, as I am informed by Sir
+Henry Holland, certain acts somewhat analogous to those of sneezing and
+coughing, namely, in their not being able to blow their noses (i. e. to
+compress the nose and blow violently through the passage), and in their
+not being able to clear their throats of phlegm. They have to learn to
+perform these acts, yet they are performed by us, when a little older,
+almost as easily as reflex actions. Sneezing and coughing, however,
+can be controlled by the will only partially or not at all; whilst
+the clearing the throat and blowing the nose are completely under our
+command.
+
+When we are conscious of the presence of an irritating particle in our
+nostrils or windpipe--that is, when the same sensory nerve-cells are
+excited, as in the case of sneezing and coughing--we can voluntarily
+expel the particle by forcibly driving air through these passages; but
+we cannot do this with nearly the same force, rapidity, and precision,
+as by a reflex action. In this latter case the sensory nerve-cells
+apparently excite the motor nerve-cells without any waste of power
+by first communicating with the cerebral hemispheres--the seat of our
+consciousness and volition. In all cases there seems to exist a profound
+antagonism between the same movements, as directed by the will and by a
+reflex stimulant, in the force with which they are performed and in
+the facility with which they are excited. As Claude Bernard asserts,
+"L'influence du cerveau tend donc a entraver les mouvements reflexes, a
+limiter leur force et leur etendue."[111]
+
+The conscious wish to perform a reflex action sometimes stops or
+interrupts its performance, though the proper sensory nerves may be
+stimulated. For instance, many years ago I laid a small wager with a
+dozen young men that they would not sneeze if they took snuff, although
+they all declared that they invariably did so; accordingly they all took
+a pinch, but from wishing much to succeed, not one sneezed, though their
+eyes watered, and all, without exception, had to pay me the wager. Sir
+H. Holland remarks[112] that attention paid to the act of swallowing
+interferes with the proper movements; from which it probably follows, at
+least in part, that some persons find it so difficult to swallow a pill.
+
+Another familiar instance of a reflex action is the involuntary closing
+of the eyelids when the surface of the eye is touched. A similar winking
+movement is caused when a blow is directed towards the face; but this
+is an habitual and not a strictly reflex action, as the stimulus is
+conveyed through the mind and not by the excitement of a peripheral
+nerve. The whole body and head are generally at the same time drawn
+suddenly backwards. These latter movements, however, can be prevented,
+if the danger does not appear to the imagination imminent; but our
+reason telling us that there is no danger does not suffice. I may
+mention a trifling fact, illustrating this point, and which at the time
+amused me. I put my face close to the thick glass-plate in front of a
+puff-adder in the Zoological Gardens, with the firm determination of not
+starting back if the snake struck at me; but, as soon as the blow was
+struck, my resolution went for nothing, and I jumped a yard or two
+backwards with astonishing rapidity. My will and reason were powerless
+against the imagination of a danger which had never been experienced.
+
+The violence of a start seems to depend partly on the vividness of the
+imagination, and partly on the condition, either habitual or temporary,
+of the nervous system. He who will attend to the starting of his horse,
+when tired and fresh, will perceive how perfect is the gradation from a
+mere glance at some unexpected object, with a momentary doubt whether it
+is dangerous, to a jump so rapid and violent, that the animal probably
+could not voluntarily whirl round in so rapid a manner. The nervous
+system of a fresh and highly-fed horse sends its order to the motory
+system so quickly, that no time is allowed for him to consider whether
+or not the danger is real. After one violent start, when he is excited
+and the blood flows freely through his brain, he is very apt to start
+again; and so it is, as I have noticed, with young infants.
+
+A start from a sudden noise, when the stimulus is conveyed through
+the auditory nerves, is always accompanied in grown-up persons by the
+winking of the eyelids.[113] I observed, however, that though my infants
+started at sudden sounds, when under a fortnight old, they certainly did
+not always wink their eyes, and I believe never did so. The start of an
+older infant apparently represents a vague catching hold of something to
+prevent falling. I shook a pasteboard box close before the eyes of one
+of my infants, when 114 days old, and it did not in the least wink; but
+when I put a few comfits into the box, holding it in the same position
+as before, and rattled them, the child blinked its eyes violently
+every time, and started a little. It was obviously impossible that a
+carefully-guarded infant could have learnt by experience that a rattling
+sound near its eyes indicated danger to them. But such experience
+will have been slowly gained at a later age during a long series of
+generations; and from what we know of inheritance, there is nothing
+improbable in the transmission of a habit to the offspring at an earlier
+age than that at which it was first acquired by the parents.
+
+From the foregoing remarks it seems probable that some actions, which
+were at first performed consciously, have become through habit and
+association converted into reflex actions, and are now so firmly fixed
+and inherited, that they are performed, even when not of the least
+use,[114] as often as the same causes arise, which originally excited
+them in us through the volition. In such cases the sensory nerve-cells
+excite the motor cells, without first communicating with those cells
+on which our consciousness and volition depend. It is probable
+that sneezing and coughing were originally acquired by the habit of
+expelling, as violently as possible, any irritating particle from the
+sensitive air-passages. As far as time is concerned, there has been more
+than enough for these habits to have become innate or converted into
+reflex actions; for they are common to most or all of the higher
+quadrupeds, and must therefore have been first acquired at a very remote
+period. Why the act of clearing the throat is not a reflex action, and
+has to be learnt by our children, I cannot pretend to say; but we can
+see why blowing the nose on a handkerchief has to be learnt.
+
+It is scarcely credible that the movements of a headless frog, when
+it wipes off a drop of acid or other object from its thigh, and which
+movements are so well coordinated for a special purpose, were not at
+first performed voluntarily, being afterwards rendered easy through
+long-continued habit so as at last to be performed unconsciously, or
+independently of the cerebral hemispheres.
+
+So again it appears probable that starting was originally acquired by
+the habit of jumping away as quickly as possible from danger, whenever
+any of our senses gave us warning. Starting, as we have seen, is
+accompanied by the blinking of the eyelids so as to protect the eyes,
+the most tender and sensitive organs of the body; and it is, I believe,
+always accompanied by a sudden and forcible inspiration, which is the
+natural preparation for any violent effort. But when a man or horse
+starts, his heart beats wildly against his ribs, and here it may be
+truly said we have an organ which has never been under the control of
+the will, partaking in the general reflex movements of the body. To this
+point, however, I shall return in a future chapter.
+
+The contraction of the iris, when the retina is stimulated by a bright
+light, is another instance of a movement, which it appears cannot
+possibly have been at first voluntarily performed and then fixed by
+habit; for the iris is not known to be under the conscious control of
+the will in any animal. In such cases some explanation, quite distinct
+from habit, will have to be discovered. The radiation of nerve-force
+from strongly-excited nerve-cells to other connected cells, as in the
+case of a bright light on the retina causing a sneeze, may perhaps aid
+us in understanding how some reflex actions originated. A radiation of
+nerve-force of this kind, if it caused a movement tending to lessen
+the primary irritation, as in the case of the contraction of the iris
+preventing too much light from falling on the retina, might afterwards
+have been taken advantage of and modified for this special purpose.
+
+It further deserves notice that reflex actions are in all probability
+liable to slight variations, as are all corporeal structures and
+instincts; and any variations which were beneficial and of sufficient
+importance, would tend to be preserved and inherited. Thus reflex
+actions, when once gained for one purpose, might afterwards be modified
+independently of the will or habit, so as to serve for some distinct
+purpose. Such cases would be parallel with those which, as we have every
+reason to believe, have occurred with many instincts; for although
+some instincts have been developed simply through long-continued and
+inherited habit, other highly complex ones have been developed through
+the preservation of variations of pre-existing instincts--that is,
+through natural selection.
+
+I have discussed at some little length, though as I am well aware, in a
+very imperfect manner, the acquirement of reflex actions, because they
+are often brought into play in connection with movements expressive of
+our emotions; and it was necessary to show that at least some of them
+might have been Erst acquired through the will in order to satisfy a
+desire, or to relieve a disagreeable sensation.
+
+_Associated habitual movements in the lower animals_.--I have already
+given in the case of Man several instances of movements associated with
+various states of the mind or body, which are now purposeless, but
+which were originally of use, and are still of use under certain
+circumstances. As this subject is very important for us, I will here
+give a considerable number of analogous facts, with reference to
+animals; although many of them are of a very trifling nature. My object
+is to show that certain movements were originally performed for a
+definite end, and that, under nearly the same circumstances, they are
+still pertinaciously performed through habit when not of the least use.
+That the tendency in most of the following cases is inherited, we may
+infer from such actions being performed in the same manner by all the
+individuals, young and old, of he same species. We shall also see
+that they are excited by the most diversified, often circuitous, and
+sometimes mistaken associations.
+
+Dogs, when they wish to go to sleep on a carpet or other hard surface,
+generally turn round and round and scratch the ground with their
+fore-paws in a senseless manner, as if they intended to trample down the
+grass and scoop out a hollow, as no doubt their wild parents did, when
+they lived on open grassy plains or in the woods. Jackals, fennecs, and
+other allied animals in the Zoological Gardens, treat their straw in
+this manner; but it is a rather odd circumstance that the keepers, after
+observing for some months, have never seen the wolves thus behave. A
+semi-idiotic dog--and an animal in this condition would be particularly
+liable to follow a senseless habit--was observed by a friend to turn
+completely round on a carpet thirteen times before going to sleep.
+
+
+Many carnivorous animals, as they crawl towards their prey and prepare
+to rush or spring on it, lower their heads and crouch, partly, as it
+would appear, to hide themselves, and partly to get ready for their
+rush; and this habit in an exaggerated form has become hereditary in our
+pointers and setters. Now I have noticed scores of times that when two
+strange dogs meet on an open road, the one which first sees the other,
+though at the distance of one or two hundred yards, after the first
+glance always lowers its bead, generally crouches a little, or even lies
+down; that is, he takes the proper attitude for concealing himself and
+for making a rush or spring although the road
+is quite open and the distance great. Again, dogs of
+all kinds when intently watching and slowly approaching their prey,
+frequently keep one of their fore-legs doubled up for a long time, ready
+for the next cautious step; and this is eminently characteristic of the
+pointer. But from habit they behave in exactly the same manner whenever
+their attention is aroused (fig. 4). I have seen a dog at the foot of a
+high wall, listening attentively to a sound on the opposite side, with
+one leg doubled up; and in this case there could have been no intention
+of making a cautious approach.
+
+[Illustration: Small dog watching a cat on a table. Figure 4]
+
+{illust. caption = for making a rush or FIG. 4.--Small dog watching a
+cat on a table. From a photograph taken  by Mr. Rejlander.}
+
+Dogs after voiding their excrement often make with all four feet a
+few scratches backwards, even on a bare stone pavement, as if for the
+purpose of covering up their excrement with earth, in nearly the same
+manner as do cats. Wolves and jackals behave in the Zoological Gardens
+in exactly the same manner, yet, as I am assured by the keepers, neither
+wolves, jackals, nor foxes, when they have the means of doing so, ever
+cover up their excrement, any more than do dogs. All these animals,
+however, bury superfluous food. Hence, if we rightly understand the
+meaning of the above cat-like habit, of which there can be little
+doubt, we have a purposeless remnant of an habitual movement, which was
+originally followed by some remote progenitor of the dog-genus for a
+definite purpose, and which has been retained for a prodigious length of
+time.
+
+Dogs and jackals[115] take much pleasure in rolling and rubbing their
+necks and backs on carrion. The odour seems delightful to them, though
+dogs at least do not eat carrion. Mr. Bartlett has observed wolves for
+me, and has given them carrion, but has never seen them roll on it. I
+have heard it remarked, and I believe it to be true, that the larger
+dogs, which are probably descended from wolves, do not so often roll in
+carrion as do smaller dogs, which are probably descended from jackals.
+When a piece of brown biscuit is offered to a terrier of mine and she is
+not hungry (and I have heard of similar instances), she first tosses
+it about and worries it, as if it were a rat or other prey; she then
+repeatedly rolls on it precisely as if it were a piece of carrion, and
+at last eats it. It would appear that an imaginary relish has to be
+given to the distasteful morsel; and to effect this the dog acts in
+his habitual manner, as if the biscuit was a live animal or smelt like
+carrion, though he knows better than we do that this is not the case.
+I have seen this same terrier act in the same manner after killing a
+little bird or mouse.
+
+Dogs scratch themselves by a rapid movement of one of their hind-feet;
+and when their backs are rubbed with a stick, so strong is the habit,
+that they cannot help rapidly scratching the air or the ground in a
+useless and ludicrous manner. The terrier just alluded to, when thus
+scratched with a stick, will sometimes show her delight by another
+habitual movement, namely, by licking the air as if it were my hand.
+
+Horses scratch themselves by nibbling those parts of their bodies which
+they can reach with their teeth; but more commonly one horse shows
+another where he wants to be scratched, and they then nibble each other.
+A friend whose attention I had called to the subject, observed that when
+he rubbed his horse's neck, the animal protruded his head, uncovered his
+teeth, and moved his jaws, exactly as if nibbling another horse's
+neck, for he could never have nibbled his own neck. If a horse is much
+tickled, as when curry-combed, his wish to bite something becomes so
+intolerably strong, that he will clatter his teeth together, and though
+not vicious, bite his groom. At the same time from habit he closely
+depresses his ears, so as to protect them from being bitten, as if he
+were fighting with another horse.
+
+A horse when eager to start on a journey makes the nearest approach
+which he can to the habitual movement of progression by pawing the
+ground. Now when horses in their stalls are about to be fed and are
+eager for their corn, they paw the pavement or the straw. Two of
+my horses thus behave when they see or hear the corn given to
+their neighbours. But here we have what may almost be called a true
+expression, as pawing the ground is universally recognized as a sign of
+eagerness.
+
+Cats cover up their excrements of both kinds with earth; and my
+grandfather[117]{sic} saw a kitten scraping ashes over a spoonful of
+pure water spilt on the hearth; so that here an habitual or instinctive
+action was falsely excited, not by a previous act or by odour, but by
+eyesight. It is well known that cats dislike wetting their feet, owing,
+it is probable, to their having aboriginally inhabited the dry country
+of Egypt; and when they wet their feet they shake them violently. My
+daughter poured some water into a glass close to the head of a kitten;
+and it immediately shook its feet in the usual manner; so that here we
+have an habitual movement falsely excited by an associated sound instead
+of by the sense of touch.
+
+Kittens, puppies, young pigs and probably many other young animals,
+alternately push with their forefeet against the mammary glands of their
+mothers, to excite a freer secretion of milk, or to make it flow. Now it
+is very common with young cats, and not at all rare with old cats of
+the common and Persian breeds (believed by some naturalists to be
+specifically extinct), when comfortably lying on a warm shawl or
+other soft substance, to pound it quietly and alternately with their
+fore-feet; their toes being spread out and claws slightly protruded,
+precisely as when sucking their mother. That it is the same movement is
+clearly shown by their often at the same time taking a bit of the shawl
+into their mouths and sucking it; generally closing their eyes and
+purring from delight. This curious movement is commonly excited only in
+association with the sensation of a warm soft surface; but I have seen
+an old cat, when pleased by having its back scratched, pounding the air
+with its feet in the same manner; so that this action has almost become
+the expression of a pleasurable sensation.
+
+Having referred to the act of sucking, I may add that this complex
+movement, as well as the alternate protrusion of the fore-feet, are
+reflex actions; for they are performed if a finger moistened with milk
+is placed in the mouth of a puppy, the front part of whose brain has
+been removed.[117] It has recently been stated in France, that the
+action of sucking is excited solely through the sense of smell, so that
+if the olfactory nerves of a puppy are destroyed, it never sucks. In
+like manner the wonderful power which a chicken possesses only a few
+hours after being hatched, of picking up small particles of food,
+seems to be started into action through the sense of hearing; for with
+chickens hatched by artificial heat, a good observer found that "making
+a noise with the finger-nail against a board, in imitation of the
+hen-mother, first taught them to peck at their meat."[118]
+
+I will give only one other instance of an habitual and purposeless
+movement. The Sheldrake (_Tadorna_) feeds on the sands left uncovered
+by the tide, and when a worm-cast is discovered, "it begins patting the
+ground with its feet, dancing as it were, over the hole;" and this makes
+the worm come to the surface. Now Mr. St. John says, that when his tame
+Sheldrakes "came to ask for food, they patted the ground in an impatient
+and rapid manner."[119] This therefore may almost be considered as their
+expression of hunger. Mr. Bartlett informs me that the Flamingo and the
+Kagu (_Rhinochetus jubatus_) when anxious to be fed, beat the ground
+with their feet in the same odd manner. So again Kingfishers, when they
+catch a fish, always beat it until it is killed; and in the Zoological
+Gardens they always beat the raw meat, with which they are sometimes
+fed, before devouring it.
+
+We have now, I think, sufficiently shown the truth of our first
+Principle, namely, that when any sensation, desire, dislike, &c., has
+led during a long series of generations to some voluntary movement,
+then a tendency to the performance of a similar movement will almost
+certainly be excited, whenever the same, or any analogous or associated
+sensation &c., although very weak, is experienced; notwithstanding that
+the movement in this case may not be of the least use. Such habitual
+movements are often, or generally inherited; and they then differ but
+little from reflex actions. When we treat of the special expressions
+of man, the latter part of our first Principle, as given at the
+commencement of this chapter, will be seen to hold good; namely, that
+when movements, associated through habit with certain states of the
+mind, are partially repressed by the will, the strictly involuntary
+muscles, as well as those which are least under the separate control
+of the will, are liable still to act; and their action is often highly
+expressive. Conversely, when the will is temporarily or permanently
+weakened, the voluntary muscles fail before the involuntary. It is a
+fact familiar to pathologists, as Sir C. Bell remarks,[120] "that when
+debility arises from affection of the brain, the influence is greatest
+on those muscles which are, in their natural condition, most under the
+command of the will." We shall, also, in our future chapters, consider
+another proposition included in our first Principle; namely, that
+the checking of one habitual movement sometimes requires other slight
+movements; these latter serving as a means of expression.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. -- GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION--_continued_.
+
+The Principle of Antithesis--Instances in the dog and cat--Origin of
+the principle--Conventional signs--The principle of antithesis has not
+arisen from opposite actions being consciously performed under opposite
+impulses.
+
+
+WE will now consider our second Principle, that of Antithesis. Certain
+states of the mind lead, as we have seen in the last chapter, to certain
+habitual movements which were primarily, or may still be, of service;
+and we shall find that when a directly opposite state of mind is
+induced, there is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance
+of movements of a directly opposite nature, though these have never been
+of any service. A few striking instances of antithesis will be given,
+when we treat of the special expressions of man; but as, in these
+cases, we are particularly liable to confound conventional or artificial
+gestures and expressions with those which are innate or universal, and
+which alone deserve to rank as true expressions, I will in the present
+chapter almost confine myself to the lower animals.
+
+[Illustration: Dog in a hostile frame of mind.  Fig. 5]
+
+[Illustration:   Fig. 6]
+
+[Illustration: Dog in a hostile frame of mind.  Fig. 7]
+
+
+When a dog approaches a strange dog or man in a savage or hostile frame
+of mind be walks upright and very stiffly; his head is slightly raised,
+or not much lowered; the tail is held erect, and quite rigid; the
+hairs bristle, especially along the neck and back; the pricked ears are
+directed forwards, and the eyes have a fixed stare: (see figs. 5 and
+7). These actions, as will hereafter be explained, follow from the
+dog's intention to attack his enemy, and are thus to a large extent
+intelligible. As he prepares to spring with a savage growl on his enemy,
+the canine teeth are uncovered, and the ears are pressed close backwards
+on the head; but with these latter actions, we are not here concerned.
+Let us now suppose that the dog suddenly discovers that the man he is
+approaching, is not a stranger, but his master; and let it be observed
+how completely and instantaneously his whole bearing is reversed.
+Instead of walking upright, the body sinks downwards or even crouches,
+and is thrown into flexuous movements; his tail, instead of being held
+stiff and upright, is lowered and wagged from side to side; his hair
+instantly becomes smooth; his ears are depressed and drawn backwards,
+but not closely to the head; and his lips hang loosely. From the drawing
+back of the ears, the eyelids become elongated, and the eyes no longer
+appear round and staring. It should be added that the animal is at
+such times in an excited condition from joy; and nerve-force will be
+generated in excess, which naturally leads to action of some kind. Not
+one of the above movements, so clearly expressive of affection, are of
+the least direct service to the animal. They are explicable, as far as
+I can see, solely from being in complete opposition or antithesis to the
+attitude and movements which, from intelligible causes, are assumed when
+a dog intends to fight, and which consequently are expressive of anger.
+I request the reader to look at the four accompanying sketches, which
+have been given in order to recall vividly the appearance of a dog under
+these two states of mind. It is, however, not a little difficult to
+represent affection in a dog, whilst caressing his master and wagging
+his tail, as the essence of the expression lies in the continuous
+flexuous movements.
+
+[Illustration: Dog Carressing his master.  Fig. 8]
+
+We will now turn to the cat. When this animal is threatened by a dog, it
+arches its back in a surprising manner, erects its hair, opens its mouth
+and spits. But we are not here concerned with this well-known attitude,
+expressive of terror combined with anger; we are concerned only with
+that of rage or anger. This is not often seen, but may be observed when
+two cats are fighting together; and I have seen it well exhibited by a
+savage cat whilst plagued by a boy. The attitude is almost exactly the
+same as that of a tiger disturbed and growling over its food, which
+every one must have beheld in menageries. The animal assumes a crouching
+position, with the body extended; and the whole tail, or the tip alone,
+is lashed or curled from side to side. The hair is not in the least
+erect. Thus far, the attitude and movements are nearly the same as when
+the animal is prepared to spring on its prey, and when, no doubt, it
+feels savage. But when preparing to fight, there is this difference,
+that the ears are closely pressed backwards; the mouth is partially
+opened, showing the teeth; the fore feet are occasionally struck out
+with protruded claws; and the animal occasionally utters a fierce growl.
+(See figs. 9 and 10.) All, or almost all these actions naturally follow
+(as hereafter to be explained), from the cat's manner and intention of
+attacking its enemy.
+
+[Illustration: Cat, savage, and prepared to fight. Fig. 9]
+
+[Illustration: Cat in an affectionate frame of mind. Fig. 10]
+
+Let us now look at a cat in a directly opposite frame of mind, whilst
+feeling affectionate and caressing her master; and mark how opposite
+is her attitude in every respect. She now stands upright with her back
+slightly arched, which makes the hair appear rather rough, but it does
+not bristle; her tail, instead of being extended and lashed from side
+to side, is held quite still and perpendicularly upwards; her ears are
+erect and pointed; her mouth is closed; and she rubs against her master
+with a purr instead of a growl. Let it further be observed how widely
+different is the whole bearing of an affectionate cat from that of a
+dog, when with his body crouching and flexuous, his tail lowered and
+wagging, and ears depressed, he caresses his master. This contrast in
+the attitudes and movements of these two carnivorous animals, under the
+same pleased and affectionate frame of mind, can be explained, as it
+appears to me, solely by their movements standing in complete antithesis
+to those which are naturally assumed, when these animals feel savage and
+are prepared either to fight or to seize their prey.
+
+In these cases of the dog and cat, there is every reason to believe that
+the gestures both of hostility and affection are innate or inherited;
+for they are almost identically the same in the different races of the
+species, and in all the individuals of the same race, both young and
+old.
+
+I will here give one other instance of antithesis in expression. I
+formerly possessed a large dog, who, like every other dog, was much
+pleased to go out walking. He showed his pleasure by trotting gravely
+before me with high steps, head much raised, moderately erected ears,
+and tail carried aloft but not stiffly. Not far from my house a path
+branches off to the right, leading to the hot-house, which I used often
+to visit for a few moments, to look at my experimental plants. This was
+always a great disappointment to the dog, as he did not know whether I
+should continue my walk; and the instantaneous and complete change of
+expression which came over him as soon as my body swerved in the least
+towards the path (and I sometimes tried this as an experiment) was
+laughable. His look of dejection was known to every member of the
+family, and was called his _hot-house face_. This consisted in the head
+drooping much, the whole body sinking a little and remaining motionless;
+the ears and tail falling suddenly down, but the tail was by no means
+wagged. With the falling of the ears and of his great chaps, the eyes
+became much changed in appearance, and I fancied that they looked less
+bright. His aspect was that of piteous, hopeless dejection; and it was,
+as I have said, laughable, as the cause was so slight. Every detail
+in his attitude was in complete opposition to his former joyful yet
+dignified bearing; and can be explained, as it appears to me, in no
+other way, except through the principle of antithesis. Had not the
+change been so instantaneous, I should have attributed it to his
+lowered spirits affecting, as in the case of man, the nervous system and
+circulation, and consequently the tone of his whole muscular frame; and
+this may have been in part the cause.
+
+We will now consider how the principle of antithesis in expression has
+arisen. With social animals, the power of intercommunication between
+the members of the same community,--and with other species, between the
+opposite sexes, as well as between the young and the old,--is of the
+highest importance to them. This is generally effected by means of the
+voice, but it is certain that gestures and expressions are to a certain
+extent mutually intelligible. Man not only uses inarticulate cries,
+gestures, and expressions, but has invented articulate language; if,
+indeed, the word INVENTED can be applied to a process, completed by
+innumerable steps, half-consciously made. Any one who has watched
+monkeys will not doubt that they perfectly understand each other's
+gestures and expression, and to a large extent, as Rengger asserts,[201]
+those of man. An animal when going to attack another, or when afraid of
+another, often makes itself appear terrible, by erecting its hair,
+thus increasing the apparent bulk of its body, by showing its teeth, or
+brandishing its horns, or by uttering fierce sounds.
+
+As the power of intercommunication is certainly of high service to many
+animals, there is no _a priori_ improbability in the supposition, that
+gestures manifestly of an opposite nature to those by which certain
+feelings are already expressed, should at first have been voluntarily
+employed under the influence of an opposite state of feeling. The fact
+of the gestures being now innate, would be no valid objection to the
+belief that they were at first intentional; for if practised during many
+generations, they would probably at last be inherited. Nevertheless it
+is more than doubtful, as we shall immediately see, whether any of
+the cases which come under our present head of antithesis, have thus
+originated.
+
+With conventional signs which are not innate, such as those used by the
+deaf and dumb and by savages, the principle of opposition or antithesis
+has been partially brought into play. The Cistercian monks thought it
+sinful to speak, and as they could not avoid holding some communication,
+they invented a gesture language, in which the principle of opposition
+seems to have been employed.[202] Dr. Scott, of the Exeter Deaf and Dumb
+Institution, writes to me that "opposites are greatly used in teaching
+the deaf and dumb, who have a lively sense of them." Nevertheless I
+have been surprised how few unequivocal instances can be adduced. This
+depends partly on all the signs having commonly had some natural origin;
+and partly on the practice of the deaf and dumb and of savages to
+contract their signs as much as possible for the sake of rapidity?[203]
+Hence their natural source or origin often becomes doubtful or is
+completely lost; as is likewise the case with articulate language.
+
+Many signs, moreover, which plainly stand in opposition to each other,
+appear to have had on both sides a significant origin. This seems
+to hold good with the signs used by the deal and dumb for light and
+darkness, for strength and weakness, &c. In a future chapter I shall
+endeavour to show that the opposite gestures of affirmation and
+negation, namely, vertically nodding and laterally shaking the head,
+have both probably had a natural beginning. The waving of the hand from
+right to left, which is used as a negative by some savages, may have
+been invented in imitation of shaking the head; but whether the opposite
+movement of waving the hand in a straight line from the face, which
+is used in affirmation, has arisen through antithesis or in some quite
+distinct manner, is doubtful.
+
+If we now turn to the gestures which are innate or common to all the
+individuals of the same species, and which come under the present head
+of antithesis, it is extremely doubtful, whether any of them were at
+first deliberately invented and consciously performed. With mankind
+the best instance of a gesture standing in direct opposition to other
+movements, naturally assumed under an opposite frame of mind, is that
+of shrugging the shoulders. This expresses impotence or an
+apology,--something which cannot be done, or cannot be avoided. The
+gesture is sometimes used consciously and voluntarily, but it is
+extremely improbable that it was at first deliberately invented, and
+afterwards fixed by habit; for not only do young children sometimes
+shrug their shoulders under the above states of mind, but the movement
+is accompanied, as will be shown in a future chapter, by various
+subordinate movements, which not one man in a thousand is aware of,
+unless he has specially attended to the subject.
+
+Dogs when approaching a strange dog, may find it useful to show by their
+movements that they are friendly, and do not wish to fight. When two
+young dogs in play are growling and biting each other's faces and legs,
+it is obvious that they mutually understand each other's gestures and
+manners. There seems, indeed, some degree of instinctive knowledge in
+puppies and kittens, that they must not use their sharp little teeth
+or claws too freely in their play, though this sometimes happens and
+a squeal is the result; otherwise they would often injure each other's
+eyes. When my terrier bites my hand in play, often snarling at the same
+time, if he bites too hard and I say GENTLY, GENTLY, he goes on biting,
+but answers me by a few wags of the tail, which seems to say "Never
+mind, it is all fun." Although dogs do thus express, and may wish to
+express, to other dogs and to man, that they are in a friendly state of
+mind, it is incredible that they could ever have deliberately thought
+of drawing back and depressing their ears, instead of holding them
+erect,--of lowering and wagging their tails, instead of keeping them
+stiff and upright, &c., because they knew that these movements stood in
+direct opposition to those assumed under an opposite and savage frame of
+mind.
+
+Again, when a cat, or rather when some early progenitor of the species,
+from feeling affectionate first slightly arched its back, held its tail
+perpendicularly upwards and pricked its ears, can it be believed that
+the animal consciously wished thus to show that its frame of mind was
+directly the reverse of that, when from being ready to fight or to
+spring on its prey, it assumed a crouching attitude, curled its tail
+from side to side and depressed its ears? Even still less can I believe
+that my dog voluntarily put on his dejected attitude and "_hot-house
+face_," which formed so complete a contrast to his previous cheerful
+attitude and whole bearing. It cannot be supposed that he knew that I
+should understand his expression, and that he could thus soften my heart
+and make me give up visiting the hot-house.
+
+Hence for the development of the movements which come under the present
+head, some other principle, distinct from the will and consciousness,
+must have intervened. This principle appears to be that every movement
+which we have voluntarily performed throughout our lives has required
+the action of certain muscles; and when we have performed a directly
+opposite movement, an opposite set of muscles has been habitually
+brought into play,--as in turning to the right or to the left, in
+pushing away or pulling an object towards us, and in lifting or lowering
+a weight. So strongly are our intentions and movements associated
+together, that if we eagerly wish an object to move in any direction,
+we can hardly avoid moving our bodies in the same direction, although
+we may be perfectly aware that this can have no influence. A good
+illustration of this fact has already been given in the Introduction,
+namely, in the grotesque movements of a young and eager billiard-player,
+whilst watching the course of his ball. A man or child in a passion, if
+he tells any one in a loud voice to begone, generally moves his arm as
+if to push him away, although the offender may not be standing near, and
+although there may be not the least need to explain by a gesture what is
+meant. On the other hand, if we eagerly desire some one to approach
+us closely, we act as if pulling him towards us; and so in innumerable
+other instances.
+
+As the performance of ordinary movements of an opposite kind, under
+opposite impulses of the will, has become habitual in us and in the
+lower animals, so when actions of one kind have become firmly associated
+with any sensation or emotion, it appears natural that actions of
+a directly opposite kind, though of no use, should be unconsciously
+performed through habit and association, under the influence of a
+directly opposite sensation or emotion. On this principle alone can I
+understand how the gestures and expressions which come under the present
+head of antithesis have originated. If indeed they are serviceable to
+man or to any other animal, in aid of inarticulate cries or language,
+they will likewise be voluntarily employed, and the habit will thus be
+strengthened. But whether or not of service as a means of communication,
+the tendency to perform opposite movements under opposite sensations or
+emotions would, if we may judge by analogy, become hereditary through
+long practice; and there cannot be a doubt that several expressive
+movements due to the principle of antithesis are inherited.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. -- GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION--_concluded_.
+
+The principle of direct action of the excited nervous system on the
+body, independently of the will and in part of habit--Change of
+colour in the hair--Trembling of the muscles--Modified
+secretions--Perspiration--Expression of extreme pain--Of rage, great
+joy, and terror--Contrast between the emotions which cause and do
+not cause expressive movements--Exciting and depressing states of the
+mind--Summary.
+
+
+WE now come to our third Principle, namely, that certain actions which
+we recognize as expressive of certain states of the mind, are the direct
+result of the constitution of the nervous system, and have been from the
+first independent of the will, and, to a large extent, of habit. When
+the sensorium is strongly excited nerve-force is generated in excess,
+and is transmitted in certain directions, dependent on the connection of
+the nerve-cells, and, as far as the muscular system is concerned, on
+the nature of the movements which have been habitually practised. Or
+the supply of nerve-force may, as it appears, be interrupted. Of course
+every movement which we make is determined by the constitution of the
+nervous system; but actions performed in obedience to the will, or
+through habit, or through the principle of antithesis, are here as far
+as possible excluded. Our present subject is very obscure, but, from its
+importance, must be discussed at some little length; and it is always
+advisable to perceive clearly our ignorance.
+
+The most striking case, though a rare and abnormal one, which can be
+adduced of the direct influence of the nervous system, when strongly
+affected, on the body, is the loss of colour in the hair, which has
+occasionally been observed after extreme terror or grief. One authentic
+instance has been recorded, in the case of a man brought out for
+execution in India, in which the change of colour was so rapid that it
+was perceptible to the eye.[301]
+
+Another good case is that of the trembling of the muscles, which is
+common to man and to many, or most, of the lower animals. Trembling is
+of no service, often of much disservice, and cannot have been at first
+acquired through the will, and then rendered habitual in association
+with any emotion. I am assured by an eminent authority that young
+children do not tremble, but go into convulsions under the circumstances
+which would induce excessive trembling in adults. Trembling is excited
+in different individuals in very different degrees and by the most
+diversified causes,--by cold to the surface, before fever-fits, although
+the temperature of the body is then above the normal standard; in
+blood-poisoning, delirium tremens, and other diseases; by general
+failure of power in old age; by exhaustion after excessive fatigue;
+locally from severe injuries, such as burns; and, in an especial manner,
+by the passage of a catheter. Of all emotions, fear notoriously is the
+most apt to induce trembling; but so do occasionally great anger and
+joy. I remember once seeing a boy who had just shot his first snipe on
+the wing, and his hands trembled to such a degree from delight, that he
+could not for some time reload his gun; and I have heard of an exactly
+similar case with an Australian savage, to whom a gun had been lent.
+Fine music, from the vague emotions thus excited, causes a shiver to run
+down the backs of some persons. There seems to be very little in
+common in the above several physical causes and emotions to account for
+trembling; and Sir J. Paget, to whom I am indebted for several of the
+above statements, informs me that the subject is a very obscure one. As
+trembling is sometimes caused by rage, long before exhaustion can have
+set in, and as it sometimes accompanies great joy, it would appear that
+any strong excitement of the nervous system interrupts the steady flow
+of nerve-force to the muscles.[302]
+
+The manner in which the secretions of the alimentary canal and of
+certain glands--as the liver, kidneys, or mammae are affected by strong
+emotions, is another excellent instance of the direct action of
+the sensorium on these organs, independently of the will or of any
+serviceable associated habit. There is the greatest difference in
+different persons in the parts which are thus affected, and in the
+degree of their affection.
+
+The heart, which goes on uninterruptedly beating night and day in so
+wonderful a manner, is extremely sensitive to external stimulants.
+The great physiologist, Claude Bernard,[303] has shown bow the least
+excitement of a sensitive nerve reacts on the heart; even when a nerve
+is touched so slightly that no pain can possibly be felt by the animal
+under experiment. Hence when the mind is strongly excited, we might
+expect that it would instantly affect in a direct manner the heart; and
+this is universally acknowledged and felt to be the case. Claude Bernard
+also repeatedly insists, and this deserves especial notice, that when
+the heart is affected it reacts on the brain; and the state of the brain
+again reacts through the pneumo-gastric nerve on the heart; so that
+under any excitement there will be much mutual action and reaction
+between these, the two most important organs of the body.
+
+The vaso-motor system, which regulates the diameter of the small
+arteries, is directly acted on by the sensorium, as we see when a man
+blushes from shame; but in this latter case the checked transmission of
+nerve-force to the vessels of the face can, I think, be partly explained
+in a curious manner through habit. We shall also be able to throw some
+light, though very little, on the involuntary erection of the hair under
+the emotions of terror and rage. The secretion of tears depends, no
+doubt, on the connection of certain nerve-cells; but here again we can
+trace some few of the steps by which the flow of nerve-force through the
+requisite channels has become habitual under certain emotions.
+
+A brief consideration of the outward signs of some of the stronger
+sensations and emotions will best serve to show us, although vaguely,
+in how complex a manner the principle under consideration of the direct
+action of the excited nervous system of the body, is combined with the
+principle of habitually associated, serviceable movements.
+
+When animals suffer from an agony of pain, they generally writhe about
+with frightful contortions; and those which habitually use their voices
+utter piercing cries or groans. Almost every muscle of the body
+is brought into strong action. With man the mouth may be closely
+compressed, or more commonly the lips are retracted, with the teeth
+clenched or ground together. There is said to be "gnashing of teeth" in
+hell; and I have plainly heard the grinding of the molar teeth of a cow
+which was suffering acutely from inflammation of the bowels. The female
+hippopotamus in the Zoological Gardens, when she produced her young,
+suffered greatly; she incessantly walked about, or rolled on her sides,
+opening and closing her jaws, and clattering her teeth together.[304]
+With man the eyes stare wildly as in horrified astonishment, or the
+brows are heavily contracted. Perspiration bathes the body, and
+drops trickle down the face. The circulation and respiration are much
+affected. Hence the nostrils are generally dilated and often quiver; or
+the breath may be held until the blood stagnates in the purple face.
+If the agony be severe and prolonged, these signs all change; utter
+prostration follows, with fainting or convulsions.
+
+A sensitive nerve when irritated transmits some influence to the
+nerve-cell, whence it proceeds; and this transmits its influence, first
+to the corresponding nerve-cell on the opposite side of the body, and
+then upwards and downwards along the cerebro-spinal column to other
+nerve-cells, to a greater or less extent, according to the strength
+of the excitement; so that, ultimately, the whole nervous system maybe
+affected.[305] This involuntary transmission of nerve-force may or may
+not be accompanied by consciousness. Why the irritation of a nerve-cell
+should generate or liberate nerve-force is not known; but that this
+is the case seems to be the conclusion arrived at by all the greatest
+physiologists, such as Muller, Virchow, Bernard, &c.[306] As Mr. Herbert
+Spencer remarks, it may be received as an "unquestionable truth that, at
+any moment, the existing quantity of liberated nerve-force, which in an
+inscrutable way produces in us the state we call feeling, MUST expend
+itself in some direction--MUST generate an equivalent manifestation
+of force somewhere;" so that, when the cerebro-spinal system is highly
+excited and nerve-force is liberated in excess, it may be expended in
+intense sensations, active thought, violent movements, or increased
+activity of the glands.[307] Mr. Spencer further maintains that an
+"overflow of nerve-force, undirected by any motive, will manifestly
+take the most habitual routes; and, if these do not suffice, will next
+overflow into the less habitual ones." Consequently the facial and
+respiratory muscles, which are the most used, will be apt to be first
+brought into action; then those of the upper extremities, next those of
+the lower, and finally those of the whole body.[308]
+
+An emotion may be very strong, but it will have little tendency to
+induce movements of any kind, if it has not commonly led to voluntary
+action for its relief or gratification; and when movements are excited,
+their nature is, to a large extent, determined by those which have often
+and voluntarily been performed for some definite end under the same
+emotion. Great pain urges all animals, and has urged them during endless
+generations, to make the most violent and diversified efforts to escape
+from the cause of suffering. Even when a limb or other separate part of
+the body is hurt, we often see a tendency to shake it, as if to shake
+off the cause, though this may obviously be impossible. Thus a habit
+of exerting with the utmost force all the muscles will have been
+established, whenever great suffering is experienced. As the muscles
+of the chest and vocal organs are habitually used, these will be
+particularly liable to be acted on, and loud, harsh screams or cries
+will be uttered. But the advantage derived from outcries has here
+probably come into play in an important manner; for the young of most
+animals, when in distress or danger, call loudly to their parents for
+aid, as do the members of the same community for mutual aid.
+
+Another principle, namely, the internal consciousness that the power
+or capacity of the nervous system is limited, will have strengthened,
+though in a subordinate degree, the tendency to violent action under
+extreme suffering. A man cannot think deeply and exert his utmost
+muscular force. As Hippocrates long ago observed, if two pains are
+felt at the same time, the severer one dulls the other. Martyrs, in the
+ecstasy of their religious fervour have often, as it would appear, been
+insensible to the most horrid tortures. Sailors who are going to be
+flogged sometimes take a piece of lead into their mouths, in order to
+bite it with their utmost force, and thus to bear the pain. Parturient
+women prepare to exert their muscles to the utmost in order to relieve
+their sufferings.
+
+We thus see that the undirected radiation of nerve-force from the
+nerve-cells which are first affected--the long-continued habit of
+attempting by struggling to escape from the cause of suffering--and the
+consciousness that voluntary muscular exertion relieves pain, have all
+probably concurred in giving a tendency to the most violent, almost
+convulsive, movements under extreme suffering; and such movements,
+including those of the vocal organs, are universally recognized as
+highly expressive of this condition.
+
+As the mere touching of a sensitive nerve reacts in a direct manner on
+the heart, severe pain will obviously react on it in like manner, but
+far more energetically. Nevertheless, even in this case, we must not
+overlook the indirect effects of habit on the heart, as we shall see
+when we consider the signs of rage.
+
+When a man suffers from an agony of pain, the perspiration often
+trickles down his face; and I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon
+that he has frequently seen drops falling from the belly and running
+down the inside of the thighs of horses, and from the bodies of cattle,
+when thus suffering. He has observed this, when there has been no
+struggling which would account for the perspiration. The whole body
+of the female hippopotamus, before alluded to, was covered with
+red-coloured perspiration whilst giving birth to her young. So it is
+with extreme fear; the same veterinary has often seen horses sweating
+from this cause; as has Mr. Bartlett with the rhinoceros; and with man
+it is a well-known symptom. The cause of perspiration bursting forth in
+these cases is quite obscure; but it is thought by some physiologists to
+be connected with the failing power of the capillary circulation; and
+we know that the vasomotor system, which regulates the capillary
+circulation, is much influenced by the mind. With respect to the
+movements of certain muscles of the face under great suffering, as well
+as from other emotions, these will be best considered when we treat of
+the special expressions of man and of the lower animals.
+
+We will now turn to the characteristic symptoms of Rage. Under this
+powerful emotion the action of the heart is much accelerated,[309] or it
+may be much disturbed. The face reddens, or it becomes purple from the
+impeded return of the blood, or may turn deadly pale. The respiration is
+laboured, the chest heaves, and the dilated nostrils quiver. The whole
+body often trembles. The voice is affected. The teeth are clenched
+or ground together, and the muscular system is commonly stimulated to
+violent, almost frantic action. But the gestures of a man in this state
+usually differ from the purposeless writhings and struggles of one
+suffering from an agony of pain; for they represent more or less plainly
+the act of striking or fighting with an enemy.
+
+All these signs of rage are probably in large part, and some of them
+appear to be wholly, due to the direct action of the excited sensorium.
+But animals of all kinds, and their progenitors before them, when
+attacked or threatened by an enemy, have exerted their utmost powers in
+fighting and in defending themselves. Unless an animal does thus act,
+or has the intention, or at least the desire, to attack its enemy, it
+cannot properly be said to be enraged. An inherited habit of muscular
+exertion will thus have been gained in association with rage; and this
+will directly or indirectly affect various organs, in nearly the same
+manner as does great bodily suffering.
+
+The heart no doubt will likewise be affected in a direct manner; but it
+will also in all probability be affected through habit; and all the more
+so from not being under the control of the will. We know that any
+great exertion which we voluntarily make, affects the heart, through
+mechanical and other principles which need not here be considered; and
+it was shown in the first chapter that nerve-force flows readily
+through habitually used channels,--through the nerves of voluntary
+or involuntary movement, and through those of sensation. Thus even a
+moderate amount of exertion will tend to act on the heart; and on the
+principle of association, of which so many instances have been given,
+we may feel nearly sure that any sensation or emotion, as great pain or
+rage, which has habitually led to much muscular action, will immediately
+influence the flow of nerve-force to the heart, although there may not
+be at the time any muscular exertion.
+
+The heart, as I have said, will be all the more readily affected through
+habitual associations, as it is not under the control of the will. A man
+when moderately angry, or even when enraged, may command the movements
+of his body, but he cannot prevent his heart from beating rapidly. His
+chest will perhaps give a few heaves, and his nostrils just quiver, for
+the movements of respiration are only in part voluntary. In like manner
+those muscles of the face which are least obedient to the will, will
+sometimes alone betray a slight and passing emotion. The glands again
+are wholly independent of the will, and a man suffering from grief may
+command his features, but cannot always prevent the tears from coming
+into his eyes. A hungry man, if tempting food is placed before him,
+may not show his hunger by any outward gesture, but he cannot check the
+secretion of saliva.
+
+Under a transport of Joy or of vivid Pleasure, there is a strong
+tendency to various purposeless movements, and to the utterance of
+various sounds. We see this in our young children, in their loud
+laughter, clapping of hands, and jumping for joy; in the bounding and
+barking of a dog when going out to walk with his master; and in the
+frisking of a horse when turned out into an open field. Joy quickens the
+circulation, and this stimulates the brain, which again reacts on the
+whole body. The above purposeless movements and increased heart-action
+may be attributed in chief part to the excited state of the
+sensorium,[310] and to the consequent undirected overflow, as Mr.
+Herbert Spencer insists, of nerve-force. It deserves notice, that it is
+chiefly the anticipation of a pleasure, and not its actual enjoyment,
+which leads to purposeless and extravagant movements of the body, and to
+the utterance of various sounds. We see this in our children when they
+expect any great pleasure or treat; and dogs, which have been bounding
+about at the sight of a plate of food, when they get it do not show
+their delight by any outward sign, not even by wagging their tails.
+Now with animals of all kinds, the acquirement of almost all their
+pleasures, with the exception of those of warmth and rest, are
+associated, and have long been associated with active movements, as in
+the hunting or search for food, and in their courtship. Moreover, the
+mere exertion of the muscles after long rest or confinement is in itself
+a pleasure, as we ourselves feel, and as we see in the play of young
+animals. Therefore on this latter principle alone we might perhaps
+expect, that vivid pleasure would be apt to show itself conversely in
+muscular movements.
+
+With all or almost all animals, even with birds, Terror causes the
+body to tremble. The skin becomes pale, sweat breaks out, and the hair
+bristles. The secretions of the alimentary canal and of the kidneys are
+increased, and they are involuntarily voided, owing to the relaxation
+of the sphincter muscles, as is known to be the case with man, and as
+I have seen with cattle, dogs, cats, and monkeys. The breathing is
+hurried. The heart beats quickly, wildly, and violently; but whether it
+pumps the blood more efficiently through the body may be doubted, for
+the surface seems bloodless and the strength of the muscles soon fails.
+In a frightened horse I have felt through the saddle the beating of
+the heart so plainly that I could have counted the beats. The mental
+faculties are much disturbed. Utter prostration soon follows, and even
+fainting. A terrified canary-bird has been seen not only to tremble and
+to turn white about the base of the bill, but to faint;[311] and I once
+caught a robin in a room, which fainted so completely, that for a time I
+thought it dead.
+
+Most of these symptoms are probably the direct result, independently
+of habit, of the disturbed state of the sensorium; but it is doubtful
+whether they ought to be wholly thus accounted for. When an animal is
+alarmed it almost always stands motionless for a moment, in order to
+collect its senses and to ascertain the source of danger, and sometimes
+for the sake of escaping detection. But headlong flight soon follows,
+with no husbanding of the strength as in fighting, and the animal
+continues to fly as long as the danger lasts, until utter prostration,
+with failing respiration and circulation, with all the muscles quivering
+and profuse sweating, renders further flight impossible. Hence it does
+not seem improbable that the principle of associated habit may in part
+account for, or at least augment, some of the above-named characteristic
+symptoms of extreme terror.
+
+
+That the principle of associated habit has played an important part
+in causing the movements expressive of the foregoing several strong
+emotions and sensations, we may, I think, conclude from considering
+firstly, some other strong emotions which do not ordinarily require for
+their relief or gratification any voluntary movement; and secondly the
+contrast in nature between the so-called exciting and depressing states
+of the mind. No emotion is stronger than maternal love; but a mother may
+feel the deepest love for her helpless infant, and yet not show it by
+any outward sign; or only by slight caressing movements, with a gentle
+smile and tender eyes. But let any one intentionally injure her infant,
+and see what a change! how she starts up with threatening aspect, how
+her eyes sparkle and her face reddens, how her bosom heaves, nostrils
+dilate, and heart beats; for anger, and not maternal love, has
+habitually led to action. The love between the opposite sexes is widely
+different from maternal love; and when lovers meet, we know that their
+hearts beat quickly, their breathing is hurried, and their faces flush;
+for this love is not inactive like that of a mother for her infant.
+
+A man may have his mind filled with the blackest hatred or suspicion, or
+be corroded with envy or jealousy, but as these feelings do not at once
+lead to action, and as they commonly last for some time, they are not
+shown by any outward sign, excepting that a man in this state assuredly
+does not appear cheerful or good-tempered. If indeed these feelings
+break out into overt acts, rage takes their place, and will be plainly
+exhibited. Painters can hardly portray suspicion, jealousy, envy, &c.,
+except by the aid of accessories which tell the tale; and poets use
+such vague and fanciful expressions as "green-eyed jealousy." Spenser
+describes suspicion as "Foul, ill-favoured, and grim, under his eyebrows
+looking still askance," &c.; Shakespeare speaks of envy "as lean-faced
+in her loathsome case;" and in another place he says, "no black envy
+shall make my grave;" and again as "above pale envy's threatening
+reach."
+
+Emotions and sensations have often been classed as exciting or
+depressing. When all the organs of the body and mind,--those of
+voluntary and involuntary movement, of perception, sensation, thought,
+&c.,--perform their functions more energetically and rapidly than usual,
+a man or animal may be said to be excited, and, under an opposite state,
+to be depressed. Anger and joy are from the first exciting emotions, and
+they naturally lead, more especially the former, to energetic movements,
+which react on the heart and this again on the brain. A physician once
+remarked to me as a proof of the exciting nature of anger, that a man
+when excessively jaded will sometimes invent imaginary offences and put
+himself into a passion, unconsciously for the sake of reinvigorating
+himself; and since hearing this remark, I have occasionally recognized
+its full truth.
+
+Several other states of mind appear to be at first exciting, but soon
+become depressing to an extreme degree. When a mother suddenly loses her
+child, sometimes she is frantic with grief, and must be considered to be
+in an excited state; she walks wildly about, tears her hair or clothes,
+and wrings her hands. This latter action is perhaps due to the principle
+of antithesis, betraying an inward sense of helplessness and that
+nothing can be done. The other wild and violent movements may be in part
+explained by the relief experienced through muscular exertion, and
+in part by the undirected overflow of nerve-force from the excited
+sensorium. But under the sudden loss of a beloved person, one of the
+first and commonest thoughts which occurs, is that something more might
+have been done to save the lost one. An excellent observer,[312] in
+describing the behaviour of a girl at the sudden death of her father,
+says she "went about the house wringing her hands like a creature
+demented, saying 'It was her fault;' 'I should never have left him;'
+'If I had only sat up with him,'" &c. With such ideas vividly present
+before the mind, there would arise, through the principle of associated
+habit, the strongest tendency to energetic action of some kind.
+
+As soon as the sufferer is fully conscious that nothing can be done,
+despair or deep sorrow takes the place of frantic grief. The sufferer
+sits motionless, or gently rocks to and fro; the circulation becomes
+languid; respiration is almost forgotten, and deep sighs are drawn.
+
+Pain, if severe, soon induces extreme depression or prostration; but it
+is at first a stimulant and excites to action, as we see when we whip a
+horse, and as is shown by the horrid tortures inflicted in foreign lands
+on exhausted dray-bullocks, to rouse them to renewed exertion. Fear
+again is the most depressing of all the emotions; and it soon induces
+utter, helpless prostration, as if in consequence of, or in association
+with, the most violent and prolonged attempts to escape from the danger,
+though no such attempts have actually been made. Nevertheless, even
+extreme fear often acts at first as a powerful stimulant. A man or
+animal driven through terror to desperation, is endowed with wonderful
+strength, and is notoriously dangerous in the highest degree.
+
+On the whole we may conclude that the principle of the direct action
+of the sensorium on the body, due to the constitution of the nervous
+system, and from the first independent of the will, has been highly
+influential in determining many expressions. Good instances are afforded
+by the trembling of the muscles, the sweating of the skin, the modified
+secretions of the alimentary canal and glands, under various emotions
+and sensations. But actions of this kind are often combined with others,
+which follow from our first principle, namely, that actions which have
+often been of direct or indirect service, under certain states of the
+mind, in order to gratify or relieve certain sensations, desires, &c.,
+are still performed under analogous circumstances through mere habit
+although of no service. We have combinations of this kind, at least in
+part, in the frantic gestures of rage and in the writhings of extreme
+pain; and, perhaps, in the increased action of the heart and of the
+respiratory organs. Even when these and other emotions or sensations
+are aroused in a very feeble manner, there will still be a tendency to
+similar actions, owing to the force of long-associated habit; and
+those actions which are least under voluntary control will generally
+be longest retained. Our second principle of antithesis has likewise
+occasionally come into play.
+
+Finally, so many expressive movements can be explained, as I trust will
+be seen in the course of this volume, through the three principles which
+have now been discussed, that we may hope hereafter to see all thus
+explained, or by closely analogous principles. It is, however, often
+impossible to decide how much weight ought to be attributed, in each
+particular case, to one of our principles, and how much to another; and
+very many points in the theory of Expression remain inexplicable.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. -- MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN ANIMALS.
+
+The emission of Sounds--Vocal sounds--Sounds otherwise
+produced--Erection of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &c., under
+the emotions of anger and terror--The drawing back of the ears as a
+preparation for fighting, and as an expression of anger--Erection of the
+ears and raising the head, a sign of attention.
+
+
+IN this and the following chapter I will describe, but only in
+sufficient detail to illustrate my subject, the expressive movements,
+under different states of the mind, of some few well-known animals. But
+before considering them in due succession, it will save much useless
+repetition to discuss certain means of expression common to most of
+them.
+
+_The emission of Sounds_.--With many kinds of animals, man included,
+the vocal organs are efficient in the highest degree as a means of
+expression. We have seen, in the last chapter, that when the sensorium
+is strongly excited, the muscles of the body are generally thrown into
+violent action; and as a consequence, loud sounds are uttered, however
+silent the animal may generally be, and although the sounds may be of no
+use. Hares and rabbits for instance, never, I believe, use their vocal
+organs except in the extremity of suffering; as, when a wounded hare is
+killed by the sportsman, or when a young rabbit is caught by a stoat.
+Cattle and horses suffer great pain in silence; but when this is
+excessive, and especially when associated with terror, they utter
+fearful sounds. I have often recognized, from a distance on the Pampas,
+the agonized death-bellow of the cattle, when caught by the lasso and
+hamstrung. It is said that horses, when attacked by wolves, utter loud
+and peculiar screams of distress.
+
+Involuntary and purposeless contractions of the muscles of the chest and
+glottis, excited in the above manner, may have first given rise to the
+emission of vocal sounds. But the voice is now largely used by many
+animals for various purposes; and habit seems to have played an
+important part in its employment under other circumstances. Naturalists
+have remarked, I believe with truth, that social animals, from
+habitually using their vocal organs as a means of intercommunication,
+use them on other occasions much more freely than other animals. But
+there are marked exceptions to this rule, for instance, with the rabbit.
+The principle, also, of association, which is so widely extended in its
+power, has likewise played its part. Hence it follows that the voice,
+from having been habitually employed as a serviceable aid under certain
+conditions, inducing pleasure, pain, rage, &c., is commonly used
+whenever the same sensations or emotions are excited, under quite
+different conditions, or in a lesser degree.
+
+The sexes of many animals incessantly call for each other during the
+breeding-season; and in not a few cases, the male endeavours thus
+to charm or excite the female. This, indeed, seems to have been the
+primeval use and means of development of the voice, as I have attempted
+to show in my 'Descent of Man.' Thus the use of the vocal organs will
+have become associated with the anticipation of the strongest pleasure
+which animals are capable of feeling. Animals which live in society
+often call to each other when separated, and evidently feel much joy
+at meeting; as we see with a horse, on the return of his companion, for
+whom he has been neighing. The mother calls incessantly for her lost
+young ones; for instance, a cow for her calf; and the young of many
+animals call for their mothers. When a flock of sheep is scattered, the
+ewes bleat incessantly for their lambs, and their mutual pleasure at
+coming together is manifest. Woe betide the man who meddles with the
+young of the larger and fiercer quadrupeds, if they hear the cry of
+distress from their young. Rage leads to the violent exertion of all the
+muscles, including those of the voice; and some animals, when enraged,
+endeavour to strike terror into their enemies by its power and
+harshness, as the lion does by roaring, and the dog by growling. I infer
+that their object is to strike terror, because the lion at the same time
+erects the hair of its mane, and the dog the hair along its back, and
+thus they make themselves appear as large and terrible as possible.
+Rival males try to excel and challenge each other by their voices,
+and this leads to deadly contests. Thus the use of the voice will have
+become associated with the emotion of anger, however it may be aroused.
+We have also seen that intense pain, like rage, leads to violent
+outcries, and the exertion of screaming by itself gives some relief; and
+thus the use of the voice will have become associated with suffering of
+any kind.
+
+The cause of widely different sounds being uttered under different
+emotions and sensations is a very obscure subject. Nor does the rule
+always hold good that there is any marked difference. For instance with
+the dog, the bark of anger and that of joy do not differ much,
+though they can be distinguished. It is not probable that any precise
+explanation of the cause or source of each particular sound, under
+different states of the mind, will ever be given. We now that some
+animals, after being domesticated, have acquired the habit of uttering
+sounds which were not natural to them.[401] Thus domestic dogs, and even
+tamed jackals, have learnt to bark, which is a noise not proper to any
+species of the genus, with the exception of the _Canis latrans_ of
+North America, which is said to bark. Some breeds, also, of the domestic
+pigeon have learnt to coo in a new and quite peculiar manner.
+
+The character of the human voice, under the influence of various
+emotions, has been discussed by Mr. Herbert Spencer[402] in his
+interesting essay on Music. He clearly shows that the voice alters much
+under different conditions, in loudness and in quality, that is, in
+resonance and _timbre_, in pitch and intervals. No one can listen to an
+eloquent orator or preacher, or to a man calling angrily to another, or
+to one expressing astonishment, without being struck with the truth of
+Mr. Spencer's remarks. It is curious how early in life the modulation of
+the voice becomes expressive. With one of my children, under the age of
+two years, I clearly perceived that his humph of assent was rendered by
+a slight modulation strongly emphatic; and that by a peculiar whine his
+negative expressed obstinate determination. Mr. Spencer further shows
+that emotional speech, in all the above respects is intimately related
+to vocal music, and consequently to instrumental music; and he attempts
+to explain the characteristic qualities of both on physiological
+grounds--namely, on "the general law that a feeling is a stimulus to
+muscular action." It may be admitted that the voice is affected through
+this law; but the explanation appears to me too general and vague to
+throw much light on the various differences, with the exception of that
+of loudness, between ordinary speech and emotional speech, or singing.
+
+This remark holds good, whether we believe that the various qualities
+of the voice originated in speaking under the excitement of strong
+feelings, and that these qualities have subsequently been transferred
+to vocal music; or whether we believe, as I maintain, that the habit of
+uttering musical sounds was first developed, as a means of courtship,
+in the early progenitors of man, and thus became associated with the
+strongest emotions of which they were capable,--namely, ardent love,
+rivalry and triumph. That animals utter musical notes is familiar to
+every one, as we may daily hear in the singing of birds. It is a more
+remarkable fact that an ape, one of the Gibbons, produces an exact
+octave of musical sounds, ascending and descending the scale by
+halftones; so that this monkey "alone of brute mammals may be said to
+sing."[403] From this fact, and from the analogy of other animals, I
+have been led to infer that the progenitors of man probably uttered
+musical tones, before they had acquired the power of articulate speech;
+and that consequently, when the voice is used under any strong emotion,
+it tends to assume, through the principle of association, a musical
+character. We can plainly perceive, with some of the lower animals,
+that the males employ their voices to please the females, and that
+they themselves take pleasure in their own vocal utterances; but why
+particular sounds are uttered, and why these give pleasure cannot at
+present be explained.
+
+That the pitch of the voice bears some relation to certain states
+of feeling is tolerably clear. A person gently complaining of
+ill-treatment, or slightly suffering, almost always speaks in a
+high-pitched voice. Dogs, when a little impatient, often make a
+high piping note through their noses, which at once strikes us as
+plaintive;[404] but how difficult it is to know whether the sound is
+essentially plaintive, or only appears so in this particular case, from
+our having learnt by experience what it means! Rengger, states[405]
+that the monkeys (_Cebus azaroe_), which he kept in Paraguay, expressed
+astonishment by a half-piping, half-snarling noise; anger or impatience,
+by repeating the sound _hu hu_ in a deeper, grunting voice; and fright
+or pain, by shrill screams. On the other hand, with mankind, deep groans
+and high piercing screams equally express an agony of pain. Laughter
+maybe either high or low; so that, with adult men, as Haller long ago
+remarked,[406] the sound partakes of the character of the vowels (as
+pronounced in German) _O_ and _A_; whilst with children and women, it
+has more of the character of _E_ and _I_; and these latter vowel-sounds
+naturally have, as Helmholtz has shown, a higher pitch than the former;
+yet both tones of laughter equally express enjoyment or amusement.
+
+In considering the mode in which vocal utterances express emotion,
+we are naturally led to inquire into the cause of what is called
+"expression" in music. Upon this point Mr. Litchfield, who has long
+attended to the subject of music, has been so kind as to give me the
+following remarks:--"The question, what is the essence of musical
+'expression' involves a number of obscure points, which, so far as I am
+aware, are as yet unsolved enigmas. Up to a certain point, however,
+any law which is found to hold as to the expression of the emotions by
+simple sounds must apply to the more developed mode of expression in
+song, which may be taken as the primary type of all music. A great part
+of the emotional effect of a song depends on the character of the action
+by which the sounds are produced. In songs, for instance, which express
+great vehemence of passion, the effect often chiefly depends on the
+forcible utterance of some one or two characteristic passages which
+demand great exertion of vocal force; and it will be frequently noticed
+that a song of this character fails of its proper effect when sung by a
+voice of sufficient power and range to give the characteristic passages
+without much exertion. This is, no doubt, the secret of the loss of
+effect so often produced by the transposition of a song from one key
+to another. The effect is thus seen to depend not merely on the actual
+sounds, but also in part on the nature of the action which produces the
+sounds. Indeed it is obvious that whenever we feel the 'expression' of
+a song to be due to its quickness or slowness of movement--to smoothness
+of flow, loudness of utterance, and so on--we are, in fact, interpreting
+the muscular actions which produce sound, in the same way in which we
+interpret muscular action generally. But this leaves unexplained
+the more subtle and more specific effect which we call the MUSICAL
+expression of the song--the delight given by its melody, or even by the
+separate sounds which make up the melody. This is an effect indefinable
+in language--one which, so far as I am aware, no one has been able to
+analyse, and which the ingenious speculation of Mr. Herbert Spencer as
+to the origin of music leaves quite unexplained. For it is certain that
+the MELODIC effect of a series of sounds does not depend in the least on
+their loudness or softness, or on their ABSOLUTE pitch. A tune is always
+the same tune, whether it is sung loudly or softly, by a child or a man;
+whether it is played on a flute or on a trombone. The purely musical
+effect of any sound depends on its place in what is technically called
+a 'scale;' the same sound producing absolutely different effects on the
+ear, according as it is heard in connection with one or another series
+of sounds.
+
+"It is on this RELATIVE association of the sounds that all the
+essentially characteristic effects which are summed up in the phrase
+'musical expression,' depend. But why certain associations of sounds
+have such-and-such effects, is a problem which yet remains to be solved.
+These effects must indeed, in some way or other, be connected with the
+well-known arithmetical relations between the rates of vibration of
+the sounds which form a musical scale. And it is possible--but this is
+merely a suggestion--that the greater or less mechanical facility with
+which the vibrating apparatus of the human larynx passes from one state
+of vibration to another, may have been a primary cause of the greater or
+less pleasure produced by various sequences of sounds."
+
+But leaving aside these complex questions and confining ourselves to the
+simpler sounds, we can, at least, see some reasons for the association
+of certain kinds of sounds with certain states of mind. A scream, for
+instance, uttered by a young animal, or by one of the members of a
+community, as a call for assistance, will naturally be loud, prolonged,
+and high, so as to penetrate to a distance. For Helmholtz has shown[407]
+that, owing to the shape of the internal cavity of the human ear and its
+consequent power of resonance, high notes produce a particularly strong
+impression. When male animals utter sounds in order to please the
+females, they would naturally employ those which are sweet to the ears
+of the species; and it appears that the same sounds are often pleasing
+to widely different animals, owing to the similarity of their nervous
+systems, as we ourselves perceive in the singing of birds and even in
+the chirping of certain tree-frogs giving us pleasure. On the other
+hand, sounds produced in order to strike terror into an enemy, would
+naturally be harsh or displeasing.
+
+Whether the principle of antithesis has come into play with sounds, as
+might perhaps have been expected, is doubtful. The interrupted, laughing
+or tittering sounds made by man and by various kinds of monkeys when
+pleased, are as different as possible from the prolonged screams of
+these animals when distressed. The deep grunt of satisfaction uttered
+by a pig, when pleased with its food, is widely different from its harsh
+scream of pain or terror. But with the dog, as lately remarked, the
+bark of anger and that of joy are sounds which by no means stand in
+opposition to each other; and so it is in some other cases.
+
+There is another obscure point, namely, whether the sounds which are
+produced under various states of the mind determine the shape of the
+mouth, or whether its shape is not determined by independent causes, and
+the sound thus modified. When young infants cry they open their mouths
+widely, and this, no doubt, is necessary for pouring forth a full volume
+of sound; but the mouth then assumes, from a quite distinct cause, an
+almost quadrangular shape, depending, as will hereafter be explained, on
+the firm closing of the eyelids, and consequent drawing up of the upper
+lip. How far this square shape of the mouth modifies the wailing or
+crying sound, I am not prepared to say; but we know from the researches
+of Helmholtz and others that the form of the cavity of the mouth and
+lips determines the nature and pitch of the vowel sounds which are
+produced.
+
+It will also be shown in a future chapter that, under the feeling of
+contempt or disgust, there is a tendency, from intelligible causes, to
+blow out of the mouth or nostrils, and this produces sounds like pooh
+or pish. When any one is startled or suddenly astonished, there is an
+instantaneous tendency, likewise from an intelligible cause, namely, to
+be ready for prolonged exertion, to open the mouth widely, so as to draw
+a deep and rapid inspiration. When the next full expiration follows,
+the mouth is slightly closed, and the lips, from causes hereafter to be
+discussed, are somewhat protruded; and this form of the mouth, if the
+voice be at all exerted, produces, according to Helmholtz, the sound of
+the vowel _O_. Certainly a deep sound of a prolonged _Oh!_ may be
+heard from a whole crowd of people immediately after witnessing any
+astonishing spectacle. If, together with surprise, pain be felt, there
+is a tendency to contract all the muscles of the body, including those
+of the face, and the lips will then be drawn back; and this will perhaps
+account for the sound becoming higher and assuming the character of
+_Ah!_ or _Ach!_ As fear causes all the muscles of the body to tremble,
+the voice naturally becomes tremulous, and at the same time husky from
+the dryness of the mouth, owing to the salivary glands failing to act.
+Why the laughter of man and the tittering of monkeys should be a rapidly
+reiterated sound, cannot be explained. During the utterance of these
+sounds, the mouth is transversely elongated by the corners being drawn
+backwards and upwards; and of this fact an explanation will be attempted
+in a future chapter. But the whole subject of the differences of the
+sounds produced under different states of the mind is so obscure, that I
+have succeeded in throwing hardly any light on it; and the remarks which
+I have made, have but little significance.
+
+[Illustration: Sound producing quills from tail of a porcupine. Fig. 11]
+
+All the sounds hitherto noticed depend on the respiratory organs; but
+sounds produced by wholly different means are likewise expressive.
+Rabbits stamp loudly on the ground as a signal to their comrades; and
+if a man knows how to do so properly, he may on a quiet evening hear the
+rabbits answering him all around. These animals, as well as some others,
+also stamp on the ground when made angry. Porcupines rattle their quills
+and vibrate their tails when angered; and one behaved in this manner
+when a live snake was placed in its compartment. The quills
+on the tail are very different from those on the body: they are short,
+hollow, thin like a goose-quill, with their ends transversely truncated,
+so that they are open; they are supported on long, thin, elastic
+foot-stalks. Now, when the tail is rapidly shaken, these hollow quills
+strike against each other and produce, as I heard in the presence of Mr.
+Bartlett, a peculiar continuous sound. We can, I think, understand
+why porcupines have been provided, through the modification of their
+protective spines, with this special sound-producing instrument. They
+are nocturnal animals, and if they scented or heard a prowling beast of
+prey, it would be a great advantage to them in the dark to give warning
+to their enemy what they were, and that they were furnished with
+dangerous spines. They would thus escape being attacked. They are, as
+I may add, so fully conscious of the power of their weapons, that when
+enraged they will charge backwards with their spines erected, yet still
+inclined backwards.
+
+Many birds during their courtship produce diversified sounds by means of
+specially adapted feathers. Storks, when excited, make a loud clattering
+noise with their beaks. Some snakes produce a grating or rattling noise.
+Many insects stridulate by rubbing together specially modified parts of
+their hard integuments. This stridulation generally serves as a
+sexual charm or call; but it is likewise used to express different
+emotions.[408] Every one who has attended to bees knows that their
+humming changes when they are angry; and this serves as a warning that
+there is danger of being stung. I have made these few remarks because
+some writers have laid so much stress on the vocal and respiratory
+organs as having been specially adapted for expression, that it was
+advisable to show that sounds otherwise produced serve equally well for
+the same purpose.
+
+_Erection of the dermal appendages_.--Hardly any expressive movement is
+so general as the involuntary erection of the hairs, feathers and
+other dermal appendages; for it is common throughout three of the great
+vertebrate classes. These appendages are erected under the excitement
+of anger or terror; more especially when these emotions are combined, or
+quickly succeed each other. The action serves to make the animal appear
+larger and more frightful to its enemies or rivals, and is generally
+accompanied by various voluntary movements adapted for the same purpose,
+and by the utterance of savage sounds. Mr. Bartlett, who has had such
+wide experience with animals of all kinds, does not doubt that this is
+the case; but it is a different question whether the power of erection
+was primarily acquired for this special purpose.
+
+I will first give a considerable body of facts showing how general this
+action is with mammals, birds and reptiles; retaining what I have to
+say in regard to man for a future chapter. Mr. Sutton, the intelligent
+keeper in the Zoological Gardens, carefully observed for me the
+Chimpanzee and Orang; and he states that when they are suddenly
+frightened, as by a thunderstorm, or when they are made angry, as by
+being teased, their hair becomes erect. I saw a chimpanzee who was
+alarmed at the sight of a black coalheaver, and the hair rose all over
+his body; he made little starts forward as if to attack the man,
+without any real intention of doing so, but with the hope, as the keeper
+remarked, of frightening him. The Gorilla, when enraged, is described by
+Mr. Ford[409] as having his crest of hair "erect and projecting forward,
+his nostrils dilated, and his under lip thrown down; at the same time
+uttering his characteristic yell, designed, it would seem, to terrify
+his antagonists." I saw the hair on the Anubis baboon, when angered
+bristling along the back, from the neck to the loins, but not on
+the rump or other parts of the body. I took a stuffed snake into the
+monkey-house, and the hair on several of the species instantly became
+erect; especially on their tails, as I particularly noticed with the
+_Cereopithecus nictitans_. Brehm states[410] that the _Midas aedipus_
+(belonging to the American division) when excited erects its mane, in
+order, as he adds, to make itself as frightful as possible.
+
+With the Carnivora the erection of the hair seems to be almost
+universal, often accompanied by threatening movements, the uncovering of
+the teeth and the utterance of savage growls. In the Herpestes, I have
+seen the hair on end over nearly the whole body, including the tail; and
+the dorsal crest is erected in a conspicuous manner by the Hyaena and
+Proteles. The enraged lion erects his mane. The bristling of the hair
+along the neck and back of the dog, and over the whole body of the
+cat, especially on the tail, is familiar to every one. With the cat it
+apparently occurs only under fear; with the dog, under anger and fear;
+but not, as far as I have observed, under abject fear, as when a dog is
+going to be flogged by a severe gamekeeper. If, however, the dog shows
+fight, as sometimes happens, up goes his hair. I have often noticed that
+the hair of a dog is particularly liable to rise, if he is half angry
+and half afraid, as on beholding some object only indistinctly seen in
+the dusk.
+
+I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon that he has often seen the
+hair erected on horses and cattle, on which he had operated and was
+again going to operate. When I showed a stuffed snake to a Peccary, the
+hair rose in a wonderful manner along its back; and so it does with
+the boar when enraged. An Elk which gored a man to death in the United
+States, is described as first brandishing his antlers, squealing with
+rage and stamping on the ground; "at length his hair was seen to rise
+and stand on end," and then he plunged forward to the attack.[411] The
+hair likewise becomes erect on goats, and, as I hear from Mr. Blyth, on
+some Indian antelopes. I have seen it erected on the hairy Ant-eater;
+and on the Agouti, one of the Rodents. A female Bat,[412] which reared
+her young under confinement, when any one looked into the cage "erected
+the fur on her back, and bit viciously at intruding fingers."
+
+Birds belonging to all the chief Orders ruffle their feathers when angry
+or frightened. Every one must have seen two cocks, even quite young
+birds, preparing to fight with erected neck-hackles; nor can these
+feathers when erected serve as a means of defence, for cock-fighters
+have found by experience that it is advantageous to trim them. The male
+Ruff (_Machetes pugnax_) likewise erects its collar of feathers when
+fighting. When a dog approaches a common hen with her chickens, she
+spreads out her wings, raises her tail, ruffles all her feathers, and
+looking as ferocious as possible, dashes at the intruder. The tail is
+not always held in exactly the same position; it is sometimes so much
+erected, that the central feathers, as in the accompanying drawing,
+almost touch the back. Swans, when angered, likewise raise their wings
+and tail, and erect their feathers. They open their beaks, and make by
+paddling little rapid starts forwards, against any one who approaches
+the water's edge too closely. Tropic birds[413] when disturbed on their
+nests are said not to fly away, but "merely to stick out their feathers
+and scream." The Barn-owl, when approached "instantly swells out its
+plumage, extends its wings and tail, hisses and clacks its mandibles
+with force and rapidity."[414] So do other kinds of owls. Hawks, as I am
+informed by Mr. Jenner Weir, likewise ruffle their feathers, and spread
+out their wings and tail under similar circumstances. Some kinds of
+parrots erect their feathers; and I have seen this action in the
+Cassowary, when angered at the sight of an Ant-eater. Young cuckoos in
+the nest, raise their feathers, open their mouths widely, and make
+themselves as frightful as possible.
+
+[Illustration: Hen driving away a dog from her chickens. Fig. 12]
+
+{illust. caption = FIG. 12--Hen driving away a dog from her chickens.
+Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.}
+
+[Illustration: Swan driving away an intruder. Fig 13]
+
+{illust. caption = FIG. 13.--Swan driving away an intruder. Drawn from
+life by Mr. Wood.}
+
+Small birds, also, as I hear from Mr. Weir, such as various finches,
+buntings and warblers, when angry, ruffle all their feathers, or only
+those round the neck; or they spread out their wings and tail-feathers.
+With their plumage in this state, they rush at each other with open
+beaks and threatening gestures. Mr. Weir concludes from his large
+experience that the erection of the feathers is caused much more by
+anger than by fear. He gives as an instance a hybrid goldfinch of a most
+irascible disposition, which when approached too closely by a servant,
+instantly assumes the appearance of a ball of ruffled feathers. He
+believes that birds when frightened, as a general rule, closely adpress
+all their feathers, and their consequently diminished size is often
+astonishing. As soon as they recover from their fear or surprise, the
+first thing which they do is to shake out their feathers. The best
+instances of this adpression of the feathers and apparent shrinking of
+the body from fear, which Mr. Weir has noticed, has been in the quail
+and grass-parrakeet.[415] The habit is intelligible in these birds from
+their being accustomed, when in danger, either to squat on the ground or
+to sit motionless on a branch, so as to escape detection. Though, with
+birds, anger may be the chief and commonest cause of the erection of the
+feathers, it is probable that young cuckoos when looked at in the nest,
+and a hen with her chickens when approached by a dog, feel at least some
+terror. Mr. Tegetmeier informs me that with game-cocks, the erection of
+the feathers on the head has long been recognized in the cock-pit as a
+sign of cowardice.
+
+The males of some lizards, when fighting together during their
+courtship, expand their throat pouches or frills, and erect their dorsal
+crests.[416] But Dr. Gunther does not believe that they can erect their
+separate spines or scales.
+
+We thus see how generally throughout the two higher vertebrate classes,
+and with some reptiles, the dermal appendages are erected under the
+influence of anger and fear. The movement is effected, as we know
+from Kolliker's interesting discovery, by the contraction of minute,
+unstriped, involuntary muscles,[417] often called _arrectores pili_,
+which are attached to the capsules of the separate hairs, feathers, &c.
+By the contraction of these muscles the hairs can be instantly erected,
+as we see in a dog, being at the same time drawn a little out of their
+sockets; they are afterwards quickly depressed. The vast number of these
+minute muscles over the whole body of a hairy quadruped is astonishing.
+The erection of the hair is, however, aided in some cases, as with
+that on the head of a man, by the striped and voluntary muscles of the
+underlying _panniculus carnosus_. It is by the action of these latter
+muscles, that the hedgehog erects its spines. It appears, also, from the
+researches of Leydig[418] and others, that striped fibres extend from
+the panniculus to some of the larger hairs, such as the vibrissae of
+certain quadrupeds. The _arrectores pili_ contract not only under the
+above emotions, but from the application of cold to the surface.
+I remember that my mules and dogs, brought from a lower and warmer
+country, after spending a night on the bleak Cordillera, had the hair
+all over their bodies as erect as under the greatest terror. We see the
+same action in our own _goose-skin_ during the chill before a fever-fit.
+Mr. Lister has also found,[419] that tickling a neighbouring part of the
+skin causes the erection and protrusion of the hairs.
+
+From these facts it is manifest that the erection of the dermal
+appendages is a reflex action, independent of the will; and this action
+must be looked at, when, occurring under the influence of anger or
+fear, not as a power acquired for the sake of some advantage, but as an
+incidental result, at least to a large extent, of the sensorium being
+affected. The result, in as far as it is incidental, may be compared
+with the profuse sweating from an agony of pain or terror. Nevertheless,
+it is remarkable how slight an excitement often suffices to cause the
+hair to become erect; as when two dogs pretend to fight together in
+play. We have, also, seen in a large number of animals, belonging to
+widely distinct classes, that the erection of the hair or feathers is
+almost always accompanied by various voluntary movements--by threatening
+gestures, opening the mouth, uncovering the teeth, spreading out of the
+wings and tail by birds, and by the utterance of harsh sounds; and the
+purpose of these voluntary movements is unmistakable. Therefore it seems
+hardly credible that the co-ordinated erection of the dermal appendages,
+by which the animal is made to appear larger and more terrible to its
+enemies or rivals, should be altogether an incidental and purposeless
+result of the disturbance of the sensorium. This seems almost as
+incredible as that the erection by the hedgehog of its spines, or of
+the quills by the porcupine, or of the ornamental plumes by many birds
+during their courtship, should all be purposeless actions.
+
+We here encounter a great difficulty. How can the contraction of the
+unstriped and involuntary _arrectores pili_ have been co-ordinated with
+that of various voluntary muscles for the same special purpose? If
+we could believe that the arrectores primordially had been voluntary
+muscles, and had since lost their stripes and become involuntary, the
+case would be comparatively simple. I am not, however, aware that there
+is any evidence in favour of this view; although the reversed transition
+would not have presented any great difficulty, as the voluntary muscles
+are in an unstriped condition in the embryos of the higher animals, and
+in the larvae of some crustaceans. Moreover in the deeper layers of the
+skin of adult birds, the muscular network is, according to Leydig,[420]
+in a transitional condition; the fibres exhibiting only indications of
+transverse striation.
+
+Another explanation seems possible. We may admit that originally the
+_arrectores pili_ were slightly acted on in a direct manner, under the
+influence of rage and terror, by the disturbance of the nervous system;
+as is undoubtedly the case with our so-called _goose-skin_ before a
+fever-fit. Animals have been repeatedly excited by rage and terror
+during many generations; and consequently the direct effects of the
+disturbed nervous system on the dermal appendages will almost
+certainly have been increased through habit and through the tendency
+of nerve-force to pass readily along accustomed channels. We shall
+find this view of the force of habit strikingly confirmed in a future
+chapter, where it will be shown that the hair of the insane is affected
+in an extraordinary manner, owing to their repeated accesses of fury
+and terror. As soon as with animals the power of erection had thus
+been strengthened or increased, they must often have seen the hairs
+or feathers erected in rival and enraged males, and the bulk of their
+bodies thus increased. In this case it appears possible that they might
+have wished to make themselves appear larger and more terrible to their
+enemies, by voluntarily assuming a threatening attitude and uttering
+harsh cries; such attitudes and utterances after a time becoming through
+habit instinctive. In this manner actions performed by the contraction
+of voluntary muscles might have been combined for the same special
+purpose with those effected by involuntary muscles. It is even possible
+that animals, when excited and dimly conscious of some change in the
+state of their hair, might act on it by repeated exertions of their
+attention and will; for we have reason to believe that the will is
+able to influence in an obscure manner the action of some unstriped or
+involuntary muscles, as in the period of the peristaltic movements
+of the intestines, and in the contraction of the bladder. Nor must we
+overlook the part which variation and natural selection may have played;
+for the males which succeeded in making themselves appear the most
+terrible to their rivals, or to their other enemies, if not of
+overwhelming power, will on an average have left more offspring to
+inherit their characteristic qualities, whatever these may be and
+however first acquired, than have other males.
+
+_The inflation of the body, and other means of exciting fear in an
+enemy_.--Certain Amphibians and Reptiles, which either have no spines
+to erect, or no muscles by which they can be erected, enlarge themselves
+when alarmed or angry by inhaling air. This is well known to be the case
+with toads and frogs. The latter animal is made, in AEsop's fable of
+the 'Ox and the Frog,' to blow itself up from vanity and envy until
+it burst. This action must have been observed during the most ancient
+times, as, according to Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood,[421] the word _toad_
+expresses in all the languages of Europe the habit of swelling. It has
+been observed with some of the exotic species in the Zoological Gardens;
+and Dr. Gunther believes that it is general throughout the group.
+Judging from analogy, the primary purpose probably was to make the body
+appear as large and frightful as possible to an enemy; but another, and
+perhaps more important secondary advantage is thus gained. When frogs
+are seized by snakes, which are their chief enemies, they enlarge
+themselves wonderfully; so that if the snake be of small size, as Dr.
+Gunther informs me, it cannot swallow the frog, which thus escapes being
+devoured.
+
+Chameleons and some other lizards inflate themselves when angry. Thus
+a species inhabiting Oregon, the _Tapaya Douglasii_, is slow in its
+movements and does not bite, but has a ferocious aspect; "when irritated
+it springs in a most threatening manner at anything pointed at it, at
+the same time opening its mouth wide and hissing audibly, after which it
+inflates its body, and shows other marks of anger."[422]
+
+Several kinds of snakes likewise inflate themselves when irritated.
+The puff-adder (_Clotho arietans_) is remarkable in this respect; but
+I believe, after carefully watching these animals, that they do not
+act thus for the sake of increasing their apparent bulk, but simply
+for inhaling a large supply of air, so as to produce their surprisingly
+loud, harsh, and prolonged hissing sound. The Cobras-de-capello, when
+irritated, enlarge themselves a little, and hiss moderately; but, at
+the same time they lift their heads aloft, and dilate by means of their
+elongated anterior ribs, the skin on each side of the neck into a large
+flat disk,--the so-called hood. With their widely opened mouths, they
+then assume a terrific aspect. The benefit thus derived ought to be
+considerable, in order to compensate for the somewhat lessened rapidity
+(though this is still great) with which, when dilated, they can strike
+at their enemies or prey; on the same principle that a broad, thin piece
+of wood cannot be moved through the air so quickly as a small round
+stick. An innocuous snake, the _Trovidonotus macrophthalmus_, an
+inhabitant of India, likewise dilates its neck when irritated;
+and consequently is often mistaken for its compatriot, the deadly
+Cobra.[423] This resemblance perhaps serves as some protection to the
+Tropidonotus.
+
+Another innocuous species, the Dasypeltis of South Africa, blows itself
+out, distends its neck, hisses and darts at an intruder.[424] Many other
+snakes hiss under similar circumstances. They also rapidly vibrate
+their protruded tongues; and this may aid in increasing their terrific
+appearance.
+
+Snakes possess other means of producing sounds besides hissing. Many
+years ago I observed in South America that a venomous Trigonocephalus,
+when disturbed, rapidly vibrated the end of its tail, which striking
+against the dry grass and twigs produced a rattling noise that could be
+distinctly heard at the distance of six feet.[425] The deadly and fierce
+_Echis carinata_ of India produces "a curious prolonged, almost hissing
+sound in a very different manner, namely by rubbing the sides of the
+folds of its body against each other," whilst the head remains in almost
+the same position. The scales on the sides, and not on other parts of
+the body, are strongly keeled, with the keels toothed like a saw; and as
+the coiled-up animal rubs its sides together, these grate against each
+other.[426] Lastly, we have the well-known case of the Rattle-snake. He
+who has merely shaken the rattle of a dead snake, can form no just idea
+of the sound produced by the living animal. Professor Shaler states that
+it is indistinguishable from that made by the male of a large Cicada
+(an Homopterous insect), which inhabits the same district.[427] In the
+Zoological Gardens, when the rattle-snakes and puff-adders were greatly
+excited at the same time, I was much struck at the similarity of the
+sound produced by them; and although that made by the rattle-snake
+is louder and shriller than the hissing of the puff-adder, yet when
+standing at some yards distance I could scarcely distinguish the two.
+For whatever purpose the sound is produced by the one species, I can
+hardly doubt that it serves for the same purpose in the other species;
+and I conclude from the threatening gestures made at the same time by
+many snakes, that their hissing,--the rattling of the rattle-snake and
+of the tail of the Trigonocephalus,--the grating of the scales of the
+Echis,--and the dilatation of the hood of the Cobra,--all subserve the
+same end, namely, to make them appear terrible to their enemies.[428]
+
+It seems at first a probable conclusion that venomous snakes, such
+as the foregoing, from being already so well defended by their
+poison-fangs, would never be attacked by any enemy; and consequently
+would have no need to excite additional terror. But this is far from
+being the case, for they are largely preyed on in all quarters of the
+world by many animals. It is well known that pigs are employed in the
+United States to clear districts infested with rattle-snakes, which they
+do most effectually.[429] In England the hedgehog attacks and devours
+the viper. In India, as I hear from Dr. Jerdon, several kinds of hawks,
+and at least one mammal, the Herpestes, kill cobras and other venomous
+species;[430] and so it is in South Africa. Therefore it is by no means
+improbable that any sounds or signs by which the venomous species could
+instantly make themselves recognized as dangerous, would be of more
+service to them than to the innocuous species which would not be able,
+if attacked, to inflict any real injury.
+
+Having said thus much about snakes, I am tempted to add a few remarks
+on the means by which the rattle of the rattle-snake was probably
+developed. Various animals, including some lizards, either curl or
+vibrate their tails when excited. This is the case with many kinds
+of snakes.[431] In the Zoological Gardens, an innocuous species, the
+_Coronella Sayi_, vibrates its tail so rapidly that it becomes almost
+invisible. The Trigonocephalus, before alluded to, has the same habit;
+and the extremity of its tail is a little enlarged, or ends in a bead.
+In the Lachesis, which is so closely allied to the rattle-snake that
+it was placed by Linnaeus in the same genus, the tail ends in a single,
+large, lancet-shaped point or scale. With some snakes the skin, as
+Professor Shaler remarks, "is more imperfectly detached from the region
+about the tail than at other parts of the body." Now if we suppose that
+the end of the tail of some ancient American species was enlarged, and
+was covered by a single large scale, this could hardly have been
+cast off at the successive moults. In this case it would have been
+permanently retained, and at each period of growth, as the snake grew
+larger, a new scale, larger than the last, would have been formed
+above it, and would likewise have been retained. The foundation for the
+development of a rattle would thus have been laid; and it would have
+been habitually used, if the species, like so many others, vibrated its
+tail whenever it was irritated. That the rattle has since been specially
+developed to serve as an efficient sound-producing instrument, there can
+hardly be a doubt; for even the vertebrae included within the extremity
+of the tail have been altered in shape and cohere. But there is no
+greater improbability in various structures, such as the rattle of
+the rattle-snake,--the lateral scales of the Echis,--the neck with
+the included ribs of the Cobra,--and the whole body of the
+puff-adder,--having been modified for the sake of warning and
+frightening away their enemies, than in a bird, namely, the wonderful
+Secretary-hawk (_Gypogeranus_) having had its whole frame modified for
+the sake of killing snakes with impunity. It is highly probable, judging
+from what we have before seen, that this bird would ruffle its feathers
+whenever it attacked a snake; and it is certain that the Herpestes, when
+it eagerly rushes to attack a snake, erects the hair all over its
+body, and especially that on its tail.[432] We have also seen that some
+porcupines, when angered or alarmed at the sight of a snake, rapidly
+vibrate their tails, thus producing a peculiar sound by the striking
+together of the hollow quills. So that here both the attackers and the
+attacked endeavour to make themselves as dreadful as possible to each
+other; and both possess for this purpose specialised means, which, oddly
+enough, are nearly the same in some of these cases. Finally we can see
+that if, on the one hand, those individual snakes, which were best able
+to frighten away their enemies, escaped best from being devoured; and
+if, on the other hand, those individuals of the attacking enemy survived
+in larger numbers which were the best fitted for the dangerous task of
+killing and devouring venomous snakes;--then in the one case as in the
+other, beneficial variations, supposing the characters in question to
+vary, would commonly have been preserved through the survival of the
+fittest.
+
+_The Drawing back and pressure of the Ears to the Head_.--The ears
+through their movements are highly expressive in many animals; but in
+some, such as man, the higher apes, and many ruminants, they fail in
+this respect. A slight difference in position serves to express in the
+plainest manner a different state of mind, as we may daily see in the
+dog; but we are here concerned only with the ears being drawn closely
+backwards and pressed to the head. A savage frame of mind is thus shown,
+but only in the case of those animals which fight with their teeth; and
+the care which they take to prevent their ears being seized by their
+antagonists, accounts for this position. Consequently, through habit
+and association, whenever they feel slightly savage, or pretend in their
+play to be savage, their ears are drawn back. That this is the true
+explanation may be inferred from the relation which exists in very many
+animals between their manner of fighting and the retraction of their
+ears.
+
+All the Carnivora fight with their canine teeth, and all, as far as I
+have observed, draw their ears back when feeling savage. This may be
+continually seen with dogs when fighting in earnest, and with puppies
+fighting in play. The movement is different from the falling down
+and slight drawing back of the ears, when a dog feels pleased and is
+caressed by his master. The retraction of the ears may likewise be seen
+in kittens fighting together in their play, and in full-grown cats when
+really savage, as before illustrated in fig. 9 (p. 58). Although their
+ears are thus to a large extent protected, yet they often get much torn
+in old male cats during their mutual battles. The same movement is very
+striking in tigers, leopards, &c., whilst growling over their food in
+menageries. The lynx has remarkably long ears; and their retraction,
+when one of these animals is approached in its cage, is very
+conspicuous, and is eminently expressive of its savage disposition. Even
+one of the Eared Seals, the _Otariapusilla_, which has very small ears,
+draws them backwards, when it makes a savage rush at the legs of its
+keeper.
+
+When horses fight together they use their incisors for biting, and
+their fore-legs for striking, much more than they do their hind-legs
+for kicking backwards. This has been observed when stallions have broken
+loose and have fought together, and may likewise be inferred from the
+kind of wounds which they inflict on each other. Every one recognizes
+the vicious appearance which the drawing back of the ears gives to a
+horse. This movement is very different from that of listening to a
+sound behind. If an ill-tempered horse in a stall is inclined to kick
+backwards, his ears are retracted from habit, though he has no intention
+or power to bite. But when a horse throws up both hind-legs in play, as
+when entering an open field, or when just touched by the whip, he does
+not generally depress his ears, for he does not then feel vicious.
+Guanacoes fight savagely with their teeth; and they must do so
+frequently, for I found the hides of several which I shot in Patagonia
+deeply scored. So do camels; and both these animals, when savage, draw
+their ears closely backwards. Guanacoes, as I have noticed, when not
+intending to bite, but merely to spit their offensive saliva from a
+distance at an intruder, retract their ears. Even the hippopotamus, when
+threatening with its widely-open enormous mouth a comrade, draws back
+its small ears, just like a horse.
+
+Now what a contrast is presented between the foregoing animals and
+cattle, sheep, or goats, which never use their teeth in fighting, and
+never draw back their ears when enraged! Although sheep and goats appear
+such placid animals, the males often join in furious contests. As deer
+form a closely related family, and as I did not know that they ever
+fought with their teeth, I was much surprised at the account given by
+Major Ross King of the Moose-deer in Canada. He says, when "two
+males chance to meet, laying back their ears and gnashing their teeth
+together, they rush at each other with appalling fury."[433] But Mr.
+Bartlett informs me that some species of deer fight savagely with their
+teeth, so that the drawing back of the ears by the moose accords with
+our rule. Several kinds of kangaroos, kept in the Zoological Gardens,
+fight by scratching with their fore-feet and by kicking with their
+hind-legs; but they never bite each other, and the keepers have never
+seen them draw back their ears when angered. Rabbits fight chiefly by
+kicking and scratching, but they likewise bite each other; and I
+have known one to bite off half the tail of its antagonist. At the
+commencement of their battles they lay back their ears, but afterwards,
+as they bound over and kick each other, they keep their ears erect, or
+move them much about.
+
+Mr. Bartlett watched a wild boar quarrelling rather savagely with his
+sow; and both had their mouths open and their ears drawn backwards.
+But this does not appear to be a common action with domestic pigs when
+quarrelling. Boars fight together by striking upwards with their
+tusks; and Mr. Bartlett doubts whether they then draw back their ears.
+Elephants, which in like manner fight with their tusks, do not retract
+their ears, but, on the contrary, erect them when rushing at each other
+or at an enemy.
+
+The rhinoceroses in the Zoological Gardens fight with their nasal horns,
+and have never been seen to attempt biting each other except in play;
+and the keepers are convinced that they do not draw back their ears,
+like horses and dogs, when feeling savage. The following statement,
+therefore, by Sir S. Baker[434] is inexplicable, namely, that a
+rhinoceros, which he shot in North Africa, "had no ears; they had
+been bitten off close to the head by another of the same species while
+fighting; and this mutilation is by no means uncommon."
+
+Lastly, with respect to monkeys. Some kinds, which have moveable ears,
+and which fight with their teeth--for instance the _Cereopithecus
+ruber_--draw back their ears when irritated just like dogs; and they
+then have a very spiteful appearance. Other kinds, as the _Inuus
+ecaudatus_, apparently do not thus act. Again, other kinds--and this
+is a great anomaly in comparison with most other animals--retract their
+ears, show their teeth, and jabber, when they are pleased by being
+caressed. I observed this in two or three species of Macacus, and in
+the _Cynopithecus niger_. This expression, owing to our familiarity
+with dogs, would never be recognized as one of joy or pleasure by those
+unacquainted with monkeys.
+
+_Erection of the Ears_.--This movement requires hardly any notice. All
+animals which have the power of freely moving their ears, when they are
+startled, or when they closely observe any object, direct their ears
+to the point towards which they are looking, in order to hear any sound
+from this quarter. At the same time they generally raise their heads,
+as all their organs of sense are there situated, and some of the smaller
+animals rise on their hind-legs. Even those kinds which squat on the
+ground or instantly flee away to avoid danger, generally act momentarily
+in this manner, in order to ascertain the source and nature of the
+danger. The head being raised, with erected ears and eyes directed
+forwards, gives an unmistakable expression of close attention to any
+animal.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. -- SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.
+
+The Dog, various expressive movements
+of--Cats--Horses--Ruminants--Monkeys, their expression of joy and
+affection--Of pain--Anger--Astonishment and Terror.
+
+
+_The Dog_.--I have already described (figs. 5 and 1) the appearance of
+a dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions, namely, with
+erected ears, eyes intently directed forwards, hair on the neck and back
+bristling, gait remarkably stiff, with the tail upright and rigid. So
+familiar is this appearance to us, that an angry man is sometimes said
+"to have his back up." Of the above points, the stiff gait and upright
+tail alone require further discussion. Sir C. Bell remarks[501] that,
+when a tiger or wolf is struck by its keeper and is suddenly roused to
+ferocity, every muscle is in tension, and the limbs are in an attitude
+of strained exertion, prepared to spring. This tension of the muscles
+and consequent stiff gait may be accounted for on the principle of
+associated habit, for anger has continually led to fierce struggles,
+and consequently to all the muscles of the body having been violently
+exerted. There is also reason to suspect that the muscular system
+requires some short preparation, or some degree of innervation, before
+being brought into strong action. My own sensations lead me to this
+inference; but I cannot discover that it is a conclusion admitted by
+physiologists. Sir J. Paget, however, informs me that when muscles are
+suddenly contracted with the greatest force, without any preparation,
+they are liable to be ruptured, as when a man slips unexpectedly; but
+that this rarely occurs when an action, however violent, is deliberately
+performed.
+
+With respect to the upright position of the tail, it seems to depend
+(but whether this is really the case I know not) on the elevator muscles
+being more powerful than the depressors, so that when all the muscles
+of the hinder part of the body are in a state of tension, the tail is
+raised. A dog in cheerful spirits, and trotting before his master with
+high, elastic steps, generally carries his tail aloft, though it is not
+held nearly so stiffly as when he is angered. A horse when first turned
+out into an open field, may be seen to trot with long elastic strides,
+the head and tail being held high aloft. Even cows when they frisk about
+from pleasure, throw up their tails in a ridiculous fashion. So it is
+with various animals in the Zoological Gardens. The position of the
+tail, however, in certain cases, is determined by special circumstances;
+thus as soon as a horse breaks into a gallop, at full speed, he always
+lowers his tail, so that as little resistance as possible may be offered
+to the air.
+
+When a dog is on the point of springing on his antagonist, he utters a
+savage growl; the ears are pressed closely backwards, and the upper lip
+(fig. 14) is retracted out of the way of his teeth, especially of his
+canines. These movements may be observed with dogs and puppies in
+their play. But if a dog gets really savage in his play, his expression
+immediately changes. This, however, is simply due to the lips and ears
+being drawn back with much greater energy. If a dog only snarls at
+another, the lip is generally retracted on one side alone, namely
+towards his enemy.
+
+[Illustration: Head of snarling Dog. Fig 14]
+
+{illust. caption = FIG. 14.--Head of snarling Dog. From life, by Mr.
+Wood.
+
+The movements of a dog whilst exhibiting affection towards his master
+were described (figs. 6 and 8) in our second chapter. These consist
+in the head and whole body being lowered and thrown into flexuous
+movements, with the tail extended and wagged from side to side. The ears
+fall down and are drawn somewhat backwards, which causes the eyelids to
+be elongated, and alters the whole appearance of the face. The lips hang
+loosely, and the hair remains smooth. All these movements or gestures
+are explicable, as I believe, from their standing in complete antithesis
+to those naturally assumed by a savage dog under a directly opposite
+state of mind. When a man merely speaks to, or just notices, his dog, we
+see the last vestige of these movements in a slight wag of the tail,
+without any other movement of the body, and without even the ears being
+lowered. Dogs also exhibit their affection by desiring to rub against
+their masters, and to be rubbed or patted by them. Gratiolet explains
+the above gestures of affection in the following manner: and the reader
+can judge whether the explanation appears satisfactory. Speaking of
+animals in general, including the dog, he says,[502] "C'est toujours la
+partie la plus sensible de leurs corps qui recherche les caresses ou les
+donne. Lorsque toute la longueur des flancs et du corps est sensible,
+l'animal serpente et rampe sous les caresses; et ces ondulations se
+propageant le long des muscles analogues des segments jusqu'aux
+extremites de la colonne vertebrale, la queue se ploie et s'agite."
+Further on, he adds, that dogs, when feeling affectionate, lower their
+ears in order to exclude all sounds, so that their whole attention may
+be concentrated on the caresses of their master! Dogs have another and
+striking way of exhibiting their affection, namely, by licking the hands
+or faces of their masters. They sometimes lick other dogs, and then it
+is always their chops. I have also seen dogs licking cats with whom they
+were friends. This habit probably originated in the females carefully
+licking their puppies--the dearest object of their love--for the sake of
+cleansing them. They also often give their puppies, after a short
+absence, a few cursory licks, apparently from affection. Thus the habit
+will have become associated with the emotion of love, however it may
+afterwards be aroused. It is now so firmly inherited or innate, That it
+is transmitted equally to both sexes. A female terrier of mine lately
+had her puppies destroyed, and though at all times a very affectionate
+creature, I was much struck with the manner in which she then tried to
+satisfy her instinctive maternal love by expending it on me; and her
+desire to lick my hands rose to an insatiable passion.
+
+The same principle probably explains why dogs, when feeling
+affectionate, like rubbing against their masters and being rubbed or
+patted by them, for from the nursing of their puppies, contact with
+a beloved object has become firmly associated in their minds with the
+emotion of love. The feeling of affection of a dog towards his master is
+combined with a strong sense of submission, which is akin to fear. Hence
+dogs not only lower their bodies and crouch a little as they approach
+their masters, but sometimes throw themselves on the ground with
+their bellies upwards. This is a movement as completely opposite as is
+possible to any show of resistance. I formerly possessed a large dog
+who was not at all afraid to fight with other dogs; but a wolf-like
+shepherd-dog in the neighbourhood, though not ferocious and not so
+powerful as my dog, had a strange influence over him. When they met on
+the road, my dog used to run to meet him, with his tail partly tucked in
+between his legs and hair not erected; and then he would throw himself
+on the ground, belly upwards. By this action he seemed to say more
+plainly than by words, "Behold, I am your slave." A pleasurable and
+excited state of mind, associated with affection, is exhibited by some
+dogs in a very peculiar manner, namely, by grinning. This was noticed
+long ago by Somerville, who says, And with a courtly grin, the fawning
+bound Salutes thee cow'ring, his wide op'ning nose Upward he curls, and
+his large sloe-back eyes Melt in soft blandishments, and humble joy.'
+_The Chase_, book i. Sir W. Scott's famous Scotch greyhound, Maida, had
+this habit, and it is common with terriers. I have also seen it in a
+Spitz and in a sheep-dog. Mr. Riviere, who has particularly attended
+to this expression, informs me that it is rarely displayed in a perfect
+manner, but is quite common in a lesser degree. The upper lip during the
+act of grinning is retracted, as in snarling, so that the canines are
+exposed, and the ears are drawn backwards; but the general appearance
+of the animal clearly shows that anger is not felt. Sir C. Bell[503]
+remarks "Dogs, in their expression of fondness, have a slight eversion
+of the lips, and grin and sniff amidst their gambols, in a way that
+resembles laughter." Some persons speak of the grin as a smile, but
+if it had been really a smile, we should see a similar, though more
+pronounced, movement of the lips and ears, when dogs utter their bark
+of joy; but this is not the case, although a bark of joy often follows
+a grin. On the other hand, dogs, when playing with their comrades
+or masters, almost always pretend to bite each other; and they then
+retract, though not energetically, their lips and ears. Hence I suspect
+that there is a tendency in some dogs, whenever they feel lively
+pleasure combined with affection, to act through habit and association
+on the same muscles, as in playfully biting each other, or their
+masters' hands. I have described, in the second chapter, the gait and
+appearance of a dog when cheerful, and the marked antithesis presented
+by the same animal when dejected and disappointed, with his head, ears,
+body, tail, and chops drooping, and eyes dull. Under the expectation of
+any great pleasure, dogs bound and jump about in an extravagant manner,
+and bark for joy. The tendency to bark under this state of mind is
+inherited, or runs in the breed: greyhounds rarely bark, whilst the
+Spitz-dog barks so incessantly on starting for a walk with his master
+that he becomes a nuisance.
+
+An agony of pain is expressed by dogs in nearly the same way as by many
+other animals, namely, by howling writhing, and contortions of the
+whole body. Attention is shown by the head being raised, with the ears
+erected, and eyes intently directed towards the object or quarter under
+observation. If it be a sound and the source is not known, the head is
+often turned obliquely from side to side in a most significant manner,
+apparently in order to judge with more exactness from what point the
+sound proceeds. But I have seen a dog greatly surprised at a new noise,
+turning, his head to one side through habit, though he clearly perceived
+the source of the noise. Dogs, as formerly remarked, when their
+attention is in any way aroused, whilst watching some object, or
+attending to some sound, often lift up one paw (fig. 4) and keep it
+doubled up, as if to make a slow and stealthy approach. A dog under
+extreme terror will throw himself down, howl, and void his excretions;
+but the hair, I believe, does not become erect unless some anger is
+felt. I have seen a dog much terrified at a band of musicians who
+were playing loudly outside the house, with every muscle of his body
+trembling, with his heart palpitating so quickly that the beats could
+hardly be counted, and panting for breath with widely open mouth, in
+the same manner as a terrified man does. Yet this dog had not exerted
+himself; he had only wandered slowly and restlessly about the room, and
+the day was cold. Even a very slight degree of fear is invariably shown
+by the tail being tucked in between the legs. This tucking in of the
+fail is accompanied by the ears being drawn backwards; but they are not
+pressed closely to the head,nas in snarling, and they are not lowered,
+as when a dog is pleased or affectionate. When two young dogs chase
+each other in play, the one that runs away always keeps his tail tucked
+inwards. So it is when a dog, in the highest spirits, careers like a mad
+creature round and round his master in circles, or in figures of eight.
+He then acts as if another dog were chasing him. This curious kind of
+play, which must be familiar to every one who has attended to dogs,
+is particularly apt to be excited, after the animal has been a little
+startled or frightened, as by his master suddenly jumping out on him in
+the dusk. In this case, as well as when two young dogs are chasing each
+other in play, it appears as if the one that runs away was afraid of the
+other catching him by the tail; but as far as I can find out, dogs very
+rarely catch each other in this manner. I asked a gentleman, who
+had kept foxhounds all his life, and be applied to other experienced
+sportsmen, whether they had ever seen hounds thus seize a fox; but they
+never had. It appears that when a dog is chased, or when in danger of
+being struck behind, or of anything falling on him, in all these cases
+he wishes to withdraw as quickly as possible his whole hind-quarters,
+and that from some sympathy or connection between the muscles, the tail
+is then drawn closely inwards. A similarly connected movement between
+the hind-quarters and the tail may be observed in the hyaena. Mr.
+Bartlett informs me that when two of these animals fight together, they
+are mutually conscious of the wonderful power of each other's jaws, and
+are extremely cautious. They well know that if one of their legs were
+seized, the bone would instantly be crushed into atoms; hence they
+approach each other kneeling, with their legs turned as much as possible
+inwards, and with their whole bodies bowed, so as not to present any
+salient point; the tail at the same time being closely tucked in between
+the legs. In this attitude they approach each other sideways, or even
+partly backwards. So again with deer, several of the species, when
+savage and fighting, tuck in their tails. When one horse in a field
+tries to bite the hind-quarters of another in play, or when a rough boy
+strikes a donkey from behind, the hind-quarters and the tail are drawn
+in, though it does not appear as if this were done merely to save
+the tail from being injured. We have also seen the reverse of these
+movements; for when an animal trots with high elastic steps, the tail
+is almost always carried aloft. As I have said, when a dog is chased and
+runs away, he keeps his ears directed backwards but still open; and this
+is clearly done for the sake of hearing the footsteps of his pursuer.
+From habit the ears are often held in this same position, and the tail
+tucked in, when the danger is obviously in front. I have repeatedly
+noticed, with a timid terrier of mine, that when she is afraid of some
+object in front, the nature of which she perfectly knows and does not
+need to reconnoitre, yet she will for a long time hold her ears and tail
+in this position, looking the image of discomfort. Discomfort, without
+any fear, is similarly expressed: thus, one day I went out of doors,
+just at the time when this same dog knew that her dinner would be
+brought. I did not call her, but she wished much to accompany me, and at
+the same time she wished much for her dinner; and there she stood, first
+looking one way and then the other, with her tail tucked in and
+ears drawn back, presenting an unmistakable appearance of perplexed
+discomfort. Almost all the expressive movements now described, with the
+exception of the grinning from joy, are innate or instinctive, for they
+are common to all the individuals, young and old, of all the breeds.
+Most of them are likewise common to the aboriginal parents of the dog,
+namely the wolf and jackal; and some of them to other species of the
+same group. Tamed wolves and jackals, when caressed by their masters,
+jump about for joy, wag their tails, lower their ears, lick their
+master's hands, crouch down, and even throw themselves on the ground
+belly upwards.[504] I have seen a rather fox-like African jackal, from
+the Gaboon, depress its ears when caressed. Wolves and jackals, when
+frightened, certainly tuck in their tails; and a tamed jackal has been
+described as careering round his master in circles and figures of eight,
+like a dog, with his tail between his legs. It has been stated[505]
+that foxes, however tame, never display any of the above expressive
+movements; but this is not strictly accurate. Many years ago I observed
+in the Zoological Gardens, and recorded the fact at the time, that a
+very tame English fox, When caressed by the keeper, wagged its tail,
+depressed its ears, and then threw itself on the ground, belly upwards.
+The black fox of North America likewise depressed its ears in a slight
+degree. But I believe that foxes never lick the hands of their masters,
+and I have been assured that when frightened they never tuck in their
+tails. If the explanation which I have given of the expression of
+affection in dogs be admitted, then it would appear that animals
+which have never been domesticated--namely wolves, jackals, and even
+foxes--have nevertheless acquired, through the principle of antithesis,
+certain expressive gestures; for it is Dot probable that these animals,
+confined in cages, should have learnt them by imitating dogs.
+
+_Cats_.--I have already described the actions of a cat (fig. 9), when
+feeling savage and not terrified. She assumes a crouching attitude and
+occasionally protrudes her fore-feet, with the claws exserted ready
+for striking. The tail is extended, being curled or lashed from side to
+side. The hair is not erected--at least it was not so in the few cases
+observed by me. The ears are drawn closely backwards and the teeth are
+shown. Low savage growls are uttered. We can understand why the attitude
+assumed by a cat when preparing to fight with another cat, or in any way
+greatly irritated, is so widely different from that of a dog approaching
+another dog with hostile intentions; for the cat uses her fore-feet for
+striking, and this renders a crouching position convenient or necessary.
+She is also much more accustomed than a dog to lie concealed and
+suddenly spring on her prey. No cause can be assigned with certainty for
+the tail being lashed or curled from side to side. This habit is common
+to many other animals--for instance, to the puma, when prepared to
+spring;[506] but it is not common to dogs, or to foxes, as I infer from
+Mr. St. John's account of a fox lying in wait and seizing a hare. We
+have already seen that some kinds of lizards and various snakes, when
+excited, rapidly vibrate the tips of their tails. It would appear as
+if, under strong excitement, there existed an uncontrollable desire for
+movement of some kind, owing to nerve-force being freely liberated from
+the excited sensorium; and that as the tail is left free, and as its
+movement does not disturb the general position of the body, it is curled
+or lashed about.
+
+All the movements of a cat, when feeling affectionate, are in complete
+antithesis to those just described. She now stands upright, with
+slightly arched back, tail perpendicularly raised, and ears erected;
+and she rubs her cheeks and flanks against her master or mistress. The
+desire to rub something is so strong in cats under this state of mind,
+that they may often be seen rubbing themselves against the legs of
+chairs or tables, or against door-posts. This manner of expressing
+affection probably originated through association, as in the case of
+dogs, from the mother nursing and fondling her young; and perhaps from
+the young themselves loving each other and playing together. Another
+and very different gesture, expressive of pleasure, has already been
+described, namely, the curious manner in which young and even old cats,
+when pleased, alternately protrude their fore-feet, with separated toes,
+as if pushing against and sucking their mother's teats. This habit is so
+far analogous to that of rubbing against something, that both apparently
+are derived from actions performed during the nursing period. Why cats
+should show affection by rubbing so much more than do dogs, though
+the latter delight in contact with their masters, and why cats only
+occasionally lick the hands of their friends, whilst dogs always do so,
+I cannot say. Cats cleanse themselves by licking their own coats more
+regularly than do dogs. On the other hand, their tongues seem less well
+fitted for the work than the longer and more flexible tongues of dogs.
+
+[Illustration: Cat terrified at a dog.  Fig.15]
+
+Cats, when terrified, stand at full height, and arch their backs in a
+well-known and ridiculous fashion. They spit, hiss, or growl. The hair
+over the whole body, and especially on the tail, becomes erect. In the
+instances observed by me the basal part of the tail was held upright,
+the terminal part being thrown on one side; but sometimes the tail (see
+fig. 15) is only a little raised, and is bent almost from the base
+to one side. The ears are drawn back, and the teeth exposed. When two
+kittens are playing together, the one often thus tries to frighten the
+other. From what we have seen in former chapters, all the above points
+of expression are intelligible, except the extreme arching of the back.
+I am inclined to believe that, in the same manner as many birds, whilst
+they ruffle their feathers, spread out their wings and tail, to make
+themselves look as big as possible, so cats stand upright at their full
+height, arch their backs, often raise the basal part of the tail, and
+erect their hair, for the same purpose. The lynx, when attacked, is said
+to arch its back, and is thus figured by Brehm. But the keepers in the
+Zoological Gardens have never seen any tendency to this action in the
+larger feline animals, such as tigers, lions, &c.; and these have little
+cause to be afraid of any other animal.
+
+Cats use their voices much as a means of expression, and they utter,
+under various emotions and desires, at least six or seven different
+sounds. The purr of satisfaction, which is made during both inspiration
+and expiration, is one of the most curious. The puma, cheetah, and
+ocelot likewise purr; but the tiger, when pleased, "emits a peculiar
+short snuffle, accompanied by the closure of the eyelids."[507] It is
+said that the lion, jaguar, and leopard, do not purr.
+
+
+_Horses_.--Horses when savage draw their ears closely back, protrude
+their heads, and partially uncover their incisor teeth, ready for
+biting. When inclined to kick behind, they generally, through habit,
+draw back their ears; and their eyes are turned backwards in a peculiar
+manner.[508] When pleased, as when some coveted food is brought to them
+in the stable, they raise and draw in their heads, prick their ears,
+and looking intently towards their friend, often whinny. Impatience is
+expressed by pawing the ground.
+
+The actions of a horse when much startled are highly expressive. One
+day my horse was much frightened at a drilling machine, covered by a
+tarpaulin, and lying on an open field. He raised his head so high, that
+his neck became almost perpendicular; and this he did from habit, for
+the machine lay on a slope below, and could not have been seen with
+more distinctness through the raising of the head; nor if any sound had
+proceeded from it, could the sound have been more distinctly heard. His
+eyes and ears were directed intently forwards; and I could feel through
+the saddle the palpitations of his heart. With red dilated nostrils he
+snorted violently, and whirling round, would have dashed off at full
+speed, had I not prevented him. The distension of the nostrils is not
+for the sake of scenting the source of danger, for when a horse smells
+carefully at any object and is not alarmed, he does not dilate his
+nostrils. Owing to the presence of a valve in the throat, a horse
+when panting does not breathe through his open mouth, but through his
+nostrils; and these consequently have become endowed with great powers
+of expansion. This expansion of the nostrils, as well as the snorting,
+and the palpitations of the heart, are actions which have become firmly
+associated during a long series of generations with the emotion of
+terror; for terror has habitually led the horse to the most violent
+exertion in dashing away at full speed from the cause of danger.
+
+
+_Ruminants_.--Cattle and sheep are remarkable from displaying in so
+slight a degree their emotions or sensations, excepting that of extreme
+pain. A bull when enraged exhibits his rage only by the manner in which
+he holds his lowered head, with distended nostrils, and by bellowing. He
+also often paws the ground; but this pawing seems quite different from
+that of an impatient horse, for when the soil is loose, he throws up
+clouds of dust. I believe that bulls act in this manner when irritated
+by flies, for the sake of driving them away. The wilder breeds of sheep
+and the chamois when startled stamp on the ground, and whistle through
+their noses; and this serves as a danger-signal to their comrades. The
+musk-ox of the Arctic regions, when encountered, likewise stamps on the
+ground.[509] How this stamping action arose I cannot conjecture; for
+from inquiries which I have made it does not appear that any of these
+animals fight with their fore-legs.
+
+Some species of deer, when savage, display far more expression than do
+cattle, sheep, or goats, for, as has already been stated, they draw back
+their ears, grind their teeth, erect their hair, squeal, stamp on the
+ground, and brandish their horns. One day in the Zoological Gardens, the
+Formosan deer (_Cervus pseudaxis_) approached me in a curious attitude,
+with his muzzle raised high up, so that the horns were pressed back on
+his neck; the head being held rather obliquely. From the expression of
+his eye I felt sure that he was savage; he approached slowly, and as
+soon as he came close to the iron bars, he did not lower his head to
+butt at me, but suddenly bent it inwards, and struck his horns with
+great force against the railings. Mr. Bartlett informs me that some
+other species of deer place themselves in the same attitude when
+enraged.
+
+_Monkeys_.--The various species and genera of monkeys express their
+feelings in many different ways; and this fact is interesting, as in
+some degree bearing on the question, whether the so-called races of man
+should be ranked as distinct species or varieties; for, as we shall
+see in the following chapters, the different races of man express their
+emotions and sensations with remarkable uniformity throughout the world.
+Some of the expressive actions of monkeys are interesting in another
+way, namely from being closely analogous to those of man. As I have
+had no opportunity of observing any one species of the group under all
+circumstances, my miscellaneous remarks will be best arranged under
+different states of the mind.
+
+_Pleasure, joy, affection_--It is not possible to distinguish in
+monkeys, at least without more experience than I have had, the
+expression of pleasure or joy from that of affection. Young chimpanzees
+make a kind of barking noise, when pleased by the return of any one to
+whom they are attached. When this noise, which the keepers call a laugh,
+is uttered, the lips are protruded; but so they are under various other
+emotions. Nevertheless I could perceive that when they were pleased
+the form of the lips differed a little from that assumed when they
+were angered. If a young chimpanzee be tickled--and the armpits are
+particularly sensitive to tickling, as in the case of our children,--a
+more decided chuckling or laughing sound is uttered; though the
+laughter is sometimes noiseless. The corners of the mouth are then drawn
+backwards; and this sometimes causes the lower eyelids to be slightly
+wrinkled. But this wrinkling, which is so characteristic of our own
+laughter, is more plainly seen in some other monkeys. The teeth in
+the upper jaw in the chimpanzee are not exposed when they utter their
+laughing noise, in which respect they differ from us. But their
+eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as Mr. W. L. Martin,[510] who has
+particularly attended to their expression, states.
+
+Young Orangs, when tickled, likewise grin and make a chuckling sound;
+and Mr. Martin says that their eyes grow brighter. As soon as their
+laughter ceases, an expression may be detected passing over their faces,
+which, as Mr. Wallace remarked to me, may be called a smile. I have
+also noticed something of the same kind with the chimpanzee. Dr.
+Duchenne--and I cannot quote a better authority--informs me that he kept
+a very tame monkey in his house for a year; and when he gave it during
+meal-times some choice delicacy, he observed that the corners of
+its mouth were slightly raised; thus an expression of satisfaction,
+partaking of the nature of an incipient smile, and resembling that often
+seen on the face of main, could be plainly perceived in this animal.
+
+The _Cebus azarae_,[511] when rejoiced at again seeing a beloved person,
+utters a peculiar tittering (_kichernden_) sound. It also expresses
+agreeable sensations, by drawing back the corners of its mouth, without
+producing any sound. Rengger calls this movement laughter, but it would
+be more appropriately called a smile. The form of the mouth is different
+when either pain or terror is expressed, and high shrieks are uttered.
+Another species of _Cebus_ in the Zoological Gardens (_C. hypoleucus_)
+when pleased, makes a reiterated shrill note, and likewise draws back
+the corners of its mouth, apparently through the contraction of the same
+muscles as with us. So does the Barbary ape (_Inuus ecaudatus_) to an
+extraordinary degree; and I observed in this monkey that the skin of
+the lower eyelids then became much wrinkled. At the same time it rapidly
+moved its lower jaw or lips in a spasmodic manner, the teeth being
+exposed; but the noise produced was hardly more distinct than that which
+we sometimes call silent laughter. Two of the keepers affirmed that this
+slight sound was the animal's laughter, and when I expressed some doubt
+on this head (being at the time quite inexperienced), they made it
+attack or rather threaten a hated Entellus monkey, living in the same
+compartment. Instantly the whole expression of the face of the Inuus
+changed; the mouth was opened much more widely, the canine teeth were
+more fully exposed, and a hoarse barking noise was uttered.
+
+The Anubis baboon (_Cynocephalus anubis_) was first insulted and put
+into a furious rage, as was easily done, by his keeper, who then made
+friends with him and shook hands. As the reconciliation was effected the
+baboon rapidly moved up and down his jaws and lips, and looked pleased.
+When we laugh heartily, a similar movement, or quiver, may be observed
+more or less distinctly in our jaws; but with man the muscles of the
+chest are more particularly acted on, whilst with this baboon, and with
+some other monkeys, it is the muscles of the jaws and lips which are
+spasmodically affected.
+
+[Illustration: Cynopithecus niger, in a placid condition. Fig.16]
+
+[Illustration: Cynopithecus niger, pleased by being caressed. Fig.17]
+
+I have already had occasion to remark on the curious manner in which
+two or three species of Alacacus and the _Cynopithecus niger_ draw back
+their ears and utter a slight jabbering noise, when they are pleased
+by being caressed. With the Cynopithecus (fig. 17), the corners of the
+mouth are at the same time drawn backwards and upwards, so that the
+teeth are exposed. Hence this expression would never be recognized by a
+stranger as one of pleasure. The crest of long hairs on the forehead is
+depressed, and apparently the whole skin of the head drawn backwards.
+The eyebrows are thus raised a little, and the eyes assume a staring
+appearance. The lower eyelids also become slightly wrinkled; but this
+wrinkling is not conspicuous, owing to the permanent transverse furrows
+on the face.
+
+_Painful emotions and sensations_.--With monkeys the expression of
+slight pain, or of any painful emotion, such as grief, vexation,
+jealousy, &c., is not easily distinguished from that of moderate anger;
+and these states of mind readily and quickly pass into each other.
+Grief, however, with some species is certainly exhibited by weeping.
+A woman, who sold a monkey to the Zoological Society, believed to have
+come from Borneo (_Macacus maurus_ or _M. inornatus_ of Gray), said that
+it often cried; and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the keeper Mr. Sutton, have
+repeatedly seen it, when grieved, or even when much pitied, weeping
+so copiously that the tears rolled down its cheeks. There is, however,
+something strange about this case, for two specimens subsequently kept
+in the Gardens, and believed to be the same species, have never been
+seen to weep, though they were carefully observed by the keeper and
+myself when much distressed and loudly screaming. Rengger states[512]
+that the eyes of the _Cebus azarae_ fill with tears, but not
+sufficiently to overflow, when it is prevented getting some much desired
+object, or is much frightened. Humboldt also asserts that the eyes of
+the _Callithrix sciureus_ "instantly fill with tears when it is seized
+with fear;" but when this pretty little monkey in the Zoological Gardens
+was teased, so as to cry out loudly, this did not occur. I do not,
+however, wish to throw the least doubt on the accuracy of Humboldt's
+statement.
+
+The appearance of dejection in young orangs and chimpanzees, when out
+of health, is as plain and almost as pathetic as in the case of our
+children. This state of mind and body is shown by their listless
+movements, fallen countenances, dull eyes, and changed complexion.
+
+_Anger_.--This emotion is often exhibited by many kinds of monkeys, and
+is expressed, as Mr. Martin remarks,[513] in many different ways. "Some
+species, when irritated, pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and savage
+glare on their foe, and make repeated short starts as if about to spring
+forward, uttering at the same time inward guttural sounds. Many display
+their anger by suddenly advancing, making abrupt starts, at the same
+time opening the mouth and pursing up the lips, so as to conceal the
+teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed on the enemy, as if in savage
+defiance. Some again, and principally the long-tailed monkeys, or
+Guenons, display their teeth, and accompany their malicious grins with
+a sharp, abrupt, reiterated cry." Mr. Sutton confirms the statement that
+some species uncover their teeth when enraged, whilst others conceal
+them by the protrusion of their lips; and some kinds draw back their
+ears. The _Cynopithecus niger_, lately referred to, acts in this manner,
+at the same time depressing the crest of hair on its forehead, and
+showing its teeth; so that the movements of the features from anger are
+nearly the same as those from pleasure; and the two expressions can be
+distinguished only by those familiar with the animal.
+
+Baboons often show their passion and threaten their enemies in a very
+odd manner, namely, by opening their mouths widely as in the act of
+yawning. Mr. Bartlett has often seen two baboons, when first placed
+in the same compartment, sitting opposite to each other and thus
+alternately opening their mouths; and this action seems frequently to
+end in a real yawn. Mr. Bartlett believes that both animals wish to show
+to each other that they are provided with a formidable set of teeth, as
+is undoubtedly the case. As I could hardly credit the reality of this
+yawning gesture, Mr. Bartlett insulted an old baboon and put him into a
+violent passion; and he almost immediately thus acted. Some species of
+Macacus and of Cereopithecus[514] behave in the same manner. Baboons
+likewise show their anger, as was observed by Brehin with those which
+he kept alive in Abyssinia, in another manner, namely, by striking the
+ground with one hand, "like an angry man striking the table with his
+fist." I have seen this movement with the baboons in the Zoological
+Gardens; but sometimes the action seems rather to represent the
+searching for a stone or other object in their beds of straw.
+
+Mr. Sutton has often observed the face of the _Macacus rhesus_, when
+much enraged, growing red. As he was mentioning this to me, another
+monkey attacked a _rhesus_, and I saw its face redden as plainly as that
+of a man in a violent passion. In the course of a few minutes, after the
+battle, the face of this monkey recovered its natural tint. At the same
+time that the face reddened, the naked posterior part of the body, which
+is always red, seemed to grow still redder; but I cannot positively
+assert that this was the case. When the Mandrill is in any way excited,
+the brilliantly coloured, naked parts of the skin are said to become
+still more vividly coloured.
+
+With several species of baboons the ridge of the forehead projects much
+over the eyes, and is studded with a few long hairs, representing our
+eyebrows. These animals are always looking about them, and in order
+to look upwards they raise their eyebrows. They have thus, as it would
+appear, acquired the habit of frequently moving their eyebrows. However
+this may be, many kinds of monkeys, especially the baboons, when angered
+or in any way excited, rapidly and incessantly move their eyebrows
+up and down, as well as the hairy skin of their foreheads.[515] As we
+associate in the case of man the raising and lowering of the eyebrows
+with definite states of the mind, the almost incessant movement of the
+eyebrows by monkeys gives them a senseless expression. I once observed
+a man who had a trick of continually raising his eyebrows without any
+corresponding emotion, and this gave to him a foolish appearance; so it
+is with some persons who keep the corners of their mouths a little drawn
+backwards and upwards, as if by an incipient smile, though at the time
+they are not amused or pleased.
+
+A young orang, made jealous by her keeper attending to another monkey,
+slightly uncovered her teeth, and, uttering a peevish noise like
+_tish-shist_, turned her back on him. Both orangs and chimpanzees, when
+a little more angered, protrude their lips greatly, and make a harsh
+barking noise. A young female chimpanzee, in a violent passion,
+presented a curious resemblance to a child in the same state. She
+screamed loudly with widely open mouth, the lips being retracted so that
+the teeth were fully exposed. She threw her arms wildly about, sometimes
+clasping them over her head. She rolled on the ground, sometimes on her
+back, sometimes on her belly, and bit everything within reach. A young
+gibbon (_Hylobates syndactylus_) in a passion has been described[516] as
+behaving in almost exactly the same manner.
+
+The lips of young orangs and chimpanzees are protruded, sometimes to a
+wonderful degree, under various circumstances. They act thus, not only
+when slightly angered, sulky, or disappointed, but when alarmed at
+anything--in one instance, at the sight of a turtle,[517]--and likewise
+when pleased. But neither the degree of protrusion nor the shape of the
+mouth is exactly the same, as I believe, in all cases; and the
+sounds which are then uttered are different. The accompanying drawing
+represents a chimpanzee made sulky by an orange having been offered him,
+and then taken away. A similar protrusion or pouting of the lips, though
+to a much slighter degree, may be seen in sulky children.
+
+[Illustration: Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky. Fig. 18]
+
+Many years ago, in the Zoological Gardens, I placed a looking-glass
+on the floor before two young orangs, who, as far as it was known, had
+never before seen one. At first they gazed at their own images with the
+most steady surprise, and often changed their point of view. They then
+approached close and protruded their lips towards the image, as if to
+kiss it, in exactly the same manner as they had previously done towards
+each other, when first placed, a few days before, in the same room. They
+next made all sorts of grimaces, and put themselves in various attitudes
+before the mirror; they pressed and rubbed the surface; they placed
+their hands at different distances behind it; looked behind it; and
+finally seemed almost frightened, started a little, became cross, and
+refused to look any longer.
+
+When we try to perform some little action which is difficult and
+requires precision, for instance, to thread a needle, we generally
+close our lips firmly, for the sake, I presume, of not disturbing our
+movements by breathing; and I noticed the same action in a young Orang.
+The poor little creature was sick, and was amusing itself by trying to
+kill the flies on the window-panes with its knuckles; this was difficult
+as the flies buzzed about, and at each attempt the lips were firmly
+compressed, and at the same time slightly protruded.
+
+Although the countenances, and more especially the gestures, of orangs
+and chimpanzees are in some respects highly expressive, I doubt whether
+on the whole they are so expressive as those of some other kinds of
+monkeys. This may be attributed in part to their ears being immovable,
+and in part to the nakedness of their eyebrows, of which the movements
+are thus rendered less conspicuous. When, however, they raise their
+eyebrows their foreheads become, as with us, transversely wrinkled.
+In comparison with man, their faces are inexpressive, chiefly owing to
+their not frowning under any emotion of the mind--that is, as far as
+I have been able to observe, and I carefully attended to this point.
+Frowning, which is one of the most important of all the expressions in
+man, is due to the contraction of the corrugators by which the eyebrows
+are lowered and brought together, so that vertical furrows are formed
+on the forehead. Both the orang and chimpanzee are said[518] to possess
+this muscle, but it seems rarely brought into action, at least in a
+conspicuous manner. I made my hands into a sort of cage, and placing
+some tempting fruit within, allowed both a young orang and chimpanzee
+to try their utmost to get it out; but although they grew rather cross,
+they showed not a trace of a frown. Nor was there any frown when they
+were enraged. Twice I took two chimpanzees from their rather dark room
+suddenly into bright sunshine, which would certainly have caused us to
+frown; they blinked and winked their eyes, but only once did I see
+a very slight frown. On another occasion, I tickled the nose of a
+chimpanzee with a straw, and as it crumpled up its face, slight vertical
+furrows appeared between the eyebrows. I have never seen a frown on the
+forehead of the orang.
+
+The gorilla, when enraged, is described as erecting its crest of
+hair, throwing down its under lip, dilating its nostrils, and uttering
+terrific yells. Messrs. Savage and Wyman[519] state that the scalp can
+be freely moved backwards and forwards, and that when the animal is
+excited it is strongly contracted; but I presume that they mean by this
+latter expression that the scalp is lowered; for they likewise speak of
+the young chimpanzee, when crying out, as having the eyebrows strongly
+contracted. The great power of movement in the scalp of the gorilla, of
+many baboons and other monkeys, deserves notice in relation to the power
+possessed by some few men, either through reversion or persistence, of
+voluntarily moving their scalps.[520]
+
+_Astonishment, Terror_--A living fresh-water turtle was placed at my
+request in the same compartment in the Zoological Gardens with many
+monkeys; and they showed unbounded astonishment, as well as some fear.
+This was displayed by their remaining motionless, staring intently with
+widely opened eyes, their eyebrows being often moved up and down. Their
+faces seemed somewhat lengthened. They occasionally raised themselves
+on their hind-legs to get abetter view. They often retreated a few feet,
+and then turning their heads over one shoulder, again stared intently.
+It was curious to observe how much less afraid they were of the
+turtle than of a living snake which I had formerly placed in their
+compartment;[521] for in the course of a few minutes some of the monkeys
+ventured to approach and touch the turtle. On the other hand, some of
+the larger baboons were greatly terrified, and grinned as if on the
+point of screaming out. When I showed a little dressed-up doll to the
+_Cynopithecus niger_, it stood motionless, stared intently with widely
+opened eyes, and advanced its ears a little forwards. But when the
+turtle was placed in its compartment, this monkey also moved its lips in
+an odd, rapid, jabbering manner, which the keeper declared was meant to
+conciliate or please the turtle.
+
+I was never able clearly to perceive that the eyebrows of astonished
+monkeys were kept permanently raised, though they were frequently moved
+up and down. Attention, which precedes astonishment, is expressed by man
+by a slight raising of the eyebrows; and Dr. Duchenne informs me that
+when he gave to the monkey formerly mentioned some quite new article of
+food, it elevated its eyebrows a little, thus assuming an appearance of
+close attention. It then took the food in its fingers, and, with
+lowered or rectilinear eyebrows, scratched, smelt, and examined it,--an
+expression of reflection being thus exhibited. Sometimes it would
+throw back its head a little, and again with suddenly raised eyebrows
+re-examine and finally taste the food.
+
+In no case did any monkey keep its mouth open when it was astonished.
+Mr. Sutton observed for me a young orang and chimpanzee during a
+considerable length of time; and however much they were astonished, or
+whilst listening intently to some strange sound, they did not keep
+their mouths open. This fact is surprising, as with mankind hardly any
+expression is more general than a widely open mouth under the sense of
+astonishment. As far as I have been able to observe, monkeys breathe
+more freely through their nostrils than men do; and this may account
+for their not opening their mouths when they are astonished; for, as we
+shall see in a future chapter, man apparently acts in this manner when
+startled, at first for the sake of quickly drawing a full inspiration,
+and afterwards for the sake of breathing as quietly as possible.
+
+Terror is expressed by many kinds of monkeys by the utterance of shrill
+screams; the lips being drawn back, so that the teeth are exposed. The
+hair becomes erect, especially when some anger is likewise felt. Mr.
+Sutton has distinctly seen the face of the _Macacus rhesus_ grow pale
+from fear. Monkeys also tremble from fear; and sometimes they void their
+excretions. I have seen one which, when caught, almost fainted from an
+excess of terror.
+
+Sufficient facts have now been given with respect to the expressions
+of various animals. It is impossible to agree with Sir C. Bell when he
+says[522] that "the faces of animals seem chiefly capable of expressing
+rage and fear;" and again, when he says that all their expressions
+"may be referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or
+necessary instincts." He who will look at a dog preparing to attack
+another dog or a man, and at the same animal when caressing his master,
+or will watch the countenance of a monkey when insulted, and when
+fondled by his keeper, will be forced to admit that the movements of
+their features and their gestures are almost as expressive as those of
+man. Although no explanation can be given of some of the expressions in
+the lower animals, the greater number are explicable in accordance with
+the three principles given at the commencement of the first chapter.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. -- SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.
+
+The screaming and weeping Of infants--Forms of features--Age at
+which weeping commences--The effects of habitual restraint on
+weeping--Sobbing--Cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes
+during screaming--Cause of the secretion of tears.
+
+
+IN this and the following chapters the expressions exhibited by Man
+under various states of the mind will be described and explained, as far
+as lies in my power. My observations will be arranged according to the
+order which I have found the most convenient; and this will generally
+lead to opposite emotions and sensations succeeding each other.
+
+_Suffering of the body and mind: weeping_.--I have already described in
+sufficient detail, in the third chapter, the signs of extreme pain, as
+shown by screams or groans, with the writhing of the whole body and the
+teeth clenched or ground together. These signs are often accompanied or
+followed by profuse sweating, pallor, trembling, utter prostration,
+or faintness. No suffering is greater than that from extreme fear
+or horror, but here a distinct emotion comes into play, and will be
+elsewhere considered. Prolonged suffering, especially of the mind,
+passes into low spirits, grief, dejection, and despair, and these
+states will be the subject of the following chapter. Here I shall almost
+confine myself to weeping or crying, more especially in children.
+
+Infants, when suffering even slight pain, moderate hunger, or
+discomfort, utter violent and prolonged screams. Whilst thus screaming
+their eyes are firmly closed, so that the skin round them is wrinkled,
+and the forehead contracted into a frown. The mouth is widely opened
+with the lips retracted in a peculiar manner, which causes it to assume
+a squarish form; the gums or teeth being more or less exposed. The
+breath is inhaled almost spasmodically. It is easy to observe infants
+whilst screaming; but I have found photographs made by the instantaneous
+process the best means for observation, as allowing more deliberation. I
+have collected twelve, most of them made purposely for me; and they all
+exhibit the same general characteristics. I have, therefore, had six of
+them[601] (Plate I.) reproduced by the heliotype process.
+
+[Illustration: Screaming Infants. Plate I. ]
+
+The firm closing of the eyelids and consequent compression of
+the eyeball,--and this is a most important element in various
+expressions,--serves to protect the eyes from becoming too much gorged
+with blood, as will presently be explained in detail. With respect to
+the order in which the several muscles contract in firmly compressing
+the eyes, I am indebted to Dr. Langstaff, of Southampton, for some
+observations, which I have since repeated. The best plan for observing
+the order is to make a person first raise his eyebrows, and this
+produces transverse wrinkles across the forehead; and then very
+gradually to contract all the muscles round the elves with as much force
+as possible. The reader who is unacquainted with the anatomy of the
+face, ought to refer to p. 24, and look at the woodcuts 1 to 3. The
+corrugators of the brow (_corrugator supercilii_) seem to be the first
+muscles to contract; and these draw the eyebrows downwards and inwards
+towards the base of the nose, causing vertical furrows, that is a
+frown, to appear between the eyebrows; at the same time they cause
+the disappearance of the transverse wrinkles across the forehead. The
+orbicular muscles contract almost simultaneously with the corrugators,
+and produce wrinkles all round the eyes; they appear, however, to be
+enabled to contract with greater force, as soon as the contraction
+of the corrugators has given them some support. Lastly, the pyramidal
+muscles of the nose contract; and these draw the eyebrows and the skin
+of the forehead still lower down, producing short transverse wrinkles
+across the base of the nose.[602] For the sake of brevity these muscles
+will generally be spoken of as the orbiculars, or as those surrounding
+the eyes.
+
+When these muscles are strongly contracted, those running to the upper
+lip[603] likewise contract and raise the upper lip. This might have been
+expected from the manner in which at least one of them, the _malaris_,
+is connected with the orbiculars. Any one who will gradually contract
+the muscles round his eyes, will feel, as he increases the force, that
+his upper lip and the wings of his nose (which are partly acted on by
+one of the same muscles) are almost always a little drawn up. If he
+keeps his mouth firmly shut whilst contracting the muscles round the
+eyes, and then suddenly relaxes his lips, he will feel that the pressure
+on his eyes immediately increases. So again when a person on a bright,
+glaring day wishes to look at a distant object, but is compelled
+partially to close his eyelids, the upper lip may almost always be
+observed to be somewhat raised. The mouths of some very short-sighted
+persons, who are forced habitually to reduce the aperture of their eyes,
+wear from this same reason a grinning expression.
+
+The raising of the upper lip draws upwards the flesh of the upper parts
+of the cheeks, and produces a strongly marked fold on each cheek,--the
+naso-labial fold,--which runs from near the wings of the nostrils to the
+corners of the mouth and below them. This fold or furrow may be seen in
+all the photographs, and is very characteristic of the expression of
+a crying child; though a nearly similar fold is produced in the act of
+laughing or Smiling.[604]
+
+As the upper lip is much drawn up during the act of screaming, in the
+manner just explained, the depressor muscles of the angles of the mouth
+(see K in woodcuts 1 and 2) are strongly contracted in order to keep the
+mouth widely open, so that a full volume of sound may be poured forth.
+The action of these opposed muscles, above and below, tends to give
+to the mouth an oblong, almost squarish outline, as may be seen in the
+accompanying photographs. An excellent observer,[605] in describing a
+baby crying whilst being fed, says, "it made its mouth like a square,
+and let the porridge run out at all four corners." I believe, but we
+shall return to this point in a future chapter, that the depressor
+muscles of the angles of the mouth are less under the separate control
+of the will than the adjoining muscles; so that if a young child is
+only doubtfully inclined to cry, this muscle is generally the first
+to contract, and is the last to cease contracting. When older children
+commence crying, the muscles which run to the upper lip are often the
+first to contract; and this may perhaps be due to older children not
+having so strong a tendency to scream loudly, and consequently to keep
+their mouths widely open; so that the above-named depressor muscles are
+not brought into such strong action.
+
+With one of my own infants, from his eighth day and for some time
+afterwards, I often observed that the first sign of a screaming-fit,
+when it could be observed coming on gradually, was a little frown, owing
+to the contraction of the corrugators of the brows; the capillaries of
+the naked head and face becoming at the same time reddened with blood.
+As soon as the screaming-fit actually began, all the muscles round
+the eyes were strongly contracted, and the mouth widely opened in the
+manlier above described; so that at this early period the features
+assumed the same form as at a more advanced age.
+
+Dr. Piderit[606] lays great stress on the contraction of certain
+muscles which draw down the nose and narrow the nostrils, as eminently
+characteristic of a crying expression. The _depressores anguli oris_,
+as we have just seen, are usually contracted at the same time, and they
+indirectly tend, according to Dr. Duchenne, to act in this same manner
+on the nose. With children having bad colds a similar pinched appearance
+of the nose may be noticed, which is at least partly due, as remarked
+to me by Dr. Langstaff, to their constant snuffling, and the consequent
+pressure of the atmosphere on the two sides. The purpose of this
+contraction of the nostrils by children having bad colds, or whilst
+crying, seems to be to cheek the downward flow of the mucus and tears,
+and to prevent these fluids spreading over the upper lip.
+
+After a prolonged and severe screaming-fit, the scalp, face, and eyes
+are reddened, owing to the return of the blood from the head having
+been impeded by the violent expiratory efforts; but the redness of the
+stimulated eyes is chiefly due to the copious effusion of tears. The
+various muscles of the face which have been strongly contracted,
+still twitch a little, and the upper lip is still slightly drawn up
+or everted,[607] with the corners of the mouth still a little drawn
+downwards. I have myself felt, and have observed in other grown-up
+persons, that when tears are restrained with difficulty, as in reading a
+pathetic story, it is almost impossible to prevent the various muscles.
+which with young children are brought into strong action during their
+screaming-fits, from slightly twitching or trembling.
+
+Infants whilst young do not shed tears or weep, as is well known to
+nurses and medical men. This circumstance is not exclusively due to
+the lacrymal glands being as yet incapable of secreting tears. I first
+noticed this fact from having accidentally brushed with the cuff of my
+coat the open eye of one of my infants, when seventy-seven days
+old, causing this eye to water freely; and though the child screamed
+violently, the other eye remained dry, or was only slightly suffused
+with tears. A similar slight effusion occurred ten days previously in
+both eyes during a screaming-fit. The tears did not run over the eyelids
+and roll down the cheeks of this child, whilst screaming badly, when 122
+days old. This first happened 17 days later, at the age of 139 days.
+A few other children have been observed for me, and the period of
+free weeping appears to be very variable. In one case, the eyes became
+slightly suffused at the age of only 20 days; in another, at 62 days.
+With two other children, the tears did NOT run down the face at the ages
+of 84 and 110 days; but in a third child they did run down at the age of
+104 days. In one instance, as I was positively assured, tears ran
+down at the unusually early age of 42 days. It would appear as if the
+lacrymal glands required some practice in the individual before they
+are easily excited into action, in somewhat the same manner as various
+inherited consensual movements and tastes require some exercise before
+they are fixed and perfected. This is all the more likely with a habit
+like weeping, which must have been acquired since the period when man
+branched off from the common progenitor of the genus Homo and of the
+non-weeping anthropomorphous apes.
+
+The fact of tears not being shed at a very early age from pain or any
+mental emotion is remarkable, as, later in life, no expression is more
+general or more strongly marked than weeping. When the habit has
+once been acquired by an infant, it expresses in the clearest manner
+suffering of all kinds, both bodily pain and mental distress, even
+though accompanied by other emotions, such as fear or rage. The
+character of the crying, however, changes at a very early age, as I
+noticed in my own infants,--the passionate cry differing from that of
+grief. A lady informs me that her child, nine months old, when in a
+passion screams loudly, but does not weep; tears, however, are shed when
+she is punished by her chair being turned with its back to the table.
+This difference may perhaps be attributed to weeping being restrained,
+as we shall immediately see, at a more advanced age, under most
+circumstances excepting grief; and to the influence of such restraint
+being transmitted to an earlier period of life, than that at which it
+was first practised.
+
+With adults, especially of the male sex, weeping soon ceases to be
+caused by, or to express, bodily pain. This may be accounted for by its
+being thought weak and unmanly by men, both of civilized and barbarous
+races, to exhibit bodily pain by any outward sign. With this exception,
+savages weep copiously from very slight causes, of which fact Sir J.
+Lubbock[608] has collected instances. A New Zealand chief "cried like
+a child because the sailors spoilt his favourite cloak by powdering it
+with flour." I saw in Tierra del Fuego a native who had lately lost a
+brother, and who alternately cried with hysterical violence, and laughed
+heartily at anything which amused him. With the civilized nations
+of Europe there is also much difference in the frequency of weeping.
+Englishmen rarely cry, except under the pressure of the acutest grief;
+whereas in some parts of the Continent the men shed tears much more
+readily and freely.
+
+The insane notoriously give way to all their emotions with little or no
+restraint; and I am informed by Dr. J. Crichton Browne, that nothing is
+more characteristic of simple melancholia, even in the male sex, than a
+tendency to weep on the slightest occasions, or from no cause. They also
+weep disproportionately on the occurrence of any real cause of grief.
+The length of time during which some patients weep is astonishing, as
+well as the amount of tears which they shed. One melancholic girl wept
+for a whole day, and afterwards confessed to Dr. Browne, that it was
+because she remembered that she had once shaved off her eyebrows to
+promote their growth. Many patients in the asylum sit for a long time
+rocking themselves backwards and forwards; "and if spoken to, they stop
+their movements, purse up their eyes, depress the corners of the mouth,
+and burst out crying." In some of these cases, the being spoken to or
+kindly greeted appears to suggest some fanciful and sorrowful notion;
+but in other cases an effort of any kind excites weeping, independently
+of any sorrowful idea. Patients suffering from acute mania likewise
+have paroxysms of violent crying or blubbering, in the midst of their
+incoherent ravings. We must not, however, lay too much stress on the
+copious shedding of tears by the insane, as being due to the lack of all
+restraint; for certain brain-diseases, as hemiplegia, brain-wasting,
+and senile decay, have a special tendency to induce weeping. Weeping is
+common in the insane, even after a complete state of fatuity has been
+reached and the power of speech lost. Persons born idiotic likewise
+weep;[609] but it is said that this is not the case with cretins.
+
+Weeping seems to be the primary and natural expression, as we see in
+children, of suffering of any kind, whether bodily pain short of extreme
+agony, or mental distress. But the foregoing facts and common experience
+show us that a frequently repeated effort to restrain weeping, in
+association with certain states of the mind, does much in checking the
+habit. On the other hand, it appears that the power of weeping can be
+increased through habit; thus the Rev. R. Taylor,[610] who long resided
+in New Zealand, asserts that the women can voluntarily shed tears in
+abundance; they meet for this purpose to mourn for the dead, and they
+take pride in crying "in the most affecting manner."
+
+A single effort of repression brought to bear on the lacrymal glands
+does little, and indeed seems often to lead to an opposite result. An
+old and experienced physician told me that he had always found that
+the only means to check the occasional bitter weeping of ladies who
+consulted him, and who themselves wished to desist, was earnestly to beg
+them not to try, and to assure them that nothing would relieve them so
+much as prolonged and copious crying.
+
+The screaming of infants consists of prolonged expirations, with short
+and rapid, almost spasmodic inspirations, followed at a somewhat more
+advanced age by sobbing. According to Gratiolet,[611] the glottis is
+chiefly affected during the act of sobbing. This sound is heard "at the
+moment when the inspiration conquers the resistance of the glottis,
+and the air rushes into the chest." But the whole act of respiration
+is likewise spasmodic and violent. The shoulders are at the same time
+generally raised, as by this movement respiration is rendered easier.
+With one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old, the inspirations
+were so rapid and strong that they approached in character to sobbing;
+when 138 days old I first noticed distinct sobbing, which subsequently
+followed every bad crying-fit. The respiratory movements are partly
+voluntary and partly involuntary, and I apprehend that sobbing is at
+least in part due to children having some power to command after early
+infancy their vocal organs and to stop their screams, but from having
+less power over their respiratory muscles, these continue for a time
+to act in an involuntary or spasmodic manner, after having been brought
+into violent action. Sobbing seems to be peculiar to the human species;
+for the keepers in the Zoological Gardens assure me that they have never
+heard a sob from any kind of monkey; though monkeys often scream loudly
+whilst being chased and caught, and then pant for a long time. We thus
+see that there is a close analogy between sobbing and the free shedding
+of tears; for with children, sobbing does not commence during early
+infancy, but afterwards comes on rather suddenly and then follows every
+bad crying-fit, until the habit is checked with advancing years.
+
+_On the cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during
+screaming_.--We have seen that infants and young children, whilst
+screaming, invariably close their eyes firmly, by the contraction of the
+surrounding muscles, so that the skin becomes wrinkled all around. With
+older children, and even with adults, whenever there is violent and
+unrestrained crying, a tendency to the contraction of these same muscles
+may be observed; though this is often checked in order not to interfere
+with vision.
+
+Sir C. Bell explains[612] this action in the following manner:--"During
+every violent act of expiration, whether in hearty laughter, weeping,
+coughing, or sneezing, the eyeball is firmly compressed by the fibres
+of the orbicularis; and this is a provision for supporting and defending
+the vascular system of the interior of the eye from a retrograde impulse
+communicated to the blood in the veins at that time. When we contract
+the chest and expel the air, there is a retardation of the blood in the
+veins of the neck and head; and in the more powerful acts of expulsion,
+the blood not only distends the vessels, but is even regurgitated into
+the minute branches. Were the eye not properly compressed at that
+time, and a resistance given to the shock, irreparable injury might
+be inflicted on the delicate textures of the interior of the eye." He
+further adds, "If we separate the eyelids of a child to examine the eye,
+while it cries and struggles with passion, by taking off the natural
+support to the vascular system of the eye, and means of guarding it
+against the rush of blood then occurring, the conjunctiva becomes
+suddenly filled with blood, and the eyelids everted."
+
+Not only are the muscles round the eyes strongly contracted, as Sir
+C. Bell states and as I have often observed, during screaming, loud
+laughter, coughing, and sneezing, but during several other analogous
+actions. A man contracts these muscles when he violently blows his nose.
+I asked one of my boys to shout as loudly as he possibly could, and as
+soon as he began, he firmly contracted his orbicular muscles; I observed
+this repeatedly, and on asking him why he had every time so firmly
+closed his eyes, I found that he was quite unaware of the fact: he had
+acted instinctively or unconsciously.
+
+It is not necessary, in order to lead to the contraction of these
+muscles, that air should actually be expelled from the chest; it
+suffices that the muscles of the chest and abdomen should contract with
+great force, whilst by the closure of the glottis no air escapes. In
+violent vomiting or retching the diaphragm is made to descend by the
+chest being filled with air; it is then held in this position by the
+closure of the glottis, "as well as by the contraction of its own
+fibres."[613] The abdominal muscles now contract strongly upon the
+stomach, its proper muscles likewise contracting, and the contents are
+thus ejected. During each effort of vomiting "the head becomes greatly
+congested, so that the features are red and swollen, and the large veins
+of the face and temples visibly dilated." At the same time, as I know
+from observation, the muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted.
+This is likewise the case when the abdominal muscles act downwards with
+unusual force in expelling the contents of the intestinal canal.
+
+The greatest exertion of the muscles of the body, if those of the chest
+are not brought into strong action in expelling or compressing the air
+within the lungs, does not lead to the contraction of the muscles
+round the eyes. I have observed my sons using great force in gymnastic
+exercises, as in repeatedly raising their suspended bodies by their
+arms alone, and in lifting heavy weights from the ground, but there was
+hardly any trace of contraction in the muscles round the eyes.
+
+As the contraction of these muscles for the protection of the eyes
+during violent expiration is indirectly, as we shall hereafter see, a
+fundamental element in several of our most important expressions, I
+was extremely anxious to ascertain how far Sir C. Bell's view could be
+substantiated. Professor Donders, of Utrecht,[614] well known as one of
+the highest authorities in Europe on vision and on the structure of the
+eye, has most kindly undertaken for me this investigation with the aid
+of the many ingenious mechanisms of modern science, and has published
+the results.[615] He shows that during violent expiration the external,
+the intra-ocular, and the retro-ocular vessels of the eye are all
+affected in two ways, namely by the increased pressure of the blood in
+the arteries, and by the return of the blood in the veins being impeded.
+It is, therefore, certain that both the arteries and the veins of the
+eye are more or less distended during violent expiration. The evidence
+in detail may be found in Professor Donders' valuable memoir. We see the
+effects on the veins of the head, in their prominence, and in the purple
+colour of the face of a man who coughs violently from being half choked.
+I may mention, on the same authority, that the whole eye certainly
+advances a little during each violent expiration. This is due to the
+dilatation of the retro-ocular vessels, and might have been expected
+from the intimate connection of the eye and brain; the brain being known
+to rise and fall with each respiration, when a portion of the skull has
+been removed; and as may be seen along the unclosed sutures of infants'
+heads. This also, I presume, is the reason that the eyes of a strangled
+man appear as if they were starting from their sockets.
+
+With respect to the protection of the eye during violent expiratory
+efforts by the pressure of the eyelids, Professor Donders concludes from
+his various observations that this action certainly limits or entirely
+removes the dilatation of the vessels.[616] At such times, he adds, we
+not unfrequently see the hand involuntarily laid upon the eyelids, as if
+the better to support and defend the eyeball.
+
+Nevertheless much evidence cannot at present be advanced to prove that
+the eye actually suffers injury from the want of support during violent
+expiration; but there is some. It is "a fact that forcible expiratory
+efforts in violent coughing or vomiting, and especially in sneezing,
+sometimes give rise to ruptures of the little (external) vessels" of the
+eye.[617] With respect to the internal vessels, Dr. Gunning has lately
+recorded a case of exophthalmos in consequence of whooping-cough,
+which in his opinion depended on the rupture of the deeper vessels; and
+another analogous case has been recorded. But a mere sense of discomfort
+would probably suffice to lead to the associated habit of protecting
+the eyeball by the contraction of the surrounding muscles. Even the
+expectation or chance of injury would probably be sufficient, in the
+same manner as an object moving too near the eye induces involuntary
+winking of the eyelids. We may, therefore, safely conclude from Sir
+C. Bell's observations, and more especially from the more careful
+investigations by Professor Donders, that the firm closure of the
+eyelids during the screaming of children is an action full of meaning
+and of real service.
+
+We have already seen that the contraction of the orbicular muscles leads
+to the drawing up of the upper lip, and consequently, if the mouth is
+kept widely open, to the drawing down of the corners by the contraction
+of the depressor muscles. The formation of the naso-labial fold on the
+cheeks likewise follows from the drawing up of the upper lip. Thus all
+the chief expressive movements of the face during crying apparently
+result from the contraction of the muscles round the eyes. We shall also
+find that the shedding of tears depends on, or at least stands in some
+connection with, the contraction of these same muscles.
+
+In some of the foregoing cases, especially in those of sneezing and
+coughing, it is possible that the contraction of the orbicular muscles
+may serve in addition to protect the eyes from too severe a jar or
+vibration. I think so, because dogs and cats, in crunching hard bones,
+always close their eyelids, and at least sometimes in sneezing; though
+dogs do not do so whilst barking loudly. Mr. Sutton carefully observed
+for me a young orang and chimpanzee, and he found that both always
+closed their eyes in sneezing and coughing, but not whilst screaming
+violently. I gave a small pinch of snuff to a monkey of the American
+division, namely, a Cebus, and it closed its eyelids whilst sneezing;
+but not on a subsequent occasion whilst uttering loud cries.
+
+_Cause of the secretion of tears_.--It is an important fact which must
+be considered in any theory of the secretion of tears from the mind
+being affected, that whenever the muscles round the eyes are strongly
+and involuntarily contracted in order to compress the blood-vessels
+and thus to protect the eyes, tears are secreted, often in sufficient
+abundance to roll down the cheeks. This occurs under the most opposite
+emotions, and under no emotion at all. The sole exception, and this
+is only a partial one, to the existence of a relation between the
+involuntary and strong contraction of these muscles and the secretion
+of tears is that of young infants, who, whilst screaming violently
+with their eyelids firmly closed, do not commonly weep until they
+have attained the age of from two to three or four months. Their eyes,
+however, become suffused with tears at a much earlier age. It would
+appear, as already remarked, that the lacrymal glands do not, from the
+want of practice or some other cause, come to full functional activity
+at a very early period of life. With children at a somewhat later age,
+crying out or wailing from any distress is so regularly accompanied
+by the shedding of tears, that weeping and crying are synonymous
+terms.[618]
+
+Under the opposite emotion of great joy or amusement, as long as
+laughter is moderate there is hardly any contraction of the muscles
+round the eyes, so that there is no frowning; but when peals of loud
+laughter are uttered, with rapid and violent spasmodic expirations,
+tears stream down the face. I have more than once noticed the face of a
+person, after a paroxysm of violent laughter, and I could see that
+the orbicular muscles and those running to the upper lip were still
+partially contracted, which together with the tear-stained cheeks gave
+to the upper half of the face an expression not to be distinguished from
+that of a child still blubbering from grief. The fact of tears streaming
+down the face during violent laughter is common to all the races of
+mankind, as we shall see in a future chapter.
+
+In violent coughing especially when a person is half-choked, the face
+becomes purple, the veins distended, the orbicular muscles strongly
+contracted, and tears run down the cheeks. Even after a fit of ordinary
+coughing, almost every one has to wipe his eyes. In violent vomiting or
+retching, as I have myself experienced and seen in others, the orbicular
+muscles are strongly contracted, and tears sometimes flow freely
+down the cheeks. It has been suggested to me that this may be due to
+irritating matter being injected into the nostrils, and causing by
+reflex action the secretion of tears. Accordingly I asked one of my
+informants, a surgeon, to attend to the effects of retching when nothing
+was thrown up from the stomach; and, by an odd coincidence, he himself
+suffered the next morning from an attack of retching, and three days
+subsequently observed a lady under a similar attack; and he is certain
+that in neither case an atom of matter was ejected from the stomach;
+yet the orbicular muscles were strongly contracted, and tears freely
+secreted. I can also speak positively to the energetic contraction of
+these same muscles round the eyes, and to the coincident free secretion
+of tears, when the abdominal muscles act with unusual force in a
+downward direction on the intestinal canal.
+
+Yawning commences with a deep inspiration, followed by a long and
+forcible expiration; and at the same time almost all the muscles of the
+body are strongly contracted, including those round the eyes. During
+this act tears are often secreted, and I have seen them even rolling
+down the cheeks.
+
+I have frequently observed that when persons scratch some point which
+itches intolerably, they forcibly close their eyelids; but they do not,
+as I believe, first draw a deep breath and then expel it with force; and
+I have never noticed that the eyes then become filled with tears; but I
+am not prepared to assert that this does not occur. The forcible closure
+of the eyelids is, perhaps, merely a part of that general action by
+which almost all the muscles of the body are at the same time rendered
+rigid. It is quite different from the gentle closure of the eyes which
+often accompanies, as Gratiolet remarks,[619] the smelling a delicious
+odour, or the tasting a delicious morsel, and which probably originates
+in the desire to shut out any disturbing impression through the eyes.
+
+Professor Donders writes to me to the following effect: "I have
+observed some cases of a very curious affection when, after a slight rub
+(_attouchement_), for example, from the friction of a coat, which
+caused neither a wound nor a contusion, spasms of the orbicular muscles
+occurred, with a very profuse flow of tears, lasting about one hour.
+Subsequently, sometimes after an interval of several weeks, violent
+spasms of the same muscles re-occurred, accompanied by the secretion
+of tears, together with primary or secondary redness of the eye." Mr.
+Bowman informs me that he has occasionally observed closely analogous
+cases, and that, in some of these, there was no redness or inflammation
+of the eyes.
+
+I was anxious to ascertain whether there existed in any of the lower
+animals a similar relation between the contraction of the orbicular
+muscles during violent expiration and the secretion of tears; but there
+are very few animals which contract these muscles in a prolonged manner,
+or which shed tears. _The Macacus maurus_, which formerly wept so
+copiously in the Zoological Gardens, would have been a fine case for
+observation; but the two monkeys now there, and which are believed
+to belong to the same species, do not weep. Nevertheless they were
+carefully observed by Mr. Bartlett and myself, whilst screaming loudly,
+and they seemed to contract these muscles; but they moved about their
+cages so rapidly, that it was difficult to observe with certainty. No
+other monkey, as far as I have been able to ascertain, contracts its
+orbicular muscles whilst screaming.
+
+The Indian elephant is known sometimes to weep. Sir E. Tennent, in
+describing these which he saw captured and bound in Ceylon, says, some
+"lay motionless on the ground, with no other indication of suffering
+than the tears which suffused their eyes and flowed incessantly."
+Speaking of another elephant he says, "When overpowered and made fast,
+his grief was most affecting; his violence sank to utter prostration,
+and he lay on the ground, uttering choking cries, with tears trickling
+down his cheeks."[620] In the Zoological Gardens the keeper of the
+Indian elephants positively asserts that he has several times seen tears
+rolling down the face of the old female, when distressed by the removal
+of the young one. Hence I was extremely anxious to ascertain, as an
+extension of the relation between the contraction of the orbicular
+muscles and the shedding of tears in man, whether elephants when
+screaming or trumpeting loudly contract these muscles. At Mr. Bartlett's
+desire the keeper ordered the old and the young elephant to trumpet; and
+we repeatedly saw in both animals that, just as the trumpeting began,
+the orbicular muscles, especially the lower ones, were distinctly
+contracted. On a subsequent occasion the keeper made the old elephant
+trumpet much more loudly, and invariably both the upper and lower
+orbicular muscles were strongly contracted, and now in an equal degree.
+It is a singular fact that the African elephant, which, however, is so
+different from the Indian species that it is placed by some naturalists
+in a distinct sub-genus, when made on two occasions to trumpet loudly,
+exhibited no trace of the contraction of the orbicular muscles.
+
+From the several foregoing cases with respect to Man, there can, I
+think, be no doubt that the contraction of the muscles round the
+eyes, during violent expiration or when the expanded chest is forcibly
+compressed, is, in some manner, intimately connected with the secretion
+of tears. This holds good under widely different emotions, and
+independently of any emotion. It is not, of course, meant that tears
+cannot be secreted without the contraction of these muscles; for it is
+notorious that they are often freely shed with the eyelids not closed,
+and with the brows unwrinkled. The contraction must be both involuntary
+and prolonged, as during a choking fit, or energetic, as during a
+sneeze. The mere involuntary winking of the eyelids, though often
+repeated, does not bring tears into the eyes. Nor does the voluntary and
+prolonged contraction of the several surrounding muscles suffice. As the
+lacrymal glands of children are easily excited, I persuaded my own
+and several other children of different ages to contract these muscles
+repeatedly with their utmost force, and to continue doing so as long
+as they possibly could; but this produced hardly any effect. There was
+sometimes a little moisture in the eyes, but not more than apparently
+could be accounted for by the squeezing out of the already secreted
+tears within the glands.
+
+The nature of the relation between the involuntary and energetic
+contraction of the muscles round the eyes, and the secretion of tears,
+cannot be positively ascertained, but a probable view may be suggested.
+The primary function of the secretion of tears, together with some
+mucus, is to lubricate the surface of the eye; and a secondary one, as
+some believe, is to keep the nostrils damp, so that the inhaled air
+may be moist,[621] and likewise to favour the power of smelling. But
+another, and at least equally important function of tears, is to wash
+out particles of dust or other minute objects which may get into the
+eyes. That this is of great importance is clear from the cases in which
+the cornea has been rendered opaque through inflammation, caused by
+particles of dust not being removed, in consequence of the eye and
+eyelid becoming immovable.[622] The secretion of tears from the
+irritation of any foreign body in the eye is a reflex action;--that
+is, the body irritates a peripheral nerve which sends an impression to
+certain sensory nerve-cells; these transmit an influence to other cells,
+and these again to the lacrymal glands. The influence transmitted to
+these glands causes, as there is good reason to believe, the relaxation
+of the muscular coats of the smaller arteries; this allows more blood
+to permeate the glandular tissue, and this induces a free secretion
+of tears. When the small arteries of the face, including those of the
+retina, are relaxed under very different circumstances, namely, during
+an intense blush, the lacrymal glands are sometimes affected in a like
+manner, for the eyes become suffused with tears.
+
+It is difficult to conjecture how many reflex actions have originated,
+but, in relation to the present case of the affection of the lacrymal
+glands through irritation of the surface of the eye, it may be worth
+remarking that, as soon as some primordial form became semi-terrestrial
+in its habits, and was liable to get particles of dust into its eyes, if
+these were not washed out they would cause much irritation; and on the
+principle of the radiation of nerve-force to adjoining nerve-cells, the
+lacrymal glands would be stimulated to secretion. As this would often
+recur, and as nerve-force readily passes along accustomed channels, a
+slight irritation would ultimately suffice to cause a free secretion of
+tears.
+
+As soon as by this, or by some other means, a reflex action of this
+nature had been established and rendered easy, other stimulants applied
+to the surface of the eye--such as a cold wind, slow inflammatory
+action, or a blow on the eyelids--would cause a copious secretion of
+tears, as we know to be the case. The glands are also excited into
+action through the irritation of adjoining parts. Thus when the nostrils
+are irritated by pungent vapours, though the eyelids may be kept firmly
+closed, tears are copiously secreted; and this likewise follows from a
+blow on the nose, for instance from a boxing-glove. A stinging switch
+on the face produces, as I have seen, the same effect. In these latter
+cases the secretion of tears is an incidental result, and of no direct
+service. As all these parts of the face, including the lacrymal glands,
+are supplied with branches of the same nerve, namely, the fifth, it is
+in some degree intelligible that the effects of the excitement of
+any one branch should spread to the nerve-cells or roots of the other
+branches.
+
+The internal parts of the eye likewise act, under certain conditions,
+in a reflex manner on the lacrymal glands. The following statements have
+been kindly communicated to me by Mr. Bowman; but the subject is a very
+intricate one, as all the parts of the eye are so intimately related
+together, and are so sensitive to various stimulants. A strong light
+acting on the retina, when in a normal condition, has very little
+tendency to cause lacrymation; but with unhealthy children having
+small, old-standing ulcers on the cornea, the retina becomes excessively
+sensitive to light, and exposure even to common daylight causes forcible
+and sustained closure of the lids, and a profuse flow of tears. When
+persons who ought to begin the use of convex glasses habitually strain
+the waning power of accommodation, an undue secretion of tears very
+often follows, and the retina is liable to become unduly sensitive to
+light. In general, morbid affections of the surface of the eye, and of
+the ciliary structures concerned in the accommodative act, are prone
+to be accompanied with excessive secretion of tears. Hardness of the
+eyeball, not rising to inflammation, but implying a want of balance
+between the fluids poured out and again taken up by the intra-ocular
+vessels, is not usually attended with any lacrymation. When the balance
+is on the other side, and the eye becomes too soft, there is a greater
+tendency to lacrymation. Finally, there are numerous morbid states and
+structural alterations of the eyes, and even terrible inflammations,
+which may be attended with little or no secretion of tears.
+
+It also deserves notice, as indirectly bearing on our subject, that the
+eye and adjoining parts are subject to an extraordinary number of
+reflex and associated movements, sensations, and actions, besides those
+relating to the lacrymal glands. When a bright light strikes the retina
+of one eye alone, the iris contracts, but the iris of the other eye
+moves after a measurable interval of time. The iris likewise moves in
+accommodation to near or distant vision, and when the two eyes are made
+to converge.[623] Every one knows how irresistibly the eyebrows
+are drawn down under an intensely bright light. The eyelids also
+involuntarily wink when an object is moved near the eyes, or a sound
+is suddenly heard. The well-known case of a bright light causing some
+persons to sneeze is even more curious; for nerve-force here radiates
+from certain nerve-cells in connection with the retina, to the sensory
+nerve-cells of the nose, causing it to tickle; and from these, to the
+cells which command the various respiratory muscles (the orbiculars
+included) which expel the air in so peculiar a manner that it rushes
+through the nostrils alone.
+
+To return to our point: why are tears secreted during a screaming-fit or
+other violent expiratory efforts? As a slight blow on the eyelids causes
+a copious secretion of tears, it is at least possible that the spasmodic
+contraction of the eyelids, by pressing strongly on the eyeball, should
+in a similar manner cause some secretion. This seems possible, although
+the voluntary contraction of the same muscles does not produce any
+such effect. We know that a man cannot voluntarily sneeze or cough with
+nearly the same force as he does automatically; and so it is with the
+contraction of the orbicular muscles: Sir C. Bell experimented on them,
+and found that by suddenly and forcibly closing the eyelids in the dark,
+sparks of light are seen, like those caused by tapping the eyelids with
+the fingers; "but in sneezing the compression is both more rapid and
+more forcible, and the sparks are more brilliant." That these sparks
+are due to the contraction of the eyelids is clear, because if they
+"are held open during the act of sneezing, no sensation of light will be
+experienced." In the peculiar cases referred to by Professor Donders
+and Mr. Bowman, we have seen that some weeks after the eye has been very
+slightly injured, spasmodic contractions of the eyelids ensue, and these
+are accompanied by a profuse flow of tears. In the act of yawning, the
+tears are apparently due solely to the spasmodic contraction of the
+muscles round the eyes. Notwithstanding these latter cases, it seems
+hardly credible that the pressure of the eyelids on the surface of the
+eye, although effected spasmodically and therefore with much greater
+force than can be done voluntarily, should be sufficient to cause by
+reflex action the secretion of tears in the many cases in which this
+occurs during violent expiratory efforts.
+
+Another cause may come conjointly into play. We have seen that the
+internal parts of the eye, under certain conditions act in a reflex
+manner on the lacrymal glands. We know that during violent expiratory
+efforts the pressure of the arterial blood within the vessels of the
+eye is increased, and that the return of the venous blood is impeded.
+It seems, therefore, not improbable that the distension of the
+ocular vessels, thus induced, might act by reflection on the lacrymal
+glands--the effects due to the spasmodic pressure of the eyelids on the
+surface of the eye being thus increased.
+
+In considering how far this view is probable, we should bear in mind
+that the eyes of infants have been acted on in this double manner
+during numberless generations, whenever they have screamed; and on the
+principle of nerve-force readily passing along accustomed channels, even
+a moderate compression of the eyeballs and a moderate distension of
+the ocular vessels would ultimately come, through habit, to act on the
+glands. We have an analogous case in the orbicular muscles being
+almost always contracted in some slight degree, even during a gentle
+crying-fit, when there can be no distension of the vessels and no
+uncomfortable sensation excited within the eyes.
+
+Moreover, when complex actions or movements have long been performed
+in strict association together, and these are from any cause at first
+voluntarily and afterwards habitually checked, then if the proper
+exciting conditions occur, any part of the action or movement which is
+least under the control of the will, will often still be involuntarily
+performed. The secretion by a gland is remarkably free from the
+influence of the will; therefore, when with the advancing age of the
+individual, or with the advancing culture of the race, the habit of
+crying out or screaming is restrained, and there is consequently no
+distension of the blood-vessels of the eye, it may nevertheless well
+happen that tears should still be secreted. We may see, as lately
+remarked, the muscles round the eyes of a person who reads a pathetic
+story, twitching or trembling in so slight a degree as hardly to be
+detected. In this case there has been no screaming and no distension of
+the blood-vessels, yet through habit certain nerve-cells send a small
+amount of nerve-force to the cells commanding the muscles round the
+eyes; and they likewise send some to the cells commanding the lacrymal
+glands, for the eyes often become at the same time just moistened with
+tears. If the twitching of the muscles round the eyes and the secretion
+of tears had been completely prevented, nevertheless it is almost
+certain that there would have been some tendency to transmit nerve-force
+in these same directions; and as the lacrymal glands are remarkably free
+from the control of the will, they would be eminently liable still
+to act, thus betraying, though there were no other outward signs, the
+pathetic thoughts which were passing through the person's mind.
+
+As a further illustration of the view here advanced, I may remark that
+if, during an early period of life, when habits of all kinds are readily
+established, our infants, when pleased, had been accustomed to utter
+loud peals of laughter (during which the vessels of their eyes are
+distended) as often and as continuously as they have yielded when
+distressed to screaming-fits, then it is probable that in after life
+tears would have been as copiously and as regularly secreted under the
+one state of mind as under the other. Gentle laughter, or a smile,
+or even a pleasing thought, would have sufficed to cause a moderate
+secretion of tears. There does indeed exist an evident tendency in this
+direction, as will be seen in a future chapter, when we treat of
+the tender feelings. With the Sandwich Islanders, according to
+Freycinet,[624] tears are actually recognized as a sign of happiness;
+but we should require better evidence on this head than that of a
+passing voyager. So again if our infants, during many generations,
+and each of them during several years, had almost daily suffered
+from prolonged choking-fits, during which the vessels of the eye are
+distended and tears copiously secreted, then it is probable, such is the
+force of associated habit, that during after life the mere thought of a
+choke, without any distress of mind, would have sufficed to bring tears
+into our eyes.
+
+To sum up this chapter, weeping is probably the result of some such
+chain of events as follows. Children, when wanting food or suffering in
+any way, cry out loudly, like the young of most other animals, partly
+as a call to their parents for aid, and partly from any great exertion
+serving relief. Prolonged screaming inevitably leads to the gorging
+of the blood-vessels of the eye; and this will have led, at first
+consciously and at last habitually, to the contraction of the muscles
+round the eyes in order to protect them. At the same time the spasmodic
+pressure on the surface of the eye, and the distension of the vessels
+within the eye, without necessarily entailing any conscious sensation,
+will have affected, through reflex action, the lacrymal glands. Finally,
+through the three principles of nerve-force readily passing along
+accustomed channels--of association, which is so widely extended in its
+power--and of certain actions, being more under the control of the
+will than others--it has come to pass that suffering readily causes the
+secretion of tears, without being necessarily accompanied by any other
+action.
+
+Although in accordance with this view we must look at weeping as an
+incidental result, as purposeless as the secretion of tears from a blow
+outside the eye, or as a sneeze from the retina being affected by
+a bright light, yet this does not present any difficulty in our
+understanding how the secretion of tears serves as a relief to
+suffering. And by as much as the weeping is more violent or hysterical,
+by so much will the relief be greater,--on the same principle that the
+writhing of the whole body, the grinding of the teeth, and the uttering
+of piercing shrieks, all give relief under an agony of pain.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. -- LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.
+
+General effect of grief on the system--Obliquity of the eyebrows
+under suffering--On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows--On the
+depression of the corners of the mouth.
+
+
+AFTER the mind has suffered from an acute paroxysm of grief, and the
+cause still continues, we fall into a state of low spirits; or we may be
+utterly cast down and dejected. Prolonged bodily pain, if not amounting
+to an agony, generally leads to the same state of mind. If we expect to
+suffer, we are anxious; if we have no hope of relief, we despair.
+
+Persons suffering from excessive grief often seek relief by violent and
+almost frantic movements, as described in a former chapter; but when
+their suffering is somewhat mitigated, yet prolonged, they no longer
+wish for action, but remain motionless and passive, or may occasionally
+rock themselves to and fro. The circulation becomes languid; the face
+pale; the muscles flaccid; the eyelids droop; the head hangs on the
+contracted chest; the lips, cheeks, and lower jaw all sink downwards
+from their own weight. Hence all the features are lengthened; and the
+face of a person who hears bad news is said to fall. A party of natives
+in Tierra del Fuego endeavoured to explain to us that their friend, the
+captain of a sealing vessel, was out of spirits, by pulling down their
+cheeks with both hands, so as to make their faces as long as possible.
+Mr. Bunnet informs me that the Australian aborigines when out of spirits
+have a chop-fallen appearance. After prolonged suffering the eyes become
+dull and lack expression, and are often slightly suffused with tears.
+The eyebrows not rarely are rendered oblique, which is due to their
+inner ends being raised. This produces peculiarly-formed wrinkles on the
+forehead, which are very different from those of a simple frown; though
+in some cases a frown alone may be present. The comers of the mouth are
+drawn downwards, which is so universally recognized as a sign of being
+out of spirits, that it is almost proverbial.
+
+The breathing becomes slow and feeble, and is often interrupted by deep
+sighs. As Gratiolet remarks, whenever our attention is long concentrated
+on any subject, we forget to breathe, and then relieve ourselves by a
+deep inspiration; but the sighs of a sorrowful person, owing to his slow
+respiration and languid circulation, are eminently characteristic.[701]
+As the grief of a person in this state occasionally recurs and increases
+into a paroxysm, spasms affect the respiratory muscles, and he feels
+as if something, the so-called _globus hystericus_, was rising in his
+throat. These spasmodic movements are clearly allied to the sobbing of
+children, and are remnants of those severer spasms which occur when a
+person is said to choke from excessive grief.[702]
+
+
+_Obliquity of the eyebrows_.--Two points alone in the above description
+require further elucidation, and these are very curious ones; namely,
+the raising of the inner ends of the eyebrows, and the drawing down
+of the corners of the mouth. With respect to the eyebrows, they may
+occasionally be seen to assume an oblique position in persons suffering
+from deep dejection or anxiety; for instance, I have observed this
+movement in a mother whilst speaking about her sick son; and it is
+sometimes excited by quite trifling or momentary causes of real or
+pretended distress. The eyebrows assume this position owing to the
+contraction of certain muscles (namely, the orbiculars, corrugators, and
+pyramidals of the nose, which together tend to lower and contract the
+eyebrows) being partially cheeked by the more powerful action of the
+central fasciae of the frontal muscle. These latter fasciae by their
+contraction raise the inner ends alone of the eyebrows; and as the
+corrugators at the same time draw the eyebrows together, their inner
+ends become puckered into a fold or lump. This fold is a highly
+characteristic point in the appearance of the eyebrows when rendered
+oblique, as may be seen in figs. 2 and 5, Plate II. The eyebrows are
+at the same time somewhat roughened, owing to the hairs being made to
+project. Dr. J. Crichton Browne has also often noticed in melancholic
+patients who keep their eyebrows persistently oblique, "a peculiar
+acute arching of the upper eyelid." A trace of this may be observed by
+comparing the right and left eyelids of the young man in the photograph
+(fig. 2, Plate II.); for he was not able to act equally on both
+eyebrows. This is also shown by the unequal furrows on the two sides of
+his forehead. The acute arching of the eyelids depends, I believe, on
+the inner end alone of the eyebrows being raised; for when the whole
+eyebrow is elevated and arched, the upper eyelid follows in a slight
+degree the same movement.
+
+[Illustration:  Obliquity of the eyebrows. Plate II]
+
+But the most conspicuous result of the opposed contraction of the
+above-named muscles, is exhibited by the peculiar furrows formed on the
+forehead. These muscles, when thus in conjoint yet opposed action, may
+be called, for the sake of brevity, the grief-muscles. When a person
+elevates his eyebrows by the contraction of the whole frontal muscle,
+transverse wrinkles extend across the whole breadth of the forehead;
+but in the present case the middle fasciae alone are contracted;
+consequently, transverse furrows are formed across the middle part alone
+of the forehead. The skin over the exterior parts of both eyebrows is
+at the same time drawn downwards and smooth, by the contraction of
+the outer portions of the orbicular muscles. The eyebrows are
+likewise brought together through the simultaneous contraction of the
+corrugators;[703] and this latter action generates vertical furrows,
+separating the exterior and lowered part of the skin of the forehead
+from the central and raised part. The union of these vertical furrows
+with the central and transverse furrows (see figs. 2 and 3) produces a
+mark on the forehead which has been compared to a horse-shoe; but the
+furrows more strictly form three sides of a quadrangle. They are often
+conspicuous on the foreheads of adult or nearly adult persons, when
+their eyebrows are made oblique; but with young children, owing to their
+skin not easily wrinkling, they are rarely seen, or mere traces of them
+can be detected.
+
+These peculiar furrows are best represented in fig. 3, Plate II., on
+the forehead of a young lady who has the power in an unusual degree of
+voluntarily acting on the requisite muscles. As she was absorbed in the
+attempt, whilst being photographed, her expression was not at all one
+of grief; I have therefore given the forehead alone. Fig. 1 on the same
+plate, copied from Dr. Du-chenne's work,[704] represents, on a reduced
+scale, the face, in its natural state, of a young man who was a good
+actor. In fig. 2 he is shown simulating grief, but the two eyebrows, as
+before remarked, are not equally acted on. That the expression is true,
+may be inferred from the fact that out of fifteen persons, to whom the
+original photograph was shown, without any clue to what was intended
+being given them, fourteen immediately answered, "despairing sorrow,"
+"suffering endurance," "melancholy," and so forth. The history of fig. 5
+is rather curious: I saw the photograph in a shop-window, and took it
+to Mr. Rejlander for the sake of finding out by whom it had been made;
+remarking to him how pathetic the expression was. He answered, "I made
+it, and it was likely to be pathetic, for the boy in a few minutes burst
+out crying." He then showed me a photograph of the same boy in a placid
+state, which I have had (fig. 4) reproduced. In fig. 6, a trace of
+obliquity in the eyebrows may be detected; but this figure, as well as
+fig. 7, is given to show the depression of the corners of the mouth, to
+which subject I shall presently refer.
+
+Few persons, without some practice, can voluntarily act on their
+grief-muscles; but after repeated trials a considerable number succeed,
+whilst others never can. The degree of obliquity in the eyebrows,
+whether assumed voluntarily or unconsciously, differs much in different
+persons. With some who apparently have unusually strong pyramidal
+muscles, the contraction of the central fasciae of the frontal muscle,
+although it may be energetic, as shown by the quadrangular furrows on
+the forehead, does not raise the inner ends of the eyebrows, but only
+prevents their being so much lowered as they otherwise would have been.
+As far as I have been able to observe, the grief-muscles are brought
+into action much more frequently by children and women than by men. They
+are rarely acted on, at least with grown-up persons, from bodily pain,
+but almost exclusively from mental distress. Two persons who, after some
+practice, succeeded in acting on their grief-muscles, found by
+looking at a mirror that when they made their eyebrows oblique, they
+unintentionally at the same time depressed the corners of their mouths;
+and this is often the case when the expression is naturally assumed.
+
+The power to bring the grief-muscles freely into play appears to be
+hereditary, like almost every other human faculty. A lady belonging to
+a family famous for having produced an extraordinary number of great
+actors and actresses, and who can herself give this expression "with
+singular precision," told Dr. Crichton Browne that all her family had
+possessed the power in a remarkable degree. The same hereditary tendency
+is said to have extended, as I likewise hear from Dr. Browne, to the
+last descendant of the family, which gave rise to Sir Walter Scott's
+novel of 'Red Gauntlet;' but the hero is described as contracting his
+forehead into a horseshoe mark from any strong emotion. I have also seen
+a young woman whose forehead seemed almost habitually thus contracted,
+independently of any emotion being at the time felt.
+
+The grief-muscles are not very frequently brought into play; and as the
+action is often momentary, it easily escapes observation. Although the
+expression, when observed, is universally and instantly recognized as
+that of grief or anxiety, yet not one person out of a thousand who has
+never studied the subject, is able to say precisely what change passes
+over the sufferer's face. Hence probably it is that this expression is
+not even alluded to, as far as I have noticed, in any work of fiction,
+with the exception of 'Red Gauntlet' and of one other novel; and the
+authoress of the latter, as I am informed, belongs to the famous family
+of actors just alluded to; so that her attention may have been specially
+called to the subject.
+
+The ancient Greek sculptors were familiar with the expression, as shown
+in the statues of the Laocoon and Arretino; but, as Duchenne remarks,
+they carried the transverse furrows across the whole breadth of the
+forehead, and thus committed a great anatomical mistake: this is
+likewise the case in some modern statues. It is, however, more probable
+that these wonderfully accurate observers intentionally sacrificed truth
+for the sake of beauty, than that they made a mistake; for rectangular
+furrows on the forehead would not have had a grand appearance on the
+marble. The expression, in its fully developed condition, is, as far as
+I can discover, not often represented in pictures by the old masters, no
+doubt owing to the same cause; but a lady who is perfectly familiar with
+this expression, informs me that in Fra Angelico's 'Descent from the
+Cross' in Florence, it is clearly exhibited in one of the figures on the
+right-hand; and I could add a few other instances.
+
+Dr. Crichton Browne, at my request, closely attended to this expression
+in the numerous insane patients under his care in the West Biding
+Asylum; and he is familiar with Duchenne's photographs of the action
+of the grief-muscles. He informs me that they may constantly be seen
+in energetic action in cases of melancholia, and especially of
+hypochondria; and that the persistent lines or furrows, due to their
+habitual contraction, are characteristic of the physiognomy of the
+insane belonging to these two classes. Dr. Browne carefully observed for
+me during a considerable period three cases of hypochondria, in which
+the grief-muscles were persistently contracted. In one of these, a
+widow, aged 51, fancied that she had lost all her viscera, and that her
+whole body was empty. She wore an expression of great distress, and beat
+her semi-closed hands rhythmically together for hours. The grief-muscles
+were permanently contracted, and the upper eyelids arched. This
+condition lasted for months; she then recovered, and her countenance
+resumed its natural expression. A second case presented nearly the
+same peculiarities, with the addition that the comers of the mouth were
+depressed.
+
+Mr. Patrick Nicol has also kindly observed for me several cases in the
+Sussex Lunatic Asylum, and has communicated to me full details with
+respect to three of them; but they need not here be given. From his
+observations on melancholic patients, Mr. Nicol concludes that the inner
+ends of the eyebrows are almost always more or less raised, with the
+wrinkles on the forehead more or less plainly marked. In the case of one
+young woman, these wrinkles were observed to be in constant slight play
+or movement. In some cases the comers of the mouth are depressed,
+but often only in a slight degree. Some amount of difference in the
+expression of the several melancholic patients could almost always be
+observed. The eyelids generally droop; and the skin near their outer
+comers and beneath them is wrinkled. The naso-labial fold, which runs
+from the wings of the nostrils to the comers of the mouth, and which is
+so conspicuous in blubbering children, is often plainly marked in these
+patients.
+
+Although with the insane the grief-muscles often act persistently;
+yet in ordinary cases they are sometimes brought unconsciously into
+momentary action by ludicrously slight causes. A gentleman rewarded a
+young lady by an absurdly small present; she pretended to be offended,
+and as she upbraided him, her eyebrows became extremely oblique, with
+the forehead properly wrinkled. Another young lady and a youth, both in
+the highest spirits, were eagerly talking together with extraordinary
+rapidity; and I noticed that, as often as the young lady was beaten,
+and could not get out her words fast enough, her eyebrows went obliquely
+upwards, and rectangular furrows were formed on her forehead. She thus
+each time hoisted a flag of distress; and this she did half-a-dozen
+times in the course of a few minutes. I made no remark on the subject,
+but on a subsequent occasion I asked her to act on her grief-muscles;
+another girl who was present, and who could do so voluntarily, showing
+her what was intended. She tried repeatedly, but utterly failed; yet
+so slight a cause of distress as not being able to talk quickly enough,
+sufficed to bring these muscles over and over again into energetic
+action.
+
+The expression of grief, due to the contraction of the grief-muscles, is
+by no means confined to Europeans, but appears to be common to all the
+races of mankind. I have, at least, received trustworthy accounts in
+regard to Hindoos, Dhangars (one of the aboriginal hill-tribes of India,
+and therefore belonging to a quite distinct race from the Hindoos),
+Malays, Negroes and Australians. With respect to the latter, two
+observers answer my query in the affirmative, but enter into no details.
+Mr. Taplin, however, appends to my descriptive remarks the words
+"this is exact." With respect to negroes, the lady who told me of Fra
+Angelico's picture, saw a negro towing a boat on the Nile, and as he
+encountered an obstruction, she observed his grief-muscles in strong
+action, with the middle of the forehead well wrinkled. Mr. Geach watched
+a Malay man in Malacca, with the comers of his mouth much depressed,
+the eyebrows oblique, with deep short grooves on the forehead. This
+expression lasted for a very short time; and Mr. Geach remarks it "was
+a strange one, very much like a person about to cry at some great loss."
+
+In India Mr. H. Erskine found that the natives were familiar with this
+expression; and Mr. J. Scott, of the Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, has
+obligingly sent me a full description of two cases. He observed during
+some time, himself unseen, a very young Dhangar woman from Nag-pore, the
+wife of one of the gardeners, nursing her baby who was at the point of
+death; and he distinctly saw the eyebrows raised at the inner comers,
+the eyelids drooping, the forehead wrinkled in the middle, the mouth
+slightly open, with the comers much depressed. He then came from behind
+a screen of plants and spoke to the poor woman, who started, burst into
+a bitter flood of tears, and besought him to cure her baby. The second
+case was that of a Hindustani man, who from illness and poverty was
+compelled to sell his favourite goat. After receiving the money, he
+repeatedly looked at the money in his hand and then at the goat, as if
+doubting whether he would not return it. He went to the goat, which was
+tied up ready to be led away, and the animal reared up and licked his
+hands. His eyes then wavered from side to side; his "mouth was partially
+closed, with the corners very decidedly depressed." At last the poor man
+seemed to make up his mind that he must part with his goat, and then,
+as Mr. Scott saw, the eyebrows became slightly oblique, with the
+characteristic puckering or swelling at the inner ends, but the wrinkles
+on the forehead were not present. The man stood thus for a minute, then
+heaving a deep sigh, burst into tears, raised up his two hands, blessed
+the goat, turned round, and without looking again, went away.
+
+
+_On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows under suffering_.--During
+several years no expression seemed to me so utterly perplexing as this
+which we are here considering. Why should grief or anxiety cause the
+central fasciae alone of the frontal muscle together with those round
+the eyes, to contract? Here we seem to have a complex movement for the
+sole purpose of expressing grief; and yet it is a comparatively rare
+expression, and often overlooked. I believe the explanation is not so
+difficult as it at first appears. Dr. Duchenne gives a photograph of the
+young man before referred to, who, when looking upwards at a strongly
+illuminated surface, involuntarily contracted his grief-muscles in an
+exaggerated manner. I had entirely forgotten this photograph, when on
+a very bright day with the sun behind me, I met, whilst on horseback, a
+girl whose eyebrows, as she looked up at me, became extremely oblique,
+with the proper furrows on her forehead. I have observed the same
+movement under similar circumstances on several subsequent occasions. On
+my return home I made three of my children, without giving them any
+clue to my object, look as long and as attentively as they could, at the
+summit of a tall tree standing against an extremely bright sky. With
+all three, the orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal muscles were
+energetically contracted, through reflex action, from the excitement of
+the retina, so that their eyes might be protected from the bright light.
+But they tried their utmost to look upwards; and now a curious struggle,
+with spasmodic twitchings, could be observed between the whole or only
+the central portion of the frontal muscle, and the several muscles
+which serve to lower the eyebrows and close the eyelids. The involuntary
+contraction of the pyramidal caused the basal part of their noses to
+be transversely and deeply wrinkled. In one of the three children, the
+whole eyebrows were momentarily raised and lowered by the alternate
+contraction of the whole frontal muscle and of the muscles surrounding
+the eyes, so that the whole breadth of the forehead was alternately
+wrinkled and smoothed. In the other two children the forehead became
+wrinkled in the middle part alone, rectangular furrows being thus
+produced; and the eyebrows were rendered oblique, with their inner
+extremities puckered and swollen,--in the one child in a slight degree,
+in the other in a strongly marked manner. This difference in the
+obliquity of the eyebrows apparently depended on a difference in their
+general mobility, and in the strength of the pyramidal muscles. In both
+these cases the eyebrows and forehead were acted on under the influence
+of a strong light, in precisely the same manner, in every characteristic
+detail, as under the influence of grief or anxiety.
+
+Duchenne states that the pyramidal muscle of the nose is less under
+the control of the will than are the other muscles round the eyes. He
+remarks that the young man who could so well act on his grief-muscles,
+as well as on most of his other facial muscles, could not contract the
+pyramidals.[705] This power, however, no doubt differs in different
+persons. The pyramidal muscle serves to draw down the skin of the
+forehead between the eyebrows, together with their inner extremities.
+The central fasciae of the frontal are the antagonists of the pyramidal;
+and if the action of the latter is to be specially checked, these
+central fasciae must be contracted. So that with persons having powerful
+pyramidal muscles, if there is under the influence of a bright light an
+unconscious desire to prevent the lowering of the eyebrows, the central
+fasciae of the frontal muscle must be brought into play; and their
+contraction, if sufficiently strong to overmaster the pyramidals,
+together with the contraction of the corrugator and orbicular muscles,
+will act in the manner just described on the eyebrows and forehead.
+
+When children scream or cry out, they contract, as we know, the
+orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal muscles, primarily for the sake of
+compressing their eyes, and thus protecting them from being gorged with
+blood, and secondarily through habit. I therefore expected to find with
+children, that when they endeavoured either to prevent a crying-fit from
+coming on, or to stop crying, they would cheek the contraction of the
+above-named muscles, in the same manner as when looking upwards at a
+bright light; and consequently that the central fasciae of the frontal
+muscle would often be brought into play. Accordingly, I began myself to
+observe children at such times, and asked others, including some medical
+men, to do the same. It is necessary to observe carefully, as the
+peculiar opposed action of these muscles is not nearly so plain in
+children, owing to their foreheads not easily wrinkling, as in adults.
+But I soon found that the grief-muscles were very frequently brought
+into distinct action on these occasions. It would be superfluous to give
+all the cases which have been observed; and I will specify only a few.
+A little girl, a year and a half old, was teased by some other children,
+and before bursting into tears her eyebrows became decidedly oblique.
+With an older girl the same obliquity was observed, with the inner ends
+of the eyebrows plainly puckered; and at the same time the corners of
+the mouth were drawn downwards. As soon as she burst into tears, the
+features all changed and this peculiar expression vanished. Again,
+after a little boy had been vaccinated, which made him scream and cry
+violently, the surgeon gave him an orange brought for the purpose, and
+this pleased the child much; as he stopped crying all the characteristic
+movements were observed, including the formation of rectangular wrinkles
+in the middle of the forehead. Lastly, I met on the road a little girl
+three or four years old, who had been frightened by a dog, and when I
+asked her what was the matter, she stopped whimpering, and her eyebrows
+instantly became oblique to an extraordinary degree.
+
+Here then, as I cannot doubt, we have the key to the problem why the
+central fasciae of the frontal muscle and the muscles round the
+eyes contract in opposition to each other under the influence of
+grief;--whether their contraction be prolonged, as with the melancholic
+insane, or momentary, from some trifling cause of distress. We have all
+of us, as infants, repeatedly contracted our orbicular, corrugator, and
+pyramidal muscles, in order to protect our eyes whilst screaming; our
+progenitors before us have done the same during many generations; and
+though with advancing years we easily prevent, when feeling distressed,
+the utterance of screams, we cannot from long habit always prevent a
+slight contraction of the above-named muscles; nor indeed do we observe
+their contraction in ourselves, or attempt to stop it, if slight. But
+the pyramidal muscles seem to be less under the command of the will
+than the other related muscles; and if they be well developed, their
+contraction can be checked only by the antagonistic contraction of the
+central fasciae of the frontal muscle. The result which necessarily
+follows, if these fasciae contract energetically, is the oblique drawing
+up of the eyebrows, the puckering of their inner ends, and the formation
+of rectangular furrows on the middle of the forehead. As children and
+women cry much more freely than men, and as grown-up persons of both
+sexes rarely weep except from mental distress, we can understand why the
+grief-muscles are more frequently seen in action, as I believe to be
+the case, with children and women than with men; and with adults of both
+sexes from mental distress alone. In some of the cases before recorded,
+as in that of the poor Dhangar woman and of the Hindustani man, the
+action of the grief-muscles was quickly followed by bitter weeping. In
+all cases of distress, whether great or small, our brains tend through
+long habit to send an order to certain muscles to contract, as if we
+were still infants on the point of screaming out; but this order we, by
+the wondrous power of the will, and through habit, are able partially to
+counteract; although this is effected unconsciously, as far as the means
+of counteraction are concerned.
+
+
+_On the depression of the corners of the mouth_.--This action is
+effected by the _depressores anguili oris_ (see letter K in figs. 1
+and 2). The fibres of this muscle diverge downwards, with the upper
+convergent ends attached round the angles of the mouth, and to the lower
+lip a little way within the angles.[706] Some of the fibres appear to
+be antagonistic to the great zygomatic muscle, and others to the several
+muscles running to the outer part of the upper lip. The contraction
+of this muscle draws downwards and outwards the corners of the mouth,
+including the outer part of the upper lip, and even in a slight degree
+the wings of the nostrils. When the mouth is closed and this muscle
+acts, the commissure or line of junction of the two lips forms a curved
+line with the concavity downwards,[707] and the lips themselves are
+generally somewhat protruded, especially the lower one. The mouth in
+this state is well represented in the two photographs (Plate II., figs.
+6 and 7) by Mr. Rejlander. The upper boy (fig. 6) had just stopped
+crying, after receiving a slap on the face from another boy; and the
+right moment was seized for photographing him.
+
+The expression of low spirits, grief or dejection, due to the
+contraction of this muscle has been noticed by every one who has
+written on the subject. To say that a person "is down in the mouth," is
+synonymous with saying that he is out of spirits. The depression of the
+corners may often be seen, as already stated on the authority of Dr.
+Crichton Browne and Mr. Nicol, with the melancholic insane, and was well
+exhibited in some photographs sent to me by the former gentleman, of
+patients with a strong tendency to suicide. It has been observed
+with men belonging to various races, namely with Hindoos, the dark
+hill-tribes of India, Malays, and, as the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer informs me,
+with the aborigines of Australia.
+
+When infants scream they firmly contract the muscles round their eyes,
+and this draws up the upper lip; and as they have to keep their mouths
+widely open, the depressor muscles running to the corners are likewise
+brought into strong action. This generally, but not invariably, causes a
+slight angular bend in the lower lip on both sides, near the corners of
+the mouth. The result of the upper and lower lip being thus acted on
+is that the mouth assumes a squarish outline. The contraction of the
+depressor muscle is best seen in infants when not screaming violently,
+and especially just before they begin, or when they cease to scream.
+Their little faces then acquire an extremely piteous expression, as I
+continually observed with my own infants between the ages of about
+six weeks and two or three months. Sometimes, when they are struggling
+against a crying-fit, the outline of the mouth is curved in so
+exaggerated a manner as to be like a horseshoe; and the expression of
+misery then becomes a ludicrous caricature.
+
+The explanation of the contraction of this muscle, under the influence
+of low spirits or dejection, apparently follows from the same general
+principles as in the case of the obliquity of the eyebrows. Dr. Duchenne
+informs me that he concludes from his observations, now prolonged during
+many years, that this is one of the facial muscles which is least under
+the control of the will. This fact may indeed be inferred from what has
+just been stated with respect to infants when doubtfully beginning to
+cry, or endeavouring to stop crying; for they then generally command all
+the other facial muscles more effectually than they do the depressors of
+the corners of the mouth. Two excellent observers who had no theory on
+the subject, one of them a surgeon, carefully watched for me some older
+children and women as with some opposed struggling they very gradually
+approached the point of bursting out into tears; and both observers felt
+sure that the depressors began to act before any of the other muscles.
+Now as the depressors have been repeatedly brought into strong action
+during infancy in many generations, nerve-force will tend to flow, on
+the principle of long associated habit, to these muscles as well as
+to various other facial muscles, whenever in after life even a slight
+feeling of distress is experienced. But as the depressors are somewhat
+less under the control of the will than most of the other muscles, we
+might expect that they would often slightly contract, whilst the others
+remained passive. It is remarkable how small a depression of the corners
+of the mouth gives to the countenance an expression of low spirits or
+dejection, so that an extremely slight contraction of these muscles
+would be sufficient to betray this state of mind.
+
+I may here mention a trifling observation, as it will serve to sum
+up our present subject. An old lady with a comfortable but absorbed
+expression sat nearly opposite to me in a railway carriage. Whilst I
+was looking at her, I saw that her _depressores anguli oris_ became very
+slightly, yet decidedly, contracted; but as her countenance remained as
+placid as ever, I reflected how meaningless was this contraction, and
+how easily one might be deceived. The thought had hardly occurred to me
+when I saw that her eyes suddenly became suffused with tears almost to
+overflowing, and her whole countenance fell. There could now be no doubt
+that some painful recollection, perhaps that of a long-lost child, was
+passing through her mind. As soon as her sensorium was thus affected,
+certain nerve-cells from long habit instantly transmitted an order to
+all the respiratory muscles, and to those round the mouth, to prepare
+for a fit of crying. But the order was countermanded by the will, or
+rather by a later acquired habit, and all the muscles were obedient,
+excepting in a slight degree the _depressores anguli oris_. The mouth
+was not even opened; the respiration was not hurried; and no muscle was
+affected except those which draw down the corners of the mouth.
+
+As soon as the mouth of this lady began, involuntarily and unconsciously
+on her part, to assume the proper form for a crying-fit, we may feel
+almost sure that some nerve-influence would have been transmitted
+through the long accustomed channels to the various respiratory muscles,
+as well as to those round the eyes, and to the vaso-motor centre which
+governs the supply of blood sent to the lacrymal glands. Of this
+latter fact we have indeed clear evidence in her eyes becoming slightly
+suffused with tears; and we can understand this, as the lacrymal glands
+are less under the control of the will than the facial muscles. No doubt
+there existed at the same time some tendency in the muscles round the
+eyes at contract, as if for the sake of protecting them from being
+gorged with blood, but this contraction was completely overmastered,
+and her brow remained unruffled. Had the pyramidal, corrugator, and
+orbicular muscles been as little obedient to the will, as they are
+in many persons, they would have been slightly acted on; and then
+the central fasciae of the frontal muscle would have contracted in
+antagonism, and her eyebrows would have become oblique, with rectangular
+furrows on her forehead. Her countenance would then have expressed still
+more plainly than it did a state of dejection, or rather one of grief.
+
+Through steps such as these we can understand how it is, that as soon
+as some melancholy thought passes through the brain, there occurs a
+just perceptible drawing down of the corners of the mouth, or a
+slight raising up of the inner ends of the eyebrows, or both movements
+combined, and immediately afterwards a slight suffusion of tears. A
+thrill of nerve-force is transmitted along several habitual channels,
+and produces an effect on any point where the will has not acquired
+through long habit much power of interference. The above actions may be
+considered as rudimental vestiges of the screaming-fits, which are so
+frequent and prolonged during infancy. In this case, as well as in many
+others, the links are indeed wonderful which connect cause and effect
+in giving rise to various expressions on the human countenance; and they
+explain to us the meaning of certain movements, which we involuntarily
+and unconsciously perform, whenever certain transitory emotions pass
+through our minds.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. -- JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
+
+Laughter primarily the expression of joy--Ludicrous ideas--Movements
+of the features during laughter--Nature of the sound produced--The
+secretion of tears during loud laughter--Gradation from loud laughter
+to gentle smiling--High spirits--The expression of love--Tender
+feelings--Devotion.
+
+
+JOY, when intense, leads to various purposeless movements--to dancing
+about, clapping the hands, stamping, &c., and to loud laughter. Laughter
+seems primarily to be the expression of mere joy or happiness. We
+clearly see this in children at play, who are almost incessantly
+laughing. With young persons past childhood, when they are in high
+spirits, there is always much meaningless laughter. The laughter of the
+gods is described by Homer as "the exuberance of their celestial joy
+after their daily banquet." A man smiles--and smiling, as we shall see,
+graduates into laughter--at meeting an old friend in the street, as he
+does at any trifling pleasure, such as smelling a sweet perfume.[801]
+Laura Bridgman, from her blindness and deafness, could not have acquired
+any expression through imitation, yet when a letter from a beloved
+friend was communicated to her by gesture-language, she "laughed and
+clapped her hands, and the colour mounted to her cheeks." On other
+occasions she has been seen to stamp for joy.[802]
+
+Idiots and imbecile persons likewise afford good evidence that laughter
+or smiling primarily expresses mere happiness or joy. Dr. Crichton
+Browne, to whom, as on so many other occasions, I am indebted for the
+results of his wide experience, informs me that with idiots laughter is
+the most prevalent and frequent of all the emotional expressions. Many
+idiots are morose, passionate, restless, in a painful state of mind,
+or utterly stolid, and these never laugh. Others frequently laugh in
+a quite senseless manner. Thus an idiot boy, incapable of speech,
+complained to Dr. Browne, by the aid of signs, that another boy in
+the asylum had given him a black eye; and this was accompanied by
+"explosions of laughter and with his face covered with the broadest
+smiles." There is another large class of idiots who are persistently
+joyous and benign, and who are constantly laughing or smiling.[803]
+Their countenances often exhibit a stereotyped smile; their joyousness
+is increased, and they grin, chuckle, or giggle, whenever food is placed
+before them, or when they are caressed, are shown bright colours, or
+hear music. Some of them laugh more than usual when they walk about, or
+attempt any muscular exertion. The joyousness of most of these idiots
+cannot possibly be associated, as Dr. Browne remarks, with any distinct
+ideas: they simply feel pleasure, and express it by laughter or smiles.
+With imbeciles rather higher in the scale, personal vanity seems to be
+the commonest cause of laughter, and next to this, pleasure arising from
+the approbation of their conduct.
+
+With grown-up persons laughter is excited by causes considerably
+different from those which suffice during childhood; but this remark
+hardly applies to smiling. Laughter in this respect is analogous with
+weeping, which with adults is almost confined to mental distress, whilst
+with children it is excited by bodily pain or any suffering, as well
+as by fear or rage. Many curious discussions have been written on the
+causes of laughter with grown-up persons. The subject is extremely
+complex. Something incongruous or unaccountable, exciting surprise and
+some sense of superiority in the laugher, who must be in a happy frame
+of mind, seems to be the commonest cause.[804] The circumstances must
+not be of a momentous nature: no poor man would laugh or smile on
+suddenly hearing that a large fortune had been bequeathed to him. If
+the mind is strongly excited by pleasurable feelings, and any little
+unexpected event or thought occurs, then, as Mr. Herbert Spencer
+remarks,[805] "a large amount of nervous energy, instead of being
+allowed to expend itself in producing an equivalent amount of the new
+thoughts and emotion which were nascent, is suddenly checked in its
+flow."... "The excess must discharge itself in some other direction, and
+there results an efflux through the motor nerves to various classes of
+the muscles, producing the half-convulsive actions we term laughter." An
+observation, bearing on this point, was made by a correspondent during
+the recent siege of Paris, namely, that the German soldiers, after
+strong excitement from exposure to extreme danger, were particularly
+apt to burst out into loud laughter at the smallest joke. So again
+when young children are just beginning to cry, an unexpected event will
+sometimes suddenly turn their crying into laughter, which apparently
+serves equally well to expend their superfluous nervous energy.
+
+The imagination is sometimes said to be tickled by a ludicrous idea; and
+this so-called tickling of the mind is curiously analogous with that of
+the body. Every one knows how immoderately children laugh, and how their
+whole bodies are convulsed when they are tickled. The anthropoid apes,
+as we have seen, likewise utter a reiterated sound, corresponding with
+our laughter, when they are tickled, especially under the armpits. I
+touched with a bit of paper the sole of the foot of one of my infants,
+when only seven days old, and it was suddenly jerked away and the toes
+curled about, as in an older child. Such movements, as well as laughter
+from being tickled, are manifestly reflex actions; and this is likewise
+shown by the minute unstriped muscles, which serve to erect the separate
+hairs on the body, contracting near a tickled surface.[806] Yet laughter
+from a ludicrous idea, though involuntary, cannot be called a strictly
+reflex action. In this case, and in that of laughter from being tickled,
+the mind must be in a pleasurable condition; a young child, if tickled
+by a strange man, would scream from fear. The touch must be light, and
+an idea or event, to be ludicrous, must not be of grave import. The
+parts of the body which are most easily tickled are those which are not
+commonly touched, such as the armpits or between the toes, or parts
+such as the soles of the feet, which are habitually touched by a broad
+surface; but the surface on which we sit offers a marked exception to
+this rule. According to Gratiolet,[807] certain nerves are much more
+sensitive to tickling than others. From the fact that a child can hardly
+tickle itself, or in a much less degree than when tickled by another
+person, it seems that the precise point to be touched must not be known;
+so with the mind, something unexpected--a novel or incongruous idea
+which breaks through an habitual train of thought--appears to be a
+strong element in the ludicrous.
+
+The sound of laughter is produced by a deep inspiration followed by
+short, interrupted, spasmodic contractions of the chest, and especially
+of the diaphragm.[808] Hence we hear of "laughter holding both his
+sides." From the shaking of the body, the head nods to and fro. The
+lower jaw often quivers up and down, as is likewise the case with some
+species of baboons, when they are much pleased.
+
+[Illustration: Moderate laughter and smiling. Plate III]
+
+During laughter the mouth is opened more or less widely, with the
+corners drawn much backwards, as well as a little upwards; and the upper
+lip is somewhat raised. The drawing back of the corners is best seen in
+moderate laughter, and especially in a broad smile--the latter epithet
+showing how the mouth is widened. In the accompanying figs. 1-3, Plate
+III., different degrees of moderate laughter and smiling have been
+photographed. The figure of the little girl, with the hat is by Dr.
+Wallich, and the expression was a genuine one; the other two are by Mr.
+Rejlander. Dr. Duchenne repeatedly insists[809] that, under the emotion
+of joy, the mouth is acted on exclusively by the great zygomatic
+muscles, which serve to draw the corners backwards and upwards; but
+judging from the manner in which the upper teeth are always exposed
+during laughter and broad smiling, as well as from my own sensations,
+I cannot doubt that some of the muscles running to the upper lip are
+likewise brought into moderate action. The upper and lower orbicular
+muscles of the eyes are at the same time more or less contracted; and
+there is an intimate connection, as explained in the chapter on weeping,
+between the orbiculars, especially the lower ones and some of the
+muscles running to the upper lip. Henle remarks[810] on this head, that
+when a man closely shuts one eye he cannot avoid retracting the upper
+lip on the same side; conversely, if any one will place his finger
+on his lower eyelid, and then uncover his upper incisors as much as
+possible, he will feel, as his upper lip is drawn strongly upwards, that
+the muscles of the lower eyelid contract. In Henle's drawing, given in
+woodcut, fig. 2, the _musculus malaris_ (H) which runs to the upper
+lip may be seen to form an almost integral part of the lower orbicular
+muscle.
+
+Dr. Duchenne has given a large photograph of an old man (reduced on
+Plate III. fig 4), in his usual passive condition, and another of
+the same man (fig. 5), naturally smiling. The latter was instantly
+recognized by every one to whom it was shown as true to nature. He
+has also given, as an example of an unnatural or false smile, another
+photograph (fig. 6) of the same old man, with the corners of his mouth
+strongly retracted by the galvanization of the great zygomatic
+muscles. That the expression is not natural is clear, for I showed this
+photograph to twenty-four persons, of whom three could not in the least
+tell what was meant, whilst the others, though they perceived that the
+expression was of the nature of a smile, answered in such words as "a
+wicked joke," "trying to laugh," "grinning laughter.... half-amazed
+laughter," &c. Dr. Duchenne attributes the falseness of the expression
+altogether to the orbicular muscles of the lower eyelids not being
+sufficiently contracted; for he justly lays great stress on their
+contraction in the expression of joy. No doubt there is much truth
+in this view, but not, as it appears to me, the whole truth. The
+contraction of the lower orbiculars is always accompanied, as we have
+seen, by the drawing up of the upper lip. Had the upper lip, in fig.
+6, been thus acted on to a slight extent, its curvature would have been
+less rigid, the naso-labial farrow would have been slightly different,
+and the whole expression would, as I believe, have been more natural,
+independently of the more conspicuous effect from the stronger
+contraction of the lower eyelids. The corruptor muscle, moreover, in
+fig. 6, is too much contracted, causing a frown; and this muscle never
+acts under the influence of joy except during strongly pronounced or
+violent laughter.
+
+By the drawing backwards and upwards of the corners of the mouth,
+through the contraction of the great zygomatic muscles, and by the
+raising of the upper lip, the cheeks are drawn upwards. Wrinkles are
+thus formed under the eyes, and, with old people, at their outer ends;
+and these are highly characteristic of laughter or smiling. As a gentle
+smile increases into a strong one, or into a laugh, every one may feel
+and see, if he will attend to his own sensations and look at himself
+in a mirror, that as the upper lip is drawn up and the lower orbiculars
+contract, the wrinkles in the lower eyelids and those beneath the
+eyes are much strengthened or increased. At the same time, as I have
+repeatedly observed, the eyebrows are slightly lowered, which shows
+that the upper as well as the lower orbiculars contract at least to some
+degree, though this passes unperecived, as far as our sensations
+are concerned. If the original photograph of the old man, with his
+countenance in its usual placid state (fig. 4), be compared with that
+(fig. 5) in which he is naturally smiling, it may be seen that the
+eyebrows in the latter are a little lowered. I presume that this is
+owing to the upper orbiculars being impelled, through the force of
+long-associated habit, to act to a certain extent in concert with the
+lower orbiculars, which themselves contract in connection with the
+drawing up of the upper lip.
+
+The tendency in the zygomatic muscles to contract under pleasurable
+emotions is shown by a curious fact, communicated to me by Dr. Browne,
+with respect to patients suffering from GENERAL PARALYSIS OF
+THE INSANE.[811] "In this malady there is almost invariably
+optimism--delusions as to wealth, rank, grandeur--insane joyousness,
+benevolence, and profusion, while its very earliest physical symptom is
+trembling at the corners of the mouth and at the outer corners of the
+eyes. This is a well-recognized fact. Constant tremulous agitation of
+the inferior palpebral and great zygomatic muscles is pathognomic of the
+earlier stages of general paralysis. The countenance has a pleased and
+benevolent expression. As the disease advances other muscles become
+involved, but until complete fatuity is reached, the prevailing
+expression is that of feeble benevolence."
+
+As in laughing and broadly smiling the cheeks and upper lip are much
+raised, the nose appears to be shortened, and the skin on the bridge
+becomes finely wrinkled in transverse lines, with other oblique
+longitudinal lines on the sides. The upper front teeth are commonly
+exposed. A well-marked naso-labial fold is formed, which runs from the
+wing of each nostril to the corner of the mouth; and this fold is often
+double in old persons.
+
+A bright and sparkling eye is as characteristic of a pleased or amused
+state of mind, as is the retraction of the corners of the mouth
+and upper lip with the wrinkles thus produced. Even the eyes of
+microcephalous idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn to
+speak, brighten slightly when they are pleased.[812] Under extreme
+laughter the eyes are too much suffused with tears to sparkle; but the
+moisture squeezed out of the glands during moderate laughter or smiling
+may aid in giving them lustre; though this must be of altogether
+subordinate importance, as they become dull from grief, though they
+are then often moist. Their brightness seems to be chiefly due to their
+tenseness,[813] owing to the contraction of the orbicular muscles and
+to the pressure of the raised cheeks. But, according to Dr. Piderit,
+who has discussed this point more fully than any other writer,[814] the
+tenseness may be largely attributed to the eyeballs becoming filled
+with blood and other fluids, from the acceleration of the circulation,
+consequent on the excitement of pleasure. He remarks on the contrast in
+the appearance of the eyes of a hectic patient with a rapid circulation,
+and of a man suffering from cholera with almost all the fluids of his
+body drained from him. Any cause which lowers the circulation deadens
+the eye. I remember seeing a man utterly prostrated by prolonged and
+severe exertion during a very hot day, and a bystander compared his eyes
+to those of a boiled codfish.
+
+To return to the sounds produced during laughter. We can see in a vague
+manner how the utterance of sounds of some kind would naturally become
+associated with a pleasurable state of mind; for throughout a large part
+of the animal kingdom vocal or instrumental sounds are employed either
+as a call or as a charm by one sex for the other. They are also
+employed as the means for a joyful meeting between the parents and
+their offspring, and between the attached members of the same social
+community. But why the sounds which man utters when he is pleased
+have the peculiar reiterated character of laughter we do not know.
+Nevertheless we can see that they would naturally be as different as
+possible from the screams or cries of distress; and as in the production
+of the latter, the expirations are prolonged and continuous, with
+the inspirations short and interrupted, so it might perhaps have been
+expected with the sounds uttered from joy, that the expirations would
+have been short and broken with the inspirations prolonged; and this is
+the case.
+
+It is an equally obscure point why the corners of the mouth are
+retracted and the upper lip raised during ordinary laughter. The mouth
+must not be opened to its utmost extent, for when this occurs during
+a paroxysm of excessive laughter hardly any sound is emitted; or it
+changes its tone and seems to come from deep down in the throat. The
+respiratory muscles, and even those of the limbs, are at the same time
+thrown into rapid vibratory movements. The lower jaw often partakes
+of this movement, and this would tend to prevent the mouth from being
+widely opened. But as a full volume of sound has to be poured forth, the
+orifice of the mouth must be large; and it is perhaps to gain this end
+that the corners are retracted and the upper lip raised. Although we can
+hardly account for the shape of the mouth during laughter, which
+leads to wrinkles being formed beneath the eyes, nor for the peculiar
+reiterated sound of laughter, nor for the quivering of the jaws,
+nevertheless we may infer that all these effects are due to some common
+cause. For they are all characteristic and expressive of a pleased state
+of mind in various kinds of monkeys.
+
+A graduated series can be followed from violent to moderate laughter,
+to a broad smile, to a gentle smile, and to the expression of mere
+cheerfulness. During excessive laughter the whole body is often thrown
+backward and shakes, or is almost convulsed; the respiration is much
+disturbed; the head and face become gorged with blood, with the veins
+distended; and the orbicular muscles are spasmodically contracted in
+order to protect the eyes. Tears are freely shed. Hence, as formerly
+remarked, it is scarcely possible to point out any difference between
+the tear-stained face of a person after a paroxysm of excessive laughter
+and after a bitter crying-fit.[815] It is probably due to the close
+similarity of the spasmodic movements caused by these widely different
+emotions that hysteric patients alternately cry and laugh with violence,
+and that young children sometimes pass suddenly from the one to the
+other state. Mr. Swinhoe informs me that he has often seen the Chinese,
+when suffering from deep grief, burst out into hysterical fits of
+laughter.
+
+I was anxious to know whether tears are freely shed during excessive
+laughter by most of the races of men, and I hear from my correspondents
+that this is the case. One instance was observed with the Hindoos, and
+they themselves said that it often occurred. So it is with the Chinese.
+The women of a wild tribe of Malays in the Malacca peninsula, sometimes
+shed tears when they laugh heartily, though this seldom occurs. With the
+Dyaks of Borneo it must frequently be the case, at least with the women,
+for I hear from the Rajah C. Brooke that it is a common expression with
+them to say "we nearly made tears from laughter." The aborigines of
+Australia express their emotions freely, and they are described by my
+correspondents as jumping about and clapping their hands for joy, and as
+often roaring with laughter. No less than four observers have seen their
+eyes freely watering on such occasions; and in one instance the tears
+rolled down their cheeks. Mr. Bulmer, a missionary in a remote part of
+Victoria, remarks, "that they have a keen sense of the ridiculous;
+they are excellent mimics, and when one of them is able to imitate the
+peculiarities of some absent member of the tribe, it is very common to
+hear all in the camp convulsed with laughter." With Europeans hardly
+anything excites laughter so easily as mimicry; and it is rather curious
+to find the same fact with the savages of Australia, who constitute one
+of the most distinct races in the world.
+
+In Southern Africa with two tribes of Kafirs, especially with the women,
+their eyes often fill with tears during laughter. Gaika, the brother of
+the chief Sandilli, answers my query on this bead, with the words, "Yes,
+that is their common practice." Sir Andrew Smith has seen the painted
+face of a Hottentot woman all furrowed with tears after a fit of
+laughter. In Northern Africa, with the Abyssinians, tears are secreted
+under the same circumstances. Lastly, in North America, the same fact
+has been observed in a remarkably savage and isolated tribe, but chiefly
+with the women; in another tribe it was observed only on a single
+occasion.
+
+Excessive laughter, as before remarked, graduates into moderate
+laughter. In this latter case the muscles round the eyes are much less
+contracted, and there is little or no frowning. Between a gentle laugh
+and a broad smile there is hardly any difference, excepting that in
+smiling no reiterated sound is uttered, though a single rather strong
+expiration, or slight noise--a rudiment of a laugh--may often be heard
+at the commencement of a smile. On a moderately smiling countenance the
+contraction of the upper orbicular muscles can still just be traced by a
+slight lowering of the eyebrows. The contraction of the lower orbicular
+and palpebral muscles is much plainer, and is shown by the wrinkling of
+the lower eyelids and of the skin beneath them, together with a slight
+drawing up of the upper lip. From the broadest smile we pass by the
+finest steps into the gentlest one. In this latter case the features are
+moved in a much less degree, and much more slowly, and the mouth is
+kept closed. The curvature of the naso-labial furrow is also slightly
+different in the two cases. We thus see that no abrupt line of
+demarcation can be drawn between the movement of the features during the
+most violent laughter and a very faint smile.[816]
+
+A smile, therefore, may be said to be the first stage in the development
+of a laugh. But a different and more probable view may be suggested;
+namely, that the habit of uttering load reiterated sounds from a sense
+of pleasure, first led to the retraction of the corners of the mouth and
+of the upper lip, and to the contraction of the orbicular muscles; and
+that now, through association and long-continued habit, the same muscles
+are brought into slight play whenever any cause excites in us a feeling
+which, if stronger, would have led to laughter; and the result is a
+smile.
+
+Whether we look at laughter as the full development of a smile, or, as
+is more probable, at a gentle smile as the last trace of a habit, firmly
+fixed during many generations, of laughing whenever we are joyful, we
+can follow in our infants the gradual passage of the one into the other.
+It is well known to those who have the charge of young infants, that it
+is difficult to feel sure when certain movements about their mouths are
+really expressive; that is, when they really smile. Hence I carefully
+watched my own infants. One of them at the age of forty-five days, and
+being at the time in a happy frame of mind, smiled; that is, the
+corners of the mouth were retracted, and simultaneously the eyes became
+decidedly bright. I observed the same thing on the following day; but on
+the third day the child was not quite well and there was no trace of a
+smile, and this renders it probable that the previous smiles were real.
+Eight days subsequently and during the next succeeding week, it was
+remarkable how his eyes brightened whenever he smiled, and his nose
+became at the same time transversely wrinkled. This was now accompanied
+by a little bleating noise, which perhaps represented a laugh. At the
+age of 113 days these little noises, which were always made during
+expiration, assumed a slightly different character, and were more
+broken or interrupted, as in sobbing; and this was certainly incipient
+laughter. The change in tone seemed to me at the time to be connected
+with the greater lateral extension of the mouth as the smiles became
+broader.
+
+In a second infant the first real smile was observed at about the same
+age, viz. forty-five days; and in a third, at a somewhat earlier age.
+The second infant, when sixty-five days old, smiled much more broadly
+and plainly than did the one first mentioned at the same age; and even
+at this early age uttered noises very like laughter. In this gradual
+acquirement, by infants, of the habit of laughing, we have a case in
+some degree analogous to that of weeping. As practice is requisite with
+the ordinary movements of the body, such as walking, so it seems to be
+with laughing and weeping. The art of screaming, on the other hand,
+from being of service to infants, has become finely developed from the
+earliest days.
+
+
+_High spirits, cheerfulness_.--A man in high spirits, though he may not
+actually smile, commonly exhibits some tendency to the retraction of the
+corners of his mouth. From the excitement of pleasure, the circulation
+becomes more rapid; the eyes are bright, and the colour of the face
+rises. The brain, being stimulated by the increased flow of blood,
+reacts on the mental powers; lively ideas pass still more rapidly
+through the mind, and the affections are warmed. I heard a child, a
+little under four years old, when asked what was meant by being in good
+spirits, answer, "It is laughing, talking, and kissing." It would be
+difficult to give a truer and more practical definition. A man in this
+state holds his body erect, his head upright, and his eyes open. There
+is no drooping of the features, and no contraction of the eyebrows.
+On the contrary, the frontal muscle, as Moreau observes,[817] tends to
+contract slightly; and this smooths the brow, removes every trace of a
+frown, arches the eyebrows a little, and raises the eyelids. Hence the
+Latin phrase, _exporrigere frontem_--to unwrinkle the brow--means, to
+be cheerful or merry. The whole expression of a man in good spirits is
+exactly the opposite of that of one suffering from sorrow. According to
+Sir C. Bell, "In all the exhilarating emotions the eyebrows, eyelids,
+the nostrils, and the angles of the mouth are raised. In the depressing
+passions it is the reverse." Under the influence of the latter the brow
+is heavy, the eyelids, cheeks, mouth, and whole head droop; the eyes are
+dull; the countenance pallid, and the respiration slow. In joy the face
+expands, in grief it lengthens. Whether the principle of antithesis has
+here come into play in producing these opposite expressions, in aid of
+the direct causes which have been specified and which are sufficiently
+plain, I will not pretend to say.
+
+With all the races of man the expression of good spirit appears to be
+the same, and is easily recognized. My informants, from various parts of
+the Old and New Worlds, answer in the affirmative to my queries on this
+head, and they give some particulars with respect to Hindoos, Malays,
+and New Zealanders. The brightness of the eyes of the Australians has
+struck four observers, and the same fact has been noticed with Hindoos,
+New Zealanders, and the Dyaks of Borneo.
+
+Savages sometimes express their satisfaction not only by smiling, but
+by gestures derived from the pleasure of eating. Thus Mr. Wedgwood[818]
+quotes Petherick that the negroes on the Upper Nile began a general
+rubbing of their bellies when he displayed his beads; and Leichhardt
+says that the Australians smacked and clacked their mouths at the sight
+of his horses and bullocks, and more especially of his kangaroo dogs.
+The Greenlanders, "when they affirm anything with pleasure, suck down
+air with a certain sound;"[819] and this may be an imitation of the act
+of swallowing savoury food.
+
+Laughter is suppressed by the firm contraction of the orbicular muscles
+of the mouth, which prevents the great zygomatic and other muscles from
+drawing the lips backwards and upwards. The lower lip is also sometimes
+held by the teeth, and this gives a roguish expression to the face,
+as was observed with the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman.[820] The great
+zygomatic muscle is sometimes variable in its course, and I have seen
+a young woman in whom the _depressores anguli oris_ were brought into
+strong action in suppressing a smile; but this by no means gave to her
+countenance a melancholy expression, owing to the brightness of her
+eyes.
+
+Laughter is frequently employed in a forced manner to conceal or mask
+some other state of mind, even anger. We often see persons laughing in
+order to conceal their shame or shyness. When a person purses up his
+mouth, as if to prevent the possibility of a smile, though there is
+nothing to excite one, or nothing to prevent its free indulgence, an
+affected, solemn, or pedantic expression is given; but of such hybrid
+expressions nothing more need here be said. In the case of derision, a
+real or pretended smile or laugh is often blended with the expression
+proper to contempt, and this may pass into angry contempt or scorn. In
+such cases the meaning of the laugh or smile is to show the offending
+person that he excites only amusement.
+
+_Love, tender feelings, &c_.--Although the emotion of love, for instance
+that of a mother for her infant, is one of the strongest of which the
+mind is capable, it can hardly be said to have any proper or peculiar
+means of expression; and this is intelligible, as it has not habitually
+led to any special line of action. No doubt, as affection is a
+pleasurable sensation, it generally causes a gentle smile and some
+brightening of the eyes. A strong desire to touch the beloved person is
+commonly felt; and love is expressed by this means more plainly than
+by any other.[821] Hence we long to clasp in our arms those whom we
+tenderly love. We probably owe this desire to inherited habit, in
+association with the nursing and tending of our children, and with the
+mutual caresses of lovers.
+
+With the lower animals we see the same principle of pleasure derived
+from contact in association with love. Dogs and cats manifestly take
+pleasure in rubbing against their masters and mistresses, and in being
+rubbed or patted by them. Many kinds of monkeys, as I am assured by the
+keepers in the Zoological Gardens, delight in fondling and being fondled
+by each other, and by persons to whom they are attached. Mr. Bartlett
+has described to me the behaviour of two chimpanzees, rather older
+animals than those generally imported into this country, when they were
+first brought together. They sat opposite, touching each other with
+their much protruded lips; and the one put his hand on the shoulder
+of the other. They then mutually folded each other in their arms.
+Afterwards they stood up, each with one arm on the shoulder of the
+other, lifted up their heads, opened their mouths, and yelled with
+delight.
+
+We Europeans are so accustomed to kissing as a mark of affection, that
+it might be thought to be innate in mankind; but this is not the case.
+Steele was mistaken when he said "Nature was its author, and it began
+with the first courtship." Jemmy Button, the Fuegian, told me that this
+practice was unknown in his land. It is equally unknown with the New
+Zealanders, Tahitians, Papuans, Australians, Somals of Africa, and
+the Esquimaux. But it is so far innate or natural that it apparently
+depends on pleasure from close contact with a beloved person; and it is
+replaced in various parts of the world, by the rubbing of noses, as
+with the New Zealanders and Laplanders, by the rubbing or patting of the
+arms, breasts, or stomachs, or by one man striking his own face with the
+hands or feet of another. Perhaps the practice of blowing, as a mark
+of affection, on various parts of the body may depend on the same
+principle.[823]
+
+The feelings which are called tender are difficult to analyse; they seem
+to be compounded of affection, joy, and especially of sympathy. These
+feelings are in themselves of a pleasurable nature, excepting when pity
+is too deep, or horror is aroused, as in hearing of a tortured man or
+animal. They are remarkable under our present point of view from so
+readily exciting the secretion of tears. Many a father and son have wept
+on meeting after a long separation, especially if the meeting has been
+unexpected. No doubt extreme joy by itself tends to act on the lacrymal
+glands; but on such occasions as the foregoing vague thoughts of the
+grief which would have been felt had the father and son never met, will
+probably have passed through their minds; and grief naturally leads to
+the secretion of tears. Thus on the return of Ulysses:--
+
+    "Telemachus Rose, and clung weeping round his father's breast.
+     There the pent grief rained o'er them, yearning thus.
+     *   *    *    *    *    *
+     Thus piteously they wailed in sore unrest,
+     And on their weepings had gone down the day,
+     But that at last Telemachus found words to say."
+    _Worsley's Translation of the Odyssey_, Book xvi. st. 27.
+
+So again when Penelope at last recognized her husband:--
+
+     "Then from her eyelids the quick tears did start
+     And she ran to him from her place, and threw
+     Her arms about his neck, and a warm dew
+     Of kisses poured upon him, and thus spake:"
+     --Book xxiii.  st.  27.
+
+
+The vivid recollection of our former home, or of long-past happy days,
+readily causes the eyes to be suffused with tears; but here, again,
+the thought naturally occurs that these days will never return. In such
+cases we may be said to sympathize with ourselves in our present, in
+comparison with our former, state. Sympathy with the distresses of
+others, even with the imaginary distresses of a heroine in a pathetic
+story, for whom we feel no affection, readily excites tears. So does
+sympathy with the happiness of others, as with that of a lover, at last
+successful after many hard trials in a well-told tale.
+
+Sympathy appears to constitute a separate or distinct emotion; and it is
+especially apt to excite the lacrymal glands. This holds good whether
+we give or receive sympathy. Every one must have noticed how readily
+children burst out crying if we pity them for some small hurt. With the
+melancholic insane, as Dr. Crichton Browne informs me, a kind word will
+often plunge them into unrestrained weeping. As soon as we express our
+pity for the grief of a friend, tears often come into our own eyes. The
+feeling of sympathy is commonly explained by assuming that, when we see
+or hear of suffering in another, the idea of suffering is called up so
+vividly in our own minds that we ourselves suffer. But this explanation
+is hardly sufficient, for it does not account for the intimate alliance
+between sympathy and affection. We undoubtedly sympathize far more
+deeply with a beloved than with an indifferent person; and the sympathy
+of the one gives us far more relief than that of the other. Yet
+assuredly we can sympathize with those for whom we feel no affection.
+
+Why suffering, when actually experienced by ourselves, excites weeping,
+has been discussed in a former chapter. With respect to joy, its natural
+and universal expression is laughter; and with all the races of man loud
+laughter leads to the secretion of tears more freely than does any other
+cause excepting distress. The suffusion of the eyes with tears, which
+undoubtedly occurs under great joy, though there is no laughter, can, as
+it seems to me, be explained through habit and association on the same
+principles as the effusion of tears from grief, although there is no
+screaming. Nevertheless it is not a little remarkable that sympathy with
+the distresses of others should excite tears more freely than our own
+distress; and this certainly is the case. Many a man, from whose eyes
+no suffering of his own could wring a tear, has shed tears at the
+sufferings of a beloved friend. It is still more remarkable that
+sympathy with the happiness or good fortune of those whom we tenderly
+love should lead to the same result, whilst a similar happiness felt
+by ourselves would leave our eyes dry. We should, however, bear in
+mind that the long-continued habit of restraint which is so powerful in
+checking the free flow of tears from bodily pain, has not been brought
+into play in preventing a moderate effusion of tears in sympathy with
+the sufferings or happiness of others.
+
+Music has a wonderful power, as I have elsewhere attempted to show,[824]
+of recalling in a vague and indefinite manner, those strong emotions
+which were felt during long-past ages, when, as is probable, our early
+progenitors courted each other by the aid of vocal tones. And as several
+of our strongest emotions--grief, great joy, love, and sympathy--lead to
+the free secretion of tears, it is not surprising that music should be
+apt to cause our eyes to become suffused with tears, especially when
+we are already softened by any of the tenderer feelings. Music often
+produces another peculiar effect. We know that every strong sensation,
+emotion, or excitement--extreme pain, rage, terror, joy, or the passion
+of love--all have a special tendency to cause the muscles to tremble;
+and the thrill or slight shiver which runs down the backbone and limbs
+of many persons when they are powerfully affected by music, seems to
+bear the same relation to the above trembling of the body, as a slight
+suffusion of tears from the power of music does to weeping from any
+strong and real emotion.
+
+_Devotion_.--As devotion is, in some degree, related to affection,
+though mainly consisting of reverence, often combined with fear, the
+expression of this state of mind may here be briefly noticed. With some
+sects, both past and present, religion and love have been strangely
+combined; and it has even been maintained, lamentable as the fact may
+be, that the holy kiss of love differs but little from that which a
+man bestows on a woman, or a woman on a man.[825] Devotion is chiefly
+expressed by the face being directed towards the heavens, with the
+eyeballs upturned. Sir C. Bell remarks that, at the approach of sleep,
+or of a fainting-fit, or of death, the pupils are drawn upwards and
+inwards; and he believes that "when we are wrapt in devotional feelings,
+and outward impressions are unheeded, the eyes are raised by an action
+neither taught nor acquired." and that this is due to the same cause as
+in the above cases.[826] That the eyes are upturned during sleep is,
+as I hear from Professor Donders, certain. With babies, whilst sucking
+their mother's breast, this movement of the eyeballs often gives to them
+an absurd appearance of ecstatic delight; and here it may be clearly
+perceived that a struggle is going on against the position naturally
+assumed during sleep. But Sir C. Bell's explanation of the fact, which
+rests on the assumption that certain muscles are more under the control
+of the will than others is, as I hear from Professor Donders, incorrect.
+As the eyes are often turned up in prayer, without the mind being so
+much absorbed in thought as to approach to the unconsciousness of sleep,
+the movement is probably a conventional one--the result of the common
+belief that Heaven, the source of Divine power to which we pray, is
+seated above us.
+
+A humble kneeling posture, with the hands upturned and palms joined,
+appears to us, from long habit, a gesture so appropriate to devotion,
+that it might be thought to be innate; but I have not met with any
+evidence to this effect with the various extra-European races of
+mankind. During the classical period of Roman history it does not
+appear, as I hear from an excellent classic, that the hands were thus
+joined during prayer. Mr. Rensleigh Wedgwood has apparently given[827]
+the true explanation, though this implies that the attitude is one of
+slavish subjection. "When the suppliant kneels and holds up his
+hands with the palms joined, he represents a captive who proves the
+completeness of his submission by offering up his hands to be bound
+by the victor. It is the pictorial representation of the Latin _dare
+manus_, to signify submission." Hence it is not probable that either
+the uplifting of the eyes or the joining of the open hands, under
+the influence of devotional feelings, are innate or truly expressive
+actions; and this could hardly have been expected, for it is very
+doubtful whether feelings, such as we should now rank as devotional,
+affected the hearts of men, whilst they remained during past ages in an
+uncivilized condition.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. -- REFLECTION--MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER--SULKINESS--DETERMINATION.
+
+The act of frowning--Reflection with an effort, or with the
+perception of something difficult or disagreeable--Abstracted
+meditation--Ill-temper--Moroseness--Obstinacy Sulkiness and
+pouting--Decision or determination--The firm closure of the mouth.
+
+
+THE corrugators, by their contraction, lower the eyebrows and bring them
+together, producing vertical furrows on the forehead--that is, a frown.
+Sir C. Bell, who erroneously thought that the corrugator was peculiar to
+man, ranks it as "the most remarkable muscle of the human face. It
+knits the eyebrows with an energetic effort, which unaccountably, but
+irresistibly, conveys the idea of mind." Or, as he elsewhere says, "when
+the eyebrows are knit, energy of mind is apparent, and there is the
+mingling of thought and emotion with the savage and brutal rage of the
+mere animal."[901] There is much truth in these remarks, but hardly
+the whole truth. Dr. Duchenne has called the corrugator the muscle
+of reflection;[902] but this name, without some limitation, cannot be
+considered as quite correct.
+
+A man may be absorbed in the deepest thought, and his brow will remain
+smooth until he encounters some obstacle in his train of reasoning,
+or is interrupted by some disturbance, and then a frown passes like
+a shadow over his brow. A half-starved man may think intently how to
+obtain food, but he probably will not frown unless he encounters either
+in thought or action some difficulty, or finds the food when obtained
+nauseous. I have noticed that almost everyone instantly frowns if he
+perceives a strange or bad taste in what he is eating. I asked several
+persons, without explaining my object, to listen intently to a very
+gentle tapping sound, the nature and source of which they all perfectly
+knew, and not one frowned; but a man who joined us, and who could not
+conceive what we were all doing in profound silence, when asked to
+listen, frowned much, though not in an ill-temper, and said he could
+not in the least understand what we all wanted. Dr. Piderit[903] who
+has published remarks to the same effect, adds that stammerers generally
+frown in speaking, and that a man in doing even so trifling a thing as
+pulling on a boot, frowns if he finds it too tight. Some persons are
+such habitual frowners, that the mere effort of speaking almost always
+causes their brows to contract.
+
+Men of all races frown when they are in any way perplexed in thought,
+as I infer from the answers which I have received to my queries; but
+I framed them badly, confounding absorbed meditation with perplexed
+reflection. Nevertheless, it is clear that the Australians, Malays,
+Hindoos, and Kafirs of South Africa frown, when they are puzzled.
+Dobritzhoffer remarks that the Guaranies of South America on like
+occasions knit their brows.[904]
+
+From these considerations, we may conclude that frowning is not the
+expression of simple reflection, however profound, or of attention,
+however close, but of something difficult or displeasing encountered in
+a train of thought or in action. Deep reflection can, however, seldom
+be long carried on without some difficulty, so that it will generally be
+accompanied by a frown. Hence it is that frowning commonly gives to the
+countenance, as Sir C. Bell remarks, an aspect of intellectual energy.
+But in order that this effect may be produced, the eyes must be clear
+and steady, or they may be cast downwards, as often occurs in deep
+thought. The countenance must not be otherwise disturbed, as in the case
+of an ill-tempered or peevish man, or of one who shows the effects of
+prolonged suffering, with dulled eyes and drooping jaw, or who perceives
+a bad taste in his food, or who finds it difficult to perform some
+trifling act, such as threading a needle. In these cases a frown may
+often be seen, but it will be accompanied by some other expression,
+which will entirely prevent the countenance having an appearance of
+intellectual energy or of profound thought.
+
+We may now inquire how it is that a frown should express the perception
+of something difficult or disagreeable, either in thought or action. In
+the same way as naturalists find it advisable to trace the embryological
+development of an organ in order fully to understand its structure, so
+with the movements of expression it is advisable to follow as nearly
+as possible the same plan. The earliest and almost sole expression
+seen during the first days of infancy, and then often exhibited is that
+displayed during the act of screaming; and screaming is excited, both at
+first and for some time afterwards, by every distressing or displeasing
+sensation and emotion,--by hunger, pain, anger, jealousy, fear, &c. At
+such times the muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted; and this,
+as I believe, explains to a large extent the act of frowning during the
+remainder of our lives. I repeatedly observed my own infants, from under
+the age of one week to that of two or three months, and found that when
+a screaming-fit came on gradually, the first sign was the contraction of
+the corrugators, which produced a slight frown, quickly followed by
+the contraction of the other muscles round the eyes. When an infant is
+uncomfortable or unwell, little frowns--as I record in my notes--may
+be seen incessantly passing like shadows over its face; these being
+generally, but not always, followed sooner or later by a crying-fit. For
+instance, I watched for some time a baby, between seven and eight weeks
+old, sucking some milk which was cold, and therefore displeasing to him;
+and a steady little frown was maintained all the time. This was never
+developed into an actual crying-fit, though occasionally every stage of
+close approach could be observed.
+
+As the habit of contracting the brows has been followed by infants
+during innumerable generations, at the commencement of every crying or
+screaming fit, it has become firmly associated with the incipient
+sense of something distressing or disagreeable. Hence under similar
+circumstances it would be apt to be continued during maturity, although
+never then developed into a crying-fit. Screaming or weeping begins to
+be voluntarily restrained at an early period of life, whereas frowning
+is hardly ever restrained at any age. It is perhaps worth notice that
+with children much given to weeping, anything which perplexes their
+minds, and which would cause most other children merely to frown,
+readily makes them weep. So with certain classes of the insane, any
+effort of mind, however slight, which with an habitual frowner would
+cause a slight frown, leads to their weeping in an unrestrained manner.
+It is not more surprising that the habit of contracting the brows at
+the first perception of something distressing, although gained during
+infancy, should be retained during the rest of our lives, than that many
+other associated habits acquired at an early age should be permanently
+retained both by man and the lower animals. For instance, full-grown
+cats, when feeling warm and comfortable, often retain the habit of
+alternately protruding their fore-feet with extended toes, which habit
+they practised for a definite purpose whilst sucking their mothers.
+
+Another and distinct cause has probably strengthened the habit of
+frowning, whenever the mind is intent on any subject and encounters some
+difficulty. Vision is the most important of all the senses, and during
+primeval times the closest attention must have been incessantly:
+directed towards distant objects for the sake of obtaining prey and
+avoiding danger. I remember being struck, whilst travelling in parts of
+South America, which were dangerous from the presence of Indians, how
+incessantly, yet as it appeared unconsciously, the half-wild Gauchos
+closely scanned the whole horizon. Now, when any one with no covering on
+his head (as must have been aboriginally the case with mankind), strives
+to the utmost to distinguish in broad daylight, and especially if the
+sky is bright, a distant object, he almost invariably contracts his
+brows to prevent the entrance of too much light; the lower eyelids,
+cheeks, and upper lip being at the same time raised, so as to lessen the
+orifice of the eyes. I have purposely asked several persons, young and
+old, to look, under the above circumstances, at distant objects, making
+them believe that I only wished to test the power of their vision; and
+they all behaved in the manner just described. Some of them, also, put
+their open, flat hands over their eyes to keep out the excess of light.
+Gratiolet, after making some remarks to nearly the same effect,[905]
+says, "Ce sont la des attitudes de vision difficile." He concludes that
+the muscles round the eyes contract partly for the sake of excluding too
+much light (which appears to me the more important end), and partly to
+prevent all rays striking the retina, except those which come direct
+from the object that is scrutinized. Mr. Bowman, whom I consulted on
+this point, thinks that the contraction of the surrounding muscles may,
+in addition, "partly sustain the consensual movements of the two eyes,
+by giving a firmer support while the globes are brought to binocular
+vision by their own proper muscles."
+
+As the effort of viewing with care under a bright light a distant object
+is both difficult and irksome, and as this effort has been habitually
+accompanied, during numberless generations, by the contraction of the
+eyebrows, the habit of frowning will thus have been much strengthened;
+although it was originally practised during infancy from a quite
+independent cause, namely as the first step in the protection of the
+eyes during screaming. There is, indeed, much analogy, as far as the
+state of the mind is concerned, between intently scrutinizing a distant
+object, and following out an obscure train of thought, or performing
+some little and troublesome mechanical work. The belief that the habit
+of contracting the brows is continued when there is no need whatever to
+exclude too much light, receives support from the cases formerly
+alluded to, in which the eyebrows or eyelids are acted on under certain
+circumstances in a useless manner, from having been similarly used,
+under analogous circumstances, for a serviceable purpose. For instance,
+we voluntarily close our eyes when we do not wish to see any object, and
+we are apt to close them, when we reject a proposition, as if we could
+not or would not see it; or when we think about something horrible.
+We raise our eyebrows when we wish to see quickly all round us, and
+we often do the same, when we earnestly desire to remember something;
+acting as if we endeavoured to see it.
+
+
+_Abstraction. Meditation_.--When a person is lost in thought with his
+mind absent, or, as it is sometimes said, "when he is in a brown study,"
+he does not frown, but his eyes appear vacant. The lower eyelids
+are generally raised and wrinkled, in the same manner as when a
+short-sighted person tries to distinguish a distant object; and the
+upper orbicular muscles are at the same time slightly contracted.
+The wrinkling of the lower eyelids under these circumstances has been
+observed with some savages, as by Mr. Dyson Lacy with the Australians
+of Queensland, and several times by Mr. Geach with the Malays of the
+interior of Malacca. What the meaning or cause of this action may be,
+cannot at present be explained; but here we have another instance of
+movement round the eyes in relation to the state of the mind.
+
+The vacant expression of the eyes is very peculiar, and at once shows
+when a man is completely lost in thought. Professor Donders has, with
+his usual kindness, investigated this subject for me. He has observed
+others in this condition, and has been himself observed by Professor
+Engelmann. The eyes are not then fixed on any object, and therefore not,
+as I had imagined, on some distant object. The lines of vision of the
+two eyes even often become slightly divergent; the divergence, if the
+head be held vertically, with the plane of vision horizontal, amounting
+to an angle of 2'0 as a maximum. This was ascertained by observing the
+crossed double image of a distant object. When the head droops forward,
+as often occurs with a man absorbed in thought, owing to the general
+relaxation of his muscles, if the plane of vision be still horizontal,
+the eyes are necessarily a little turned upwards, and then the
+divergence is as much as 3'0, or 3'0 5': if the eyes are turned still
+more upwards, it amounts to between 6'0 and 7'0. Professor Donders
+attributes this divergence to the almost complete relaxation of certain
+muscles of the eyes, which would be apt to follow from the mind being
+wholly absorbed.[906] The active condition of the muscles of the eyes is
+that of convergence; and Professor Donders remarks, as bearing on their
+divergence during a period of complete abstraction, that when one eye
+becomes blind, it almost always, after a short lapse of time, deviates
+outwards; for its muscles are no longer used in moving the eyeball
+inwards for the sake of binocular vision.
+
+Perplexed reflection is often accompanied by certain movements or
+gestures. At such times we commonly raise our hands to our foreheads,
+mouths, or chins; but we do not act thus, as far as I have seen, when we
+are quite lost in meditation, and no difficulty is encountered. Plautus,
+describing in one of his plays[907] a puzzled man, says, "Now look, he
+has pillared his chin upon his hand." Even so trifling and apparently
+unmeaning a gesture as the raising of the hand to the face has been
+observed with some savages. Al. J. Mansel Weale has seen it with the
+Kafirs of South Africa; and the native chief Gaika adds, that men then
+"sometimes pull their beards." Mr. Washington Matthews, who attended
+to some of the wildest tribes of Indians in the western regions of the
+United States, remarks that he has seen them when concentrating their
+thoughts, bring their "hands, usually the thumb and index finger, in
+contact with some part of the face, commonly the upper lip." We can
+understand why the forehead should be pressed or rubbed, as deep thought
+tries the brain; but why the hand should be raised to the mouth or face
+is far from clear.
+
+_Ill-temper_.--We have seen that frowning is the natural expression of
+some difficulty encountered, or of something disagreeable experienced
+either in thought or action, and he whose mind is often and readily
+affected in this way, will be apt to be ill-tempered, or slightly
+angry, or peevish, and will commonly show it by frowning. But a cross
+expression, due to a frown, may be counteracted, if the mouth appears
+sweet, from being habitually drawn into a smile, and the eyes are bright
+and cheerful. So it will be if the eye is clear and steady, and there is
+the appearance of earnest reflection. Frowning, with some depression
+of the corners of the mouth, which is a sign of grief, gives an air of
+peevishness. If a child (see Plate IV., fig. 2)[908] frowns much whilst
+crying, but does not strongly contract in the usual manner the orbicular
+muscles, a well-marked expression of anger or even of rage, together
+with misery, is displayed.
+
+[Illustration: Ill-temper. Plate IV]
+
+If the whole frowning brow be drawn much downward by the contraction of
+the pyramidal muscles of the nose, which produces transverse wrinkles
+or folds across the base of the nose, the expression becomes one of
+moroseness. Duchenne believes that the contraction of this muscle,
+without any frowning, gives the appearance of extreme and aggressive
+hardness.[909] But I much doubt whether this is a true or natural
+expression. I have shown Duchenne's photograph of a young man, with this
+muscle strongly contracted by means of galvanism, to eleven persons,
+including some artists, and none of them could form an idea what was
+intended, except one, a girl, who answered correctly, "surely reserve."
+When I first looked at this photograph, knowing what was intended, my
+imagination added, as I believe, what was necessary, namely, a frowning
+brow; and consequently the expression appeared to me true and extremely
+morose.
+
+A firmly closed mouth, in addition to a lowered and frowning brow, gives
+determination to the expression, or may make it obstinate and sullen.
+How it comes that the firm closure of the mouth gives the appearance
+of determination will presently be discussed. An expression of sullen
+obstinacy has been clearly recognized by my informants, in the natives
+of six different regions of Australia. It is well marked, according to
+Mr. Scott, with the Hindoos. It has been recognized with the Malays,
+Chinese, Kafirs, Abyssinians, and in a conspicuous degree, according to
+Dr. Rothrock, with the wild Indians of North America, and according to
+Mr. D. Forbes, with the Aymaras of Bolivia. I have also observed it with
+the Araucanos of southern Chili. Mr. Dyson Lacy remarks that the natives
+of Australia, when in this frame of mind, sometimes fold their arms
+across their breasts, an attitude which may be seen with us. A firm
+determination, amounting to obstinacy, is, also, sometimes expressed by
+both shoulders being kept raised, the meaning of which gesture will be
+explained in the following chapter.
+
+With young children sulkiness is shown by pouting, or, as it is
+sometimes called, "making a snout."[910] When the corners of the mouth
+are much depressed, the lower lip is a little everted and protruded;
+and this is likewise called a pout. But the pouting here referred to,
+consists of the protrusion of both lips into a tubular form, sometimes
+to such an extent as to project as far as the end of the nose, if this
+be short. Pouting is generally accompanied by frowning, and sometimes
+by the utterance of a booing or whooing noise. This expression is
+remarkable, as almost the sole one, as far as I know, which is exhibited
+much more plainly during childhood, at least with Europeans, than during
+maturity. There is, however, some tendency to the protrusion of the lips
+with the adults of all races under the influence of great rage. Some
+children pout when they are shy, and they can then hardly be called
+sulky.
+
+From inquiries which I have made in several large families, pouting does
+not seem very common with European children; but it prevails throughout
+the world, and must be both common and strongly marked with most savage
+races, as it has caught the attention of many observers. It has been
+noticed in eight different districts of Australia; and one of my
+informants remarks how greatly the lips of the children are then
+protruded. Two observers have seen pouting with the children of Hindoos;
+three, with those of the Kafirs and Fingoes of South Africa, and with
+the Hottentots; and two, with the children of the wild Indians of North
+America. Pouting has also been observed with the Chinese, Abyssinians,
+Malays of Malacca, Dyaks of Borneo, and often with the New Zealanders.
+Mr. Mansel Weale informs me that he has seen the lips much protruded,
+not only with the children of the Kafirs, but with the adults of both
+sexes when sulky; and Mr. Stack has sometimes observed the same thing
+with the men, and very frequently with the women of New Zealand. A trace
+of the same expression may occasionally be detected even with adult
+Europeans.
+
+We thus see that the protrusion of the lips, especially with young
+children, is characteristic of sulkiness throughout the greater part of
+the world. This movement apparently results from the retention, chiefly
+during youth, of a primordial habit, or from an occasional reversion to
+it. Young orangs and chimpanzees protrude their lips to an extraordinary
+degree, as described in a former chapter, when they are discontented,
+somewhat angry, or sulky; also when they are surprised, a little
+frightened, and even when slightly pleased. Their mouths are protruded
+apparently for the sake of making the various noises proper to
+these several states of mind; and its shape, as I observed with the
+chimpanzee, differed slightly when the cry of pleasure and that of anger
+were uttered. As soon as these animals become enraged, the shape of the
+month wholly changes, and the teeth are exposed. The adult orang when
+wounded is said to emit "a singular cry, consisting at first of high
+notes, which at length deepen into a low roar. While giving out the high
+notes he thrusts out his lips into a funnel shape, but in uttering the
+low notes he holds his mouth wide open."[911] With the gorilla, the
+lower lip is said to be capable of great elongation. If then our
+semi-human progenitors protruded their lips when sulky or a little
+angered, in the same manner as do the existing anthropoid apes, it
+is not an anomalous, though a curious fact, that our children should
+exhibit, when similarly affected, a trace of the same expression,
+together with some tendency to utter a noise. For it is not at all
+unusual for animals to retain, more or less perfectly, during early
+youth, and subsequently to lose, characters which were aboriginally
+possessed by their adult progenitors, and which are still retained by
+distinct species, their near relations.
+
+Nor is it an anomalous fact that the children of savages should exhibit
+a stronger tendency to protrude their lips, when sulky, than the
+children of civilized Europeans; for the essence of savagery seems
+to consist in the retention of a primordial condition, and this
+occasionally holds good even with bodily peculiarities.[912] It may be
+objected to this view of the origin of pouting, that the anthropoid
+apes likewise protrude their lips when astonished and even when a little
+pleased; whilst with us this expression is generally confined to a sulky
+frame of mind. But we shall see in a future chapter that with men of
+various races surprise does sometimes lead to a slight protrusion of the
+lips, though great surprise or astonishment is more commonly shown by
+the mouth being widely opened. As when we smile or laugh we draw back
+the corners of the mouth, we have lost any tendency to protrude the
+lips, when pleased, if indeed our early progenitors thus expressed
+pleasure.
+
+A little gesture made by sulky children may here be noticed, namely,
+their "showing a cold shoulder." This has a different meaning, as, I
+believe, from the keeping both shoulders raised. A cross child, sitting
+on its parent's knee, will lift up the near shoulder, then jerk it away,
+as if from a caress, and afterwards give a backward push with it, as
+if to push away the offender. I have seen a child, standing at some
+distance from any one, clearly express its feelings by raising one
+shoulder, giving it a little backward movement, and then turning away
+its whole body.
+
+
+_Decision or determination_.--The firm closure of the mouth tends to
+give an expression of determination or decision to the countenance.
+No determined man probably ever had an habitually gaping mouth. Hence,
+also, a small and weak lower jaw, which seems to indicate that the
+mouth is not habitually and firmly closed, is commonly thought to be
+characteristic of feebleness of character. A prolonged effort of any
+kind, whether of body or mind, implies previous determination; and if it
+can be shown that the mouth is generally closed with firmness before
+and during a great and continued exertion of the muscular system, then,
+through the principle of association, the mouth would almost certainly
+be closed as soon as any determined resolution was taken. Now several
+observers have noticed that a man, in commencing any violent muscular
+effort, invariably first distends his lungs with air, and then
+compresses it by the strong contraction of the muscles of the chest; and
+to effect this the mouth must be firmly closed. Moreover, as soon as
+the man is compelled to draw breath, he still keeps his chest as much
+distended as possible.
+
+Various causes have been assigned for this manner of acting. Sir C.
+Bell maintains[913] that the chest is distended with air, and is kept
+distended at such times, in order to give a fixed support to the muscles
+which are thereto attached. Hence, as he remarks, when two men are
+engaged in a deadly contest, a terrible silence prevails, broken only
+by hard stifled breathing. There is silence, because to expel the air in
+the utterance of any sound would be to relax the support for the muscles
+of the arms. If an outcry is heard, supposing the struggle to take
+place in the dark, we at once know that one of the two has given up in
+despair.
+
+Gratiolet admits[914] that when a man has to struggle with another to
+his utmost, or has to support a great weight, or to keep for a long time
+the same forced attitude, it is necessary for him first to make a deep
+inspiration, and then to cease breathing; but he thinks that Sir C.
+Bell's explanation is erroneous. He maintains that arrested respiration
+retards the circulation of the blood, of which I believe there is no
+doubt, and he adduces some curious evidence from the structure of the
+lower animals, showing, on the one hand, that a retarded circulation is
+necessary for prolonged muscular exertion, and, on the other hand, that
+a rapid circulation is necessary for rapid movements. According to this
+view, when we commence any great exertion, we close our mouths and stop
+breathing, in order to retard the circulation of the blood. Gratiolet
+sums up the subject by saying, "C'est la la vraie theorie de l'effort
+continu;" but how far this theory is admitted by other physiologists I
+do not know.
+
+Dr. Piderit accounts[915] for the firm closure of the mouth during
+strong muscular exertion, on the principle that the influence of the
+will spreads to other muscles besides those necessarily brought into
+action in making any particular exertion; and it is natural that the
+muscles of respiration and of the mouth, from being so habitually used,
+should be especially liable to be thus acted on. It appears to me that
+there probably is some truth in this view, for we are apt to press the
+teeth hard together during violent exertion, and this is not requisite
+to prevent expiration, whilst the muscles of the chest are strongly
+contracted.
+
+Lastly, when a man has to perform some delicate and difficult operation,
+not requiring the exertion of any strength, he nevertheless generally
+closes his mouth and ceases for a time to breathe; but he acts thus
+in order that the movements of his chest may not disturb, those of his
+arms. A person, for instance, whilst threading a needle, may be seen to
+compress his lips and either to stop breathing, or to breathe as quietly
+as possible. So it was, as formerly stated, with a young and sick
+chimpanzee, whilst it amused itself by killing flies with its knuckles,
+as they buzzed about on the window-panes. To perform an action, however
+trifling, if difficult, implies some amount of previous determination.
+
+There appears nothing improbable in all the above assigned causes having
+come into play in different degrees, either conjointly or separately,
+on various occasions. The result would be a well-established habit, now
+perhaps inherited, of firmly closing the mouth at the commencement
+of and during any violent and prolonged exertion, or any delicate
+operation. Through the principle of association there would also be
+a strong tendency towards this same habit, as soon as the mind had
+resolved on any particular action or line of conduct, even before there
+was any bodily exertion, or if none were requisite. The habitual and
+firm closure of the mouth would thus come to show decision of character;
+and decision readily passes into obstinacy.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X. -- HATRED AND ANGER.
+
+Hatred--Rage, effects of on the system--Uncovering of the teeth--Rage in
+the insane--Anger and indignation--As expressed by the various races of
+man--Sneering and defiance--The uncovering of the canine tooth on one
+side of the face.
+
+
+IF we have suffered or expect to suffer some wilful injury from a man,
+or if he is in any way offensive to us, we dislike him; and dislike
+easily rises into hatred. Such feelings, if experienced in a moderate
+degree, are not clearly expressed by any movement of the body or
+features, excepting perhaps by a certain gravity of behaviour, or by
+some ill-temper. Few individuals, however, can long reflect about a
+hated person, without feeling and exhibiting signs of indignation or
+rage. But if the offending person be quite insignificant, we experience
+merely disdain or contempt. If, on the other hand, he is all-powerful,
+then hatred passes into terror, as when a slave thinks about a cruel
+master, or a savage about a bloodthirsty malignant deity.[1001] Most of
+our emotions are so closely connected with their expression, that they
+hardly exist if the body remains passive--the nature of the expression
+depending in chief part on the nature of the actions which have been
+habitually performed under this particular state of the mind. A man,
+for instance, may know that his life is in the extremest peril, and may
+strongly desire to save if; yet, as Louis XVI. said, when surrounded by
+a fierce mob, "Am I afraid? feel my pulse." So a man may intensely hate
+another, but until his bodily frame is affected, he cannot be said to be
+enraged.
+
+
+_Rage_.--I have already had occasion to treat of this emotion in the
+third chapter, when discussing the direct influence of the excited
+sensorium on the body, in combination with the effects of habitually
+associated actions. Rage exhibits itself in the most diversified manner.
+The heart and circulation are always affected; the face reddens or
+becomes purple, with the veins on the forehead and neck distended. The
+reddening of the skin has been observed with the copper-coloured Indians
+of South America,[1002] and even, as it is said, on the white cicatrices
+left by old wounds on negroes.[1003] Monkeys also redden from passion.
+With one of my own infants, under four months old, I repeatedly observed
+that the first symptom of an approaching passion was the rushing of the
+blood into his bare scalp. On the other hand, the action of the heart
+is sometimes so much impeded by great rage, that the countenance becomes
+pallid or livid,[1004] and not a few men with heart-disease have dropped
+down dead under this powerful emotion.
+
+The respiration is likewise affected; the chest heaves, and the dilated
+nostrils quiver.[1005] As Tennyson writes, "sharp breaths of anger
+puffed her fairy nostrils out." Hence we have such expressions as
+"breathing out vengeance," and "fuming with anger."[1006]
+
+The excited brain gives strength to the muscles, and at the same time
+energy to the will. The body is commonly held erect ready for instant
+action, but sometimes it is bent forward towards the offending person,
+with the limbs more or less rigid. The mouth is generally closed with
+firmness, showing fixed determination, and the teeth are clenched or
+ground together. Such gestures as the raising of the arms, with the
+fists clenched, as if to strike the offender, are common. Few men in a
+great passion, and telling some one to begone, can resist acting as
+if they intended to strike or push the man violently away. The desire,
+indeed, to strike often becomes so intolerably strong, that inanimate
+objects are struck or dashed to the ground; but the gestures frequently
+become altogether purposeless or frantic. Young children, when in a
+violent rage roll on the ground on their backs or bellies, screaming,
+kicking, scratching, or biting everything within reach. So it is, as I
+hear from Mr. Scott, with Hindoo children; and, as we have seen, with
+the young of the anthropomorphous apes.
+
+But the muscular system is often affected in a wholly different way; for
+trembling is a frequent consequence of extreme rage. The paralysed
+lips then refuse to obey the will, "and the voice sticks in the
+throat;"[1007] or it is rendered loud, harsh, and discordant. If
+there be much and rapid speaking, the mouth froths. The hair sometimes
+bristles; but I shall return to this subject in another chapter, when I
+treat of the mingled emotions of rage and terror. There is in most cases
+a strongly-marked frown on the forehead; for this follows from the sense
+of anything displeasing or difficult, together with concentration of
+mind. But sometimes the brow, instead of being much contracted and
+lowered, remains smooth, with the glaring eyes kept widely open. The
+eyes are always bright, or may, as Homer expresses it, glisten with
+fire. They are sometimes bloodshot, and are said to protrude from their
+sockets--the result, no doubt, of the head being gorged with blood, as
+shown by the veins being distended. According to Gratiolet, "the pupils
+are always contracted in rage," and I hear from Dr. Crichton Browne that
+this is the case in the fierce delirium of meningitis; but the movements
+of the iris under the influence of the different emotions is a very
+obscure subject.
+
+Shakspeare sums up the chief characteristics of rage as follows:--
+
+      "In peace there's nothing so becomes a man,
+      As modest stillness and humility;
+      But when the blast of war blows in our ears,
+      Then imitate the action of the tiger:
+      Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood,
+      Then lend the eye a terrible aspect;
+      Now set the teeth, and stretch the nostril wide,
+      Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit
+      To his full height! On, on, you noblest English."
+     _Henry V_., act iii. sc. 1.
+
+
+The lips are sometimes protruded during rage in a manner, the meaning
+of which I do not understand, unless it depends on our descent from some
+ape-like animal. Instances have been observed, not only with Europeans,
+but with the Australians and Hindoos. The lips, however, are much more
+commonly retracted, the grinning or clenched teeth being thus
+exposed. This has been noticed by almost every one who has written on
+expression.[1009] The appearance is as if the teeth were uncovered,
+ready for seizing or tearing an enemy, though there may be no intention
+of acting in this manner. Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen this grinning
+expression with the Australians, when quarrelling, and so has Gaika with
+the Kafirs of South America. Dickens,[1010] in speaking of an atrocious
+murderer who had just been caught, and was surrounded by a furious mob,
+describes "the people as jumping up one behind another, snarling with
+their teeth, and making at him like wild beasts." Every one who has had
+much to do with young children must have seen how naturally they take to
+biting, when in a passion. It seems as instinctive in them as in young
+crocodiles, who snap their little jaws as soon as they emerge from the
+egg.
+
+A grinning expression and the protrusion of the lips appear sometimes
+to go together. A close observer says that he has seen many instances
+of intense hatred (which can hardly be distinguished from rage, more or
+less suppressed) in Orientals, and once in an elderly English woman. In
+all these cases there "was a grin, not a scowl--the lips lengthening,
+the cheeks settling downwards, the eyes half-closed, whilst the brow
+remained perfectly calm."[1011]
+
+This retraction of the lips and uncovering of the teeth during paroxysms
+of rage, as if to bite the offender, is so remarkable, considering how
+seldom the teeth are used by men in fighting, that I inquired from Dr.
+J. Crichton Browne whether the habit was common in the insane whose
+passions are unbridled. He informs me that he has repeatedly observed
+it both with the insane and idiotic, and has given me the following
+illustrations:--
+
+Shortly before receiving my letter, he witnessed an uncontrollable
+outbreak of anger and delusive jealousy in an insane lady. At first she
+vituperated her husband, and whilst doing so foamed at the mouth. Next
+she approached close to him with compressed lips, and a virulent set
+frown. Then she drew back her lips, especially the corners of the upper
+lip, and showed her teeth, at the same time aiming a vicious blow at
+him. A second case is that of an old soldier, who, when he is requested
+to conform to the rules of the establishment, gives way to discontent,
+terminating in fury. He commonly begins by asking Dr. Browne whether
+he is not ashamed to treat him in such a manner. He then swears and
+blasphemes, paces tip and down, tosses his arms wildly about, and
+menaces any one near him. At last, as his exasperation culminates, he
+rushes up towards Dr. Browne with a peculiar sidelong movement, shaking
+his doubled fist, and threatening destruction. Then his upper lip may
+be seen to be raised, especially at the corners, so that his huge canine
+teeth are exhibited. He hisses forth his curses through his set teeth,
+and his whole expression assumes the character of extreme ferocity.
+A similar description is applicable to another man, excepting that he
+generally foams at the mouth and spits, dancing and jumping about in
+a strange rapid manner, shrieking out his maledictions in a shrill
+falsetto voice.
+
+Dr. Browne also informs me of the case of an epileptic idiot, incapable
+of independent movements, and who spends the whole day in playing with
+some toys; but his temper is morose and easily roused into fierceness.
+When any one touches his toys, he slowly raises his head from its
+habitual downward position, and fixes his eyes on the offender, with a
+tardy yet angry scowl. If the annoyance be repeated, he draws back his
+thick lips and reveals a prominent row of hideous fangs (large canines
+being especially noticeable), and then makes a quick and cruel clutch
+with his open hand at the offending person. The rapidity of this clutch,
+as Dr. Browne remarks, is marvellous in a being ordinarily so torpid
+that he takes about fifteen seconds, when attracted by any noise, to
+turn his head from one side to the other. If, when thus incensed, a
+handkerchief, book, or other article, be placed into his hands, he drags
+it to his mouth and bites it. Mr. Nicol has likewise described to me two
+cases of insane patients, whose lips are retracted during paroxysms of
+rage.
+
+Dr. Maudsley, after detailing various strange animal-like traits in
+idiots, asks whether these are not due to the reappearance of primitive
+instincts--"a faint echo from a far-distant past, testifying to a
+kinship which man has almost outgrown." He adds, that as every human
+brain passes, in the course of its development, through the same stages
+as those occurring in the lower vertebrate animals, and as the brain
+of an idiot is in an arrested condition, we may presume that it "will
+manifest its most primitive functions, and no higher functions." Dr.
+Maudsley thinks that the same view may be extended to the brain in its
+degenerated condition in some insane patients; and asks, whence come
+"the savage snarl, the destructive disposition, the obscene language,
+the wild howl, the offensive habits, displayed by some of the insane?
+Why should a human being, deprived of his reason, ever become so
+brutal in character, as some do, unless he has the brute nature within
+him?"[1012] This question must, as it would appear, he answered in the
+affirmative.
+
+_Anger, Indignation_.--These states of the mind differ from rage only
+in degree, and there is no marked distinction in their characteristic
+signs. Under moderate anger the action of the heart is a little
+increased, the colour heightened, and the eyes become bright. The
+respiration is likewise a little hurried; and as all the muscles serving
+for this function act in association, the wings of the nostrils are
+somewhat raised to allow of a free indraught of air; and this is
+a highly characteristic sign of indignation. The mouth is commonly
+compressed, and there is almost always a frown on the brow. Instead of
+the frantic gestures of extreme rage, an indignant man unconsciously
+throws himself into an attitude ready for attacking or striking his
+enemy, whom he will perhaps scan from head to foot in defiance. He
+carries his head erect, with his chest well expanded, and the feet
+planted firmly on the ground. He holds his arms in various positions,
+with one or both elbows squared, or with the arms rigidly suspended by
+his sides. With Europeans the fists are commonly clenched.[1013] The
+figures 1 and 2 in Plate VI. are fairly good representations of men
+simulating indignation. Any one may see in a mirror, if he will vividly
+imagine that he has been insulted and demands an explanation in an angry
+tone of voice, that he suddenly and unconsciously throws himself into
+some such attitude.
+
+[Illustration: Anger and Indignation.  Plate VI]
+
+Rage, anger, and indignation are exhibited in nearly the same manner
+throughout the world; and the following descriptions may be worth giving
+as evidence of this, and as illustrations of some of the foregoing
+remarks. There is, however, an exception with respect to clenching the
+fists, which seems confined chiefly to the men who fight with their
+fists. With the Australians only one of my informants has seen the fists
+clenched. All agree about the body being held erect; and all, with two
+exceptions, state that the brows are heavily contracted. Some of them
+allude to the firmly-compressed mouth, the distended nostrils, and
+flashing eyes. According to the Rev. Mr. Taplin, rage, with the
+Australians, is expressed by the lips being protruded, the eyes being
+widely open; and in the case of the women by their dancing about and
+casting dust into the air. Another observer speaks of the native men,
+when enraged, throwing their arms wildly about.
+
+I have received similar accounts, except as to the clenching of
+the fists, in regard to the Malays of the Malacca peninsula, the
+Abyssinians, and the natives of South Africa. So it is with the Dakota
+Indians of North America; and, according to Mr. Matthews, they then hold
+their heads erect, frown, and often stalk away with long strides. Mr.
+Bridges states that the Fuegians, when enraged, frequently stamp on the
+ground, walk distractedly about, sometimes cry and grow pale. The Rev.
+Mr. Stack watched a New Zealand man and woman quarrelling, and made the
+following entry in his note-book: "Eyes dilated, body swayed violently
+backwards and forwards, head inclined forwards, fists clenched, now
+thrown behind the body, now directed towards each other's faces." Mr.
+Swinhoe says that my description agrees with what he has seen of the
+Chinese, excepting that an angry man generally inclines his body towards
+his antagonist, and pointing at him, pours forth a volley of abuse.
+
+Lastly, with respect to the natives of India, Mr. J. Scott has sent me
+a full description of their gestures and expression when enraged. Two
+low-caste Bengalees disputed about a loan. At first they were calm, but
+soon grew furious and poured forth the grossest abuse on each other's
+relations and progenitors for many generations past. Their gestures were
+very different from those of Europeans; for though their chests were
+expanded and shoulders squared, their arms remained rigidly suspended,
+with the elbows turned inwards and the hands alternately clenched and
+opened. Their shoulders were often raised high, and then again lowered.
+They looked fiercely at each other from under their lowered and strongly
+wrinkled brows, and their protruded lips were firmly closed. They
+approached each other, with heads and necks stretched forwards, and
+pushed, scratched, and grasped at each other. This protrusion of the
+head and body seems a common gesture with the enraged; and I have
+noticed it with degraded English women whilst quarrelling violently in
+the streets. In such cases it may be presumed that neither party expects
+to receive a blow from the other.
+
+A Bengalee employed in the Botanic Gardens was accused, in the presence
+of Mr. Scott, by the native overseer of having stolen a valuable plant.
+He listened silently and scornfully to the accusation; his attitude
+erect, chest expanded, mouth closed, lips protruding, eyes firmly
+set and penetrating. He then defiantly maintained his innocence, with
+upraised and clenched hands, his head being now pushed forwards, with
+the eyes widely open and eyebrows raised. Mr. Scott also watched two
+Mechis, in Sikhim, quarrelling about their share of payment. They soon
+got into a furious passion, and then their bodies became less erect,
+with their heads pushed forwards; they made grimaces at each other;
+their shoulders were raised; their arms rigidly bent inwards at the
+elbows, and their hands spasmodically closed, but not properly clenched.
+They continually approached and retreated from each other, and often
+raised their arms as if to strike, but their hands were open, and no
+blow was given. Mr. Scott made similar observations on the Lepchas whom
+he often saw quarrelling, and he noticed that they kept their arms rigid
+and almost parallel to their bodies, with the hands pushed somewhat
+backwards and partially closed, but not clenched.
+
+
+_Sneering, Defiance: Uncovering the canine tooth on one side_.--The
+expression which I wish here to consider differs but little from that
+already described, when the lips are retracted and the grinning teeth
+exposed. The difference consists solely in the upper lip being retracted
+in such a manner that the canine tooth on one side of the face alone
+is shown; the face itself being generally a little upturned and half
+averted from the person causing offence. The other signs of rage are not
+necessarily present. This expression may occasionally be observed in
+a person who sneers at or defies another, though there may be no real
+anger; as when any one is playfully accused of some fault, and answers,
+"I scorn the imputation." The expression is not a common one, but I
+have seen it exhibited with perfect distinctness by a lady who was being
+quizzed by another person. It was described by Parsons as long ago as
+1746, with an engraving, showing the uncovered canine on one side.[1014]
+Mr. Rejlander, without my having made any allusion to the subject,
+asked me whether I had ever noticed this expression, as he had been much
+struck by it. He has photographed for me (Plate IV. fig 1) a lady, who
+sometimes unintentionally displays the canine on one side, and who can
+do so voluntarily with unusual distinctness.
+
+The expression of a half-playful sneer graduates into one of great
+ferocity when, together with a heavily frowning brow and fierce eye, the
+canine tooth is exposed. A Bengalee boy was accused before Mr. Scott of
+some misdeed. The delinquent did not dare to give vent to his wrath
+in words, but it was plainly shown on his countenance, sometimes by a
+defiant frown, and sometimes "by a thoroughly canine snarl." When this
+was exhibited, "the corner of the lip over the eye-tooth, which happened
+in this case to be large and projecting, was raised on the side of his
+accuser, a strong frown being still retained on the brow." Sir C. Bell
+states[1015] that the actor Cooke could express the most determined hate
+"when with the oblique cast of his eyes he drew up the outer part of the
+upper lip, and discovered a sharp angular tooth."
+
+The uncovering of the canine tooth is the result of a double movement.
+The angle or corner of the mouth is drawn a little backwards, and at the
+same time a muscle which runs parallel to and near the nose draws up the
+outer part of the upper lip, and exposes the canine on this side of
+the face. The contraction of this muscle makes a distinct furrow on the
+cheek, and produces strong wrinkles under the eye, especially at its
+inner corner. The action is the same as that of a snarling dog; and a
+dog when pretending to fight often draws up the lip on one side alone,
+namely that facing his antagonist. Our word _sneer_ is in fact the
+same as _snarl_, which was originally _snar_, the _l_ "being merely an
+element implying continuance of action."[1016]
+
+I suspect that we see a trace of this same expression in what is called
+a derisive or sardonic smile. The lips are then kept joined or almost
+joined, but one corner of the mouth is retracted on the side towards the
+derided person; and this drawing back of the corner is part of a true
+sneer. Although some persons smile more on one side of their face than
+on the other, it is not easy to understand why in cases of derision the
+smile, if a real one, should so commonly be confined to one side. I have
+also on these occasions noticed a slight twitching of the muscle which
+draws up the outer part of the upper lip; and this movement, if fully
+carried out, would have uncovered the canine, and would have produced a
+true sneer.
+
+Mr. Bulmer, an Australian missionary in a remote part of Gipps' Land,
+says, in answer to my query about the uncovering of the canine on one
+side, "I find that the natives in snarling at each other speak with
+the teeth closed, the upper lip drawn to one side, and a general angry
+expression of face; but they look direct at the person addressed." Three
+other observers in Australia, one in Abyssinia, and one in China, answer
+my query on this head in the affirmative; but as the expression is rare,
+and as they enter into no details, I am afraid of implicitly trusting
+them. It is, however, by no means improbable that this animal-like
+expression may be more common with savages than with civilized races.
+Mr. Geach is an observer who may be fully trusted, and he has observed
+it on one occasion in a Malay in the interior of Malacca. The Rev. S.
+O. Glenie answers, "We have observed this expression with the natives of
+Ceylon, but not often." Lastly, in North America, Dr. Rothrock has seen
+it with some wild Indians, and often in a tribe adjoining the Atnahs.
+
+Although the upper lip is certainly sometimes raised on one side alone
+in sneering at or defying any one, I do not know that this is always the
+case, for the face is commonly half averted, and the expression is
+often momentary. The movement being confined to one side may not be an
+essential part of the expression, but may depend on the proper muscles
+being incapable of movement excepting on one side. I asked four persons
+to endeavour to act voluntarily in this manner; two could expose the
+canine only on the left side, one only on the right side, and the fourth
+on neither side. Nevertheless it is by no means certain that these same
+persons, if defying any one in earnest, would not unconsciously
+have uncovered their canine tooth on the side, whichever it might
+be, towards the offender. For we have seen that some persons cannot
+voluntarily make their eyebrows oblique, yet instantly act in this
+manner when affected by any real, although most trifling, cause of
+distress. The power of voluntarily uncovering the canine on one side
+of the face being thus often wholly lost, indicates that it is a rarely
+used and almost abortive action. It is indeed a surprising fact that man
+should possess the power, or should exhibit any tendency to its use; for
+Mr. Sutton has never noticed a snarling action in our nearest allies,
+namely, the monkeys in the Zoological Gardens, and he is positive that
+the baboons, though furnished with great canines, never act thus, but
+uncover all their teeth when feeling savage and ready for an attack.
+Whether the adult anthropomorphous apes, in the males of whom the
+canines are much larger than in the females, uncover them when prepared
+to fight, is not known.
+
+The expression here considered, whether that of a playful sneer or
+ferocious snarl, is one of the most curious which occurs in man. It
+reveals his animal descent; for no one, even if rolling on the ground in
+a deadly grapple with an enemy, and attempting to bite him, would try to
+use his canine teeth more than his other teeth. We may readily believe
+from our affinity to the anthropomorphous apes that our male semi-human
+progenitors possessed great canine teeth, and men are now occasionally
+born having them of unusually large size, with interspaces in the
+opposite jaw for their reception.[1017] We may further suspect,
+notwithstanding that we have no support from analogy, that our
+semi-human progenitors uncovered their canine teeth when prepared for
+battle, as we still do when feeling ferocious, or when merely sneering
+at or defying some one, without any intention of making a real attack
+with our teeth.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI. -- DISDAIN--CONTEMPT--DISGUST-GUILT--PRIDE, ETC.--HELPLESSNESS--PATIENCE--AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.
+
+Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed--Derisive
+smile--Gestures expressive of contempt--Disgust--Guilt, deceit, pride,
+&c.--Helplessness or impotence--Patience--Obstinacy--Shrugging the
+shoulders common to most of the races of man--Signs of affirmation and
+negation.
+
+
+SCORN and disdain can hardly be distinguished from contempt, excepting
+that they imply a rather more angry frame of mind. Nor can they be
+clearly distinguished from the feelings discussed in the last chapter
+under the terms of sneering and defiance. Disgust is a sensation rather
+more distinct in its nature and refers to something revolting, primarily
+in relation to the sense of taste, as actually perceived or vividly
+imagined; and secondarily to anything which causes a similar feeling,
+through the sense of smell, touch, and even of eyesight. Nevertheless,
+extreme contempt, or as it is often called loathing contempt, hardly
+differs from disgust. These several conditions of the mind are,
+therefore, nearly related; and each of them may be exhibited in many
+different ways. Some writers have insisted chiefly on one mode of
+expression, and others on a different mode. From this circumstance M.
+Lemoine has argued[1101] that their descriptions are not trustworthy.
+But we shall immediately see that it is natural that the feelings which
+we have here to consider should be expressed in many different ways,
+inasmuch as various habitual actions serve equally well, through the
+principle of association, for their expression.
+
+Scorn and disdain, as well as sneering and defiance, may be displayed
+by a slight uncovering of the canine tooth on one side of the face; and
+this movement appears to graduate into one closely like a smile. Or the
+smile or laugh may be real, although one of derision; and this implies
+that the offender is so insignificant that he excites only amusement;
+but the amusement is generally a pretence. Gaika in his answers to my
+queries remarks, that contempt is commonly shown by his countrymen, the
+Kafirs, by smiling; and the Rajah Brooke makes the same observation with
+respect to the Dyaks of Borneo. As laughter is primarily the expression
+of simple joy, very young children do not, I believe, ever laugh in
+derision.
+
+The partial closure of the eyelids, as Duchenne[1102] insists, or the
+turning away of the eyes or of the whole body, are likewise highly
+expressive of disdain. These actions seem to declare that the despised
+person is not worth looking at or is disagreeable to behold. The
+accompanying photograph (Plate V. fig. 1) by Mr. Rejlander, shows this
+form of disdain. It represents a young lady, who is supposed to be
+tearing up the photograph of a despised lover.
+
+[Illustration: Scorn and Disdain.  Plate V]
+
+The most common method of expressing contempt is by movements about
+the nose, or round the mouth; but the latter movements, when strongly
+pronounced, indicate disgust. The nose may be slightly turned up, which
+apparently follows from the turning up of the upper lip; or the movement
+may be abbreviated into the mere wrinkling of the nose. The nose is
+often slightly contracted, so as partly to close the passage;[1103] and
+this is commonly accompanied by a slight snort or expiration. All these
+actions are the same with those which we employ when we perceive an
+offensive odour, and wish to exclude or expel it. In extreme cases, as
+Dr. Piderit remarks,[1104] we protrude and raise both lips, or the upper
+lip alone, so as to close the nostrils as by a valve, the nose being
+thus turned up. We seem thus to say to the despised person that he
+smells offensively,[1105] in nearly the same manner as we express to him
+by half-closing our eyelids, or turning away our faces, that he is not
+worth looking at. It must not, however, be supposed that such ideas
+actually pass through the mind when we exhibit our contempt; but as
+whenever we have perceived a disagreeable odour or seen a disagreeable
+sight, actions of this kind have been performed, they have become
+habitual or fixed, and are now employed under any analogous state of
+mind.
+
+Various odd little gestures likewise indicate contempt; for instance,
+_snapping one's fingers_. This, as Mr. Taylor remarks,[1106] "is not
+very intelligible as we generally see it; but when we notice that the
+same sign made quite gently, as if rolling some tiny object away
+between the finger and thumb, or the sign of flipping it away with the
+thumb-nail and forefinger, are usual and well-understood deaf-and-dumb
+gestures, denoting anything tiny, insignificant, contemptible, it seems
+as though we had exaggerated and conventionalized a perfectly natural
+action, so as to lose sight of its original meaning. There is a curious
+mention of this gesture by Strabo." Mr. Washington Matthews informs me
+that, with the Dakota Indians of North America, contempt is shown
+not only by movements of the face, such as those above described, but
+"conventionally, by the hand being closed and held near the breast,
+then, as the forearm is suddenly extended, the hand is opened and the
+fingers separated from each other. If the person at whose expense the
+sign is made is present, the hand is moved towards him, and the head
+sometimes averted from him." This sudden extension and opening of the
+hand perhaps indicates the dropping or throwing away a valueless object.
+
+The term 'disgust,' in its simplest sense, means something offensive to
+the taste. It is curious how readily this feeling is excited by anything
+unusual in the appearance, odour, or nature of our food. In Tierra del
+Fuego a native touched with his finger some cold preserved meat which
+I was eating at our bivouac, and plainly showed utter disgust at its
+softness; whilst I felt utter disgust at my food being touched by a
+naked savage, though his hands did not appear dirty. A smear of soup
+on a man's beard looks disgusting, though there is of course nothing
+disgusting in the soup itself. I presume that this follows from the
+strong association in our minds between the sight of food, however
+circumstanced, and the idea of eating it.
+
+As the sensation of disgust primarily arises in connection with the act
+of eating or tasting, it is natural that its expression should consist
+chiefly in movements round the mouth. But as disgust also causes
+annoyance, it is generally accompanied by a frown, and often by gestures
+as if to push away or to guard oneself against the offensive object.
+In the two photographs (figs. 2 and 3, on Plate V.) Mr. Rejlander has
+simulated this expression with some success. With respect to the face,
+moderate disgust is exhibited in various ways; by the mouth being widely
+opened, as if to let an offensive morsel drop out; by spitting; by
+blowing out of the protruded lips; or by a sound as of clearing the
+throat. Such guttural sounds are written _ach_ or _ugh_; and their
+utterance is sometimes accompanied by a shudder, the arms being pressed
+close to the sides and the shoulders raised in the same manner as when
+horror is experienced.[1107] Extreme disgust is expressed by movements
+round the month identical with those preparatory to the act of vomiting.
+The mouth is opened widely, with the upper lip strongly retracted, which
+wrinkles the sides of the nose, and with the lower lip protruded
+and everted as much as possible. This latter movement requires the
+contraction of the muscles which draw downwards the corners of the
+mouth.[1108]
+
+It is remarkable how readily and instantly retching or actual vomiting
+is induced in some persons by the mere idea of having partaken of any
+unusual food, as of an animal which is not commonly eaten; although
+there is nothing in such food to cause the stomach to reject it. When
+vomiting results, as a reflex action, from some real cause--as from
+too rich food, or tainted meat, or from an emetic--it does not ensue
+immediately, but generally after a considerable interval of time.
+Therefore, to account for retching or vomiting being so quickly and
+easily excited by a mere idea, the suspicion arises that our progenitors
+must formerly have had the power (like that possessed by ruminants and
+some other animals) of voluntarily rejecting food which disagreed with
+them, or which they thought would disagree with them; and now, though
+this power has been lost, as far as the will is concerned, it is
+called into involuntary action, through the force of a formerly
+well-established habit, whenever the mind revolts at the idea of having
+partaken of any kind of food, or at anything disgusting. This suspicion
+receives support from the fact, of which I am assured by Mr. Sutton,
+that the monkeys in the Zoological Gardens often vomit whilst in perfect
+health, which looks as if the act were voluntary. We can see that as
+man is able to communicate by language to his children and others,
+the knowledge of the kinds of food to be avoided, he would have little
+occasion to use the faculty of voluntary rejection; so that this power
+would tend to be lost through disuse.
+
+As the sense of smell is so intimately connected with that of taste, it
+is not surprising that an excessively bad odour should excite retching
+or vomiting in some persons, quite as readily as the thought of
+revolting food does; and that, as a further consequence, a moderately
+offensive odour should cause the various expressive movements of
+disgust. The tendency to retch from a fetid odour is immediately
+strengthened in a curious manner by some degree of habit, though soon
+lost by longer familiarity with the cause of offence and by voluntary
+restraint. For instance, I wished to clean the skeleton of a bird, which
+had not been sufficiently macerated, and the smell made my servant
+and myself (we not having had much experience in such work) retch so
+violently, that we were compelled to desist. During the previous days I
+had examined some other skeletons, which smelt slightly; yet the odour
+did not in the least affect me, but, subsequently for several days,
+whenever I handled these same skeletons, they made me retch.
+
+From the answers received from my correspondents it appears that the
+various movements, which have now been described as expressing contempt
+and disgust, prevail throughout a large part of the world. Dr. Rothrock,
+for instance, answers with a decided affirmative with respect to certain
+wild Indian tribes of North America. Crantz says that when a Greenlander
+denies anything with contempt or horror he turns up his nose, and
+gives a slight sound through it.[1109] Mr. Scott has sent me a graphic
+description of the face of a young Hindoo at the sight of castor-oil,
+which he was compelled occasionally to take. Mr. Scott has also seen the
+same expression on the faces of high-caste natives who have approached
+close to some defiling object. Mr. Bridges says that the Fuegians
+"express contempt by shooting out the lips and hissing through them, and
+by turning up the nose." The tendency either to snort through the nose,
+or to make a noise expressed by _ugh_ or _ach_, is noticed by several of
+my correspondents.
+
+Spitting seems an almost universal sign of contempt or disgust; and
+spitting obviously represents the rejection of anything offensive
+from the mouth. Shakspeare makes the Duke of Norfolk say, "I spit at
+him--call him a slanderous coward and a villain." So, again, Falstaff
+says, "Tell thee what, Hal,--if I tell thee a lie, spit in my face."
+Leichhardt remarks that the Australians "interrupted their speeches by
+spitting, and uttering a noise like pooh! pooh! apparently expressive of
+their disgust." And Captain Burton speaks of certain negroes "spitting
+with disgust upon the ground." Captain Speedy informs me that this is
+likewise the case with the Abyssinians. Mr. Geach says that with the
+Malays of Malacca the expression of disgust "answers to spitting from
+the mouth;" and with the Fuegians, according to Mr. Bridges "to spit at
+one is the highest mark of contempt."
+
+I never saw disgust more plainly expressed than on the face of one of my
+infants at the age of five months, when, for the first time, some cold
+water, and again a month afterwards, when a piece of ripe cherry was put
+into his mouth. This was shown by the lips and whole mouth assuming a
+shape which allowed the contents to run or fall quickly out; the tongue
+being likewise protruded. These movements were accompanied by a little
+shudder. It was all the more comical, as I doubt whether the child
+felt real disgust--the eyes and forehead expressing much surprise and
+consideration. The protrusion of the tongue in letting a nasty object
+fall out of the mouth, may explain how it is that lolling out the tongue
+universally serves as a sign of contempt and hatred.[1111]
+
+We have now seen that scorn, disdain, contempt, and disgust are
+expressed in many different ways, by movements of the features, and by
+various gestures; and that these are the same throughout the world. They
+all consist of actions representing the rejection or exclusion of some
+real object which we dislike or abhor, but which does not excite in us
+certain other strong emotions, such as rage or terror; and through the
+force of habit and association similar actions are performed, whenever
+any analogous sensation arises in our minds.
+
+_Jealousy, Envy, Avarice, Revenge, Suspicion, Deceit, Slyness, Guilt,
+Vanity, Conceit, Ambition, Pride, Humility, &c_.--It is doubtful whether
+the greater number of the above complex states of mind are revealed
+by any fixed expression, sufficiently distinct to be described or
+delineated. When Shakspeare speaks of Envy as _lean-faced_, or _black_,
+or _pale_, and Jealousy as "_the green-eyed monster_;" and when Spenser
+describes Suspicion as "_foul, ill-favoured, and grim_," they must have
+felt this difficulty. Nevertheless, the above feelings--at least many
+of them--can be detected by the eye; for instance, conceit; but we are
+often guided in a much greater degree than we suppose by our previous
+knowledge of the persons or circumstances.
+
+My correspondents almost unanimously answer in the affirmative to my
+query, whether the expression of guilt and deceit can be recognized
+amongst the various races of man; and I have confidence in their
+answers, as they generally deny that jealousy can thus be recognized.
+In the cases in which details are given, the eyes are almost always
+referred to. The guilty man is said to avoid looking at his accuser, or
+to give him stolen looks. The eyes are said "to be turned askant," or
+"to waver from side to side," or "the eyelids to be lowered and partly
+closed." This latter remark is made by Mr. Hagenauer with respect to
+the Australians, and by Gaika with respect to the Kafirs. The restless
+movements of the eyes apparently follow, as will be explained when we
+treat of blushing, from the guilty man not enduring to meet the gaze
+of his accuser. I may add, that I have observed a guilty expression,
+without a shade of fear, in some of my own children at a very early age.
+In one instance the expression was unmistakably clear in a child two
+years and seven months old, and led to the detection of his little
+crime. It was shown, as I record in my notes made at the time, by
+an unnatural brightness in the eyes, and by an odd, affected manner,
+impossible to describe.
+
+Slyness is also, I believe, exhibited chiefly by movements about the
+eyes; for these are less under the control of the will, owing to the
+force of long-continued habit, than are the movements of the body. Mr.
+Herbert Spencer remarks,[1112] "When there is a desire to see something
+on one side of the visual field without being supposed to see it, the
+tendency is to check the conspicuous movement of the head, and to make
+the required adjustment entirely with the eyes; which are, therefore,
+drawn very much to one side. Hence, when the eyes are turned to one
+side, while the face is not turned to the same side, we get the natural
+language of what is called slyness."
+
+Of all the above-named complex emotions, Pride, perhaps, is the most
+plainly expressed. A proud man exhibits his sense of superiority over
+others by holding his head and body erect. He is haughty (_haut_),
+or high, and makes himself appear as large as possible; so that
+metaphorically he is said to be swollen or puffed up with pride. A
+peacock or a turkey-cock strutting about with puffed-up feathers, is
+sometimes said to be an emblem of pride.[1113] The arrogant man looks
+down on others, and with lowered eyelids hardly condescends to see them;
+or he may show his contempt by slight movements, such as those before
+described, about the nostrils or lips. Hence the muscle which everts the
+lower lip has been called the _musculus superbus_. In some photographs
+of patients affected by a monomania of pride, sent me by Dr. Crichton
+Browne, the head and body were held erect, and the mouth firmly closed.
+This latter action, expressive of decision, follows, I presume, from
+the proud man feeling perfect self-confidence in himself. The whole
+expression of pride stands in direct antithesis to that of humility; so
+that nothing need here be said of the latter state of mind.
+
+
+_Helplessness, Impotence: Shrugging the shoulders_.--When a man wishes
+to show that he cannot do something, or prevent something being done, he
+often raises with a quick movement both shoulders. At the same time,
+if the whole gesture is completed, he bends his elbows closely
+inwards, raises his open hands, turning them outwards, with the fingers
+separated. The head is often thrown a little on one side; the eyebrows
+are elevated, and this causes wrinkles across the forehead. The mouth is
+generally opened. I may mention, in order to show how unconsciously
+the features are thus acted on, that though I had often intentionally
+shrugged my shoulders to observe how my arms were placed, I was not at
+all aware that my eyebrows were raised and mouth opened, until I looked
+at myself in a glass; and since then I have noticed the same movements
+in the faces of others. In the accompanying Plate VI., figs. 3 and
+4, Mr. Rejlander has successfully acted the gesture of shrugging the
+shoulders.
+
+Englishmen are much less demonstrative than the men of most other
+European nations, and they shrug their shoulders far less frequently and
+energetically than Frenchmen or Italians do. The gesture varies in all
+degrees from the complex movement, just described, to only a momentary
+and scarcely perceptible raising of both shoulders; or, as I have
+noticed in a lady sitting in an arm-chair, to the mere turning slightly
+outwards of the open hands with separated fingers. I have never seen
+very young English children shrug their shoulders, but the following
+case was observed with care by a medical professor and excellent
+observer, and has been communicated to me by him. The father of this
+gentleman was a Parisian, and his mother a Scotch lady. His wife is of
+British extraction on both sides, and my informant does not believe
+that she ever shrugged her shoulders in her life. His children have been
+reared in England, and the nursemaid is a thorough Englishwoman, who
+has never been seen to shrug her shoulders. Now, his eldest daughter
+was observed to shrug her shoulders at the age of between sixteen and
+eighteen months; her mother exclaiming at the time, "Look at the little
+French girl shrugging her shoulders!" At first she often acted thus,
+sometimes throwing her head a little backwards and on one side, but she
+did not, as far as was observed, move her elbows and hands in the usual
+manner. The habit gradually wore away, and now, when she is a little
+over four years old, she is never seen to act thus. The father is told
+that he sometimes shrugs his shoulders, especially when arguing with
+any one; but it is extremely improbable that his daughter should have
+imitated him at so early an age; for, as he remarks, she could not
+possibly have often seen this gesture in him. Moreover, if the habit
+had been acquired through imitation, it is not probable that it would
+so soon have been spontaneously discontinued by this child, and, as we
+shall immediately see, by a second child, though the father still
+lived with his family. This little girl, it may be added, resembles her
+Parisian grandfather in countenance to an almost absurd degree. She
+also presents another and very curious resemblance to him, namely, by
+practising a singular trick. When she impatiently wants something, she
+holds out her little hand, and rapidly rubs the thumb against the index
+and middle finger: now this same trick was frequently performed under
+the same circumstances by her grandfather.
+
+This gentleman's second daughter also shrugged her shoulders before the
+age of eighteen months, and afterwards discontinued the habit. It is
+of course possible that she may have imitated her elder sister; but she
+continued it after her sister had lost the habit. She at first resembled
+her Parisian grandfather in a less degree than did her sister at the
+same age, but now in a greater degree. She likewise practises to the
+present time the peculiar habit of rubbing together, when impatient, her
+thumb and two of her fore-fingers.
+
+In this latter case we have a good instance, like those given in a
+former chapter, of the inheritance of a trick or gesture; for no one, I
+presume, will attribute to mere coincidence so peculiar a habit as this,
+which was common to the grandfather and his two grandchildren who had
+never seen him.
+
+Considering all the circumstances with reference to these children
+shrugging their shoulders, it can hardly be doubted that they have
+inherited the habit from their French progenitors, although they
+have only one quarter French blood in their veins, and although their
+grandfather did not often shrug his shoulders. There is nothing very
+unusual, though the fact is interesting, in these children having gained
+by inheritance a habit during early youth, and then discontinuing it;
+for it is of frequent occurrence with many kinds of animals that certain
+characters are retained for a period by the young, and are then lost.
+
+As it appeared to me at one time improbable in a high degree that
+so complex a gesture as shrugging the shoulders, together with the
+accompanying movements, should be innate, I was anxious to ascertain
+whether the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman, who could not have learnt the
+habit by imitation, practised it. And I have heard, through Dr. Innes,
+from a lady who has lately had charge of her, that she does shrug her
+shoulders, turn in her elbows, and raise her eyebrows in the same manner
+as other people, and under the same circumstances. I was also anxious
+to learn whether this gesture was practised by the various races of man,
+especially by those who never have had much intercourse with Europeans.
+We shall see that they act in this manner; but it appears that the
+gesture is sometimes confined to merely raising or shrugging the
+shoulders, without the other movements.
+
+Mr. Scott has frequently seen this gesture in the Bengalees and Dhangars
+(the latter constituting a distinct race) who are employed in the
+Botanic Garden at Calcutta; when, for instance, they have declared that
+they could not do some work, such as lifting a heavy weight. He ordered
+a Bengalee to climb a lofty tree; but the man, with a shrug of his
+shoulders and a lateral shake of his head, said he could not. Mr. Scott
+knowing that the man was lazy, thought he could, and insisted on his
+trying. His face now became pale, his arms dropped to his sides, his
+mouth and eyes were widely opened, and again surveying the tree, he
+looked askant at Mr. Scott, shrugged his shoulders, inverted his elbows,
+extended his open hands, and with a few quick lateral shakes of the head
+declared his inability. Mr. H. Erskine has likewise seen the natives of
+India shrugging their shoulders; but he has never seen the elbows turned
+so much inwards as with us; and whilst shrugging their shoulders they
+sometimes lay their uncrossed hands on their breasts.
+
+With the wild Malays of the interior of Malacca, and with the Bugis
+(true Malays, though speaking a different, language), Mr. Geach has
+often seen this gesture. I presume that it is complete, as, in answer to
+my query descriptive of the movements of the shoulders, arms, hands, and
+face, Mr. Geach remarks, "it is performed in a beautiful style." I
+have lost an extract from a scientific voyage, in which shrugging the
+shoulders by some natives (Micronesians) of the Caroline Archipelago in
+the Pacific Ocean, was well described. Capt. Speedy informs me that the
+Abyssinians shrug their shoulders but enters into no details. Mrs. Asa
+Gray saw an Arab dragoman in Alexandria acting exactly as described in
+my query, when an old gentleman, on whom he attended, would not go in
+the proper direction which had been pointed out to him.
+
+Mr. Washington Matthews says, in reference to the wild Indian tribes
+of the western parts of the United States, "I have on a few occasions
+detected men using a slight apologetic shrug, but the rest of the
+demonstration which you describe I have not witnessed." Fritz Muller
+informs me that he has seen the negroes in Brazil shrugging their
+shoulders; but it is of course possible that they may have learnt to do
+so by imitating the Portuguese. Mrs. Barber has never seen this gesture
+with the Kafirs of South Africa; and Gaika, judging from his answer,
+did not even understand what was meant by my description. Mr. Swinhoe
+is also doubtful about the Chinese; but he has seen them, under the
+circumstances which would make us shrug our shoulders, press their right
+elbow against their side, raise their eyebrows, lift up their hand with
+the palm directed towards the person addressed, and shake it from right
+to left. Lastly, with respect to the Australians, four of my informants
+answer by a simple negative, and one by a simple affirmative. Mr.
+Bunnett, who has had excellent opportunities for observation on the
+borders of the Colony of Victory, also answers by a "yes," adding that
+the gesture is performed "in a more subdued and less demonstrative
+manner than is the case with civilized nations." This circumstance may
+account for its not having been noticed by four of my informants.
+
+These statements, relating to Europeans, Hindoos, the hill-tribes of
+India, Malays, Micronesians, Abyssinians, Arabs, Negroes, Indians of
+North America, and apparently to the Australians--many of these natives
+having had scarcely any intercourse with Europeans--are sufficient to
+show that shrugging the shoulders, accompanied in some cases by the
+other proper movements, is a gesture natural to mankind.
+
+This gesture implies an unintentional or unavoidable action on our own
+part, or one that we cannot perform; or an action performed by another
+person which we cannot prevent. It accompanies such speeches as, "It was
+not my fault;" "It is impossible for me to grant this favour;" "He
+must follow his own course, I cannot stop him." Shrugging the shoulders
+likewise expresses patience, or the absence of any intention to resist.
+Hence the muscles which raise the shoulders are sometimes called, as I
+have been informed by an artist, the patience muscles. Shylock the Jew,
+says,
+
+      "Signor Antonio, many a time and oft
+      In the Rialto have you rated me
+      About my monies and usances;
+      Still have I borne it with a patient shrug."
+     _Merchant of Venice_, act 1. sc. 3.
+
+
+Sir C. Bell has given[1114] a life-like figure of a man, who is
+shrinking back from some terrible danger, and is on the point of
+screaming out in abject terror. He is represented with his shoulders
+lifted up almost to his ears; and this at once declares that there is no
+thought of resistance.
+
+As shrugging the shoulders generally implies "I cannot do this or
+that," so by a slight change, it sometimes implies "I won't do it."
+The movement then expresses a dogged determination not to act. Olmsted
+describes[1115] an Indian in Texas as giving a great shrug to his
+shoulders, when he was informed that a party of men were Germans and not
+Americans, thus expressing that he would have nothing to do with them.
+Sulky and obstinate children may be seen with both their shoulders
+raised high up; but this movement is not associated with the others
+which generally accompany a true shrug. An excellent observer[1116] in
+describing a young man who was determined not to yield to his father's
+desire, says, "He thrust his hands deep down into his pockets, and set
+up his shoulders to his ears, which was a good warning that, come right
+or wrong, this rock should fly from its firm base as soon as Jack would;
+and that any remonstrance on the subject was purely futile." As soon
+as the son got his own way, he "put his shoulders into their natural
+position."
+
+Resignation is sometimes shown by the open hands being placed, one over
+the other, on the lower part of the body. I should not have thought this
+little gesture worth even a passing notice, had not Dr. W. Ogle remarked
+to me that he had two or three times observed it in patients who were
+preparing for operations under chloroform. They exhibited no great fear,
+but seemed to declare by this posture of their hands, that they had made
+up their minds, and were resigned to the inevitable.
+
+We may now inquire why men in all parts of the world when they
+feel,--whether or not they wish to show this feeling,--that they cannot
+or will not do something, or will not resist something if done by
+another, shrug their shoulders, at the same time often bending in their
+elbows, showing the palms of their hands with extended fingers, often
+throwing their heads a little on one side, raising their eyebrows,
+and opening their mouths. These states of the mind are either simply
+passive, or show a determination not to act. None of the above movements
+are of the least service. The explanation lies, I cannot doubt, in the
+principle of unconscious antithesis. This principle here seems to come
+into play as clearly as in the case of a dog, who, when feeling savage,
+puts himself in the proper attitude for attacking and for making himself
+appear terrible to his enemy; but as soon as he feels affectionate,
+throws his whole body into a directly opposite attitude, though this is
+of no direct use to him.
+
+Let it be observed how an indignant man, who resents, and will not
+submit to some injury, holds his head erect, squares his shoulders, and
+expands his chest. He often clenches his fists, and puts one or both
+arms in the proper position for attack or defence, with the muscles
+of his limbs rigid. He frowns,--that is, he contracts and lowers
+his brows,--and, being determined, closes his mouth. The actions and
+attitude of a helpless man are, in every one of these respects, exactly
+the reverse. In Plate VI. we may imagine one of the figures on the left
+side to have just said, "What do you mean by insulting me?" and one of
+the figures on the right side to answer, "I really could not help it."
+The helpless man unconsciously contracts the muscles of his forehead
+which are antagonistic to those that cause a frown, and thus raises his
+eyebrows; at the same time he relaxes the muscles about the mouth, so
+that the lower jaw drops. The antithesis is complete in every detail,
+not only in the movements of the features, but in the position of the
+limbs and in the attitude of the whole body, as may be seen in the
+accompanying plate. As the helpless or apologetic man often wishes to
+show his state of mind, he then acts in a conspicuous or demonstrative
+manner.
+
+In accordance with the fact that squaring the elbows and clenching the
+fists are gestures by no means universal with the men of all races,
+when they feel indignant and are prepared to attack their enemy, so it
+appears that a helpless or apologetic frame of mind is expressed in many
+parts of the world by merely shrugging the shoulders, without turning
+inwards the elbows and opening the hands. The man or child who is
+obstinate, or one who is resigned to some great misfortune, has in
+neither case any idea of resistance by active means; and he expresses
+this state of mind, by simply keeping his shoulders raised; or he may
+possibly fold his arms across his breast.
+
+_Signs of affirmation or approval, and of negation or disapproval:
+nodding and shaking the head_.--I was curious to ascertain how far
+the common signs used by us in affirmation and negation were general
+throughout the world. These signs are indeed to a certain extent
+expressive of our feelings, as we give a vertical nod of approval with
+a smile to our children, when we approve of their conduct; and shake
+our heads laterally with a frown, when we disapprove. With infants, the
+first act of denial consists in refusing food; and I repeatedly noticed
+with my own infants, that they did so by withdrawing their heads
+laterally from the breast, or from anything offered them in a spoon. In
+accepting food and taking it into their mouths, they incline their heads
+forwards. Since making these observations I have been informed that
+the same idea had occurred to Charma.[1117] It deserves notice that in
+accepting or taking food, there is only a single movement forward, and a
+single nod implies an affirmation. On the other hand, in refusing food,
+especially if it be pressed on them, children frequently move their
+heads several times from side to side, as we do in shaking our heads
+in negation. Moreover, in the case of refusal, the head is not rarely
+thrown backwards, or the mouth is closed, so that these movements might
+likewise come to serve as signs of negation. Mr. Wedgwood remarks on
+this subject,[1118] that "when the voice is exerted with closed teeth
+or lips, it produces the sound of the letter _n_ or _m_. Hence we
+may account for the use of the particle _ne_ to signify negation, and
+possibly also of the Greek mh in the same sense."
+
+That these signs are innate or instinctive, at least with Anglo-Saxons,
+is rendered highly probable by the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman
+"constantly accompanying her _yes_ with the common affirmative nod, and
+her _no_ with our negative shake of the head." Had not Mr. Lieber stated
+to the contrary,[1119] I should have imagined that these gestures might
+have been acquired or learnt by her, considering her wonderful sense of
+touch and appreciation of the movements of others. With microcephalous
+idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn to speak, one of them
+is described by Vogt,[1120] as answering, when asked whether he wished
+for more food or drink, by inclining or shaking his head. Schmalz, in
+his remarkable dissertation on the education of the deaf and dumb, as
+well as of children raised only one degree above idiotcy, assumes that
+they can always both make and understand the common signs of affirmation
+and negation.
+
+Nevertheless if we look to the various races of man, these signs are
+not so universally employed as I should have expected; yet they seem
+too general to be ranked as altogether conventional or artificial. My
+informants assert that both signs are used by the Malays, by the natives
+of Ceylon, the Chinese, the negroes of the Guinea coast, and, according
+to Gaika, by the Kafirs of South Africa, though with these latter people
+Mrs. Barber has never seen a lateral shake used as a negative. With
+respect to the Australians, seven observers agree that a nod is given in
+affirmation; five agree about a lateral shake in negation, accompanied
+or not by some word; but Mr. Dyson Lacy has never seen this latter sign
+in Queensland, and Mr. Bulmer says that in Gipps' Land a negative is
+expressed by throwing the head a little backwards and putting out the
+tongue. At the northern extremity of the continent, near Torres Straits,
+the natives when uttering a negative "don't shake the head with it, but
+holding up the right hand, shake it by turning it half round and back
+again two or three times."[1122] The throwing back of the head with
+a cluck of the tongue is said to be used as a negative by the modern
+Greeks and Turks, the latter people expressing _yes_ by a movement like
+that made by us when we shake our heads.[1123] The Abyssinians, as I am
+informed by Captain Speedy, express a negative by jerking the head
+to the right shoulder, together with a slight cluck, the mouth being
+closed; an affirmation is expressed by the head being thrown backwards
+and the eyebrows raised for an instant. The Tagals of Luzon, in the
+Philippine Archipelago, as I hear from Dr. Adolf Meyer, when they say
+"yes," also throw the head backwards. According to the Rajah Brooke, the
+Dyaks of Borneo express an affirmation by raising the eyebrows, and a
+negation by slightly contracting them, together with a peculiar look
+from the eyes. With the Arabs on the Nile, Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray
+concluded that nodding in affirmation was rare, whilst shaking the head
+in negation was never used, and was not even understood by them.
+With the Esquimaux[1124] a nod means _yes_ and a wink _no_. The
+New Zealanders "elevate the head and chin in place of nodding
+acquiescence."[1125]
+
+With the Hindoos Mr. H. Erskine concludes from inquiries made from
+experienced Europeans, and from native gentlemen, that the signs of
+affirmation and negation vary--a nod and a lateral shake being sometimes
+used as we do; but a negative is more commonly expressed by the head
+being thrown suddenly backwards and a little to one side, with a cluck
+of the tongue. What the meaning may be of this cluck of the tongue,
+which has been observed with various people, I cannot imagine. A native
+gentleman stated that affirmation is frequently shown by the head being
+thrown to the left. I asked Mr. Scott to attend particularly to this
+point, and, after repeated observations, he believes that a vertical nod
+is not commonly used by the natives in affirmation, but that the head
+is first thrown backwards either to the left or right, and then jerked
+obliquely forwards only once. This movement would perhaps have been
+described by a less careful observer as a lateral shake. He also states
+that in negation the head is usually held nearly upright, and shaken
+several times.
+
+Mr. Bridges informs me that the Fuegians nod their heads vertically in
+affirmation, and shake them laterally in denial. With the wild Indians
+of North America, according to Mr. Washington Matthews, nodding and
+shaking the head have been learnt from Europeans, and are not naturally
+employed. They express affirmation by describing with the hand (all the
+fingers except the index being flexed) a curve downwards and outwards
+from the body, whilst negation is expressed by moving the open hand
+outwards, with the palm facing inwards. Other observers state that the
+sign of affirmation with these Indians is the forefinger being raised,
+and then lowered and pointed to the ground, or the hand is waved
+straight forward from the face; and that the sign of negation is
+the finger or whole hand shaken from side to side.[1126] This latter
+movement probably represents in all cases the lateral shaking of the
+head. The Italians are said in like manner to move the lifted finger
+from right to left in negation, as indeed we English sometimes do.
+
+On the whole we find considerable diversity in the signs of affirmation
+and negation in the different races of man. With respect to negation,
+if we admit that the shaking of the finger or hand from side to side is
+symbolic of the lateral movement of the head; and if we admit that the
+sudden backward movement of the head represents one of the actions
+often practised by young children in refusing food, then there is much
+uniformity throughout the world in the signs of negation, and we can
+see how they originated. The most marked exceptions are presented by the
+Arabs, Esquimaux, some Australian tribes, and Dyaks. With the latter a
+frown is the sign of negation, and with us frowning often accompanies a
+lateral shake of the head.
+
+With respect to nodding in affirmation, the exceptions are rather more
+numerous, namely with some of the Hindoos, with the Turks, Abyssinians,
+Dyaks, Tagals, and New Zealanders. The eyebrows are sometimes raised in
+affirmation, and as a person in bending his head forwards and downwards
+naturally looks up to the person whom he addresses, he will be apt
+to raise his eyebrows, and this sign may thus have arisen as an
+abbreviation. So again with the New Zealanders, the lifting up the chin
+and head in affirmation may perhaps represent in an abbreviated form
+the upward movement of the head after it has been nodded forwards and
+downwards.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII. -- SURPRISE--ASTONISHMENT--FEAR--HORROR.
+
+Surprise, astonishment--Elevation of the eyebrows--Opening
+the mouth--Protrusion of the lips--Gestures accompanying
+surprise--Admiration--Fear--Terror--Erection of the hair--Contraction of
+the platysma muscle--Dilatation of the pupils--Horror--Conclusion.
+
+
+ATTENTION, if sudden and close, graduates into surprise; and this into
+astonishment; and this into stupefied amazement. The latter frame of
+mind is closely akin to terror. Attention is shown by the eyebrows being
+slightly raised; and as this state increases into surprise, they are
+raised to a much greater extent, with the eyes and mouth widely open.
+The raising of the eyebrows is necessary in order that the eyes should
+be opened quickly and widely; and this movement produces transverse
+wrinkles across the forehead. The degree to which the eyes and mouth are
+opened corresponds with the degree of surprise felt; but these movements
+must be coordinated; for a widely opened mouth with eyebrows only
+slightly raised results in a meaningless grimace, as Dr. Duchenne has
+shown in one of his photographs.[1201] On the other hand, a person may
+often be seen to pretend surprise by merely raising his eyebrows.
+
+Dr. Duchenne has given a photograph of an old man with his eyebrows well
+elevated and arched by the galvanization of the frontal muscle; and with
+his mouth voluntarily opened. This figure expresses surprise with much
+truth. I showed it to twenty-four persons without a word of explanation,
+and one alone did not at all understand what was intended. A second
+person answered terror, which is not far wrong; some of the others,
+however, added to the words surprise or astonishment, the epithets
+horrified, woful, painful, or disgusted.
+
+The eyes and mouth being widely open is an expression universally
+recognized as one of surprise or astonishment. Thus Shakespeare says,
+"I saw a smith stand with open mouth swallowing a tailor's news." ('King
+John,' act iv. scene ii.) And again, "They seemed almost, with staring
+on one another, to tear the cases of their eyes; there was speech in the
+dumbness, language in their very gesture; they looked as they had heard
+of a world destroyed." ('Winter's Tale,' act v. scene ii.)
+
+My informants answer with remarkable uniformity to the same effect, with
+respect to the various races of man; the above movements of the features
+being often accompanied by certain gestures and sounds, presently to
+be described. Twelve observers in different parts of Australia agree
+on this head. Mr. Winwood Reade has observed this expression with the
+negroes on the Guinea coast. The chief Gaika and others answer _yes_ to
+my query with respect to the Kafirs of South Africa; and so do others
+emphatically with reference to the Abyssinians, Ceylonese, Chinese,
+Fuegians, various tribes of North America, and New Zealanders. With the
+latter, Mr. Stack states that the expression is more plainly shown by
+certain individuals than by others, though all endeavour as much as
+possible to conceal their feelings. The Dyaks of Borneo are said by the
+Rajah Brooke to open their eyes widely, when astonished, often swinging
+their heads to and fro, and beating their breasts. Mr. Scott informs me
+that the workmen in the Botanic Gardens at Calcutta are strictly ordered
+not to smoke; but they often disobey this order, and when suddenly
+surprised in the act, they first open their eyes and mouths widely.
+They then often slightly shrug their shoulders, as they perceive that
+discovery is inevitable, or frown and stamp on the ground from vexation.
+Soon they recover from their surprise, and abject fear is exhibited by
+the relaxation of all their muscles; their heads seem to sink between
+their shoulders; their fallen eyes wander to and fro; and they
+supplicate forgiveness.
+
+The well-known Australian explorer, Mr. Stuart, has given[1202] a
+striking account of stupefied amazement together with terror in a native
+who had never before seen a man on horseback. Mr. Stuart approached
+unseen and called to him from a little distance. "He turned round and
+saw me. What he imagined I was I do not know; but a finer picture of
+fear and astonishment I never saw. He stood incapable of moving a
+limb, riveted to the spot, mouth open and eyes staring.... He remained
+motionless until our black got within a few yards of him, when suddenly
+throwing down his waddies, he jumped into a mulga bush as high as he
+could get." He could not speak, and answered not a word to the inquiries
+made by the black, but, trembling from head to foot, "waved with his
+hand for us to be off."
+
+That the eyebrows are raised by an innate or instinctive impulse may
+be inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman invariably acts thus when
+astonished, as I have been assured by the lady who has lately had charge
+of her. As surprise is excited by something unexpected or unknown, we
+naturally desire, when startled, to perceive the cause as quickly as
+possible; and we consequently open our eyes fully, so that the field of
+vision may be increased, and the eyeballs moved easily in any direction.
+But this hardly accounts for the eyebrows being so greatly raised as
+is the case, and for the wild staring of the open eyes. The explanation
+lies, I believe, in the impossibility of opening the eyes with great
+rapidity by merely raising the upper lids. To effect this the eyebrows
+must be lifted energetically. Any one who will try to open his eyes as
+quickly as possible before a mirror will find that he acts thus; and the
+energetic lifting up of the eyebrows opens the eyes so widely that
+they stare, the white being exposed all round the iris. Moreover, the
+elevation of the eyebrows is an advantage in looking upwards; for as
+long as they are lowered they impede our vision in this direction.
+Sir C. Bell gives[1203] a curious little proof of the part which the
+eyebrows play in opening the eyelids. In a stupidly drunken man all the
+muscles are relaxed, and the eyelids consequently droop, in the same
+manner as when we are falling asleep. To counteract this tendency the
+drunkard raises his eyebrows; and this gives to him a puzzled, foolish
+look, as is well represented in one of Hogarth's drawings. The habit of
+raising the eyebrows having once been gained in order to see as quickly
+as possible all around us, the movement would follow from the force of
+association whenever astonishment was felt from any cause, even from a
+sudden sound or an idea.
+
+With adult persons, when the eyebrows are raised, the whole forehead
+becomes much wrinkled in transverse lines; but with children this occurs
+only to a slight degree. The wrinkles run in lines concentric with each
+eyebrow, and are partially confluent in the middle. They are highly
+characteristic of the expression of surprise or astonishment. Each
+eyebrow, when raised, becomes also, as Duchenne remarks,[1204] more
+arched than it was before.
+
+The cause of the mouth being opened when astonishment is felt, is a much
+more complex affair; and several causes apparently concur in leading
+to this movement. It has often been supposed[1205] that the sense
+of hearing is thus rendered more acute; but I have watched persons
+listening intently to a slight noise, the nature and source of which
+they knew perfectly, and they did not open their mouths. Therefore I at
+one time imagined that the open mouth might aid in distinguishing the
+direction whence a sound proceeded, by giving another channel for its
+entrance into the ear through the eustachian tube, But Dr. W. Ogle[1206]
+has been so kind as to search the best recent authorities on the
+functions of the eustachian tube, and he informs me that it is almost
+conclusively proved that it remains closed except during the act of
+deglutition; and that in persons in whom the tube remains abnormally
+open, the sense of hearing, as far as external sounds are concerned, is
+by no means improved; on the contrary, it is impaired by the respiratory
+sounds being rendered more distinct. If a watch be placed within the
+mouth, but not allowed to touch the sides, the ticking is heard much
+less plainly than when held outside. In persons in whom from disease
+or a cold the eustachian tube is permanently or temporarily closed,
+the sense of hearing is injured; but this may be accounted for by mucus
+accumulating within the tube, and the consequent exclusion of air. We
+may therefore infer that the mouth is not kept open under the sense
+of astonishment for the sake of hearing sounds more distinctly;
+notwithstanding that most deaf people keep their mouths open.
+
+Every sudden emotion, including astonishment, quickens the action of
+the heart, and with it the respiration. Now we can breathe, as Gratiolet
+remarks[1207] and as appears to me to be the case, much more quietly
+through the open mouth than through the nostrils. Therefore, when we
+wish to listen intently to any sound, we either stop breathing, or
+breathe as quietly as possible, by opening our mouths, at the same time
+keeping our bodies motionless. One of my sons was awakened in the night
+by a noise under circumstances which naturally led to great care, and
+after a few minutes he perceived that his mouth was widely open. He
+then became conscious that he had opened it for the sake of breathing as
+quietly as possible. This view receives support from the reversed case
+which occurs with dogs. A dog when panting after exercise, or on a
+hot day, breathes loudly; but if his attention be suddenly aroused,
+he instantly pricks his ears to listen, shuts his mouth, and breathes
+quietly, as he is enabled to do, through his nostrils.
+
+When the attention is concentrated for a length of time with fixed
+earnestness on any object or subject, all the organs of the body
+are forgotten and neglected;[1208] and as the nervous energy of each
+individual is limited in amount, little is transmitted to any part of
+the system, excepting that which is at the time brought into energetic
+action. Therefore many of the muscles tend to become relaxed, and the
+jaw drops from its own weight. This will account for the dropping of the
+jaw and open mouth of a man stupefied with amazement, and perhaps
+when less strongly affected. I have noticed this appearance, as I
+find recorded in my notes, in very young children when they were only
+moderately surprised.
+
+There is still another and highly effective cause, leading to the mouth
+being opened, when we are astonished, and more especially when we are
+suddenly startled. We can draw a full and deep inspiration much more
+easily through the widely open mouth than through the nostrils. Now when
+we start at any sudden sound or sight, almost all the muscles of the
+body are involuntarily and momentarily thrown into strong action, for
+the sake of guarding ourselves against or jumping away from the danger,
+which we habitually associate with anything unexpected. But we always
+unconsciously prepare ourselves for any great exertion, as formerly
+explained, by first taking a deep and full inspiration, and we
+consequently open our mouths. If no exertion follows, and we still
+remain astonished, we cease for a time to breathe, or breathe as quietly
+as possible, in order that every sound may be distinctly heard. Or
+again, if our attention continues long and earnestly absorbed, all our
+muscles become relaxed, and the jaw, which was at first suddenly opened,
+remains dropped. Thus several causes concur towards this same movement,
+whenever surprise, astonishment, or amazement is felt.
+
+Although when thus affected, our mouths are generally opened, yet the
+lips are often a little protruded. This fact reminds us of the
+same movement, though in a much more strongly marked degree, in the
+chimpanzee and orang when astonished. As a strong expiration naturally
+follows the deep inspiration which accompanies the first sense of
+startled surprise, and as the lips are often protruded, the various
+sounds which are then commonly uttered can apparently be accounted for.
+But sometimes a strong expiration alone is heard; thus Laura Bridgman,
+when amazed, rounds and protrudes her lips, opens them, and breathes
+strongly.[1209] One of the commonest sounds is a deep _Oh_; and this
+would naturally follow, as explained by Helmholtz, from the mouth being
+moderately opened and the lips protruded. On a quiet night some rockets
+were fired from the 'Beagle,' in a little creek at Tahiti, to amuse the
+natives; and as each rocket, was let off there was absolute silence,
+but this was invariably followed by a deep groaning _Oh_, resounding
+all round the bay. Mr. Washington Matthews says that the North American
+Indians express astonishment by a groan; and the negroes on the West
+Coast of Africa, according to Mr. Winwood Reade, protrude their lips,
+and make a sound like _heigh, heigh_. If the mouth is not much opened,
+whilst the lips are considerably protruded, a blowing, hissing, or
+whistling noise is produced. Mr. R. Brough Smith informs me that an
+Australian from the interior was taken to the theatre to see an acrobat
+rapidly turning head over heels: "he was greatly astonished, and
+protruded his lips, making a noise with his mouth as if blowing out a
+match." According to Mr. Bulmer the Australians, when surprised, utter
+the exclamation _korki_, "and to do this the mouth is drawn out as if
+going to whistle." We Europeans often whistle as a sign of surprise;
+thus, in a recent novel[1210] it is said, "here the man expressed his
+astonishment and disapprobation by a prolonged whistle." A Kafir girl,
+as Mr. J. Mansel Weale informs me, "on hearing of the high price of an
+article, raised her eyebrows and whistled just as a European would." Mr.
+Wedgwood remarks that such sounds are written down as _whew_, and they
+serve as interjections for surprise.
+
+According to three other observers, the Australians often evince
+astonishment by a clucking noise. Europeans also sometimes express
+gentle surprise by a little clicking noise of nearly the same kind. We
+have seen that when we are startled, the mouth is suddenly opened; and
+if the tongue happens to be then pressed closely against the palate, its
+sudden withdrawal will produce a sound of this kind, which might thus
+come to express surprise.
+
+[Illustration: Gestures of the body. Plate VII]
+
+Turning to gestures of the body. A surprised person often raises his
+opened hands high above his head, or by bending his arms only to the
+level of his face. The flat palms are directed towards the person who
+causes this feeling, and the straightened fingers are separated. This
+gesture is represented by Mr. Rejlander in Plate VII. fig. 1. In the
+'Last Supper,' by Leonardo da Vinci, two of the Apostles have their
+hands half uplifted, clearly expressive of their astonishment. A
+trustworthy observer told me that he had lately met his wife under most
+unexpected circumstances: "She started, opened her mouth and eyes very
+widely, and threw up both her arms above her head." Several years ago
+I was surprised by seeing several of my young children earnestly doing
+something together on the ground; but the distance was too great for
+me to ask what they were about. Therefore I threw up my open hands with
+extended fingers above my head; and as soon as I had done this, I became
+conscious of the action. I then waited, without saying a word, to see if
+my children had understood this gesture; and as they came running to me
+they cried out, "We saw that you were astonished at us." I do not
+know whether this gesture is common to the various races of man, as I
+neglected to make inquiries on this head. That it is innate or natural
+may be inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman, when amazed, "spreads
+her arms and turns her hands with extended fingers upwards;"[1211] nor
+is it likely, considering that the feeling of surprise is generally a
+brief one, that she should have learnt this gesture through her keen
+sense of touch.
+
+Huschke describes[1212] a somewhat different yet allied gesture, which
+he says is exhibited by persons when astonished. They hold themselves
+erect, with the features as before described, but with the straightened
+arms extended backwards--the stretched fingers being separated from each
+other. I have never myself seen this gesture; but Huschke is probably
+correct; for a friend asked another man how he would express great
+astonishment, and he at once threw himself into this attitude.
+
+These gestures are, I believe, explicable on the principle of
+antithesis. We have seen that an indignant man holds his head erect,
+squares his shoulders, turns out his elbows, often clenches his fist,
+frowns, and closes his mouth; whilst the attitude of a helpless man is
+in every one of these details the reverse. Now, a man in an ordinary
+frame of mind, doing nothing and thinking of nothing in particular,
+usually keeps his two arms suspended laxly by his sides, with his hands
+somewhat flexed, and the fingers near together. Therefore, to raise the
+arms suddenly, either the whole arms or the fore-arms, to open the palms
+flat, and to separate the fingers,--or, again, to straighten the arms,
+extending them backwards with separated fingers,--are movements in
+complete antithesis to those preserved under an indifferent frame
+of mind, and they are, in consequence, unconsciously assumed by an
+astonished man. There is, also, often a desire to display surprise in
+a conspicuous manner, and the above attitudes are well fitted for this
+purpose. It may be asked why should surprise, and only a few other
+states of the mind, be exhibited by movements in antithesis to others.
+But this principle will not be brought into play in the case of those
+emotions, such as terror, great joy, suffering, or rage, which naturally
+lead to certain lines of action and produce certain effects on the body,
+for the whole system is thus preoccupied; and these emotions are already
+thus expressed with the greatest plainness.
+
+There is another little gesture, expressive of astonishment of which I
+can offer no explanation; namely, the hand being placed over the mouth
+or on some part of the head. This has been observed with so many races
+of man, that it must have some natural origin. A wild Australian was
+taken into a large room full of official papers, which surprised him
+greatly, and he cried out, _cluck, cluck, cluck_, putting the back of
+his hand towards his lips. Mrs. Barber says that the Kafirs and Fingoes
+express astonishment by a serious look and by placing the right hand
+upon the mouth, Littering the word _mawo_, which means 'wonderful.' The
+Bushmen are said[1213] to put their right hands to their necks, bending
+their heads backwards. Mr. Winwood Reade has observed that the negroes
+on the West Coast of Africa, when surprised, clap their hands to their
+mouths, saying at the same time, "My mouth cleaves to me," i. e. to
+my hands; and he has heard that this is their usual gesture on such
+occasions. Captain Speedy informs me that the Abyssinians place
+their right hand to the forehead, with the palm outside. Lastly, Mr.
+Washington Matthews states that the conventional sign of astonishment
+with the wild tribes of the western parts of the United States "is made
+by placing the half-closed hand over the mouth; in doing this, the head
+is often bent forwards, and words or low groans are sometimes uttered."
+Catlin[1214] makes the same remark about the hand being pressed over the
+mouth by the Mandans and other Indian tribes.
+
+
+_Admiration_.--Little need be said on this head. Admiration apparently
+consists of surprise associated with some pleasure and a sense of
+approval. When vividly felt, the eyes are opened and the eyebrows
+raised; the eyes become bright, instead of remaining blank, as under
+simple astonishment; and the mouth, instead of gaping open, expands into
+a smile.
+
+
+_Fear, Terror_.--The word 'fear' seems to be derived from what is sudden
+and dangerous;[1215] and that of terror from the trembling of the vocal
+organs and body. I use the word 'terror' for extreme fear; but some
+writers think it ought to be confined to cases in which the imagination
+is more particularly concerned. Fear is often preceded by astonishment,
+and is so far akin to it, that both lead to the senses of sight and
+hearing being instantly aroused. In both cases the eyes and mouth are
+widely opened, and the eyebrows raised. The frightened man at first
+stands like a statue motionless and breathless, or crouches down as if
+instinctively to escape observation.
+
+The heart beats quickly and violently, so that it palpitates or knocks
+against the ribs; but it is very doubtful whether it then works more
+efficiently than usual, so as to send a greater supply of blood to
+all parts of the body; for the skin instantly becomes pale, as during
+incipient faintness. This paleness of the surface, however, is probably
+in large part, or exclusively, due to the vasomotor centre being
+affected in such a manner as to cause the contraction of the small
+arteries of the skin. That the skin is much affected under the sense of
+great fear, we see in the marvellous and inexplicable manner in which
+perspiration immediately exudes from it. This exudation is all the
+more remarkable, as the surface is then cold, and hence the term a cold
+sweat; whereas, the sudorific glands are properly excited into action
+when the surface is heated. The hairs also on the skin stand erect; and
+the superficial muscles shiver. In connection with the disturbed
+action of the heart, the breathing is hurried. The salivary glands act
+imperfectly; the mouth becomes dry,[1216] and is often opened and shut.
+I have also noticed that under slight fear there is a strong tendency
+to yawn. One of the best-marked symptoms is the trembling of all the
+muscles of the body; and this is often first seen in the lips. From this
+cause, and from the dryness of the mouth, the voice becomes husky or
+indistinct, or may altogether fail. "Obstupui, steteruntque comae, et
+vox faucibus haesit."
+
+Of vague fear there is a well-known and grand description in Job:--"In
+thoughts from the visions of the night, when deep sleep falleth on men,
+fear came upon me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake. Then
+a spirit passed before my face; the hair of my flesh stood up. It stood
+still, but I could not discern the form thereof: an image was before my
+eyes, there was silence, and I heard a voice, saying, Shall mortal man
+be more just than God? Shall a man be more pure than his Maker?" (Job
+iv. 13)
+
+As fear increases into an agony of terror, we behold, as under all
+violent emotions, diversified results. The heart beats wildly, or may
+fail to act and faintness ensue; there is a death-like pallor; the
+breathing is laboured; the wings of the nostrils are wildly dilated;
+"there is a gasping and convulsive motion of the lips, a tremor on the
+hollow cheek, a gulping and catching of the throat;"[1217] the uncovered
+and protruding eyeballs are fixed on the object of terror; or they may
+roll restlessly from side to side, _huc illuc volvens oculos totumque
+pererrat_.[1218] The pupils are said to be enormously dilated. All the
+muscles of the body may become rigid, or may be thrown into convulsive
+movements. The hands are alternately clenched and opened, often with
+a twitching movement. The arms may be protruded, as if to avert some
+dreadful danger, or may be thrown wildly over the head. The Rev. Mr.
+Hagenauer has seen this latter action in a terrified Australian. In
+other cases there is a sudden and uncontrollable tendency to headlong
+flight; and so strong is this, that the boldest soldiers may be seized
+with a sudden panic.
+
+As fear rises to an extreme pitch, the dreadful scream of terror is
+heard. Great beads of sweat stand on the skin. All the muscles of the
+body are relaxed. Utter prostration soon follows, and the mental powers
+fail. The intestines are affected. The sphincter muscles cease to act,
+and no longer retain the contents of the body.
+
+[Illustration: Photograph of an insane woman. Fig. 19]
+
+Dr. J. Crichton Browne has given me so striking an account of intense
+fear in an insane woman, aged thirty-five, that the description though
+painful ought not to be omitted. When a paroxysm seizes her, she screams
+out, "This is hell!" "There is a black woman!" "I can't get out!"--and
+other such exclamations. When thus screaming, her movements are those
+of alternate tension and tremor. For one instant she clenches her hands,
+holds her arms out before her in a stiff semi-flexed position; then
+suddenly bends her body forwards, sways rapidly to and fro, draws her
+fingers through her hair, clutches at her neck, and tries to tear off
+her clothes. The sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles (which serve to bend the
+head on the chest) stand out prominently, as if swollen, and the skin in
+front of them is much wrinkled. Her hair, which is cut short at the back
+of her head, and is smooth when she is calm, now stands on end; that in
+front being dishevelled by the movements of her hands. The countenance
+expresses great mental agony. The skin is flushed over the face and
+neck, down to the clavicles, and the veins of the forehead and neck
+stand out like thick cords. The lower lip drops, and is somewhat
+everted. The mouth is kept half open, with the lower jaw projecting. The
+cheeks are hollow and deeply furrowed in curved lines running from
+the wings of the nostrils to the corners of the mouth. The nostrils
+themselves are raised and extended. The eyes are widely opened, and
+beneath them the skin appears swollen; the pupils are large. The
+forehead is wrinkled transversely in many folds, and at the inner
+extremities of the eyebrows it is strongly furrowed in diverging lines,
+produced by the powerful and persistent contraction of the corrugators.
+
+[Illustration: Terror. Fig. 20]
+
+Mr. Bell has also described[1219] an agony of terror and of despair,
+which he witnessed in a murderer, whilst carried to the place of
+execution in Turin. "On each side of the car the officiating priests
+were seated; and in the centre sat the criminal himself. It was
+impossible to witness the condition of this unhappy wretch without
+terror; and yet, as if impelled by some strange infatuation, it was
+equally impossible not to gaze upon an object so wild, so full of
+horror. He seemed about thirty-five years of age; of large and muscular
+form; his countenance marked by strong and savage features; half naked,
+pale as death, agonized with terror, every limb strained in anguish,
+his hands clenched convulsively, the sweat breaking out on his bent
+and contracted brow, he kissed incessantly the figure of our Saviour,
+painted on the flag which was suspended before him; but with an agony of
+wildness and despair, of which nothing ever exhibited on the stage can
+give the slightest conception."
+
+I will add only one other case, illustrative of a man utterly prostrated
+by terror. An atrocious murderer of two persons was brought into a
+hospital, under the mistaken impression that he had poisoned himself;
+and Dr. W. Ogle carefully watched him the next morning, while he was
+being handcuffed and taken away by the police. His pallor was extreme,
+and his prostration so great that he was hardly able to dress himself.
+His skin perspired; and his eyelids and head drooped so much that it was
+impossible to catch even a glimpse of his eyes. His lower jaw hung down.
+There was no contraction of any facial muscle, and Dr. Ogle is almost
+certain that the hair did not stand on end, for he observed it narrowly,
+as it had been dyed for the sake of concealment.
+
+With respect to fear, as exhibited by the various races of man, my
+informants agree that the signs are the same as with Europeans. They
+are displayed in an exaggerated degree with the Hindoos and natives of
+Ceylon. Mr. Geach has seen Malays when terrified turn pale and shake;
+and Mr. Brough Smyth states that a native Australian "being on one
+occasion much frightened, showed a complexion as nearly approaching to
+what we call paleness, as can well be conceived in the case of a very
+black man." Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen extreme fear shown in an Australian,
+by a nervous twitching of the hands, feet, and lips; and by the
+perspiration standing on the skin. Many savages do not repress the signs
+of fear so much as Europeans; and they often tremble greatly. With the
+Kafir, Gaika says, in his rather quaint English, the shaking "of the
+body is much experienced, and the eyes are widely open." With savages,
+the sphincter muscles are often relaxed, just as may be observed in much
+frightened dogs, and as I have seen with monkeys when terrified by being
+caught.
+
+
+_The erection of the hair_.--Some of the signs of fear deserve a little
+further consideration. Poets continually speak of the hair standing on
+end; Brutus says to the ghost of Caesar, "that mak'st my blood cold, and
+my hair to stare." And Cardinal Beaufort, after the murder of Gloucester
+exclaims, "Comb down his hair; look, look, it stands upright." As I did
+not feel sure whether writers of fiction might not have applied to man
+what they had often observed in animals, I begged for information from
+Dr. Crichton Browne with respect to the insane. He states in answer that
+he has repeatedly seen their hair erected under the influence of sudden
+and extreme terror. For instance, it is occasionally necessary to inject
+morphia, under the skin of an insane woman, who dreads the operation
+extremely, though it causes very little pain; for she believes that
+poison is being introduced into her system, and that her bones will be
+softened, and her flesh turned into dust. She becomes deadly pale;
+her limbs are stiffened by a sort of tetanic spasm, and her hair is
+partially erected on the front of the head.
+
+Dr. Browne further remarks that the bristling of the hair which is
+so common in the insane, is not always associated with terror. It is
+perhaps most frequently seen in chronic maniacs, who rave incoherently
+and have destructive impulses; but it is during their paroxysms of
+violence that the bristling is most observable. The fact of the
+hair becoming erect under the influence both of rage and fear agrees
+perfectly with what we have seen in the lower animals. Dr. Browne
+adduces several cases in evidence. Thus with a man now in the Asylum,
+before the recurrence of each maniacal paroxysm, "the hair rises up
+from his forehead like the mane of a Shetland pony." He has sent
+me photographs of two women, taken in the intervals between their
+paroxysms, and he adds with respect to one of these women, "that the
+state of her hair is a sure and convenient criterion of her mental
+condition." I have had one of these photographs copied, and the
+engraving gives, if viewed from a little distance, a faithful
+representation of the original, with the exception that the hair appears
+rather too coarse and too much curled. The extraordinary condition of
+the hair in the insane is due, not only to its erection, but to its
+dryness and harshness, consequent on the subcutaneous glands failing
+to act. Dr. Bucknill has said[1220] that a lunatic "is a lunatic to his
+finger's ends;" he might have added, and often to the extremity of each
+particular hair.
+
+Dr. Browne mentions as an empirical confirmation of the relation which
+exists in the insane between the state of their hair and minds, that
+the wife of a medical man, who has charge of a lady suffering from acute
+melancholia, with a strong fear of death, for herself, her husband and
+children, reported verbally to him the day before receiving my letter as
+follows, "I think Mrs. ---- will soon improve, for her hair is getting
+smooth; and I always notice that our patients get better whenever their
+hair ceases to be rough and unmanageable."
+
+Dr. Browne attributes the persistently rough condition of the hair
+in many insane patients, in part to their minds being always somewhat
+disturbed, and in part to the effects of habit,--that is, to the hair
+being frequently and strongly erected during their many recurrent
+paroxysms. In patients in whom the bristling of the hair is extreme, the
+disease is generally permanent and mortal; but in others, in whom the
+bristling is moderate, as soon as they recover their health of mind the
+hair recovers its smoothness.
+
+In a previous chapter we have seen that with animals the hairs are
+erected by the contraction of minute, unstriped, and involuntary
+muscles, which run to each separate follicle. In addition to this
+action, Mr. J. Wood has clearly ascertained by experiment, as he
+informs me, that with man the hairs on the front of the head which slope
+forwards, and those on the back which slope backwards, are raised in
+opposite directions by the contraction of the occipito-frontalis or
+scalp muscle. So that this muscle seems to aid in the erection of
+the hairs on the head of man in the same manner as the homologous
+_panniculus carnosus_ aids, or takes the greater part, in the erection
+of the spines on the backs of some of the lower animals.
+
+
+_Contraction of the platysma myoides muscle_.--This muscle is spread
+over the sides of the neck, extending downwards to a little beneath the
+collar-bones, and upwards to the lower part of the cheeks. A portion,
+called the risorius, is represented in the woodcut (M) fig. 2. The
+contraction of this muscle draws the corners of the mouth and the lower
+parts of the checks downwards and backwards. It produces at the same
+time divergent, longitudinal, prominent ridges on the sides of the neck
+in the young; and, in old thin persons, fine transverse wrinkles. This
+muscle is sometimes said not to be under the control of the will; but
+almost every one, if told to draw the corners of his mouth backwards
+and downwards with great force, brings it into action. I have, however,
+heard of a man who can voluntarily act on it only on one side of his
+neck.
+
+Sir C. Bell[1221] and others have stated that this muscle is strongly
+contracted under the influence of fear; and Duchenne insists so strongly
+on its importance in the expression of this emotion, that he calls it
+the _muscle of fright_.[1222] He admits, however, that its contraction
+is quite inexpressive unless associated with widely open eyes and
+mouth. He has given a photograph (copied and reduced in the accompanying
+woodcut) of the same old man as on former occasions, with his eyebrows
+strongly raised, his mouth opened, and the platysma contracted, all by
+means of galvanism. The original photograph was shown to twenty-four
+persons, and they were separately asked, without any explanation being
+given, what expression was intended: twenty instantly answered, "intense
+fright" or "horror"; three said pain, and one extreme discomfort. Dr.
+Duchenne has given another photograph of the same old man, with the
+platysma contracted, the eyes and mouth opened, and the eyebrows
+rendered oblique, by means of galvanism. The expression thus induced
+is very striking (see Plate VII. fig. 2); the obliquity of the eyebrows
+adding the appearance of great mental distress. The original was shown
+to fifteen persons; twelve answered terror or horror, and three agony or
+great suffering. From these cases, and from an examination of the other
+photographs given by Dr. Duchenne, together with his remarks thereon,
+I think there can be little doubt that the contraction of the platysma
+does add greatly to the expression of fear. Nevertheless this muscle
+ought hardly to be called that of fright, for its contraction is
+certainly not a necessary concomitant of this state of mind.
+
+A man may exhibit extreme terror in the plainest manner by death-like
+pallor, by drops of perspiration on his skin, and by utter prostration,
+with all the muscles of his body, including the platysma, completely
+relaxed. Although Dr. Browne has often seen this muscle quivering and
+contracting in the insane, he has not been able to connect its action
+with any emotional condition in them, though he carefully attended to
+patients suffering from great fear. Mr. Nicol, on the other hand, has
+observed three cases in which this muscle appeared to be more or less
+permanently contracted under the influence of melancholia, associated
+with much dread; but in one of these cases, various other muscles about
+the neck and head were subject to spasmodic contractions.
+
+Dr. W. Ogle observed for me in one of the London hospitals about twenty
+patients, just before they were put under the influence of chloroform
+for operations. They exhibited some trepidation, but no great terror. In
+only four of the cases was the platysma visibly contracted; and it did
+not begin to contract until the patients began to cry. The muscle seemed
+to contract at the moment of each deep-drawn inspiration; so that it is
+very doubtful whether the contraction depended at all on the emotion of
+fear. In a fifth case, the patient, who was not chloroformed, was
+much terrified; and his platysma was more forcibly and persistently
+contracted than in the other cases. But even here there is room for
+doubt, for the muscle which appeared to be unusually developed, was seen
+by Dr. Ogle to contract as the man moved his head from the pillow, after
+the operation was over.
+
+As I felt much perplexed why, in any case, a superficial muscle on
+the neck should be especially affected by fear, I applied to my many
+obliging correspondents for information about the contraction of this
+muscle under other circumstances. It would be superfluous to give all
+the answers which I have received. They show that this muscle acts,
+often in a variable manner and degree, under many different conditions.
+It is violently contracted in hydrophobia, and in a somewhat less degree
+in lockjaw; sometimes in a marked manner during the insensibility from
+chloroform. Dr. W. Ogle observed two male patients, suffering from such
+difficulty in breathing, that the trachea had to be opened, and in both
+the platysma was strongly contracted. One of these men overheard the
+conversation of the surgeons surrounding him, and when he was able to
+speak, declared that he had not been frightened. In some other cases
+of extreme difficulty of respiration, though not requiring tracheotomy,
+observed by Drs. Ogle and Langstaff, the platysma was not contracted.
+
+Mr. J. Wood, who has studied with such care the muscles of the human
+body, as shown by his various publications, has often seen the platysma
+contracted in vomiting, nausea, and disgust; also in children and adults
+under the influence of rage,--for instance, in Irishwomen, quarrelling
+and brawling together with angry gesticulations. This may possibly have
+been due to their high and angry tones; for I know a lady, an excellent
+musician, who, in singing certain high notes, always contracts her
+platysma. So does a young man, as I have observed, in sounding certain
+notes on the flute. Mr. J. Wood informs me that he has found the
+platysma best developed in persons with thick necks and broad shoulders;
+and that in families inheriting these peculiarities, its development
+is usually associated with much voluntary power over the homologous
+occipito-frontalis muscle, by which the scalp can be moved.
+
+None of the foregoing cases appear to throw any light on the contraction
+of the platysma from fear; but it is different, I think, with the
+following cases. The gentleman before referred to, who can voluntarily
+act on this muscle only on one side of his neck, is positive that it
+contracts on both sides whenever he is startled. Evidence has already
+been given showing that this muscle sometimes contracts, perhaps for
+the sake of opening the mouth widely, when the breathing is rendered
+difficult by disease, and during the deep inspirations of crying-fits
+before an operation. Now, whenever a person starts at any sudden
+sight or sound, he instantaneously draws a deep breath; and thus the
+contraction of the platysma may possibly have become associated with the
+sense of fear. But there is, I believe, a more efficient relation.
+The first sensation of fear, or the imagination of something dreadful,
+commonly excites a shudder. I have caught myself giving a little
+involuntary shudder at a painful thought, and I distinctly perceived
+that my platysma contracted; so it does if I simulate a shudder. I have
+asked others to act in this manner; and in some the muscle contracted,
+but not in others. One of my sons, whilst getting out of bed, shuddered
+from the cold, and, as he happened to have his hand on his neck, he
+plainly felt that this muscle strongly contracted. He then voluntarily
+shuddered, as he had done on former occasions, but the platysma was not
+then affected. Mr. J. Wood has also several times observed this muscle
+contracting in patients, when stripped for examination, and who were not
+frightened, but shivered slightly from the cold. Unfortunately I have
+not been able to ascertain whether, when the whole body shakes, as
+in the cold stage of an ague fit, the platysma contracts. But as it
+certainly often contracts during a shudder; and as a shudder or shiver
+often accompanies the first sensation of fear, we have, I think, a clue
+to its action in this latter case.[1223] Its contraction, however, is
+not an invariable concomitant of fear; for it probably never acts under
+the influence of extreme, prostrating terror.
+
+
+_Dilatation of the Pupils_.--Gratiolet repeatedly insists[1224] that the
+pupils are enormously dilated whenever terror is felt. I have no reason
+to doubt the accuracy of this statement, but have failed to obtain
+confirmatory evidence, excepting in the one instance before given of an
+insane woman suffering from great fear. When writers of fiction speak of
+the eyes being widely dilated, I presume that they refer to the eyelids.
+Munro's statement, that with parrots the iris is affected by the
+passions, independently of the amount of light, seems to bear on this
+question; but Professor Donders informs me, that he has often seen
+movements in the pupils of these birds which he thinks may be related to
+their power of accommodation to distance, in nearly the same manner
+as our own pupils contract when our eyes converge for near vision.
+Gratiolet remarks that the dilated pupils appear as if they were gazing
+into profound darkness. No doubt the fears of man have often been
+excited in the dark; but hardly so often or so exclusively, as to
+account for a fixed and associated habit having thus arisen. It seems
+more probable, assuming that Gratiolet's statement is correct, that the
+brain is directly affected by the powerful emotion of fear and reacts on
+the pupils; but Professor Donders informs me that this is an extremely
+complicated subject. I may add, as possibly throwing light on the
+subject, that Dr. Fyffe, of Netley Hospital, has observed in two
+patients that the pupils were distinctly dilated during the cold stage
+of an ague fit. Professor Donders has also often seen dilatation of the
+pupils in incipient faintness.
+
+
+_Horror_.--The state of mind expressed by this term implies terror, and
+is in some, cases almost synonymous with it. Many a man must have felt,
+before the blessed discovery of chloroform, great horror at the thought
+of an impending surgical operation. He who dreads, as well as hates a
+man, will feel, as Milton uses the word, a horror of him. We feel horror
+if we see any one, for instance a child, exposed to some instant and
+crushing danger. Almost every one would experience the same feeling in
+the highest degree in witnessing a man being tortured or going to be
+tortured. In these cases there is no danger to ourselves; but from
+the power of the imagination and of sympathy we put ourselves in the
+position of the sufferer, and feel something akin to fear.
+
+[Illustration: Horror and Agony. Fig. 21]
+
+Sir C. Bell remarks,[1226] that "horror is full of energy; the body is
+in the utmost tension, not unnerved by fear." It is, therefore, probable
+that horror would generally be accompanied by the strong contraction of
+the brows; but as fear is one of the elements, the eyes and mouth would
+be opened, and the eyebrows would be raised, as far as the antagonistic
+action of the corrugators permitted this movement. Duchenne has given a
+photograph[1227] (fig. 21) of the same old man as before, with his eyes
+somewhat staring, the eyebrows partially raised, and at the same time
+strongly contracted, the mouth opened, and the platysma in action, all
+effected by the means of galvanism. He considers that the expression
+thus produced shows extreme terror with horrible pain or torture. A
+tortured man, as long as his sufferings allowed him to feel any dread
+for the future, would probably exhibit horror in an extreme degree. I
+have shown the original of this photograph to twenty-three persons of
+both sexes and various ages; and thirteen immediately answered horror,
+great pain, torture, or agony; three answered extreme fright; so that
+sixteen answered nearly in accordance with Duchenne's belief. Six,
+however, said anger, guided no doubt, by the strongly contracted brows,
+and overlooking the peculiarly opened mouth. One said disgust. On
+the whole, the evidence indicates that we have here a fairly good
+representation of horror and agony. The photograph before referred to
+(Pl. VII. fig. 2) likewise exhibits horror; but in this the oblique
+eyebrows indicate great mental distress in place of energy.
+
+Horror is generally accompanied by various gestures, which differ in
+different individuals. Judging from pictures, the whole body is often
+turned away or shrinks; or the arms are violently protruded as if to
+push away some dreadful object. The most frequent gesture, as far as
+can be inferred from the action of persons who endeavour to express a
+vividly-imagined scene of horror, is the raising of both shoulders,
+with the bent arms pressed closely against the sides or chest. These
+movements are nearly the same with those commonly made when we feel very
+cold; and they are generally accompanied by a shudder, as well as by a
+deep expiration or inspiration, according as the chest happens at the
+time to be expanded or contracted. The sounds thus made are expressed by
+words like _uh_ or _ugh_.[1228] It is not, however, obvious why, when we
+feel cold or express a sense of horror, we press our bent arms against
+our bodies, raise our shoulders, and shudder.
+
+
+_Conclusion_.--I have now endeavoured to describe the diversified
+expressions of fear, in its gradations from mere attention to a start
+of surprise, into extreme terror and horror. Some of the signs may
+be accounted for through the principles of habit, association, and
+inheritance,--such as the wide opening of the mouth and eyes, with
+upraised eyebrows, so as to see as quickly as possible all around us,
+and to hear distinctly whatever sound may reach our ears. For we have
+thus habitually prepared ourselves to discover and encounter any danger.
+Some of the other signs of fear may likewise be accounted for, at
+least in part, through these same principles. Men, during numberless
+generations, have endeavoured to escape from their enemies or danger by
+headlong flight, or by violently struggling with them; and such great
+exertions will have caused the heart to beat rapidly, the breathing to
+be hurried, the chest to heave, and the nostrils to be dilated. As these
+exertions have often been prolonged to the last extremity, the final
+result will have been utter prostration, pallor, perspiration, trembling
+of all the muscles, or their complete relaxation. And now, whenever
+the emotion of fear is strongly felt, though it may not lead to any
+exertion, the same results tend to reappear, through the force of
+inheritance and association.
+
+Nevertheless, it is probable that many or most of the above symptoms of
+terror, such as the beating of the heart, the trembling of the muscles,
+cold perspiration, &c., are in large part directly due to the disturbed
+or interrupted transmission of nerve-force from the cerebro-spinal
+system to various parts of the body, owing to the mind being
+so powerfully affected. We may confidently look to this cause,
+independently of habit and association, in such cases as the modified
+secretions of the intestinal canal, and the failure of certain glands to
+act. With respect to the involuntary bristling of the hair, we have good
+reason to believe that in the case of animals this action, however it
+may have originated, serves, together with certain voluntary movements,
+to make them appear terrible to their enemies; and as the same
+involuntary and voluntary actions are performed by animals nearly
+related to man, we are led to believe that man has retained through
+inheritance a relic of them, now become useless. It is certainly a
+remarkable fact, that the minute unstriped muscles, by which the hairs
+thinly scattered over man's almost naked body are erected, should have
+been preserved to the present day; and that they should still contract
+under the same emotions, namely, terror and rage, which cause the hairs
+to stand on end in the lower members of the Order to which man belongs.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII. -- SELF-ATTENTION--SHAME--SHYNESS--MODESTY: BLUSHING.
+
+Nature of a blush--Inheritance--The parts of the body most
+affected--Blushing in the various races of man--Accompanying
+gestures--Confusion of mind--Causes of blushing--Self-attention,
+the fundamental element--Shyness--Shame, from broken moral laws and
+conventional rules--Modesty--Theory of blushing--Recapitulation.
+
+
+BLUSHING is the most peculiar and the most human of all expressions.
+Monkeys redden from passion, but it would require an overwhelming
+amount of evidence to make us believe that any animal could blush.
+The reddening of the face from a blush is due to the relaxation of the
+muscular coats of the small arteries, by which the capillaries become
+filled with blood; and this depends on the proper vaso-motor centre
+being affected. No doubt if there be at the same time much mental
+agitation, the general circulation will be affected; but it is not due
+to the action of the heart that the network of minute vessels covering
+the face becomes under a sense of shame gorged with blood. We can cause
+laughing by tickling the skin, weeping or frowning by a blow, trembling
+from the fear of pain, and so forth; but we cannot cause a blush, as Dr.
+Burgess remarks,[1301] by any physical means,--that is by any action on
+the body. It is the mind which must be affected. Blushing is not only
+involuntary; but the wish to restrain it, by leading to self-attention
+actually increases the tendency.
+
+The young blush much more freely than the old, but not during
+infancy,[1302] which is remarkable, as we know that infants at a very
+early age redden from passion. I have received authentic accounts of two
+little girls blushing at the ages of between two and three years; and
+of another sensitive child, a year older, blushing, when reproved for
+a fault. Many children, at a somewhat more advanced age blush in a
+strongly marked manner. It appears that the mental powers of infants
+are not as yet sufficiently developed to allow of their blushing. Hence,
+also, it is that idiots rarely blush. Dr. Crichton Browne observed for
+me those under his care, but never saw a genuine blush, though he has
+seen their faces flash, apparently from joy, when food was placed before
+them, and from anger. Nevertheless some, if not utterly degraded, are
+capable of blushing. A microcephalous idiot, for instance, thirteen
+years old, whose eyes brightened a little when he was pleased or amused,
+has been described by Dr. Behn,[1303] as blushing and turning to one
+side, when undressed for medical examination.
+
+Women blush much more than men. It is rare to see an old man, but not
+nearly so rare to see an old woman blushing. The blind do not escape.
+Laura Bridgman, born in this condition, as well as completely deaf,
+blushes.[1304] The Rev. R. H. Blair, Principal of the Worcester College,
+informs me that three children born blind, out of seven or eight then
+in the Asylum, are great blushers. The blind are not at first conscious
+that they are observed, and it is a most important part of their
+education, as Mr. Blair informs me, to impress this knowledge on their
+minds; and the impression thus gained would greatly strengthen the
+tendency to blush, by increasing the habit of self-attention.
+
+The tendency to blush is inherited. Dr. Burgess gives the case[1305] of
+a family consisting of a father, mother, and ten children, all of whom,
+without exception, were prone to blush to a most painful degree. The
+children were grown up; "and some of them were sent to travel in order
+to wear away this diseased sensibility, but nothing was of the slightest
+avail." Even peculiarities in blushing seem to be inherited. Sir James
+Paget, whilst examining the spine of a girl, was struck at her singular
+manner of blushing; a big splash of red appeared first on one cheek,
+and then other splashes, variously scattered over the face and neck.
+He subsequently asked the mother whether her daughter always blushed in
+this peculiar manner; and was answered, "Yes, she takes after me." Sir
+J. Paget then perceived that by asking this question he had caused the
+mother to blush; and she exhibited the same peculiarity as her daughter.
+
+In most cases the face, ears and neck are the sole parts which redden;
+but many persons, whilst blushing intensely, feel that their whole
+bodies grow hot and tingle; and this shows that the entire surface must
+be in some manner affected. Blushes are said sometimes to commence on
+the forehead, but more commonly on the cheeks, afterwards spreading to
+the ears and neck.[1306] In two Albinos examined by Dr. Burgess, the
+blushes commenced by a small circumscribed spot on the cheeks, over the
+parotidean plexus of nerves, and then increased into a circle; between
+this blushing circle and the blush on the neck there was an evident line
+of demarcation; although both arose simultaneously. The retina, which
+is naturally red in the Albino, invariably increased at the same time
+in redness.[1307] Every one must have noticed how easily after one blush
+fresh blushes chase each other over the face. Blushing is preceded by a
+peculiar sensation in the skin. According to Dr. Burgess the reddening
+of the skin is generally succeeded by a slight pallor, which shows
+that the capillary vessels contract after dilating. In some rare cases
+paleness instead of redness is caused under conditions which would
+naturally induce a blush. For instance, a young lady told me that in a
+large and crowded party she caught her hair so firmly on the button of a
+passing servant, that it took some time before she could be extricated;
+from her sensations she imagined that she had blushed crimson; but was
+assured by a friend that she had turned extremely pale.
+
+I was desirous to learn how far down the body blushes extend; and Sir J.
+Paget, who necessarily has frequent opportunities for observation, has
+kindly attended to this point for me during two or three years. He finds
+that with women who blush intensely on the face, ears, and nape of neck,
+the blush does not commonly extend any lower down the body. It is rare
+to see it as low down as the collar-bones and shoulder-blades; and he
+has never himself seen a single instance in which it extended below the
+upper part of the chest. He has also noticed that blushes sometimes die
+away downwards, not gradually and insensibly, but by irregular ruddy
+blotches. Dr. Langstaff has likewise observed for me several women whose
+bodies did not in the least redden while their faces were crimsoned with
+blushes. With the insane, some of whom appear to be particularly liable
+to blushing, Dr. J. Crichton Browne has several times seen the blush
+extend as far down as the collar-bones, and in two instances to the
+breasts. He gives me the case of a married woman, aged twenty-seven, who
+suffered from epilepsy. On the morning after her arrival in the Asylum,
+Dr. Browne, together with his assistants, visited her whilst she was in
+bed. The moment that he approached, she blushed deeply over her cheeks
+and temples; and the blush spread quickly to her ears. She was much
+agitated and tremulous. He unfastened the collar of her chemise in order
+to examine the state of her lungs; and then a brilliant blush rushed
+over her chest, in an arched line over the upper third of each breast,
+and extended downwards between the breasts nearly to the ensiform
+cartilage of the sternum. This case is interesting, as the blush did
+not thus extend downwards until it became intense by her attention
+being drawn to this part of her person. As the examination proceeded she
+became composed, and the blush disappeared; but on several subsequent
+occasions the same phenomena were observed.
+
+The foregoing facts show that, as a general rule, with English women,
+blushing does not extend beneath the neck and upper part of the chest.
+Nevertheless Sir J. Paget informs me that he has lately heard of a case,
+on which he can fully rely, in which a little girl, shocked by what she
+imagined to be an act of indelicacy, blushed all over her abdomen and
+the upper parts of her legs. Moreau also[1308] relates, on the authority
+of a celebrated painter, that the chest, shoulders, arms, and whole body
+of a girl, who unwillingly consented to serve as a model, reddened when
+she was first divested of her clothes.
+
+It is a rather curious question why, in most cases the face, ears,
+and neck alone redden, inasmuch as the whole surface of the body often
+tingles and grows hot. This seems to depend, chiefly, on the face and
+adjoining parts of the skin having been habitually exposed to the air,
+light, and alternations of temperature, by which the small arteries not
+only have acquired the habit of readily dilating and contracting, but
+appear to have become unusually developed in comparison with other parts
+of the surface.[1309] It is probably owing to this same cause, as M.
+Moreau and Dr. Burgess have remarked, that the face is so liable to
+redden under various circumstances, such as a fever-fit, ordinary heat,
+violent exertion, anger, a slight blow, &c.; and on the other hand that
+it is liable to grow pale from cold and fear, and to be discoloured
+during pregnancy. The face is also particularly liable to be affected
+by cutaneous complaints, by small-pox, erysipelas, &c. This view is
+likewise supported by the fact that the men of certain races, who
+habitually go nearly naked, often blush over their arms and chests and
+even down to their waists. A lady, who is a great blusher, informs Dr.
+Crichton Browne, that when she feels ashamed or is agitated, she blushes
+over her face, neck, wrists, and hands,--that is, over all the exposed
+portions of her skin. Nevertheless it may be doubted whether the
+habitual exposure of the skin of the face and neck, and its consequent
+power of reaction under stimulants of all kinds, is by itself sufficient
+to account for the much greater tendency in English women of these parts
+than of others to blush; for the hands are well supplied with nerves and
+small vessels, and have been as much exposed to the air as the face or
+neck, and yet the hands rarely blush. We shall presently see that the
+attention of the mind having been directed much more frequently and
+earnestly to the face than to any other part of the body, probably
+affords a sufficient explanation.
+
+
+_Blushing in the various races of man_.--The small vessels of the face
+become filled with blood, from the emotion of shame, in almost all the
+races of man, though in the very dark races no distinct change of
+colour can be perceived. Blushing is evident in all the Aryan nations of
+Europe, and to a certain extent with those of India. But Mr. Erskine has
+never noticed that the necks of the Hindoos are decidedly affected. With
+the Lepchas of Sikhim, Mr. Scott has often observed a faint blush on the
+cheeks, base of the ears, and sides of the neck, accompanied by sunken
+eyes and lowered head. This has occurred when he has detected them in
+a falsehood, or has accused them of ingratitude. The pale, sallow
+complexions of these men render a blush much more conspicuous than in
+most of the other natives of India. With the latter, shame, or it may be
+in part fear, is expressed, according to Mr. Scott, much more plainly
+by the head being averted or bent down, with the eyes wavering or turned
+askant, than by any change of colour in the skin.
+
+The Semitic races blush freely, as might have been expected, from their
+general similitude to the Aryans. Thus with the Jews, it is said in the
+Book of Jeremiah (chap. vi. 15), "Nay, they were not at all ashamed,
+neither could they blush." Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab managing his boat
+clumsily on the Nile, and when laughed at by his companions, "he blushed
+quite to the back of his neck." Lady Duff Gordon remarks that a young
+Arab blushed on coming into her presence.[1310]
+
+Mr. Swinhoe has seen the Chinese blushing, but he thinks it is rare; yet
+they have the expression "to redden with shame." Mr. Geach informs
+me that the Chinese settled in Malacca and the native Malays of the
+interior both blush. Some of these people go nearly naked, and he
+particularly attended to the downward extension of the blush. Omitting
+the cases in which the face alone was seen to blush, Mr. Geach observed
+that the face, arms, and breast of a Chinaman, aged 24 years, reddened
+from shame; and with another Chinese, when asked why he had not done
+his work in better style, the whole body was similarly affected. In two
+Malays[1311] he saw the face, neck, breast, and arms blushing; and in a
+third Malay (a Bugis) the blush extended down to the waist.
+
+The Polynesians blush freely. The Rev. Mr. Stack has seen hundreds of
+instances with the New Zealanders. The following case is worth giving,
+as it relates to an old man who was unusually dark-coloured and partly
+tattooed. After having let his land to an Englishman for a small yearly
+rental, a strong passion seized him to buy a gig, which had lately
+become the fashion with the Maoris. He consequently wished to draw all
+the rent for four years from his tenant, and consulted Mr. Stack whether
+he could do so. The man was old, clumsy, poor, and ragged, and the idea
+of his driving himself about in his carriage for display amused Mr.
+Stack so much that he could not help bursting out into a laugh; and then
+"the old man blushed up to the roots of his hair." Forster says that
+"you may easily distinguish a spreading blush" on the cheeks of the
+fairest women in Tahiti.[1312] The natives also of several of the other
+archipelagoes in the Pacific have been seen to blush.
+
+Mr. Washington Matthews has often seen a blush on the faces of the young
+squaws belonging to various wild Indian tribes of North America. At the
+opposite extremity of the continent in Tierra del Fuego, the natives,
+according to Mr. Bridges, "blush much, but chiefly in regard to women;
+but they certainly blush also at their own personal appearance." This
+latter statement agrees with what I remember of the Fuegian, Jemmy
+Button, who blushed when he was quizzed about the care which he took in
+polishing his shoes, and in otherwise adorning himself. With respect
+to the Aymara Indians on the lofty plateaus of Bolivia, Mr. Forbes
+says,[1313] that from the colour of their skins it is impossible that
+their blushes should be as clearly visible as in the white races; still
+under such circumstances as would raise a blush in us, "there can always
+be seen the same expression of modesty or confusion; and even in the
+dark, a rise of temperature of the skin of the face can be felt, exactly
+as occurs in the European." With the Indians who inhabit the hot,
+equable, and damp parts of South America, the skin apparently does
+not answer to mental excitement so readily as with the natives of the
+northern and southern parts of the continent, who have long been exposed
+to great vicissitudes of climate; for Humboldt quotes without a protest
+the sneer of the Spaniard, "How can those be trusted, who know not how
+to blush?"[1314] Von Spix and Martius, in speaking of the aborigines of
+Brazil, assert that they cannot properly be said to blush; "it was
+only after long intercourse with the whites, and after receiving
+some education, that we perceived in the Indians a change of colour
+expressive of the emotions of their minds."[1315] It is, however,
+incredible that the power of blushing could have thus originated; but
+the habit of self-attention, consequent on their education and new
+course of life, would have much increased any innate tendency to blush.
+
+Several trustworthy observers have assured me that they have seen on the
+faces of negroes an appearance resembling a blush, under circumstances
+which would have excited one in us, though their skins were of an
+ebony-black tint. Some describe it as blushing brown, but most say that
+the blackness becomes more intense. An increased supply of blood in
+the skin seems in some manner to increase its blackness; thus certain
+exanthematous diseases cause the affected places in the negro to appear
+blacker, instead of, as with us, redder.[1316] The skin, perhaps, from
+being rendered more tense by the filling of the capillaries, would
+reflect a somewhat different tint to what it did before. That the
+capillaries of the face in the negro become filled with blood, under
+the emotion of shame, we may feel confident; because a perfectly
+characterized albino negress, described by Buffon,[1317] showed a
+faint tinge of crimson on her cheeks when she exhibited herself naked.
+Cicatrices of the skin remain for a long time white in the negro, and
+Dr. Burgess, who had frequent opportunities of observing a scar of this
+kind on the face of a negress, distinctly saw that it "invariably became
+red whenever she was abruptly spoken to, or charged with any
+trivial offence."[1318] The blush could be seen proceeding from the
+circumference of the scar towards the middle, but it did not reach the
+centre. Mulattoes are often great blushers, blush succeeding blush over
+their faces. From these facts there can be no doubt that negroes blush,
+although no redness is visible on the skin.
+
+I am assured by Gaika and by Mrs. Barber that the Kafirs of South
+Africa never blush; but this may only mean that no change of colour is
+distinguishable. Gaika adds that under the circumstances which would
+make a European blush, his countrymen "look ashamed to keep their heads
+up."
+
+It is asserted by four of my informants that the Australians, who are
+almost as black as negroes, never blush. A fifth answers doubtfully,
+remarking that only a very strong blush could be seen, on account of
+the dirty state of their skins. Three observers state that they do
+blush;[1319] Mr. S. Wilson adding that this is noticeable only under a
+strong emotion, and when the skin is not too dark from long exposure and
+want of cleanliness. Mr. Lang answers, "I have noticed that shame almost
+always excites a blush, which frequently extends as low as the neck."
+Shame is also shown, as he adds, "by the eyes being turned from side to
+side." As Mr. Lang was a teacher in a native school, it is probable
+that he chiefly observed children; and we know that they blush more than
+adults. Mr. G. Taplin has seen half-castes blushing, and he says that
+the aborigines have a word expressive of shame. Mr. Hagenauer, who is
+one of those who has never observed the Australians to blush, says that
+he has "seen them looking down to the ground on account of shame;" and
+the missionary, Mr. Bulmer, remarks that though "I have not been able to
+detect anything like shame in the adult aborigines, I have noticed
+that the eyes of the children, when ashamed, present a restless, watery
+appearance, as if they did not know where to look."
+
+The facts now given are sufficient to show that blushing, whether or not
+there is any change of colour, is common to most, probably to all, of
+the races of man.
+
+_Movements and gestures which accompany Blushing_.--Under a keen sense
+of shame there is a strong desire for concealment.[1320] We turn away
+the whole body, more especially the face, which we endeavour in some
+manner to hide. An ashamed person can hardly endure to meet the gaze of
+those present, so that he almost invariably casts down his eyes or looks
+askant. As there generally exists at the same time a strong wish to
+avoid the appearance of shame, a vain attempt is made to look direct
+at the person who causes this feeling; and the antagonism between these
+opposite tendencies leads to various restless movements in the eyes.
+I have noticed two ladies who, whilst blushing, to which they are
+very liable, have thus acquired, as it appears, the oddest trick of
+incessantly blinking their eyelids with extraordinary rapidity.
+An intense blush is sometimes accompanied by a slight effusion of
+tears;[1321] and this, I presume, is due to the lacrymal glands
+partaking of the increased supply of blood, which we know rushes into
+the capillaries of the adjoining parts, including the retina.
+
+Many writers, ancient and modern, have noticed the foregoing movements;
+and it has already been shown that the aborigines in various parts of
+the world often exhibit their shame by looking downwards or askant, or
+by restless movements of their eyes. Ezra cries out (ch. ix. 6), "O,
+my God! I am ashamed, and blush to lift up my head to thee, my God."
+In Isaiah (ch. I. 6) we meet with the words, "I hid not my face from
+shame." Seneca remarks (Epist. xi. 5) "that the Roman players hang down
+their heads, fix their eyes on the ground and keep them lowered, but are
+unable to blush in acting shame." According to Macrobius, who lived in
+the filth century ('Saturnalia,' B. vii. C. 11), "Natural philosophers
+assert that nature being moved by shame spreads the blood before herself
+as a veil, as we see any one blushing often puts his hands before his
+face." Shakspeare makes Marcus ('Titus Andronicus,' act ii, sc. 5) say
+to his niece, "Ah! now thou turn'st away thy face for shame." A lady
+informs me that she found in the Lock Hospital a girl whom she had
+formerly known, and who had become a wretched castaway, and the poor
+creature, when approached, hid her face under the bed-clothes, and could
+not be persuaded to uncover it. We often see little children, when shy
+or ashamed, turn away, and still standing up, bury their faces in their
+mother's gown; or they throw themselves face downwards on her lap.
+
+
+_Confusion of mind_.--Most persons, whilst blushing intensely, have
+their mental powers confused. This is recognized in such common
+expressions as "she was covered with confusion." Persons in
+this condition lose their presence of mind, and utter singularly
+inappropriate remarks. They are often much distressed, stammer, and
+make awkward movements or strange grimaces. In certain cases involuntary
+twitchings of some of the facial muscles may be observed. I have been
+informed by a young lady, who blushes excessively, that at such times
+she does not even know what she is saying. When it was suggested to her
+that this might be due to her distress from the consciousness that her
+blushing was noticed, she answered that this could not be the case, "as
+she had sometimes felt quite as stupid when blushing at a thought in her
+own room."
+
+I will give an instance of the extreme disturbance of mind to which some
+sensitive men are liable. A gentleman, on whom I can rely, assured
+me that he had been an eye-witness of the following scene:--A small
+dinner-party was given in honour of an extremely shy man, who, when
+he rose to return thanks, rehearsed the speech, which he had evidently
+learnt by heart, in absolute silence, and did not utter a single word;
+but he acted as if he were speaking with much emphasis. His friends,
+perceiving how the case stood, loudly applauded the imaginary bursts of
+eloquence, whenever his gestures indicated a pause, and the man never
+discovered that he had remained the whole time completely silent. On the
+contrary, he afterwards remarked to my friend, with much satisfaction,
+that he thought he had succeeded uncommonly well.
+
+When a person is much ashamed or very shy, and blushes intensely, his
+heart beats rapidly and his breathing is disturbed. This can hardly fail
+to affect the circulation of the blood within the brain, and perhaps the
+mental powers. It seems however doubtful, judging from the still more
+powerful influence of anger and fear on the circulation, whether we can
+thus satisfactorily account for the confused state of mind in persons
+whilst blushing intensely.
+
+The true explanation apparently lies in the intimate sympathy which
+exists between the capillary circulation of the surface of the head and
+face, and that of the brain. On applying to Dr. J. Crichton Browne for
+information, he has given me various facts bearing on this subject.
+When the sympathetic nerve is divided on one side of the head, the
+capillaries on this side are relaxed and become filled with blood,
+causing the skin to redden and to grow hot, and at the same time the
+temperature within the cranium on the same side rises. Inflammation of
+the membranes of the brain leads to the engorgement of the face, ears,
+and eyes with blood. The first stage of an epileptic fit appears to
+be the contraction of the vessels of the brain, and the first outward
+manifestation is, an extreme pallor of countenance. Erysipelas of
+the head commonly induces delirium. Even the relief given to a severe
+headache by burning the skin with strong lotion, depends, I presume, on
+the same principle.
+
+Dr. Browne has often administered to his patients the vapour of the
+nitrite of amyl,[1322] which has the singular property of causing vivid
+redness of the face in from thirty to sixty seconds. This flushing
+resembles blushing in almost every detail: it begins at several distinct
+points on the face, and spreads till it involves the whole surface of
+the head, neck, and front of the chest; but has been observed to extend
+only in one case to the abdomen. The arteries in the retina become
+enlarged; the eyes glisten, and in one instance there was a slight
+effusion of tears. The patients are at first pleasantly stimulated,
+but, as the flushing increases, they become confused and bewildered. One
+woman to whom the vapour had often been administered asserted that, as
+soon as she grew hot, she grew MUDDLED. With persons just commencing to
+blush it appears, judging from their bright eyes and lively behaviour,
+that their mental powers are somewhat stimulated. It is only when the
+blushing is excessive that the mind grows confused. Therefore it would
+seem that the capillaries of the face are affected, both during the
+inhalation of the nitrite of amyl and during blushing, before that part
+of the brain is affected on which the mental powers depend.
+
+Conversely when the brain is primarily affected; the circulation of the
+skin is so in a secondary manner. Dr. Browne has frequently observed,
+as he informs me, scattered red blotches and mottlings on the chests
+of epileptic patients. In these cases, when the skin on the thorax
+or abdomen is gently rubbed with a pencil or other object, or, in
+strongly-marked cases, is merely touched by the finger, the surface
+becomes suffused in less than half a minute with bright red marks, which
+spread to some distance on each side of the touched point, and persist
+for several minutes. These are the _cerebral maculae_ of Trousseau; and
+they indicate, as Dr. Browne remarks, a highly modified condition of the
+cutaneous vascular system. If, then, there exists, as cannot be doubted,
+an intimate sympathy between the capillary circulation in that part
+of the brain on which our mental powers depend, and in the skin of the
+face, it is not surprising that the moral causes which induce intense
+blushing should likewise induce, independently of their own disturbing
+influence, much confusion of mind.
+
+
+_The Nature of the Mental States which induce Blushing_.--These consist
+of shyness, shame, and modesty; the essential element in all being
+self-attention. Many reasons can be assigned for believing that
+originally self-attention directed to personal appearance, in relation
+to the opinion of others, was the exciting cause; the same effect
+being subsequently produced, through the force of association, by
+self-attention in relation to moral conduct. It is not the simple act of
+reflecting on our own appearance, but the thinking what others think
+of us, which excites a blush. In absolute solitude the most sensitive
+person would be quite indifferent about his appearance. We feel blame
+or disapprobation more acutely than approbation; and consequently
+depreciatory remarks or ridicule, whether of our appearance or conduct,
+causes us to blush much more readily than does praise. But undoubtedly
+praise and admiration are highly efficient: a pretty girl blushes when a
+man gazes intently at her, though she may know perfectly well that he
+is not depreciating her. Many children, as well as old and sensitive
+persons blush, when they are much praised. Hereafter the question will
+be discussed, how it has arisen that the consciousness that others are
+attending to our personal appearance should have led to the capillaries,
+especially those of the face, instantly becoming filled with blood.
+
+My reasons for believing that attention directed to personal appearance,
+and not to moral conduct, has been the fundamental element in the
+acquirement of the habit of blushing, will now be given. They
+are separately light, but combined possess, as it appears to me,
+considerable weight. It is notorious that nothing makes a shy person
+blush so much as any remark, however slight, on his personal appearance.
+One cannot notice even the dress of a woman much given to blushing,
+without causing her face to crimson. It is sufficient to stare hard at
+some persons to make them, as Coleridge remarks, blush,--"account for
+that he who can."[1323]
+
+With the two albinos observed by Dr. Burgess,[1324] "the slightest
+attempt to examine their peculiarities invariably caused them to blush
+deeply." Women are much more sensitive about their personal appearance
+than men are, especially elderly women in comparison with elderly men,
+and they blush much more freely. The young of both sexes are much more
+sensitive on this same head than the old, and they also blush much more
+freely than the old. Children at a very early age do not blush; nor
+do they show those other signs of self-consciousness which generally
+accompany blushing; and it is one of their chief charms that they think
+nothing about what others think of them. At this early age they will
+stare at a stranger with a fixed gaze and un-blinking eyes, as on an
+inanimate object, in a manner which we elders cannot imitate.
+
+It is plain to every one that young men and women are highly sensitive
+to the opinion of each other with reference to their personal
+appearance; and they blush incomparably more in the presence of the
+opposite sex than in that of their own.[1325] A young man, not very
+liable to blush, will blush intensely at any slight ridicule of his
+appearance from a girl whose judgment on any important subject lie
+would disregard. No happy pair of young lovers, valuing each other's
+admiration and love more than anything else in the world, probably ever
+courted each other without many a blush. Even the barbarians of Tierra
+del Fuego, according to Mr. Bridges, blush "chiefly in regard to women,
+but certainly also at their own personal appearance."
+
+Of all parts of the body, the face is most considered and regarded, as
+is natural from its being the chief seat of expression and the source
+of the voice. It is also the chief seat of beauty and of ugliness, and
+throughout the world is the most ornamented.[1326] The face, therefore,
+will have been subjected during many generations to much closer and
+more earnest self-attention than any other part of the body; and in
+accordance with the principle here advanced we can understand why it
+should be the most liable to blush. Although exposure to alternations
+of temperature, &c., has probably much increased the power of dilatation
+and contraction in the capillaries of the face and adjoining parts, yet
+this by itself will hardly account for these parts blushing much more
+than the rest of the body; for it does not explain the fact of the hands
+rarely blushing. With Europeans the whole body tingles slightly when
+the face blushes intensely; and with the races of men who habitually go
+nearly naked, the blushes extend over a much larger surface than
+with us. These facts are, to a certain extent, intelligible, as the
+self-attention of primeval man, as well as of the existing races which
+still go naked, will not have been so exclusively confined to their
+faces, as is the case with the people who now go clothed.
+
+We have seen that in all parts of the world persons who feel shame
+for some moral delinquency, are apt to avert, bend down, or hide their
+faces, independently of any thought about their personal appearance.
+The object can hardly be to conceal their blushes, for the face is
+thus averted or hidden under circumstances which exclude any desire to
+conceal shame, as when guilt is fully confessed and repented of. It is,
+however, probable that primeval man before he had acquired much moral
+sensitiveness would have been highly sensitive about his personal
+appearance, at least in reference to the other sex, and he would
+consequently have felt distress at any depreciatory remarks about his
+appearance; and this is one form of shame. And as the face is the part
+of the body which is most regarded, it is intelligible that any one
+ashamed of his personal appearance would desire to conceal this part
+of his body. The habit having been thus acquired, would naturally be
+carried on when shame from strictly moral causes was felt; and it is not
+easy otherwise to see why under these circumstances there should be a
+desire to hide the face more than any other part of the body.
+
+The habit, so general with every one who feels ashamed, of turning
+away, or lowering his eyes, or restlessly moving them from side to
+side, probably follows from each glance directed towards those present,
+bringing home the conviction that he is intently regarded; and he
+endeavours, by not looking at those present, and especially not at their
+eyes, momentarily to escape from this painful conviction.
+
+
+_Shyness_.--This odd state of mind, often called shamefacedness,
+or false shame, or _mauvaise honte_, appears to be one of the most
+efficient of all the causes of blushing. Shyness is, indeed, chiefly
+recognized by the face reddening, by the eyes being averted or cast
+down, and by awkward, nervous movements of the body. Many a woman
+blushes from this cause, a hundred, perhaps a thousand times, to once
+that she blushes from having done anything deserving blame, and of which
+she is truly ashamed. Shyness seems to depend on sensitiveness to the
+opinion, whether good or bad, of others, more especially with respect to
+external appearance. Strangers neither know nor care anything about
+our conduct or character, but they may, and often do, criticize our
+appearance: hence shy persons are particularly apt to be shy and to
+blush in the presence of strangers. The consciousness of anything
+peculiar, or even new, in the dress, or any slight blemish on the
+person, and more especially, on the face--points which are likely to
+attract the attention of strangers--makes the shy intolerably shy.
+On the other hand, in those cases in which conduct and not personal
+appearance is concerned, we are much more apt to be shy in the presence
+of acquaintances, whose judgment we in some degree value, than in that
+of strangers. A physician told me that a young man, a wealthy duke, with
+whom he had travelled as medical attendant, blushed like a girl, when he
+paid him his fee; yet this young man probably would not have blushed
+and been shy, had he been paying a bill to a tradesman. Some persons,
+however, are so sensitive, that the mere act of speaking to almost any
+one is sufficient to rouse their self-consciousness, and a slight blush
+is the result.
+
+Disapprobation or ridicule, from our sensitiveness on this head, causes
+shyness and blushing much more readily than does approbation; though the
+latter with some persons is highly efficient. The conceited are rarely
+shy; for they value themselves much too highly to expect depreciation.
+Why a proud man is often shy, as appears to be the case, is not so
+obvious, unless it be that, with all his self-reliance, he really
+thinks much about the opinion of others although in a disdainful spirit.
+Persons who are exceedingly shy are rarely shy in the presence of
+those with whom they are quite familiar, and of whose good opinion
+and sympathy they are perfectly assured;--for instance, a girl in the
+presence of her mother. I neglected to inquire in my printed paper
+whether shyness can be detected in the different races of man; but a
+Hindoo gentleman assured Mr. Erskine that it is recognizable in his
+countrymen.
+
+Shyness, as the derivation of the word indicates in several
+languages,[1327] is closely related to fear; yet it is distinct from
+fear in the ordinary sense. A shy man no doubt dreads the notice of
+strangers, but can hardly be said to be afraid of them, he may be as
+bold as a hero in battle, and yet have no self-confidence about trifles
+in the presence of strangers. Almost every one is extremely nervous when
+first addressing a public assembly, and most men remain so throughout
+their lives; but this appears to depend on the consciousness of a great
+coming exertion, with its associated effects on the system, rather than
+on shyness;[1328] although a timid or shy man no doubt suffers on such
+occasions infinitely more than another. With very young children it
+is difficult to distinguish between fear and shyness; but this latter
+feeling with them has often seemed to me to partake of the character of
+the wildness of an untamed animal. Shyness comes on at a very early age.
+In one of my own children, when two years and three months old, I saw a
+trace of what certainly appeared to be shyness, directed towards myself
+after an absence from home of only a week. This was shown not by a
+blush, but by the eyes being for a few minutes slightly averted from
+me. I have noticed on other occasions that shyness or shamefacedness and
+real shame are exhibited in the eyes of young children before they have
+acquired the power of blushing.
+
+As shyness apparently depends on self-attention, we can perceive how
+right are those who maintain that reprehending children for shyness,
+instead of doing them any good, does much harm, as it calls their
+attention still more closely to themselves. It has been well urged that
+"nothing hurts young people more than to be watched continually about
+their feelings, to have their countenances scrutinized, and the degrees
+of their sensibility measured by the surveying eye of the unmerciful
+spectator. Under the constraint of such examinations they can think
+of nothing but that they are looked at, and feel nothing but shame or
+apprehension."[1329]
+
+
+_Moral causes: guilt_.--With respect to blushing from strictly moral
+causes, we meet with the same fundamental principle as before, namely,
+regard for the opinion of others. It is not the conscience which raises
+a blush, for a man may sincerely regret some slight fault committed in
+solitude, or he may suffer the deepest remorse for an undetected crime,
+but he will not blush. "I blush," says Dr. Burgess,[1330] "in the
+presence of my accusers." It is not the sense of guilt, but the thought
+that others think or know us to be guilty which crimsons the face. A man
+may feel thoroughly ashamed at having told a small falsehood, without
+blushing; but if he even suspects that he is detected he will instantly
+blush, especially if detected by one whom he reveres.
+
+On the other hand, a man may be convinced that God witnesses all his
+actions, and he may feel deeply conscious of some fault and pray
+for forgiveness; but this will not, as a lady who is a great blusher
+believes, ever excite a blush. The explanation of this difference
+between the knowledge by God and man of our actions lies, I presume, in
+man's disapprobation of immoral conduct being somewhat akin in nature to
+his depreciation of our personal appearance, so that through association
+both lead to similar results; whereas the disapprobation of God brings
+up no such association.
+
+Many a person has blushed intensely when accused of some crime, though
+completely innocent of it. Even the thought, as the lady before referred
+to has observed to me, that others think that we have made an unkind or
+stupid remark, is amply sufficient to cause a blush, although we know
+all the time that we have been completely misunderstood. An action may
+be meritorious or of an indifferent nature, but a sensitive person, if
+he suspects that others take a different view of it, will blush. For
+instance, a lady by herself may give money to a beggar without a trace
+of a blush, but if others are present, and she doubts whether they
+approve, or suspects that they think her influenced by display, she will
+blush. So it will be, if she offers to relieve the distress of a decayed
+gentlewoman, more particularly of one whom she had previously known
+under better circumstances, as she cannot then feel sure how her conduct
+will be viewed. But such cases as these blend into shyness.
+
+
+_Breaches of etiquette_.--The rules of _etiquette_ always refer to
+conduct in the presence of, or towards others. They have no necessary
+connection with the moral sense, and are often meaningless. Nevertheless
+as they depend on the fixed custom of our equals and superiors, whose
+opinion we highly regard, they are considered almost as binding as are
+the laws of honour to a gentleman. Consequently the breach of the laws
+of etiquette, that is, any impoliteness or _gaucherie_, any impropriety,
+or an inappropriate remark, though quite accidental, will cause the most
+intense blushing of which a man is capable. Even the recollection of
+such an act, after an interval of many years, will make the whole body
+to tingle. So strong, also, is the power of sympathy that a sensitive
+person, as a lady has assured me, will sometimes blush at a flagrant
+breach of etiquette by a perfect stranger, though the act may in no way
+concern her.
+
+
+_Modesty_.--This is another powerful agent in exciting blushes; but
+the word modesty includes very different states of the mind. It implies
+humility, and we often judge of this by persons being greatly pleased
+and blushing at slight praise, or by being annoyed at praise which seems
+to them too high according to their own humble standard of themselves.
+Blushing here has the usual signification of regard for the opinion
+of others. But modesty frequently relates to acts of indelicacy; and
+indelicacy is an affair of etiquette, as we clearly see with the nations
+that go altogether or nearly naked. He who is modest, and blushes easily
+at acts of this nature, does so because they are breaches of a firmly
+and wisely established etiquette. This is indeed shown by the derivation
+of the word _modest_ from _modus_, a measure or standard of behaviour.
+A blush due to this form of modesty is, moreover, apt to be intense,
+because it generally relates to the opposite sex; and we have seen how
+in all cases our liability to blush is thus increased. We apply the term
+'modest,' as it would appear, to those who have an humble opinion of
+themselves, and to those who are extremely sensitive about an indelicate
+word or deed, simply because in both cases blushes are readily excited,
+for these two frames of mind have nothing else in common. Shyness also,
+from this same cause, is often mistaken for modesty in the sense of
+humility.
+
+Some persons flush up, as I have observed and have been assured, at any
+sudden and disagreeable recollection. The commonest cause seems to be
+the sudden remembrance of not having done something for another person
+which had been promised. In this case it may be that the thought passes
+half unconsciously through the mind, "What will he think of me?" and
+then the flush would partake of the nature of a true blush. But whether
+such flushes are in most cases due to the capillary circulation being
+affected, is very doubtful; for we must remember that almost every
+strong emotion, such as anger or great joy, acts on the heart, and
+causes the face to redden.
+
+The fact that blushes may be excited in absolute solitude seems opposed
+to the view here taken, namely that the habit originally arose from
+thinking about what others think of us. Several ladies, who are great
+blushers, are unanimous in regard to solitude; and some of them believe
+that they have blushed in the dark. From what Mr. Forbes has stated with
+respect to the Aymaras, and from my own sensations, I have no doubt that
+this latter statement is correct. Shakspeare, therefore, erred when
+he made Juliet, who was not even by herself, say to Romeo (act ii. sc.
+2):--
+
+    "Thou know'st the mask of night is on my face;
+    Else would a maiden blush bepaint my cheek,
+    For that which thou hast heard me speak to-night."
+
+But when a blush is excited in solitude, the cause almost always relates
+to the thoughts of others about us--to acts done in their presence,
+or suspected by them; or again when we reflect what others would have
+thought of us had they known of the act. Nevertheless one or two of my
+informants believe that they have blushed from shame at acts in no way
+relating to others. If this be so, we must attribute the result to the
+force of inveterate habit and association, under a state of mind closely
+analogous to that which ordinarily excites a blush; nor need we feel
+surprise at this, as even sympathy with another person who commits
+a flagrant breach of etiquette is believed, as we have just seen,
+sometimes to cause a blush.
+
+Finally, then, I conclude that blushing,--whether due to shyness--to
+shame for a real crime--to shame from a breach of the laws
+of etiquette--to modesty from humility--to modesty from an
+indelicacy--depends in all cases on the same principle; this principle
+being a sensitive regard for the opinion, more particularly for
+the depreciation of others, primarily in relation to our personal
+appearance, especially of our faces; and secondarily, through the force
+of association and habit, in relation to the opinion of others on our
+conduct.
+
+
+_Theory of Blushing_.--We have now to consider, why should the thought
+that others are thinking about us affect our capillary circulation? Sir
+C. Bell insists[1331] that blushing "is a provision for expression, as
+may be inferred from the colour extending only to the surface of the
+face, neck, and breast, the parts most exposed. It is not acquired; it
+is from the beginning." Dr. Burgess believes that it was designed by the
+Creator in "order that the soul might have sovereign power of displaying
+in the cheeks the various internal emotions of the moral feelings;" so
+as to serve as a check on ourselves, and as a sign to others, that we
+were violating rules which ought to be held sacred. Gratiolet merely
+remarks,--"Or, comme il est dans l'ordre de la nature que l'etre social
+le plus intelligent soit aussi le plus intelligible, cette faculte de
+rougeur et de paleur qui distingue l'homme, est un signe naturel de sa
+haute perfection."
+
+The belief that blushing was SPECIALLY designed by the Creator is
+opposed to the general theory of evolution, which is now so largely
+accepted; but it forms no part of my duty here to argue on the general
+question. Those who believe in design, will find it difficult to account
+for shyness being the most frequent and efficient of all the causes
+of blushing, as it makes the blusher to suffer and the beholder
+uncomfortable, without being of the least service to either of them.
+They will also find it difficult to account for negroes and other
+dark-coloured races blushing, in whom a change of colour in the skin is
+scarcely or not at all visible.
+
+No doubt a slight blush adds to the beauty of a maiden's face; and the
+Circassian women who are capable of blushing, invariably fetch a higher
+price in the seraolio of the Sultan than less susceptible women.[1332]
+But the firmest believer in the efficacy of sexual selection will hardly
+suppose that blushing was acquired as a sexual ornament. This view would
+also be opposed to what has just been said about the dark-coloured
+races blushing in an invisible manner.
+
+The hypothesis which appears to me the most probable, though it may at
+first seem rash, is that attention closely directed to any part of the
+body tends to interfere with the ordinary and tonic contraction of the
+small arteries of that part. These vessels, in consequence, become at
+such times more or less relaxed, and are instantly filled with arterial
+blood. This tendency will have been much strengthened, if frequent
+attention has been paid during many generations to the same part, owing
+to nerve-force readily flowing along accustomed channels, and by the
+power of inheritance. Whenever we believe that others are depreciating
+or even considering our personal appearance, our attention is vividly
+directed to the outer and visible parts of our bodies; and of all such
+parts we are most sensitive about our faces, as no doubt has been the
+case during many past generations. Therefore, assuming for the moment
+that the capillary vessels can be acted on by close attention, those of
+the face will have become eminently susceptible. Through the force of
+association, the same effects will tend to follow whenever we think that
+others are considering or censuring our actions or character.
+
+As the basis of this theory rests on mental attention having some power
+to influence the capillary circulation, it will be necessary to give
+a considerable body of details, bearing more or less directly on this
+subject. Several observers,[1333] who from their wide experience
+and knowledge are eminently capable of forming a sound judgment, are
+convinced that attention or consciousness (which latter term Sir H.
+Holland thinks the more explicit) concentrated on almost any part of
+the body produces some direct physical effect on it. This applies to the
+movements of the involuntary muscles, and of the voluntary muscles when
+acting involuntarily,--to the secretion of the glands,--to the activity
+of the senses and sensations,--and even to the nutrition of parts.
+
+It is known that the involuntary movements of the heart are affected
+if close attention be paid to them. Gratiolet[1334] gives the case of
+a man, who by continually watching and counting his own pulse, at last
+caused one beat out of every six to intermit. On the other hand, my
+father told me of a careful observer, who certainly had heart-disease
+and died from it, and who positively stated that his pulse was
+habitually irregular to an extreme degree; yet to his great
+disappointment it invariably became regular as soon as my father entered
+the room. Sir H. Holland remarks,[1335] that "the effect upon the
+circulation of a part from the consciousness suddenly directed and fixed
+upon it, is often obvious and immediate." Professor Laycock, who has
+particularly attended to phenomena of this nature,[1336] insists that
+"when the attention is directed to any portion of the body, innervation
+and circulation are excited locally, and the functional activity of that
+portion developed."
+
+It is generally believed that the peristaltic movements of the
+intestines are influenced by attention being paid to them at fixed
+recurrent periods; and these movements depend on the contraction of
+unstriped and involuntary muscles. The abnormal action of the voluntary
+muscles in epilepsy, chorea, and hysteria is known to be influenced
+by the expectation of an attack, and by the sight of other patients
+similarly affected.[1337] So it is with the involuntary acts of yawning
+and laughing.
+
+Certain glands are much influenced by thinking of them, or of the
+conditions under which they have been habitually excited. This is
+familiar to every one in the increased flow of saliva, when the thought,
+for instance, of intensely acid fruit is kept before the mind. It was
+shown in our sixth chapter, that an earnest and long-continued desire
+either to repress, or to increase, the action of the lacrymal glands is
+effectual. Some curious cases have been recorded in the case of
+women, of the power of the mind on the mammary glands; and still more
+remarkable ones in relation to the uterine functions.[1339]
+
+
+[1335] 'Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, p. 111. [1336] 'Mind find
+Brain,' vol. ii. 1860, p. 327. [1337] 'Chapters on Mental Physiology,'
+pp. 104-106. [1338] See Gratiolet on this subject, De la Phys. p. 287.
+[1339] Dr. J. Crichton Browne, from his observations on the insane, is
+convinced that attention directed for a prolonged period on any part or
+organ may ultimately influence its capillary circulation and nutrition.
+He has given me some extraordinary cases; one of these, which cannot
+here be related in full, refers to a married woman fifty years of age,
+who laboured under the firm and long-continued delusion that she was
+pregnant. When the expected period arrived, she acted precisely as if
+she had been really delivered of a child, and seemed to suffer extreme
+pain, so that the perspiration broke out on her forehead. The result was
+that a state of things returned, continuing for three days, which had
+ceased during the six previous years. Mr. Braid gives, in his 'Magic,
+Hypnotism,' &c., 1852, p. 95, and in his other works analogous cases,
+as well as other facts showing the great influence of the will on the
+mammary glands, even on one breast alone.
+
+When we direct our whole attention to any one sense, its acuteness is
+increased;[1340] and the continued habit of close attention, as with
+blind people to that of hearing, and with the blind and deaf to that of
+touch, appears to improve the sense in question permanently. There is,
+also, some reason to believe, judging from the capacities of different
+races of man, that the effects are inherited. Turning to ordinary
+sensations, it is well known that pain is increased by attending to it;
+and Sir B. Brodie goes so far as to believe that pain may be felt in
+any part of the body to which attention is closely drawn.[1341] Sir H.
+Holland also remarks that we become not only conscious of the existence
+of a part subjected to concentrated attention, but we experience in
+it various odd sensations as of weight, heat, cold, tingling, or
+itching.[1342]
+
+Lastly, some physiologists maintain that the mind can influence the
+nutrition of parts. Sir J. Paget has given a curious instance of the
+power, not indeed of the mind, but of the nervous system, on the hair.
+A lady "who is subject to attacks of what is called nervous headache,
+always finds in the morning after such an one, that some patches of her
+hair are white, as if powdered with starch. The change is effected in
+a night, and in a few days after, the hairs gradually regain their dark
+brownish colour."[1343]
+
+We thus see that close attention certainly affects various parts and
+organs, which are not properly under the control of the will. By what
+means attention--perhaps the most wonderful of all the wondrous powers
+of the mind--is effected, is an extremely obscure subject. According to
+Muller,[1344] the process by which the sensory cells of the brain are
+rendered, through the will, susceptible of receiving more intense and
+distinct impressions, is closely analogous to that by which the motor
+cells are excited to send nerve-force to the voluntary muscles. There
+are many points of analogy in the action of the sensory and motor
+nerve-cells; for instance, the familiar fact that close attention to
+any one sense causes fatigue, like the prolonged exertion of any one
+muscle.[1345] When therefore we voluntarily concentrate our attention on
+any part of the body, the cells of the brain which receive impressions
+or sensations from that part are, it is probable, in some unknown manner
+stimulated into activity. This may account, without any local change in
+the part to which our attention is earnestly directed, for pain or odd
+sensations being there felt or increased.
+
+If, however, the part is furnished with muscles, we cannot feel sure, as
+Mr. Michael Foster has remarked to me, that some slight impulse may not
+be unconsciously sent to such muscles; and this would probably cause an
+obscure sensation in the part.
+
+In a large number of cases, as with the salivary and lacrymal glands,
+intestinal canal, &c., the power of attention seems to rest, either
+chiefly, or as some physiologists think, exclusively, on the vaso-motor
+system being affected in such a manner that more blood is allowed to
+flow into the capillaries of the part in question. This increased action
+of the capillaries may in some cases be combined with the simultaneously
+increased activity of the sensorium.
+
+The manner in which the mind affects the vasomotor system may be
+conceived in the following manner. When we actually taste sour fruit, an
+impression is sent through the gustatory nerves to a certain part of
+the sensorium; this transmits nerve-force to the vasomotor centre,
+which consequently allows the muscular coats of the small arteries that
+permeate the salivary glands to relax. Hence more blood flows into these
+glands, and they secrete a copious supply of saliva. Now it does not
+seem an improbable assumption, that, when we reflect intently on a
+sensation, the same part of the sensorium, or a closely connected part
+of it, is brought into a state of activity, in the same manner as when
+we actually perceive the sensation. If so, the same cells in the brain
+will be excited, though, perhaps, in a less degree, by vividly thinking
+about a sour taste, as by perceiving it; and they will transmit in the
+one case, as in the other, nerve-force to the vaso-motor centre with the
+same results.
+
+To give another, and, in some respects, more appropriate illustration.
+If a man stands before a hot fire, his face reddens. This appears to be
+due, as Mr. Michael Foster informs me, in part to the local action
+of the heat, and in part to a reflex action from the vaso-motor
+centres.[1346] In this latter case, the heat affects the nerves of the
+face; these transmit an impression to the sensory cells of the brain,
+which act on the vaso-motor centre, and this reacts on the small
+arteries of the face, relaxing them and allowing them to become filled
+with blood. Here, again, it seems not improbable that if we were
+repeatedly to concentrate with great earnestness our attention on the
+recollection of our heated faces, the same part of the sensorium which
+gives us the consciousness of actual heat would be in some slight degree
+stimulated, and would in consequence tend to transmit some nerve-force
+to the vaso-motor centres, so as to relax the capillaries of the face.
+Now as men during endless generations have had their attention often and
+earnestly directed to their personal appearance, and especially to
+their faces, any incipient tendency in the facial capillaries to be thus
+affected will have become in the course of time greatly strengthened
+through the principles just referred to, namely, nerve-force passing
+readily along accustomed channels, and inherited habit. Thus, as it
+appears to me, a plausible explanation is afforded of the leading
+phenomena connected with the act of blushing.
+
+
+_Recapitulation_.--Men and women, and especially the young, have always
+valued, in a high degree, their personal appearance; and have likewise
+regarded the appearance of others. The face has been the chief object of
+attention, though, when man aboriginally went naked, the whole surface
+of his body would have been attended to. Our self-attention is excited
+almost exclusively by the opinion of others, for no person living in
+absolute solitude would care about his appearance. Every one feels blame
+more acutely than praise. Now, whenever we know, or suppose, that others
+are depreciating our personal appearance, our attention is strongly
+drawn towards ourselves, more especially to our faces. The probable
+effect of this will be, as has just been explained, to excite into
+activity that part of the sensorium, which receives the sensory nerves
+of the face; and this will react through the vaso-motor system on
+the facial capillaries. By frequent reiteration during numberless
+generations, the process will have become so habitual, in association
+with the belief that others are thinking of us, that even a suspicion
+of their depreciation suffices to relax the capillaries, without any
+conscious thought about our faces. With some sensitive persons it is
+enough even to notice their dress to produce the same effect. Through
+the force, also, of association and inheritance our capillaries are
+relaxed, whenever we know, or imagine, that any one is blaming, though
+in silence, our actions, thoughts, or character; and, again, when we are
+highly praised.
+
+On this hypothesis we can understand how it is that the face blushes
+much more than any other part of the body, though the whole surface is
+somewhat affected, more especially with the races which still go nearly
+naked. It is not at all surprising that the dark-coloured races should
+blush, though no change of colour is visible in their skins. From the
+principle of inheritance it is not surprising that persons born blind
+should blush. We can understand why the young are much more affected
+than the old, and women more than men; and why the opposite sexes
+especially excite each other's blushes. It becomes obvious why personal
+remarks should be particularly liable to cause blushing, and why the
+most powerful of all the causes is shyness; for shyness relates to the
+presence and opinion of others, and the shy are always more or less
+self-conscious. With respect to real shame from moral delinquencies, we
+can perceive why it is not guilt, but the thought that others think us
+guilty, which raises a blush. A man reflecting on a crime committed in
+solitude, and stung by his conscience, does not blush; yet he will blush
+under the vivid recollection of a detected fault, or of one committed in
+the presence of others, the degree of blushing being closely related
+to the feeling of regard for those who have detected, witnessed, or
+suspected his fault. Breaches of conventional rules of conduct, if they
+are rigidly insisted on by our equals or superiors, often cause more
+intense blushes even than a detected crime, and an act which is really
+criminal, if not blamed by our equals, hardly raises a tinge of colour
+on our cheeks. Modesty from humility, or from an indelicacy, excites a
+vivid blush, as both relate to the judgment or fixed customs of others.
+
+From the intimate sympathy which exists between the capillary
+circulation of the surface of the head and of the brain, whenever there
+is intense blushing, there will be some, and often great, confusion of
+mind. This is frequently accompanied by awkward movements, and sometimes
+by the involuntary twitching of certain muscles.
+
+As blushing, according to this hypothesis, is an indirect result of
+attention, originally directed to our personal appearance, that is
+to the surface of the body, and more especially to the face, we
+can understand the meaning of the gestures which accompany blushing
+throughout the world. These consist in hiding the face, or turning it
+towards the ground, or to one side. The eyes are generally averted or
+are restless, for to look at the man who causes us to feel shame
+or shyness, immediately brings home in an intolerable manner the
+consciousness that his gaze is directed on us. Through the principle of
+associated habit, the same movements of the face and eyes are practised,
+and can, indeed, hardly be avoided, whenever we know or believe that,
+others are blaming, or too strongly praising, our moral conduct.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV. -- CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
+
+The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements
+of expression--Their inheritance--On the part which the will and
+intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions--The
+instinctive recognition of expression--The bearing of our subject on
+the specific unity of the races of man--On the successive acquirement
+of various expressions by the progenitors of man--The importance of
+expression--Conclusion.
+
+
+I HAVE now described, to the best of my ability, the chief expressive
+actions in man, and in some few of the lower animals. I have also
+attempted to explain the origin or development of these actions through
+the three principles given in the first chapter. The first of these
+principles is, that movements which are serviceable in gratifying some
+desire, or in relieving some sensation, if often repeated, become
+so habitual that they are performed, whether or not of any service,
+whenever the same desire or sensation is felt, even in a very weak
+degree.
+
+Our second principle is that of antithesis. The habit of voluntarily
+performing opposite movements under opposite impulses has become firmly
+established in us by the practice of our whole lives. Hence, if certain
+actions have been regularly performed, in accordance with our first
+principle, under a certain frame of mind, there will be a strong and
+involuntary tendency to the performance of directly opposite actions,
+whether or not these are of any use, under the excitement of an opposite
+frame of mind.
+
+Our third principle is the direct action of the excited nervous system
+on the body, independently of the will, and independently, in large
+part, of habit. Experience shows that nerve-force is generated and set
+free whenever the cerebro-spinal system is excited. The direction which
+this nerve-force follows is necessarily determined by the lines of
+connection between the nerve-cells, with each other and with various
+parts of the body. But the direction is likewise much influenced by
+habit; inasmuch as nerve-force passes readily along accustomed channels.
+
+The frantic and senseless actions of an enraged man may be attributed in
+part to the undirected flow of nerve-force, and in part to the effects
+of habit, for these actions often vaguely represent the act of striking.
+They thus pass into gestures included under our first principle; as when
+an indignant man unconsciously throws himself into a fitting attitude
+for attacking his opponent, though without any intention of making an
+actual attack. We see also the influence of habit in all the emotions
+and sensations which are called exciting; for they have assumed this
+character from having habitually led to energetic action; and action
+affects, in an indirect manner, the respiratory and circulatory
+system; and the latter reacts on the brain. Whenever these emotions or
+sensations are even slightly felt by us, though they may not at the time
+lead to any exertion, our whole system is nevertheless disturbed through
+the force of habit and association. Other emotions and sensations are
+called depressing, because they have not habitually led to energetic
+action, excepting just at first, as in the case of extreme pain, fear,
+and grief, and they have ultimately caused complete exhaustion; they
+are consequently expressed chiefly by negative signs and by prostration.
+Again, there are other emotions, such as that of affection, which do not
+commonly lead to action of any kind, and consequently are not exhibited
+by any strongly marked outward signs. Affection indeed, in as far as it
+is a pleasurable sensation, excites the ordinary signs of pleasure.
+
+On the other hand, many of the effects due to the excitement of the
+nervous system seem to be quite independent of the flow of nerve-force
+along the channels which have been rendered habitual by former exertions
+of the will. Such effects, which often reveal the state of mind of the
+person thus affected, cannot at present be explained; for instance, the
+change of colour in the hair from extreme terror or grief,--the
+cold sweat and the trembling of the muscles from fear,--the modified
+secretions of the intestinal canal,--and the failure of certain glands
+to act.
+
+Notwithstanding that much remains unintelligible in our present subject,
+so many expressive movements and actions can be explained to a certain
+extent through the above three principles, that we may hope hereafter to
+see all explained by these or by closely analogous principles.
+
+Actions of all kinds, if regularly accompanying any state of the mind,
+are at once recognized as expressive. These may consist of movements of
+any part of the body, as the wagging of a dog's tail, the shrugging of
+a man's shoulders, the erection of the hair, the exudation of
+perspiration, the state of the capillary circulation, laboured
+breathing, and the use of the vocal or other sound-producing
+instruments. Even insects express anger, terror, jealousy, and love
+by their stridulation. With man the respiratory organs are of especial
+importance in expression, not only in a direct, but in a still higher
+degree in an indirect manner.
+
+Few points are more interesting in our present subject than the
+extraordinarily complex chain of events which lead to certain expressive
+movements. Take, for instance, the oblique eyebrows of a man suffering
+from grief or anxiety. When infants scream loudly from hunger or pain,
+the circulation is affected, and the eyes tend to become gorged with
+blood: consequently the muscles surrounding the eyes are strongly
+contracted as a protection: this action, in the course of many
+generations, has become firmly fixed and inherited: but when, with
+advancing years and culture, the habit of screaming is partially
+repressed, the muscles round the eyes still tend to contract, whenever
+even slight distress is felt: of these muscles, the pyramidals of the
+nose are less under the control of the will than are the others and
+their contraction can be checked only by that of the central fasciae of
+the frontal muscle: these latter fasciae draw up the inner ends of
+the eyebrows, and wrinkle the forehead in a peculiar manner, which
+we instantly recognize as the expression of grief or anxiety. Slight
+movements, such as these just described, or the scarcely perceptible
+drawing down of the corners of the mouth, are the last remnants or
+rudiments of strongly marked and intelligible movements. They are as
+full of significance to us in regard to expression, as are ordinary
+rudiments to the naturalist in the classification and genealogy of
+organic beings.
+
+That the chief expressive actions, exhibited by man and by the lower
+animals, are now innate or inherited,--that is, have not been learnt
+by the individual,--is admitted by every one. So little has learning
+or imitation to do with several of them that they are from the earliest
+days and throughout life quite beyond our control; for instance, the
+relaxation of the arteries of the skin in blushing, and the increased
+action of the heart in anger. We may see children, only two or three
+years old, and even those born blind, blushing from shame; and the naked
+scalp of a very young infant reddens from passion. Infants scream from
+pain directly after birth, and all their features then assume the same
+form as during subsequent years. These facts alone suffice to show that
+many of our most important expressions have not been learnt; but it is
+remarkable that some, which are certainly innate, require practice in
+the individual, before they are performed in a full and perfect manner;
+for instance, weeping and laughing. The inheritance of most of our
+expressive actions explains the fact that those born blind display them,
+as I hear from the Rev. R. H. Blair, equally well with those gifted with
+eyesight. We can thus also understand the fact that the young and the
+old of widely different races, both with man and animals, express the
+same state of mind by the same movements.
+
+We are so familiar with the fact of young and old animals displaying
+their feelings in the same manner, that we hardly perceive how
+remarkable it is that a young puppy should wag its tail when pleased,
+depress its ears and uncover its canine teeth when pretending to be
+savage, just like an old dog; or that a kitten should arch its little
+back and erect its hair when frightened and angry, like an old cat.
+When, however, we turn to less common gestures in ourselves, which
+we are accustomed to look at as artificial or conventional,--such as
+shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence, or the raising the
+arms with open hands and extended fingers, as a sign of wonder,--we feel
+perhaps too much surprise at finding that they are innate. That these
+and some other gestures are inherited, we may infer from their being
+performed by very young children, by those born blind, and by the most
+widely distinct races of man. We should also bear in mind that new and
+highly peculiar tricks, in association with certain states of the
+mind, are known to have arisen in certain individuals, and to have been
+afterwards transmitted to their offspring, in some cases, for more than
+one generation.
+
+Certain other gestures, which seem to us so natural that we might easily
+imagine that they were innate, apparently have been learnt like the
+words of a language. This seems to be the case with the joining of the
+uplifted hands, and the turning up of the eyes, in prayer. So it is
+with kissing as a mark of affection; but this is innate, in so far as it
+depends on the pleasure derived from contact with a beloved person.
+The evidence with respect to the inheritance of nodding and shaking the
+head, as signs of affirmation and negation, is doubtful; for they are
+not universal, yet seem too general to have been independently acquired
+by all the individuals of so many races.
+
+
+We will now consider how far the will and consciousness have come into
+play in the development of the various movements of expression. As far
+as we can judge, only a few expressive movements, such as those just
+referred to, are learnt by each individual; that is, were consciously
+and voluntarily performed during the early years of life for some
+definite object, or in imitation of others, and then became habitual.
+The far greater number of the movements of expression, and all the more
+important ones, are, as we have seen, innate or inherited; and such
+cannot be said to depend on the will of the individual. Nevertheless,
+all those included under our first principle were at first voluntarily
+performed for a definite object,--namely, to escape some danger, to
+relieve some distress, or to gratify some desire. For instance, there
+can hardly be a doubt that the animals which fight with their teeth,
+have acquired the habit of drawing back their ears closely to their
+heads, when feeling savage, from their progenitors having voluntarily
+acted in this manner in order to protect their ears from being torn by
+their antagonists; for those animals which do not fight with their
+teeth do not thus express a savage state of mind. We may infer as highly
+probable that we ourselves have acquired the habit of contracting the
+muscles round the eyes, whilst crying gently, that is, without the
+utterance of any loud sound, from our progenitors, especially
+during infancy, having experienced, during the act of screaming, an
+uncomfortable sensation in their eyeballs. Again, some highly expressive
+movements result from the endeavour to cheek or prevent other expressive
+movements; thus the obliquity of the eyebrows and the drawing down
+of the corners of the mouth follow from the endeavour to prevent a
+screaming-fit from coming on, or to cheek it after it has come on. Here
+it is obvious that the consciousness and will must at first have come
+into play; not that we are conscious in these or in other such cases
+what muscles are brought into action, any more than when we perform the
+most ordinary voluntary movements.
+
+With respect to the expressive movements due to the principle of
+antithesis, it is clear that the will has intervened, though in a remote
+and indirect manner. So again with the movements coming under our
+third principle; these, in as far as they are influenced by nerve-force
+readily passing along habitual channels, have been determined by former
+and repeated exertions of the will. The effects indirectly due to this
+latter agency are often combined in a complex manner, through the
+force of habit and association, with those directly resulting from the
+excitement of the cerebro-spinal system. This seems to be the case with
+the increased action of the heart under the influence of any strong
+emotion. When an animal erects its hair, assumes a threatening attitude,
+and utters fierce sounds, in order to terrify an enemy, we see a curious
+combination of movements which were originally voluntary with those that
+are involuntary. It is, however, possible that even strictly involuntary
+actions, such as the erection of the hair, may have been affected by the
+mysterious power of the will.
+
+Some expressive movements may have arisen spontaneously, in association
+with certain states of the mind, like the tricks lately referred to, and
+afterwards been inherited. But I know of no evidence rendering this view
+probable.
+
+The power of communication between the members of the same tribe by
+means of language has been of paramount importance in the development of
+man; and the force of language is much aided by the expressive movements
+of the face and body. We perceive this at once when we converse on an
+important subject with any person whose face is concealed. Nevertheless
+there are no grounds, as far as I can discover, for believing that any
+muscle has been developed or even modified exclusively for the sake of
+expression. The vocal and other sound-producing organs, by which various
+expressive noises are produced, seem to form a partial exception; but I
+have elsewhere attempted to show that these organs were first developed
+for sexual purposes, in order that one sex might call or charm the
+other. Nor can I discover grounds for believing that any inherited
+movement, which now serves as a means of expression, was at first
+voluntarily and consciously performed for this special purpose,--like
+some of the gestures and the finger-language used by the deaf and dumb.
+On the contrary, every true or inherited movement of expression seems
+to have had some natural and independent origin. But when once acquired,
+such movements may be voluntarily and consciously employed as a means
+of communication. Even infants, if carefully attended to, find out at
+a very early age that their screaming brings relief, and they soon
+voluntarily practise it. We may frequently see a person voluntarily
+raising his eyebrows to express surprise, or smiling to express
+pretended satisfaction and acquiescence. A man often wishes to make
+certain gestures conspicuous or demonstrative, and will raise his
+extended arms with widely opened fingers above his head, to show
+astonishment, or lift his shoulders to his ears, to show that he
+cannot or will not do something. The tendency to such movements will be
+strengthened or increased by their being thus voluntarily and repeatedly
+performed; and the effects may be inherited.
+
+It is perhaps worth consideration whether movements at first used only
+by one or a few individuals to express a certain state of mind may not
+sometimes have spread to others, and ultimately have become universal,
+through the power of conscious and unconscious imitation. That there
+exists in man a strong tendency to imitation, independently of the
+conscious will, is certain. This is exhibited in the most extraordinary
+manner in certain brain diseases, especially at the commencement of
+inflammatory softening of the brain, and has been called the "echo
+sign." Patients thus affected imitate, without understanding every
+absurd gesture which is made, and every word which is uttered near them,
+even in a foreign language.[1401] In the case of animals, the jackal and
+wolf have learnt under confinement to imitate the barking of the dog.
+How the barking of the dog, which serves to express various emotions and
+desires, and which is so remarkable from having been acquired since the
+animal was domesticated, and from being inherited in different degrees
+by different breeds, was first learnt we do not know; but may we not
+suspect that imitation has had something to do with its acquisition,
+owing to dogs having long lived in strict association with so loquacious
+an animal as man?
+
+In the course of the foregoing remarks and throughout this volume, I
+have often felt much difficulty about the proper application of the
+terms, will, consciousness, and intention. Actions, which were at first
+voluntary, soon became habitual, and at last hereditary, and may then be
+performed even in opposition to the will. Although they often reveal
+the state of the mind, this result was not at first either intended or
+expected. Even such words as that "certain movements serve as a means
+of expression," are apt to mislead, as they imply that this was their
+primary purpose or object. This, however, seems rarely or never to have
+been the case; the movements having been at first either of some direct
+use, or the indirect effect of the excited state of the sensorium. An
+infant may scream either intentionally or instinctively to show that it
+wants food; but it has no wish or intention to draw its features into
+the peculiar form which so plainly indicates misery; yet some of the
+most characteristic expressions exhibited by man are derived from the
+act of screaming, as has been explained.
+
+Although most of our expressive actions are innate or instinctive, as
+is admitted by everyone, it is a different question whether we have any
+instinctive power of recognizing them. This has generally been assumed
+to be the case; but the assumption has been strongly controverted by M.
+Lemoine.[1402] Monkeys soon learn to distinguish, not only the tones
+of voice of their masters, but the expression of their faces, as is
+asserted by a careful observer.[1403] Dogs well know the difference
+between caressing and threatening gestures or tones; and they seem to
+recognize a compassionate tone. But as far as I can make out, after
+repeated trials, they do not understand any movement confined to the
+features, excepting a smile or laugh; and this they appear, at least in
+some cases, to recognize. This limited amount of knowledge has probably
+been gained, both by monkeys and dogs, through their associating harsh
+or kind treatment with our actions; and the knowledge certainly is
+not instinctive. Children, no doubt, would soon learn the movements of
+expression in their elders in the same manner as animals learn those
+of man. Moreover, when a child cries or laughs, he knows in a general
+manner what he is doing and what he feels; so that a very small exertion
+of reason would tell him what crying or laughing meant in others. But
+the question is, do our children acquire their knowledge of expression
+solely by experience through the power of association and reason?
+
+As most of the movements of expression must have been gradually
+acquired, afterwards becoming instinctive, there seems to be some degree
+of _a priori_ probability that their recognition would likewise have
+become instinctive. There is, at least, no greater difficulty in
+believing this than in admitting that, when a female quadruped first
+bears young, she knows the cry of distress of her offspring, or than
+in admitting that many animals instinctively recognize and fear their
+enemies; and of both these statements there can be no reasonable
+doubt. It is however extremely difficult to prove that our children
+instinctively recognize any expression. I attended to this point in my
+first-born infant, who could not have learnt anything by associating
+with other children, and I was convinced that he understood a smile and
+received pleasure from seeing one, answering it by another, at much too
+early an age to have learnt anything by experience. When this child
+was about four months old, I made in his presence many odd noises and
+strange grimaces, and tried to look savage; but the noises, if not
+too loud, as well as the grimaces, were all taken as good jokes; and I
+attributed this at the time to their being preceded or accompanied by
+smiles. When five months old, he seemed to understand a compassionate,
+expression and tone of voice. When a few days over six months old, his
+nurse pretended to cry, and I saw that his face instantly assumed a
+melancholy expression, with the corners of the mouth strongly depressed;
+now this child could rarely have seen any other child crying, and never
+a grown-up person crying, and I should doubt whether at so early an age
+he could have reasoned on the subject. Therefore it seems to me that an
+innate feeling must have told him that the pretended crying of his nurse
+expressed grief; and this through the instinct of sympathy excited grief
+in him.
+
+M. Lemoine argues that, if man possessed an innate knowledge of
+expression, authors and artists would not have found it so difficult, as
+is notoriously the case, to describe and depict the characteristic signs
+of each particular state of mind. But this does not seem to me a
+valid argument. We may actually behold the expression changing in an
+unmistakable manner in a man or animal, and yet be quite unable, as I
+know from experience, to analyse the nature of the change. In the two
+photographs given by Duchenne of the same old man (Plate III. figs. 5
+and 6), almost every one recognized that the one represented a true, and
+the other a false smile; but I have found it very difficult to decide in
+what the whole amount of difference consists. It has often struck me
+as a curious fact that so many shades of expression are instantly
+recognized without any conscious process of analysis on our part. No
+one, I believe, can clearly describe a sullen or sly expression; yet
+many observers are unanimous that these expressions can be recognized
+in the various races of man. Almost everyone to whom I showed Duchenne's
+photograph of the young man with oblique eyebrows (Plate II. fig. 2) at
+once declared that it expressed grief or some such feeling; yet probably
+not one of these persons, or one out of a thousand persons, could
+beforehand have told anything precise about the obliquity of the
+eyebrows with their inner ends puckered, or about the rectangular
+furrows on the forehead. So it is with many other expressions, of which
+I have had practical experience in the trouble requisite in instructing
+others what points to observe. If, then, great ignorance of details
+does not prevent our recognizing with certainty and promptitude various
+expressions, I do not see how this ignorance can be advanced as an
+argument that our knowledge, though vague and general, is not innate.
+
+I have endeavoured to show in considerable detail that all the chief
+expressions exhibited by man are the same throughout the world. This
+fact is interesting, as it affords a new argument in favour of the
+several races being descended from a single parent-stock, which must
+have been almost completely human in structure, and to a large extent in
+mind, before the period at which the races diverged from each other. No
+doubt similar structures, adapted for the same purpose, have often
+been independently acquired through variation and natural selection
+by distinct species; but this view will not explain close similarity
+between distinct species in a multitude of unimportant details. Now if
+we bear in mind the numerous points of structure having no relation to
+expression, in which all the races of man closely agree, and then add to
+them the numerous points, some of the highest importance and many of the
+most trifling value, on which the movements of expression directly or
+indirectly depend, it seems to me improbable in the highest degree that
+so much similarity, or rather identity of structure, could have been
+acquired by independent means. Yet this must have been the case if the
+races of man are descended from several aboriginally distinct species.
+It is far more probable that the many points of close similarity in the
+various races are due to inheritance from a single parent-form, which
+had already assumed a human character.
+
+It is a curious, though perhaps an idle speculation, how early in the
+long line of our progenitors the various expressive movements, now
+exhibited by man, were successively acquired. The following remarks
+will at least serve to recall some of the chief points discussed in this
+volume. We may confidently believe that laughter, as a sign of pleasure
+or enjoyment, was practised by our progenitors long before they deserved
+to be called human; for very many kinds of monkeys, when pleased, utter
+a reiterated sound, clearly analogous to our laughter, often accompanied
+by vibratory movements of their jaws or lips, with the corners of the
+mouth drawn backwards and upwards, by the wrinkling of the cheeks, and
+even by the brightening of the eyes.
+
+We may likewise infer that fear was expressed from an extremely remote
+period, in almost the same manner as it now is by man; namely, by
+trembling, the erection of the hair, cold perspiration, pallor, widely
+opened eyes, the relaxation of most of the muscles, and by the whole
+body cowering downwards or held motionless.
+
+Suffering, if great, will from the first have caused screams or groans
+to be uttered, the body to be contorted, and the teeth to be ground
+together. But our progenitors will not have exhibited those highly
+expressive movements of the features which accompany screaming and
+crying until their circulatory and respiratory organs, and the muscles
+surrounding the eyes, had acquired their present structure. The shedding
+of tears appears to have originated through reflex action from the
+spasmodic contraction of the eyelids, together perhaps with the eyeballs
+becoming gorged with blood during the act of screaming. Therefore
+weeping probably came on rather late in the line of our descent; and
+this conclusion agrees with the fact that our nearest allies, the
+anthropomorphous apes, do not weep. But we must here exercise some
+caution, for as certain monkeys, which are not closely related to man,
+weep, this habit might have been developed long ago in a sub-branch
+of the group from which man is derived. Our early progenitors, when
+suffering from grief or anxiety, would not have made their eyebrows
+oblique, or have drawn down the corners of their mouth, until they
+had acquired the habit of endeavouring to restrain their screams. The
+expression, therefore, of grief and anxiety is eminently human.
+
+Rage will have been expressed at a very early period by threatening or
+frantic gestures, by the reddening of the skin, and by glaring eyes, but
+not by frowning. For the habit of frowning seems to have been acquired
+chiefly from the corrugators being the first muscles to contract round
+the eyes, whenever during infancy pain, anger, or distress is felt, and
+there consequently is a near approach to screaming; and partly from
+a frown serving as a shade in difficult and intent vision. It seems
+probable that this shading action would not have become habitual until
+man had assumed a completely upright position, for monkeys do not frown
+when exposed to a glaring light. Our early progenitors, when enraged,
+would probably have exposed their teeth more freely than does man, even
+when giving full vent to his rage, as with the insane. We may, also,
+feel almost certain that they would have protruded their lips, when
+sulky or disappointed, in a greater degree than is the case with our own
+children, or even with the children of existing savage races.
+
+Our early progenitors, when indignant or moderately angry, would
+not have held their heads erect, opened their chests, squared their
+shoulders, and clenched their fists, until they had acquired the
+ordinary carriage and upright attitude of man, and had learnt to
+fight with their fists or clubs. Until this period had arrived the
+antithetical gesture of shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence
+or of patience, would not have been developed. From the same reason
+astonishment would not then have been expressed by raising the arms
+with open hands and extended fingers. Nor, judging from the actions
+of monkeys, would astonishment have been exhibited by a widely opened
+mouth; but the eyes would have been opened and the eyebrows arched.
+Disgust would have been shown at a very early period by movements round
+the mouth, like those of vomiting,--that is, if the view which I have
+suggested respecting the source of the expression is correct, namely,
+that our progenitors had the power, and used it, of voluntarily and
+quickly rejecting any food from their stomachs which they disliked. But
+the more refined manner of showing contempt or disdain, by lowering the
+eyelids, or turning away the eyes and face, as if the despised person
+were not worth looking at, would not probably have been acquired until a
+much later period.
+
+Of all expressions, blushing seems to be the most strictly human; yet
+it is common to all or nearly all the races of man, whether or not any
+change of colour is visible in their skin. The relaxation of the small
+arteries of the surface, on which blushing depends, seems to have
+primarily resulted from earnest attention directed to the appearance of
+our own persons, especially of our faces, aided by habit, inheritance,
+and the ready flow of nerve-force along accustomed channels; and
+afterwards to have been extended by the power of association to
+self-attention directed to moral conduct. It can hardly be doubted that
+many animals are capable of appreciating beautiful colours and even
+forms, as is shown by the pains which the individuals of one sex take
+in displaying their beauty before those of the opposite sex. But it
+does not seem possible that any animal, until its mental powers had been
+developed to an equal or nearly equal degree with those of man, would
+have closely considered and been sensitive about its own personal
+appearance. Therefore we may conclude that blushing originated at a very
+late period in the long line of our descent.
+
+From the various facts just alluded to, and given in the course of this
+volume, it follows that, if the structure of our organs of respiration
+and circulation had differed in only a slight degree from the state
+in which they now exist, most of our expressions would have been
+wonderfully different. A very slight change in the course of the
+arteries and veins which run to the head, would probably have prevented
+the blood from accumulating in our eyeballs during violent expiration;
+for this occurs in extremely few quadrupeds. In this case we should not
+have displayed some of our most characteristic expressions. If man had
+breathed water by the aid of external branchiae (though the idea is
+hardly conceivable), instead of air through his mouth and nostrils, his
+features would not have expressed his feelings much more efficiently
+than now do his hands or limbs. Rage and disgust, however, would still
+have been shown by movements about the lips and mouth, and the eyes
+would have become brighter or duller according to the state of the
+circulation. If our ears had remained movable, their movements would
+have been highly expressive, as is the case with all the animals which
+fight with their teeth; and we may infer that our early progenitors thus
+fought, as we still uncover the canine tooth on one side when we sneer
+at or defy any one, and we uncover all our teeth when furiously enraged.
+
+
+The movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin
+may have been, are in themselves of much importance for our welfare.
+They serve as the first means of communication between the mother and
+her infant; she smiles approval, and thus encourages her child on the
+right path, or frowns disapproval. We readily perceive sympathy in
+others by their expression; our sufferings are thus mitigated and our
+pleasures increased; and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened. The
+movements of expression give vividness and energy to our spoken words.
+They reveal the thoughts and intentions of others more truly than do
+words, which may be falsified. Whatever amount of truth the so-called
+science of physiognomy may contain, appears to depend, as Haller long
+ago remarked,[1404] on different persons bringing into frequent
+use different facial muscles, according to their dispositions; the
+development of these muscles being perhaps thus increased, and the lines
+or furrows on the face, due to their habitual contraction, being thus
+rendered deeper and more conspicuous. The free expression by outward
+signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the repression,
+as far as this is possible, of all outward signs softens our
+emotions.[1405] He who gives way to violent gestures will increase his
+rage; he who does not control the signs of fear will experience fear in
+a greater degree; and he who remains passive when overwhelmed with grief
+loses his best chance of recovering elasticity of mind. These results
+follow partly from the intimate relation which exists between almost
+all the emotions and their outward manifestations; and partly from
+the direct influence of exertion on the heart, and consequently on
+the brain. Even the simulation of an emotion tends to arouse it in our
+minds. Shakespeare, who from his wonderful knowledge of the human mind
+ought to be an excellent judge, says:--
+
+      Is it not monstrous that this player here,
+      But in a fiction, in a dream of passion,
+      Could force his soul so to his own conceit,
+      That, from her working, all his visage wann'd;
+      Tears in his eyes, distraction in 's aspect,
+      A broken voice, and his whole function suiting
+      With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing!
+     _Hamlet_, act ii. sc. 2.
+
+
+We have seen that the study of the theory of expression confirms to
+a certain limited extent the conclusion that man is derived from
+some lower animal form, and supports the belief of the specific or
+sub-specific unity of the several races; but as far as my judgment
+serves, such confirmation was hardly needed. We have also seen that
+expression in itself, or the language of the emotions, as it has
+sometimes been called, is certainly of importance for the welfare of
+mankind. To understand, as far as possible, the source or origin of the
+various expressions which may be hourly seen on the faces of the men
+around us, not to mention our domesticated animals, ought to possess
+much interest for us. From these several causes, we may conclude that
+the philosophy of our subject has well deserved the attention which
+it has already received from several excellent observers, and that it
+deserves still further attention, especially from any able physiologist.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[Footnote 1: J. Parsons, in his paper in the Appendix to the
+'Philosophical Transactions' for 1746, p. 41, gives a list of forty-one
+old authors who have written on Expression.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Conferences sur l'expression des differents Caracteres des
+Passions.' Paris, 4to, 1667. I always quote from the republication of
+the 'Conferences' in the edition of Lavater, by Moreau, which appeared
+in 1820, as given in vol. ix. p. 257.]
+
+[Footnote 3: 'Discours par Pierre Camper sur le moyen de representer les
+diverses passions,' &c. 1792. 1844]
+
+[Footnote 4: I always quote from the third edition, 1844, which was
+published after the death of Sir C. Bell, and contains his latest
+corrections. The first edition of 1806 is much inferior in merit, and
+does not include some of his more important views.]
+
+[Footnote 5: 'De la Physionomie et de la Parole,' par Albert Lemoine,
+1865, p. 101.]
+
+[Footnote 6: 'L'Art de connaitre les Hommes,' &c., par G. Lavater.]
+
+[Footnote 7: 'Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.' Band
+I. Dritte Abtheilung, 1858.]
+
+[Footnote 8: 'The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit. 1864, pp. 96 and
+288. The preface to the first edition of this work is dated June, 1855.
+See also the 2nd edition of Mr. Bain's work on the 'Emotions and Will.']
+
+[Footnote 9: 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 121.]
+
+[Footnote 10: 'Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' Second
+Series, 1863, p. 111. There is a discussion on Laughter in the First
+Series of Essays, which discussion seems to me of very inferior value.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Since the publication of the essay just referred to, Mr.
+Spencer has written another, on "Morals and Moral Sentiments," in the
+'Fortnightly Review,' April 1, 1871, p. 426. He has, also, now published
+his final conclusions in vol. ii. of the second edit. of the 'Principles
+of Psychology,' 1872, p. 539. I may state, in order that I may not be
+accused of trespassing on Mr. Spencer's domain, that I announced in my
+'Descent of Man,' that I had then written a part of the present volume:
+my first MS. notes on the subject of expression bear the date of the
+year 1838.]
+
+[Footnote 12: 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Professor Owen expressly states (Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1830,
+p. 28) that this is the case with respect to the Orang, and specifies
+all the more important muscles which are well known to serve with man
+for the expression of his feelings. See, also, a description of several
+of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof. Macalister, in 'Annals
+and Magazine of Natural History,' vol. vii. May, 1871, p. 342.]
+
+[Footnote 14: 'Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 121, 138.]
+
+[Footnote 15: 'De la Physionomie,' pp. 12, 73.]
+
+[Footnote 16: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 8vo edit. p. 31.]
+
+[Footnote 17: 'Elements of Physiology,' English translation, vol. ii. p.
+934.]
+
+[Footnote 18: 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 198.]
+
+[Footnote 19: See remarks to this effect in Lessing's 'Lacooon,'
+translated by W. Ross, 1836, p. 19.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Mr. Partridge in Todd's 'Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and
+Physiology,' vol. ii. p. 227.]
+
+[Footnote 21: 'La Physionomie,' par G. Lavater, tom. iv. 1820, p. 274.
+On the number of the facial muscles, see vol. iv. pp. 209-211.]
+
+[Footnote 22: 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 91.]
+
+[Footnote 101: Mr. Herbert Spencer ('Essays,' Second Series, 1863, p.
+138) has drawn a clear distinction between emotions and sensations,
+the latter being "generated in our corporeal framework." He classes as
+Feelings both emotions and-sensations.]
+
+[Footnote 102: Muller, 'Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii.
+p. 939. See also Mr. H. Spencer's interesting speculations on the same
+subject, and on the genesis of nerves, in his 'Principles of Biology,'
+vol. ii. p. 346; and in his 'Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit. pp.
+511-557.]
+
+[Footnote 103: A remark to much the same effect was made long ago by
+Hippocrates and by the illustrious Harvey; for both assert that a young
+animal forgets in the course of a few days the art of sucking, and
+cannot without some difficulty again acquire it. I give these assertions
+on the authority of Dr. Darwin, 'Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 140.]
+
+[Footnote 104: See for my authorities, and for various analogous facts,
+'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' 1868, vol.
+ii. p. 304.]
+
+[Footnote 105: 'The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit. 1864, p. 332.
+Prof. Huxley remarks ('Elementary Lessons in Physiology,' 5th edit.
+1872, p. 306), "It may be laid down as a rule, that, if any two mental
+states be called up together, or in succession, with due frequency and
+vividness, the subsequent production of the one of them will suffice to
+call up the other, and that whether we desire it or not."]
+
+[Footnote 106: Gratiolet ('De la Physionomie,' p. 324), in his
+discussion on this subject, gives many analogous instances. See p. 42,
+on the opening and shutting of the eyes. Engel is quoted (p. 323) on the
+changed paces of a man, as his thoughts change.]
+
+[Footnote 107: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 1862, p. 17.]
+
+[Footnote 108: 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 6. The inheritance of habitual gestures
+is so important for us, that I gladly avail myself of Mr. F. Galton's
+permission to give in his own words the following remarkable case:--"The
+following account of a habit occurring in individuals of three
+consecutive generations {footnote continues:} is of peculiar interest,
+because it occurs only during sound sleep, and therefore cannot be
+due to imitation, but must be altogether natural. The particulars are
+perfectly trustworthy, for I have enquired fully into them, and speak
+from abundant and independent evidence. A gentleman of considerable
+position was found by his wife to have the curious trick, when he lay
+fast asleep on his back in bed, of raising his right arm slowly in front
+of his face, up to his forehead, and then dropping it with a jerk, so
+that the wrist fell heavily on the bridge of his nose. The trick did
+not occur every night, but occasionally, and was independent of any
+ascertained cause. Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an hour or
+more. The gentleman's nose was prominent, and its bridge often became
+sore from the blows which it received. At one time an awkward sore was
+produced, that was long in healing, on account of the recurrence, night
+after night, of the blows which first caused it. His wife had to remove
+the button from the wrist of his night-gown as it made severe scratches,
+and some means were attempted of tying his arm.
+
+"Many years after his death, his son married a lady who had never
+heard of the family incident. She, however, observed precisely the same
+peculiarity in her husband; but his nose, from not being particularly
+prominent, has never as yet suffered from the blows. The trick does
+not occur when he is half-asleep, as, for example, when dozing in his
+arm-chair, but the moment he is fast asleep it is apt to begin. It is,
+as with his father, intermittent; sometimes ceasing for many nights,
+and sometimes almost incessant during a part of every night. It is
+performed, as it was by his father, with his right hand.
+
+"One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick. She performs
+it, likewise, with the right hand, but in a slightly modified form; for,
+after raising the arm, she does not allow the wrist to drop upon the
+bridge of the nose, but the palm of the half-closed hand falls over and
+down the nose, striking it rather rapidly. It is also very intermittent
+with this child, not occurring for periods of some months, but sometimes
+occurring almost incessantly."]
+
+[Footnote 109: Prof. Huxley remarks ('Elementary Physiology,' 5th edit.
+p. 305) that reflex actions proper to the spinal cord are NATURAL;
+but, by the help of the brain, that is through habit, an infinity of
+ARTIFICIAL reflex actions may be acquired. Virchow admits ('Sammlung
+wissenschaft. Vortrage,' &c., "Ueber das Ruckeninark," 1871, ss. 24,
+31) that some reflex actions can hardly be distinguished from instincts;
+and, of the latter, it may be added, some cannot be distinguished from
+inherited habits.]
+
+[Footnote 110: Dr. Maudsley, 'Body and Mind,' 1870, p. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 111: See the very interesting discussion on the whole subject
+by Claude Bernard, 'Tissus Vivants,' 1866, p. 353-356.]
+
+[Footnote 112: 'Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, p. 85.]
+
+[Footnote 113: Muller remarks ('Elements of Physiology,' Eng. tr. vol.
+ii. p. 1311) on starting being always accompanied by the closure of the
+eyelids.]
+
+[Footnote 114: Dr. Maudsley remarks ('Body and Mind,' p. 10) that
+"reflex movements which commonly effect a useful end may, under the
+changed circumstances of disease, do great mischief, becoming even the
+occasion of violent suffering and of a most painful death."]
+
+[Footnote 115: See Mr. F. H. Salvin's account of a tame jackal in 'Land
+and Water,' October, 1869.]
+
+[Footnote 116: "Dr. Darwin, 'Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 160. I find that
+the fact of cats protruding their feet when pleased is also noticed (p.
+151) in this work.]
+
+[Footnote 117: Carpenter, 'Principles of Comparative Physiology,' 1854,
+p. 690, and Muller's 'Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii.
+p. 936.]
+
+[Footnote 118: Mowbray on 'Poultry,' 6th edit. 1830, p. 54.]
+
+[Footnote 119: See the account given by this excellent observer in 'Wild
+Sports of the Highlands,' 1846, p. 142.]
+
+[Footnote 120: 'Philosophical Translations,' 1823, p. 182.]
+
+[Footnote 201: 'Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s.
+55.]
+
+[Footnote 202: Mr. Tylor gives an account of the Cistercian
+gesture-language in his 'Early History of Mankind' (2nd edit. 1870, p.
+40), and makes some remarks on the principle of opposition in gestures.]
+
+[Footnote 203: See on this subject Dr. W. R. Scott's interesting work,
+'The Deaf and Dumb,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 12. He says, "This contracting
+of natural gestures into much shorter gestures than the natural
+expression requires, is very common amongst the deaf and dumb. This
+contracted gesture is frequently so shortened as nearly to lose all
+semblance of the natural one, but to the deaf and dumb who use it, it
+still has the force of the original expression."]
+
+[Footnote 301: See the interesting cases collected by M. G. Pouchet in
+the 'Revue des Deux Mondes,' January 1, 1872, p. 79. An instance was
+also brought some years ago before the British Association at Belfast.]
+
+[Footnote 302: Muller remarks ('Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat.
+vol. ii. p. 934) that when the feelings are very intense, "all the
+spinal nerves become affected to the extent of imperfect paralysis, or
+the excitement of trembling of the whole body."]
+
+[Footnote 303: 'Lecons sur les Prop. des Tissus Vivants,' 1866, pp.
+457-466.]
+
+[Footnote 304: Mr. Bartlett, "Notes on the Birth of a Hippopotamus,"
+Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1871, p. 255.]
+
+[Footnote 305: See, on this subject, Claude Bernard, 'Tissus Vivants,'
+1866, pp. 316, 337, 358. Virchow expresses himself to almost exactly the
+same effect in his essay "Ueber das Ruckenmark" (Sammlung wissenschaft.
+Vortrage, 1871, s. 28).]
+
+[Footnote 306: Muller ('Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii.
+p. 932) in speaking of the nerves, says, "any sudden change of condition
+of whatever kind sets the nervous principle into action." See Virchow
+and Bernard on the same subject in passages in the two works referred to
+in my last foot-note.]
+
+[Footnote 307: H. Spencer, 'Essays, Scientific, Political,' &c., Second
+Series, 1863, pp. 109, 111.]
+
+[Footnote 308: Sir H. Holland, in speaking ('Medical Notes and
+Reflexions,' 1839, p. 328) of that curious state of body called the
+_fidgets_, remarks that it seems due to "an accumulation of some cause
+of irritation which requires muscular action for its relief."]
+
+[Footnote 309: I am much indebted to Mr. A. H. Garrod for having
+informed me of M. Lorain's work on the pulse, in which a sphygmogram of
+a woman in a rage is given; and this shows much difference in the rate
+and other characters from that of the same woman in her ordinary state.]
+
+[Footnote 310: How powerfully intense joy excites the brain, and how the
+brain reacts on the body, is well shown in the rare cases of Psychical
+Intoxication. Dr. J. Crichton Browne ('Medical Mirror,' 1865) records
+the case of a young man of strongly nervous temperament, who, on hearing
+by a telegram that a fortune had been bequeathed him, first became pale,
+then exhilarated, and soon in the highest spirits, but flushed and
+very restless. He then took a walk with a friend for the sake
+of tranquillising himself, but returned staggering in his gait,
+uproariously laughing, yet irritable in temper, incessantly talking, and
+singing loudly in the public streets. It was positively ascertained that
+he had not touched any spirituous liquor, though every one thought that
+he was intoxicated. Vomiting after a time came on, and the half-digested
+contents of his stomach were examined, but no odour of alcohol could be
+detected. He then slept heavily, and on awaking was well, except that he
+suffered from headache, nausea, and prostration of strength.]
+
+[Footnote 311: Dr. Darwin, 'Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 148.]
+
+[Footnote 312: Mrs. Oliphant, in her novel of 'Miss Majoribanks,' p.
+362. All this reacts on the brain, and prostration soon follows with
+collapsed muscles and dulled eyes. As associated habit no longer
+prompts the sufferer to action, he is urged by his friends to voluntary
+exertion, and not to give way to silent, motionless grief. Exertion
+stimulates the heart, and this reacts on the brain, and aids the mind to
+bear its heavy load.]
+
+[Footnote 401: See the evidence on this head in my 'Variation of
+Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 27. On the cooing of
+pigeons, vol. i. pp. 154, 155.]
+
+[Footnote 402: 'Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' 1858.
+'The Origin and Function of Music,' p. 359.]
+
+[Footnote 403: 'The Descent of Man,' 1870, vol. ii. p. 332. The words
+quoted are from Professor Owen. It has lately been shown that some
+quadrupeds much lower in the scale than monkeys, namely Rodents, are
+able to produce correct musical tones: see the account of a singing
+Hesperomys, by the Rev. S. Lockwood, in the 'American Naturalist,' vol.
+v. December, 1871, p. 761.]
+
+[Footnote 404: Mr. Tylor ('Primitive Culture,' 1871, vol. i. p. 166), in
+his discussion on this subject, alludes to the whining of the dog.]
+
+[Footnote 405: 'Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s.
+46.]
+
+[Footnote 406: Quoted by Gratiolet, 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 115.]
+
+[Footnote 407: 'Theorie Physiologique de la Musique,' Paris, 1868,
+P. 146. Helmholtz has also fully discussed in this profound work the
+relation of the form of the cavity of the mouth to the production of
+vowel-sounds.]
+
+[Footnote 408: I have given some details on this subject in my 'Descent
+of Man,' vol. i. pp. 352, 384.]
+
+[Footnote 409: As quoted in Huxley's 'Evidence as to Man's Place in
+Nature,' 1863, p. 52.]
+
+[Footnote 410: Illust. Thierleben, 1864, B. i. s. 130.]
+
+[Footnote 411: The Hon. J. Caton, Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences, May,
+1868, pp. 36, 40. For the _Capra, AEgagrus_, 'Land and Water,' 1867, p.
+37.]
+
+[Footnote 412: 'Land and Water,' July 20, 1867, p. 659.]
+
+[Footnote 413: _Phaeton rubricauda_: 'Ibis,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 180.]
+
+[Footnote 414: On the _Strix flammea_, Audubon, 'Ornithological
+Biography,' 1864, vol. ii. p. 407. I have observed other cases in the
+Zoological Gardens.]
+
+[Footnote 415: _Melopsittacus undulatus_. See an account of its habits
+by Gould, 'Handbook of Birds of Australia,' 1865, vol. ii. p. 82.]
+
+[Footnote 416: See, for instance, the account which I have given
+('Descent of Man,' vol. ii. p. 32) of an Anolis and Draco.]
+
+[Footnote 417: These muscles are described in his well-known works. I am
+greatly indebted to this distinguished observer for having given me in
+a letter information on this same subject.]
+
+[Footnote 418: 'Lehrbuch der Histologie des Menschen,' 1857, s. 82. I
+owe to Prof. W. Turner's kindness an extract from this work.]
+
+[Footnote 419: 'Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,' 1853, vol.
+i. p. 262.]
+
+[Footnote 420: 'Lehrbuch der Histologie,' 1857, s. 82.]
+
+[Footnote 421: 'Dictionary of English Etymology,' p. 403.]
+
+[Footnote 421: See the account of the habits of this animal by Dr.
+Cooper, as quoted in 'Nature,' April 27, 1871, p. 512.]
+
+[Footnote 422: Dr. Gunther, 'Reptiles of British India,' p. 262.]
+
+[Footnote 424: Mr. J. Mansel Weale, 'Nature,' April 27, 1871, p. 508.]
+
+[Footnote 425: 'Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the "Beagle,"'
+1845, p. 96. I have compared the rattling thus produced with that of
+the Rattle-snake.]
+
+[Footnote 426: See the account by Dr. Anderson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871,
+p. 196.]
+
+[Footnote 427: The 'American Naturalist,' Jan. 1872, p. 32. I regret
+that I cannot follow Prof. Shaler in believing that the rattle has been
+developed, by the aid of natural selection, for the sake of producing
+sounds which deceive and attract birds, so that they may serve as prey
+to the snake. I do not, however, wish to doubt that the sounds may
+occasionally subserve this end. But the conclusion at which I have
+arrived, viz. that the rattling serves as a warning to would-be
+devourers, appears to me much more probable, as it connects together
+various classes of facts. If this snake had acquired its rattle and the
+habit of rattling, for the sake of attracting prey, it does not seem
+probable that it would have invariably used its instrument when angered
+or disturbed. Prof. Shaler takes nearly the same view as I do of the
+manner of development of the rattle; and I have always held this opinion
+since observing the Trigonocephalus in South America.]
+
+[Footnote 428: From the accounts lately collected, and given in the
+'Journal of the Linnean Society,' by Airs. Barber, on the habits of
+the snakes of South Africa; and from the accounts published by
+several writers, for instance by Lawson, of the rattle-snake in North
+America,--it does not seem improbable that the terrific appearance of
+snakes and the sounds produced by them, may likewise serve in procuring
+prey, by paralysing, or as it is sometimes called fascinating, the
+smaller animals.]
+
+[Footnote 429: See the account by Dr. R. Brown, in Proc. Zool. Soc.
+1871, p. 39. He says that as soon as a pig sees a snake it rushes upon
+it; and a snake makes off immediately on the appearance of a pig.]
+
+[Footnote 430: Dr. Gunther remarks ('Reptiles of British India,' p. 340)
+on the destruction of cobras by the ichneumon or herpestes, and whilst
+the cobras are young by the jungle-fowl. It is well known that the
+peacock also eagerly kills snakes.]
+
+[Footnote 431: Prof. Cope enumerates a number of kinds in his 'Method
+of Creation of Organic Types,' read before the American Phil. Soc.,
+December 15th, 1871, p. 20. Prof. Cope takes the same view as I do of
+the use of the gestures and sounds made by snakes. I briefly alluded to
+this subject in the last edition of my 'Origin of Species.' Since the
+passages in the text above have been printed, I have been pleased to
+find that Mr. Henderson ('The American Naturalist,' May, 1872, p.
+260) also takes a similar view of the use of the rattle, namely "in
+preventing an attack from being made."]
+
+[Footnote 432: Mr. des Voeux, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 433: 'The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada,' 1866, p. 53. p.
+53.{sic}]
+
+[Footnote 434: 'The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,' 1867, p. 443.]
+
+[Footnote 501: 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 190.]
+
+[Footnote 502: 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, pp. 187, 218.]
+
+[Footnote 503: 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 140.]
+
+[Footnote 504: Many particulars are given by Gueldenstadt in his account
+of the jackal in Nov. Comm. Acad. Sc. Imp. Petrop. 1775, tom. xx. p.
+449. See also another excellent account of the manners of this animal
+and of its play, in 'Land and Water,' October, 1869. Lieut. Annesley,
+R. A., has also communicated to me some particulars with respect to
+the jackal. I have made many inquiries about wolves and jackals in the
+Zoological Gardens, and have observed them for myself.]
+
+[Footnote 505: 'Land and Water,' November 6, 1869.]
+
+[Footnote 506: Azara, 'Quadrupedes du Paraquay,' 1801, tom. 1. p. 136.]
+
+[Footnote 507: 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 657. See also Azara on the
+Puma, in the work above quoted.]
+
+[Footnote 508: Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 123.
+See also p. 126, on horses not breathing through their mouths, with
+reference to their distended nostrils.]
+
+[Footnote 509: 'Land and Water,' 1869, p. 152.]
+
+[Footnote 510: 'Natural History of Mammalia,' 1841, vol. 1. pp. 383,
+410.]
+
+[Footnote 511: Rengger ('Sagetheire von Paraquay', 1830, s. 46) kept
+these monkeys in confinement for seven years in their native country of
+Paraguay.]
+
+[Footnote 512: Rengger, ibid. s. 46. Humboldt, 'Personal Narrative, Eng.
+translat. vol. iv. p. 527.]
+
+[Footnote 513: Nat. Hist. of Mammalia, 1841, p. 351.]
+
+[Footnote 514: Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 84. On baboons striking the
+ground, s. 61.]
+
+[Footnote 515: Brehm remarks ('Thierleben,' s. 68) that the eyebrows of
+the _Inuus ecaudatus_ are frequently moved up and down when the animal
+is angered.]
+
+[Footnote 516: G. Bennett, 'Wanderings in New South Wales,' &c. vol.
+ii. 1834, p. 153. FIG. 18.-Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky. Drawn from
+life by Mr. Wood.]
+
+[Footnote 517: W. L. Martin, Nat. Hist. of Mamm. Animals, 1841, p. 405.]
+
+[Footnote 518: Prof. Owen on the Orang, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1830, p. 28. On
+the Chimpanzee, see Prof. Macalister, in Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.
+vol. vii. 1871, p. 342, who states that the _corrugator supercilii_ is
+inseparable from the _orbicularis palpebrarum_.]
+
+[Footnote 519: Boston Journal of Nat. Hist. 1845---47, vol. v. p. 423.
+On the Chimpanzee, ibid. 1843-44, vol. iv. p. 365.]
+
+[Footnote 520: See on this subject, 'Descent of Man,' vol. i. p. 20.]
+
+[Footnote 521: 'Descent of Man,' vol, i. p, 43.]
+
+[Footnote 522: 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. 1844, pp. 138, 121.]
+
+[Footnote 601: The best photographs in my collection are by Mr.
+Rejlander, of Victoria Street, London, and by Herr Kindermann, of
+Hamburg. Figs. 1, 3, 4, and 6 are by the former; and figs. 2 and 5,
+by the latter gentleman. Fig. 6 is given to show moderate crying in an
+older child.]
+
+[Footnote 602: Henle ('Handbuch d. Syst. Anat. 1858, B. i. s. 139)
+agrees with Duchenne that this is the effect of the contraction of the
+_pyramidalis nasi_.]
+
+[Footnote 603: These consist of the _levator labii superioris alaeque
+nasi_, the _levator labii proprius_, the _malaris_, and the _zygomaticus
+minor_, or little zygomatic. This latter muscle runs parallel to and
+above the great zygomatic, and is attached to the outer part of the
+upper lip. It is represented in fig. 2 (I. p. 24), but not in figs. 1
+and 3. Dr. Duchenne first showed ('Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,'
+Album, 1862, p. 39) the importance of the contraction of this muscle
+in the shape assumed by the features in crying. Henle considers the
+above-named muscles (excepting the _malaris_) as subdivisions of the
+_quadratus labii superioris_.]
+
+[Footnote 604: Although Dr. Duchenne has so carefully studied the
+contraction of the different muscles during the act of crying, and
+the furrows on the face thus produced, there seems to be something
+incomplete in his account; but what this is I cannot say. He has given
+a figure (Album, fig. 48) in which one half of the face is made, by
+galvanizing the proper muscles, to smile; whilst the other half is
+similarly made to begin crying. Almost all those (viz. nineteen out
+of twenty-one persons) to whom I showed the smiling half of the face
+instantly recognized the expression; but, with respect to the other
+half, only six persons out of twenty-one recognized it,--that is, if
+we accept such terms as "grief," "misery," "annoyance," as
+correct;--whereas, fifteen persons were ludicrously mistaken; some
+of them saying the face expressed "fun," "satisfaction," "cunning,"
+"disgust," &c. We may infer from this that there is something wrong
+in the expression. Some of the fifteen persons may, however, have been
+partly misled by not expecting to see an old man crying, and by tears
+not being secreted. With respect to another figure by Dr. Duchenne (fig.
+49), in which the muscles of half the face are galvanized in order to
+represent a man beginning to cry, with the eyebrow on the same side
+rendered oblique, which is characteristic of misery, the expression
+was recognized by a greater proportional number of persons. Out of
+twenty-three persons, fourteen answered correctly, "sorrow," "distress,"
+"grief," "just going to cry," "endurance of pain," &c. On the other
+hand, nine persons either could form no opinion or were entirely wrong,
+answering, "cunning leer," "jocund," "looking at an intense light,"
+"looking at a distant object," &c.]
+
+[Footnote 605: Mrs. Gaskell, 'Mary Barton,' new edit. p. 84.]
+
+[Footnote 606: 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 102. Duchenne,
+Mecanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, p. 34.]
+
+[Footnote 607: Dr. Duchenne makes this remark, ibid. p. 39.]
+
+[Footnote 608: 'The Origin of Civilization,' 1870, p. 355.]
+
+[Footnote 609: See, for instance, Mr. Marshall's account of an idiot
+in Philosoph. Transact. 1864, p. 526. With respect to cretins, see Dr.
+Piderit, 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 61.]
+
+[Footnote 610: 'New Zealand and its Inhabitants,' 1855, p. 175.]
+
+[Footnote 611: 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 126.]
+
+[Footnote 612: 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 106. See also his
+paper in the 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1822, p. 284, ibid. 1823,
+pp. 166 and 289. Also 'The Nervous System of the Human Body,' 3rd edit.
+1836, p. 175.]
+
+[Footnote 613: See Dr. Brinton's account of the act of vomiting, in
+Todd's Cyclop. of Anatomy and Physiology, 1859, vol. v. Supplement, p.
+318.]
+
+[Footnote 614: I am greatly indebted to Mr. Bowman for having
+introduced me to Prof. Donders, and for his aid in persuading this great
+physiologist to undertake the investigation of the present subject. I
+am likewise much indebted to Mr. Bowman for having given me, with the
+utmost kindness, information on many points.]
+
+[Footnote 615: This memoir first appeared in the 'Nederlandsch Archief
+voor Genees en Natuurkiinde,' Deel 5, 1870. It has been translated by
+Dr. W. D. Moore, under the title of "On the Action of the Eyelids
+in determination of Blood from expiratory effort," in 'Archives of
+Medicine,' edited by Dr. L. S. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 20.]
+
+[Footnote 616: Prof. Donders remarks (ibid. p. 28), that, "After
+injury to the eye, after operations, and in some forms of internal
+inflammation, we attach great value to the uniform support of the closed
+eyelids, and we increase this in many instances by the application of a
+bandage. In both cases we carefully endeavour to avoid great expiratory
+pressure, the disadvantage of which is well known." Mr. Bowman informs
+me that in the excessive photophobia, accompanying what is called
+scrofulous ophthalmia in children, when the light is so very painful
+that during weeks or months it is constantly excluded by the most
+forcible closure of the lids, he has often been struck on opening the
+lids by the paleness of the eye,--not an unnatural paleness, but an
+absence of the redness that might have been expected when the surface is
+somewhat inflamed, as is then usually the case; and this paleness he is
+inclined to attribute to the forcible closure of the eyelids.]
+
+[Footnote 617: Donders, ibid. p. 36.]
+
+[Footnote 618: Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood (Dict. of English Etymology, 1859,
+vol. i. p. 410) says, "the verb to weep comes from Anglo-Saxon _wop_,
+the primary meaning of which is simply outcry."]
+
+[Footnote 619: 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 217.]
+
+[Footnote 620: 'Ceylon,' 3rd edit. 1859, vol. ii. pp. 364, 376. I
+applied to Mr. Thwaites, in Ceylon, for further information with respect
+to the weeping of the elephant; and in consequence received a letter
+from the Rev. Mr Glenie, who, with others, kindly observed for me a
+herd of recently captured elephants. These, when irritated, screamed
+violently; but it is remarkable that they never when thus screaming
+contracted the muscles round the eyes. Nor did they shed tears; and the
+native hunters asserted that they had never observed elephants weeping.
+Nevertheless, it appears to me impossible to doubt Sir E. Tennent's
+distinct details about their weeping, supported as they are by the
+positive assertion of the keeper in the Zoological Gardens. It is
+certain that the two elephants in the Gardens, when they began to
+trumpet loudly, invariably contracted their orbicular muscles. I can
+reconcile these conflicting statements only by supposing that the
+recently captured elephants in Ceylon, from being enraged or frightened,
+desired to observe their persecutors, and consequently did not contract
+their orbicular muscles, so that their vision might not be impeded.
+Those seen weeping by Sir E. Tennent were prostrate, and had given up
+the contest in despair. The elephants which trumpeted in the Zoological
+Gardens at the word of command, were, of course, neither alarmed nor
+enraged.]
+
+[Footnote 621: Bergeon, as quoted in the 'Journal of Anatomy and
+Physiology,' Nov. 1871, p. 235.]
+
+[Footnote 622: See, for instance, a case given by Sir Charles Bell,
+'Philosophical Transactions,' 1823, p. 177.]
+
+[Footnote 623: See, on these several points, Prof. Donders 'On the
+Anomalies of Accommodation and Refraction of the Eye,' 1864, p. 573.]
+
+[Footnote 624: Quoted by Sir J. Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' 1865, p.
+458.]
+
+[Footnote 701: The above descriptive remarks are taken in part from my
+own observations, but chiefly from Gratiolet ('De la Physionomie,' pp.
+53, 337; on Sighing, 232), who has well treated this whole subject. See,
+also, Huschke, 'Mimices et Physiognomices, Fragmentum Physiologi-cum,'
+1821, p. 21. On the dulness of the eyes, Dr. Piderit, 'Mimik und
+Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 65.]
+
+[Footnote 702: On the action of grief on the organs of respiration, see
+more especially Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. 1844, p.
+151.]
+
+[Footnote 703: In the foregoing remarks on the manner in which the
+eyebrows are made oblique, I have followed what seems to be the
+universal opinion of all the anatomists, whose works I have consulted
+on the action of the above-named muscles, or with whom I have conversed.
+Hence throughout this work I shall take a similar view of the action of
+the corrugator supercilii, orbicularis, pyramidalis nasi, and frontalis
+muscles. Dr. Duchenne, however, believes, and every conclusion at which
+he arrives deserves serious consideration, that it is the corrugator,
+called by him the sourcilier, which raises the inner corner of the
+eyebrows and is antagonistic to the upper and inner part of the
+orbicular muscle, as well as to the pyramidalis nasi (see Mecanisme
+de la Phys. Humaine, 1862, folio, art. v., text and figures 19 to 29:
+octavo edit. 1862, p. 43 text). He admits, however, that the corrugator
+draws together the eyebrows, causing vertical furrows above the base
+of the nose, or a frown. He further believes that towards the outer
+two-thirds of the eyebrow the corrugator acts in conjunction with the
+upper orbicular muscle; both here standing in antagonism to the frontal
+muscle. I am unable to understand, judging from Henle's drawings
+(woodcut, fig. 3), how the corrugator can act in the manner described
+by Duchenne. See, also, on this subject, Prof. Donders' remarks in the
+'Archives of Medicine,' 1870, vol. v. p. 34. Mr. J. Wood, who is so well
+known for his careful study of the muscles of the human frame, informs
+me that he believes the account which I have given of the action of the
+corrugator to be correct. But this is not a point of any importance
+with respect to the expression which is caused by the obliquity of the
+eyebrows, nor of much importance to the theory of its origin.]
+
+[Footnote 704: I am greatly indebted to Dr. Duchenne for permission to
+have these two photographs (figs. 1 and 2) reproduced by the heliotype
+process from his work in folio. Many of the foregoing remarks on the
+furrowing of the skin, when the eyebrows are rendered oblique, are taken
+from his excellent discussion on this subject.]
+
+[Footnote 705: Mecanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, p. 15.]
+
+[Footnote 706: Henle, Handbuch der Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s.
+148, figs. 68 and 69.]
+
+[Footnote 707: See the account of the action of this muscle by Dr.
+Duchenne, 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine, Album (1862), viii. p.
+34.]
+
+[Footnote 801: Herbert Spencer, 'Essays Scientific,' &c., 1858, p. 360.]
+
+[Footnote 802: F. Lieber on the vocal sounds of L. Bridgman,
+'Smithsonian Contributions,' 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 803: See, also, Mr. Marshall, in Phil. Transact. 1864, p.
+526.]
+
+[Footnote 804: Mr. Bain ('The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p. 247) has
+a long and interesting discussion on the Ludicrous. The quotation above
+given about the laughter of the gods is taken from this work. See, also,
+Mandeville, 'The Fable of the Bees,' vol. ii. p. 168.]
+
+[Footnote 805: 'The Physiology of Laughter,' Essays, Second Series,
+1863, p. 114.]
+
+[Footnote 806: J. Lister in 'Quarterly Journal of Microscopical
+Science,' 1853, vol. 1. p. 266.]
+
+[Footnote 807: 'De la Physionomie,' p. 186.]
+
+[Footnote 808: Sir C. Bell (Anat. of Expression, p. 147) makes some
+remarks on the movement of the diaphragm during laughter.]
+
+[Footnote 809: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legende
+vi.]
+
+[Footnote 810: Handbuch der System. Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s.
+144. See my woodcut (H. fig. 2).]
+
+[Footnote 811: See, also, remarks to the same effect by Dr. J. Crichton
+Browne in 'Journal of Mental Science,' April, 1871, p. 149.]
+
+[Footnote 812: C. Vogt, 'Memoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, p. 21.]
+
+[Footnote 813: Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 133.]
+
+[Footnote 814: 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 63-67.]
+
+[Footnote 815: Sir T. Reynolds remarks ('Discourses,' xii. p. 100), "it
+is curious to observe, and it is certainly true, that the extremes of
+contrary passions are, with very little variation, expressed by the same
+action." He gives as an instance the frantic joy of a Bacchante and the
+grief of a Mary Magdalen.]
+
+[Footnote 816: Dr. Piderit has come to the same conclusion, ibid. s.
+99.]
+
+[Footnote 817: 'La Physionomie,' par G. Lavater, edit. of 1820, vol. iv.
+p. 224. See, also, Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 172, for the
+quotation given below.]
+
+[Footnote 818: A 'Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit. 1872,
+Introduction, p. xliv.]
+
+[Footnote 819: Crantz, quoted by Tylor, 'Primitive Culture,' 1871, Vol.
+i. P. 169.]
+
+[Footnote 820: F. Lieber, 'Smithsonian Contributions,' 1851, vol. ii. p.
+7.]
+
+[Footnote 821: Mr. Bain remarks ('Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, p.
+239), "Tenderness is a pleasurable emotion, variously stimulated, whose
+effort is to draw human beings into mutual embrace."]
+
+[Footnote 822: Sir J. Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. 1869, p.
+552, gives full authorities for these statements. The quotation from
+Steele is taken from this work.]
+
+[Footnote 823: See a full acount,{sic} with references, by E. B. Tylor,
+'Researches into the Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 51.]
+
+[Footnote 824: 'The Descent of Man,' vol. ii. p. 336.]
+
+[Footnote 825: Dr. Mandsley has a discussion to this effect in his 'Body
+and Mind,' 1870, p. 85.]
+
+[Footnote 826: 'The Anatomy of Expression,' p. 103, and 'Philosophical
+Transactions,' 1823, p. 182.]
+
+[Footnote 827: 'The Origin of Language,' 1866, p. 146. Mr. Tylor ('Early
+History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 48) gives a more complex origin
+to the position of the hands during prayer.]
+
+[Footnote 901: 'Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 137, 139. It is not
+surprising that the corrugators should have become much more developed
+in man than in the anthropoid apes; for they are brought into
+incessant action by him under various circumstances, and will have been
+strengthened and modified by the inherited effects of use. We have
+seen how important a part they play, together with the orbiculares, in
+protecting the eyes from being too much gorged with blood during
+violent expiratory movements. When the eyes are closed as quickly and
+as forcibly as possible, to save them from being injured by a blow,
+the corrugators contract. With savages or other men whose heads are
+uncovered, the eyebrows are continually lowered and contracted to serve
+as a shade against a too strong light; and this is effected partly
+by the corrugators. This movement would have been more especially
+serviceable to man, as soon as his early progenitors held their heads
+erect. Lastly, Prof. Donders believes ('Archives of Medicine,' ed. by
+L. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 34), that the corrugators are brought into
+action in causing the eyeball to advance in accommodation for proximity
+in vision.]
+
+[Footnote 902: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legende
+iii.]
+
+[Footnote 903: 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' s. 46.]
+
+[Footnote 904: 'History of the Abipones,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 59,
+as quoted by Lubbock, 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 355.]
+
+[Footnote 905: 'De la Physionomie,' pp. 15, 144, 146. Mr. Herbert
+Spencer accounts for frowning exclusively by the habit of contracting
+the brows as a shade to the eyes in a bright light: see 'Principles of
+Physiology,' 2nd edit. 1872, p. 546.]
+
+[Footnote 906: Gratiolet remarks (De la Phys. p. 35), "Quand l'attention
+est fixee sur quelque image interieure, l'oeil regarde dons le vide et
+s'associe automatiquement a la contemplation de l'esprit." But this view
+hardly deserves to be called an explanation.]
+
+[Footnote 907: 'Miles Gloriosus,' act ii. sc. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 908: The original photograph by Herr Kindermann is much
+more expressive than this copy, as it shows the frown on the brow more
+plainly.]
+
+[Footnote 909: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legende iv.
+figs. 16-18.]
+
+[Footnote 910: Hensleigh Wedgwood on 'The Origin of Language,' 1866, p.
+78.]
+
+[Footnote 911: Muller, as quoted by Huxley, 'Man's Place in Nature,'
+1863, p. 38.]
+
+[Footnote 912: I have given several instances in my 'Descent of Man,'
+vol. i. chap. iv.]
+
+[Footnote 913: 'Anatomy of Expression.' p. 190.]
+
+[Footnote 914: 'De la Physionomie,' pp. 118-121.]
+
+[Footnote 915: 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' s. 79.]
+
+[Footnote 1001: See some remarks to this effect by Mr. Bain, 'The
+Emotions and the Will,' 2nd edit. 1865, p. 127.]
+
+[Footnote 1002: Rengger, Naturgesch. der Saugethiere von Paraguay, 1830,
+s. 3.]
+
+[Footnote 1003: Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 96. On the
+other hand, Dr. Burgess ('Physiology of Blushing,' 1839, p. 31) speaks
+of the reddening of a cicatrix in a negress as of the nature of a
+blush.]
+
+[Footnote 1004: Moreau and Gratiolet have discussed the colour of the
+face under the influence of intense passion: see the edit. of 1820 of
+Lavater, vol. iv. pp. 282 and 300; and Gratiolet, 'De la Physionomie,'
+p. 345.]
+
+[Footnote 1005: Sir C. Bell 'Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 91, 107, has
+fully discussed this subject. Moreau remarks (in the edit. of 1820 of
+'La Physionomie, par G. Lavater,' vol. iv. p. 237), and quotes Portal
+in confirmation, that asthmatic patients acquire permanently expanded
+nostrils, owing to the habitual contraction of the elevatory muscles
+of the wings of the nose. The explanation by Dr. Piderit ('Mimik und
+Physiognomik,' s. 82) of the distension of the nostrils, namely, to
+allow free breathing whilst the mouth is closed and the teeth clenched,
+does not appear to be nearly so correct as that by Sir C. Bell, who
+attributes it to the sympathy (_i. e_. habitual co-action) of all the
+respiratory muscles. The nostrils of an angry man may be seen to become
+dilated, although his mouth is open.]
+
+[Footnote 1006: Mr. Wedgwood, 'On the Origin of Language,' 1866, p. 76.
+He also observes that the sound of hard breathing "is represented by the
+syllables _puff, huff, whiff_, whence a _huff_ is a fit of ill-temper."]
+
+[Footnote 1007: Sir C. Bell 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 95) has some
+excellent remarks on the expression of rage.]
+
+[Footnote 1008: 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 346.]
+
+[Footnote 1009: Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 177. Gratiolet
+(De la Phys. p. 369) says, 'les dents se decouvrent, et imitent
+symboliquement l'action de dechirer et de mordre.'I If, instead of using
+the vague term _symboliquement_, Gratiolet had said that the action was
+a remnant of a habit acquired during primeval times when our semi-human
+progenitors fought together with their teeth, like gorillas and orangs
+at the present day, he would have been more intelligible. Dr. Piderit
+('Mimik,' &c., s. 82) also speaks of the retraction of the upper lip
+during rage. In an engraving of one of Hogarth's wonderful pictures,
+passion is represented in the plainest manner by the open glaring eyes,
+frowning forehead, and exposed grinning teeth.]
+
+[Footnote 1010: 'Oliver Twist,' vol. iii. p. 245.]
+
+[Footnote 1011: 'The Spectator,' July 11, 1868, p. 810.]
+
+[Footnote 1012: 'Body and Mind,' 1870, pp. 51-53.]
+
+[Footnote 1013: Le Brun, in his well-known 'Conference sur l'Expression'
+('La Physionomie, par Lavater,' edit. of 1820, vol. lx. p. 268), remarks
+that anger is expressed by the clenching of the fists. See, to the same
+effect, Huschke, 'Mimices et Physiognomices, Fragmentum Physiologicum,'
+1824, p. 20. Also Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 219.]
+
+[Footnote 1014: Transact. Philosoph. Soc., Appendix, 1746, p. 65.]
+
+[Footnote 1015: 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 136. Sir C. Bell calls (p.
+131) the muscles which uncover the canines the snarling muscles.]
+
+[Footnote 1016: Hensleigh Wedgwood, 'Dictionary of English Etymology,'
+1865, vol. iii. pp. 240, 243.]
+
+[Footnote 1017: 'The Descent of Man,' 1871, vol. L p. 126.]
+
+[Footnote 1101: 'De In Physionomie et la Parole,' 1865, p. 89.]
+
+[Footnote 1102: 'Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legende viii. p. 35.
+Gratiolet also speaks (De la Phys. 1865, p. 52) of the turning away of
+the eyes and body.]
+
+[Footnote 1103: Dr. W. Ogle, in an interesting paper on the Sense of
+Smell ('Medico-Chirurgical Transactions,' vol. liii. p. 268), shows
+that when we wish to smell carefully, instead of taking one deep nasal
+inspiration, we draw in the air by a succession of rapid short sniffs.
+If "the nostrils be watched during this process, it will be seen
+that, so far from dilating, they actually contract at each sniff. The
+contraction does not include the whole anterior opening, but only the
+posterior portion." He then explains the cause of this movement. When,
+on the other hand, we wish to exclude any odour, the contraction, I
+presume, affects only the anterior part of the nostrils.]
+
+[Footnote 1104: 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' ss. 84, 93. Gratiolet (ibid.
+p. 155) takes nearly the same view with Dr. Piderit respecting the
+expression of contempt and disgust.]
+
+[Footnote 1105: Scorn implies a strong form of contempt; and one of the
+roots of the word 'scorn' means, according to Mr. Wedgwood (Dict. of
+English Etymology, vol. iii. p. 125), ordure or dirt. A person who is
+scorned is treated like dirt.]
+
+[Footnote 1106: 'Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 45.]
+
+[Footnote 1107: See, to this effect, Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood's
+Introduction to the 'Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit. 1872,
+p. xxxvii.]
+
+[Footnote 1108: Duchenne believes that in the eversion of the lower lip,
+the corners are drawn downwards by the _depressores anguli oris_. Henle
+(Handbuch d. Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s. 151) concludes that this
+is effected by the _musculus quadratus menti_.]
+
+[Footnote 1109: As quoted by Tylor, 'Primitive Culture,' 1871, vol. i.
+p. 169.]
+
+[Footnote 1110: Both these quotations are given by Mr. H. Wedgwood, 'On
+the Origin of Language,' 1866, p. 75.]
+
+[Footnote 1111: This is stated to be the case by Mr. Tylor (Early Hist.
+of Mankind, 2nd edit. 1870, p. 52); and he adds, "it is not clear why
+this should be so."]
+
+[Footnote 1112: 'Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit. 1872, p. 552.]
+
+[Footnote 1113: Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 351) makes this remark, and
+has some good observations on the expression of pride. See Sir C.
+Bell ('Anatomy of Expression,' p. 111) on the action of the _musculus
+superbus_.]
+
+[Footnote 1114: 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 166.]
+
+[Footnote 1115: 'Journey through Texas,' p. 352.]
+
+[Footnote 1116: Mrs. Oliphant, 'The Brownlows,' vol. ii. p. 206.]
+
+[Footnote 1117: 'Essai sur le Langage,' 2nd edit. 1846. I am much
+indebted to Miss Wedgwood for having given me this information, with an
+extract from the work.]
+
+[Footnote 1118: 'On the Origin of Language,' 1866, p. 91.]
+
+[Footnote 1119: 'On the Vocal Sounds of L. Bridgman;' Smithsonian
+Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 11.]
+
+[Footnote 1120: 'Memoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, p. 27.]
+
+[Footnote 1121: Quoted by Tylor, 'Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit.
+1870, p. 38.]
+
+[Footnote 1122: Mr. J. B. Jukes, 'Letters and Extracts,' &c. 1871, p.
+248.]
+
+[Footnote 1123: F. Lieber, 'On the Vocal Sounds,' &c. p. 11. Tylor,
+ibid. p. 53.]
+
+[Footnote 1124: Dr. King, Edinburgh Phil. Journal, 1845, p. 313.]
+
+[Footnote 1125: Tylor, 'Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p.
+53.]
+
+[Footnote 1126: Lubbock, 'The Origin of Civilization,' 1870, p. 277.
+Tylor, ibid. p. 38. Lieber (ibid. p. 11) remarks on the negative of the
+Italians.]
+
+[Footnote 1201: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie,' Album, 1862, p. 42.]
+
+[Footnote 1202: 'The Polyglot News Letter,' Melbourne, Dec. 1858, p. 2.]
+
+[Footnote 1203: 'The Anatomy of Expression,' p. 106.]
+
+[Footnote 1204: Mecanisme de la Physionomie,' Album, p. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 1205: See, for instance, Dr. Piderit ('Mimik und
+Physiognomik,' s. 88), who has a good discussion on the expression of
+surprise.]
+
+[Footnote 1206: Dr. Murie has also given me information leading to the
+same conclusion, derived in part from comparative anatomy.]
+
+[Footnote 1207: 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 234.]
+
+[Footnote 1208: See, on this subject, Gratiolet, ibid. p. 254.]
+
+[Footnote 1209: Lieber, 'On the Vocal Sounds of Laura Bridgman,'
+Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 1210: 'Wenderholme,' vol. ii. p. 91.]
+
+[Footnote 1211: Lieber, 'On the Vocal Sounds,' &c., ibid. p. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 1212: Huschke, 'Mimices et Physiognomices,' 1821, p. 18.
+Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 255) gives a figure of a man in this
+attitude, which, however, seems to me expressive of fear combined with
+astonishment. Le Brun also refers (Lavater, vol. ix. p. 299) to the
+hands of an astonished man being opened.]
+
+[Footnote 1213: Huschke, ibid. p. 18.]
+
+[Footnote 1214: 'North American Indians,' 3rd edit. 1842, vol. i. p.
+105.]
+
+[Footnote 1215: H. Wedgwood, Dict. of English Etymology, vol. ii. 1862,
+p. 35. See, also, Gratiolet ('De la Physionomie,' p. 135) on the sources
+of such words as 'terror, horror, rigidus, frigidus,' &c.]
+
+[Footnote 1216: Mr. Bain ('The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p. 54)
+explains in the following manner the origin of the custom "of subjecting
+criminals in India to the ordeal of the morsel of rice. The accused is
+made to take a mouthful of rice, and after a little time to throw
+it out. If the morsel is quite dry, the party is believed to be
+guilty,--his own evil conscience operating to paralyse the salivating
+organs."]
+
+[Footnote 1217: Sir C. Bell, Transactions of Royal Phil. Soc. 1822, p.
+308. 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 88 and pp. 164-469.]
+
+[Footnote 1218: See Moreau on the rolling of the eyes, in the edit. of
+1820 of Lavater, tome iv. p. 263. Also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 17.]
+
+[Footnote 1219: 'Observations on Italy,' 1825, p. 48, as quoted in 'The
+Anatomy of Expression,' p. 168.]
+
+[Footnote 1220: Quoted by Dr. Maudsley, 'Body and Mind,' 1870, p. 41.]
+
+[Footnote 1221: 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 168.]
+
+[Footnote 1222: Mecanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, Legende xi.]
+
+[Footnote 1223: Ducheinne takes, in fact, this view (ibid. p. 45), as
+he attributes the contraction of the platysma to the shivering of fear
+(_frisson de la peur_); but he elsewhere compares the action with that
+which causes the hair of frightened quadrupeds to stand erect; and this
+can hardly be considered as quite correct.]
+
+[Footnote 1224: 'De la Physionomie,' pp. 51, 256, 346.]
+
+[Footnote 1225: As quoted in White's 'Gradation in Man,' p. 57.]
+
+[Footnote 1226: 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 169.]
+
+[Footnote 1227: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie,' Album, pl. 65, pp. 44,
+45.]
+
+[Footnote 1228: See remarks to this effect by Mr. Wedgwood, in the
+Introduction to his 'Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit. 1872,
+p. xxxvii. He shows by intermediate forms that the sounds here referred
+to have probably given rise to many words, such as _ugly, huge_, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 1301: 'The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,' 1839, p. 156.
+I shall have occasion often to quote this work in the present chapter.]
+
+[Footnote 1302: Dr. Burgess, ibid. p. 56. At p. 33 he also remarks on
+women blushing more freely than men, as stated below.]
+
+[Footnote 1303: Quoted by Vogt, 'Memoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867,
+p. 20. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 56) doubts whether idiots ever blush.]
+
+[Footnote 1304: Lieber 'On the Vocal Sounds,' &c.; Smithsonian
+Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 1305: Ibid. p. 182.]
+
+[Footnote 1306: Moreau, in edit. of 1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. p. 303.]
+
+[Footnote 1307: Burgess. ibid. p. 38, on paleness after blushing, p.
+177.]
+
+[Footnote 1308: See Lavater, edit. of 1820, vol. iv. p. 303.]
+
+[Footnote 1309: Burgess, ibid. pp. 114, 122. Moreau in Lavater, ibid.
+vol. iv. p. 293.]
+
+[Footnote 1310: 'Letters from Egypt,' 1865, p. 66. Lady Gordon is
+mistaken when she says Malays and Mulattoes never blush.]
+
+[Footnote 1311: Capt. Osborn ('Quedah,' p. 199), in speaking of a Malay,
+whom he reproached for cruelty, says he was glad to see that the man
+blushed.]
+
+[Footnote 1312: J. R. Forster, 'Observations during a Voyage round the
+World,' 4to, 1778, p. 229. Waitz gives ('Introduction to Anthropology,'
+Eng. translat. 1863, vol. i. p. 135) references for other islands in the
+Pacific. See, also, Dampier 'On the Blushing of the Tunquinese' (vol.
+ii. p. 40); but I have not consulted this work. Waitz quotes Bergmann,
+that the Kalmucks do not blush, but this may be doubted after what we
+have seen with respect to the Chinese. He also quotes Roth, who denies
+that the Abyssinians are capable of blushing. Unfortunately, Capt.
+Speedy, who lived so long with the Abyssinians, has not answered my
+inquiry on this head. Lastly, I must add that the Rajah Brooke has never
+observed the least sign of a blush with the Dyaks of Borneo; on the
+contrary under circumstances which would excite a blush in us, they
+assert "that they feel the blood drawn from their faces."]
+
+[Footnote 1313: Transact. of the Ethnological Soc. 1870, vol. ii. p.
+16.]
+
+[Footnote 1314: Humboldt, 'Personal Narrative,' Eng. translat. vol. iii.
+p. 229.]
+
+[Footnote 1315: Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit
+1851, vol. i. p. 271.]
+
+[Footnote 1316: See, on this head, Burgess, ibid. p. 32. Also Waitz,
+'Introduction to Anthropology,' Eng. edit. vol. i. p. 139. Moreau gives
+a detailed account ('Lavater,' 1820, tom. iv. p. 302) of the blushing of
+a Madagascar negress-slave when forced by her brutal master to exhibit
+her naked bosom.]
+
+[Footnote 1317: Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, 4th edit.
+1851, vol. i. p. 225.]
+
+[Footnote 1318: Burgess, ibid. p. 31. On mulattoes blushing, see p. 33.
+I have received similar accounts with respect to, mulattoes.]
+
+[Footnote 1319: Barrington also says that the Australians of New South
+Wales blush, as quoted by Waitz, ibid. p. 135.]
+
+[Footnote 1320: Mr. Wedgwood says (Dict. of English Etymology, vol. iii.
+1865, p. 155) that the word shame "may well originate in the idea of
+shade or concealment, and may be illustrated by the Low German _scheme_,
+shade or shadow." Gratiolet (De la Phys. pp. 357-362) has a good
+discussion on the gestures accompanying shame; but some of his remarks
+seem to me rather fanciful. See, also, Burgess (ibid. pp. 69, 134) on
+the same subject.]
+
+[Footnote 1321: Burgess, ibid. pp. 181, 182. Boerhaave also noticed
+(as quoted by Gratiolet, ibid. p. 361) the tendency to the secretion of
+tears during intense blushing. Mr. Bulmer, as we have seen, speaks of
+the "watery eyes" of the children of the Australian aborigines when
+ashamed.]
+
+[Footnote 1322: See also Dr. J. Crichton Browne's Memoir on this subject
+in the 'West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Report,' 1871, pp. 95-98.]
+
+[Footnote 1323: In a discussion on so-called animal magnetism in 'Table
+Talk,' vol. i.]
+
+[Footnote 1324: Ibid. p. 40.]
+
+[Footnote 1325: Mr. Bain ('The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p.
+65) remarks on "the shyness of manners which is induced between the
+sexes.... from the influence of mutual regard, by the apprehension on
+either side of not standing well with the other."]
+
+[Footnote 1326: See, for evidence on this subject, 'The Descent of Man,'
+&c., vol. ii. pp. 71, 341.]
+
+[Footnote 1327: H. Wedgwood, Dict. English Etymology, vol. iii. 1865, p.
+184. So with the Latin word _verecundus_.]
+
+[Footnote 1328: Mr. Bain ('The Emotions and the Will,' p. 64) has
+discussed the "abashed" feelings experienced on these occasions, as well
+as the _stage-fright_ of actors unused to the stage. Mr. Bain apparently
+attributes these feelings to simple apprehension or dread.]
+
+[Footnote 1329: 'Essays on Practical Education,' by Maria and R. L.
+Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 38. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 187)
+insists strongly to the same effect.]
+
+[Footnote 1330: 'Essays on Practical Education,' by Maria and R. L.
+Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 50.]
+
+[Footnote 1331: Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' p. 95. Burgess, as quoted
+below, ibid. p. 49. Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 94.]
+
+[Footnote 1332: On the authority of Lady Mary Wortley Montague; see
+Burgess, ibid. p. 43.]
+
+[Footnote 1333: In England, Sir H. Holland was, I believe, the first to
+consider the influence of mental attention on various parts of the body,
+in his 'Medical Notes and Reflections,' 1839 p. 64. This essay, much
+enlarged, was reprinted by Sir H. Holland in his 'Chapters on Mental
+Physiology,' 1858, p. 79, from which work I always quote. At nearly the
+same time, as well as subsequently, Prof. Laycock discussed the same
+subject: see 'Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,' 1839, July, pp.
+17-22. Also his 'Treatise on the Nervous Diseases of Women,' 1840, p.
+110; and 'Mind and Brain,' vol. ii. 1860, p. 327. Dr. Carpenter's views
+on mesmerism have a nearly similar bearing. The great physiologist
+Muller treated ('Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. pp.
+937, 1085) of the influence of the attention on the senses. Sir J. Paget
+discusses the influence of the mind on the nutrition of parts, in his
+'Lectures on Surgical Pathology,' 1853, vol. i. p. 39: 1 quote from the
+3rd edit. revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, p. 28. See, also, Gratiolet, De
+la Phys. pp. 283-287.]
+
+[Footnote 1334: De la Phys. p. 283.]
+
+[Footnote 1340: Dr. Maudsley has given ('The Physiology and Pathology
+of Mind,' 2nd edit. 1868, p. 105), on good authority, some curious
+statements with respect to the improvement of the sense of touch by
+practice and attention. It is remarkable that when this sense has thus
+been rendered more acute at any point of the body, for instance, in
+a finger, it is likewise improved at the corresponding point on the
+opposite side of the body.]
+
+[Footnote 1341: The Lancet,' 1838, pp. 39-40, as quoted by Prof.
+Laycock, 'Nervous Diseases of Women,' 1840, p. 110.]
+
+[Footnote 1342: 'Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, pp. 91-93.]
+
+[Footnote 1343: 'Lectures on Surgical Pathology,' 3rd edit. revised by
+Prof. Turner, 1870, pp. 28, 31.]
+
+[Footnote 1344: 'Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p.
+938.]
+
+[Footnote 1345: Prof. Laycock has discussed this point in a very
+interesting manner. See his 'Nervous Diseases of Women,' 1840, p. 110.]
+
+[Footnote 1346: See, also, Mr. Michael Foster, on the action of
+the vaso-motor system, in his interesting Lecture before the royal
+Institution, as translated in the 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' Sept.
+25, 1869, p. 683.]
+
+[Footnote 1401: See the interesting facts given by Dr. Bateman on
+'Aphasia,' 1870, p. 110.]
+
+[Footnote 1402: 'La Physionomie et la Parole,' 1865, pp. 103, 118.]
+
+[Footnote 1403: Rengger, 'Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,'
+1830, s. 55.]
+
+[Footnote 1404: Quoted by Moreau, in his edition of Lavater, 1820, tom.
+iv. p. 211.]
+
+[Footnote 1405: Gratiolet ('De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 66) insists on
+the truth of this conclusion.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Expression of Emotion in Man and
+Animals, by Charles Darwin
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EMOTION IN MAN AND ANIMALS ***
+
+***** This file should be named 1227.txt or 1227.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/2/1227/
+
+Produced by Charles Keller and David Widger
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
+  www.gutenberg.org/license.
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at 809
+North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887.  Email
+contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the
+Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit:  www.gutenberg.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For forty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
diff --git a/old/old/1227.zip b/old/old/1227.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4546159
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/old/1227.zip
diff --git a/old/old/1998-03-eemaa10.txt b/old/old/1998-03-eemaa10.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e711d1d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/old/1998-03-eemaa10.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11708 @@
+Project Gutenberg Etext--Expression of Emotion in Man & Animals
+#2 in our series by Charles Darwin
+
+
+Copyright laws are changing all over the world, be sure to check
+the copyright laws for your country before posting these files!!
+
+Please take a look at the important information in this header.
+We encourage you to keep this file on your own disk, keeping an
+electronic path open for the next readers.  Do not remove this.
+
+
+**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts**
+
+**Etexts Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971**
+
+*These Etexts Prepared By Hundreds of Volunteers and Donations*
+
+Information on contacting Project Gutenberg to get Etexts, and
+further information is included below.  We need your donations.
+
+
+The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals
+
+by Charles Darwin
+
+March, 1998  [Etext #1227]
+
+
+Project Gutenberg Etext--Expression of Emotion in Man & Animals
+*****This file should be named eemaa10.txt or eemaa10.zip******
+
+Corrected EDITIONS of our etexts get a new NUMBER, eemaa11.txt
+VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, eemaa10a.txt
+
+
+Scanned by Charles Keller with OmniPage Professional OCR software
+NOTE:  The quality of this etext is below my usual standards!!
+
+Project Gutenberg Etexts are usually created from multiple editions,
+all of which are in the Public Domain in the United States, unless a
+copyright notice is included.  Therefore, we do NOT keep these books
+in compliance with any particular paper edition, usually otherwise.
+
+
+We are now trying to release all our books one month in advance
+of the official release dates, for time for better editing.
+
+Please note:  neither this list nor its contents are final till
+midnight of the last day of the month of any such announcement.
+The official release date of all Project Gutenberg Etexts is at
+Midnight, Central Time, of the last day of the stated month.  A
+preliminary version may often be posted for suggestion, comment
+and editing by those who wish to do so.  To be sure you have an
+up to date first edition [xxxxx10x.xxx] please check file sizes
+in the first week of the next month.  Since our ftp program has
+a bug in it that scrambles the date [tried to fix and failed] a
+look at the file size will have to do, but we will try to see a
+new copy has at least one byte more or less.
+
+
+Information about Project Gutenberg (one page)
+
+We produce about two million dollars for each hour we work.  The
+fifty hours is one conservative estimate for how long it we take
+to get any etext selected, entered, proofread, edited, copyright
+searched and analyzed, the copyright letters written, etc.  This
+projected audience is one hundred million readers.  If our value
+per text is nominally estimated at one dollar then we produce $2
+million dollars per hour this year as we release thirty-two text
+files per month, or 384 more Etexts in 1998 for a total of 1500+
+If these reach just 10% of the computerized population, then the
+total should reach over 150 billion Etexts given away.
+
+The Goal of Project Gutenberg is to Give Away One Trillion Etext
+Files by the December 31, 2001.  [10,000 x 100,000,000=Trillion]
+This is ten thousand titles each to one hundred million readers,
+which is only 10% of the present number of computer users.  2001
+should have at least twice as many computer users as that, so it
+will require us reaching less than 5% of the users in 2001.
+
+
+We need your donations more than ever!
+
+
+All donations should be made to "Project Gutenberg/CMU": and are
+tax deductible to the extent allowable by law.  (CMU = Carnegie-
+Mellon University).
+
+For these and other matters, please mail to:
+
+Project Gutenberg
+P. O. Box  2782
+Champaign, IL 61825
+
+When all other email fails try our Executive Director:
+Michael S. Hart <hart@pobox.com>
+
+We would prefer to send you this information by email
+(Internet, Bitnet, Compuserve, ATTMAIL or MCImail).
+
+******
+If you have an FTP program (or emulator), please
+FTP directly to the Project Gutenberg archives:
+[Mac users, do NOT point and click. . .type]
+
+ftp uiarchive.cso.uiuc.edu
+login:  anonymous
+password:  your@login
+cd etext/etext90 through /etext96
+or cd etext/articles [get suggest gut for more information]
+dir [to see files]
+get or mget [to get files. . .set bin for zip files]
+GET INDEX?00.GUT
+for a list of books
+and
+GET NEW GUT for general information
+and
+MGET GUT* for newsletters.
+
+**Information prepared by the Project Gutenberg legal advisor**
+(Three Pages)
+
+
+***START**THE SMALL PRINT!**FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS**START***
+Why is this "Small Print!" statement here?  You know: lawyers.
+They tell us you might sue us if there is something wrong with
+your copy of this etext, even if you got it for free from
+someone other than us, and even if what's wrong is not our
+fault.  So, among other things, this "Small Print!" statement
+disclaims most of our liability to you.  It also tells you how
+you can distribute copies of this etext if you want to.
+
+*BEFORE!* YOU USE OR READ THIS ETEXT
+By using or reading any part of this PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
+etext, you indicate that you understand, agree to and accept
+this "Small Print!" statement.  If you do not, you can receive
+a refund of the money (if any) you paid for this etext by
+sending a request within 30 days of receiving it to the person
+you got it from.  If you received this etext on a physical
+medium (such as a disk), you must return it with your request.
+
+ABOUT PROJECT GUTENBERG-TM ETEXTS
+This PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm etext, like most PROJECT GUTENBERG-
+tm etexts, is a "public domain" work distributed by Professor
+Michael S. Hart through the Project Gutenberg Association at
+Carnegie-Mellon University (the "Project").  Among other
+things, this means that no one owns a United States copyright
+on or for this work, so the Project (and you!) can copy and
+distribute it in the United States without permission and
+without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules, set forth
+below, apply if you wish to copy and distribute this etext
+under the Project's "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark.
+
+To create these etexts, the Project expends considerable
+efforts to identify, transcribe and proofread public domain
+works.  Despite these efforts, the Project's etexts and any
+medium they may be on may contain "Defects".  Among other
+things, Defects may take the form of incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
+intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged
+disk or other etext medium, a computer virus, or computer
+codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.
+
+LIMITED WARRANTY; DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES
+But for the "Right of Replacement or Refund" described below,
+[1] the Project (and any other party you may receive this
+etext from as a PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm etext) disclaims all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including
+legal fees, and [2] YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE OR
+UNDER STRICT LIABILITY, OR FOR BREACH OF WARRANTY OR CONTRACT,
+INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE
+OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE
+POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.
+
+If you discover a Defect in this etext within 90 days of
+receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any)
+you paid for it by sending an explanatory note within that
+time to the person you received it from.  If you received it
+on a physical medium, you must return it with your note, and
+such person may choose to alternatively give you a replacement
+copy.  If you received it electronically, such person may
+choose to alternatively give you a second opportunity to
+receive it electronically.
+
+THIS ETEXT IS OTHERWISE PROVIDED TO YOU "AS-IS".  NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, ARE MADE TO YOU AS
+TO THE ETEXT OR ANY MEDIUM IT MAY BE ON, INCLUDING BUT NOT
+LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A
+PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
+
+Some states do not allow disclaimers of implied warranties or
+the exclusion or limitation of consequential damages, so the
+above disclaimers and exclusions may not apply to you, and you
+may have other legal rights.
+
+INDEMNITY
+You will indemnify and hold the Project, its directors,
+officers, members and agents harmless from all liability, cost
+and expense, including legal fees, that arise directly or
+indirectly from any of the following that you do or cause:
+[1] distribution of this etext, [2] alteration, modification,
+or addition to the etext, or [3] any Defect.
+
+DISTRIBUTION UNDER "PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm"
+You may distribute copies of this etext electronically, or by
+disk, book or any other medium if you either delete this
+"Small Print!" and all other references to Project Gutenberg,
+or:
+
+[1]  Only give exact copies of it.  Among other things, this
+     requires that you do not remove, alter or modify the
+     etext or this "small print!" statement.  You may however,
+     if you wish, distribute this etext in machine readable
+     binary, compressed, mark-up, or proprietary form,
+     including any form resulting from conversion by word pro-
+     cessing or hypertext software, but only so long as
+     *EITHER*:
+
+     [*]  The etext, when displayed, is clearly readable, and
+          does *not* contain characters other than those
+          intended by the author of the work, although tilde
+          (~), asterisk (*) and underline (_) characters may
+          be used to convey punctuation intended by the
+          author, and additional characters may be used to
+          indicate hypertext links; OR
+
+     [*]  The etext may be readily converted by the reader at
+          no expense into plain ASCII, EBCDIC or equivalent
+          form by the program that displays the etext (as is
+          the case, for instance, with most word processors);
+          OR
+
+     [*]  You provide, or agree to also provide on request at
+          no additional cost, fee or expense, a copy of the
+          etext in its original plain ASCII form (or in EBCDIC
+          or other equivalent proprietary form).
+
+[2]  Honor the etext refund and replacement provisions of this
+     "Small Print!" statement.
+
+[3]  Pay a trademark license fee to the Project of 20% of the
+     net profits you derive calculated using the method you
+     already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  If you
+     don't derive profits, no royalty is due.  Royalties are
+     payable to "Project Gutenberg Association/Carnegie-Mellon
+     University" within the 60 days following each
+     date you prepare (or were legally required to prepare)
+     your annual (or equivalent periodic) tax return.
+
+WHAT IF YOU *WANT* TO SEND MONEY EVEN IF YOU DON'T HAVE TO?
+The Project gratefully accepts contributions in money, time,
+scanning machines, OCR software, public domain etexts, royalty
+free copyright licenses, and every other sort of contribution
+you can think of.  Money should be paid to "Project Gutenberg
+Association / Carnegie-Mellon University".
+
+*END*THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.04.29.93*END*
+
+
+
+
+
+Scanned by Charles Keller with OmniPage Professional OCR software
+NOTE:  The quality of this etext is below my usual standards!!
+
+
+
+
+
+THE EXPRESSION OF THE
+EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS
+
+BY
+CHARLES DARWIN
+M.A., F.R.S., ETC.
+
+_WITH PHOTOGRAPHIC AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS_
+
+NEW YORK
+D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+1899
+
+
+
+Authorized Edition.
+
+CONTENTS.
+INTRODUCTION......................................................Pages 1-26
+
+CHAP.  I--GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.  The three chief
+principles stated--The first principle--Serviceable actions
+become habitual in association with certain states of the mind,
+and are performed whether or not of service in each particular case--
+The force of habit--Inheritance--Associated habitual movements
+in man--Reflex actions--Passage of habits into reflex actions--
+Associated habitual movements in the lower animals--
+Concluding remarks ............27-49
+
+CHAP.  II--GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION--_continued_. The Principle
+of Antithesis--Instances in the dog and cat--Origin of the principle--
+Conventional signs--The principle of antithesis has not arisen from opposite
+actions being consciously performed under opposite impulses ..........50-65
+
+CHAP.  III--GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION--_concluded_.
+
+The principle of the direct action of the excited nervous system on the body,
+independently of the will and in part of habit--Change of colour in the hair--
+Trembling of the muscles--Modified secretions--Perspiration--Expression of
+extreme pain--Of rage, great joy, and terror--Contrast between the emotions
+which cause and do not cause expressive movements--Exciting and depressing
+states of the mind--Summary............................................ 66-82
+
+CHAP.  IV--MEANS OF EXPRESSION.  IN ANIMALS.  The emission of sounds--
+Vocal sounds--Sounds otherwise produced--Erection of the dermal appendages,
+hairs, feathers, &c., under the emotions of anger and terror--The drawing back
+of the ears as a preparation for fighting, and as an expression of anger--
+Erection of the ears and raising the head, a sign of attention 88-114
+
+CHAP.  V.--SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.  The Dog, various expressive
+movements of--Cats--Horses--Ruminants--Monkeys, their expression of joy
+and affection--Of pain--Anger Astonishment and Terror Pages 115-145
+
+CHAP.  VI.--SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN:  SUFFERING AND WEEPING.  The screaming
+and weeping of infants--Form of features--Age at which weeping commences--
+The effects of habitual restraint on weeping--Sobbing--Cause of
+the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during screaming--
+Cause of the secretion of tears 146-175
+
+CHAP.  VII.--LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.  General effect
+of grief on the system--Obliquity of the eyebrows under suffering--
+On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows--On the depression
+of the corners of the mouth 176-195
+
+CHAP.  VIII.--JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
+Laughter primarily the expression of joy--Ludicrous ideas--
+Movements of the features during laughter--Nature of the sound produced--
+The secretion of tears during loud laughter--Gradation from loud
+laughter to gentle smiling--High spirits--The expression of love--
+Tender feelings--Devotion 196-219
+
+CHAP.  IX.--REFLECTION--MEDITATION--ILL--TEMPER--SULKINESS DETERMINATION.
+The act of frowning--Reflection with an effort or with the perception
+of something difficult or disagreeable--Abstracted meditation--
+Ill-temper--Moroseness--Obstinacy--Sulkiness and pouting--
+Decision or determination--The firm closure of the mouth 220-236
+
+CHAP.  X.-HATRED AND ANGER.
+
+Hatred--Rage, effects of on the system--Uncovering of the teeth--
+Rage in the insane--Anger and indignation--As expressed by the various
+races of man--Sneering and defiance--The uncovering of the canine
+teeth on one side of the face 237-252
+
+CHAP.  XI.--DISDAIN--CONTEMPT--DISGUST--GUILT--PRIDE, ETC.--HELPLESSNESS--
+PATIENCE--AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.  Contempt, scorn and disdain,
+variously expressed--Derisive Smile--Gestures expressive of contempt--
+Disgust--Guilt, deceit, pride, etc.--Helplessness or impotence--
+Patience--Obstinacy--Shrugging the shoulders common to most of the races
+of man--Signs of affirmation and negation 253-277
+
+CHAP.  XII.--SURPRISE--ASTONISHMENT--FEAR--HORROR.
+
+Surprise, astonishment--Elevation of the eyebrows--Opening the mouth--
+Protrusion of the lips--Gestures accompanying surprise--
+Admiration Fear--Terror--Erection of the hair--Contraction of the
+platysma muscle--Dilatation of the pupils--horror--Conclusion.  Pages 278-308
+
+CHAP.  XIII.--SELF-ATTENTION--SHAME--SHYNESS--MODESTY:  BLUSHING.
+
+Nature of a blush--Inheritance--The parts of the body most affected--
+Blushing in the various races of man--Accompanying gestures--
+Confusion of mind--Causes of blushing--Self-attention, the
+fundamental element--Shyness--Shame, from broken moral laws and
+conventional rules--Modesty--Theory of blushing--Recapitulation 309-346
+
+CHAP.  XIV.--CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
+
+The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements
+of expression--Their inheritance--On the part which the will and
+intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions--
+The instinctive recognition of expression--The bearing of our
+subject on the specific unity of the races of man--On the successive
+acquirement of various expressions by the progenitors of man--
+The importance of expression--Conclusion 347-366
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+FIG.  PAGE
+     1. Diagram of the muscles of the face, from Sir C. Bell     24
+     2.   "   "   "   Henle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
+     3.   "   "   "   " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
+     4 Small dog watching a cat on a table   43
+     5 Dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions  52
+     6. Dog in a humble and affectionate frame of mind      53
+     7. Half-bred Shepherd Dog     54
+     8. Dog caressing his master   55
+     9. Cat, savage, and prepared to fight   58
+     10. Cat in an affectionate frame of mind     59
+     11. Sound-producing quills from the tail of the Porcupine   93
+     12. Hen driving away a dog from her chickens......98
+     13. Swan driving away an intruder.................99
+     14. Head of snarling dog.........................117
+     15. Cat terrified at a dog.......................125
+     16. Cynopithecus niger, in a placid condition....135
+     17. The same, when pleased by being caressed.....135
+     18. Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky............139
+     19. Photograph of an insane woman................296
+     20. Terror.......................................299
+     21. Horror and Agony.............................306
+
+ Plate I. to face page 147    Plate V. to face page 254.
+ "  II.  "   178.      "   VI.  "   264.
+ "  III. "   200.      "   VII. "   300.
+ "  IV.  "   248.
+
+_N.  B_.--Several of the figures in these seven Heliotype Plates have been
+reproduced from photographs, instead of from the original negatives;
+and they are in consequence somewhat indistinct.  Nevertheless they are
+faithful copies, and are much superior for my purpose to any drawing,
+however carefully executed.
+
+
+
+ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+MANY works have been written on Expression, but a greater number
+on Physiognomy,--that is, on the recognition of character through
+the study of the permanent form of the features.  With this
+latter subject I am not here concerned.  The older treatises,[1]
+which I have consulted, have been of little or no service to me.
+The famous `Conferences'[2] of the painter Le Brun, published in 1667,
+is the best known ancient work, and contains some good remarks.
+Another somewhat old essay, namely, the `Discours,' delivered
+1774-1782, by the well-known Dutch anatomist Camper,[3] can hardly
+be considered as having made any marked advance in the subject.
+The following works, on the contrary, deserve the fullest consideration.
+
+Sir Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in physiology,
+published in 1806 the first edition, and in
+
+[1] J. Parsons, in his paper in the Appendix to the
+`Philosophical Transactions' for 1746, p.  41, gives a list
+of forty-one old authors who have written on Expression.
+
+[2] Conferences sur l'expression des differents Caracteres
+des Passions.'  Paris, 4to, 1667.  I always quote from the
+republication of the `Conferences' in the edition of Lavater,
+by Moreau, which appeared in 1820, as given in vol.  ix.  p.  257.
+
+[3] `Discours par Pierre Camper sur le moyen de representer les
+diverses passions,' &c. 1792.  1844 the third edition of his
+`Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression.'[4] He may with justice
+be said, not only to have laid the foundations of the subject
+as a branch of science, but to have built up a noble structure.
+His work is in every way deeply interesting; it includes graphic
+descriptions of the various emotions, and is admirably illustrated.
+It is generally admitted that his service consists chiefly
+in having shown the intimate relation which exists between
+the movements of expression and those of respiration.
+One of the most important points, small as it may at first appear,
+is that the muscles round the eyes are involuntarily contracted
+during violent expiratory efforts, in order to protect
+these delicate organs from the pressure of the blood.
+This fact, which has been fully investigated for me with
+the greatest kindness by Professors Donders of Utrecht,
+throws, as we shall hereafter see, a flood of light on several
+of the most important expressions of the human countenance.
+The merits of Sir C. Bell's work have been undervalued or quite
+ignored by several foreign writers, but have been fully admitted
+by some, for instance by M. Lemoine,[5] who with great justice
+says:--"Le livre de Ch.  Bell devrait etre medite par quiconque
+essaye de faire parler le visage de l'homme, par les philosophes
+aussi bien que par les artistes, car, sous une apparence plus
+legere et sous le pretexte de l'esthetique, c'est un des
+plus beaux monuments de la science des rapports du physique
+et du moral."
+
+
+
+[4] I always quote from the third edition, 1844, which was published
+after the death of Sir C. Bell, and contains his latest corrections.
+The first edition of 1806 is much inferior in merit, and does not include
+some of his more important views.
+
+[5] `De la Physionomie et de la Parole,' par Albert Lemoine, 1865, p.  101.
+
+From reasons which will presently be assigned, Sir C. Bell did not
+attempt to follow out his views as far as they might have been carried.
+He does not try to explain why different muscles are brought into
+action under different emotions; why, for instance, the inner ends
+of the eyebrows are raised, and the corners of the mouth depressed,
+by a person suffering from grief or anxiety.
+
+In 1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater on Physiognomy,[6] in which
+he incorporated several of his own essays, containing excellent descriptions
+of the movements of the facial muscles, together with many valuable remarks.
+He throws, however, very little light on the philosophy of the subject.
+For instance, M. Moreau, in speaking of the act of frowning, that is,
+of the contraction of the muscle called by French writers the _soucilier_
+(_corrigator supercilii_), remarks with truth:--"Cette action des
+sourciliers est un des symptomes les plus tranches de l'expression des
+affections penibles ou concentrees."  He then adds that these muscles,
+from their attachment and position, are fitted "a resserrer,
+a concentrer les principaux traits de la _face_, comme il convient
+dans toutes ces passions vraiment oppressives ou profondes, dans ces
+affections dont le sentiment semble porter l'organisation a revenir sur
+elle-meme, a se contracter et a _s'amoindrir_, comme pour offrir moins
+de prise et de surface a des impressions redoutables ou importunes."
+He who thinks that remarks of this kind throw any light on the meaning
+or origin of the different expressions, takes a very different view
+of the subject to what I do.
+
+
+[6] `L'Art de connaitre les Hommes,' &c., par G. Lavater.  The earliest
+edition of this work, referred to in the preface to the edition of 1820
+in ten volumes, as containing the observations of M. Moreau, is said
+to have been published in 1807; and I have no doubt that this is correct,
+because the `Notice sur Lavater' at the commencement of volume i.
+is dated April 13, 1806.  In some bibliographical works, however, the date
+of 1805--1809 is given, but it seems impossible that 1805 can be correct.
+Dr. Duchenne remarks (`Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,'-8vo edit.
+1862, p.  5, and `Archives Generales de Medecine,' Jan. et Fev.
+1862) that M. Moreau "_a compose pour son ouvrage un article important_,"
+&c., in the year 1805; and I find in volume i.  of the edition
+of 1820 passages bearing the dates of December 12, 1805, and another
+January 5, 1806, besides that of April 13, 1806, above referred to.
+In consequence of some of these passages having thus been COMPOSED in 1805,
+Dr. Duchenne assigns to M. Moreau the priority over Sir C. Bell,
+whose work, as we have seen, was published in 1806.  This is a very
+unusual manner of determining the priority of scientific works;
+but such questions are of extremely little importance in comparison
+with their relative merits.  The passages above quoted from M. Moreau
+and from Le Brun are taken in this and all other cases from the edition
+of 1820 of Lavater, tom.  iv.  p.  228, and tom.  ix.  p.  279.  " In
+the above passage there is but a slight, if any, advance in the philosophy
+of the subject, beyond that reached by the painter Le Brun, who, in 1667,
+in describing the expression of fright, says:--"Le sourcil qui est abaisse
+d'un cote et eleve de l'autre, fait voir que la partie elevee semble le
+vouloir joindre au cerveau pour le garantir du mal que l'ame apercoit,
+et le cote qui est abaisse et qui parait enfle, -nous fait trouver
+dans cet etat par les esprits qui viennent du cerveau en abondance,
+comme polir couvrir l'aine et la defendre du mal qu'elle craint;
+la bouche fort ouverte fait voir le saisissement du coeur, par le sang
+qui se retire vers lui, ce qui l'oblige, voulant respirer, a faire
+un effort qui est cause que la bouche s'ouvre extremement, et qui,
+lorsqu'il passe par les organes de la voix, forme un son qui n'est
+point articule; que si les muscles et les veines paraissent enfles,
+ce n'est que par les esprits que le cerveau envoie en ces parties-la."
+I have thought the foregoing sentences worth quoting, as specimens
+of the surprising nonsense which has been written on the subject.
+
+`The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,' by Dr. Burgess, appeared in 1839,
+and to this work I shall frequently refer in my thirteenth Chapter.
+
+In 1862 Dr. Duchenne published two editions, in folio and octavo,
+of his `Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' in which he analyses
+by means of electricity, and illustrates by magnificent photographs,
+the movements of the facial muscles.  He has generously permitted me
+to copy as many of his photographs as I desired.  His works have been
+spoken lightly of, or quite passed over, by some of his countrymen.
+It is possible that Dr. Duchenne may have exaggerated the importance
+of the contraction of single muscles in giving expression;
+for, owing to the intimate manner in which the muscles are connected,
+as may be seen in Henle's anatomical drawings[7]--the best I believe
+ever published it is difficult to believe in their separate action.
+Nevertheless, it is manifest that Dr. Duchenne clearly apprehended
+this and other sources of error, and as it is known that he was
+eminently successful in elucidating the physiology of the muscles
+of the hand by the aid of electricity, it is probable that he is
+generally in the right about the muscles of the face.  In my opinion,
+Dr. Duchenne has greatly advanced the subject by his treatment of it.
+No one has more carefully studied the contraction of each separate muscle,
+and the consequent furrows produced on the skin.  He has also,
+and this is a very important service, shown which muscles are least
+under the separate control of the will.  He enters very little into
+theoretical considerations, and seldom attempts to explain why certain
+muscles and not others contract under the influence of certain emotions.
+A distinguished French anatomist, Pierre Gratiolet, gave a course
+of lectures on Expression at the Sorbonne, and his notes were published
+(1865) after his death, under the title of `De la Physionomie et des
+Mouvements d'Expression.' This is a very interesting work, full of
+valuable observations.  His theory is rather complex, and, as far as it
+can be given in a single sentence (p. 65), is as follows:--"Il resulte,
+de tous les faits que j'ai rappeles, que les sens, l'imagination et la
+pensee ellememe, si elevee, si abstraite qu'on la suppose, ne peuvent
+s'exercer sans eveiller un sentiment correlatif, et que ce sentiment se
+traduit directement, sympathiquement, symboliquement ou metaphoriquement,
+dans toutes les spheres des organs exterieurs, qui la racontent tous,
+suivant leur mode d'action propre, comme si chacun d'eux avait
+ete directement affecte."
+
+[7] `Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.'
+Band I. Dritte Abtheilung, 1858.
+
+Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit, and even to some
+extent habit in the individual; and therefore he fails, as it seems
+to me, to give the right explanation, or any explanation at all,
+of many gestures and expressions.  As an illustration of what he calls
+symbolic movements, I will quote his remarks (p. 37), taken from
+M. Chevreul, on a man playing at billiards.  "Si une bille devie
+legerement de la direction que le joueur pretend zlui imprimer,
+ne l'avez-vous pas vu cent fois la pousser du regard, de la tete et
+meme des epaules, comme si ces mouvements, purement symboliques,
+pouvaient rectifier son trajet?  Des mouvements non moins significatifs
+se produisent quand la bille manque d'une impulsion suffisante.
+Et cliez les joueurs novices, ils sont quelquefois accuses au
+point d'eveiller le sourire sur les levres des spectateurs."
+Such movements, as it appeirs to me, may be attributed simply to habit.
+As often as a man has wished to move an object to one side, he has
+always pushed it to that side when forwards, he has pushed it forwards;
+and if he has wished to arrest it, he has pulled backwards.
+Therefore, when a man sees his ball travelling in a wrong direction,
+and he intensely wishes it to go in another direction, he cannot avoid,
+from long habit, unconsciously performing movements which in other
+cases he has found effectual.
+
+As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet gives (p. 212)
+the following case:--"un jeune chien A oreilles droites,
+auquel son maitre presente de loin quelque viande appetissante,
+fixe avec ardeur ses yeux sur cet objet dont il suit tous
+les mouvements, et pendant que les yeux regardent, les deux oreilles
+se portent en avant comme si cet objet pouvait etre entendu."
+Here, instead of speaking of sympathy between the ears and eyes,
+it appears to me more simple to believe, that as dogs during
+many generations have, whilst intently looking at any object,
+pricked their ears in order to perceive any sound; and conversely
+have looked intently in the direction of a sound to which they
+may have listened, the movements of these organs have become
+firmly associated together through long-continued habit.
+
+Dr. Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, which I
+have not seen, but in which, as he states, he forestalled
+Gratiolet in many of his views.  In 1867 he published his
+`Wissenschaftliches System der Mimik und Physiognomik.'  It is hardly
+possible to give in a few sentences a fair notion of his views;
+perhaps the two following sentences will tell as much as can
+be briefly told:  "the muscular movements of expression are
+in part related to imaginary objects, and in part to imaginary
+sensorial impressions.  In this proposition lies the key
+to the comprehension of all expressive muscular movements."
+(s. 25) Again, "Expressive movements manifest themselves
+chiefly in the numerous and mobile muscles of the face,
+partly because the nerves by which they are set into motion originate
+in the most immediate vicinity of the mind-organ, but partly
+also because these muscles serve to support the organs of sense."
+(s. 26.) If Dr. Piderit had studied Sir C. Bell's work,
+he would probably not have said (s. 101) that violent
+laughter causes a frown from partaking of the nature of pain;
+or that with infants (s. 103) the tears irritate the eyes,
+and thus excite the contraction of the surrounding in muscles.
+Many good remarks are scattered throughout this volume,
+to which I shall hereafter refer.
+
+Short discussions on Expression may be found in various works,
+which need not here be particularised.  Mr. Bain, however,
+in two of his works has treated the subject at some length.
+He says,[8] "I look upon the expression so-called as part and parcel
+of the feeling.  I believe it to be a general law of the mind
+that along with the fact of inward feeling or consciousness,
+there is a diffusive action or excitement over the bodily members."
+In another place he adds, "A very considerable number of the facts
+may be brought under the following principle:  namely, that states
+of pleasure are connected with an increase, and states of pain
+with an abatement, of some, or all, of the vital functions."
+But the above law of the diffusive action of feelings seems too
+general to throw much light on special expressions.
+
+Mr. Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in his `Principles
+of Psychology' (1855), makes the following remarks:--"Fear,
+when strong, expresses itself in cries, in efforts to hide or escape,
+in palpitations and tremblings; and these are just the manifestations
+that would accompany an actual experience of the evil feared.
+The destructive passions are shown in a general tension of the
+muscular system, in gnashing of the teeth and protrusion of the claws,
+in dilated eyes and nostrils in growls; and these are weaker
+forms of the actions that accompany the killing of prey."
+Here we have, as I believe, the true theory of a large number
+of expressions; but the chief interest and difficulty of the
+subject lies in following out the wonderfully complex results.
+I infer that some one (but who he is I have not been able to ascertain)
+formerly advanced a nearly similar view, for Sir C. Bell says,[9]
+"It has been maintained that what are called the external signs
+of passion, are only the concomitants of those voluntary movements
+which the structure renders necessary."  Mr. Spencer has also
+published[10] a valuable essay on the physiology of Laughter,
+in which he insists on "the general law that feeling passing
+a certain pitch, habitually vents itself in bodily action,"
+and that "an overflow of nerve-force undirected by any motive,
+will manifestly take first the most habitual routes; and if these
+do not suffice, will next overflow into the less habitual ones."
+This law I believe to be of the highest importance in throwing
+light on our subject.`
+
+[8] `The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit.  1864, pp.  96 and 288.
+The preface to the first edition of this work is dated June, 1855.
+See also the 2nd edition of Mr. Bain's work on the `Emotions and Will.'
+
+[9] `The Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit.  p.  121.
+
+[10] `Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' Second Series,
+1863, p.  111.  There is a discussion on Laughter in the First Series
+of Essays, which discussion seems to me of very inferior value.
+
+[11] Since the publication of the essay just referred to,
+Mr. Spencer has written another, on "Morals and Moral Sentiments,"
+in the `Fortnightly Review,' April 1, 1871, p.  426.  He has, also,
+now published his final conclusions in vol.  ii.  of the second edit.
+of the `Principles of Psychology,' 1872, p.  539.  I may state,
+in order that I may not be accused of trespassing on
+Mr. Spencer's domain, that I announced in my `Descent of Man,'
+that I had then written a part of the present volume:  my first MS.
+notes on the subject of expression bear the date of the year 1838.
+
+All the authors who have written on Expression, with the exception
+of Mr. Spencer--the great expounder of the principle of Evolution--
+appear to have been firmly convinced that species, man of
+course included, came into existence in their present condition.
+Sir C. Bell, being thus convinced, maintains that many of our
+facial muscles are "purely instrumental in expression;" or are "a
+special provision" for this sole object.[12] But the simple fact
+that the anthropoid apes possess the same facial muscles as we
+do,[13] renders it very improbable that these muscles in our
+case serve exclusively for expression; for no one, I presume,
+would be inclined to admit that monkeys have been endowed with
+special muscles solely for exhibiting their hideous grimaces.
+Distinct uses, independently of expression, can indeed be assigned
+with much probability for almost all the facial muscles.
+
+Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a distinction as possible
+between man and the lower animals; and he consequently asserts that with
+"the lower creatures there is no expression but what may be referred,
+more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary instincts."
+He further maintains that their faces "seem chiefly capable of expressing
+rage and fear."[14] But man himself cannot express love and humility
+by external signs, so plainly as does a dog, when with drooping ears,
+hanging lips, flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets his beloved master.
+Nor can these movements in the dog be explained by acts of volition
+or necessary instincts, any more than the beaming eyes and smiling
+cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend.  If Sir C. Bell had been
+questioned about the expression of affection in the dog, he would no doubt
+have answered that this animal had been created with special instincts,
+adapting him for association with man, and that all further enquiry
+on the subject was superfluous.
+
+[12] `Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit.  pp.  98, 121, 131.
+
+[13] Professor Owen expressly states (Proc. Zoolog.  Soc.  1830, p.
+28) that this is the case with respect to the Orang, and specifies
+all the more important muscles which are well known to serve with man
+for the expression of his feelings.  See, also, a description of several
+of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof. Macalister, in `Annals
+and Magazine of Natural History,' vol.  vii.  May, 1871, p.  342.
+
+[14] `Anatomy of Expression,' pp.  121, 138.
+
+Although Gratiolet emphatically denies[15] that any muscle
+has been developed solely for the sake of expression,
+he seems never to have reflected on the principle of evolution.
+He apparently looks at each species as a separate creation.
+So it is with the other writers on Expression.  For instance,
+Dr. Duchenne, after speaking of the movements of the limbs,
+refers to those which give expression to the face, and remarks:[16]
+"Le createur n'a donc pas eu a se preoccuper ici des besoins de
+la mecanique; il a pu, selon sa sagesse, ou--que l'on me pardonne
+cette maniere de parler--par une divine fantaisie, mettre en
+action tel ou tel muscle, un seul ou plusieurs muscles a la fois,
+lorsqu'il a voulu que les signes caracteristiques des passions,
+meme les plus fugaces, lussent ecrits passagerement sur la
+face de l'homme. Ce langage de la physionomie une fois cree,
+il lui a suffi, pour le rendre universel et immuable, de donner
+a tout etre humain la faculte instinctive d'exprimer toujours
+ses sendments par la contraction des memes muscles."
+
+Many writers consider the whole subject of Expression as inexplicable.
+Thus the illustrious physiologist Muller, says,[17] "The completely
+different expression of the features in different passions shows that,
+according to the kind of feeling excited, entirely different groups
+of the fibres of the facial nerve are acted on.  Of the cause of this
+we are quite ignorant."
+
+[15] `De la Physionomie,' pp.  12, 73.
+
+[16] `Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 8vo edit.  p.  31.
+
+[17] `Elements of Physiology,' English translation, vol.  ii.  p.  934.
+
+No doubt as long as man and all other animals are viewed
+as independent creations, an effectual stop is put to our
+natural desire to investigate as far as possible the causes
+of Expression.  By this doctrine, anything and everything can
+be equally well explained; and it has proved as pernicious with
+respect to Expression as to every other branch of natural history.
+With mankind some expressions, such as the bristling of the hair under
+the influence of extreme terror, or the uncovering of the teeth under
+that of furious rage, can hardly be understood, except on the belief
+that man once existed in a much lower and animal-like condition.
+The community of certain expressions in distinct though allied species,
+as in the movements of the same facial muscles during laughter by man
+and by various monkeys, is rendered somewhat more intelligible,
+if we believe in their descent from a common progenitor.
+He who admits on general grounds that the structure and habits
+of all animals have been gradually evolved, will look at the whole
+subject of Expression in a new and interesting light.
+
+The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements
+being often extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature.
+A difference may be clearly perceived, and yet it may be impossible,
+at least I have found it so, to state in what the difference consists.
+When we witness any deep emotion, our sympathy is so strongly
+excited, that close observation is forgotten or rendered
+almost impossible; of which fact I have had many curious proofs.
+Our imagination is another and still more serious source of error;
+for if from the nature of the circumstances we expect
+to see any expression, we readily imagine its presence.
+Notwithstanding Dr. Duchenne's great experience, he for a long
+time fancied, as he states, that several muscles contracted
+under certain emotions, whereas he ultimately convinced himself
+that the movement was confined to a single muscle.
+
+In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to ascertain,
+independently of common opinion, how far particular movements
+of the features and gestures are really expressive of certain states
+of the mind, I have found the following means the most serviceable.
+In the first place, to observe infants; for they exhibit many emotions,
+as Sir C. Bell remarks, "with extraordinary force;" whereas, in after life,
+some of our expressions "cease to have the pure and simple source
+from which they spring in infancy."[18]
+
+In the second place, it occurred to me that the insane ought to
+be studied, as they are liable to the strongest passions, and give
+uncontrolled vent to them.  I had, myself, no opportunity of doing this,
+so I applied to Dr. Maudsley and received from him an introduction
+to Dr. J. Crichton Browne, who has charge of an immense asylum
+near Wakefield, and who, as I found, had already attended to the subject.
+This excellent observer has with unwearied kindness sent me copious
+notes and descriptions, with valuable suggestions on many points;
+and I can hardly over-estimate the value of his assistance.  I owe also,
+to the kindness of Mr. Patrick Nicol, of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum,
+interesting statements on two or three points.
+
+Thirdly Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already seen, certain muscles
+in the face of an old man, whose skin was little sensitive, and thus
+produced various expressions which were photographed on a large scale.
+It fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best plates,
+without a word of explanation, to above twenty educated persons
+of various ages and both sexes, asking them, in each case,
+by what emotion or feeling the old man was supposed to be agitated;
+and I recorded their answers in the words which they used.
+Several of the expressions were instantly recognised by almost everyone,
+though described in not exactly the same terms; and these may,
+I think, be relied on as truthful, and will hereafter be specified.
+On the other hand, the most widely different judgments were pronounced
+in regard to some of them.  This exhibition was of use in another way,
+by convincing me how easily we may be misguided by our imagination;
+for when I first looked through Dr. Duchenne's photographs,
+reading at the same time the text, and thus learning what was intended,
+I was struck with admiration at the truthfulness of all, with only
+a few exceptions.  Nevertheless, if I had examined them without
+any explanation, no doubt I should have been as much perplexed,
+in some cases, as other persons have been.
+
+[18] "Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit.  p.  198.
+
+Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters
+in painting and sculpture, who are such close observers.
+Accordingly, I have looked at photographs and engravings of many
+well-known works; but, with a few exceptions, have not thus profited.
+The reason no doubt is, that in works of art, beauty is the chief object;
+and strongly contracted facial muscles destroy beauty.[19] The
+story of the composition is generally told with wonderful force
+and truth by skilfully given accessories.
+
+[19] See remarks to this effect in Lessing's `Lacooon,' translated
+by W. Ross, 1836, p.  19.
+
+Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascertain whether
+the same expressions and gestures prevail, as has often been
+asserted without much evidence, with all the races of mankind,
+especially with those who have associated but little
+with Europeans.  Whenever the same movements of the features
+or body express the same emotions in several distinct races of man,
+we may infer with much probability, that such expressions
+are true ones,--that is, are innate or instinctive.
+Conventional expressions or gestures, acquired by the individual
+during early life, would probably have differed in the
+different races, in the same manner as do their languages.
+Accordingly I circulated, early in the year 1867, the following
+printed queries with a request, which has been fully responded to,
+that actual observations, and not memory, might be trusted.
+These queries were written after a considerable interval of time,
+during which my attention had been otherwise directed,
+and I can now see that they might have been greatly improved.
+To some of the later copies, I appended, in manuscript,
+a few additional remarks:--
+
+(1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide,
+and by the eyebrows being raised?
+
+(2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin
+allows it to be visible? and especially how low down the body
+does the blush extend?
+
+(3.) When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his body
+and head erect, square his shoulders and clench his fists?
+
+(4) When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to understand
+any puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids?
+
+(5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed,
+and the inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which
+the French call the "Grief muscle"? The eyebrow in this state
+becomes slightly oblique, with a little swelling at the Inner end;
+and the forehead is transversely wrinkled in the middle part, but not
+across the whole breadth, as when the eyebrows are raised in surprise.
+(6.) When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little
+wrinkled round and under them, and with the mouth a little drawn back
+at the corners?
+
+(7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the upper
+lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side facing the man
+whom he addresses?
+
+(8) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized,
+which is chiefly shown by the mouth being firmly closed,
+a lowering brow and a slight frown?
+
+(9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips
+and by turning up the nose, and with a slight expiration?
+
+(10) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down,
+the upper lip slightly raised, with a sudden expiration,
+something like incipient vomiting, or like something spit out
+of the mouth?
+
+(11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner
+as with Europeans?
+
+(12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring
+tears into the eyes?
+
+(13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something
+being done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his shoulders,
+turn inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands and open the palms;
+with the eyebrows raised?
+
+(14) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the lips?
+
+(15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized?
+though I know not how these can be defined.
+
+(16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken
+laterally in negation?
+
+
+Observations on natives who have had little communication
+with Europeans would be of course the most valuable,
+though those made on any natives would be of much interest to me.
+General remarks on expression are of comparatively little value;
+and memory is so deceptive that I earnestly beg it may not be trusted.
+A definite description of the countenance under any emotion
+or frame of mind, with a statement of the circumstances under
+which it occurred, would possess much value.
+
+
+To these queries I have received thirty-six answers from different observers,
+several of them missionaries or protectors of the aborigines, to all of whom
+I am deeply indebted for the great trouble which they have taken, and for
+the valuable aid thus received.  I will specify their names, &c., towards
+the close of this chapter, so as not to interrupt my present remarks.
+The answers relate to several of the most distinct and savage races of man.
+In many instances, the circumstances have been recorded under which
+each expression was observed, and the expression itself described.
+In such cases, much confidence may be placed in the answers.  When the answers
+have been simply yes or no, I have always received them with caution.
+It follows, from the information thus acquired, that the same state
+of mind is expressed throughout the world with remarkable uniformity;
+and this fact is in itself interesting as evidence of the close similarity
+in bodily structure and mental disposition of all the races, of mankind.
+
+Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended.  as closely as I could,
+to the expression of the several passions in some of the
+commoner animals; and this I believe to be of paramount importance,
+not of course for deciding how far in man certain expressions
+are characteristic of certain states of mind, but as affording
+the safest basis for generalisation on the causes, or origin,
+of the various movements of Expression.  In observing animals,
+we are not so likely to be biassed by our imagination;
+and we may feel safe that their expressions are not conventional.
+
+
+From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting nature
+of some expressions (the changes in the features being often
+extremely slight); our sympathy being easily aroused when we
+behold any strong emotion, and our attention thus distracted;
+our imagination deceiving us, from knowing in a vague manner
+what to expect, though certainly few of us know what the exact
+changes in the countenance are; and lastly, even our long
+familiarity with the subject,--from all these causes combined,
+the observation of Expression is by no means easy, as many persons,
+whom I have asked to observe certain points, have soon discovered.
+Hence it is difficult to determine, with certainty,
+what are the movements of the features and of the body,
+which commonly characterize certain states of the mind.
+Nevertheless, some of the doubts and difficulties have,
+as I hope, been cleared away by the observation of infants,--
+of the insane,--of the different races of man,--of works of art,--
+and lastly, of the facial muscles under the action of galvanism,
+as effected by Dr. Duchenne.
+
+But there remains the much greater difficulty of understanding
+the cause or origin of the several expressions, and of judging whether
+any theoretical explanation is trustworthy.  Besides, judging as
+well as we can by our reason, without the aid of any rules,
+which of two or more explanations is the most satisfactory, or are
+quite unsatisfactory, I see only one way of testing our conclusions.
+This is to observe whether the same principle by which one expression can,
+as it appears, be explained, is applicable in other allied cases;
+and especially, whether the same general principles can be applied
+with satisfactory results, both to man and the lower animals.
+This latter method, I am inclined to think, is the most serviceable of all.
+The difficulty of judging of the truth of any theoretical explanation,
+and of testing it by some distinct line of investigation, is the great
+drawback to that interest which the study seems well fitted to excite.
+
+Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may state that they
+were commenced in the year 1838; and from that time to the present day,
+I have occasionally attended to the subject.  At the above date,
+I was already inclined to believe in the principle of evolution,
+or of the derivation of species from other and lower forms.
+Consequently, when I read Sir C. Bell's great work, his view,
+that man had been created with certain muscles specially adapted
+for the expression of his feelings, struck me as unsatisfactory.
+It seemed probable that the habit of expressing our feelings
+by certain movements, though now rendered innate, had been
+in some manner gradually acquired.  But to discover how such
+habits had been acquired was perplexing in no small degree.
+The whole subject had to be viewed under a new aspect,
+and each expression demanded a rational explanation.
+This belief led me to attempt the present work, however imperfectly
+it may have been executed.--------
+
+
+I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, as I have said,
+I am deeply indebted for information in regard to the expressions
+exhibited by various races of man, and I will specify some
+of the circumstances under which the observations were in each
+case made.  Owing to the great kindness and powerful influence
+of Mr. Wilson, of Hayes Place, Kent, I have received from
+Australia no less than thirteen sets of answers to my queries.
+This has been particularly fortunate, as the Australian aborigines
+rank amongst the most distinct of all the races of man.
+It will be seen that the observations have been chiefly made
+in the south, in the outlying parts of the colony of Victoria;
+but some excellent answers have been received from the north.
+
+Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valuable observations,
+made several hundred miles in the interior of Queensland.
+To Mr. R. Brough Smyth, of Melbourne, I am much indebted
+for observations made by himself, and for sending me several
+of the following letters, namely:--From the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer,
+of Lake Wellington, a missionary in Gippsland, Victoria, who has
+had much experience with the natives.  From Mr. Samuel Wilson,
+a landowner, residing at Langerenong, Wimmera, Victoria.  From the
+Rev. George Taplin, superintendent of the native
+Industrial Settlement at Port Macleay.  From Mr. Archibald G. Lang,
+of Coranderik, Victoria, a teacher at a school where aborigines,
+old and young, are collected from all parts of the colony.
+From Mr. H. B. Lane, of Belfast, Victoria, a police magistrate
+and warden, whose observations, as I am assured, are highly trustworthy.
+From Mr. Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose station is on the borders
+of the colony of Victoria, and who has thus been able to observe
+many aborigines who have had little intercourse with white men.
+He compared his observations with those made by two other gentlemen
+long resident in the neighbourhood.  Also from Mr. J. Bulmer,
+a missionary in a remote part of Gippsland, Victoria.
+
+I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr. Ferdinand Muller,
+of Victoria, for some observations made by himself, and for sending me
+others made by Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing letters.
+
+In regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Rev. J. W. Stack has
+answered only a few of my queries; but the answers have been
+remarkably full, clear, and distinct, with the circumstances
+recorded under which the observations were made.
+
+The Rajah Brooke has given me some information with respect
+to the Dyaks of Borneo.
+
+Respecting the Malays, I have been highly successful; for Mr. F. Geach
+(to whom I was introduced by Mr. Wallace), during his residence as a
+mining engineer in the interior of Malacca, observed many natives,
+who had never before associated with white men.  He wrote me two long
+letters with admirable and detailed observations on their expression.
+He likewise observed the Chinese immigrants in the Malay archipelago.
+
+The well-known naturalist, H. M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe,
+also observed for me the Chinese in their native country;
+and he made inquiries from others whom he could trust.
+
+In India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official
+capacity in the Admednugur District in the Bombay Presidency,
+attended to the expression of the inhabitants, but found much
+difficulty in arriving at any safe conclusions, owing to
+their habitual concealment of all emotions in the presence
+of Europeans.  He also obtained information for me from Mr. West,
+the Judge in Canara, and he consulted some intelligent native
+gentlemen on certain points.  In Calcutta Mr. J. Scott,
+curator of the Botanic Gardens, carefully observed the various
+tribes of men therein employed during a considerable period,
+and no one has sent me such full and valuable details.
+The habit of accurate observation, gained by his botanical
+studies, has been brought to bear on our present subject.
+For Ceylon I am much indebted to the Rev. S. O. Glenie for answers
+to some of my queries.
+
+Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with respect to the negroes,
+though Mr. Winwood Reade aided me as far as lay in his power.
+It would have been comparatively easy to have obtained information
+in regard to the negro slaves in America; but as they have long
+associated with white men, such observations would have possessed
+little value.  In the southern parts of the continent Mrs. Barber
+observed the Kafirs and Fingoes, and sent me many distinct answers.
+Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale also made some observations on the natives,
+and procured for me a curious document, namely, the opinion,
+written in English, of Christian Gaika, brother of the Chief Sandilli,
+on the expressions of his fellow-countrymen. In the northern regions
+of Africa Captain Speedy, who long resided with the Abyssinians,
+answered my queries partly from memory and partly from observations
+made on the son of King Theodore, who was then under his charge.
+Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray attended to some points in the expressions
+of the natives, as observed by them whilst ascending the Nile.
+
+On the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a catechist
+residing with the Fuegians, answered some few questions
+about their expression, addressed to him many years ago.
+In the northern half of the continent Dr. Rothrock attended to the
+expressions of the wild Atnah and Espyox tribes on the Nasse River,
+in North-Western America.  Mr. Washington Matthews Assistant-Surgeon
+in the United States Army, also observed with special care
+(after having seen my queries, as printed in the `Smithsonian Report')
+some of the wildest tribes in the Western parts of the United States,
+namely, the Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans, and Assinaboines;
+and his answers have proved of the highest value.
+
+Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I have collected
+some few facts incidentally given in books of travels.--------
+
+
+As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the latter part
+of this volume, to the muscles of the human face, I have had a diagram
+(fig. 1) copied and reduced from Sir C. Bell's work, and two others,
+with more accurate details (figs. 2 and 3), from Herde's well-known
+`Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.'  The same letters
+refer to the same muscles in all three figures, but the names are given
+of only the more important ones to which I shall have to allude.
+The facial muscles blend much together, and, as I am informed,
+hardly appear on a dissected face so distinct as they are here represented.
+Some writers consider that these muscles consist of nineteen pairs,
+with one unpaired;[20] but others make the number much larger,
+amounting even to fifty-five, according to Moreau.  They are,
+as is admitted by everyone who has written on the subject,
+very variable in structure; and Moreau remarks that they are hardly
+alike in half-a-dozen subjects.[21] They are also variable in function.
+Thus the power of uncovering the canine tooth on one side differs much
+in different persons.  The power of raising the wings of the nostrils
+is also, according to Dr. Piderit,[22] variable in a remarkable degree;
+and other such cases could be given.
+
+[20] Mr. Partridge in Todd's `Cyclopaedia of Anatomy
+and Physiology,' vol.  ii.  p.  227.
+
+[21] `La Physionomie,' par G. Lavater, tom.  iv.  1820, p.  274.  On the
+number of the facial muscles, see vol.  iv.  pp.  209-211.
+
+[22] " `Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s.  91.
+
+Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing my obligations to
+Mr. Rejlander for the trouble which he has taken in photographing for me
+various expressions and gestures.  I am also indebted to Herr Kindermann,
+of Hamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of crying infants;
+and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one of a smiling girl.
+I have already expressed my obligations to Dr. Duchenne for generously
+permitting me to have some of his large photographs copied and reduced.
+All these photographs have been printed by the Heliotype process,
+and the accuracy of the copy is thus guaranteed.  These plates are
+referred to by Roman numerals.
+
+I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme
+pains which he has taken in drawing from life the expressions
+of various animals.  A distinguished artist, Mr. Riviere,
+has had the kindness to give me two drawings of dogs--one in a
+hostile and the other in a humble and caressing frame of mind.
+Mr. A. May has also given me two similar sketches of dogs.
+Mr. Cooper has taken much care in cutting the blocks.
+Some of the photographs and drawings, namely, those by Mr. May,
+and those by Mr. Wolf of the Cynopithecus, were first reproduced
+by Mr. Cooper on wood by means of photography, and then engraved:
+by this means almost complete fidelity is ensured.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
+
+The three chief principles stated--The first principle--Serviceable actions
+become habitual in association with certain states of the mind,
+and are performed whether or not of service in each particular case--
+The force of habit--Inheritance--Associated habitual movements in man--
+Reflex actions--Passage of habits into reflex actions--Associated habitual
+movements in the lower animals--Concluding remarks.
+
+
+I WILL begin by giving the three Principles, which appear to me
+to account for most of the expressions and gestures involuntarily used
+by man and the lower animals, under the influence of various emotions
+and sensations.[1] I arrived, however, at these three Principles
+only at the close of my observations.  They will be discussed
+in the present and two following chapters in a general manner.
+Facts observed both with man and the lower animals will here be made use of;
+but the latter facts are preferable, as less likely to deceive us.
+In the fourth and fifth chapters, I will describe the special
+expressions of some of the lower animals; and in the succeeding chapters
+those of man.  Everyone will thus be able to judge for himself,
+how far my three principles throw light on the theory of the subject.
+It appears to me that so many expressions are thus explained
+in a fairly satisfactory manner, that probably all will hereafter
+be found to come under the same or closely analogous heads.
+I need hardly premise that movements or changes in any part of the body,--
+as the wagging of a dog's tail, the drawing back of a horse's ears,
+the shrugging of a man's shoulders, or the dilatation of the capillary
+vessels of the skin,--may all equally well serve for expression.
+The three Principles are as follows.
+
+[1] Mr. Herbert Spencer (`Essays,' Second Series, 1863, p.
+138) has drawn a clear distinction between emotions and sensations,
+the latter being "generated in our corporeal framework."
+He classes as Feelings both emotions and-sensations.
+
+I. _The principle of serviceable associated Habits_.--Certain complex
+actions are of direct or indirect service under certain states of the mind,
+in order to relieve or gratify certain sensations, desires, &c.; and whenever
+the same state of mind is induced, however feebly, there is a tendency through
+the force of habit and association for the same movements to be performed,
+though they may not then be of the least use.  Some actions ordinarily
+associated through habit with certain states of the mind may be partially
+repressed through the will, and in such cases the muscles which are least
+under the separate control of the will are the most liable still to act,
+causing movements which we recognize as expressive.  In certain other cases
+the checking of one habitual movement requires other slight movements;
+and these are likewise expressive.
+
+II.  _The principle of Antithesis_.--Certain states of the mind lead to certain
+habitual actions, which are of service, as under our first principle.
+Now when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, there is a strong
+and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements of a directly
+opposite nature, though these are of no use; and such movements are in some
+cases highly expressive.
+
+III.  _The principle of actions due to the constitution of
+the Nervous System, independently from the first of the Will,
+and independently to a certain extent of Habit_.--- When the sensorium
+is strongly excited, nerve-force is generated in excess,
+and is transmitted in certain definite directions, depending on
+the connection of the nerve-cells, and partly on habit:
+or the supply of nerve-force may, as it appears, be interrupted.
+Effects are thus produced which we recognize as expressive.
+This third principle may, for the sake of brevity, be called
+that of the direct action of the nervous system.
+
+
+With respect to our _first Principle_, it is notorious how
+powerful is the force of habit.  The most complex and difficult
+movements can in time be performed without the least effort
+or consciousness.  It is not positively known how it comes
+that habit is so efficient in facilitating complex movements;
+but physiologists admit[2] "that the conducting power of the nervous
+fibres increases with the frequency of their excitement."
+This applies to the nerves of motion and sensation,
+as well as to those connected with the act of thinking.
+That some physical change is produced in the nerve-cells
+or nerves which are habitually used can hardly be doubted,
+for otherwise it is impossible to understand how the tendency
+to certain acquired movements is inherited.  That they are
+inherited we see with horses in certain transmitted paces,
+such as cantering and ambling, which are not natural to them,--
+in the pointing of young pointers and the setting of young setters--
+in the peculiar manner of flight of certain breeds of the pigeon,
+&c. We have analogous cases with mankind in the inheritance
+of tricks or unusual gestures, to which we shall presently recur.
+To those who admit the gradual evolution of species,
+a most striking instance of the perfection with which the most
+difficult consensual movements can be transmitted, is afforded
+by the humming-bird Sphinx-moth (_Macroglossa_); for this moth,
+shortly after its emergence from the cocoon, as shown by the bloom
+on its unruffled scales, may be seen poised stationary in the air,
+with its long hair-like proboscis uncurled and inserted
+into the minute orifices of flowers; and no one, I believe,
+has ever seen this moth learning to perform its difficult task,
+which requires such unerring aim.
+
+
+[2] Muller, `Elements of Physiology,' Eng.  translat.  vol.  ii.  p.  939.
+See also Mr. H. Spencer's interesting speculations on the
+same subject, and on the genesis of nerves, in his `Principles
+of Biology,' vol.  ii.  p.  346; and in his `Principles of Psychology,'
+2nd edit.  pp.  511-557.
+
+When there exists an inherited or instinctive tendency to the performance
+of an action, or an inherited taste for certain kinds of food,
+some degree of habit in the individual is often or generally requisite.
+We find this in the paces of the horse, and to a certain extent
+in the pointing of dogs; although some young dogs point excellently
+the first time they are taken out, yet they often associate the proper
+inherited attitude with a wrong odour, and even with eyesight.
+I have heard it asserted that if a calf be allowed to suck its mother
+only once, it is much more difficult afterwards to rear it by hand.[3]
+Caterpillars which have been fed on the leaves of one kind of tree,
+have been known to perish from hunger rather than to eat the leaves
+of another tree, although this afforded them their proper food,
+under a state of nature;[4] and so it is in many other cases.
+
+
+[3] A remark to much the same effect was made long ago by Hippocrates
+and by the illustrious Harvey; for both assert that a young animal
+forgets in the course of a few days the art of sucking, and cannot
+without some difficulty again acquire it.  I give these assertions
+on the authority of Dr. Darwin, `Zoonomia,' 1794, vol.  i.  p.  140.
+
+The power of Association is admitted by everyone.  Mr. Bain remarks,
+that "actions, sensations and states of feeling, occurring together
+or in close succession, tend to grow together, or cohere, in such a way
+that when any one of them is afterwards presented to the mind, the others
+are apt to be brought up in idea."[5] It is so important for our purpose
+fully to recognize that actions readily become associated with other actions
+and with various states of the mind, that I will give a good many instances,
+in the first place relating to man, and afterwards to the lower animals.
+Some of the instances are of a very trifling nature, but they are as
+good for our purpose as more important habits.  It is known to everyone
+how difficult, or even impossible it is, without repeated trials, to move
+the limbs in certain opposed directions which have never been practised.
+Analogous cases occur with sensations, as in the common experiment
+of rolling a marble beneath the tips of two crossed fingers, when it
+feels exactly like two marbles.  Everyone protects himself when falling
+to the ground by extending his arms, and as Professor Alison has remarked,
+few can resist acting thus, when voluntarily falling on a soft bed.
+A man when going out of doors puts on his gloves quite unconsciously;
+and this may seem an extremely simple operation, but he who has taught
+a child to put on gloves, knows that this is by no means the case.
+
+
+[4] See for my authorities, and for various analogous facts,
+`The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
+1868, vol.  ii.  p.  304.
+
+[5] `The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit.  1864, p.  332.  Prof. Huxley
+remarks (`Elementary Lessons in Physiology,' 5th edit.  1872, p.
+306), "It may be laid down as a rule, that, if any two mental states be
+called up together, or in succession, with due frequency and vividness,
+the subsequent production of the one of them will suffice to call up
+the other, and that whether we desire it or not."
+
+When our minds are much affected, so are the movements of our bodies;
+but here another principle besides habit, namely the undirected overflow
+of nerve-force, partially comes into play.  Norfolk, in speaking
+of Cardinal Wolsey, says--
+
+"Some strange commotion
+ Is in his brain; he bites his lip and starts;
+ Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground,
+ Then, lays his finger on his temple: straight,
+ Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again,
+ Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he casts
+ His eye against the moon: in most strange postures
+ We have seen him set himself."--_Hen. VIII_., act 3, sc. 2.
+
+
+A vulgar man often scratches his head when perplexed in mind; and I
+believe that he acts thus from habit, as if he experienced a slightly
+uncomfortable bodily sensation, namely, the itching of his head,
+to which he is particularly liable, and which he thus relieves.
+Another man rubs his eyes when perplexed, or gives a little cough
+when embarrassed, acting in either case as if he felt a slightly
+uncomfortable sensation in his eyes or windpipe.[6]
+
+From the continued use of the eyes, these organs are especially
+liable to be acted on through association under various states
+of the mind, although there is manifestly nothing to be seen.
+A man, as Gratiolet remarks, who vehemently rejects
+a proposition, will almost certainly shut his eyes or turn
+away his face; but if he accepts the proposition, he will
+nod his head in affirmation and open his eyes widely.
+The man acts in this latter case as if he clearly saw the thing,
+and in the former case as if he did not or would not see it.
+I have noticed that persons in describing a horrid sight often
+shut their eyes momentarily and firmly, or shake their heads,
+as if not to see or to drive away something disagreeable;
+and I have caught myself, when thinking in the dark of a
+horrid spectacle, closing my eyes firmly.  In looking suddenly
+at any object, or in looking all around, everyone raises
+his eyebrows, so that the eyes may be quickly and widely opened;
+and Duchenne remarks that[7] a person in trying to remember
+something often raises his eyebrows, as if to see it.
+A Hindoo gentleman made exactly the same remark to Mr. Erskine
+in regard to his countrymen.  I noticed a young lady earnestly
+trying to recollect a painter's name, and she first looked
+to one corner of the ceiling and then to the opposite corner,
+arching the one eyebrow on that side; although, of course,
+there was nothing to be seen there.
+
+
+[6] Gratiolet (`De la Physionomie,' p.  324), in his
+discussion on this subject, gives many analogous instances.
+See p.  42, on the opening and shutting of the eyes.
+Engel is quoted (p. 323) on the changed paces of a man,
+as his thoughts change.
+
+In most of the foregoing cases, we can understand how the associated
+movements were acquired through habit; but with some individuals,
+certain strange gestures or tricks have arisen in association with
+certain states of the mind, owing to wholly inexplicable causes,
+and are undoubtedly inherited.  I have elsewhere given one instance
+from my own observation of an extraordinary and complex gesture,
+associated with pleasurable feelings, which was transmitted from
+a father to his daughter, as well as some other analogous facts.[8]
+
+
+[7] `Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 1862, p.  17.
+
+[8] `The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
+vol.  ii.  p.  6.  The inheritance of habitual gestures is so important
+for us, that I gladly avail myself of Mr. F. Galton's permission
+to give in his own words the following remarkable case:--"The
+following account of a habit occurring in individuals of three
+consecutive generations {footnote continues:} is of peculiar interest,
+because it occurs only during sound sleep, and therefore
+cannot be due to imitation, but must be altogether natural.
+The particulars are perfectly trustworthy, for I have enquired
+fully into them, and speak from abundant and independent evidence.
+A gentleman of considerable position was found by his wife to have
+the curious trick, when he lay fast asleep on his back in bed,
+of raising his right arm slowly in front of his face, up to his forehead,
+and then dropping it with a jerk, so that the wrist fell heavily
+on the bridge of his nose.  The trick did not occur every night,
+but occasionally, and was independent of any ascertained cause.
+Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an hour or more.
+The gentleman's nose was prominent, and its bridge often became
+sore from the blows which it received.  At one time an awkward sore
+was produced, that was long in healing, on account of the recurrence,
+night after night, of the blows which first caused it.
+His wife had to remove the button from the wrist of his night-gown
+as it made severe scratches, and some means were attempted
+of tying his arm.
+
+"Many years after his death, his son married a lady who had never
+heard of the family incident.  She, however, observed precisely
+the same peculiarity in her husband; but his nose, from not being
+particularly prominent, has never as yet suffered from the blows.
+The trick does not occur when he is half-asleep, as, for example, when dozing
+in his arm-chair, but the moment he is fast asleep it is apt to begin.
+It is, as with his father, intermittent; sometimes ceasing for many nights,
+and sometimes almost incessant during a part of every night.
+It is performed, as it was by his father, with his right hand.
+
+"One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick.
+She performs it, likewise, with the right hand, but in a slightly
+modified form; for, after raising the arm, she does not allow the wrist
+to drop upon the bridge of the nose, but the palm of the half-closed
+hand falls over and down the nose, striking it rather rapidly.
+It is also very intermittent with this child, not occurring for
+periods of some months, but sometimes occurring almost incessantly."
+{end of long footnote}
+
+
+Another curious instance of an odd inherited movement,
+associated with the wish to obtain an object, will be given
+in the course of this volume.
+
+There are other actions which are commonly performed
+under certain circumstances, independently of habit,
+and which seem to be due to imitation or some sort of sympathy.
+Thus persons cutting anything with a pair of scissors may be seen
+to move their jaws simultaneously with the blades of the scissors.
+Children learning to write often twist about their tongues
+as their fingers move, in a ridiculous fashion.  When a public
+singer suddenly becomes a little hoarse, many of those present may
+be heard, as I have been assured by a gentleman on whom I can rely,
+to clear their throats; but here habit probably comes into play,
+as we clear our own throats under similar circumstances.
+I have also been told that at leaping matches, as the performer
+makes his spring, many of the spectators, generally men and boys,
+move their feet; but here again habit probably comes into play,
+for it is very doubtful whether women would thus act.
+
+_Reflex actions_--Reflex actions, in the strict sense of the term,
+are due to the excitement of a peripheral nerve, which transmits
+its influence to certain nerve-cells, and these in their turn excite
+certain muscles or glands into action; and all this may take place
+without any sensation or consciousness on our part, though often
+thus accompanied.  As many reflex actions are highly expressive,
+the subject must here be noticed at some little length.
+We shall also see that some of them graduate into, and can hardly
+be distinguished from actions which have arisen through habit?
+Coughing and sneezing are familiar instances of reflex actions.
+With infants the first act of respiration is often a sneeze,
+although this requires the co-ordinated movement of numerous muscles.
+Respiration is partly voluntary, but mainly reflex, and is performed
+in the most natural and best manner without the interference of the will.
+A vast number of complex movements are reflex.  As good an instance
+as can be given is the often-quoted one of a decapitated frog,
+which cannot of course feel, and cannot consciously perform, any movement.
+Yet if a drop of acid be placed on the lower surface of the thigh
+of a frog in this state, it will rub off the drop with the upper
+surface of the foot of the same leg.  If this foot be cut off,
+it cannot thus act.  "After some fruitless efforts, therefore, it gives
+up trying in that way, seems restless, as though, says Pfluger,
+it was seeking some other way, and at last it makes use of
+the foot of the other leg and succeeds in rubbing off the acid.
+Notably we have here not merely contractions of muscles, but combined
+and harmonized contractions in due sequence for a special purpose.
+These are actions that have all the appearance of being guided
+by intelligence and instigated by will in an animal, the recognized
+organ of whose intelligence and will has been removed."[10]
+
+
+[9] Prof. Huxley remarks (`Elementary Physiology,'
+5th edit.  p.  305) that reflex actions proper to the spinal cord
+are NATURAL; but, by the help of the brain, that is through habit,
+an infinity of ARTIFICIAL reflex actions may be acquired.
+Virchow admits (`Sammlung wissenschaft.  Vortrage,' &c., "Ueber
+das Ruckeninark," 1871, ss.  24, 31) that some reflex actions
+can hardly be distinguished from instincts; and, of the latter,
+it may be added, some cannot be distinguished from inherited habits.
+
+We see the difference between reflex and voluntary movements in
+very young children not being able to perform, as I am informed by
+Sir Henry Holland, certain acts somewhat analogous to those of sneezing
+and coughing, namely, in their not being able to blow their noses (i. e.
+to compress the nose and blow violently through the passage),
+and in their not being able to clear their throats of phlegm.
+They have to learn to perform these acts, yet they are performed
+by us, when a little older, almost as easily as reflex actions.
+Sneezing and coughing, however, can be controlled by the will only
+partially or not at all; whilst the clearing the throat and blowing
+the nose are completely under our command.
+
+
+[10] "Dr. Maudsley, `Body and Mind,' 1870, p.  8.
+
+When we are conscious of the presence of an irritating particle
+in our nostrils or windpipe--that is, when the same sensory
+nerve-cells are excited, as in the case of sneezing and coughing--
+we can voluntarily expel the particle by forcibly driving air
+through these passages; but we cannot do this with nearly
+the same force, rapidity, and precision, as by a reflex action.
+In this latter case the sensory nerve-cells apparently excite
+the motor nerve-cells without any waste of power by first
+communicating with the cerebral hemispheres--the seat of our
+consciousness and volition.  In all cases there seems to exist
+a profound antagonism between the same movements, as directed
+by the will and by a reflex stimulant, in the force with which they
+are performed and in the facility with which they are excited.
+As Claude Bernard asserts, "L'influence du cerveau tend donc
+a entraver les mouvements reflexes, a limiter leur force
+et leur etendue."[11]
+
+The conscious wish to perform a reflex action sometimes stops or interrupts
+its performance, though the proper sensory nerves may be stimulated.
+For instance, many years ago I laid a small wager with a dozen young
+men that they would not sneeze if they took snuff, although they all
+declared that they invariably did so; accordingly they all took a pinch,
+but from wishing much to succeed, not one sneezed, though their
+eyes watered, and all, without exception, had to pay me the wager.
+Sir H. Holland remarks[12] that attention paid to the act of swallowing
+interferes with the proper movements; from which it probably follows,
+at least in part, that some persons find it so difficult to swallow a pill.
+
+
+[11] "See the very interesting discussion on the whole subject
+by Claude Bernard, `Tissus Vivants,' 1866, p.  353-356.
+
+[12] `Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, p.  85.
+
+Another familiar instance of a reflex action is the involuntary
+closing of the eyelids when the surface of the eye is touched.
+A similar winking movement is caused when a blow is directed
+towards the face; but this is an habitual and not a strictly
+reflex action, as the stimulus is conveyed through the mind
+and not by the excitement of a peripheral nerve.  The whole body
+and head are generally at the same time drawn suddenly backwards.
+These latter movements, however, can be prevented,
+if the danger does not appear to the imagination imminent;
+but our reason telling us that there is no danger does not suffice.
+I may mention a trifling fact, illustrating this point, and which at
+the time amused me.  I put my face close to the thick glass-plate
+in front of a puff-adder in the Zoological Gardens, with the firm
+determination of not starting back if the snake struck at me;
+but, as soon as the blow was struck, my resolution went for nothing,
+and I jumped a yard or two backwards with astonishing rapidity.
+My will and reason were powerless against the imagination of a
+danger which had never been experienced.
+
+The violence of a start seems to depend partly on the
+vividness of the imagination, and partly on the condition,
+either habitual or temporary, of the nervous system.
+He who will attend to the starting of his horse, when tired and fresh,
+will perceive how perfect is the gradation from a mere glance
+at some unexpected object, with a momentary doubt whether it
+is dangerous, to a jump so rapid and violent, that the animal
+probably could not voluntarily whirl round in so rapid a manner.
+The nervous system of a fresh and highly-fed horse sends its
+order to the motory system so quickly, that no time is allowed
+for him to consider whether or not the danger is real.
+After one violent start, when he is excited and the blood
+flows freely through his brain, he is very apt to start again;
+and so it is, as I have noticed, with young infants.
+
+A start from a sudden noise, when the stimulus is conveyed through the
+auditory nerves, is always accompanied in grown-up persons by the winking
+of the eyelids.[13] I observed, however, that though my infants started
+at sudden sounds, when under a fortnight old, they certainly did not always
+wink their eyes, and I believe never did so.  The start of an older infant
+apparently represents a vague catching hold of something to prevent falling.
+I shook a pasteboard box close before the eyes of one of my infants, when 114
+days old, and it did not in the least wink; but when I put a few comfits
+into the box, holding it in the same position as before, and rattled them,
+the child blinked its eyes violently every time, and started a little.
+It was obviously impossible that a carefully-guarded infant could have learnt
+by experience that a rattling sound near its eyes indicated danger to them.
+But such experience will have been slowly gained at a later age during
+a long series of generations; and from what we know of inheritance,
+there is nothing improbable in the transmission of a habit to the offspring
+at an earlier age than that at which it was first acquired by the parents.
+
+From the foregoing remarks it seems probable that some actions,
+which were at first performed consciously, have become
+through habit and association converted into reflex actions,
+and are now so firmly fixed and inherited, that they
+are performed, even when not of the least use,[14] as often
+as the same causes arise, which originally excited them in us
+through the volition.  In such cases the sensory nerve-cells
+excite the motor cells, without first communicating with
+those cells on which our consciousness and volition depend.
+It is probable that sneezing and coughing were originally
+acquired by the habit of expelling, as violently as possible,
+any irritating particle from the sensitive air-passages. As far
+as time is concerned, there has been more than enough for these
+habits to have become innate or converted into reflex actions;
+for they are common to most or all of the higher quadrupeds,
+and must therefore have been first acquired at a very remote period.
+Why the act of clearing the throat is not a reflex action,
+and has to be learnt by our children, I cannot pretend to say;
+but we can see why blowing the nose on a handkerchief has
+to be learnt.
+
+[13] Muller remarks (`Elements of Physiology,' Eng.  tr.  vol.  ii.  p.  1311)
+on starting being always accompanied by the closure of the eyelids.
+
+[14] Dr. Maudsley remarks (`Body and Mind,' p.  10) that "reflex movements
+which commonly effect a useful end may, under the changed circumstances
+of disease, do great mischief, becoming even the occasion of violent
+suffering and of a most painful death."
+
+It is scarcely credible that the movements of a headless frog,
+when it wipes off a drop of acid or other object from its thigh,
+and which movements are so well coordinated for a special purpose,
+were not at first performed voluntarily, being afterwards rendered easy
+through long-continued habit so as at last to be performed unconsciously,
+or independently of the cerebral hemispheres.
+
+So again it appears probable that starting was originally acquired
+by the habit of jumping away as quickly as possible from danger,
+whenever any of our senses gave us warning.  Starting, as we have seen,
+is accompanied by the blinking of the eyelids so as to protect the eyes,
+the most tender and sensitive organs of the body; and it is,
+I believe, always accompanied by a sudden and forcible inspiration,
+which is the natural preparation for any violent effort.  But when a man
+or horse starts, his heart beats wildly against his ribs, and here it
+may be truly said we have an organ which has never been under the control
+of the will, partaking in the general reflex movements of the body.
+To this point, however, I shall return in a future chapter.
+
+The contraction of the iris, when the retina is stimulated
+by a bright light, is another instance of a movement,
+which it appears cannot possibly have been at first voluntarily
+performed and then fixed by habit; for the iris is not known
+to be under the conscious control of the will in any animal.
+In such cases some explanation, quite distinct from habit,
+will have to be discovered.  The radiation of nerve-force
+from strongly-excited nerve-cells to other connected cells,
+as in the case of a bright light on the retina causing
+a sneeze, may perhaps aid us in understanding how some reflex
+actions originated.  A radiation of nerve-force of this kind,
+if it caused a movement tending to lessen the primary irritation,
+as in the case of the contraction of the iris preventing too much
+light from falling on the retina, might afterwards have been
+taken advantage of and modified for this special purpose.
+
+It further deserves notice that reflex actions are in all probability
+liable to slight variations, as are all corporeal structures and instincts;
+and any variations which were beneficial and of sufficient importance,
+would tend to be preserved and inherited.  Thus reflex actions, when once
+gained for one purpose, might afterwards be modified independently
+of the will or habit, so as to serve for some distinct purpose.
+Such cases would be parallel with those which, as we have every
+reason to believe, have occurred with many instincts; for although
+some instincts have been developed simply through long-continued
+and inherited habit, other highly complex ones have been developed
+through the preservation of variations of pre-existing instincts--
+that is, through natural selection.
+
+I have discussed at some little length, though as I am well aware,
+in a very imperfect manner, the acquirement of reflex actions,
+because they are often brought into play in connection with movements
+expressive of our emotions; and it was necessary to show that at least
+some of them might have been Erst acquired through the will in order
+to satisfy a desire, or to relieve a disagreeable sensation.
+
+
+_Associated habitual movements in the lower animals_.--
+I have already given in the case of Man several instances
+of movements associated with various states of the mind or body,
+which are now purposeless, but which were originally of use,
+and are still of use under certain circumstances.  As this subject
+is very important for us, I will here give a considerable number
+of analogous facts, with reference to animals; although many
+of them are of a very trifling nature.  My object is to show that
+certain movements were originally performed for a definite end,
+and that, under nearly the same circumstances, they are still
+pertinaciously performed through habit when not of the least use.
+That the tendency in most of the following cases is inherited,
+we may infer from such actions being performed in the same manner
+by all the individuals, young and old, of he same species.
+We shall also see that they are excited by the most diversified,
+often circuitous, and sometimes mistaken associations.
+
+Dogs, when they wish to go to sleep on a carpet or other hard surface,
+generally turn round and round and scratch the ground with their
+fore-paws in a senseless manner, as if they intended to trample down
+the grass and scoop out a hollow, as no doubt their wild parents did,
+when they lived on open grassy plains or in the woods.  Jackals, fennecs,
+and other allied animals in the Zoological Gardens, treat their straw
+in this manner; but it is a rather odd circumstance that the keepers,
+after observing for some months, have never seen the wolves thus behave.
+A semi-idiotic dog--and an animal in this condition would be particularly
+liable to follow a senseless habit--was observed by a friend to turn
+completely round on a carpet thirteen times before going to sleep.
+
+Many carnivorous animals, as they crawl towards their prey and prepare to rush
+or spring on it, lower their heads and crouch, partly, as it would appear,
+to hide themselves, and partly to get ready for their rush; and this habit
+in an exaggerated form has become hereditary in our pointers and setters.
+Now I have noticed scores of times that when two strange dogs meet on
+an open road, the one which first sees the other, though at the distance
+of one or two hundred yards, after the first glance always lowers its bead,
+generally crouches a little, or even lies down; that is, he takes the proper
+attitude for concealing himself and {illust. caption = for making a rush
+or FIG.  4.--Small dog watching a cat on a spring, although the road table.
+From a photograph taken is quite open and The distance Mr. Rejlander.} great.
+Again, dogs of all kinds when intently watching and slowly approaching
+their prey, frequently keep one of their fore-legs doubled up for a long time,
+ready for the next cautious step; and this is eminently characteristic
+of the pointer.  But from habit they behave in exactly the same manner
+whenever their attention is aroused (fig. 4). I have seen a dog at the foot
+of a high wall, listening attentively to a sound on the opposite side,
+with one leg doubled up; and in this case there could have been no intention
+of making a cautious approach.
+
+Dogs after voiding their excrement often make with all four
+feet a few scratches backwards, even on a bare stone pavement,
+as if for the purpose of covering up their excrement
+with earth, in nearly the same manner as do cats.
+Wolves and jackals behave in the Zoological Gardens in exactly
+the same manner, yet, as I am assured by the keepers,
+neither wolves, jackals, nor foxes, when they have the means
+of doing so, ever cover up their excrement, any more than do dogs.
+All these animals, however, bury superfluous food.  Hence, if we
+rightly understand the meaning of the above cat-like habit,
+of which there can be little doubt, we have a purposeless remnant
+of an habitual movement, which was originally followed by some
+remote progenitor of the dog-genus for a definite purpose,
+and which has been retained for a prodigious length of time.
+
+Dogs and jackals[15] take much pleasure in rolling and
+rubbing their necks and backs on carrion.  The odour seems
+delightful to them, though dogs at least do not eat carrion.
+Mr. Bartlett has observed wolves for me, and has given them carrion,
+but has never seen them roll on it.  I have heard it remarked,
+and I believe it to be true, that the larger dogs, which are
+probably descended from wolves, do not so often roll in carrion
+as do smaller dogs, which are probably descended from jackals.
+When a piece of brown biscuit is offered to a terrier of mine
+and she is not hungry (and I have heard of similar instances),
+she first tosses it about and worries it, as if it were a rat
+or other prey; she then repeatedly rolls on it precisely as if it
+were a piece of carrion, and at last eats it.  It would appear
+that an imaginary relish has to be given to the distasteful morsel;
+and to effect this the dog acts in his habitual manner,
+as if the biscuit was a live animal or smelt like carrion,
+though he knows better than we do that this is not the case.
+I have seen this same terrier act in the same manner after
+killing a little bird or mouse.
+
+
+[15] See Mr. F. H. Salvin's account of a tame jackal in `Land
+and Water,' October, 1869.
+
+Dogs scratch themselves by a rapid movement of one of their hind-feet;
+and when their backs are rubbed with a stick, so strong is the habit,
+that they cannot help rapidly scratching the air or the ground
+in a useless and ludicrous manner.  The terrier just alluded to,
+when thus scratched with a stick, will sometimes show her delight
+by another habitual movement, namely, by licking the air as if it
+were my hand.
+
+Horses scratch themselves by nibbling those parts of their bodies
+which they can reach with their teeth; but more commonly one horse shows
+another where he wants to be scratched, and they then nibble each other.
+A friend whose attention I had called to the subject, observed that
+when he rubbed his horse's neck, the animal protruded his head,
+uncovered his teeth, and moved his jaws, exactly as if nibbling
+another horse's neck, for he could never have nibbled his own neck.
+If a horse is much tickled, as when curry-combed, his wish to bite
+something becomes so intolerably strong, that he will clatter
+his teeth together, and though not vicious, bite his groom.
+At the same time from habit he closely depresses his ears,
+so as to protect them from being bitten, as if he were fighting
+with another horse.
+
+A horse when eager to start on a journey makes the nearest approach
+which he can to the habitual movement of progression by pawing the ground.
+Now when horses in their stalls are about to be fed and are eager
+for their corn, they paw the pavement or the straw.  Two of my horses
+thus behave when they see or hear the corn given to their neighbours.
+But here we have what may almost be called a true expression, as pawing
+the ground is universally recognized as a sign of eagerness.
+
+Cats cover up their excrements of both kinds with earth;
+and my grandfather[17]{sic} saw a kitten scraping ashes over
+a spoonful of pure water spilt on the hearth; so that here
+an habitual or instinctive action was falsely excited, not by
+a previous act or by odour, but by eyesight.  It is well known
+that cats dislike wetting their feet, owing, it is probable,
+to their having aboriginally inhabited the dry country of Egypt;
+and when they wet their feet they shake them violently.
+My daughter poured some water into a glass close to the head
+of a kitten; and it immediately shook its feet in the usual manner;
+so that here we have an habitual movement falsely excited
+by an associated sound instead of by the sense of touch.
+
+Kittens, puppies, young pigs and probably many other young animals,
+alternately push with their forefeet against the mammary
+glands of their mothers, to excite a freer secretion of milk,
+or to make it flow.  Now it is very common with young cats,
+and not at all rare with old cats of the common and Persian breeds
+(believed by some naturalists to be specifically extinct),
+when comfortably lying on a warm shawl or other soft substance,
+to pound it quietly and alternately with their fore-feet;
+their toes being spread out and claws slightly protruded,
+precisely as when sucking their mother.  That it is the same
+movement is clearly shown by their often at the same time
+taking a bit of the shawl into their mouths and sucking it;
+generally closing their eyes and purring from delight.
+This curious movement is commonly excited only in association with
+the sensation of a warm soft surface; but I have seen an old cat,
+when pleased by having its back scratched, pounding the air
+with its feet in the same manner; so that this action has almost
+become the expression of a pleasurable sensation.
+
+
+[16]"Dr. Darwin, `Zoonomia,' 1794, vol.  i.  p.  160.  I find that
+the fact of cats protruding their feet when pleased is also noticed
+(p. 151) in this work.
+
+Having referred to the act of sucking, I may add that this complex movement,
+as well as the alternate protrusion of the fore-feet, are reflex actions;
+for they are performed if a finger moistened with milk is placed
+in the mouth of a puppy, the front part of whose brain has been
+removed.[17] It has recently been stated in France, that the action
+of sucking is excited solely through the sense of smell, so that
+if the olfactory nerves of a puppy are destroyed, it never sucks.
+In like manner the wonderful power which a chicken possesses only a few
+hours after being hatched, of picking up small particles of food,
+seems to be started into action through the sense of hearing;
+for with chickens hatched by artificial heat, a good observer found
+that "making a noise with the finger-nail against a board, in imitation
+of the hen-mother, first taught them to peck at their meat."[18]
+
+
+[17] Carpenter, `Principles of Comparative Physiology,' 1854, p.  690, and
+Muller's `Elements of Physiology,' Eng.  translat.  vol.  ii.  p.  936.
+
+[18] Mowbray on `Poultry,' 6th edit.  1830, p.  54.
+
+I will give only one other instance of an habitual and
+purposeless movement.  The Sheldrake (_Tadorna_) feeds on the sands
+left uncovered by the tide, and when a worm-cast is discovered,
+"it begins patting the ground with its feet, dancing as it were,
+over the hole;" and this makes the worm come to the surface.
+Now Mr. St. John says, that when his tame Sheldrakes "came to ask
+for food, they patted the ground in an impatient and rapid
+manner."[19] This therefore may almost be considered as their
+expression of hunger.  Mr. Bartlett informs me that the Flamingo
+and the Kagu (_Rhinochetus jubatus_) when anxious to be fed,
+beat the ground with their feet in the same odd manner.
+So again Kingfishers, when they catch a fish, always beat
+it until it is killed; and in the Zoological Gardens they
+always beat the raw meat, with which they are sometimes fed,
+before devouring it.
+
+
+We have now, I think, sufficiently shown the truth of our first Principle,
+namely, that when any sensation, desire, dislike, &c., has led during
+a long series of generations to some voluntary movement, then a tendency
+to the performance of a similar movement will almost certainly be excited,
+whenever the same, or any analogous or associated sensation &c., although
+very weak, is experienced; notwithstanding that the movement in this
+case may not be of the least use.  Such habitual movements are often,
+or generally inherited; and they then differ but little from reflex actions.
+When we treat of the special expressions of man, the latter part of our
+first Principle, as given at the commencement of this chapter, will be
+seen to hold good; namely, that when movements, associated through habit
+with certain states of the mind, are partially repressed by the will,
+the strictly involuntary muscles, as well as those which are least
+under the separate control of the will, are liable still to act;
+and their action is often highly expressive.  Conversely, when the will
+is temporarily or permanently weakened, the voluntary muscles fail
+before the involuntary.  It is a fact familiar to pathologists,
+as Sir C. Bell remarks,[20] "that when debility arises from affection
+of the brain, the influence is greatest on those muscles which are,
+in their natural condition, most under the command of the will."
+We shall, also, in our future chapters, consider another proposition
+included in our first Principle; namely, that the checking of one habitual
+movement sometimes requires other slight movements; these latter serving
+as a means of expression.
+
+
+[19] See the account given by this excellent observer in `Wild Sports
+of the Highlands,' 1846, p.  142.
+
+
+[20] `Philosophical Translations,' 1823, p.  182.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION--_continued_.
+
+The Principle of Antithesis--Instances in the dog and cat--
+Origin of the principle--Conventional signs--The principle
+of antithesis has not arisen from opposite actions being
+consciously performed under opposite impulses.
+
+
+WE will now consider our second Principle, that of Antithesis.  Certain states
+of the mind lead, as we have seen in the last chapter, to certain
+habitual movements which were primarily, or may still be, of service;
+and we shall find that when a directly opposite state of mind is induced,
+there is a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements
+of a directly opposite nature, though these have never been of any service.
+A few striking instances of antithesis will be given, when we treat of
+the special expressions of man; but as, in these cases, we are particularly
+liable to confound conventional or artificial gestures and expressions
+with those which are innate or universal, and which alone deserve to rank
+as true expressions, I will in the present chapter almost confine myself
+to the lower animals.
+
+When a dog approaches a strange dog or man in a savage or hostile frame
+of mind be walks upright and very stiffly; his head is slightly raised,
+or not much lowered; the tail is held erect, and quite rigid;
+the hairs bristle, especially along the neck and back; the pricked ears
+are directed forwards, and the eyes have a fixed stare:  (see figs.
+5 and 7). These actions, as will hereafter be explained, follow from the dog's
+intention to attack his enemy, and are thus to a large extent intelligible.
+As he prepares to spring with a savage growl on his enemy, the canine
+teeth are uncovered, and the ears are pressed close backwards on
+the head; but with these latter actions, we are not here concerned.
+Let us now suppose that the dog suddenly discovers that the man
+he is approaching, is not a stranger, but his master; and let it be
+observed how completely and instantaneously his whole bearing is reversed.
+Instead of walking upright, the body sinks downwards or even crouches,
+and is thrown into flexuous movements; his tail, instead of being
+held stiff and upright, is lowered and wagged from side to side;
+his hair instantly becomes smooth; his ears are depressed and drawn
+backwards, but not closely to the head; and his lips hang loosely.
+From the drawing back of the ears, the eyelids become elongated,
+and the eyes no longer appear round and staring.  It should be added
+that the animal is at such times in an excited condition from joy;
+and nerve-force will be generated in excess, which naturally leads
+to action of some kind.  Not one of the above movements, so clearly
+expressive of affection, are of the least direct service to the animal.
+They are explicable, as far as I can see, solely from being in complete
+opposition or antithesis to the attitude and movements which,
+from intelligible causes, are assumed when a dog intends to fight,
+and which consequently are expressive of anger.  I request the reader
+to look at the four accompanying sketches, which have been given in order
+to recall vividly the appearance of a dog under these two states of mind.
+It is, however, not a little difficult to represent affection in a dog,
+whilst caressing his master and wagging his tail, as the essence of
+
+
+<p 52-55> the expression lies in the continuous flexuous movements.
+
+We will now turn to the cat.  When this animal is threatened by a dog,
+it arches its back in a surprising manner, erects its hair,
+opens its mouth and spits.  But we are not here concerned with this
+well-known attitude, expressive of terror combined with anger;
+we are concerned only with that of rage or anger.  This is not often seen,
+but may be observed when two cats are fighting together; and I have
+seen it well exhibited by a savage cat whilst plagued by a boy.
+The attitude is almost exactly the same as that of a tiger disturbed and
+growling over its food, which every one must have beheld in menageries.
+The animal assumes a crouching position, with the body extended;
+and the whole tail, or the tip alone, is lashed or curled from
+side to side.  The hair is not in the least erect.  Thus far,
+the attitude and movements are nearly the same as when the animal is
+prepared to spring on its prey, and when, no doubt, it feels savage.
+But when preparing to fight, there is this difference, that the ears
+are closely pressed backwards; the mouth is partially opened,
+showing the teeth; the fore feet are occasionally struck out with
+protruded claws; and the animal occasionally utters a fierce growl.
+(See figs.  9 and 10.) All, or almost all these actions naturally follow
+(as hereafter to be explained), from the cat's manner and intention
+of attacking its enemy.
+
+Let us now look at a cat in a directly opposite frame of mind,
+whilst feeling affectionate and caressing her master;
+and mark how opposite is her attitude in every respect.
+She now stands upright with her back slightly arched,
+which makes the hair appear rather rough, but it does not bristle;
+her tail, instead of being extended and lashed from side
+to side, is held quite still and perpendicularly upwards;
+her ears are erect and pointed; her mouth is closed;
+and she rubs against her master with a purr instead of a growl.
+Let it further be observed how widely different is the whole
+bearing of an affectionate cat from that of a dog, when with
+his body crouching and flexuous, his tail lowered and wagging,
+and ears depressed, he caresses his master.  This contrast
+in the attitudes and movements of these two carnivorous animals,
+under the same pleased and affectionate frame of mind,
+can be explained, as it appears to me, solely by their movements
+standing in complete antithesis to those which are naturally assumed,
+when these animals feel savage and are prepared either to fight
+or to seize their prey.
+
+In these cases of the dog and cat, there is every reason to believe
+that the gestures both of hostility and affection are innate or inherited;
+for they are almost identically the same in the different races
+of the species, and in all the individuals of the same race,
+both young and old.
+
+I will here give one other instance of antithesis in expression.
+I formerly possessed a large dog, who, like every other dog,
+was much pleased to go out walking.  He showed his pleasure
+by trotting gravely before me with high steps, head much raised,
+moderately erected ears, and tail carried aloft but not stiffly.
+Not far from my house a path branches off to the right, leading to
+the hot-house, which I used often to visit for a few moments, to look
+at my experimental plants.  This was always a great disappointment
+to the dog, as he did not know whether I should continue my walk;
+and the instantaneous and complete change of expression which came
+over him as soon as my body swerved in the least towards the path
+(and I sometimes tried this as an experiment) was laughable.
+His look of dejection was known to every member of the family, and was
+called his _hot-house face_.  This consisted in the head drooping much,
+the whole body sinking a little and remaining motionless; the ears
+and tail falling suddenly down, but the tail was by no means wagged.
+With the falling of the ears and of his great chaps, the eyes
+became much changed in appearance, and I fancied that they looked
+less bright.  His aspect was that of piteous, hopeless dejection;
+and it was, as I have said, laughable, as the cause was so slight.
+Every detail in his attitude was in complete opposition to his former
+joyful yet dignified bearing; and can be explained, as it appears
+to me, in no other way, except through the principle of antithesis.
+Had not the change been so instantaneous, I should have attributed
+it to his lowered spirits affecting, as in the case of man,
+the nervous system and circulation, and consequently the tone of his
+whole muscular frame; and this may have been in part the cause.
+
+
+We will now consider how the principle of antithesis in expression
+has arisen.  With social animals, the power of intercommunication
+between the members of the same community,--and with other species,
+between the opposite sexes, as well as between the young and the old,--
+is of the highest importance to them.  This is generally
+effected by means of the voice, but it is certain that gestures
+and expressions are to a certain extent mutually intelligible.
+Man not only uses inarticulate cries, gestures, and expressions,
+but has invented articulate language; if, indeed, the word INVENTED
+can be applied to a process, completed by innumerable steps,
+half-consciously made.  Any one who has watched monkeys will not doubt
+that they perfectly understand each other's gestures and expression,
+and to a large extent, as Rengger asserts,[1] those of man.
+An animal when going to attack another, or when afraid of another,
+often makes itself appear terrible, by erecting its hair,
+thus increasing the apparent bulk of its body, by showing its teeth,
+or brandishing its horns, or by uttering fierce sounds.
+
+As the power of intercommunication is certainly of high service to
+many animals, there is no _a priori_ improbability in the supposition,
+that gestures manifestly of an opposite nature to those by which certain
+feelings are already expressed, should at first have been voluntarily
+employed under the influence of an opposite state of feeling.
+The fact of the gestures being now innate, would be no valid objection
+to the belief that they were at first intentional; for if practised
+during many generations, they would probably at last be inherited.
+Nevertheless it is more than doubtful, as we shall immediately see,
+whether any of the cases which come under our present head of antithesis,
+have thus originated.
+
+With conventional signs which are not innate, such as those
+used by the deaf and dumb and by savages, the principle of
+opposition or antithesis has been partially brought into play.
+The Cistercian monks thought it sinful to speak, and as they
+could not avoid holding some communication, they invented
+a gesture language, in which the principle of opposition seems
+to have been employed.[2] Dr. Scott, of the Exeter Deaf and
+Dumb Institution, writes to me that "opposites are greatly used
+in teaching the deaf and dumb, who have a lively sense of them."
+Nevertheless I have been surprised how few unequivocal instances
+can be adduced.  This depends partly on all the signs having
+commonly had some natural origin; and partly on the practice
+of the deaf and dumb and of savages to contract their signs as much
+as possible for the sake of rapidity?[3] Hence their natural
+source or origin often becomes doubtful or is completely lost;
+as is likewise the case with articulate language.
+
+
+[1] `Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s.  55.
+
+[2] Mr. Tylor gives an account of the Cistercian gesture-language
+in his `Early History of Mankind' (2nd edit.  1870, p.  40), and makes
+some remarks on the principle of opposition in gestures.
+
+[3] See on this subject Dr. W. R. Scott's interesting work, `The Deaf
+and Dumb,' 2nd edit.  1870, p.  12.  He says, "This contracting
+of natural gestures into much shorter gestures than the natural
+expression requires, is very common amongst the deaf and dumb.
+This contracted gesture is frequently so shortened as nearly to lose
+all semblance of the natural one, but to the deaf and dumb who use it,
+it still has the force of the original expression."
+
+Many signs, moreover, which plainly stand in opposition to each other,
+appear to have had on both sides a significant origin.
+This seems to hold good with the signs used by the deal and dumb
+for light and darkness, for strength and weakness, &c. In a future
+chapter I shall endeavour to show that the opposite gestures of
+affirmation and negation, namely, vertically nodding and laterally
+shaking the head, have both probably had a natural beginning.
+The waving of the hand from right to left, which is used as a negative
+by some savages, may have been invented in imitation of shaking the head;
+but whether the opposite movement of waving the hand in a straight
+line from the face, which is used in affirmation, has arisen through
+antithesis or in some quite distinct manner, is doubtful.
+
+If we now turn to the gestures which are innate or common to all
+the individuals of the same species, and which come under the present
+head of antithesis, it is extremely doubtful, whether any of them
+were at first deliberately invented and consciously performed.
+With mankind the best instance of a gesture standing in direct opposition
+to other movements, naturally assumed under an opposite frame of mind,
+is that of shrugging the shoulders.  This expresses impotence or
+an apology,--something which cannot be done, or cannot be avoided.
+The gesture is sometimes used consciously and voluntarily, but it
+is extremely improbable that it was at first deliberately invented,
+and afterwards fixed by habit; for not only do young children
+sometimes shrug their shoulders under the above states of mind,
+but the movement is accompanied, as will be shown in a future chapter,
+by various subordinate movements, which not one man in a thousand
+is aware of, unless he has specially attended to the subject.
+
+Dogs when approaching a strange dog, may find it useful to show by their
+movements that they are friendly, and do not wish to fight.  When two young
+dogs in play are growling and biting each other's faces and legs, it is
+obvious that they mutually understand each other's gestures and manners.
+There seems, indeed, some degree of instinctive knowledge in puppies
+and kittens, that they must not use their sharp little teeth or claws
+too freely in their play, though this sometimes happens and a squeal
+is the result; otherwise they would often injure each other's eyes.
+When my terrier bites my hand in play, often snarling at the same time,
+if he bites too hard and I say GENTLY, GENTLY, he goes on biting,
+but answers me by a few wags of the tail, which seems to say "Never mind,
+it is all fun."  Although dogs do thus express, and may wish to express,
+to other dogs and to man, that they are in a friendly state of mind,
+it is incredible that they could ever have deliberately thought of drawing
+back and depressing their ears, instead of holding them erect,--of lowering
+and wagging their tails, instead of keeping them stiff and upright,
+&c., because they knew that these movements stood in direct opposition
+to those assumed under an opposite and savage frame of mind.
+
+Again, when a cat, or rather when some early progenitor of the species,
+from feeling affectionate first slightly arched its back, held its
+tail perpendicularly upwards and pricked its ears, can it be believed
+that the animal consciously wished thus to show that its frame
+of mind was directly the reverse of that, when from being ready
+to fight or to spring on its prey, it assumed a crouching attitude,
+curled its tail from side to side and depressed its ears?
+Even still less can I believe that my dog voluntarily put on his
+dejected attitude and "_hot-house face_," which formed so complete
+a contrast to his previous cheerful attitude and whole bearing.
+It cannot be supposed that he knew that I should understand
+his expression, and that he could thus soften my heart and make me
+give up visiting the hot-house.
+
+Hence for the development of the movements which come under
+the present head, some other principle, distinct from the will
+and consciousness, must have intervened.  This principle appears
+to be that every movement which we have voluntarily performed
+throughout our lives has required the action of certain muscles;
+and when we have performed a directly opposite movement,
+an opposite set of muscles has been habitually brought into play,--
+as in turning to the right or to the left, in pushing away or
+pulling an object towards us, and in lifting or lowering a weight.
+So strongly are our intentions and movements associated together,
+that if we eagerly wish an object to move in any direction,
+we can hardly avoid moving our bodies in the same direction,
+although we may be perfectly aware that this can have no influence.
+A good illustration of this fact has already been given in
+the Introduction, namely, in the grotesque movements of a young
+and eager billiard-player, whilst watching the course of his ball.
+A man or child in a passion, if he tells any one in a loud voice
+to begone, generally moves his arm as if to push him away,
+although the offender may not be standing near, and although there
+may be not the least need to explain by a gesture what is meant.
+On the other hand, if we eagerly desire some one to approach
+us closely, we act as if pulling him towards us; and so in
+innumerable other instances.
+
+As the performance of ordinary movements of an opposite kind,
+under opposite impulses of the will, has become habitual in us
+and in the lower animals, so when actions of one kind have become
+firmly associated with any sensation or emotion, it appears natural
+that actions of a directly opposite kind, though of no use,
+should be unconsciously performed through habit and association,
+under the influence of a directly opposite sensation or emotion.
+On this principle alone can I understand how the gestures and expressions
+which come under the present head of antithesis have originated.
+If indeed they are serviceable to man or to any other animal,
+in aid of inarticulate cries or language, they will likewise be
+voluntarily employed, and the habit will thus be strengthened.
+But whether or not of service as a means of communication, the tendency
+to perform opposite movements under opposite sensations or emotions would,
+if we may judge by analogy, become hereditary through long practice;
+and there cannot be a doubt that several expressive movements due
+to the principle of antithesis are inherited.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION--_concluded_.
+
+The principle of direct action of the excited nervous system
+on the body, independently of the will and in part of habit--
+Change of colour in the hair--Trembling of the muscles--
+Modified secretions--Perspiration--Expression of extreme pain--
+Of rage, great joy, and terror--Contrast between the emotions
+which cause and do not cause expressive movements--Exciting and
+depressing states of the mind--Summary.
+
+
+WE now come to our third Principle, namely, that certain actions which we
+recognize as expressive of certain states of the mind, are the direct
+result of the constitution of the nervous system, and have been from
+the first independent of the will, and, to a large extent, of habit.
+When the sensorium is strongly excited nerve-force is generated in excess,
+and is transmitted in certain directions, dependent on the connection
+of the nerve-cells, and, as far as the muscular system is concerned,
+on the nature of the movements which have been habitually practised.
+Or the supply of nerve-force may, as it appears, be interrupted.
+Of course every movement which we make is determined by the constitution
+of the nervous system; but actions performed in obedience to the will,
+or through habit, or through the principle of antithesis, are here
+as far as possible excluded.  Our present subject is very obscure,
+but, from its importance, must be discussed at some little length;
+and it is always advisable to perceive clearly our ignorance.
+
+The most striking case, though a rare and abnormal one,
+which can be adduced of the direct influence of the nervous system,
+when strongly affected, on the body, is the loss of colour in the hair,
+which has occasionally been observed after extreme terror or grief.
+One authentic instance has been recorded, in the case of a man
+brought out for execution in India, in which the change of colour
+was so rapid that it was perceptible to the eye.[1]
+
+Another good case is that of the trembling of the muscles,
+which is common to man and to many, or most, of the lower animals.
+Trembling is of no service, often of much disservice,
+and cannot have been at first acquired through the will,
+and then rendered habitual in association with any emotion.
+I am assured by an eminent authority that young children do
+not tremble, but go into convulsions under the circumstances
+which would induce excessive trembling in adults.  Trembling is
+excited in different individuals in very different degrees.
+and by the most diversified causes,--by cold to the surface,
+before fever-fits, although the temperature of the body is then
+above the normal standard; in blood-poisoning, delirium tremens,
+and other diseases; by general failure of power in old age;
+by exhaustion after excessive fatigue; locally from severe injuries,
+such as burns; and, in an especial manner, by the passage of
+a catheter.  Of all emotions, fear notoriously is the most apt
+to induce trembling; but so do occasionally great anger and joy.
+I remember once seeing a boy who had just shot his first snipe
+on the wing, and his hands
+
+
+[1] See the interesting cases collected by M. G. Pouchet in the `Revue
+des Deux Mondes,' January 1, 1872, p.  79.  An instance was also
+brought some years ago before the British Association at Belfast.
+trembled to such a degree from delight, that he could not for
+some time reload his gun; and I have heard of an exactly similar
+case with an Australian savage, to whom a gun had been lent.
+Fine music, from the vague emotions thus excited,
+causes a shiver to run down the backs of some persons.
+There seems to be very little in common in the above several
+physical causes and emotions to account for trembling;
+and Sir J. Paget, to whom I am indebted for several of the above
+statements, informs me that the subject is a very obscure one.
+As trembling is sometimes caused by rage, long before exhaustion
+can have set in, and as it sometimes accompanies great joy,
+it would appear that any strong excitement of the nervous system
+interrupts the steady flow of nerve-force to the muscles.[2]
+
+The manner in which the secretions of the alimentary canal
+and of certain glands--as the liver, kidneys, or mammae are
+affected by strong emotions, is another excellent instance
+of the direct action of the sensorium on these organs,
+independently of the will or of any serviceable associated habit.
+There is the greatest difference in different persons in the parts
+which are thus affected, and in the degree of their affection.
+
+The heart, which goes on uninterruptedly beating night and day in so
+wonderful a manner, is extremely sensitive to external stimulants.
+The great physiologist, Claude Bernard,[3] has shown bow the least
+excitement of a sensitive nerve reacts on the heart; even when a nerve
+is touched so slightly that no pain can possibly be felt by the animal
+under experiment.  Hence when the mind is strongly excited, we might
+expect that it would instantly affect in a direct manner the heart;
+and this is universally acknowledged and felt to be the case.
+Claude Bernard also repeatedly insists, and this deserves especial notice,
+that when the heart is affected it reacts on the brain; and the state
+of the brain again reacts through the pneumo-gastric nerve on the heart;
+so that under any excitement there will be much mutual action and reaction
+between these, the two most important organs of the body.
+
+
+[2] Muller remarks (`Elements of Physiology,' Eng.  translat.  vol.  ii.  p.
+934) that when the feelings are very intense, "all the spinal nerves become
+affected to the extent of imperfect paralysis, or the excitement of trembling
+of the whole body."
+
+[3] `Lecons sur les Prop.  des Tissus Vivants,' 1866, pp.  457-466.
+
+The vaso-motor system, which regulates the diameter of the
+small arteries, is directly acted on by the sensorium, as we see
+when a man blushes from shame; but in this latter case the checked
+transmission of nerve-force to the vessels of the face can,
+I think, be partly explained in a curious manner through habit.
+We shall also be able to throw some light, though very little,
+on the involuntary erection of the hair under the emotions
+of terror and rage.  The secretion of tears depends, no doubt,
+on the connection of certain nerve-cells; but here again we can
+trace some few of the steps by which the flow of nerve-force through
+the requisite channels has become habitual under certain emotions.
+
+
+A brief consideration of the outward signs of some of the stronger
+sensations and emotions will best serve to show us, although vaguely,
+in how complex a manner the principle under consideration of the direct
+action of the excited nervous system of the body, is combined with
+the principle of habitually associated, serviceable movements.
+
+When animals suffer from an agony of pain, they generally
+writhe about with frightful contortions; and those which
+habitually use their voices utter piercing cries or groans.
+Almost every muscle of the body is brought into strong action.
+With man the mouth may be closely compressed, or more commonly
+the lips are retracted, with the teeth clenched or ground together.
+There is said to be "gnashing of teeth" in hell; and I
+have plainly heard the grinding of the molar teeth of a cow
+which was suffering acutely from inflammation of the bowels.
+The female hippopotamus in the Zoological Gardens, when she
+produced her young, suffered greatly; she incessantly walked about,
+or rolled on her sides, opening and closing her jaws, and clattering
+her teeth together.[4] With man the eyes stare wildly as in
+horrified astonishment, or the brows are heavily contracted.
+Perspiration bathes the body, and drops trickle down the face.
+The circulation and respiration are much affected.
+Hence the nostrils are generally dilated and often quiver; or the
+breath may be held until the blood stagnates in the purple face.
+If the agony be severe and prolonged, these signs all change;
+utter prostration follows, with fainting or convulsions.
+
+A sensitive nerve when irritated transmits some influence to the
+nerve-cell, whence it proceeds; and this transmits its influence,
+first to the corresponding nerve-cell on the opposite side of the body,
+and then upwards and downwards along the cerebro-spinal column
+to other nerve-cells, to a greater or less extent, according to
+the strength of the excitement; so that, ultimately, the whole
+nervous system maybe affected.[5] This involuntary transmission
+of nerve-force may or may not be accompanied by consciousness.
+Why the irritation of a nerve-cell should generate or liberate
+nerve-force is not known; but that this is the case seems to be
+the conclusion arrived at by all the greatest physiologists,
+such as Muller, Virchow, Bernard, &c.[6] As Mr. Herbert Spencer remarks,
+it may be received as an "unquestionable truth that, at any moment,
+the existing quantity of liberated nerve-force, which in an inscrutable
+way produces in us the state we call feeling, MUST expend itself
+in some direction--MUST generate an equivalent manifestation
+of force somewhere;" so that, when the cerebro-spinal system is
+highly excited and nerve-force is liberated in excess, it may be
+expended in intense sensations, active thought, violent movements,
+or increased activity of the glands.[7] Mr. Spencer further maintains
+that an "overflow of nerve-force, undirected by any motive,
+will manifestly take the most habitual routes; and, if these do
+not suffice, will next overflow into the less habitual ones."
+Consequently the facial and respiratory muscles, which are
+the most used, will be apt to be first brought into action;
+then those of the upper extremities, next those of the lower,
+and finally those of the whole body.[8]
+
+
+[4] Mr. Bartlett, "Notes on the Birth of
+a Hippopotamus," Proc.  Zoolog.  Soc.  1871, p.  255.
+
+[5] See, on this subject, Claude Bernard, `Tissus Vivants,' 1866, pp.
+316, 337, 358.  Virchow expresses himself to almost exactly the same
+effect in his essay "Ueber das Ruckenmark" (Sammlung wissenschaft.
+Vortrage, 1871, s.  28).
+
+An emotion may be very strong, but it will have little tendency
+to induce movements of any kind, if it has not commonly led to
+voluntary action for its relief or gratification; and when movements
+are excited, their nature is, to a large extent, determined by those
+which have often and voluntarily been performed for some definite
+end under the same emotion.  Great pain urges all animals, and has
+urged them during endless generations, to make the most violent
+and diversified efforts to escape from the cause of suffering.
+Even when a limb or other separate part of the body is hurt,
+we often see a tendency to shake it, as if to shake off the cause,
+though this may obviously be impossible.  Thus a habit of exerting
+with the utmost force all the muscles will have been established,
+whenever great suffering is experienced.  As the muscles of the chest
+and vocal organs are habitually used, these will be particularly liable
+to be acted on, and loud, harsh screams or cries will be uttered.
+But the advantage derived from outcries has here probably come
+into play in an important manner; for the young of most animals,
+when in distress or danger, call loudly to their parents for aid,
+as do the members of the same community for mutual aid.
+
+
+[6] Muller (`Elements of Physiology,' Eng.  translat.  vol.  ii.  p.  932) in
+speaking of the nerves, says, "any sudden change of condition of whatever kind
+sets the nervous principle into action."  See Virchow and Bernard on the same
+subject in passages in the two works referred to in my last foot-note.
+
+[7] H. Spencer, `Essays, Scientific, Political,' &c., Second Series,
+1863, pp.  109, 111.
+
+[8] Sir H. Holland, in speaking (`Medical Notes and Reflexions,'
+1839, p.  328) of that curious state of body called the _fidgets_,
+remarks that it seems due to "an accumulation of some cause
+of irritation which requires muscular action for its relief."
+
+Another principle, namely, the internal consciousness
+that the power or capacity of the nervous system is limited,
+will have strengthened, though in a subordinate degree,
+the tendency to violent action under extreme suffering.
+A man cannot think deeply and exert his utmost muscular force.
+As Hippocrates long ago observed, if two pains are felt
+at the same time, the severer one dulls the other.
+Martyrs, in the ecstasy of their religious fervour have often,
+as it would appear, been insensible to the most horrid tortures.
+Sailors who are going to be flogged sometimes take a piece of lead
+into their mouths, in order to bite it with their utmost force,
+and thus to bear the pain.  Parturient women prepare to exert
+their muscles to the utmost in order to relieve their sufferings.
+
+We thus see that the undirected radiation of nerve-force from
+the nerve-cells which are first affected--the long-continued habit
+of attempting by struggling to escape from the cause of suffering--
+and the consciousness that voluntary muscular exertion relieves pain,
+have all probably concurred in giving a tendency to the most violent,
+almost convulsive, movements under extreme suffering; and such movements,
+including those of the vocal organs, are universally recognized
+as highly expressive of this condition.
+
+As the mere touching of a sensitive nerve reacts in a direct manner
+on the heart, severe pain will obviously react on it in like manner,
+but far more energetically.  Nevertheless, even in this case,
+we must not overlook the indirect effects of habit on the heart,
+as we shall see when we consider the signs of rage.
+
+When a man suffers from an agony of pain, the perspiration
+often trickles down his face; and I have been assured by a
+veterinary surgeon that he has frequently seen drops falling
+from the belly and running down the inside of the thighs
+of horses, and from the bodies of cattle, when thus suffering.
+He has observed this, when there has been no struggling
+which would account for the perspiration.  The whole body
+of the female hippopotamus, before alluded to, was covered
+with red-coloured perspiration whilst giving birth to her young.
+So it is with extreme fear; the same veterinary has often
+seen horses sweating from this cause; as has Mr. Bartlett
+with the rhinoceros; and with man it is a well-known symptom.
+The cause of perspiration bursting forth in these cases is
+quite obscure; but it is thought by some physiologists to be
+connected with the failing power of the capillary circulation;
+and we know that the vasomotor system, which regulates
+the capillary circulation, is much influenced by the mind.
+With respect to the movements of certain muscles of the face
+under great suffering, as well as from other emotions,
+these will be best considered when we treat of the special
+expressions of man and of the lower animals.
+
+We will now turn to the characteristic symptoms of Rage.  Under this
+powerful emotion the action of the heart is much accelerated,[9]
+or it may be much disturbed.  The face reddens, or it becomes purple
+from the impeded return of the blood, or may turn deadly pale.
+The respiration is laboured, the chest heaves, and the dilated
+nostrils quiver.  The whole body often trembles.  The voice is affected.
+The teeth are clenched or ground together, and the muscular
+system is commonly stimulated to violent, almost frantic action.
+But the gestures of a man in this state usually differ from the purposeless
+writhings and struggles of one suffering from an agony of pain;
+for they represent more or less plainly the act of striking or fighting
+with an enemy.
+
+All these signs of rage are probably in large part, and some of them
+appear to be wholly, due to the direct action of the excited sensorium.
+But animals of all kinds, and their progenitors before them,
+when attacked or threatened by an enemy, have exerted their utmost
+powers in fighting and in defending themselves.  Unless an animal
+does thus act, or has the intention, or at least the desire,
+to attack its enemy, it cannot properly be said to be enraged.
+An inherited habit of muscular exertion will thus have been gained
+in association with rage; and this will directly or indirectly
+affect various organs, in nearly the same manner as does
+great bodily suffering.
+
+
+[9] I am much indebted to Mr. A. H. Garrod for having informed
+me of M. Lorain's work on the pulse, in which a sphygmogram
+of a woman in a rage is given; and this shows much difference
+in the rate and other characters from that of the same woman
+in her ordinary state.
+
+The heart no doubt will likewise be affected in a direct manner;
+but it will also in all probability be affected through habit;
+and all the more so from not being under the control of the will.
+We know that any great exertion which we voluntarily make, affects the heart,
+through mechanical and other principles which need not here be considered;
+and it was shown in the first chapter that nerve-force flows
+readily through habitually used channels,--through the nerves of
+voluntary or involuntary movement, and through those of sensation.
+Thus even a moderate amount of exertion will tend to act on the heart;
+and on the principle of association, of which so many instances have
+been given, we may feel nearly sure that any sensation or emotion,
+as great pain or rage, which has habitually led to much muscular action,
+will immediately influence the flow of nerve-force to the heart,
+although there may not be at the time any muscular exertion.
+
+The heart, as I have said, will be all the more readily affected through
+habitual associations, as it is not under the control of the will.
+A man when moderately angry, or even when enraged, may command the movements
+of his body, but he cannot prevent his heart from beating rapidly.
+His chest will perhaps give a few heaves, and his nostrils just quiver,
+for the movements of respiration are only in part voluntary.
+In like manner those muscles of the face which are least obedient
+to the will, will sometimes alone betray a slight and passing emotion.
+The glands again are wholly independent of the will, and a man suffering
+from grief may command his features, but cannot always prevent
+the tears from coming into his eyes.  A hungry man, if tempting food
+is placed before him, may not show his hunger by any outward gesture,
+but he cannot check the secretion of saliva.
+
+Under a transport of Joy or of vivid Pleasure, there is a strong tendency
+to various purposeless movements, and to the utterance of various sounds.
+We see this in our young children, in their loud laughter, clapping
+of hands, and jumping for joy; in the bounding and barking of a dog
+when going out to walk with his master; and in the frisking of a horse
+when turned out into an open field.  Joy quickens the circulation,
+and this stimulates the brain, which again reacts on the whole body.
+The above purposeless movements and increased heart-action may be
+attributed in chief part to the excited state of the sensorium,[10]
+and to the consequent undirected overflow, as Mr. Herbert Spencer insists,
+of nerve-force. It deserves notice, that it is chiefly the anticipation
+of a pleasure, and not its actual enjoyment, which leads to purposeless and
+extravagant movements of the body, and to the utterance of various sounds.
+We see this in our children when they expect any great pleasure or treat;
+and dogs, which have been bounding about at
+
+
+[10] How powerfully intense joy excites the brain, and how
+the brain reacts on the body, is well shown in the rare cases of
+Psychical Intoxication.  Dr. J. Crichton Browne (`Medical Mirror,'
+1865) records the case of a young man of strongly nervous temperament,
+who, on hearing by a telegram that a fortune had been bequeathed him,
+first became pale, then exhilarated, and soon in the highest spirits,
+but flushed and very restless.  He then took a walk with a friend
+for the sake of tranquillising himself, but returned staggering
+in his gait, uproariously laughing, yet irritable in temper,
+incessantly talking, and singing loudly in the public streets.
+It was positively ascertained that he had not touched any
+spirituous liquor, though every one thought that he was intoxicated.
+Vomiting after a time came on, and the half-digested contents of his
+stomach were examined, but no odour of alcohol could be detected.
+He then slept heavily, and on awaking was well, except that
+he suffered from headache, nausea, and prostration of strength.
+the sight of a plate of food, when they get it do not show their
+delight by any outward sign, not even by wagging their tails.
+Now with animals of all kinds, the acquirement of almost all
+their pleasures, with the exception of those of warmth and rest,
+are associated, and have long been associated with active movements,
+as in the hunting or search for food, and in their courtship.
+Moreover, the mere exertion of the muscles after long rest
+or confinement is in itself a pleasure, as we ourselves feel,
+and as we see in the play of young animals.  Therefore on this
+latter principle alone we might perhaps expect, that vivid pleasure
+would be apt to show itself conversely in muscular movements.
+
+With all or almost all animals, even with birds, Terror causes the body
+to tremble.  The skin becomes pale, sweat breaks out, and the hair bristles.
+The secretions of the alimentary canal and of the kidneys are increased,
+and they are involuntarily voided, owing to the relaxation of the
+sphincter muscles, as is known to be the case with man, and as I have
+seen with cattle, dogs, cats, and monkeys.  The breathing is hurried.
+The heart beats quickly, wildly, and violently; but whether it pumps
+the blood more efficiently through the body may be doubted, for the
+surface seems bloodless and the strength of the muscles soon fails.
+In a frightened horse I have felt through the saddle the beating
+of the heart so plainly that I could have counted the beats.
+The mental faculties are much disturbed.  Utter prostration soon follows,
+and even fainting.  A terrified canary-bird has been seen not only to
+tremble and to turn white about the base of the bill, but to faint;[11]
+and I once caught a robin in a room, which fainted so completely,
+that for a time I thought it dead.
+
+
+[11] Dr. Darwin, `Zoonomia,' 1794, vol.  i.  p.  148.
+
+Most of these symptoms are probably the direct result,
+independently of habit, of the disturbed state of the sensorium;
+but it is doubtful whether they ought to be wholly thus accounted for.
+When an animal is alarmed it almost always stands motionless for a moment,
+in order to collect its senses and to ascertain the source of danger,
+and sometimes for the sake of escaping detection.  But headlong flight
+soon follows, with no husbanding of the strength as in fighting,
+and the animal continues to fly as long as the danger lasts,
+until utter prostration, with failing respiration and circulation,
+with all the muscles quivering and profuse sweating, renders further
+flight impossible.  Hence it does not seem improbable that the principle
+of associated habit may in part account for, or at least augment,
+some of the above-named characteristic symptoms of extreme terror.
+
+
+That the principle of associated habit has played an important part in
+causing the movements expressive of the foregoing several strong emotions
+and sensations, we may, I think, conclude from considering firstly,
+some other strong emotions which do not ordinarily require for their
+relief or gratification any voluntary movement; and secondly the contrast
+in nature between the so-called exciting and depressing states of the mind.
+No emotion is stronger than maternal love; but a mother may feel the deepest
+love for her helpless infant, and yet not show it by any outward sign;
+or only by slight caressing movements, with a gentle smile and tender eyes.
+But let any one intentionally injure her infant, and see what a change!
+how she starts up with threatening aspect, how her eyes sparkle and her
+face reddens, how her bosom heaves, nostrils dilate, and heart beats;
+for anger, and not maternal love, has habitually led to action.
+The love between the opposite sexes is widely different from maternal love;
+and when lovers meet, we know that their hearts beat quickly,
+their breathing is hurried, and their faces flush; for this love is not
+inactive like that of a mother for her infant.
+
+A man may have his mind filled with the blackest hatred or suspicion,
+or be corroded with envy or jealousy, but as these feelings do not at once
+lead to action, and as they commonly last for some time, they are not shown
+by any outward sign, excepting that a man in this state assuredly does
+not appear cheerful or good-tempered. If indeed these feelings break out
+into overt acts, rage takes their place, and will be plainly exhibited.
+Painters can hardly portray suspicion, jealousy, envy, &c., except by the aid
+of accessories which tell the tale; and poets use such vague and fanciful
+expressions as "green-eyed jealousy."  Spenser describes suspicion as
+"Foul, ill-favoured, and grim, under his eyebrows looking still askance,"
+&c.; Shakespeare speaks of envy "as lean-faced in her loathsome case;"
+and in another place he says, "no black envy shall make my grave;"
+and again as "above pale envy's threatening reach."
+
+Emotions and sensations have often been classed as exciting or depressing.
+When all the organs of the body and mind,--those of voluntary and
+involuntary movement, of perception, sensation, thought, &c.,--perform
+their functions more energetically and rapidly than usual, a man or animal
+may be said to be excited, and, under an opposite state, to be depressed.
+Anger and joy are from the first exciting emotions, and they naturally lead,
+more especially the former, to energetic movements, which react on the heart
+and this again on the brain.  A physician once remarked to me as a proof
+of the exciting nature of anger, that a man when excessively jaded
+will sometimes invent imaginary offences and put himself into a passion,
+unconsciously for the sake of reinvigorating himself; and since hearing
+this remark, I have occasionally recognized its full truth.
+
+Several other states of mind appear to be at first exciting,
+but soon become depressing to an extreme degree.  When a mother
+suddenly loses her child, sometimes she is frantic with grief,
+and must be considered to be in an excited state; she walks
+wildly about, tears her hair or clothes, and wrings her hands.
+This latter action is perhaps due to the principle of antithesis,
+betraying an inward sense of helplessness and that nothing can be done.
+The other wild and violent movements may be in part explained
+by the relief experienced through muscular exertion, and in part
+by the undirected overflow of nerve-force from the excited sensorium.
+But under the sudden loss of a beloved person, one of the first
+and commonest thoughts which occurs, is that something more
+might have been done to save the lost one.  An excellent
+observer,[12] in describing the behaviour of a girl at the sudden
+death of her father, says she "went about the house wringing
+her hands like a creature demented, saying `It was her fault;'
+`I should never have left him;' `If I had only sat up with him,'
+" &c. With such ideas vividly present before the mind,
+there would arise, through the principle of associated habit,
+the strongest tendency to energetic action of some kind.
+
+As soon as the sufferer is fully conscious that nothing can be done,
+despair or deep sorrow takes the place of frantic grief.
+The sufferer sits motionless, or gently rocks to and fro;
+the circulation becomes languid; respiration is almost forgotten,
+and deep sighs are drawn.
+
+
+[12] "Mrs. Oliphant, in her novel of `Miss Majoribanks,' p.  362.  All this
+reacts on the brain, and prostration soon follows with collapsed muscles
+and dulled eyes.  As associated habit no longer prompts the sufferer
+to action, he is urged by his friends to voluntary exertion, and not
+to give way to silent, motionless grief.  Exertion stimulates the heart,
+and this reacts on the brain, and aids the mind to bear its heavy load.
+
+Pain, if severe, soon induces extreme depression or prostration;
+but it is at first a stimulant and excites to action, as we see when we
+whip a horse, and as is shown by the horrid tortures inflicted in foreign
+lands on exhausted dray-bullocks, to rouse them to renewed exertion.
+Fear again is the most depressing of all the emotions; and it soon
+induces utter, helpless prostration, as if in consequence of,
+or in association with, the most violent and prolonged attempts to escape
+from the danger, though no such attempts have actually been made.
+Nevertheless, even extreme fear often acts at first as a powerful stimulant.
+A man or animal driven through terror to desperation, is endowed with
+wonderful strength, and is notoriously dangerous in the highest degree.
+
+
+On the whole we may conclude that the principle of the direct
+action of the sensorium on the body, due to the constitution
+of the nervous system, and from the first independent of the will,
+has been highly influential in determining many expressions.
+Good instances are afforded by the trembling of the muscles,
+the sweating of the skin, the modified secretions of the alimentary
+canal and glands, under various emotions and sensations.
+But actions of this kind are often combined with others,
+which follow from our first principle, namely, that actions
+which have often been of direct or indirect service,
+under certain states of the mind, in order to gratify or relieve
+certain sensations, desires, &c., are still performed under
+analogous circumstances through mere habit although of no service.
+We have combinations of this kind, at least in part, in the
+frantic gestures of rage and in the writhings of extreme pain;
+and, perhaps, in the increased action of the heart and of
+the respiratory organs.  Even when these and other emotions
+or sensations are aroused in a very feeble manner, there will
+still be a tendency to similar actions, owing to the force
+of long-associated habit; and those actions which are least
+under voluntary control will generally be longest retained.
+Our second principle of antithesis has likewise occasionally
+come into play.
+
+
+Finally, so many expressive movements can be explained, as I trust
+will be seen in the course of this volume, through the three
+principles which have now been discussed, that we may hope hereafter
+to see all thus explained, or by closely analogous principles.
+It is, however, often impossible to decide how much weight ought
+to be attributed, in each particular case, to one of our principles,
+and how much to another; and very many points in the theory
+of Expression remain inexplicable.  CHAPTER IV.
+
+MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN ANIMALS.
+
+The emission of Sounds--Vocal sounds--Sounds otherwise produced--
+Erection of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &c., under
+the emotions of anger and terror--The drawing back of the ears
+as a preparation for fighting, and as an expression of anger--
+Erection of the ears and raising the head, a sign of attention.
+
+
+IN this and the following chapter I will describe, but only in
+sufficient detail to illustrate my subject, the expressive movements,
+under different states of the mind, of some few well-known animals.
+But before considering them in due succession, it will save much
+useless repetition to discuss certain means of expression common
+to most of them.
+
+_The emission of Sounds_.--With many kinds of animals, man included, the vocal
+organs are efficient in the highest degree as a means of expression.
+We have seen, in the last chapter, that when the sensorium is strongly
+excited, the muscles of the body are generally thrown into violent action;
+and as a consequence, loud sounds are uttered, however silent
+the animal may generally be, and although the sounds may be of no use.
+Hares and rabbits for instance, never, I believe, use their vocal
+organs except in the extremity of suffering; as, when a wounded hare
+is killed by the sportsman, or when a young rabbit is caught by a stoat.
+Cattle and horses suffer great pain in silence; but when this is excessive,
+and especially when associated with terror, they utter fearful sounds.
+I have often recognized, from a distance on the Pampas, the agonized
+death-bellow of the cattle, when caught by the lasso and hamstrung.
+It is said that horses, when attacked by wolves, utter loud and peculiar
+screams of distress.
+
+Involuntary and purposeless contractions of the muscles of the chest
+and glottis, excited in the above manner, may have first given rise
+to the emission of vocal sounds.  But the voice is now largely used
+by many animals for various purposes; and habit seems to have played
+an important part in its employment under other circumstances.
+Naturalists have remarked, I believe with truth, that social animals,
+from habitually using their vocal organs as a means of intercommunication,
+use them on other occasions much more freely than other animals.
+But there are marked exceptions to this rule, for instance, with the rabbit.
+The principle, also, of association, which is so widely extended in its power,
+has likewise played its part.  Hence it follows that the voice, from having
+been habitually employed as a serviceable aid under certain conditions,
+inducing pleasure, pain, rage, &c,, is commonly used whenever the same
+sensations or emotions are excited, under quite different conditions,
+or in a lesser degree.
+
+The sexes of many animals incessantly call for each other during
+the breeding-season; and in not a few cases, the male endeavours
+thus to charm or excite the female.  This, indeed, seems to have
+been the primeval use and means of development of the voice,
+as I have attempted to show in my `Descent of Man.'  Thus the use
+of the vocal organs will have become associated with the anticipation
+of the strongest pleasure which animals are capable of feeling.
+Animals which live in society often call to each other when separated,
+and evidently feel much joy at meeting; as we see with a horse,
+on the return of his companion, for whom he has been neighing.
+The mother calls incessantly for her lost young ones; for instance,
+a cow for her calf; and the young of many animals call for their mothers.
+When a flock of sheep is scattered, the ewes bleat incessantly for
+their lambs, and their mutual pleasure at coming together is manifest.
+Woe betide the man who meddles with the young of the larger and
+fiercer quadrupeds, if they hear the cry of distress from their young.
+Rage leads to the violent exertion of all the muscles, including those
+of the voice; and some animals, when enraged, endeavour to strike
+terror into their enemies by its power and harshness, as the lion
+does by roaring, and the dog by growling.  I infer that their object
+is to strike terror, because the lion at the same time erects
+the hair of its mane, and the dog the hair along its back, and thus
+they make themselves appear as large and terrible as possible.
+Rival males try to excel and challenge each other by their voices,
+and this leads to deadly contests.  Thus the use of the voice will have
+become associated with the emotion of anger, however it may be aroused.
+We have also seen that intense pain, like rage, leads to violent outcries,
+and the exertion of screaming by itself gives some relief; and thus
+the use of the voice will have become associated with suffering
+of any kind.
+
+The cause of widely different sounds being uttered under different
+emotions and sensations is a very obscure subject.  Nor does
+the rule always hold good that there is any marked difference.
+For instance with the dog, the bark of anger and that of joy
+do not differ much, though they can be distinguished.
+It is not probable that any precise explanation of the cause
+or source of each particular sound, under different states
+of the mind, will ever be given.  We now that some animals,
+after being domesticated, have acquired the habit of uttering
+sounds which were not natural to them.[1] Thus domestic dogs,
+and even tamed jackals, have learnt to bark, which is a noise
+not proper to any species of the genus, with the exception
+of the _Canis latrans_ of North America, which is said to bark.
+Some breeds, also, of the domestic pigeon have learnt to coo
+in a new and quite peculiar manner.
+
+The character of the human voice, under the influence of
+various emotions, has been discussed by Mr. Herbert Spencer[2]
+in his interesting essay on Music.  He clearly shows that the voice
+alters much under different conditions, in loudness and in quality,
+that is, in resonance and _timbre_, in pitch and intervals.
+No one can listen to an eloquent orator or preacher, or to a man
+calling angrily to another, or to one expressing astonishment,
+without being struck with the truth of Mr. Spencer's remarks.
+It is curious how early in life the modulation of the voice
+becomes expressive.  With one of my children, under the age
+of two years, I clearly perceived that his humph of assent was
+rendered by a slight modulation strongly emphatic; and that by a
+peculiar whine his negative expressed obstinate determination.
+Mr. Spencer further shows that emotional speech, in all the above
+respects is intimately related to vocal music, and consequently
+to instrumental music; and he attempts to explain the characteristic
+qualities of both on physiological grounds--namely, on "the
+general law that a feeling is a stimulus to muscular action."
+It may be admitted that the voice is affected through this law;
+but the explanation appears to me too general and vague to throw much
+light on the various differences, with the exception of that of loudness,
+between ordinary speech and emotional speech, or singing.
+
+
+[1] See the evidence on this head in my `Variation of Animals
+and Plants under Domestication,' vol.  i.  p.  27.  On the cooing
+of pigeons, vol.  i.  pp.  154, 155.
+
+[2] `Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' 1858.
+`The Origin and Function of Music,' p.  359.
+
+This remark holds good, whether we believe that the various
+qualities of the voice originated in speaking under the excitement
+of strong feelings, and that these qualities have subsequently been
+transferred to vocal music; or whether we believe, as I maintain,
+that the habit of uttering musical sounds was first developed,
+as a means of courtship, in the early progenitors of man,
+and thus became associated with the strongest emotions of which
+they were capable,--namely, ardent love, rivalry and triumph.
+That animals utter musical notes is familiar to every one, as we
+may daily hear in the singing of birds.  It is a more remarkable
+fact that an ape, one of the Gibbons, produces an exact octave
+of musical sounds, ascending and descending the scale by halftones;
+so that this monkey "alone of brute mammals may be said to
+sing."[3] From this fact, and from the analogy of other animals,
+I have been led to infer that the progenitors of man probably
+uttered musical tones, before they had acquired the power
+of articulate speech; and that consequently, when the voice
+is used under any strong emotion, it tends to assume,
+through the principle of association, a musical character.
+We can plainly perceive, with some of the lower animals,
+that the males employ their voices to please the females,
+and that they themselves take pleasure in their own vocal utterances;
+but why particular sounds are uttered, and why these give
+pleasure cannot at present be explained.
+
+
+[3] `The Descent of Man,' 1870, vol.  ii.  p.  332.  The words
+quoted are from Professor Owen.  It has lately been shown
+that some quadrupeds much lower in the scale than monkeys,
+namely Rodents, are able to produce correct musical tones:
+see the account of a singing Hesperomys, by the Rev. S. Lockwood,
+in the `American Naturalist,' vol.  v.  December, 1871, p.  761.
+
+That the pitch of the voice bears some relation to certain states of
+feeling is tolerably clear.  A person gently complaining of ill-treatment,
+or slightly suffering, almost always speaks in a high-pitched voice.
+Dogs, when a little impatient, often make a high piping note through
+their noses, which at once strikes us as plaintive;[4] but how
+difficult it is to know whether the sound is essentially plaintive,
+or only appears so in this particular case, from our having learnt
+by experience what it means!  Rengger, states[5] that the monkeys
+(_Cebus azaroe_), which he kept in Paraguay, expressed astonishment
+by a half-piping, half-snarling noise; anger or impatience,
+by repeating the sound _hu hu_ in a deeper, grunting voice;
+and fright or pain, by shrill screams.  On the other hand, with mankind,
+deep groans and high piercing screams equally express an agony of pain.
+Laughter maybe either high or low; so that, with adult men, as Haller
+long ago remarked,[6] the sound partakes of the character of the vowels
+(as pronounced in German) _O_ and _A_; whilst with children and women,
+it has more of the character of _E_ and _I_; and these latter vowel-sounds
+naturally have, as Helmholtz has shown, a higher pitch than the former;
+yet both tones of laughter equally express enjoyment or amusement.
+
+In considering the mode in which vocal utterances express emotion,
+we are naturally led to inquire into the cause of what is called
+"expression" in music.  Upon this point Mr. Litchfield, who has long
+attended to the subject of music, has been so kind as to give me
+the following remarks:--"The question, what is the essence of musical
+`expression' involves a number of obscure points, which, so far as I
+am aware, are as yet unsolved enigmas.  Up to a certain point, however,
+any law which is found to hold as to the expression of the emotions
+by simple sounds must apply to the more developed mode of expression
+in song, which may be taken as the primary type of all music.
+A great part of the emotional effect of a song depends on
+the character of the action by which the sounds are produced.
+In songs, for instance, which express great vehemence of passion,
+the effect often chiefly depends on the forcible utterance of some one
+or two characteristic passages which demand great exertion of vocal force;
+and it will be frequently noticed that a song of this character
+fails of its proper effect when sung by a voice of sufficient power
+and range to give the characteristic passages without much exertion.
+This is, no doubt, the secret of the loss of effect so often
+produced by the transposition of a song from one key to another.
+The effect is thus seen to depend not merely on the actual sounds,
+but also in part on the nature of the action which produces the sounds.
+Indeed it is obvious that whenever we feel the `expression'
+of a song to be due to its quickness or slowness of movement--
+to smoothness of flow, loudness of utterance, and so on--we are,
+in fact, interpreting the muscular actions which produce sound,
+in the same way in which we interpret muscular action generally.
+But this leaves unexplained the more subtle and more specific
+effect which we call the MUSICAL expression of the song--
+the delight given by its melody, or even by the separate sounds
+which make up the melody.  This is an effect indefinable in language--
+one which, so far as I am aware, no one has been able to analyse,
+and which the ingenious speculation of Mr. Herbert Spencer as to
+the origin of music leaves quite unexplained.  For it is certain
+that the MELODIC effect of a series of sounds does not depend in
+the least on their loudness or softness, or on their ABSOLUTE pitch.
+A tune is always the same tune, whether it is sung loudly or softly,
+by a child or a man; whether it is played on a flute or on a trombone.
+The purely musical effect of any sound depends on its place
+in what is technically called a `scale;' the same sound producing
+absolutely different effects on the ear, according as it is heard
+in connection with one or another series of sounds.
+
+
+[4] Mr. Tylor (`Primitive Culture,' 1871, vol.  i.  p.  166), in his
+discussion on this subject, alludes to the whining of the dog.
+
+[5] `Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s.  46.
+
+[6] Quoted by Gratiolet, `De la Physionomie,' 1865, p.  115.
+
+"It is on this RELATIVE association of the sounds that all the
+essentially characteristic effects which are summed up in the phrase
+`musical expression,' depend.  But why certain associations of
+sounds have such-and-such effects, is a problem which yet remains
+to be solved.  These effects must indeed, in some way or other,
+be connected with the well-known arithmetical relations between
+the rates of vibration of the sounds which form a musical scale.
+And it is possible--but this is merely a suggestion--that the greater
+or less mechanical facility with which the vibrating apparatus
+of the human larynx passes from one state of vibration to another,
+may have been a primary cause of the greater or less pleasure
+produced by various sequences of sounds."
+
+But leaving aside these complex questions and confining ourselves
+to the simpler sounds, we can, at least, see some reasons for the
+association of certain kinds of sounds with certain states of mind.
+A scream, for instance, uttered by a young animal, or by one of
+the members of a community, as a call for assistance, will naturally
+be loud, prolonged, and high, so as to penetrate to a distance.
+For Helmholtz has shown[7] that, owing to the shape of the internal
+cavity of the human ear and its consequent power of resonance,
+high notes produce a particularly strong impression.  When male
+animals utter sounds in order to please the females, they would
+naturally employ those which are sweet to the ears of the species;
+and it appears that the same sounds are often pleasing to widely
+different animals, owing to the similarity of their nervous systems,
+as we ourselves perceive in the singing of birds and even
+in the chirping of certain tree-frogs giving us pleasure.
+On the other hand, sounds produced in order to strike terror
+into an enemy, would naturally be harsh or displeasing.
+
+Whether the principle of antithesis has come into play
+with sounds, as might perhaps have been expected, is doubtful.
+The interrupted, laughing or tittering sounds made by man and by
+various kinds of monkeys when pleased, are as different as possible
+from the prolonged screams of these animals when distressed.
+The deep grunt of satisfaction uttered by a pig, when pleased with
+its food, is widely different from its harsh scream of pain or terror.
+But with the dog, as lately remarked, the bark of anger and that of
+joy are sounds which by no means stand in opposition to each other;
+and so it is in some other cases.
+
+There is another obscure point, namely, whether the sounds which are
+produced under various states of the mind determine the shape of the mouth,
+or whether its shape is not determined by independent causes, and the sound
+thus modified.  When young infants cry they open their mouths widely,
+and this, no doubt, is necessary for pouring forth a full volume of sound;
+but the mouth then assumes, from a quite distinct cause, an almost
+quadrangular shape, depending, as will hereafter be explained, on the firm
+closing of the eyelids, and consequent drawing up of the upper lip.
+How far this square shape of the mouth modifies the wailing or crying sound,
+I am not prepared to say; but we know from the researches of Helmholtz
+and others that the form of the cavity of the mouth and lips determines
+the nature and pitch of the vowel sounds which are produced.
+
+
+[7] `Theorie Physiologique de la Musique,' Paris, 1868, P. 146.
+Helmholtz has also fully discussed in this profound work the relation
+of the form of the cavity of the mouth to the production of vowel-sounds.
+
+It will also be shown in a future chapter that, under the feeling
+of contempt or disgust, there is a tendency, from intelligible causes,
+to blow out of the mouth or nostrils, and this produces sounds
+like pooh or pish.  When any one is startled or suddenly astonished,
+there is an instantaneous tendency, likewise from an intelligible cause,
+namely, to be ready for prolonged exertion, to open the mouth widely,
+so as to draw a deep and rapid inspiration.  When the next full
+expiration follows, the mouth is slightly closed, and the lips,
+from causes hereafter to be discussed, are somewhat protruded;
+and this form of the mouth, if the voice be at all exerted, produces,
+according to Helmholtz, the sound of the vowel _O_.  Certainly a
+deep sound of a prolonged _Oh!_ may be heard from a whole crowd
+of people immediately after witnessing any astonishing spectacle.
+If, together with surprise, pain be felt, there is a tendency to
+contract all the muscles of the body, including those of the face,
+and the lips will then be drawn back; and this will perhaps account
+for the sound becoming higher and assuming the character of _Ah!_
+or _Ach!_ As fear causes all the muscles of the body to tremble,
+the voice naturally becomes tremulous, and at the same time husky
+from the dryness of the mouth, owing to the salivary glands failing
+to act.  Why the laughter of man and the tittering of monkeys
+should be a rapidly reiterated sound, cannot be explained.
+During the utterance of these sounds, the mouth is transversely
+elongated by the corners being drawn backwards and upwards;
+and of this fact an explanation will be attempted in a future chapter.
+But the whole subject of the differences of the sounds produced under
+different states of the mind is so obscure, that I have succeeded
+in throwing hardly any light on it; and the remarks which I have made,
+have but little significance.
+
+
+All the sounds hitherto noticed depend on the respiratory organs;
+but sounds produced by wholly different means are likewise expressive.
+Rabbits stamp loudly on the ground as a signal to their comrades;
+and if a man knows how to do so properly, he may on a quiet
+evening hear the rabbits answering him all around.  These animals,
+as well as some others, also stamp on the ground when made angry.
+Porcupines rattle their quills and vibrate their tails when angered; and one
+behaved in this manner when a live snake was placed in its compartment.
+The tail of the quills on the tail are very different from those on the body:
+they are short, hollow, thin like a goose-quill, with their ends
+transversely truncated, so that they are open; they are supported
+on long, thin, elastic foot-stalks. Now, when the tail is rapidly shaken,
+these hollow quills strike against each other and produce, as I heard in
+the presence of Mr. Bartlett, a peculiar continuous sound.  We can, I think,
+understand why porcupines have been provided, through the modification
+of their protective spines, with this special sound-producing instrument.
+They are nocturnal animals, and if they scented or heard a prowling
+beast of prey, it would be a great advantage to them in the dark to give
+warning to their enemy what they were, and that they were furnished
+with dangerous spines.  They would thus escape being attacked.
+They are, as I may add, so fully conscious of the power of their weapons,
+that when enraged they will charge backwards with their spines erected,
+yet still inclined backwards.
+
+Many birds during their courtship produce diversified sounds
+by means of specially adapted feathers.  Storks, when excited,
+make a loud clattering noise with their beaks.  Some snakes produce
+a grating or rattling noise.  Many insects stridulate by rubbing
+together specially modified parts of their hard integuments.
+This stridulation generally serves as a sexual charm or call; but it
+is likewise used to express different emotions.[8] Every one who has
+attended to bees knows that their humming changes when they are angry;
+and this serves as a warning that there is danger of being stung.
+I have made these few remarks because some writers have laid so much
+stress on the vocal and respiratory organs as having been specially
+adapted for expression, that it was advisable to show that sounds
+otherwise produced serve equally well for the same purpose.
+
+_Erection of the dermal appendages_.--Hardly any expressive
+movement is so general as the involuntary erection of the hairs,
+feathers and other dermal appendages; for it is common throughout
+three of the great vertebrate classes.  These appendages are
+erected under the excitement of anger or terror; more especially
+when these emotions are combined, or quickly succeed each other.
+The action serves to make the animal appear larger and more
+frightful to its enemies or rivals, and is generally accompanied
+by various voluntary movements adapted for the same purpose,
+and by the utterance of savage sounds.  Mr. Bartlett,
+who has had such wide experience with animals of all kinds,
+does not doubt that this is the case; but it is a different
+question whether the power of erection was primarily acquired
+for this special purpose.
+
+
+[8] I have given some details on this subject in my `Descent
+of Man,' vol.  i.  pp.  352, 384.
+
+I will first give a considerable body of facts showing
+how general this action is with mammals, birds and reptiles;
+retaining what I have to say in regard to man for a future chapter.
+Mr. Sutton, the intelligent keeper in the Zoological Gardens,
+carefully observed for me the Chimpanzee and Orang; and he states
+that when they are suddenly frightened, as by a thunderstorm, or when
+they are made angry, as by being teased, their hair becomes erect.
+I saw a chimpanzee who was alarmed at the sight of a black coalheaver,
+and the hair rose all over his body; he made little starts forward
+as if to attack the man, without any real intention of doing so,
+but with the hope, as the keeper remarked, of frightening him.
+The Gorilla, when enraged, is described by Mr. Ford[9]
+as having his crest of hair "erect and projecting forward,
+his nostrils dilated, and his under lip thrown down; at the same
+time uttering his characteristic yell, designed, it would seem,
+to terrify his antagonists."  I saw the hair on the Anubis baboon,
+when angered bristling along the back, from the neck to
+the loins, but not on the rump or other parts of the body.
+I took a stuffed snake into the monkey-house, and the hair on several
+of the species instantly became erect; especially on their tails,
+as I particularly noticed with the _Cereopithecus nictitans_.
+Brehm states[10] that the _Midas aedipus_ (belonging to
+the American division) when excited erects its mane, in order,
+as he adds, to make itself as frightful as possible.
+
+
+[9] As quoted in Huxley's `Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature,'
+1863, p.  52.
+
+With the Carnivora the erection of the hair seems to be
+almost universal, often accompanied by threatening movements,
+the uncovering of the teeth and the utterance of savage growls.
+In the Herpestes, I have seen the hair on end over nearly the whole body,
+including the tail; and the dorsal crest is erected in a conspicuous
+manner by the Hyaena and Proteles.  The enraged lion erects his mane.
+The bristling of the hair along the neck and back of the dog,
+and over the whole body of the cat, especially on the tail,
+is familiar to every one.  With the cat it apparently occurs
+only under fear; with the dog, under anger and fear; but not,
+as far as I have observed, under abject fear, as when a dog
+is going to be flogged by a severe gamekeeper.  If, however,
+the dog shows fight, as sometimes happens, up goes his hair.
+I have often noticed that the hair of a dog is particularly liable
+to rise, if he is half angry and half afraid, as on beholding
+some object only indistinctly seen in the dusk.
+
+I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon that he has often seen the hair
+erected on horses and cattle, on which he had operated and was again going
+to operate.  When I showed a stuffed snake to a Peccary, the hair rose in a
+wonderful manner along its back; and so it does with the boar when enraged.
+An Elk which gored a man to death in the United States, is described
+as first brandishing his antlers, squealing with rage and stamping
+on the ground; "at length his hair was seen to rise and stand on end,"
+and then he plunged forward to the attack.[11] The hair likewise becomes
+erect on goats, and, as I hear from Mr. Blyth, on some Indian antelopes.
+I have seen it erected on the hairy Ant-eater; and on the Agouti, one of
+the Rodents.  A female Bat,[12] which reared her young under confinement,
+when any one looked into the cage "erected the fur on her back, and bit
+viciously at intruding fingers."
+
+
+[10] Illust.  Thierleben, 1864, B. i.  s.  130.
+
+Birds belonging to all the chief Orders ruffle their feathers
+when angry or frightened.  Every one must have seen two cocks,
+even quite young birds, preparing to fight with erected neck-hackles;
+nor can these feathers when erected serve as a means of defence,
+for cock-fighters have found by experience that it is
+advantageous to trim them.  The male Ruff (_Machetes pugnax_)
+likewise erects its collar of feathers when fighting.
+When a dog approaches a common hen with her chickens, she spreads
+out her wings, raises her tail, ruffles all her feathers,
+and looking as ferocious as possible, dashes at the intruder.
+The tail is not always held in exactly the same position;
+it is sometimes so much erected, that the central feathers, as in
+the accompanying drawing, almost touch the back.  Swans, when angered,
+likewise raise their wings and tail, and erect their feathers.
+They open their beaks, and make by paddling little rapid starts forwards,
+against any one who approaches the water's edge too closely.
+Tropic birds[13] when disturbed on their nests are said not to
+fly away, but "merely to stick out their feathers and scream."
+The Barn-owl, when approached "instantly swells out its plumage,
+extends its wings and tail, hisses and clacks its mandibles
+with force and rapidity."[14] So do other kinds of owls.
+Hawks, as I am
+
+
+[11] The Hon. J. Caton, Ottawa Acad.  of Nat.  Sciences, May, 1868, pp.
+36, 40.  For the _Capra, AEgagrus_, `Land and Water,' 1867, p.  37.
+
+[12] `Land and Water,' July 20, 1867, p.  659.
+
+[13] _Phaeton rubricauda_:  `Ibis,' vol.  iii.  1861, p.  180.
+
+
+{illust. caption = FIG.  12--Hen driving away a dog from her chickens.
+Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.  informed by Mr. Jenner Weir,
+likewise ruffle their feathers, and spread out their wings and tail
+under similar circumstances.  Some kinds of parrots erect their feathers;
+and I have seen this action in the Cassowary, when angered at the sight
+of an Ant-eater. Young cuckoos in the nest, raise their feathers,
+open their mouths widely, and make themselves as frightful as possible.
+[14] On the _Strix flammea_, Audubon, `Ornithological Biography,'
+1864, vol.  ii.  p.  407.  I have observed other cases in the
+Zoological Gardens.Small birds, also, as I hear from Mr. Weir,
+such as various finches, buntings and warblers, when angry,
+{illust. caption = FIG.  13.--Swan driving away an intruder.
+Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.}
+
+
+ruffle all their feathers, or only those round the neck; or they spread
+out their wings and tail-feathers. With their plumage in this state,
+they rush at each other with open beaks and threatening gestures.
+Mr. Weir concludes from his large experience that the erection
+of the feathers is caused much more by anger than by fear.
+He gives as an instance a hybrid goldfinch of a most irascible
+disposition, which when approached too closely by a servant,
+instantly assumes the appearance of a ball of ruffled feathers.
+He believes that birds when frightened, as a general rule,
+closely adpress all their feathers, and their consequently diminished
+size is often astonishing.  As soon as they recover from their fear
+or surprise, the first thing which they do is to shake out their feathers.
+The best instances of this adpression of the feathers and apparent
+shrinking of the body from fear, which Mr. Weir has noticed, has been
+in the quail and grass-parrakeet.[15] The habit is intelligible
+in these birds from their being accustomed, when in danger,
+either to squat on the ground or to sit motionless on a branch,
+so as to escape detection.  Though, with birds, anger may be the chief
+and commonest cause of the erection of the feathers, it is probable
+that young cuckoos when looked at in the nest, and a hen with her
+chickens when approached by a dog, feel at least some terror.
+Mr. Tegetmeier informs me that with game-cocks, the erection of
+the feathers on the head has long been recognized in the cock-pit
+as a sign of cowardice.
+
+The males of some lizards, when fighting together during their courtship,
+expand their throat pouches or frills, and erect their dorsal crests.[16]
+But Dr. Gunther does not believe that they can erect their separate
+spines or scales.
+
+We thus see how generally throughout the two higher vertebrate
+classes, and with some reptiles, the dermal appendages are
+erected under the influence of anger and fear.  The movement
+is effected, as we know from Kolliker's interesting discovery,
+by the contraction of minute, unstriped, involuntary muscles,[17]
+often called _arrectores pili_, which are attached to the capsules
+of the separate hairs, feathers, &c. By the contraction of these
+muscles the hairs can be instantly erected, as we see in a dog,
+being at the same time drawn a little out of their sockets;
+they are afterwards quickly depressed.  The vast number of these minute
+muscles over the whole body of a hairy quadruped is astonishing.
+The erection of the hair is, however, aided in some cases,
+as with that on the head of a man, by the striped and voluntary
+muscles of the underlying _panniculus carnosus_.  It is by the action
+of these latter muscles, that the hedgehog erects its spines.
+It appears, also, from the researches of Leydig[18] and others,
+that striped fibres extend from the panniculus to some of
+the larger hairs, such as the vibrissae of certain quadrupeds.
+The _arrectores pili_ contract not only under the above emotions,
+but from the application of cold to the surface.  I remember
+that my mules and dogs, brought from a lower and warmer country,
+after spending a night on the bleak Cordillera, had the hair
+all over their bodies as erect as under the greatest terror.
+We see the same action in our own _goose-skin_ during the chill
+before a fever-fit. Mr. Lister has also found,[19] that tickling
+a neighbouring part of the skin causes the erection and protrusion
+of the hairs.
+
+
+[15] _Melopsittacus undulatus_.  See an account of its habits
+by Gould, `Handbook of Birds of Australia,' 1865, vol.  ii.  p.  82.
+
+[16] See, for instance, the account which I have given
+(`Descent of Man,' vol.  ii.  p.  32) of an Anolis and Draco.
+
+[17] These muscles are described in his well-known works.
+I am greatly indebted to this distinguished observer for having
+given me in a letter information on this same subject.
+
+From these facts it is manifest that the erection of the dermal
+appendages is a reflex action, independent of the will;
+and this action must be looked at, when, occurring under
+the influence of anger or fear, not as a power acquired
+for the sake of some advantage, but as an incidental result,
+at least to a large extent, of the sensorium being affected.
+The result, in as far as it is incidental, may be compared
+with the profuse sweating from an agony of pain or terror.
+Nevertheless, it is remarkable how slight an excitement
+often suffices to cause the hair to become erect;
+as when two dogs pretend to fight together in play.
+We have, also, seen in a large number of animals, belonging to
+widely distinct classes, that the erection of the hair or feathers
+is almost always accompanied by various voluntary movements--
+by threatening gestures, opening the mouth, uncovering the teeth,
+spreading out of the wings and tail by birds, and by the
+utterance of harsh sounds; and the purpose of these voluntary
+movements is unmistakable.  Therefore it seems hardly credible
+that the co-ordinated erection of the dermal appendages,
+by which the animal is made to appear larger and more terrible
+to its enemies or rivals, should be altogether an incidental
+and purposeless result of the disturbance of the sensorium.
+This seems almost as incredible as that the erection by
+the hedgehog of its spines, or of the quills by the porcupine,
+or of the ornamental plumes by many birds during their courtship.
+should all be purposeless actions.
+
+
+[18] `Lehrbuch der Histologie des Menschen,' 1857, s.  82.  I owe
+to Prof. W. Turner's kindness an extract from this work.
+
+[19] `Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,' 1853, vol.  i.  p.  262.
+
+We here encounter a great difficulty.  How can the contraction of
+the unstriped and involuntary _arrectores pili_ have been co-ordinated
+with that of various voluntary muscles for the same special purpose?
+If we could believe that the arrectores primordially had been
+voluntary muscles, and had since lost their stripes and become involuntary,
+the case would be comparatively simple.  I am not, however, aware that
+there is any evidence in favour of this view; although the reversed
+transition would not have presented any great difficulty,
+as the voluntary muscles are in an unstriped condition in the embryos
+of the higher animals, and in the larvae of some crustaceans.
+Moreover in the deeper layers of the skin of adult birds, the muscular
+network is, according to Leydig,[20] in a transitional condition;
+the fibres exhibiting only indications of transverse striation.
+
+Another explanation seems possible.  We may admit that originally
+the _arrectores pili_ were slightly acted on in a direct manner,
+under the influence of rage and terror, by the disturbance
+of the nervous system; as is undoubtedly the case with our
+so-called _goose-skin_ before a fever-fit. Animals have been
+repeatedly excited by rage and terror during many generations;
+and consequently the direct effects of the disturbed nervous
+system on the dermal appendages will almost certainly
+have been increased through habit and through the tendency
+of nerve-force to pass readily along accustomed channels.
+We shall find this view of the force of habit strikingly
+confirmed in a future chapter, where it will be shown that
+the hair of the insane is affected in an extraordinary manner,
+owing to their repeated accesses of fury and terror.
+As soon as with animals the power of erection had thus been
+strengthened or increased, they must often have seen the hairs
+or feathers erected in rival and enraged males, and the bulk
+of their bodies thus increased.  In this case it appears possible
+that they might have wished to make themselves appear larger
+and more terrible to their enemies, by voluntarily assuming
+a threatening attitude and uttering harsh cries; such attitudes
+and utterances after a time becoming through habit instinctive.
+In this manner actions performed by the contraction
+of voluntary muscles might have been combined for the same
+special purpose with those effected by involuntary muscles.
+It is even possible that animals, when excited and dimly
+conscious of some change in the state of their hair, might act
+on it by repeated exertions of their attention and will;
+for we have reason to believe that the will is able to
+influence in an obscure manner the action of some unstriped
+or involuntary muscles, as in the period of the peristaltic
+movements of the intestines, and in the contraction of the bladder.
+Nor must we overlook the part which variation and natural
+selection may have played; for the males which succeeded
+in making themselves appear the most terrible to their rivals,
+or to their other enemies, if not of overwhelming power,
+will on an average have left more offspring to inherit their
+characteristic qualities, whatever these may be and however
+first acquired, than have other males.
+
+
+[20] `Lehrbuch der Histologie,' 1857, s.  82.
+
+_The inflation of the body, and other means of exciting fear
+in an enemy_.--Certain Amphibians and Reptiles, which either have
+no spines to erect, or no muscles by which they can be erected,
+enlarge themselves when alarmed or angry by inhaling air.
+This is well known to be the case with toads and frogs.
+The latter animal is made, in AEsop's fable of the `Ox and the Frog,'
+to blow itself up from vanity and envy until it burst.
+This action must have been observed during the most ancient times, as,
+according to Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood,[21] the word _toad_ expresses
+in all the languages of Europe the habit of swelling.  It has been
+observed with some of the exotic species in the Zoological Gardens;
+and Dr. Gunther believes that it is general throughout the group.
+Judging from analogy, the primary purpose probably was to make the body
+appear as large and frightful as possible to an enemy; but another,
+and perhaps more important secondary advantage is thus gained.
+When frogs are seized by snakes, which are their chief enemies,
+they enlarge themselves wonderfully; so that if the snake be of
+small size, as Dr. Gunther informs me, it cannot swallow the frog,
+which thus escapes being devoured.
+
+
+[21] `Dictionary of English Etymology,' p.  403.
+
+Chameleons and some other lizards inflate themselves when angry.
+Thus a species inhabiting Oregon, the _Tapaya Douglasii_, is slow
+in its movements and does not bite, but has a ferocious aspect;
+"when irritated it springs in a most threatening manner at
+anything pointed at it, at the same time opening its mouth
+wide and hissing audibly, after which it inflates its body,
+and shows other marks of anger."[22]
+
+Several kinds of snakes likewise inflate themselves when irritated.
+The puff-adder (_Clotho arietans_) is remarkable in this respect;
+but I believe, after carefully watching these animals, that they
+do not act thus for the sake of increasing their apparent bulk,
+but simply for inhaling a large supply of air, so as to produce
+their surprisingly loud, harsh, and prolonged hissing sound.
+The Cobras-de-capello, when irritated, enlarge themselves a little,
+and hiss moderately; but, at the same time they lift their heads aloft,
+and dilate by means of their elongated anterior ribs, the skin on
+each side of the neck into a large flat disk,--the so-called hood.
+With their widely opened mouths, they then assume a terrific aspect.
+The benefit thus derived ought to be considerable, in order to compensate
+for the somewhat lessened rapidity (though this is still great)
+with which, when dilated, they can strike at their enemies or prey;
+on the same principle that a broad, thin piece of wood cannot
+be moved through the air so quickly as a small round stick.
+An innocuous snake, the _Trovidonotus macrophthalmus_,
+an inhabitant of India, likewise dilates its neck when irritated;
+and consequently is often mistaken for its compatriot, the deadly
+Cobra.[23] This resemblance perhaps serves as some protection
+to the Tropidonotus.
+
+
+[21] See the account of the habits of this animal by Dr, Cooper, as quoted
+in `Nature,' April 27, 1871, p.  512.
+
+[22] Dr. Gunther, `Reptiles of British India,' p.  262.
+
+Another innocuous species, the Dasypeltis of South Africa,
+blows itself out, distends its neck, hisses and darts at an
+intruder.[24] Many other snakes hiss under similar circumstances.
+They also rapidly vibrate their protruded tongues; and this
+may aid in increasing their terrific appearance.
+
+Snakes possess other means of producing sounds besides hissing.
+Many years ago I observed in South America that a venomous Trigonocephalus,
+when disturbed, rapidly vibrated the end of its tail, which striking
+against the dry grass and twigs produced a rattling noise
+that could be distinctly heard at the distance of six feet.[25]
+The deadly and fierce _Echis carinata_ of India produces "a
+curious prolonged, almost hissing sound in a very different manner,
+namely by rubbing "the sides of the folds of its body against
+each other," whilst the head remains in almost the same position.
+The scales on the sides, and not on other parts of the body,
+are strongly keeled, with the keels toothed like a saw;
+and as the coiled-up animal rubs its sides together, these grate
+against each other.[26] Lastly, we have the well-known case of the
+Rattle-snake. He who has merely shaken the rattle of a dead snake,
+can form no just idea of the sound produced by the living animal.
+Professor Shaler states that it is indistinguishable from that
+made by the male of a large Cicada (an Homopterous insect),
+which inhabits the same district.[27] In the Zoological Gardens,
+when the rattle-snakes and puff-adders were greatly excited at
+the same time, I was much struck at the similarity of the sound
+produced by them; and although that made by the rattle-snake is louder
+and shriller than the hissing of the puff-adder, yet when standing
+at some yards distance I could scarcely distinguish the two.
+For whatever purpose the sound is produced by the one species, I can
+hardly doubt that it serves for the same purpose in the other species;
+and I conclude from the threatening gestures made at the same time
+by many snakes, that their hissing,--the rattling of the rattle-snake
+and of the tail of the Trigonocephalus,--the grating of the scales
+of the Echis,--and the dilatation of the hood of the Cobra,--
+all subserve the same end, namely, to make them appear terrible
+to their enemies.[28]
+
+
+[24] Mr. J. Mansel Weale, `Nature,' April 27, 1871, p.  508.
+
+[25] `Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the "Beagle,"
+' 1845, p.  96.  I have compared the rattling thus produced
+with that of the Rattle-snake.
+
+[26] See the account by Dr. Anderson, Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1871, p.  196.
+
+[27] The `American Naturalist,' Jan. 1872, p.  32.  I regret that I cannot
+follow Prof. Shaler in believing that the rattle has been developed,
+by the aid of natural selection, for the sake of producing sounds which
+deceive and attract birds, so that they may serve as prey to the snake.
+
+It seems at first a probable conclusion that venomous snakes,
+such as the foregoing, from being already so well defended
+by their poison-fangs, would never be attacked by any enemy;
+and consequently would have
+
+
+{note [27] continued} I do not, however, wish to doubt
+that the sounds may occasionally subserve this end.
+But the conclusion at which I have arrived, viz.  that the rattling
+serves as a warning to would-be devourers, appears to me much
+more probable, as it connects together various classes of facts.
+If this snake had acquired its rattle and the habit of rattling,
+for the sake of attracting prey, it does not seem probable that it
+would have invariably used its instrument when angered or disturbed.
+Prof. Shaler takes nearly the same view as I do of the manner
+of development of the rattle; and I have always held this opinion
+since observing the Trigonocephalus in South America.
+
+[28] From the accounts lately collected, and given in the `Journal
+of the Linnean Society,' by Airs.  Barber, on the habits of the snakes
+of South Africa; and from the accounts published by several writers,
+for instance by Lawson, of the rattle-snake in North America,--it does
+not seem improbable that the terrific appearance of snakes and the sounds
+produced by them, may likewise serve in procuring prey, by paralysing,
+or as it is sometimes called fascinating, the smaller animals.
+no need to excite additional terror.  But this is far from being the case,
+for they are largely preyed on in all quarters of the world by many animals.
+It is well known that pigs are employed in the United States
+to clear districts infested with rattle-snakes, which they do most
+effectually.[29] In England the hedgehog attacks and devours the viper.
+In India, as I hear from Dr. Jerdon, several kinds of hawks, and at least
+one mammal, the Herpestes, kill cobras and other venomous species;[30]
+and so it is in South Africa.  Therefore it is by no means improbable
+that any sounds or signs by which the venomous species could instantly
+make themselves recognized as dangerous, would be of more service to them
+than to the innocuous species which would not be able, if attacked,
+to inflict any real injury.
+
+Having said thus much about snakes, I am tempted to add a few remarks on
+the means by which the rattle of the rattle-snake was probably developed.
+Various animals, including some lizards, either curl or vibrate their
+tails when excited.  This is the case with many kinds of snakes.[31]
+In the Zoological Gardens, an innocuous species, the _Coronella Sayi_,
+vibrates its tail so rapidly that it becomes almost invisible.
+The Trigonocephalus, before alluded to, has the same habit;
+and the extremity of its tail is a little enlarged, or ends in a bead.
+In the Lachesis, which is so closely allied to the rattle-snake
+that it was placed by Linnaeus in the same genus, the tail ends
+in a single, large, lancet-shaped point or scale.  With some snakes
+the skin, as Professor Shaler remarks, "is more imperfectly detached
+from the region about the tail than at other parts of the body."
+Now if we suppose that the end of the tail of some ancient American
+species was enlarged, and was covered by a single large scale,
+this could hardly have been cast off at the successive moults.
+In this case it would have been permanently retained, and at each period
+of growth, as the snake grew larger, a new scale, larger than the last,
+would have been formed above it, and would likewise have been retained.
+The foundation for the development of a rattle would thus have
+been laid; and it would have been habitually used, if the species,
+like so many others, vibrated its tail whenever it was irritated.
+That the rattle has since been specially developed to serve as an
+efficient sound-producing instrument, there can hardly be a doubt;
+for even the vertebrae included within the extremity of the tail have
+been altered in shape and cohere.  But there is no greater improbability
+in various structures, such as the rattle of the rattle-snake,--
+the lateral scales of the Echis,--the neck with the included ribs
+of the Cobra,--and the whole body of the puff-adder,--having been
+modified for the sake of warning and frightening away their enemies,
+than in a bird, namely, the wonderful Secretary-hawk (_Gypogeranus_) having
+had its whole frame modified for the sake of killing snakes with impunity.
+It is highly probable, judging from what we have before seen,
+that this bird would ruffle its feathers whenever it attacked a snake;
+and it is certain that the Herpestes, when it eagerly rushes to attack
+a snake, erects the hair all over its body, and especially that on its
+tail.[32] We have also seen that some porcupines, when angered or alarmed
+at the sight of a snake, rapidly vibrate their tails, thus producing
+a peculiar sound by the striking together of the hollow quills.
+So that here both the attackers and the attacked endeavour to make
+themselves as dreadful as possible to each other; and both possess
+for this purpose specialised means, which, oddly enough, are nearly
+the same in some of these cases.  Finally we can see that if,
+on the one hand, those individual snakes, which were best able
+to frighten away their enemies, escaped best from being devoured;
+and if, on the other hand, those individuals of the attacking
+enemy survived in larger numbers which were the best fitted
+for the dangerous task of killing and devouring venomous snakes;--
+then in the one case as in the other, beneficial variations,
+supposing the characters in question to vary, would commonly have been
+preserved through the survival of the fittest.
+
+
+[29] See the account by Dr. R. Brown, in Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1871, p.  39.
+He says that as soon as a pig sees a snake it rushes upon it; and a snake
+makes off immediately on the appearance of a pig.
+
+[30] Dr. Gunther remarks (`Reptiles of British India,' p.  340) on the
+destruction of cobras by the ichneumon or herpestes, and whilst the cobras
+are young by the jungle-fowl. It is well known that the peacock also
+eagerly kills snakes.
+
+[31] Prof. Cope enumerates a number of kinds in his `Method of Creation
+of Organic Types,' read before the American Phil.  Soc., December 15th,
+1871, p.  20.  Prof. Cope takes the same view as I do of the use
+of the gestures and sounds made by snakes.  I briefly alluded to this
+subject in the last edition of my `Origin of Species.'  Since the passages
+in the text above have been printed, I have been pleased to find that
+Mr. Henderson (`The American Naturalist,' May, 1872, p.  260) also takes
+a similar view of the use of the rattle, namely "in preventing an attack
+from being made."
+
+_The Drawing back and pressure of the Ears to the Head_.--The ears
+through their movements are highly expressive in many animals;
+but in some, such as man, the higher apes, and many ruminants,
+they fail in this respect.  A slight difference in position serves
+to express in the plainest manner a different state of mind,
+as we may daily see in the dog; but we are here concerned only with
+the ears being drawn closely backwards and pressed to the head.
+A savage frame of mind is thus shown, but only in the case of those
+animals which fight with their teeth; and the care which they
+take to prevent their ears being seized by their antagonists,
+accounts for this position.  Consequently, through habit
+and association, whenever they feel slightly savage, or pretend
+in their play to be savage, their ears are drawn back.
+That this is the true explanation may be inferred from the relation
+which exists in very many animals between their manner of fighting
+and the retraction of their ears.
+
+
+[32] Mr. des Voeux, in Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1871, p.  3.
+
+All the Carnivora fight with their canine teeth, and all, as far
+as I have observed, draw their ears back when feeling savage.
+This may be continually seen with dogs when fighting in earnest,
+and with puppies fighting in play.  The movement is different
+from the falling down and slight drawing back of the ears,
+when a dog feels pleased and is caressed by his master.
+The retraction of the ears may likewise be seen in kittens
+fighting together in their play, and in full-grown cats when
+really savage, as before illustrated in fig.  9 (p. 58). Although
+their ears are thus to a large extent protected, yet they often
+get much torn in old male cats during their mutual battles.
+The same movement is very striking in tigers, leopards,
+&c., whilst growling over their food in menageries.
+The lynx has remarkably long ears; and their retraction, when one
+of these animals is approached in its cage, is very conspicuous,
+and is eminently expressive of its savage disposition.
+Even one of the Eared Seals, the _Otariapusilla_, which has
+very small ears, draws them backwards, when it makes a savage
+rush at the legs of its keeper.
+
+When horses fight together they use their incisors for biting,
+and their fore-legs for striking, much more than they do their hind-legs
+for kicking backwards.  This has been observed when stallions have broken
+loose and have fought together, and may likewise be inferred from the kind
+of wounds which they inflict on each other.  Every one recognizes
+the vicious appearance which the drawing back of the ears gives to a horse.
+This movement is very different from that of listening to a sound behind.
+If an ill-tempered horse in a stall is inclined to kick backwards, his ears
+are retracted from habit, though he has no intention or power to bite.
+But when a horse throws up both hind-legs in play, as when entering
+an open field, or when just touched by the whip, he does not generally
+depress his ears, for he does not then feel vicious.  Guanacoes fight
+savagely with their teeth; and they must do so frequently, for I found
+the hides of several which I shot in Patagonia deeply scored.  So do camels;
+and both these animals, when savage, draw their ears closely backwards.
+Guanacoes, as I have noticed, when not intending to bite, but merely to spit
+their offensive saliva from a distance at an intruder, retract their ears.
+Even the hippopotamus, when threatening with its widely-open enormous
+mouth a comrade, draws back its small ears, just like a horse.
+
+Now what a contrast is presented between the foregoing animals
+and cattle, sheep, or goats, which never use their teeth in fighting,
+and never draw back their ears when enraged!  Although sheep and goats
+appear such placid animals, the males often join in furious contests.
+As deer form a closely related family, and as I did not know that they
+ever fought with their teeth, I was much surprised at the account given
+by Major Ross King of the Moose-deer in Canada.  He says, when "two males
+chance to meet, laying back their ears and gnashing their teeth together,
+they rush at each other with appalling fury."[33] But Mr. Bartlett
+informs me that some species of deer fight savagely with their teeth,
+so that the drawing back of the ears by the moose accords with our rule.
+Several kinds of kangaroos, kept in the Zoological Gardens, fight by
+scratching with their fore-feet and by kicking with their hind-legs;
+but they never bite each other, and the keepers have never seen
+them draw back their ears when angered.  Rabbits fight chiefly
+by kicking and scratching, but they likewise bite each other;
+and I have known one to bite off half the tail of its antagonist.
+At the commencement of their battles they lay back their ears,
+but afterwards, as they bound over and kick each other, they keep
+their ears erect, or move them much about.
+
+
+[33] `The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada,' 1866, p.  53.  p.  53.{sic}
+
+Mr. Bartlett watched a wild boar quarrelling rather savagely with his sow;
+and both had their mouths open and their ears drawn backwards.
+But this does not appear to be a common action with domestic pigs
+when quarrelling.  Boars fight together by striking upwards with their tusks;
+and Mr. Bartlett doubts whether they then draw back their ears.
+Elephants, which in like manner fight with their tusks, do not retract
+their ears, but, on the contrary, erect them when rushing at each other
+or at an enemy.
+
+The rhinoceroses in the Zoological Gardens fight with their nasal horns,
+and have never been seen to attempt biting each other except in play;
+and the keepers are convinced that they do not draw back their ears,
+like horses and dogs, when feeling savage.  The following statement,
+therefore, by Sir S. Baker[34] is inexplicable, namely, that a rhinoceros,
+which he shot in North Africa, "had no ears; they had been bitten
+off close to the head by another of the same species while fighting;
+and this mutilation is by no means uncommon."
+
+Lastly, with respect to monkeys.  Some kinds, which have moveable ears,
+and which fight with their teeth--for instance the _Cereopithecus ruber_--
+draw back their ears when irritated just like dogs; and they then have
+a very spiteful appearance.  Other kinds, as the _Inuus ecaudatus_,
+apparently do not thus act.  Again, other kinds--and this is a great anomaly
+in comparison with most other animals--retract their ears, show their teeth,
+and jabber, when they are pleased by being caressed.  I observed this
+in two or three species of Macacus, and in the _Cynopithecus niger_.
+This expression, owing to our familiarity with dogs, would never be
+recognized as one of joy or pleasure by those unacquainted with monkeys.
+
+
+[34] `The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,' 1867, p.  443.
+
+
+_Erection of the Ears_.--This movement requires hardly any notice.
+All animals which have the power of freely moving their ears,
+when they are startled, or when they closely observe any object,
+direct their ears to the point towards which they are looking,
+in order to hear any sound from this quarter.  At the same time
+they generally raise their heads, as all their organs of sense
+are there situated, and some of the smaller animals rise on their
+hind-legs. Even those kinds which squat on the ground or instantly
+flee away to avoid danger, generally act momentarily in this manner,
+in order to ascertain the source and nature of the danger.
+The head being raised, with erected ears and eyes directed forwards,
+gives an unmistakable expression of close attention to any animal.
+CHAPTER V.
+
+SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.
+
+The Dog, various expressive movements of--Cats--Horses--Ruminants--Monkeys,
+their expression of joy and affection--Of pain--Anger--Astonishment
+and Terror.
+
+
+_The Dog_.--I have already described (figs. 5 and 1) the appearance
+of a dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions,
+namely, with erected ears, eyes intently directed forwards,
+hair on the neck and back bristling, gait remarkably stiff,
+with the tail upright and rigid.  So familiar is this appearance
+to us, that an angry man is sometimes said "to have his back up."
+Of the above points, the stiff gait and upright tail alone
+require further discussion.  Sir C. Bell remarks[1] that,
+when a tiger or wolf is struck by its keeper and is suddenly
+roused to ferocity, every muscle is in tension, and the limbs
+are in an attitude of strained exertion, prepared to spring.
+This tension of the muscles and consequent stiff gait may be
+accounted for on the principle of associated habit, for anger
+has continually led to fierce struggles, and consequently
+to all the muscles of the body having been violently exerted.
+There is also reason to suspect that the muscular
+system requires some short preparation, or some degree
+of innervation, before being brought into strong action.
+My own sensations lead me to this inference; but I cannot
+discover that it is a conclusion admitted by physiologists.
+Sir J. Paget, however, informs me that when muscles are suddenly
+contracted with the greatest force, without any preparation,
+they are liable to be ruptured, as when a man slips unexpectedly;
+but that this rarely occurs when an action, however violent,
+is deliberately performed.
+
+
+[1] `The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p.  190.
+
+With respect to the upright position of the tail, it seems to depend
+(but whether this is really the case I know not) on the elevator muscles
+being more powerful than the depressors, so that when all the muscles of
+the hinder part of the body are in a state of tension, the tail is raised.
+A dog in cheerful spirits, and trotting before his master with high,
+elastic steps, generally carries his tail aloft, though it is not held
+nearly so stiffly as when he is angered.  A horse when first turned
+out into an open field, may be seen to trot with long elastic strides,
+the head and tail being held high aloft.  Even cows when they frisk
+about from pleasure, throw up their tails in a ridiculous fashion.
+So it is with various animals in the Zoological Gardens.  The position of
+the tail, however, in certain cases, is determined by special circumstances;
+thus as soon as a horse breaks into a gallop, at full speed, he always
+lowers his tail, so that as little resistance as possible may be offered
+to the air.
+
+When a dog is on the point of springing on his antagonist,
+be utters a savage growl; the ears are pressed closely backwards,
+and the upper lip (fig. 14) is retracted out of the way of his teeth,
+especially of his canines.  These movements may be observed with dogs
+and puppies in their play.  But if a dog gets really savage in his play,
+his expression immediately changes.  This, however, is simply due
+to the lips and ears being drawn back with much greater energy.
+If a dog only snarls at another, the lip is generally retracted
+on one side alone, namely towards his enemy.
+
+The movements of a dog whilst exhibiting affection towards his
+master were described (figs. 6 and 8) in our second chapter.
+These consist in the head and whole body being lowered and thrown into
+flexuous movements, with the tail extended and wagged from side to side.
+The ears fall down and are drawn somewhat backwards, which causes
+the eyelids to be elongated, and alters the
+
+
+{illust. caption = FIG.  14.--Head of snarling Dog.  From life,
+by Mr. Wood.  whole appearance of the face.
+The lips hang loosely, and the hair remains smooth.
+All these movements or gestures are explicable, as I believe,
+from their standing in complete antithesis to those naturally
+assumed by a savage dog under a directly opposite state of mind.
+When a man merely speaks to, or just notices, his dog,we see
+the last vestige of these movements in a slight wag of the tail,
+without any other movement of the body, and without even the ears
+being lowered.  Dogs also exhibit their affection by desiring
+to rub against their masters, and to be rubbed or patted by them.
+Gratiolet explains the above gestures of affection in the
+following manner:  and the reader can judge whether the explanation
+appears satisfactory.  Speaking of animals in general,
+including the dog, he says,[2] "C'est toujours la partie la plus
+sensible de leurs corps qui recherche les caresses ou les donne.
+Lorsque toute la longueur des flancs et du corps est sensible,
+l'animal serpente et rampe sous les caresses; et ces ondulations
+se propageant le long des muscles analogues des segments jusqu'aux
+extremites de la colonne vertebrale, la queue se ploie et s'agite."
+Further on, he adds, that dogs, when feeling affectionate,
+lower their ears in order to exclude all sounds, so that their whole
+attention may be concentrated on the caresses of their master!
+Dogs have another and striking way of exhibiting their affection,
+namely, by licking the hands or faces of their masters.
+They sometimes lick other dogs, and then it is always their chops.
+I have also seen dogs licking cats with whom they were friends.
+This habit probably originated in the females carefully licking
+their puppies--the dearest object of their love--for the sake
+of cleansing them.  They also often give their puppies, after a
+short absence, a few cursory licks, apparently from affection.
+Thus the habit will have become associated with the emotion of love,
+however it may afterwards be aroused.  It is now so firmly
+inherited or innate, That it is transmitted equally to both sexes.
+A female terrier of mine lately had her puppies destroyed,
+and though at all times a very affectionate creature,
+I was much struck with the manner in which she then tried
+to satisfy her instinctive maternal love by expending it on me;
+and her desire to lick my hands rose to an insatiable passion.
+[1] `De la Physionomie,' 1865, pp.  187, 218.The same principle
+probably explains why dogs, when feeling affectionate, like rubbing
+against their masters and being rubbed or patted by them, for from
+the nursing of their puppies, contact with a beloved object has
+become firmly associated in their minds with the emotion of love.
+The feeling of affection of a dog towards his master is combined
+with a strong sense of submission, which is akin to fear.
+Hence dogs not only lower their bodies and crouch a little
+as they approach their masters, but sometimes throw themselves
+on the ground with their bellies upwards.  This is a movement
+as completely opposite as is possible to any show of resistance.
+I formerly possessed a large dog who was not at all afraid
+to fight with other dogs; but a wolf-like shepherd-dog
+in the neighbourhood, though not ferocious and not so
+powerful as my dog, had a strange influence over him.
+When they met on the road, my dog used to run to meet him,
+with his tail partly tucked in between his legs and hair not erected;
+and then be would throw himself on the ground, belly upwards.
+By this action he seemed to say more plainly than by words,
+"Behold, I am your slave."  A pleasurable and excited state
+of mind, associated with affection, is exhibited by some
+dogs in a very peculiar manner, namely, by grinning.
+This was noticed long ago by Somerville, who says,
+And with a courtly grin, the fawning bound Salutes thee
+cow'ring, his wide op'ning nose Upward he curls, and his large
+sloe-back eyes Melt in soft blandishments, and humble joy.'
+_The Chase_, book i.Sir W. Scott's famous Scotch greyhound,
+Maida, had this habit, and it is common with terriers.
+I have also seen it in a Spitz and in a sheep-dog. Mr. Riviere,
+who has particularly attended to this expression, informs me
+that it is rarely displayed in a perfect manner, but is quite
+common in a lesser degree.  The upper lip during the act
+of grinning is retracted, as in snarling, so that the canines
+are exposed, and the ears are drawn backwards; but the general
+appearance of the animal clearly shows that anger is not felt.
+Sir C. Bell[3] remarks "Dogs, in their expression of fondness,
+have a slight eversion of the lips, and grin and sniff
+amidst their gambols, in a way that resembles laughter."
+Some persons speak of the grin as a smile, but if it had been
+really a smile, we should see a similar, though more pronounced,
+movement of the lips and ears, when dogs utter their bark of joy;
+but this is not the case, although a bark of joy often follows a grin.
+On the other hand, dogs, when playing with their comrades
+or masters, almost always pretend to bite each other; and they
+then retract, though not energetically, their lips and ears.
+Hence I suspect that there is a tendency in some dogs,
+whenever they feel lively pleasure combined with affection,
+to act through habit and association on the same muscles,
+as in playfully biting each other, or their masters' hands.
+I have described, in the second chapter, the gait and
+appearance of a dog when cheerful, and the marked antithesis
+presented by the same animal when dejected and disappointed,
+with his head, ears, body, tail, and chops drooping, and eyes dull.
+Under the expectation of any great pleasure, dogs bound and jump
+about in an extravagant manner, and bark for joy.  The tendency
+to bark under this state of mind is inherited, or runs in the breed:
+greyhounds rarely bark, whilst the Spitz-dog barks so incessantly
+on starting for a walk with his master that he becomes a nuisance.
+[1] `The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p.  140.An agony of pain is
+expressed by dogs in nearly the same way as by many other animals,
+namely, by howling writhing, and contortions of the whole body.
+Attention is shown by the head being raised, with the ears erected,
+and eyes intently directed towards the object or quarter
+under observation.  If it be a sound and the source is not known,
+the head is often turned obliquely from side to side
+in a most significant manner, apparently in order to judge
+with more exactness from what point the sound proceeds.
+But I have seen a dog greatly surprised at a new noise, turning,
+his head to one side through habit, though he clearly perceived
+the source of the noise.  Dogs, as formerly remarked, when their
+attention is in any way aroused, whilst watching some object,
+or attending to some sound, often lift up one paw (fig. 4)
+and keep it doubled up, as if to make a slow and stealthy approach.
+A dog under extreme terror will throw himself down, howl, and void
+his excretions; but the hair, I believe, does not become erect
+unless some anger is felt.  I have seen a dog much terrified
+at a band of musicians who were playing loudly outside the house,
+with every muscle of his body trembling, with his heart
+palpitating so quickly that the beats could hardly be counted,
+and panting for breath with widely open mouth, in the same manner
+as a terrified man does.  Yet this dog had not exerted himself;
+he had only wandered slowly and restlessly about the room,
+and the day was cold.  Even a very slight degree of fear is
+invariably shown by the tail being tucked in between the legs.
+This tucking in of the fail is accompanied by the ears being
+drawn backwards; but they are not pressed closely to the head,as
+in snarling, and they are not lowered, as when a dog is pleased
+or affectionate.  When two young dogs chase each other in play,
+the one that runs away always keeps his tail tucked inwards.
+So it is when a dog, in the highest spirits, careers like a mad
+creature round and round his master in circles, or in figures
+of eight.  He then acts as if another dog were chasing him.
+This curious kind of play, which must be familiar to every one
+who has attended to dogs, is particularly apt to be excited,
+after the animal has been a little startled or frightened,
+as by his master suddenly jumping out on him in the dusk.
+In this case, as well as when two young dogs are chasing each
+other in play, it appears as if the one that runs away was afraid
+of the other catching him by the tail; but as far as I can
+find out, dogs very rarely catch each other in this manner.
+I asked a gentleman, who had kept foxhounds all his life,
+and be applied to other experienced sportsmen, whether they
+had ever seen hounds thus seize a fox; but they never had.
+It appears that when a dog is chased, or when in danger
+of being struck behind, or of anything falling on him, in all
+these cases he wishes to withdraw as quickly as possible his
+whole hind-quarters, and that from some sympathy or connection
+between the muscles, the tail is then drawn closely inwards.
+A similarly connected movement between the hind- quarters and
+the tail may be observed in the hyaena.  Mr. Bartlett informs
+me that when two of these animals fight together, they are
+mutually conscious of the wonderful power of each other's jaws,
+and are extremely cautious.  They well know that if one of their
+legs were seized, the bone would instantly be crushed into atoms;
+hence they approach each other kneeling, with their legs turned
+as much as possible inwards, and with their whole bodies bowed,
+so as not to present any salient point; thetail at the same time
+being closely tucked in between the legs.  In this attitude
+they approach each other sideways, or even partly backwards.
+So again with deer, several of the species, when savage and fighting,
+tuck in their tails.  When one horse in a field tries to bite
+the hind-quarters of another in play, or when a rough boy
+strikes a donkey from behind, the hind-quarters and the tail
+are drawn in, though it does not appear as if this were done
+merely to save the tail from being injured.  We have also seen
+the reverse of these movements; for when an animal trots with
+high elastic steps, the tail is almost always carried aloft.
+As I have said, when a dog is chased and runs away, he keeps
+his ears directed backwards but still open; and this is clearly
+done for the sake of hearing the footsteps of his pursuer.
+From habit the ears are often held in this same position,
+and the tail tucked in, when the danger is obviously in front.
+I have repeatedly noticed, with a timid terrier of mine,
+that when she is afraid of some object in front, the nature
+of which she perfectly knows and does not need to reconnoitre,
+yet she will for a long time hold her ears and tail in this position,
+looking the image of discomfort.  Discomfort, without any fear,
+is similarly expressed:  thus, one day I went out of doors, just at
+the time when this same dog knew that her dinner would be brought.
+I did not call her, but she wished much to accompany me,
+and at the same time she wished much for her dinner;
+and there she stood, first looking one way and then
+the other, with her tail tucked in and ears drawn back,
+presenting an unmistakable appearance of perplexed discomfort.
+Almost all the expressive movements now described, with the
+exception of the grinning from joy, are innate or instinctive,
+for they are common to all the individuals, young and old,
+of all the breeds.  Most of themare likewise common to the
+aboriginal parents of the dog, namely the wolf and jackal;
+and some of them to other species of the same group.
+Tamed wolves and jackals, when caressed by their masters,
+jump about for joy, wag their tails, lower their ears,
+lick their master's hands, crouch down, and even throw themselves
+on the ground belly upwards.[4] I have seen a rather fox-like
+African jackal, from the Gaboon, depress its ears when caressed.
+Wolves and jackals, when frightened, certainly tuck in their tails;
+and a tamed jackal has been described as careering round
+his master in circles and figures of eight, like a dog,
+with his tail between his legs.  It has been stated[5] that foxes,
+however tame, never display any of the above expressive movements;
+but this is not strictly accurate.  Many years ago I observed
+in the Zoological Gardens, and recorded the fact at the time,
+that a very tame English fox, When caressed by the keeper,
+wagged its tail, depressed its ears, and then threw itself
+on the ground, belly upwards.  The black fox of North America
+likewise depressed its ears in a slight degree.  But I believe
+that foxes never lick the hands of their masters, and I have been
+assured that when frightened they never tuck in their tails.
+If the explanation which I have given of the expression of affection
+in dogs be admitted, then it would appear that animals which have
+never been domesticated--namely wolves, jackals, and even foxes--
+have nevertheless ac- quired, through the principle of antithesis,
+certain expressive gestures; for it is Dot probable that these animals,
+confined in cages, should have learnt them by imitating dogs.
+[4] Many particulars are given by Gueldenstadt in his account
+of the jackal in Nov. Comm.  Acad.  Sc.  Imp.  Petrop.
+1775, tom.  xx.  p.  449.  See also another excellent account
+of the manners of this animal and of its play, in `Land
+and Water,' October, 1869.  Lieut. Annesley, R. A., has also
+communicated to me some particulars with respect to the jackal.
+I have made many inquiries about wolves and jackals in
+the Zoological Gardens, and have observed them for myself.
+[5] `Land and Water,' November 6, 1869._Cats_.--I have already
+described the actions of a cat
+
+(fig. 9), when feeling savage and not terrified.
+She assumes a crouching attitude and occasionally protrudes
+her fore-feet, with the claws exserted ready for striking.
+The tail is extended, being curled or lashed from side to side.
+The hair is not erected--at least it was not so in the few
+cases observed by me.  The ears are drawn closely backwards
+and the teeth are shown.  Low savage growls are uttered.
+We can understand why the attitude assumed by a cat when preparing
+to fight with another cat, or in any way greatly irritated,
+is so widely different from that of a dog approaching another dog
+with hostile intentions; for the cat uses her fore-feet for striking,
+and this renders a crouching position convenient or necessary.
+She is also much more accustomed than a dog to lie concealed
+and suddenly spring on her prey.  No cause can be assigned with
+certainty for the tail being lashed or curled from side to side.
+This habit is common to many other animals--for instance,
+to the puma, when prepared to spring;[1] but it is not
+common to dogs, or to foxes, as I infer from Mr. St. John's
+account of a fox lying in wait and seizing a hare.
+We have already seen that some kinds of lizards and various snakes,
+when excited, rapidly vibrate the tips of their tails.
+It would appear as if, under strong excitement, there existed
+an uncontrollable desire for movement of some kind, owing to
+nerve-force being freely liberated from the excited sensorium;
+and that as the tail is left free, and as its movement does
+not disturb the general position of the body, it is curled
+or lashed about.
+
+All the movements of a cat, when feeling affectionate, are in complete
+antithesis to those just described.  She now stands upright,
+with slightly arched back, tail perpendicularly raised, and ears erected;
+and she rubs her cheeks and flanks against her master or mistress.
+The desire to rub something is so strong in cats under this state of mind,
+that they may often be seen rubbing themselves against the legs
+of chairs or tables, or against door-posts. This manner of expressing
+affection probably originated through association, as in the case
+of dogs, from the mother nursing and fondling her young; and perhaps
+from the young themselves loving each other and playing together.
+Another and very different gesture, expressive of pleasure, has already
+been described, namely, the curious manner in which young and even
+old cats, when pleased, alternately protrude their fore-feet, with
+separated toes, as if pushing against and sucking their mother's teats.
+This habit is so far analogous to that of rubbing against something,
+that both apparently are derived from actions performed during
+the nursing period.  Why cats should show affection by rubbing
+so much more than do dogs, though the latter delight in contact
+with their masters, and why cats only occasionally lick the hands
+of their friends, whilst dogs always do so, I cannot say.  Cats cleanse
+themselves by licking their own coats more regularly than do dogs.
+On the other hand, their tongues seem less well fitted for the work
+than the longer and more flexible tongues of dogs.
+
+
+[1] Azara, `Quadrupedes du Paraquay,' 1801, tom.  1.  p.  136.
+
+Cats, when terrified, stand at full height, and arch their backs
+in a well-known and ridiculous fashion.  They spit, hiss, or growl.
+The hair over the whole body, and especially on the tail, becomes erect.
+In the instances observed by me the basal part of the tail was held upright,
+the terminal part being thrown on one side; but sometimes the tail (see fig.
+15) is only a little raised, and is bent almost from the base to one side.
+The ears are drawn back, and the teeth exposed.  When two kittens
+are playing together, the one often thus tries to frighten the other.
+From what we have seen in former chapters, all the above points of
+expression are intelligible, except the extreme arching of the back.
+I am inclined to believe that, in the same manner as many birds,
+whilst they ruffle their feathers, spread out their wings and tail,
+to make themselves look as big as possible, so cats stand upright at their
+full height, arch their backs, often raise the basal part of the tail,
+and erect their hair, for the same purpose.  The lynx, when attacked,
+is said to arch its back, and is thus figured by Brehm.  But the keepers
+in the Zoological Gardens have never seen any tendency to this action
+in the larger feline animals, such as tigers, lions, &c.; and these have
+little cause to be afraid of any other animal.
+
+Cats use their voices much as a means of expression, and they utter,
+under various emotions and desires, at least six or seven
+different sounds.  The purr of satisfaction, which is made during
+both inspiration and expiration, is one of the most curious.
+The puma, cheetah, and ocelot likewise purr; but the tiger, when pleased,
+"emits a peculiar short snuffle, accompanied by the closure
+of the eyelids."[7] It is said that the lion, jaguar, and leopard,
+do not purr.
+
+
+_Horses_.--Horses when savage draw their ears closely back,
+protrude their heads, and partially uncover their incisor teeth,
+ready for biting.  When inclined to kick behind, they generally,
+through habit, draw back their ears; and their eyes are
+turned backwards in a peculiar manner.[8] When pleased,
+as when some coveted food is brought to them in the stable,
+they raise and draw in their heads, prick their ears,
+and looking intently towards their friend, often whinny.
+Impatience is expressed by pawing the ground.
+
+
+[7] `Land and Water,' 1867, p.  657.  See also Azara on the Puma,
+in the work above quoted.
+
+[8] Sir C. Bell, `Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit.  p.  123.  See also p.
+126, on horses not breathing through their mouths, with reference
+to their distended nostrils.
+
+The actions of a horse when much startled are highly expressive.
+One day my horse was much frightened at a drilling machine,
+covered by a tarpaulin, and lying on an open field.  He raised
+his head so high, that his neck became almost perpendicular;
+and this he did from habit, for the machine lay on a slope below,
+and could not have been seen with more distinctness through
+the raising of the head; nor if any sound had proceeded
+from it, could the sound have been more distinctly heard.
+His eyes and ears were directed intently forwards; and I
+could feel through the saddle the palpitations of his heart.
+With red dilated nostrils he snorted violently, and whirling round,
+would have dashed off at full speed, had I not prevented him.
+The distension of the nostrils is not for the sake of scenting
+the source of danger, for when a horse smells carefully at any
+object and is not alarmed, he does not dilate his nostrils.
+Owing to the presence of a valve in the throat, a horse when
+panting does not breathe through his open mouth, but through
+his nostrils; and these consequently have become endowed with
+great powers of expansion.  This expansion of the nostrils,
+as well as the snorting, and the palpitations of the heart,
+are actions which have become firmly associated during a long
+series of generations with the emotion of terror; for terror
+has habitually led the horse to the most violent exertion
+in dashing away at full speed from the cause of danger.
+
+
+_Ruminants_.--Cattle and sheep are remarkable from displaying in so slight
+a degree their emotions or sensations, excepting that of extreme pain.
+A bull when enraged exhibits his rage only by the manner in which be
+holds his lowered head, with distended nostrils, and by bellowing.
+He also often paws the ground; but this pawing seems quite different
+from that of an impatient horse, for when the soil is loose, he throws up
+clouds of dust.  I believe that bulls act in this manner when irritated
+by flies, for the sake of driving them away.  The wilder breeds of sheep
+and the chamois when startled stamp on the ground, and whistle through
+their noses; and this serves as a danger-signal to their comrades.
+The musk-ox of the Arctic regions, when encountered, likewise stamps
+on the ground.[9] How this stamping action arose I cannot conjecture;
+for from inquiries which I have made it does not appear that any of
+these animals fight with their fore-legs.
+
+Some species of deer, when savage, display far more expression
+than do cattle, sheep, or goats, for, as has already been stated,
+they draw back their ears, grind their teeth, erect their hair,
+squeal, stamp on the ground, and brandish their horns.
+One day in the Zoological Gardens, the Formosan deer
+(_Cervus pseudaxis_) approached me in a curious attitude,
+with his muzzle raised high up, so that the horns were pressed
+back on his neck; the head being held rather obliquely.
+From the expression of his eye I felt sure that he was savage;
+he approached slowly, and as soon as he came close to the iron bars,
+he did not lower his head to butt at me, but suddenly bent it inwards,
+and struck his horns with great force against the railings.
+Mr. Bartlett informs me that some other species of deer place
+themselves in the same attitude when enraged.
+
+_Monkeys_.--The various species and genera of monkeys express
+their feelings in many different ways; and this fact is interesting,
+as in some degree bearing on the question, whether the so-called races
+of man should be ranked as distinct species or varieties; for, as we
+shall see in the following chapters, the different races of man express
+their emotions and sensations with remarkable uniformity throughout
+the world.  Some of the expressive actions of monkeys are interesting
+in another way, namely from being closely analogous to those of man.
+As I have had no opportunity of observing any one species of the group
+under all circumstances, my miscellaneous remarks will be best arranged
+under different states of the mind.
+
+[9] `Land and Water,' 1869, p.  152.
+
+_Pleasure, joy, affection_--It is not possible to distinguish
+in monkeys, at least without more experience than I have had,
+the expression of pleasure or joy from that of affection.
+Young chimpanzees make a kind of barking noise, when pleased
+by the return of any one to whom they are attached.
+When this noise, which the keepers call a laugh, is uttered,
+the lips are protruded; but so they are under various other emotions.
+Nevertheless I could perceive that when they were pleased
+the form of the lips differed a little from that assumed
+when they were angered.  If a young chimpanzee be tickled--
+and the armpits are particularly sensitive to tickling, as in
+the case of our children,--a more decided chuckling or laughing
+sound is uttered; though the laughter is sometimes noiseless.
+The corners of the mouth are then drawn backwards; and this
+sometimes causes the lower eyelids to be slightly wrinkled.
+But this wrinkling, which is so characteristic of our own laughter,
+is more plainly seen in some other monkeys.  The teeth in
+the upper jaw in the chimpanzee are not exposed when they utter
+their laughing noise, in which respect they differ from us.
+But their eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as Mr. W. L. Martin,[10]
+who has particularly attended to their expression, states.
+
+
+[10] `Natural History of Mammalia,' 1841, vol.  1.  pp.  383, 410.
+
+Young Orangs, when tickled, likewise grin and make a chuckling sound;
+and Mr. Martin says that their eyes grow brighter.  As soon as their
+laughter ceases, an expression may be detected passing over their faces,
+which, as Mr. Wallace remarked to me, may be called a smile.
+I have also noticed something of the same kind with the chimpanzee.
+Dr. Duchenne--and I cannot quote a better authority--informs me
+that he kept a very tame monkey in his house for a year;
+and when he gave it during meal-times some choice delicacy,
+he observed that the corners of its mouth were slightly raised;
+thus an expression of satisfaction, partaking of the nature of an
+incipient smile, and resembling that often seen on the face of main,
+could be plainly perceived in this animal.
+
+The _Cebus azarae_,[11] when rejoiced at again seeing a beloved person,
+utters a peculiar tittering (_kichernden_) sound.  It also expresses
+agreeable sensations, by drawing back the corners of its mouth,
+without producing any sound.  Rengger calls this movement laughter,
+but it would be more appropriately called a smile.  The form
+of the mouth is different when either pain or terror is expressed,
+and high shrieks are uttered.  Another species of _Cebus_ in the
+Zoological Gardens (_C. hypoleucus_) when pleased, makes a reiterated
+shrill note, and likewise draws back the corners of its mouth,
+apparently through the contraction of the same muscles as with us.
+So does the Barbary ape (_Inuus ecaudatus_) to an extraordinary degree;
+and I observed in this monkey that the skin of the lower eyelids then
+became much wrinkled.  At the same time it rapidly moved its lower jaw
+or lips in a spasmodic manner, the teeth being exposed; but the noise
+produced was hardly more distinct than that which we sometimes call
+silent laughter.  Two of the keepers affirmed that this slight sound
+was the animal's laughter, and when I expressed some doubt on this head
+(being at the time quite inexperienced), they made it attack or rather
+threaten a hated Entellus monkey, living in the same compartment.
+Instantly the whole expression of the face of the Inuus changed;
+the mouth was opened much more widely, the canine teeth were more
+fully exposed, and a hoarse barking noise was uttered.
+
+
+[11] Rengger (`Sagetheire von Paraquay', 1830, s.  46) kept these monkeys
+in confinement for seven years in their native country of Paraguay.
+
+The Anubis baboon (_Cynocephalus anubis_) was first insulted
+and put into a furious rage, as was easily done, by his keeper,
+who then made friends with him and shook hands.  As the reconciliation
+was effected the baboon rapidly moved up and down his jaws and lips,
+and looked pleased.  When we laugh heartily, a similar movement,
+or quiver, may be observed more or less distinctly in our jaws;
+but with man the muscles of the chest are more particularly acted on,
+whilst with this baboon, and with some other monkeys, it is the muscles
+of the jaws and lips which are spasmodically affected.
+
+I have already had occasion to remark on the curious manner
+in which two or three species of Alacacus and the _Cynopithecus
+niger_ draw back their ears and utter a slight jabbering noise,
+when they are pleased by being caressed.  With the Cynopithecus
+(fig. 17), the corners of the mouth are at the same time
+drawn backwards and upwards, so that the teeth are exposed.
+Hence this expression would never be recognized by a stranger as one
+of pleasure.  The crest of long hairs on the forehead is depressed,
+and apparently the whole skin of the head drawn backwards.
+The eyebrows are thus raised a little, and the eyes assume a
+staring appearance.  The lower eyelids also become slightly wrinkled;
+but this wrinkling is not conspicuous, owing to the permanent
+transverse furrows on the face.
+
+_Painful emotions and sensations_.--With monkeys the expression of
+slight pain, or of any painful emotion, such as grief, vexation, jealousy,
+&c., is not easily distinguished from that of moderate anger;
+and these states of mind readily and quickly pass into each other.
+Grief, however, with some species is certainly exhibited by weeping.
+A woman, who sold a monkey to the Zoological Society, believed to have
+come from Borneo (_Macacus maurus_ or _M.  inornatus_ of Gray), said
+that it often cried; and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the keeper Mr. Sutton,
+have repeatedly seen it, when grieved, or even when much pitied,
+weeping so copiously that the tears rolled down its cheeks.
+There is, however, something strange about this case, for two specimens
+subsequently kept in the Gardens, and believed to be the same species,
+have never been seen to weep, though they were carefully observed
+by the keeper and myself when much distressed and loudly screaming.
+Rengger states[12] that the eyes of the _Cebus azarae_ fill
+with tears, but not sufficiently to overflow, when it is prevented
+getting some much desired object, or is much frightened.
+Humboldt also asserts that the eyes of the _Callithrix sciureus_
+"instantly fill with tears when it is seized with fear;"
+but when this pretty little monkey in the Zoological Gardens
+was teased, so as to cry out loudly, this did not occur.
+I do not, however, wish to throw the least doubt on the accuracy
+of Humboldt's statement.
+
+The appearance of dejection in young orangs and chimpanzees, when out
+of health, is as plain and almost as pathetic as in the case of our children.
+This state of mind and body is shown by their listless movements,
+fallen countenances, dull eyes, and changed complexion.
+
+
+[12] Rengger, ibid.  s.  46.  Humboldt, `Personal Narrative, Eng.  translat.
+vol.  iv.  p.  527.  {Illust. caption = FIG.  16.--_Cynopithecus niger_,
+in a placid condition.
+
+Drawn from life by Mr. Wolf.  FIG.  17.--The same, when pleased
+by being caressed.}
+
+_Anger_.--This emotion is often exhibited by many kinds of monkeys,
+and is expressed, as Mr. Martin remarks,[13] in many different ways.
+"Some species, when irritated, pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and
+savage glare on their foe, and make repeated short starts as if about
+to spring forward, uttering at the same time inward guttural sounds.
+Many display their anger by suddenly advancing, making abrupt starts,
+at the same time opening the mouth and pursing up the lips,
+so as to conceal the teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed on
+the enemy, as if in savage defiance.  Some again, and principally
+the long-tailed monkeys, or Guenons, display their teeth, and accompany
+their malicious grins with a sharp, abrupt, reiterated cry."
+Mr. Sutton confirms the statement that some species uncover
+their teeth when enraged, whilst others conceal them by the
+protrusion of their lips; and some kinds draw back their ears.
+The _Cynopithecus niger_, lately referred to, acts in this manner,
+at the same time depressing the crest of hair on its forehead,
+and showing its teeth; so that the movements of the features from anger
+are nearly the same as those from pleasure; and the two expressions
+can be distinguished only by those familiar with the animal.
+
+Baboons often show their passion and threaten their enemies
+in a very odd manner, namely, by opening their mouths widely
+as in the act of yawning.  Mr. Bartlett has often seen two baboons,
+when first placed in the same compartment, sitting opposite
+to each other and thus alternately opening their mouths;
+and this action seems frequently to end in a real yawn.
+Mr. Bartlett believes that both animals wish to show to each
+other that they are provided with a formidable set of teeth,
+as is undoubtedly the case.  As I could hardly credit the reality
+of this yawning gesture, Mr. Bartlett insulted an old baboon and put
+him into a violent passion; and he almost immediately thus acted.
+Some species of Macacus and of Cereopithecus[14] behave
+in the same manner.  Baboons likewise show their anger, as was
+observed by Brehin with those which he kept alive in Abyssinia,
+in another manner, namely, by striking the ground with one hand,
+"like an angry man striking the table with his fist."
+I have seen this movement with the baboons in the Zoological Gardens;
+but sometimes the action seems rather to represent the searching
+for a stone or other object in their beds of straw.
+
+
+[13] Nat.  Hist.  of Mammalia, 1841, p.  351.
+
+Mr. Sutton has often observed the face of the _Macacus rhesus_,
+when much enraged, growing red.  As he was mentioning this to me,
+another monkey attacked a _rhesus_, and I saw its face redden as plainly
+as that of a man in a violent passion.  In the course of a few minutes,
+after the battle, the face of this monkey recovered its natural tint.
+At the same time that the face reddened, the naked posterior part
+of the body, which is always red, seemed to grow still redder;
+but I cannot positively assert that this was the case.
+When the Mandrill is in any way excited, the brilliantly coloured,
+naked parts of the skin are said to become still more vividly coloured.
+
+With several species of baboons the ridge of the forehead projects
+much over the eyes, and is studded with a few long hairs,
+representing our eyebrows.  These animals are always looking
+about them, and in order to look upwards they raise their eyebrows.
+They have thus, as it would appear, acquired the habit of frequently
+moving their eyebrows.  However this may be, many kinds of monkeys,
+especially the baboons, when angered or in any way excited,
+rapidly and incessantly move their eyebrows up and down,
+as well as the hairy skin of their foreheads.[15] As we associate
+in the case of man the raising and lowering of the eyebrows
+with definite states of the mind, the almost incessant movement
+of the eyebrows by monkeys gives them a senseless expression.
+I once observed a man who had a trick of continually raising
+his eyebrows without any corresponding emotion, and this gave
+to him a foolish appearance; so it is with some persons who keep
+the corners of their mouths a little drawn backwards and upwards,
+as if by an incipient smile, though at the time they are not
+amused or pleased.
+
+
+[14] Brehm, `Thierleben,' B. i.  s.  84.  On baboons striking
+the ground, s.  61.
+
+A young orang, made jealous by her keeper attending to another monkey,
+slightly uncovered her teeth, and, uttering a peevish noise like _tish-shist_,
+turned her back on him.  Both orangs and chimpanzees, when a little
+more angered, protrude their lips greatly, and make a harsh barking noise.
+A young female chimpanzee, in a violent passion, presented a curious
+resemblance to a child in the same state.  She screamed loudly with widely
+open mouth, the lips being retracted so that the teeth were fully exposed.
+She threw her arms wildly about, sometimes clasping them over her head.
+She rolled on the ground, sometimes on her back, sometimes on her belly,
+and bit everything within reach.  A young gibbon (_Hylobates syndactylus_)
+in a passion has been described[16] as behaving in almost exactly
+the same manner.
+
+The lips of young orangs and chimpanzees are protruded,
+sometimes to a wonderful degree, under various circumstances.
+They act thus, not only when slightly angered, sulky,
+or disappointed, but when alarmed at anything--in one instance,
+at the sight of a turtle,[17]--and likewise when pleased.
+But neither the degree of protrusion nor the shape of
+the mouth is exactly the same, as I believe, in all cases;
+and the sounds which are then uttered are different.
+The accompanying drawing represents a chimpanzee made sulky
+by an orange having been offered him, and then taken away.
+A similar protrusion or pouting of the lips, though to a much
+slighter degree, may be seen in sulky children.
+
+
+[15] Brehm remarks (`Thierleben,' s.  68) that the eyebrows of the _Inuus
+ecaudatus_ are frequently moved up and down when the animal is angered.
+
+[16] G. Bennett, `Wanderings in New South Wales,' &c. vol.
+ii.  1834, p.  153.  FIG.  18.-Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky.
+Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.
+
+Many years ago, in the Zoological Gardens, I placed a looking-glass
+on the floor before two young orangs, who, as far as it was known,
+had never before seen one.  At first they gazed at their own images
+with the most steady surprise, and often changed their point of view.
+They then approached close and protruded their lips towards the image,
+as if to kiss it, in exactly the same manner as they had previously done
+towards each other, when first placed, a few days before, in the same room.
+They next made all sorts of grimaces, and put themselves in various
+attitudes before the mirror; they pressed and rubbed the surface;
+they placed their hands at different distances behind it; looked behind it;
+and finally seemed almost frightened, started a little, became cross,
+and refused to look any longer.
+
+When we try to perform some little action which is difficult
+and requires precision, for instance, to thread a needle,
+we generally close our lips firmly, for the sake, I presume,
+of not disturbing our movements by breathing; and I noticed
+the same action in a young Orang.  The poor little creature
+was sick, and was amusing itself by trying to kill the flies
+on the window-panes with its knuckles; this was difficult
+as the flies buzzed about, and at each attempt the lips were
+firmly compressed, and at the same time slightly protruded.
+
+
+[17] W. L. Martin, Nat.  Hist.  of Mamm.  Animals, 1841, p.  405.
+
+Although the countenances, and more especially the gestures, of orangs
+and chimpanzees are in some respects highly expressive, I doubt whether on
+the whole they are so expressive as those of some other kinds of monkeys.
+This may be attributed in part to their ears being immovable,
+and in part to the nakedness of their eyebrows, of which the movements
+are thus rendered less conspicuous.  When, however, they raise their
+eyebrows their foreheads become, as with us, transversely wrinkled.
+In comparison with man, their faces are inexpressive, chiefly owing
+to their not frowning under any emotion of the mind--that is, as far
+as I have been able to observe, and I carefully attended to this point.
+Frowning, which is one of the most important of all the expressions in man,
+is due to the contraction of the corrugators by which the eyebrows are lowered
+and brought together, so that vertical furrows are formed on the forehead.
+Both the orang and chimpanzee are said[18] to possess this muscle,
+but it seems rarely brought into action, at least in a conspicuous manner.
+I made my hands into a sort of cage, and placing some tempting fruit within,
+allowed both a young orang and chimpanzee to try their utmost to get it out;
+but although they grew rather cross, they showed not a trace of a frown.
+Nor was there any frown when they were enraged.  Twice I took two chimpanzees
+from their rather dark room suddenly into bright sunshine, which would
+certainly have caused us to frown; they blinked and winked their eyes,
+but only once did I see a very slight frown.  On another occasion,
+I tickled the nose of a chimpanzee with a straw, and as it crumpled
+up its face, slight vertical furrows appeared between the eyebrows.
+I have never seen a frown on the forehead of the orang.
+
+
+
+[18] Prof. Owen on the Orang, Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1830, p.  28.
+On the Chimpanzee, see Prof. Macalister, in Annals and Mag.
+of Nat.  Hist.  vol.  vii.  1871, p.  342, who states that the _corrugator
+supercilii_ is inseparable from the _orbicularis palpebrarum_.
+
+The gorilla, when enraged, is described as erecting its crest
+of hair, throwing down its under lip, dilating its nostrils,
+and uttering terrific yells.  Messrs.  Savage and Wyman[19]
+state that the scalp can be freely moved backwards and forwards,
+and that when the animal is excited it is strongly contracted;
+but I presume that they mean by this latter expression that the scalp
+is lowered; for they likewise speak of the young chimpanzee,
+when crying out, as having the eyebrows strongly contracted."
+The great power of movement in the scalp of the gorilla,
+of many baboons and other monkeys, deserves notice in relation
+to the power possessed by some few men, either through reversion
+or persistence, of voluntarily moving their scalps.[20]
+
+_Astonishment, Terror_--A living fresh-water turtle was placed at my request
+in the same compartment in the Zoological Gardens with many monkeys;
+and they showed unbounded astonishment, as well as some fear.
+This was displayed by their remaining motionless, staring intently
+with widely opened eyes, their eyebrows being often moved up and down.
+Their faces seemed somewhat lengthened.  They occasionally raised themselves
+on their hind-legs to get abetter view.  They often retreated a few feet,
+and then turning their heads over one shoulder, again stared intently.
+It was curious to observe how much less afraid they were of the turtle
+than of a living snake which I had formerly placed in their compartment;[21]
+for in the course of a few minutes some of the monkeys ventured to approach
+and touch the turtle.  On the other hand, some of the larger baboons
+were greatly terrified, and grinned as if on the point of screaming out.
+When I showed a little dressed-up doll to the _Cynopithecus niger_,
+it stood motionless, stared intently with widely opened eyes, and advanced its
+ears a little forwards.  But when the turtle was placed in its compartment,
+this monkey also moved its lips in an odd, rapid, jabbering manner,
+which the keeper declared was meant to conciliate or please the turtle.
+
+
+[19] Boston Journal of Nat.  Hist.  1845---47, vol.  v.  p.  423.  On the
+Chimpanzee, ibid.  1843-44, vol.  iv.  p.  365.
+
+[20] See on this subject, `Descent of Man,' vol.  i.  p.  20.
+
+I was never able clearly to perceive that the eyebrows of astonished
+monkeys were kept permanently raised, though they were frequently
+moved up and down.  Attention, which precedes astonishment,
+is expressed by man by a slight raising of the eyebrows;
+and Dr. Duchenne informs me that when he gave to the monkey
+formerly mentioned some quite new article of food, it elevated its
+eyebrows a little, thus assuming an appearance of close attention.
+It then took the food in its fingers, and, with lowered
+or rectilinear eyebrows, scratched, smelt, and examined it,--
+an expression of reflection being thus exhibited.  Sometimes it
+would throw back its head a little, and again with suddenly
+raised eyebrows re-examine and finally taste the food.
+
+In no case did any monkey keep its mouth open when it was astonished.
+Mr. Sutton observed for me a young orang and chimpanzee during a considerable
+length of time; and however much they were astonished, or whilst listening
+intently to some strange sound, they did not keep their mouths open.
+This fact is surprising, as with mankind hardly any expression is more
+general than a widely open mouth under the sense of astonishment.
+As far as I have been able to observe, monkeys breathe more freely
+through their nostrils than men do; and this may account for their not
+opening their mouths when they are astonished; for, as we shall see
+in a future chapter, man apparently acts in this manner when startled,
+at first for the sake of quickly drawing a full inspiration, and afterwards
+for the sake of breathing as quietly as possible.
+
+
+[21] `Descent of Man,' vol, i.  p, 43.
+
+Terror is expressed by many kinds of monkeys by the utterance of
+shrill screams; the lips being drawn back, so that the teeth are exposed.
+The hair becomes erect, especially when some anger is likewise felt.
+Mr. Sutton has distinctly seen the face of the _Macacus rhesus_
+grow pale from fear.  Monkeys also tremble from fear; and sometimes
+they void their excretions.  I have seen one which, when caught,
+almost fainted from an excess of terror.
+
+
+Sufficient facts have now been given with respect to the expressions of
+various animals.  It is impossible to agree with Sir C. Bell when he says[22]
+that "the faces of animals seem chiefly capable of expressing rage and fear;"
+and again, when he says that all their expressions "may be referred,
+more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary instincts."
+He who will look at a dog preparing to attack another dog or a man, and at
+the same animal when caressing his master, or will watch the countenance
+of a monkey when insulted, and when fondled by his keeper, will be forced
+to admit that the movements of their features and their gestures are almost
+as expressive as those of man.  Although no explanation can be given
+of some of the expressions in the lower animals, the greater number are
+explicable in accordance with the three principles given at the commencement
+of the first chapter.
+
+
+[22] `Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit.  1844, pp.  138, 121.  CHAPTER VI.
+
+SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN:  SUFFERING AND WEEPING.
+
+The screaming and weeping Of infants--Forms of features--
+Age at which weeping commences--The effects of habitual restraint
+on weeping--Sobbing--Cause of the contraction of the muscles round
+the eyes during screaming--Cause of the secretion of tears.
+
+
+IN this and the following chapters the expressions exhibited by Man
+under various states of the mind will be described and explained,
+as far as lies in my power.  My observations will be arranged
+according to the order which I have found the most convenient;
+and this will generally lead to opposite emotions and sensations
+succeeding each other.
+
+_Suffering of the body and mind:  weeping_.--I have already
+described in sufficient detail, in the third chapter, the signs
+of extreme pain, as shown by screams or groans, with the writhing
+of the whole body and the teeth clenched or ground together.
+These signs are often accompanied or followed by profuse
+sweating, pallor, trembling, utter prostration, or faintness.
+No suffering is greater than that from extreme fear or horror,
+but here a distinct emotion comes into play, and will be
+elsewhere considered.  Prolonged suffering, especially of the mind,
+passes into low spirits, grief, dejection, and despair,
+and these states will be the subject of the following chapter.
+Here I shall almost confine myself to weeping or crying,
+more especially in children.
+
+Infants, when suffering even slight pain, moderate hunger,
+or discomfort, utter violent and prolonged screams.
+Whilst thus screaming their eyes are firmly closed, so that the skin
+round them is wrinkled, and the forehead contracted into a frown.
+The mouth is widely opened with the lips retracted in a
+peculiar manner, which causes it to assume a squarish form;
+the gums or teeth being more or less exposed.  The breath is inhaled
+almost spasmodically.  It is easy to observe infants whilst screaming;
+but I have found photographs made by the instantaneous process
+the best means for observation, as allowing more deliberation.
+I have collected twelve, most of them made purposely for me;
+and they all exhibit the same general characteristics.
+I have, therefore, had six of them[1] (Plate I.) reproduced by
+the heliotype process.
+
+The firm closing of the eyelids and consequent compression
+of the eyeball,--and this is a most important element in
+various expressions,--serves to protect the eyes from becoming too
+much gorged with blood, as will presently be explained in detail.
+With respect to the order in which the several muscles contract
+in firmly compressing the eyes, I am indebted to Dr. Langstaff,
+of Southampton, for some observations, which I have since repeated.
+The best plan for observing the order is to make a person
+first raise his eyebrows, and this produces transverse wrinkles
+across the forehead; and then very gradually to contract all
+the muscles round the elves with as much force as possible.
+The reader who is unacquainted with the anatomy of the face,
+ought to refer to p.  24, and look at the woodcuts 1 to 3.
+The corrugators of the brow (_corrugator supercilii_) seem to be
+the first muscles to contract; and these draw the eyebrows downwards
+and inwards towards the base of the nose, causing vertical furrows,
+that is a frown, to appear between the eyebrows; at the same time
+they cause the disappearance of the transverse wrinkles across
+the forehead.  The orbicular muscles contract almost simultaneously
+with the corrugators, and produce wrinkles all round the eyes;
+they appear, however, to be enabled to contract with greater force,
+as soon as the contraction of the corrugators has given them
+some support.  Lastly, the pyramidal muscles of the nose contract;
+and these draw the eyebrows and the skin of the forehead still
+lower down, producing short transverse wrinkles across the base
+of the nose.[2] For the sake of brevity these muscles will generally
+be spoken of as the orbiculars, or as those surrounding the eyes.
+
+
+[1] The best photographs in my collection are by Mr. Rejlander,
+of Victoria Street, London, and by Herr Kindermann,
+of Hamburg.  Figs.  1, 3, 4, and 6 are by the former; and figs.
+2 and 5, by the latter gentleman.  Fig.  6 is given to show
+moderate crying in an older child.
+
+When these muscles are strongly contracted, those running
+to the upper lip[3] likewise contract and raise the upper lip.
+This might have been expected from the manner in which at least
+one of them, the _malaris_, is connected with the orbiculars.
+Any one who will gradually contract the muscles round his eyes,
+will feel, as he increases the force, that his upper lip
+and the wings of his nose (which are partly acted on by one
+of the same muscles) are almost always a little drawn up.
+If he keeps his mouth firmly shut whilst contracting the muscles
+round the eyes, and then suddenly relaxes his lips, he will
+feel that the pressure on his eyes immediately increases.
+So again when a person on a bright, glaring day wishes to look at
+a distant object, but is compelled partially to close his eyelids,
+the upper lip may almost always be observed to be somewhat raised.
+The mouths of some very short-sighted persons, who are forced
+habitually to reduce the aperture of their eyes, wear from this
+same reason a grinning expression.
+
+
+[2] Henle (`Handbuch d.  Syst.  Anat.  1858, B. i.  s.  139) agrees with
+Duchenne that this is the effect of the contraction of the _pyramidalis nasi_.
+
+[3] These consist of the _levator labii superioris alaeque nasi_,
+the _levator labii proprius_, the _malaris_, and the _zygomaticus minor_,
+or little zygomatic.  This latter muscle runs parallel to and above
+the great zygomatic, and is attached to the outer part of the upper lip.
+It is represented in fig.  2 (I. p.  24), but not in figs.
+1 and 3.  Dr. Duchenne first showed (`Mecanisme de la
+Physionomie Humaine,' Album, 1862, p.  39) the importance of the contraction
+of this muscle in the shape assumed by the features in crying.
+Henle considers the above-named muscles (excepting the _malaris_)
+as subdivisions of the q_uadratus labii superioris_.
+
+The raising of the upper lip draws upwards the flesh of the upper
+parts of the cheeks, and produces a strongly marked fold on
+each cheek,--the naso-labial fold,--which runs from near the wings
+of the nostrils to the corners of the mouth and below them.
+This fold or furrow may be seen in all the photographs,
+and is very characteristic of the expression of a crying child;
+though a nearly similar fold is produced in the act of
+laughing or Smiling.[4]
+
+
+[4] Although Dr. Duchenne has so carefully studied the contraction
+of the different muscles during the act of crying, and the
+furrows on the face thus produced, there seems to be something
+incomplete in his account; but what this is I cannot say.
+He has given a figure (Album, fig.  48) in which one half of
+the face is made, by galvanizing the proper muscles, to smile;
+whilst the other half is similarly made to begin crying.
+Almost all those (viz. nineteen out of twenty-one persons)
+to whom I showed the smiling half of the face instantly
+recognized the expression; but, with respect to the other half,
+only six persons out of twenty-one recognized it,--that is,
+if we accept such terms as "grief," "misery," "annoyance,"
+as correct;--whereas, fifteen persons were ludicrously mistaken;
+some of them saying the face expressed "fun," "satisfaction,"
+"cunning," "disgust," &c. We may infer from this that there
+is something wrong in the expression.  Some of the fifteen
+persons may, however, have been partly misled by not expecting
+to see an old man crying, and by tears not being secreted.
+With respect to another figure by Dr. Duchenne (fig. 49), in which
+the muscles of half the face are galvanized in order to represent
+a man beginning to cry, with the eyebrow on the same side
+rendered oblique, which is characteristic of misery, the expression
+was recognized by a greater proportional number of persons.
+Out of twenty-three persons, fourteen answered correctly,
+"sorrow," "distress," "grief," "just going to cry,"
+"endurance of pain," &c. On the other hand, nine persons either
+could form no opinion or were entirely wrong, answering,
+"cunning leer," "jocund," "looking at an intense light,"
+"looking at a distant object," &c.
+
+As the upper lip is much drawn up during the act of screaming, in the
+manner just explained, the depressor muscles of the angles of the mouth
+(see K in woodcuts 1 and 2) are strongly contracted in order to keep
+the mouth widely open, so that a full volume of sound may be poured forth.
+The action of these opposed muscles, above and below, tends to give
+to the mouth an oblong, almost squarish outline, as may be seen
+in the accompanying photographs.  An excellent observer,[5] in
+describing a baby crying whilst being fed, says, "it made its mouth
+like a square, and let the porridge run out at all four corners."
+I believe, but we shall return to this point in a future chapter,
+that the depressor muscles of the angles of the mouth are less
+under the separate control of the will than the adjoining muscles;
+so that if a young child is only doubtfully inclined to cry, this muscle
+is generally the first to contract, and is the last to cease contracting.
+When older children commence crying, the muscles which run to the upper
+lip are often the first to contract; and this may perhaps be due
+to older children not having so strong a tendency to scream loudly,
+and consequently to keep their mouths widely open; so that the above-named
+depressor muscles are not brought into such strong action.
+
+
+
+[5] Mrs. Gaskell, `Mary Barton,' new edit.  p.  84.
+
+With one of my own infants, from his eighth day and for some time afterwards,
+I often observed that the first sign of a screaming-fit, when it could be
+observed coming on gradually, was a little frown, owing to the contraction
+of the corrugators of the brows; the capillaries of the naked head and face
+becoming at the same time reddened with blood.  As soon as the screaming-fit
+actually began, all the muscles round the eyes were strongly contracted,
+and the mouth widely opened in the manlier above described; so that at this
+early period the features assumed the same form as at a more advanced age.
+
+Dr. Piderit[6] lays great stress on the contraction of certain
+muscles which draw down the nose and narrow the nostrils,
+as eminently characteristic of a crying expression.
+The _depressores anguli oris_, as we have just seen, are usually
+contracted at the same time, and they indirectly tend,
+according to Dr. Duchenne, to act in this same manner on the nose.
+With children having bad colds a similar pinched appearance
+of the nose may be noticed, which is at least partly due,
+as remarked to me by Dr. Langstaff, to their constant snuffling,
+and the consequent pressure of the atmosphere on the two sides.
+The purpose of this contraction of the nostrils by children having
+bad colds, or whilst crying, seems to be to cheek the downward
+flow of the mucus and tears, and to prevent these fluids
+spreading over the upper lip.
+
+After a prolonged and severe screaming-fit, the scalp, face, and eyes
+are reddened, owing to the return of the blood from the head having
+been impeded by the violent expiratory efforts; but the redness of
+the stimulated eyes is chiefly due to the copious effusion of tears.
+The various muscles of the face which have been strongly contracted,
+still twitch a little, and the upper lip is still slightly drawn up or
+everted,[7] with the corners of the mouth still a little drawn downwards.
+I have myself felt, and have observed in other grown-up persons,
+that when tears are restrained with difficulty, as in reading a
+pathetic story, it is almost impossible to prevent the various muscles.
+which with young children are brought into strong action during their
+screaming-fits, from slightly twitching or trembling.
+
+
+[6] `Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s.  102.  Duchenne, Mecanisme de
+la Phys.  Humaine, Album, p.  34.
+
+Infants whilst young do not shed tears or weep, as is well known
+to nurses and medical men.  This circumstance is not exclusively due
+to the lacrymal glands being as yet incapable of secreting tears.
+I first noticed this fact from having accidentally brushed with the cuff
+of my coat the open eye of one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old,
+causing this eye to water freely; and though the child screamed violently,
+the other eye remained dry, or was only slightly suffused with tears.
+A similar slight effusion occurred ten days previously in both eyes
+during a screaming-fit. The tears did not run over the eyelids and roll
+down the cheeks of this child, whilst screaming badly, when 122 days old.
+This first happened 17 days later, at the age of 139 days.
+A few other children have been observed for me, and the period of free
+weeping appears to be very variable.  In one case, the eyes became
+slightly suffused at the age of only 20 days; in another, at 62 days.
+With two other children, the tears did NOT run down the face at the ages of 84
+and 110 days; but in a third child they did run down at the age of 104 days.
+In one instance, as I was positively assured, tears ran down at the unusually
+early age of 42 days.  It would appear as if the lacrymal glands required
+some practice in the individual before they are easily excited into action,
+in somewhat the same manner as various inherited consensual movements
+and tastes require some exercise before they are fixed and perfected.
+This is all the more likely with a habit like weeping, which must have been
+acquired since the period when man branched off from the common progenitor
+of the genus Homo and of the non-weeping anthropomorphous apes.
+
+
+[7] Dr. Duchenne makes this remark, ibid.  p.  39.
+
+The fact of tears not being shed at a very early age from pain
+or any mental emotion is remarkable, as, later in life, no expression
+is more general or more strongly marked than weeping.  When the habit
+has once been acquired by an infant, it expresses in the clearest
+manner suffering of all kinds, both bodily pain and mental distress,
+even though accompanied by other emotions, such as fear or rage.
+The character of the crying, however, changes at a very early age, as I
+noticed in my own infants,--the passionate cry differing from that of grief.
+A lady informs me that her child, nine months old, when in a passion
+screams loudly, but does not weep; tears, however, are shed when she
+is punished by her chair being turned with its back to the table.
+This difference may perhaps be attributed to weeping being restrained,
+as we shall immediately see, at a more advanced age, under most
+circumstances excepting grief; and to the influence of such restraint
+being transmitted to an earlier period of life, than that at which it
+was first practised.
+
+With adults, especially of the male sex, weeping soon ceases
+to be caused by, or to express, bodily pain.  This may be accounted
+for by its being thought weak and unmanly by men, both of civilized
+and barbarous races, to exhibit bodily pain by any outward sign.
+With this exception, savages weep copiously from very slight causes,
+of which fact Sir J. Lubbock[8] has collected instances.
+A New Zealand chief "cried like a child because the sailors
+spoilt his favourite cloak by powdering it with flour."
+I saw in Tierra del Fuego a native who had lately lost a brother,
+and who alternately cried with hysterical violence, and laughed
+heartily at anything which amused him.  With the civilized nations
+of Europe there is also much difference in the frequency of weeping.
+Englishmen rarely cry, except under the pressure of the acutest grief;
+whereas in some parts of the Continent the men shed tears much
+more readily and freely.
+
+The insane notoriously give way to all their emotions with little or
+no restraint; and I am informed by Dr. J. Crichton Browne, that nothing
+is more characteristic of simple melancholia, even in the male sex,
+than a tendency to weep on the slightest occasions, or from no cause.
+They also weep disproportionately on the occurrence of any real
+cause of grief.  The length of time during which some patients weep
+is astonishing, as well as the amount of tears which they shed.
+One melancholic girl wept for a whole day, and afterwards confessed
+to Dr. Browne, that it was because she remembered that she had once
+shaved off her eyebrows to promote their growth.  Many patients
+in the asylum sit for a long time rocking themselves backwards
+and forwards; "and if spoken to, they stop their movements, purse up
+their eyes, depress the corners of the mouth, and burst out crying."
+In some of these cases, the being spoken to or kindly greeted appears
+to suggest some fanciful and sorrowful notion; but in other cases an effort
+of any kind excites weeping, independently of any sorrowful idea.
+Patients suffering from acute mania likewise have paroxysms of violent
+crying or blubbering, in the midst of their incoherent ravings.
+We must not, however, lay too much stress on the copious shedding
+of tears by the insane, as being due to the lack of all restraint;
+for certain brain-diseases, as hemiplegia, brain-wasting, and
+senile decay, have a special tendency to induce weeping.
+Weeping is common in the insane, even after a complete state
+of fatuity has been reached and the power of speech lost.
+Persons born idiotic likewise weep;[9] but it is said that this
+is not the case with cretins.
+
+
+[8] `The Origin of Civilization,' 1870, p.  355.
+
+Weeping seems to be the primary and natural expression, as we
+see in children, of suffering of any kind, whether bodily pain
+short of extreme agony, or mental distress.  But the foregoing
+facts and common experience show us that a frequently repeated
+effort to restrain weeping, in association with certain states
+of the mind, does much in checking the habit.  On the other hand,
+it appears that the power of weeping can be increased through habit;
+thus the Rev. R. Taylor,[10] who long resided in New Zealand,
+asserts that the women can voluntarily shed tears in abundance;
+they meet for this purpose to mourn for the dead, and they take
+pride in crying "in the most affecting manner."
+
+A single effort of repression brought to bear on the lacrymal glands
+does little, and indeed seems often to lead to an opposite result.
+An old and experienced physician told me that he had always found
+that the only means to check the occasional bitter weeping of ladies
+who consulted him, and who themselves wished to desist, was earnestly
+to beg them not to try, and to assure them that nothing would relieve
+them so much as prolonged and copious crying.
+
+
+[9] See, for instance, Mr. Marshall's account of an idiot
+in Philosoph.  Transact.  1864, p.  526.  With respect to cretins,
+see Dr. Piderit, `Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s.  61.
+
+[10] `New Zealand and its Inhabitants,' 1855, p.  175.
+
+The screaming of infants consists of prolonged expirations,
+with short and rapid, almost spasmodic inspirations, followed at
+a somewhat more advanced age by sobbing.  According to Gratiolet,[11]
+the glottis is chiefly affected during the act of sobbing.
+This sound is heard "at the moment when the inspiration conquers
+the resistance of the glottis, and the air rushes into the chest."
+But the whole act of respiration is likewise spasmodic and violent.
+The shoulders are at the same time generally raised, as by this
+movement respiration is rendered easier.  With one of my infants,
+when seventy-seven days old, the inspirations were so rapid
+and strong that they approached in character to sobbing; when 138
+days old I first noticed distinct sobbing, which subsequently
+followed every bad crying-fit. The respiratory movements are partly
+voluntary and partly involuntary, and I apprehend that sobbing
+is at least in part due to children having some power to command
+after early infancy their vocal organs and to stop their screams,
+but from having less power over their respiratory muscles,
+these continue for a time to act in an involuntary or
+spasmodic manner, after having been brought into violent action.
+Sobbing seems to be peculiar to the human species; for the keepers
+in the Zoological Gardens assure me that they have never heard
+a sob from any kind of monkey; though monkeys often scream loudly
+whilst being chased and caught, and then pant for a long time.
+We thus see that there is a close analogy between sobbing
+and the free shedding of tears; for with children, sobbing does
+not commence during early infancy, but afterwards comes on rather
+suddenly and then follows every bad crying-fit, until the habit
+is checked with advancing years.
+
+
+[11] `De la Physionomie,' 1865, p.  126.
+
+_On the cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes
+during screaming_.--We have seen that infants and young children,
+whilst screaming, invariably close their eyes firmly, by the contraction
+of the surrounding muscles, so that the skin becomes wrinkled all around.
+With older children, and even with adults, whenever there is violent
+and unrestrained crying, a tendency to the contraction of these same
+muscles may be observed; though this is often checked in order not
+to interfere with vision.
+
+Sir C. Bell explains[12] this action in the following
+manner:--"During every violent act of expiration, whether in
+hearty laughter, weeping, coughing, or sneezing, the eyeball
+is firmly compressed by the fibres of the orbicularis;
+and this is a provision for supporting and defending the vascular
+system of the interior of the eye from a retrograde impulse
+communicated to the blood in the veins at that time.
+When we contract the chest and expel the air, there is a
+retardation of the blood in the veins of the neck and head;
+and in the more powerful acts of expulsion, the blood not only distends
+the vessels, but is even regurgitated into the minute branches.
+Were the eye not properly compressed at that time, and a
+resistance given to the shock, irreparable injury might be
+inflicted on the delicate textures of the interior of the eye."
+He further adds, "If we separate the eyelids of a child
+to examine the eye, while it cries and struggles with passion,
+by taking off the natural support to the vascular system
+of the eye, and means of guarding it against the rush of blood
+then occurring, the conjunctiva becomes suddenly filled with blood,
+and the eyelids everted."
+
+
+[12] `The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p.  106.  See also his paper
+in the `Philosophical Transactions,' 1822, p.  284, ibid.  1823, pp.
+166 and 289.  Also `The Nervous System of the Human Body,' 3rd edit.
+1836, p.  175.
+
+Not only are the muscles round the eyes strongly contracted, as Sir C. Bell
+states and as I have often observed, during screaming, loud laughter,
+coughing, and sneezing, but during several other analogous actions.
+A man contracts these muscles when he violently blows his nose.
+I asked one of my boys to shout as loudly as he possibly could,
+and as soon as he began, he firmly contracted his orbicular muscles;
+I observed this repeatedly, and on asking him why he had every time
+so firmly closed his eyes, I found that he was quite unaware of the fact:
+he had acted instinctively or unconsciously.
+
+It is not necessary, in order to lead to the contraction of
+these muscles, that air should actually be expelled from the chest;
+it suffices that the muscles of the chest and abdomen should contract
+with great force, whilst by the closure of the glottis no air escapes.
+In violent vomiting or retching the diaphragm is made to descend
+by the chest being filled with air; it is then held in this position
+by the closure of the glottis, "as well as by the contraction of its own
+fibres."[13] The abdominal muscles now contract strongly upon the stomach,
+its proper muscles likewise contracting, and the contents are thus ejected.
+During each effort of vomiting "the head becomes greatly congested,
+so that the features are red and swollen, and the large veins of
+the face and temples visibly dilated."  At the same time, as I know
+from observation, the muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted.
+This is likewise the case when the abdominal muscles act downwards
+with unusual force in expelling the contents of the intestinal canal.
+
+
+[13] See Dr. Brinton's account of the act of vomiting, in Todd's Cyclop.
+of Anatomy and Physiology, 1859, vol.  v.  Supplement, p.  318.
+
+The greatest exertion of the muscles of the body, if those of the chest are
+not brought into strong action in expelling or compressing the air within
+the lungs, does not lead to the contraction of the muscles round the eyes.
+I have observed my sons using great force in gymnastic exercises,
+as in repeatedly raising their suspended bodies by their arms alone,
+and in lifting heavy weights from the ground, but there was hardly any
+trace of contraction in the muscles round the eyes.
+
+As the contraction of these muscles for the protection
+of the eyes during violent expiration is indirectly,
+as we shall hereafter see, a fundamental element in several
+of our most important expressions, I was extremely anxious
+to ascertain how far Sir C. Bell's view could be substantiated.
+Professor Donders, of Utrecht,[14] well known as one of the highest
+authorities in Europe on vision and on the structure of the eye,
+has most kindly undertaken for me this investigation with
+the aid of the many ingenious mechanisms of modern science,
+and has published the results.[15] He shows that during
+violent expiration the external, the intra-ocular, and the
+retro-ocular vessels of the eye are all affected in two ways,
+namely by the increased pressure of the blood in the arteries,
+and by the return of the blood in the veins being impeded.
+It is, therefore, certain that both the arteries and the veins
+of the eye are more or less distended during violent expiration.
+The evidence in detail may be found in Professor Donders'
+valuable memoir.  We see the effects on the veins of the head,
+in their prominence, and in the purple colour of the face
+of a man who coughs violently from being half choked.
+I may mention, on the same authority, that the whole eye
+certainly advances a little during each violent expiration.
+This is due to the dilatation of the retro-ocular vessels,
+and might have been expected from the intimate connection of
+the eye and brain; the brain being known to rise and fall with
+each respiration, when a portion of the skull has been removed;
+and as may be seen along the unclosed sutures of infants' heads.
+This also, I presume, is the reason that the eyes of a strangled
+man appear as if they were starting from their sockets.
+
+
+[14] I am greatly indebted to Mr. Bowman for having introduced
+me to Prof. Donders, and for his aid in persuading this great
+physiologist to undertake the investigation of the present subject.
+I am likewise much indebted to Mr. Bowman for having given me,
+with the utmost kindness, information on many points.
+
+[15] This memoir first appeared in the `Nederlandsch Archief voor Genees
+en Natuurkiinde,' Deel 5, 1870.  It has been translated by Dr. W. D. Moore,
+under the title of "On the Action of the Eyelids in determination of Blood
+from expiratory effort," in `Archives of Medicine,' edited by Dr. L. S. Beale,
+1870, vol.  v.  p.  20.
+
+With respect to the protection of the eye during violent expiratory
+efforts by the pressure of the eyelids, Professor Donders concludes from
+his various observations that this action certainly limits or entirely
+removes the dilatation of the vessels.[16] At such times, he adds,
+we not unfrequently see the hand involuntarily laid upon the eyelids,
+as if the better to support and defend the eyeball.
+
+
+
+[16] Prof. Donders remarks (ibid. p.  28), that, "After injury to the eye,
+after operations, and in some forms of internal inflammation,
+we attach great value to the uniform support of the closed eyelids,
+and we increase this in many instances by the application of a bandage.
+In both cases we carefully endeavour to avoid great expiratory pressure,
+the disadvantage of which is well known."  Mr. Bowman informs me that in
+the excessive photophobia, accompanying what is called scrofulous ophthalmia
+in children, when the light is so very painful that during weeks or months
+it is constantly excluded by the most forcible closure of the lids,
+he has often been struck on opening the lids by the paleness of the eye,--
+not an unnatural paleness, but an absence of the redness that might have been
+expected when the surface is somewhat inflamed, as is then usually the case;
+and this paleness he is inclined to attribute to the forcible closure
+of the eyelids.
+
+Nevertheless much evidence cannot at present be advanced
+to prove that the eye actually suffers injury from the want
+of support during violent expiration; but there is some.
+It is "a fact that forcible expiratory efforts in violent
+coughing or vomiting, and especially in sneezing,
+sometimes give rise to ruptures of the little (external) vessels"
+of the eye.[17] With respect to the internal vessels,
+Dr. Gunning has lately recorded a case of exophthalmos in
+consequence of whooping-cough, which in his opinion depended
+on the rupture of the deeper vessels; and another analogous
+case has been recorded.  But a mere sense of discomfort would
+probably suffice to lead to the associated habit of protecting
+the eyeball by the contraction of the surrounding muscles.
+Even the expectation or chance of injury would probably
+be sufficient, in the same manner as an object moving too
+near the eye induces involuntary winking of the eyelids.
+We may, therefore, safely conclude from Sir C. Bell's observations,
+and more especially from the more careful investigations
+by Professor Donders, that the firm closure of the eyelids
+during the screaming of children is an action full of meaning
+and of real service.
+
+We have already seen that the contraction of the orbicular muscles
+leads to the drawing up of the upper lip, and consequently,
+if the mouth is kept widely open, to the drawing down of
+the corners by the contraction of the depressor muscles.
+The formation of the naso-labial fold on the cheeks likewise
+follows from the drawing up of the upper lip.  Thus all the chief
+expressive movements of the face during crying apparently
+result from the contraction of the muscles round the eyes.
+We shall also find that the shedding of tears depends on,
+or at least stands in some connection with, the contraction
+of these same muscles.
+
+
+[17] Donders, ibid.  p.  36.
+
+In some of the foregoing cases, especially in those of sneezing and coughing,
+it is possible that the contraction of the orbicular muscles may serve
+in addition to protect the eyes from too severe a jar or vibration.
+I think so, because dogs and cats, in crunching hard bones, always close
+their eyelids, and at least sometimes in sneezing; though dogs do not
+do so whilst barking loudly.  Mr. Sutton carefully observed for me
+a young orang and chimpanzee, and he found that both always closed
+their eyes in sneezing and coughing, but not whilst screaming violently.
+I gave a small pinch of snuff to a monkey of the American division,
+namely, a Cebus, and it closed its eyelids whilst sneezing; but not on
+a subsequent occasion whilst uttering loud cries.
+
+_Cause of the secretion of tears_.--It is an important fact which
+must be considered in any theory of the secretion of tears from
+the mind being affected, that whenever the muscles round the eyes
+are strongly and involuntarily contracted in order to compress
+the blood-vessels and thus to protect the eyes, tears are secreted,
+often in sufficient abundance to roll down the cheeks.
+This occurs under the most opposite emotions, and under no emotion
+at all.  The sole exception, and this is only a partial one,
+to the existence of a relation between the involuntary and
+strong contraction of these muscles and the secretion of tears
+is that of young infants, who, whilst screaming violently
+with their eyelids firmly closed, do not commonly weep until
+they have attained the age of from two to three or four months.
+Their eyes, however, become suffused with tears at a much earlier age.
+It would appear, as already remarked, that the lacrymal
+glands do not, from the want of practice or some other cause,
+come to full functional activity at a very early period of life.
+With children at a somewhat later age, crying out or wailing from
+any distress is so regularly accompanied by the shedding of tears,
+that weeping and crying are synonymous terms.[18]
+
+Under the opposite emotion of great joy or amusement, as long as laughter
+is moderate there is hardly any contraction of the muscles round the eyes,
+so that there is no frowning; but when peals of loud laughter are uttered,
+with rapid and violent spasmodic expirations, tears stream down the face.
+I have more than once noticed the face of a person, after a paroxysm
+of violent laughter, and I could see that the orbicular muscles and those
+running to the upper lip were still partially contracted, which together
+with the tear-stained cheeks gave to the upper half of the face an expression
+not to be distinguished from that of a child still blubbering from grief.
+The fact of tears streaming down the face during violent laughter is common
+to all the races of mankind, as we shall see in a future chapter.
+
+In violent coughing especially when a person is half-choked,
+the face becomes purple, the veins distended, the orbicular muscles
+strongly contracted, and tears run down the cheeks.  Even after
+a fit of ordinary coughing, almost every one has to wipe his eyes.
+In violent vomiting or retching, as I have myself experienced
+and seen in others, the orbicular muscles are strongly contracted,
+and tears sometimes flow freely down the cheeks.  It has been suggested
+to me that this may be due to irritating matter being injected into
+the nostrils, and causing by reflex action the secretion of tears.
+Accordingly I asked one of my informants, a surgeon, to attend to
+the effects of retching when nothing was thrown up from the stomach;
+and, by an odd coincidence, he himself suffered the next morning
+from an attack of retching, and three days subsequently observed
+a lady under a similar attack; and he is certain that in neither case
+an atom of matter was ejected from the stomach; yet the orbicular
+muscles were strongly contracted, and tears freely secreted.
+I can also speak positively to the energetic contraction of these same
+muscles round the eyes, and to the coincident free secretion of tears,
+when the abdominal muscles act with unusual force in a downward
+direction on the intestinal canal.
+
+
+
+[18] Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood (Dict. of English Etymology,
+1859, vol.  i.  p.  410) says, "the verb to weep comes from
+Anglo-Saxon _wop_, the primary meaning of which is simply outcry."
+
+Yawning commences with a deep inspiration, followed by a long
+and forcible expiration; and at the same time almost all the muscles
+of the body are strongly contracted, including those round the eyes.
+During this act tears are often secreted, and I have seen them
+even rolling down the cheeks.
+
+I have frequently observed that when persons scratch some point which
+itches intolerably, they forcibly close their eyelids; but they do not,
+as I believe, first draw a deep breath and then expel it with force;
+and I have never noticed that the eyes then become filled with tears;
+but I am not prepared to assert that this does not occur.
+The forcible closure of the eyelids is, perhaps, merely a part of that
+general action by which almost all the muscles of the body are at
+the same time rendered rigid.  It is quite different from the gentle
+closure of the eyes which often accompanies, as Gratiolet remarks,[19]
+the smelling a delicious odour, or the tasting a delicious morsel,
+and which probably originates in the desire to shut out any disturbing
+impression through the eyes.
+
+
+[19] `De la Physionomie,' 1865, p.  217.
+
+Professor Donders writes to me to the following effect:
+"I have observed some cases of a very curious affection when,
+after a slight rub (_attouchement_), for example, from the friction
+of a coat, which caused neither a wound nor a contusion,
+spasms of the orbicular muscles occurred, with a very profuse flow
+of tears, lasting about one hour.  Subsequently, sometimes after
+an interval of several weeks, violent spasms of the same
+muscles re-occurred, accompanied by the secretion of tears,
+together with primary or secondary redness of the eye."
+Mr. Bowman informs me that be has occasionally observed closely
+analogous cases, and that, in some of these, there was no redness
+or inflammation of the eyes.
+
+I was anxious to ascertain whether there existed in any of the lower
+animals a similar relation between the contraction of the orbicular
+muscles during violent expiration and the secretion of tears;
+but there are very few animals which contract these muscles
+in a prolonged manner, or which shed tears.  _The Macacus maurus_,
+which formerly wept so copiously in the Zoological Gardens, would have
+been a fine case for observation; but the two monkeys now there,
+and which are believed to belong to the same species, do not weep.
+Nevertheless they were carefully observed by Mr. Bartlett and myself,
+whilst screaming loudly, and they seemed to contract these muscles;
+but they moved about their cages so rapidly, that it was difficult
+to observe with certainty.  No other monkey, as far as I have been
+able to ascertain, contracts its orbicular muscles whilst screaming.
+
+The Indian elephant is known sometimes to weep.  Sir E. Tennent,
+in describing these which he saw captured and bound in Ceylon, says,
+some "lay motionless on the ground, with no other indication of suffering
+than the tears which suffused their eyes and flowed incessantly."
+Speaking of another elephant he says, "When overpowered and made fast,
+his grief was most affecting; his violence sank to utter prostration,
+and he lay on the ground, uttering choking cries, with tears trickling
+down his cheeks."[20] In the Zoological Gardens the keeper of the Indian
+elephants positively asserts that he has several times seen tears
+rolling down the face of the old female, when distressed by the removal
+of the young one.  Hence I was extremely anxious to ascertain,
+as an extension of the relation between the contraction of the orbicular
+muscles and the shedding of tears in man, whether elephants when screaming
+or trumpeting loudly contract these muscles.  At Mr. Bartlett's
+desire the keeper ordered the old and the young elephant to trumpet;
+and we repeatedly saw in both animals that, just as the trumpeting began,
+the orbicular muscles, especially the lower ones, were distinctly contracted.
+On a subsequent occasion the keeper made the old elephant trumpet
+much more loudly, and invariably both the upper and lower orbicular
+muscles were strongly contracted, and now in an equal degree.
+It is a singular fact that the African elephant, which, however, is so
+different from the Indian species that it is placed by some naturalists
+in a distinct sub-genus, when made on two occasions to trumpet loudly,
+exhibited no trace of the contraction of the orbicular muscles.
+
+
+[20] `Ceylon,' 3rd edit.  1859, vol.  ii.  pp.  364, 376.
+I applied to Mr. Thwaites, in Ceylon, for further information
+with respect to the weeping of the elephant; and in consequence
+received a letter from the Rev. Mr Glenie, who, with others,
+kindly observed for me a herd of recently captured elephants.
+These, when irritated, screamed violently; but it is remarkable that they
+never when thus screaming contracted the muscles round the eyes.
+Nor did they shed tears; and the native hunters asserted that they
+had never observed elephants weeping.  Nevertheless, it appears
+to me impossible to doubt Sir E. Tennent's distinct details
+about their weeping, supported as they are by the positive
+assertion of the keeper in the Zoological Gardens.  It is
+certain that the two elephants in the Gardens, when they began
+to trumpet loudly, invariably contracted their orbicular muscles.
+I can reconcile these conflicting statements only by supposing
+that the recently captured elephants in Ceylon, from being
+enraged or frightened, desired to observe their persecutors,
+and consequently did not contract their orbicular muscles,
+so that their vision might not be impeded.  Those seen weeping by
+Sir E. Tennent were prostrate, and had given up the contest in despair.
+The elephants which trumpeted in the Zoological Gardens at the word
+of command, were, of course, neither alarmed nor enraged.
+
+From the several foregoing cases with respect to Man, there can,
+I think, be no doubt that the contraction of the muscles round
+the eyes, during violent expiration or when the expanded chest
+is forcibly compressed, is, in some manner, intimately connected
+with the secretion of tears.  This holds good under widely
+different emotions, and independently of any emotion.  It is not,
+of course, meant that tears cannot be secreted without the contraction
+of these muscles; for it is notorious that they are often freely
+shed with the eyelids not closed, and with the brows unwrinkled.
+The contraction must be both involuntary and prolonged,
+as during a choking fit, or energetic, as during a sneeze.
+The mere involuntary winking of the eyelids, though often repeated,
+does not bring tears into the eyes.  Nor does the voluntary and
+prolonged contraction of the several surrounding muscles suffice.
+As the lacrymal glands of children are easily excited, I persuaded
+my own and several other children of different ages to contract
+these muscles repeatedly with their utmost force, and to continue
+doing so as long as they possibly could; but this produced hardly
+any effect.  There was sometimes a little moisture in the eyes,
+but not more than apparently could be accounted for by the squeezing
+out of the already secreted tears within the glands.
+
+The nature of the relation between the involuntary and energetic
+contraction of the muscles round the eyes, and the secretion of tears,
+cannot be positively ascertained, but a probable view may be suggested.
+The primary function of the secretion of tears, together with some mucus,
+is to lubricate the surface of the eye; and a secondary one,
+as some believe, is to keep the nostrils damp, so that the inhaled
+air may be moist,[21] and likewise to favour the power of smelling.
+But another, and at least equally important function of tears, is to wash
+out particles of dust or other minute objects which may get into the eyes.
+That this is of great importance is clear from the cases in which the cornea
+has been rendered opaque through inflammation, caused by particles
+of dust not being removed, in consequence of the eye and eyelid becoming
+immovable.[22] The secretion of tears from the irritation of any foreign
+body in the eye is a reflex action;--that is, the body irritates a
+peripheral nerve which sends an impression to certain sensory nerve-cells;
+these transmit an influence to other cells, and these again to the
+lacrymal glands.  The influence transmitted to these glands causes,
+as there is good reason to believe, the relaxation of the muscular
+coats of the smaller arteries; this allows more blood to permeate
+the glandular tissue, and this induces a free secretion of tears.
+When the small arteries of the face, including those of the retina,
+are relaxed under very different circumstances, namely, during an
+intense blush, the lacrymal glands are sometimes affected in a like manner,
+for the eyes become suffused with tears.
+
+It is difficult to conjecture how many reflex actions have originated,
+but, in relation to the present case of the affection of the lacrymal
+glands through irritation of the surface of the eye, it may be worth
+remarking that, as soon as some primordial form became semi-terrestrial
+in its habits, and was liable to get particles of dust into its eyes,
+if these were not washed out they would cause much irritation;
+and on the principle of the radiation of nerve-force to adjoining
+nerve-cells, the lacrymal glands would be stimulated to secretion.
+As this would often recur, and as nerve-force readily passes along
+accustomed channels, a slight irritation would ultimately suffice
+to cause a free secretion of tears.
+
+
+[21] Bergeon, as quoted in the `Journal of Anatomy
+and Physiology,' Nov. 1871, p.  235.
+
+[22] See, for instance, a case given by Sir Charles Bell,
+`Philosophical Transactions,' 1823, p.  177.
+
+As soon as by this, or by some other means, a reflex action
+of this nature had been established and rendered easy,
+other stimulants applied to the surface of the eye--such as a
+cold wind, slow inflammatory action, or a blow on the eyelids--
+would cause a copious secretion of tears, as we know to be the case.
+The glands are also excited into action through the irritation
+of adjoining parts.  Thus when the nostrils are irritated by
+pungent vapours, though the eyelids may be kept firmly closed,
+tears are copiously secreted; and this likewise follows from
+a blow on the nose, for instance from a boxing-glove. A stinging
+switch on the face produces, as I have seen, the same effect.
+In these latter cases the secretion of tears is an incidental result,
+and of no direct service.  As all these parts of the face,
+including the lacrymal glands, are supplied with branches
+of the same nerve, namely, the fifth, it is in some degree
+intelligible that the effects of the excitement of any one branch
+should spread to the nerve-cells or roots of the other branches.
+
+The internal parts of the eye likewise act, under certain conditions,
+in a reflex manner on the lacrymal glands.  The following statements
+have been kindly communicated to me by Mr. Bowman; but the subject
+is a very intricate one, as all the parts of the eye are so intimately
+related together, and are so sensitive to various stimulants.
+A strong light acting on the retina, when in a normal condition,
+has very little tendency to cause lacrymation; but with unhealthy
+children having small, old-standing ulcers on the cornea, the retina
+becomes excessively sensitive to light, and exposure even to common
+daylight causes forcible and sustained closure of the lids,
+and a profuse flow of tears.  When persons who ought to begin
+the use of convex glasses habitually strain the waning power
+of accommodation, an undue secretion of tears very often follows,
+and the retina is liable to become unduly sensitive to light.
+In general, morbid affections of the surface of the eye,
+and of the ciliary structures concerned in the accommodative act,
+are prone to be accompanied with excessive secretion of tears.
+Hardness of the eyeball, not rising to inflammation, but implying
+a want of balance between the fluids poured out and again taken up by
+the intra-ocular vessels, is not usually attended with any lacrymation.
+When the balance is on the other side, and the eye becomes too soft,
+there is a greater tendency to lacrymation.  Finally, there are
+numerous morbid states and structural alterations of the eyes,
+and even terrible inflammations, which may be attended with little
+or no secretion of tears.
+
+It also deserves notice, as indirectly bearing on our subject,
+that the eye and adjoining parts are subject to an extraordinary
+number of reflex and associated movements, sensations, and actions,
+besides those relating to the lacrymal glands.  When a bright
+light strikes the retina of one eye alone, the iris contracts,
+but the iris of the other eye moves after a measurable interval of time.
+The iris likewise moves in accommodation to near or distant vision,
+and when the two eyes are made to converge.[23] Every one knows how
+irresistibly the eyebrows are drawn down under an intensely bright light.
+The eyelids also involuntarily wink when an object is moved near the eyes,
+or a sound is suddenly heard.  The well-known case of a bright light
+causing some persons to sneeze is even more curious; for nerve-force
+here radiates from certain nerve-cells in connection with the retina,
+to the sensory nerve-cells of the nose, causing it to tickle;
+and from these, to the cells which command the various respiratory muscles
+(the orbiculars included) which expel the air in so peculiar a manner
+that it rushes through the nostrils alone.
+
+To return to our point:  why are tears secreted during
+a screaming-fit or other violent expiratory efforts?
+As a slight blow on the eyelids causes a copious secretion
+of tears, it is at least possible that the spasmodic contraction
+of the eyelids, by pressing strongly on the eyeball, should in
+a similar manner cause some secretion.  This seems possible,
+although the voluntary contraction of the same muscles does not
+produce any such effect.  We know that a man cannot voluntarily
+sneeze or cough with nearly the same force as he does automatically;
+and so it is with the contraction of the orbicular muscles:
+Sir C. Bell experimented on them, and found that by suddenly
+and forcibly closing the eyelids in the dark, sparks of light
+are seen, like those caused by tapping the eyelids with
+the fingers; "but in sneezing the compression is both more
+rapid and more forcible, and the sparks are more brilliant."
+That these sparks are due to the contraction of the eyelids
+is clear, because if they "are held open during the act
+of sneezing, no sensation of light will be experienced."
+In the peculiar cases referred to by Professor Donders and
+Mr. Bowman, we have seen that some weeks after the eye has been
+very slightly injured, spasmodic contractions of the eyelids ensue,
+and these are accompanied by a profuse flow of tears.
+In the act of yawning, the tears are apparently due solely
+to the spasmodic contraction of the muscles round the eyes.
+Notwithstanding these latter cases, it seems hardly credible
+that the pressure of the eyelids on the surface of the eye,
+although effected spasmodically and therefore with much greater
+force than can be done voluntarily, should be sufficient to cause
+by reflex action the secretion of tears in the many cases
+in which this occurs during violent expiratory efforts.
+
+
+[23] See, on these several points, Prof. Donders `On the Anomalies
+of Accommodation and Refraction of the Eye,' 1864, p.  573.
+
+Another cause may come conjointly into play.
+We have seen that the internal parts of the eye, under certain
+conditions act in a reflex manner on the lacrymal glands.
+We know that during violent expiratory efforts the pressure
+of the arterial blood within the vessels of the eye is increased,
+and that the return of the venous blood is impeded.
+It seems, therefore, not improbable that the distension
+of the ocular vessels, thus induced, might act by reflection
+on the lacrymal glands--the effects due to the spasmodic pressure
+of the eyelids on the surface of the eye being thus increased.
+
+In considering how far this view is probable, we should bear
+in mind that the eyes of infants have been acted on in this
+double manner during numberless generations, whenever they
+have screamed; and on the principle of nerve-force readily
+passing along accustomed channels, even a moderate compression
+of the eyeballs and a moderate distension of the ocular vessels
+would ultimately come, through habit, to act on the glands.
+We have an analogous case in the orbicular muscles being almost
+always contracted in some slight degree, even during a gentle
+crying-fit, when there can be no distension of the vessels
+and no uncomfortable sensation excited within the eyes.
+
+Moreover, when complex actions or movements have long been performed
+in strict association together, and these are from any cause at first
+voluntarily and afterwards habitually checked, then if the proper exciting
+conditions occur, any part of the action or movement which is least under
+the control of the will, will often still be involuntarily performed.
+The secretion by a gland is remarkably free from the influence of
+the will; therefore, when with the advancing age of the individual,
+or with the advancing culture of the race, the habit of crying out
+or screaming is restrained, and there is consequently no distension
+of the blood-vessels of the eye, it may nevertheless well happen
+that tears should still be secreted.  We may see, as lately remarked,
+the muscles round the eyes of a person who reads a pathetic story,
+twitching or trembling in so slight a degree as hardly to be detected.
+In this case there has been no screaming and no distension of the
+blood-vessels, yet through habit certain nerve-cells send a small amount
+of nerve-force to the cells commanding the muscles round the eyes;
+and they likewise send some to the cells commanding the lacrymal glands,
+for the eyes often become at the same time just moistened with tears.
+If the twitching of the muscles round the eyes and the secretion
+of tears had been completely prevented, nevertheless it is almost
+certain that there would have been some tendency to transmit nerve-force
+in these same directions; and as the lacrymal glands are remarkably
+free from the control of the will, they would be eminently liable still
+to act, thus betraying, though there were no other outward signs,
+the pathetic thoughts which were passing through the person's mind.
+
+As a further illustration of the view here advanced,
+I may remark that if, during an early period of life,
+when habits of all kinds are readily established, our infants,
+when pleased, had been accustomed to utter loud peals of laughter
+(during which the vessels of their eyes are distended)
+as often and as continuously as they have yielded when
+distressed to screaming-fits, then it is probable that in after
+life tears would have been as copiously and as regularly
+secreted under the one state of mind as under the other.
+Gentle laughter, or a smile, or even a pleasing thought,
+would have sufficed to cause a moderate secretion of tears.
+There does indeed exist an evident tendency in this direction, as will
+be seen in a future chapter, when we treat of the tender feelings.
+With the Sandwich Islanders, according to Freycinet,[24] tears are
+actually recognized as a sign of happiness; but we should require
+better evidence on this head than that of a passing voyager.
+So again if our infants, during many generations, and each
+of them during several years, had almost daily suffered from
+prolonged choking-fits, during which the vessels of the eye
+are distended and tears copiously secreted, then it is probable,
+such is the force of associated habit, that during after life
+the mere thought of a choke, without any distress of mind,
+would have sufficed to bring tears into our eyes.
+
+To sum up this chapter, weeping is probably the result of some such chain
+of events as follows.  Children, when wanting food or suffering in any way,
+cry out loudly, like the young of most other animals, partly as a call
+to their parents for aid, and partly from any great exertion serving relief.
+Prolonged screaming inevitably leads to the gorging of the blood-vessels of
+the eye; and this will have led, at first consciously and at last habitually,
+to the contraction of the muscles round the eyes in order to protect them.
+At the same time the spasmodic pressure on the surface of the eye,
+and the distension of the vessels within the eye, without necessarily
+entailing any conscious sensation, will have affected, through reflex action,
+the lacrymal glands.  Finally, through the three principles of nerve-force
+readily passing along accustomed channels--of association, which is so
+widely extended in its power--and of certain actions, being more under
+the control of the will than others--it has come to pass that suffering
+readily causes the secretion of tears, without being necessarily accompanied
+by any other action.
+
+
+[24] Quoted by Sir J. Lubbock, `Prehistoric Times,' 1865, p.  458.
+
+Although in accordance with this view we must look at weeping
+as an incidental result, as purposeless as the secretion of tears
+from a blow outside the eye, or as a sneeze from the retina
+being affected by a bright light, yet this does not present any
+difficulty in our understanding how the secretion of tears serves
+as a relief to suffering.  And by as much as the weeping is more
+violent or hysterical, by so much will the relief be greater,--
+on the same principle that the writhing of the whole body,
+the grinding of the teeth, and the uttering of piercing shrieks,
+all give relief under an agony of pain.  CHAPTER VII.
+
+LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.
+
+General effect of grief on the system--Obliquity of the eyebrows
+under suffering--On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows--
+On the depression of the corners of the mouth.
+
+
+AFTER the mind has suffered from an acute paroxysm of grief,
+and the cause still continues, we fall into a state of low spirits;
+or we may be utterly cast down and dejected.  Prolonged bodily pain,
+if not amounting to an agony, generally leads to the same state of mind.
+If we expect to suffer, we are anxious; if we have no hope
+of relief, we despair.
+
+Persons suffering from excessive grief often seek relief by violent
+and almost frantic movements, as described in a former chapter;
+but when their suffering is somewhat mitigated, yet prolonged,
+they no longer wish for action, but remain motionless
+and passive, or may occasionally rock themselves to and fro.
+The circulation becomes languid; the face pale; the muscles flaccid;
+the eyelids droop; the head hangs on the contracted chest;
+the lips, checks, and lower jaw all sink downwards from
+their own weight.  Hence all the features are lengthened;
+and the face of a person who hears bad news is said to fall.
+A party of natives in Tierra del Fuego endeavoured to explain
+to us that their friend, the captain of a sealing vessel,
+was out of spirits, by pulling down their cheeks with
+both hands, so as to make their faces as long as possible.
+Mr. Bunnet informs me that the Australian aborigines when out
+of spirits have a chop-fallen appearance.  After prolonged
+suffering the eyes become dull and lack expression, and are often
+slightly suffused with tears.  The eyebrows not rarely are
+rendered oblique, which is due to their inner ends being raised.
+This produces peculiarly-formed wrinkles on the forehead,
+which are very different from those of a simple frown;
+though in some cases a frown alone may be present.
+The corners of the mouth are drawn downwards, which is so
+universally recognized as a sign of being out of spirits,
+that it is almost proverbial.
+
+The breathing becomes slow and feeble, and is often interrupted
+by deep sighs.  As Gratiolet remarks, whenever our attention is long
+concentrated on any subject, we forget to breathe, and then relieve
+ourselves by a deep inspiration; but the sighs of a sorrowful person,
+owing to his slow respiration and languid circulation,
+are eminently characteristic.[1] As the grief of a person
+in this state occasionally recurs and increases into a paroxysm,
+spasms affect the respiratory muscles, and he feels as if something,
+the so-called _globus hystericus_, was rising in his throat.
+These spasmodic movements are clearly allied to the sobbing
+of children, and are remnants of those severer spasms which occur
+when a person is said to choke from excessive grief.[2]
+
+
+[1] The above descriptive remarks are taken in part from my own observations,
+but chiefly from Gratiolet (`De la Physionomie,' pp.  53, 337; on Sighing,
+232), who has well treated this whole subject.  See, also, Huschke.  `Mimices
+et Physiognomices, Fragmentum Physiologicitim,' 1821, p.  21.  On the dulness
+of the eyes, Dr. Piderit, `Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s.  65.
+
+[2] On the action of grief on the organs of respiration,
+
+_Obliquity of the eyebrows_.--Two points alone in the above
+description require further elucidation, and these are
+very curious ones; namely, the raising of the inner ends of
+the eyebrows, and the drawing down of the corners of the mouth.
+With respect to the eyebrows, they may occasionally be seen
+to assume an oblique position in persons suffering from deep
+dejection or anxiety; for instance, I have observed this
+movement in a mother whilst speaking about her sick son;
+and it is sometimes excited by quite trifling or momentary
+causes of real or pretended distress.  The eyebrows assume
+this position owing to the contraction of certain muscles
+(namely, the orbiculars, corrugators, and pyramidals of the nose,
+which together tend to lower and contract the eyebrows)
+being partially checked by the more powerful action of the central
+fascim of the frontal muscle.  These latter fasciae by their
+contraction raise the inner ends alone of the eyebrows;
+and as the corrugators at the same time draw the eyebrows together,
+their inner ends become puckered into a fold or lump.
+This fold is a highly characteristic point in the appearance
+of the eyebrows when rendered oblique, as may be seen in figs.
+2 and 5, Plate II.  The eyebrows are at the same time
+somewhat roughened, owing to the hairs being made to project.
+Dr. J. Crichton Browne has also often noticed in melancholic
+patients who keep their eyebrows persistently oblique,
+"a peculiar acute arching of the upper eyelid."
+A trace of this may be observed by comparing the right and left
+eyelids of the young man in the photograph (fig. 2, Plate II.);
+for he was not able to act equally on both eyebrows.  This is also
+shown by the unequal furrows on the two sides of his forehead.
+The acute arching of the eyelids
+
+
+
+see more especially Sir C. Bell, `Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit.
+1844, p.  151.  depends, I believe, on the inner end alone of the eyebrows
+being raised; for when the whole eyebrow is elevated and arched,
+the upper eyelid follows in a slight degree the same movement.
+
+But the most conspicuous result of the opposed contraction of the above-named
+muscles, is exhibited by the peculiar furrows formed on the forehead.
+These muscles, when thus in conjoint yet opposed action, may be called,
+for the sake of brevity, the grief-muscles. When a person elevates
+his eyebrows by the contraction of the whole frontal muscle,
+transverse wrinkles extend across the whole breadth of the forehead;
+but in the present case the middle fasciae alone are contracted;
+consequently, transverse furrows are formed across the middle
+part alone of the forehead.  The skin over the exterior parts
+of both eyebrows is at the same time drawn downwards and smooth,
+by the contraction of the outer portions of the orbicular muscles.
+The eyebrows are likewise brought together through the simultaneous
+contraction of the corrugators;[3] and this latter action generates
+vertical furrows, separating the exterior and lowered part of the skin
+of the forehead from the central and raised part.  The union of these
+vertical furrows with the central and transverse furrows (see figs.
+2 and 3) produces a mark on the forehead which has been compared
+to a horse-shoe; but the furrows more strictly form three sides
+of a quadrangle.  They are often conspicuous on the foreheads of adult
+or nearly adult persons, when their eyebrows are made oblique;
+but with young children, owing to their skin not easily wrinkling,
+they are rarely seen, or mere traces of them can be detected.
+
+These peculiar furrows are best represented in fig.  3, Plate II.,
+on the forehead of a young lady who has the power in an unusual
+degree of voluntarily acting on the requisite muscles.
+As she was absorbed in the attempt, whilst being photographed,
+her expression was not at all one of grief; I have therefore
+given the forehead alone.  Fig.  1 on the same plate, copied from
+Dr. Duchenne's work 4 represents, on a reduced scale, the face,
+in its natural state, of a young man who was a good actor.
+In fig.  2 he is shown simulating grief, but the
+
+
+
+[3] In the foregoing remarks on the manner in which the eyebrows
+are made oblique, I have followed what seems to be the universal
+opinion of all the anatomists, whose works I have consulted on
+the action of the above-named muscles, or with whom I have conversed.
+Hence throughout this work I shall take a similar view of the action
+of the _corrugator supercilii_, _orbicularis, pyramidalis nasi_,
+and _frontalis_ muscles.  Dr. Duchenne, however, believes, and every
+conclusion at which he arrives deserves serious consideration, that it
+is the corrugator, called by him the _sourcilier_, which raises the inner
+corner of the eyebrows and is antagonistic to the upper and inner
+part of the orbicular muscle, as well as to the _pyramidalis nasi_
+(see Mecanisme de la Phys.  Humaine, 1862, folio, art.
+v., text and figures 19 to 29:  octavo edit.  1862, p.  43 text).
+He admits, however, that the corrugator draws together the eyebrows,
+causing vertical furrows above the base of the nose, or a frown.
+He further believes that towards the outer two-thirds of the eyebrow
+the corrugator acts in conjunction with the upper orbicular muscle;
+both here standing in antagonism to the frontal muscle.
+I am unable to understand, judging from Henle's drawings (woodcut, fig.
+3), how the corrugator can act in the manner described
+by Duchenue.  See, also, oil this subject, Prof. Donders' remarks in
+the `Archives of Medicine,' 1870, vol.  v.  p.  34.  Mr. J. Wood,
+who is so well known for his careful study of the muscles
+of the human frame, informs me that he believes the account
+which I have given of the action of the corrugator to be correct.
+But this is not a point of any importance with respect to
+the expression which is caused by the obliquity of the eyebrows,
+nor of much importance to the theory of its origin.
+
+`I am greatly indebted to Dr. Duchenne for permission to have
+these two photographs (figs. 1 and 2) reproduced by the heliotype
+process from his work in folio.  Many of the foregoing remarks on
+the furrowing of the skin, when the eyebrows are rendered oblique,
+are taken from his excellent discussion on this subject.
+two eyebrows, as before remarked, are not equally acted on.
+That the expression is true, may be inferred from the fact
+that out of fifteen persons, to whom the original photograph
+was shown, without any clue to what was intended being
+given them, fourteen immediately answered, "despairing sorrow,"
+"suffering endurance," "melancholy," and so forth.  The history of fig.
+5 is rather curious:  I saw the photograph in a shop-window,
+and took it to Mr. Rejlander for the sake of finding out by whom it
+had been made; remarking to him how pathetic the expression was.
+He answered, "I made it, and it was likely to be pathetic,
+for the boy in a few minutes burst out crying."  He then showed me
+a photograph of the same boy in a placid state, which I have had
+(fig. 4) reproduced.  In fig.  6, a trace of obliquity in
+the eyebrows may be detected; but this figure, as well as fig.
+7, is given to show the depression of the corners of the mouth,
+to which subject I shall presently refer.
+
+Few persons, without some practice, can voluntarily act on
+their grief-muscles; but after repeated trials a considerable
+number succeed, whilst others never can.  The degree of obliquity
+in the eyebrows, whether assumed voluntarily or unconsciously,
+differs much in different persons.  With some who apparently have
+unusually strong pyramidal muscles, the contraction of the central
+fasciae of the frontal muscle, although it may be energetic,
+as shown by the quadrangular furrows on the forehead,
+does not raise the inner ends of the eyebrows, but only prevents
+their being so much lowered as they otherwise would have been.
+As far as I have been able to observe, the grief-muscles are brought
+into action much more frequently by children and women than by men.
+They are rarely acted on, at least with grown-up persons,
+from bodily pain, but almost exclusively from mental distress.
+Two persons who, after some practice, succeeded in acting on their
+grief-muscles, found by looking at a mirror that when they made
+their eyebrows oblique, they unintentionally at the same time
+depressed the corners of their mouths; and this is often the case
+when the expression is naturally assumed.
+
+The power to bring the grief-muscles freely into play appears
+to be hereditary, like almost every other human faculty.
+A lady belonging to a family famous for having produced an extraordinary
+number of great actors and actresses, and who can herself give this
+expression "with singular precision," told Dr. Crichton Browne
+that all her family had possessed the power in a remarkable degree.
+The same hereditary tendency is said to have extended, as I likewise
+hear from Dr. Browne, to the last descendant of the family,
+which gave rise to Sir Walter Scott's novel of `Red Gauntlet;'
+but the hero is described as contracting his forehead into a
+horseshoe mark from any strong emotion.  I have also seen a young
+woman whose forehead seemed almost habitually thus contracted,
+independently of any emotion being at the time felt.
+
+The grief-muscles are not very frequently brought into play;
+and as the action is often momentary, it easily escapes observation.
+Although the expression, when observed, is universally and instantly
+recognized as that of grief or anxiety, yet not one person
+out of a thousand who has never studied the subject, is able
+to say precisely what change passes over the sufferer's face.
+Hence probably it is that this expression is not even alluded to,
+as far as I have noticed, in any work of fiction, with the exception
+of `Red Gauntlet' and of one other novel; and the authoress
+of the latter, as I am informed, belongs to the famous family
+of actors just alluded to; so that her attention may have been
+specially called to the subject.
+
+The ancient Greek sculptors were familiar with the expression, as shown
+in the statues of the Laocoon and Arretino; but, as Duchenne remarks,
+they carried the transverse furrows across the whole breadth
+of the forehead, and thus committed a great anatomical mistake:
+this is likewise the case in some modern statues.
+It is, however, more probable that these wonderfully accurate
+observers intentionally sacrificed truth for the sake of beauty,
+than that they made a mistake; for rectangular furrows on
+the forehead would not have had a grand appearance on the marble.
+The expression, in its fully developed condition, is, as far
+as I can discover, not often represented in pictures by
+the old masters, no doubt owing to the same cause; but a lady
+who is perfectly familiar with this expression, informs me
+that in Fra Angelico's `Descent from the Cross,' in Florence,
+it is clearly exhibited in one of the figures on the right-hand;
+and I could add a few other instances.
+
+Dr. Crichton Browne, at my request, closely attended to this
+expression in the numerous insane patients under his care
+in the West Riding Asylum; and he is familiar with Duchenne's
+photographs of the action of the grief-muscles. He informs me
+that they may constantly be seen in energetic action in cases
+of melancholia, and especially of hypochondria; and that the
+persistent lines or furrows, due to their habitual contraction,
+are characteristic of the physiognomy of the insane belonging
+to these two classes.  Dr. Browne carefully observed for me
+during a considerable period three cases of hypochondria,
+in which the grief-muscles were persistently contracted.
+In one of these, a widow, aged 51, fancied that she had
+lost all her viscera, and that her whole body was empty.
+She wore an expression of great distress, and beat her semi-closed
+hands rhythmically together for hours.  The grief-muscles
+were permanently contracted, and the upper eyelids arched.
+This condition lasted for months; she then recovered,
+and her countenance resumed its natural expression.
+A second case presented nearly the same peculiarities,
+with the addition that the corners of the mouth were depressed.
+
+Mr. Patrick Nicol has also kindly observed for me several cases
+in the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, and has communicated to me full details
+with respect to three of them; but they need not here be given.
+From his observations on melancholic patients, Mr. Nicol concludes that
+the inner ends of the eyebrows are almost always more or less raised,
+with the wrinkles on the forehead more or less plainly marked.
+In the case of one young woman, these wrinkles were observed to be
+in constant slight play or movement.  In some cases the corners
+of the mouth are depressed, but often only in a slight degree.
+Some amount of difference in the expression of the several melancholic
+patients could almost always be observed.  The eyelids generally droop;
+and the skin near their outer corners and beneath them is wrinkled.
+The naso-labial fold, which runs from the wings of the nostrils to the
+corners of the mouth, and which is so conspicuous in blubbering children,
+is often plainly marked in these patients.
+
+Although with the insane the grief-muscles often act persistently;
+yet in ordinary cases they are sometimes brought unconsciously
+into momentary action by ludicrously slight causes.
+A gentleman rewarded a young lady by an absurdly small present;
+she pretended to be offended, and as she upbraided him, her eyebrows
+became extremely oblique, with the forehead properly wrinkled.
+Another young lady and a youth, both in the highest spirits,
+were eagerly talking together with extraordinary rapidity;
+and I noticed that, as often as the young lady was beaten,
+and could not get out her words fast enough, her eyebrows
+went obliquely upwards, and rectangular furrows were formed
+on her forehead.  She thus each time hoisted a flag of distress;
+and this she did half-a-dozen times in the course of a few minutes.
+I made no remark on the subject, but on a subsequent occasion I
+asked her to act on her grief-muscles; another girl who was present,
+and who could do so voluntarily, showing her what was intended.
+She tried repeatedly, but utterly failed; yet so slight a cause
+of distress as not being able to talk quickly enough, sufficed to
+bring these muscles over and over again into energetic action.
+
+The expression of grief, due to the contraction of the grief-muscles,
+is by no means confined to Europeans, but appears to be common to all
+the races of mankind.  I have, at least, received trustworthy accounts
+in regard to Hindoos, Dhangars (one of the aboriginal hill-tribes
+of India, and therefore belonging to a quite distinct race from the
+Hindoos), Malays, Negroes and Australians.  With respect to the latter,
+two observers answer my query in the affirmative, but enter into no details.
+Mr. Taplin, however, appends to my descriptive remarks the words
+"this is exact."  With respect to negroes, the lady who told me
+of Fra Angelico's picture, saw a negro towing a boat on the Nile,
+and as he encountered an obstruction, she observed his grief-muscles
+in strong action, with the middle of the forehead well wrinkled.
+Mr. Geach watched a Malay man in Malacca, with the corners of his
+mouth much depressed, the eyebrows oblique, with deep short grooves
+on the forehead.  This expression lasted for a very short time;
+and Mr. Geach remarks it "was a strange one, very much like a person
+about to cry at some great loss."
+
+In India Mr. H. Erskine found that the natives were familiar with
+this expression; and Mr. J. Scott, of the Botanic Gardens, Calcutta,
+has obligingly sent me a full description of two cases.
+He observed during some time, himself unseen, a very young
+Dhangar woman from Nagpore, the wife of one of the gardeners,
+nursing her baby who was at the point of death; and he distinctly
+saw the eyebrows raised at the inner corners, the eyelids drooping,
+the forehead wrinkled in the middle, the mouth slightly open,
+with the corners much depressed.  He then came from behind a screen
+of plants and spoke to the poor woman, who started, burst into
+a bitter flood of tears, and besought him to cure her baby.
+The second case was that of a Hindustani man, who from illness
+and poverty was compelled to sell his favourite goat.
+After receiving the money, he repeatedly looked at the money
+in his hand and then at the goat, as if doubting whether he would
+not return it.  He went to the goat, which was tied up ready
+to be led away, and the animal reared up and licked his hands.
+His eyes then wavered from side to side; his "mouth was
+partially closed, with the corners very decidedly depressed."
+At last the poor man seemed to make up his mind that he must part
+with his goat, and then, as Mr. Scott saw, the eyebrows became
+slightly oblique, with the characteristic puckering or swelling at
+the inner ends, but the wrinkles on the forehead were not present.
+The man stood thus for a minute, then heaving a deep sigh,
+burst into tears, raised up his two hands, blessed the goat,
+turned round, and without looking again, went away.
+
+_On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows under suffering_.--
+During several years no expression seemed to me so utterly
+perplexing as this which we are here considering.  Why should grief
+or anxiety cause the central fasciae alone of the frontal muscle
+together with those round the eyes, to contract?  Here we seem
+to have a complex movement for the sole purpose of expressing grief;
+and yet it is a comparatively rare expression, and often overlooked.
+I believe the explanation is not so difficult as it at first appears.
+Dr. Duchenne gives a photograph of the young man before referred to,
+who, when looking upwards at a strongly illuminated surface,
+involuntarily contracted his grief-muscles in an exaggerated manner.
+I had entirely forgotten this photograph, when on a very bright
+day with the sun behind me, I met, whilst on horseback, a girl
+whose eyebrows, as she looked up at me, became extremely oblique,
+with the proper furrows on her forehead.  I have observed the same
+movement under similar circumstances on several subsequent occasions.
+On my return home I made three of my children, without giving them
+any clue to my object, look as long and as attentively as they could,
+at the summit of a tall tree standing against an extremely bright sky.
+With all three, the orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal muscles were
+energetically contracted, through reflex action, from the excitement of
+the retina, so that their eyes might be protected from the bright light.
+But they tried their utmost to look upwards; and now a curious struggle,
+with spasmodic twitchings, could be observed between the whole
+or only the central portion of the frontal muscle, and the several
+muscles which serve to lower the eyebrows and close the eyelids.
+The involuntary contraction of the pyramidal caused the basal
+part of their noses to be transversely and deeply wrinkled.
+In one of the three children, the whole eyebrows were momentarily
+raised and lowered by the alternate contraction of the whole frontal
+muscle and of the muscles surrounding the eyes, so that the whole
+breadth of the forehead was alternately wrinkled and smoothed.
+In the other two children the forehead became wrinkled in the middle
+part alone, rectangular furrows being thus produced; and the eyebrows
+were rendered oblique, with their inner extremities puckered and swollen,--
+in the one child in a slight degree, in the other in a strongly
+marked manner.  This difference in the obliquity of the eyebrows
+apparently depended on a difference in their general mobility, and in
+the strength of the pyramidal muscles.  In both these cases the eyebrows
+and forehead were acted on under the influence of a strong light,
+in precisely the same manner, in every characteristic detail,
+as under the influence of grief or anxiety.
+
+Duchenne states that the pyramidal muscle of the nose is less under
+the control of the will than are the other muscles round the eyes.
+He remarks that the young man who could so well act on his grief-muscles,
+as well as on most of his other facial muscles, could not contract the
+pyramidals.[5] This power, however, no doubt differs in different persons.
+The pyramidal muscle serves to draw down the skin of the forehead
+between the eyebrows, together with their inner extremities.
+The central fasciae of the frontal are the antagonists of the pyramidal;
+and if the action of the latter is to be specially checked,
+these central fasciae must be contracted.  So that with persons having
+powerful pyramidal muscles, if there is under the influence of a bright
+light an unconscious desire to prevent the lowering of the eyebrows,
+the central fasciae of the frontal muscle must be brought into play;
+and their contraction, if sufficiently strong to overmaster the pyramidals,
+together with the contraction of the corrugator and orbicular muscles,
+will act in the manner just described on the eyebrows and forehead.
+
+When children scream or cry out, they contract, as we know,
+the orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal muscles, primarily for
+the sake of compressing their eyes, and thus protecting them
+from being gorged with blood, and secondarily through habit.
+I therefore expected to find with children, that when they
+endeavoured either to prevent a crying-fit from coming on,
+or to stop crying, they would cheek the contraction of
+the above-named muscles, in the same manner as when looking
+upwards at a bright light; and consequently that the central
+fasciae of the frontal muscle would often be brought into play.
+Accordingly, I began myself to observe children at such times,
+and asked others, including some medical men, to do the same.
+It is necessary to observe carefully, as the peculiar opposed
+action of these muscles is not nearly so plain in children,
+owing to their foreheads not easily wrinkling, as in adults.
+But I soon found that the grief-muscles were very frequently
+brought into distinct action on these occasions.  It would
+be superfluous to give all the cases which have been observed;
+and I will specify only a few.  A little girl, a year and
+a half old, was teased by some other children, and before
+bursting into tears her eyebrows became decidedly oblique.
+With an older girl the same obliquity was observed,
+with the inner ends of the eyebrows plainly puckered; and at
+the same time the corners of the mouth were drawn downwards.
+As soon as she burst into tears, the features all changed and
+this peculiar expression vanished.  Again, after a little boy
+had been vaccinated, which made him scream and cry violently,
+the surgeon gave him an orange brought for the purpose,
+and this pleased the child much; as he stopped crying all the
+characteristic movements were observed, including the formation
+of rectangular wrinkles in the middle of the forehead.
+Lastly, I met on the road a little girl three or four years old,
+who had been frightened by a dog, and when I asked her what was
+the matter, she stopped whimpering, and her eyebrows instantly
+became oblique to an extraordinary degree.
+
+
+[5] Mecanisme de la Phys.  Humaine, Album, p.  15.
+
+Here then, as I cannot doubt, we have the key to the problem why the central
+fasciae of the frontal muscle and the muscles round the eyes contract
+in opposition to each other under the influence of grief;--whether their
+contraction be prolonged, as with the melancholic insane, or momentary,
+from some trifling cause of distress.  We have all of us, as infants,
+repeatedly contracted our orbicular, corrugator, and pyramidal muscles,
+in order to protect our eyes whilst screaming; our progenitors before us
+have done the same during many generations; and though with advancing years
+we easily prevent, when feeling distressed, the utterance of screams,
+we cannot from long habit always prevent a slight contraction of the
+above-named muscles; nor indeed do we observe their contraction in ourselves,
+or attempt to stop it, if slight.  But the pyramidal muscles seem
+to be less under the command of the will than the other related muscles;
+and if they be well developed, their contraction can be checked only by
+the antagonistic contraction of the central fasciae of the frontal muscle.
+The result which necessarily follows, if these fasciae contract energetically,
+is the oblique drawing up of the eyebrows, the puckering of their inner ends,
+and the formation of rectangular furrows on the middle of the forehead.
+As children and women cry much more freely than men, and as grown-up
+persons of both sexes rarely weep except from mental distress, we can
+understand why the grief-muscles are more frequently seen in action,
+as I believe to be the case, with children and women than with men;
+and with adults of both sexes from mental distress alone.  In some of
+the cases before recorded, as in that of the poor Dhangar woman and of
+the Hindustani man, the action of the grief-muscles was quickly followed
+by bitter weeping.  In all cases of distress, whether great or small,
+our brains tend through long habit to send an order to certain muscles
+to contract, as if we were still infants on the point of screaming out;
+but this order we, by the wondrous power of the will, and through habit,
+are able partially to counteract; although this is effected unconsciously,
+as far as the means of counteraction are concerned.
+
+
+_On the depression of the corners of the mouth_.--This action is
+effected by the _depressores anguili oris_ (see letter K in figs.
+1 and 2). The fibres of this muscle diverge downwards, with the upper
+convergent ends attached round the angles of the mouth, and to
+the lower lip a little way within the angles.[6] Some of the fibres
+appear to be antagonistic to the great zygomatic muscle, and others
+to the several muscles running to the outer part of the upper lip.
+The contraction of this muscle draws downwards and outwards the corners
+of the mouth, including the outer part of the upper lip, and even in
+a slight degree the wings of the nostrils.  When the mouth is closed
+and this muscle acts, the commissure or line of junction of the two
+lips forms a curved line with the concavity downwards,[7] and the lips
+themselves are generally somewhat protruded, especially the lower one.
+The mouth in this state is well represented in the two photographs
+(Plate II., figs.  6 and 7) by Mr. Rejlander.  The upper boy (fig. 6)
+had just stopped crying, after receiving a slap on the face from another boy;
+and the right moment was seized for photographing him.
+
+
+[6] Henle, Handbuch der Anat.  des Menschen, 1858, B. i.  s.  148, figs.
+68 and 69.
+
+[7] See the account of the action of this muscle by Dr. Duchenne, `Mecanisme
+de la Physionomie Humaine, Album (1862), viii.  p.  34.
+
+The expression of low spirits, grief or dejection, due to the contraction
+of this muscle has been noticed by every one who has written on the subject.
+To say that a person "is down in the mouth," is synonymous with saying
+that he is out of spirits.  The depression of the corners may often be seen,
+as already stated on the authority of Dr. Crichton Browne and Mr. Nicol,
+with the melancholic insane, and was well exhibited in some photographs sent
+to me by the former gentleman, of patients with a strong tendency to suicide.
+It has been observed with men belonging to various races, namely with Hindoos,
+the dark hill-tribes of India, Malays, and, as the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer
+informs me, with the aborigines of Australia.
+
+When infants scream they firmly contract the muscles round
+their eyes, and this draws up the upper lip; and as they
+have to keep their mouths widely open, the depressor muscles
+running to the corners are likewise brought into strong action.
+This generally, but not invariably, causes a slight angular bend
+in the lower lip on both sides, near the corners of the mouth.
+The result of the upper and lower lip being thus acted on is that
+the mouth assumes a squarish outline.  The contraction of the depressor
+muscle is best seen in infants when not screaming violently,
+and especially just before they begin, or when they cease to scream.
+Their little faces then acquire an extremely piteous expression,
+as I continually observed with my own infants between the ages
+of about six weeks and two or three months.  Sometimes, when they
+are struggling against a crying-fit, the outline of the mouth
+is curved in so exaggerated a manner as to be like a horseshoe;
+and the expression of misery then becomes a ludicrous caricature.
+
+The explanation of the contraction of this muscle, under the influence
+of low spirits or dejection, apparently follows from the same
+general principles as in the case of the obliquity of the eyebrows.
+Dr. Duchenne informs me that he concludes from his observations,
+now prolonged during many years, that this is one of the facial muscles
+which is least under the control of the will.  This fact may indeed
+be inferred from what has just been stated with respect to infants
+when doubtfully beginning to cry, or endeavouring to stop crying;
+for they then generally command all the other facial muscles more
+effectually than they do the depressors of the corners of the mouth.
+Two excellent observers who had no theory on the subject, one of them
+a surgeon, carefully watched for me some older children and women
+as with some opposed struggling they very gradually approached
+the point of bursting out into tears; and both observers felt sure
+that the depressors began to act before any of the other muscles.
+Now as the depressors have been repeatedly brought into strong
+action during infancy in many generations, nerve-force will tend
+to flow, on the principle of long associated habit, to these
+muscles as well as to various other facial muscles, whenever in
+after life even a slight feeling of distress is experienced.
+But as the depressors are somewhat less under the control of the will
+than most of the other muscles, we might expect that they would
+often slightly contract, whilst the others remained passive.
+It is remarkable how small a depression of the corners of the mouth
+gives to the countenance an expression of low spirits or dejection,
+so that an extremely slight contraction of these muscles would
+be sufficient to betray this state of mind.
+
+
+I may here mention a trifling observation, as it will serve to sum
+up our present subject.  An old lady with a comfortable but absorbed
+expression sat nearly opposite to me in a railway carriage.
+Whilst I was looking at her, I saw that her _depressores anguli
+oris_ became very slightly, yet decidedly, contracted; but as her
+countenance remained as placid as ever, I reflected how meaningless
+was this contraction, and how easily one might be deceived.
+The thought had hardly occurred to me when I saw that her eyes
+suddenly became suffused with tears almost to overflowing,
+and her whole countenance fell.  There could now be no doubt
+that some painful recollection, perhaps that of a long-lost child,
+was passing through her mind.  As soon as her sensorium
+was thus affected, certain nerve-cells from long habit
+instantly transmitted an order to all the respiratory muscles,
+and to those round the mouth, to prepare for a fit of crying.
+But the order was countermanded by the will, or rather
+by a later acquired habit, and all the muscles were obedient,
+excepting in a slight degree the _depressores anguli oris_.
+The mouth was not even opened; the respiration was not hurried;
+and no muscle was affected except those which draw down the corners
+of the mouth.
+
+As soon as the mouth of this lady began, involuntarily and unconsciously
+on her part, to assume the proper form for a crying-fit, we may feel
+almost sure that some nerve-influence would have been transmitted
+through the long accustomed channels to the various respiratory muscles,
+as well as to those round the eyes, and to the vaso-motor centre
+which governs the supply of blood sent to the lacrymal glands.
+Of this latter fact we have indeed clear evidence in her eyes becoming
+slightly suffused with tears; and we can understand this, as the lacrymal
+glands are less under the control of the will than the facial muscles.
+No doubt there existed at the same time some tendency in the muscles round
+the eyes at contract, as if for the sake of protecting them from being
+gorged with blood, but this contraction was completely overmastered,
+and her brow remained unruffled.  Had the pyramidal, corrugator, and orbicular
+muscles been as little obedient to the will, as they are in many persons,
+they would have been slightly acted on; and then the central fasciae
+of the frontal muscle would have contracted in antagonism, and her eyebrows
+would have become oblique, with rectangular furrows on her forehead.
+Her countenance would then have expressed still more plainly than it did
+a state of dejection, or rather one of grief.
+
+Through steps such as these we can understand how it is, that as soon
+as some melancholy thought passes through the brain, there occurs
+a just perceptible drawing down of the corners of the mouth,
+or a slight raising up of the inner ends of the eyebrows, or both
+movements combined, and immediately afterwards a slight suffusion
+of tears.  A thrill of nerve-force is transmitted along several
+habitual channels, and produces an effect on any point where the will
+has not acquired through long habit much power of interference.
+The above actions may be considered as rudimental vestiges of the
+screaming-fits, which are so frequent and prolonged during infancy.
+In this case, as well as in many others, the links are indeed wonderful
+which connect cause and effect in giving rise to various expressions
+on the human countenance; and they explain to us the meaning of
+certain movements, which we involuntarily and unconsciously perform,
+whenever certain transitory emotions pass through our minds.
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+Joy, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
+
+Laughter primarily the expression of joy--Ludicrous ideas--
+Movements of the features during laughter--Nature of the
+sound produced--The secretion of tears during loud laughter--
+Gradation from loud laughter to gentle smiling--High spirits--
+The expression of love--Tender feelings--Devotion.
+
+
+JOY, when intense, leads to various purposeless movements--
+to dancing about, clapping the hands, stamping, &c., and to loud laughter.
+Laughter seems primarily to be the expression of mere joy or happiness.
+We clearly see this in children at play, who are almost incessantly laughing.
+With young persons past childhood, when they are in high spirits, there is
+always much meaningless laughter.  The laughter of the gods is described by
+Homer as "the exuberance of their celestial joy after their daily banquet."
+A man smiles--and smiling, as we shall see, graduates into laughter--
+at meeting an old friend in the street, as he does at any trifling pleasure,
+such as smelling a sweet perfume.[1] Laura Bridgman, from her blindness and
+deafness, could not have acquired any expression through imitation, yet when
+a letter from a beloved friend was communicated to her by gesture-language,
+she "laughed and clapped her hands, and the colour mounted to her cheeks."
+On other occasions she has been seen to stamp for joy.[2]
+
+
+[1] Herbert Spencer, `Essays Scientific,' &c., 1858, p.  360.
+
+Idiots and imbecile persons likewise afford good evidence that
+laughter or smiling primarily expresses mere happiness or joy.
+Dr. Crichton Browne, to whom, as on so many other occasions,
+I am indebted for the results of his wide experience,
+informs me that with idiots laughter is the most
+prevalent and frequent of all the emotional expressions.
+Many idiots are morose, passionate, restless, in a painful
+state of mind, or utterly stolid, and these never laugh.
+Others frequently laugh in a quite senseless manner.
+Thus an idiot boy, incapable of speech, complained to Dr. Browne,
+by the aid of signs, that another boy in the asylum had given
+him a black eye; and this was accompanied by "explosions of
+laughter and with his face covered with the broadest smiles."
+There is another large class of idiots who are persistently
+joyous and benign, and who are constantly laughing or smiling.[3]
+Their countenances often exhibit a stereotyped smile;
+their joyousness is increased, and they grin, chuckle, or giggle,
+whenever food is placed before them, or when they are caressed,
+are shown bright colours, or hear music.  Some of them laugh more
+than usual when they walk about, or attempt any muscular exertion.
+The joyousness of most of these idiots cannot possibly
+be associated, as Dr. Browne remarks, with any distinct ideas:
+they simply feel pleasure, and express it by laughter or smiles.
+With imbeciles rather higher in the scale, personal vanity
+seems to be the commonest cause of laughter, and next to this,
+pleasure arising from the approbation of their conduct.
+
+
+[2] F. Lieber on the vocal sounds of L. Bridgman, `Smithsonian Contributions,'
+1851, vol.  ii.  p.  6.
+
+[3] See, also, Mr. Marshall, in Phil.  Transact.  1864, p.  526.
+
+With grown-up persons laughter is excited by causes considerably
+different from those which suffice during childhood; but this remark
+hardly applies to smiling.  Laughter in this respect is analogous
+with weeping, which with adults is almost confined to mental distress,
+whilst with children it is excited by bodily pain or any suffering,
+as well as by fear or rage.  Many curious discussions have been
+written on the causes of laughter with grown-up persons.
+The subject is extremely complex.  Something incongruous or unaccountable,
+exciting surprise and some sense of superiority in the laugher,
+who must be in a happy frame of mind, seems to be the commonest
+cause.[4] The circumstances must not be of a momentous nature:
+no poor man would laugh or smile on suddenly hearing that a large
+fortune had been bequeathed to him.  If the mind is strongly
+excited by pleasurable feelings, and any little unexpected event
+or thought occurs, then, as Mr. Herbert Spencer remarks,[5] "a large
+amount of nervous energy, instead of being allowed to expend itself
+in producing an equivalent amount of the new thoughts and emotion
+which were nascent, is suddenly checked in its flow." . . . "The
+excess must discharge itself in some other direction, and there
+results an efflux through the motor nerves to various classes of
+the muscles, producing the half-convulsive actions we term laughter."
+An observation, bearing on this point, was made by a correspondent
+during the recent siege of Paris, namely, that the German soldiers.
+after strong excitement from exposure to extreme danger, were particularly
+apt to burst out into loud laughter at the smallest joke.
+So again when young children are just beginning to cry,
+an unexpected event will sometimes suddenly turn their crying
+into laughter, which apparently serves equally well to expend
+their superfluous nervous energy.
+
+
+[4] Mr. Bain (`The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p.  247) has a long
+and interesting discussion on the Ludicrous.  The quotation above
+given about the laughter of the gods is taken from this work.
+See, also, Mandeville, `The Fable of the Bees,' vol.  ii.  p.  168.
+
+[5] `The Physiology of Laughter,' Essays, Second Series, 1863, p.  114.
+
+The imagination is sometimes said to be tickled by a ludicrous idea;
+and this so-called tickling of the mind is curiously analogous with
+that of the body.  Every one knows how immoderately children laugh,
+and how their whole bodies are convulsed when they are tickled.
+The anthropoid apes, as we have seen, likewise utter a reiterated sound,
+corresponding with our laughter, when they are tickled, especially under
+the armpits.  I touched with a bit of paper the sole of the foot of one
+of my infants, when only seven days old, and it was suddenly jerked
+away and the toes curled about, as in an older child.  Such movements,
+as well as laughter from being tickled, are manifestly reflex actions;
+and this is likewise shown by the minute unstriped muscles, which serve
+to erect the separate hairs on the body, contracting near a tickled
+surface.[6] Yet laughter from a ludicrous idea, though involuntary,
+cannot be called a strictly reflex action.  In this case, and in that of
+laughter from being tickled, the mind must be in a pleasurable condition;
+a young child, if tickled by a strange man, would scream from fear.
+The touch must be light, and an idea or event, to be ludicrous,
+must not be of grave import.  The parts of the body which are most easily
+tickled are those which are not commonly touched, such as the armpits
+or between the toes, or parts such as the soles of the feet, which are
+habitually touched by a broad surface; but the surface on which we sit
+offers a marked exception to this rule.  According to Gratiolet,[7]
+certain nerves are much more sensitive to tickling than others.
+From the fact that a child can hardly tickle itself, or in a much less
+degree than when tickled by another person, it seems that the precise point
+to be touched must not be known; so with the mind, something unexpected--
+a novel or incongruous idea which breaks through an habitual train of thought--
+appears to he a strong element in the ludicrous.
+
+
+[6] J. Lister in `Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,'
+1853, vol.  1.  p.  266.
+
+The sound of laughter is produced by a deep inspiration followed
+by short, interrupted, spasmodic contractions of the chest, and especially
+of the diaphragm.[8] Hence we hear of "laughter holding both his sides."
+From the shaking of the body, the head nods to and fro.  The lower jaw often
+quivers up and down, as is likewise the case with some species of baboons,
+when they are much pleased.
+
+During laughter the mouth is opened more or less widely,
+with the corners drawn much backwards, as well as a little upwards;
+and the upper lip is somewhat raised.  The drawing back of the corners
+is best seen in moderate laughter, and especially in a broad smile--
+the latter epithet showing how the mouth is widened.
+In the accompanying figs.  1-3, Plate III., different degrees
+of moderate laughter and smiling have been photographed.
+The figure of the little girl, with the hat is by Dr. Wallich,
+and the expression was a genuine one; the other two are
+by Mr. Rejlander.  Dr. Duchenne repeatedly insists[9] that,
+under the emotion of joy, the mouth is acted on exclusively
+by the great zygomatic muscles, which serve to draw the corners
+backwards and upwards; but judging from the manner in which the upper
+teeth are always exposed during laughter and broad smiling,
+as well as from my own sensations, I cannot doubt that some
+of the muscles running to the upper lip are likewise brought
+into moderate action.  The upper and lower orbicular muscles
+of the eyes are at the same time more or less contracted;
+and there is an intimate connection, as explained in the chapter
+on weeping, between the orbiculars, especially the lower
+ones and some of the muscles running to the upper lip.
+Henle remarks[10] on this head, that when a man closely
+shuts one eye he cannot avoid retracting the upper lip on
+the same side; conversely, if any one will place his finger
+on his lower eyelid, and then uncover his upper incisors
+as much as possible, he will feel, as his upper lip is drawn
+strongly upwards, that the muscles of the lower eyelid contract.
+In Henle's drawing, given in woodcut, fig.  2, the _musculus malaris_
+(H) which runs to the upper lip may be seen to form an almost
+integral part of the lower orbicular muscle.
+
+
+[7] `De la Physionomie,' p.  186.
+
+[8] Sir C. Bell (Anat. of Expression, p.  147) makes some remarks
+on the movement of the diaphragm during laughter.
+
+[9] `Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legende vi.
+
+Dr. Duchenne has given a large photograph of an old man
+(reduced on Plate III.  fig 4), in his usual passive condition,
+and another of the same man (fig. 5), naturally smiling.
+The latter was instantly recognized by every one to whom it
+was shown as true to nature.  He has also given, as an example
+of an unnatural or false smile, another photograph (fig. 6)
+of the same old man, with the corners of his mouth strongly
+retracted by the galvanization of the great zygomatic muscles.
+That the expression is not natural is clear, for I showed this
+photograph to twenty-four persons, of whom three could not in
+the least tell what was meant, whilst the others, though they
+perceived that the expression was of the nature of a smile,
+answered in such words as "a wicked joke," "trying to laugh,"
+"grinning laughter ... .. half-amazed laughter," &c. Dr. Duchenne
+attributes the falseness of the expression altogether to the orbicular
+muscles of the lower eyelids not being sufficiently contracted;
+for he justly lays great stress on their contraction in the
+expression of joy.  No doubt there is much truth in this view,
+but not, as it appears to me, the whole truth.  The contraction
+of the lower orbiculars is always accompanied, as we have seen,
+by the drawing up of the upper lip.  Had the upper lip, in fig.
+6, been thus acted on to a slight extent, its curvature would
+have been less rigid, the naso-labial farrow would have been
+slightly different, and the whole expression would, as I believe,
+have been more natural, independently of the more conspicuous
+effect from the stronger contraction of the lower eyelids.
+The corruptor muscle, moreover, in fig.  6, is too much contracted,
+causing a frown; and this muscle never acts under the influence
+of joy except during strongly pronounced or violent laughter.
+
+
+
+[10] Handbuch der System.  Anat.  des Menschen, 1858,
+B. i.  s.  144.  See my woodcut (H. fig.  2).
+
+By the drawing backwards and upwards of the corners of the mouth,
+through the contraction of the great zygomatic muscles,
+and by the raising of the upper lip, the cheeks are drawn upwards.
+Wrinkles are thus formed under the eyes, and, with old people, at their
+outer ends; and these are highly characteristic of laughter or smiling.
+As a gentle smile increases into a strong one, or into a laugh,
+every one may feel and see, if he will attend to his own sensations
+and look at himself in a mirror, that as the upper lip is drawn up
+and the lower orbiculars contract, the wrinkles in the lower eyelids
+and those beneath the eyes are much strengthened or increased.
+At the same time, as I have repeatedly observed, the eyebrows are
+slightly lowered, which shows that the upper as well as the lower orbiculars
+contract at least to some degree, though this passes unperecived,
+as far as our sensations are concerned.  If the original photograph
+of the old man, with his countenance in its usual placid state
+(fig. 4), be compared with that (fig. 5) in which he is naturally smiling,
+it may be seen that the eyebrows in the latter are a little lowered.
+I presume that this is owing to the upper orbiculars being impelled,
+through the force of long-associated habit, to act to a certain extent
+in concert with the lower orbiculars, which themselves contract
+in connection with the drawing up of the upper lip.
+
+The tendency in the zygomatic muscles to contract under pleasurable emotions
+is shown by a curious fact, communicated to me by Dr. Browne, with respect
+to patients suffering from GENERAL PARALYSIS OF THE INSANE.[11] "In this
+malady there is almost invariably optimism--delusions as to wealth,
+rank, grandeur--insane joyousness, benevolence, and profusion, while its
+very earliest physical symptom is trembling at the corners of the mouth
+and at the outer corners of the eyes.  This is a well-recognized fact.
+Constant tremulous agitation of the inferior palpebral and great zygomatic
+muscles is pathognomic of the earlier stages of general paralysis.
+The countenance has a pleased and benevolent expression.  As the disease
+advances other muscles become involved, but until complete fatuity is reached,
+the prevailing expression is that of feeble benevolence."
+
+As in laughing and broadly smiling the cheeks and upper lip are much raised,
+the nose appears to be shortened, and the skin on the bridge becomes
+finely wrinkled in transverse lines, with other oblique longitudinal
+lines on the sides.  The upper front teeth are commonly exposed.
+A well-marked naso-labial fold is formed, which runs from the wing
+of each nostril to the corner of the mouth; and this fold is often
+double in old persons.
+
+
+[11] See, also, remarks to the same effect by Dr. J. Crichton Browne
+in `Journal of Mental Science,' April, 1871, p.  149.
+
+A bright and sparkling eye is as characteristic of a pleased
+or amused state of mind, as is the retraction of the corners
+of the mouth and upper lip with the wrinkles thus produced.
+Even the eyes of microcephalous idiots, who are so degraded
+that they never learn to speak, brighten slightly when they are
+pleased.[12] Under extreme laughter the eyes are too much suffused
+with tears to sparkle; but the moisture squeezed out of the glands
+during moderate laughter or smiling may aid in giving them lustre;
+though this must be of altogether subordinate importance,
+as they become dull from grief, though they are then often moist.
+Their brightness seems to be chiefly due to their tenseness,[13]
+owing to the contraction of the orbicular muscles and to the
+pressure of the raised cheeks.  But, according to Dr. Piderit,
+who has discussed this point more fully than any other writer,[14]
+the tenseness may be largely attributed to the eyeballs becoming
+filled with blood and other fluids, from the acceleration
+of the circulation, consequent on the excitement of pleasure.
+He remarks on the contrast in the appearance of the eyes of a hectic
+patient with a rapid circulation, and of a man suffering from
+cholera with almost all the fluids of his body drained from him.
+Any cause which lowers the circulation deadens the eye.
+I remember seeing a man utterly prostrated by prolonged and severe
+exertion during a very hot day, and a bystander compared his eyes
+to those of a boiled codfish.
+
+
+[12] C. Vogt, `Memoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, p.  21.
+
+[13] Sir C. Bell, `Anatomy of Expression,' p.  133.
+
+[14] `Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s.  63-67.
+
+To return to the sounds produced during laughter.  We can see
+in a vague manner how the utterance of sounds of some kind would
+naturally become associated with a pleasurable state of mind;
+for throughout a large part of the animal kingdom vocal or
+instrumental sounds are employed either as a call or as a charm
+by one sex for the other.  They are also employed as the means
+for a joyful meeting between the parents and their offspring,
+and between the attached members of the same social community.
+But why the sounds which man utters when he is pleased have
+the peculiar reiterated character of laughter we do not know.
+Nevertheless we can see that they would naturally be as
+different as possible from the screams or cries of distress;
+and as in the production of the latter, the expirations
+are prolonged and continuous, with the inspirations short
+and interrupted, so it might perhaps have been expected
+with the sounds uttered from joy, that the expirations would
+have been short and broken with the inspirations prolonged;
+and this is the case.
+
+It is an equally obscure point why the corners of the mouth are
+retracted and the upper lip raised during ordinary laughter.
+The mouth must not be opened to its utmost extent, for when this occurs
+during a paroxysm of excessive laughter hardly any sound is emitted;
+or it changes its tone and seems to come from deep down in the throat.
+The respiratory muscles, and even those of the limbs,
+are at the same time thrown into rapid vibratory movements.
+The lower jaw often partakes of this movement, and this
+would tend to prevent the mouth from being widely opened.
+But as a full volume of sound has to be poured forth, the orifice
+of the mouth must be large; and it is perhaps to gain this
+end that the corners are retracted and the upper lip raised.
+Although we can hardly account for the shape of the mouth
+during laughter, which leads to wrinkles being formed beneath
+the eyes, nor for the peculiar reiterated sound of laughter,
+nor for the quivering of the jaws, nevertheless we may infer
+that all these effects are due to some common cause.
+For they are all characteristic and expressive of a pleased
+state of mind in various kinds of monkeys.
+
+A graduated series can be followed from violent to moderate laughter,
+to a broad smile, to a gentle smile, and to the expression
+of mere cheerfulness.  During excessive laughter the whole body
+is often thrown backward and shakes, or is almost convulsed;
+the respiration is much disturbed; the head and face become gorged
+with blood, with the veins distended; and the orbicular muscles
+are spasmodically contracted in order to protect the eyes.
+Tears are freely shed.  Hence, as formerly remarked,
+it is scarcely possible to point out any difference between
+the tear-stained face of a person after a paroxysm of excessive
+laughter and after a bitter crying-fit.[15] It is probably
+due to the close similarity of the spasmodic movements caused
+by these widely different emotions that hysteric patients
+alternately cry and laugh with violence, and that young children
+sometimes pass suddenly from the one to the other state.
+Mr. Swinhoe informs me that he has often seen the Chinese,
+when suffering from deep grief, burst out into hysterical
+fits of laughter.
+
+
+[15] Sir T. Reynolds remarks (`Discourses,' xii.  p.  100), it is curious
+to observe, and it is certainly true, that the extremes of contrary
+passions are, with very little variation, expressed by the same action."
+He gives as an instance the frantic joy of a Bacchante and the grief
+of a Mary Magdalen.
+
+I was anxious to know whether tears are freely shed during excessive
+laughter by most of the races of men, and I hear from my correspondents
+that this is the case.  One instance was observed with the Hindoos,
+and they themselves said that it often occurred.  So it is with
+the Chinese.  The women of a wild tribe of Malays in the Malacca peninsula,
+sometimes shed tears when they laugh heartily, though this seldom occurs.
+With the Dyaks of Borneo it must frequently be the case, at least
+with the women, for I hear from the Rajah C. Brooke that it is a common
+expression with them to say "we nearly made tears from laughter."
+The aborigines of Australia express their emotions freely, and they
+are described by my correspondents as jumping about and clapping their
+hands for joy, and as often roaring with laughter.  No less than four
+observers have seen their eyes freely watering on such occasions;
+and in one instance the tears rolled down their cheeks.  Mr. Bulmer,
+a missionary in a remote part of Victoria, remarks, "that they have a keen
+sense of the ridiculous; they are excellent mimics, and when one of them
+is able to imitate the peculiarities of some absent member of the tribe,
+it is very common to hear all in the camp convulsed with laughter."
+With Europeans hardly anything excites laughter so easily as mimicry;
+and it is rather curious to find the same fact with the savages of Australia,
+who constitute one of the most distinct races in the world.
+
+In Southern Africa with two tribes of Kafirs, especially with
+the women, their eyes often fill with tears during laughter.
+Gaika, the brother of the chief Sandilli, answers my query on
+this bead, with the words, "Yes, that is their common practice."
+Sir Andrew Smith has seen the painted face of a Hottentot
+woman all furrowed with tears after a fit of laughter.
+In Northern Africa, with the Abyssinians, tears are secreted
+under the same circumstances.  Lastly, in North America, the same
+fact has been observed in a remarkably savage and isolated tribe,
+but chiefly with the women; in another tribe it was observed
+only on a single occasion.
+
+Excessive laughter, as before remarked, graduates into moderate laughter.
+In this latter case the muscles round the eyes are much less contracted,
+and there is little or no frowning.  Between a gentle laugh and a broad smile
+there is hardly any difference, excepting that in smiling no reiterated
+sound is uttered, though a single rather strong expiration, or slight noise--
+a rudiment of a laugh--may often be heard at the commencement of a smile.
+On a moderately smiling countenance the contraction of the upper orbicular
+muscles can still just be traced by a slight lowering of the eyebrows.
+The contraction of the lower orbicular and palpebral muscles is much plainer,
+and is shown by the wrinkling of the lower eyelids and of the skin
+beneath them, together with a slight drawing up of the upper lip.
+From the broadest smile we pass by the finest steps into the gentlest one.
+In this latter case the features are moved in a much less degree,
+and much more slowly, and the mouth is kept closed.  The curvature
+of the naso-labial furrow is also slightly different in the two cases.
+We thus see that no abrupt line of demarcation can be drawn between
+the movement of the features during the most violent laughter and a
+very faint smile.[16]
+
+A smile, therefore, may be said to be the first stage in the development
+of a laugh.  But a different and more probable view may be suggested;
+namely, that the habit of uttering load reiterated sounds from a sense
+of pleasure, first led to the retraction of the corners of the mouth
+and of the upper lip, and to the contraction of the orbicular muscles;
+and that now, through association and long-continued habit,
+the same muscles are brought into slight play whenever any cause
+excites in us a feeling which, if stronger, would have led to laughter;
+and the result is a smile.
+
+
+[16] Dr. Piderit has come to the same conclusion, ibid.  s.  99.
+
+Whether we look at laughter as the full development of
+a smile, or, as is more probable, at a gentle smile as the last
+trace of a habit, firmly fixed during many generations,
+of laughing whenever we are joyful, we can follow in our
+infants the gradual passage of the one into the other.
+It is well known to those who have the charge of young infants,
+that it is difficult to feel sure when certain movements about their
+mouths are really expressive; that is, when they really smile.
+Hence I carefully watched my own infants.  One of them at the age
+of forty-five days, and being at the time in a happy frame
+of mind, smiled; that is, the corners of the mouth were retracted,
+and simultaneously the eyes became decidedly bright.
+I observed the same thing on the following day; but on the third
+day the child was not quite well and there was no trace of a smile,
+and this renders it probable that the previous smiles were real.
+Eight days subsequently and during the next succeeding week,
+it was remarkable how his eyes brightened whenever he smiled,
+and his nose became at the same time transversely wrinkled.
+This was now accompanied by a little bleating noise, which perhaps
+represented a laugh.  At the age of 113 days these little noises,
+which were always made during expiration, assumed a slightly
+different character, and were more broken or interrupted,
+as in sobbing; and this was certainly incipient laughter.
+The change in tone seemed to me at the time to be connected
+with the greater lateral extension of the mouth as the
+smiles became broader.
+
+In a second infant the first real smile was observed at about the same
+age, viz.  forty-five days; and in a third, at a somewhat earlier age.
+The second infant, when sixty-five days old, smiled much more broadly
+and plainly than did the one first mentioned at the same age;
+and even at this early age uttered noises very like laughter.
+In this gradual acquirement, by infants, of the habit of laughing,
+we have a case in some degree analogous to that of weeping.
+As practice is requisite with the ordinary movements of the body,
+such as walking, so it seems to be with laughing and weeping.
+The art of screaming, on the other hand, from being of service
+to infants, has become finely developed from the earliest days.
+
+
+_High spirits, cheerfulness_.--A man in high spirits,
+though he may not actually smile, commonly exhibits some
+tendency to the retraction of the corners of his mouth.
+From the excitement of pleasure, the circulation becomes more rapid;
+the eyes are bright, and the colour of the face rises.
+The brain, being stimulated by the increased flow of blood,
+reacts on the mental powers; lively ideas pass still more rapidly
+through the mind, and the affections are warmed.  I heard a child,
+a little under four years old, when asked what was meant by being
+in good spirits, answer, "It is laughing, talking, and kissing."
+It would be difficult to give a truer and more practical definition.
+A man in this state holds his body erect, his head upright,
+and his eyes open.  There is no drooping of the features,
+and no contraction of the eyebrows.  On the contrary, the frontal
+muscle, as Moreau observes,[17] tends to contract slightly;
+and this smooths the brow, removes every trace of a frown,
+arches the eyebrows a little, and raises the eyelids.
+Hence the Latin phrase, _exporrigere frontem_--
+to unwrinkle the brow--means, to be cheerful or merry.
+The whole expression of a man in good spirits is exactly
+the opposite of that of one suffering from sorrow.
+According to Sir C. Bell, "In all the exhilarating emotions
+the eyebrows, eyelids, the nostrils, and the angles of the mouth
+are raised.  In the depressing passions it is the reverse."
+Under the influence of the latter the brow is heavy,
+the eyelids, cheeks, mouth, and whole head droop; the eyes
+are dull; the countenance pallid, and the respiration slow.
+In joy the face expands, in grief it lengthens.
+Whether the principle of antithesis has here come into play
+in producing these opposite expressions, in aid of the direct
+causes which have been specified and which are sufficiently plain,
+I will not pretend to say.
+
+
+[17] `La Physionomie,' par G. Lavater, edit.
+of 1820, vol.  iv.  p.  224.  See, also, Sir C. Bell, `Anatomy
+of Expression,' p.  172, for the quotation given below.
+
+With all the races of man the expression of good spirit appears
+to be the same, and is easily recognized.  My informants,
+from various parts of the Old and New Worlds, answer in the affirmative
+to my queries on this head, and they give some particulars with
+respect to Hindoos, Malays, and New Zealanders.  The brightness
+of the eyes of the Australians has struck four observers,
+and the same fact has been noticed with Hindoos, New Zealanders,
+and the Dyaks of Borneo.
+
+Savages sometimes express their satisfaction not only by smiling,
+but by gestures derived from the pleasure of eating.
+Thus Mr. Wedgwood[18] quotes Petherick that the negroes on
+the Upper Nile began a general rubbing of their bellies when
+he displayed his beads; and Leichhardt says that the Australians
+smacked and clacked their mouths at the sight of his horses
+and bullocks, and more especially of his kangaroo dogs.
+The Greenlanders, "when they affirm anything with pleasure,
+suck down air with a certain sound;"[19] and this may be an
+imitation of the act of swallowing savoury food.
+
+
+[18] A `Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit.
+1872, Introduction, p.  xliv.
+
+Laughter is suppressed by the firm contraction of the orbicular
+muscles of the mouth, which prevents the great zygomatic
+and other muscles from drawing the lips backwards and upwards.
+The lower lip is also sometimes held by the teeth, and this
+gives a roguish expression to the face, as was observed with
+the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman.[20] The great zygomatic
+muscle is sometimes variable in its course, and I have seen
+a young woman in whom the _depressores anguli oris_ were
+brought into strong action in suppressing a smile; but this
+by no means gave to her countenance a melancholy expression,
+owing to the brightness of her eyes.
+
+Laughter is frequently employed in a forced manner to conceal or mask
+some other state of mind, even anger.  We often see persons laughing
+in order to conceal their shame or shyness.  When a person purses up
+his mouth, as if to prevent the possibility of a smile, though there
+is nothing to excite one, or nothing to prevent its free indulgence,
+an affected, solemn, or pedantic expression is given; but of such hybrid
+expressions nothing more need here be said.  In the case of derision,
+a real or pretended smile or laugh is often blended with the expression
+proper to contempt, and this may pass into angry contempt or scorn.
+In such cases the meaning of the laugh or smile is to show the offending
+person that he excites only amusement.
+
+_Love, tender feelings, &c_.--Although the emotion of love,
+for instance that of a mother for her infant, is one of the strongest
+of which the mind is capable, it can hardly be said to have any
+proper or peculiar means of expression; and this is intelligible,
+as it has not habitually led to any special line of action.
+No doubt, as affection is a pleasurable sensation, it generally
+causes a gentle smile and some brightening of the eyes.
+A strong desire to touch the beloved person is commonly felt;
+and love is expressed by this means more plainly than by any other.[21]
+Hence we long to clasp in our arms those whom we tenderly love.
+We probably owe this desire to inherited habit, in association
+with the nursing and tending of our children, and with the mutual
+caresses of lovers.
+
+
+[19] Crantz, quoted by Tylor, `Primitive Culture,' 1871, Vol.  i.  P. 169.
+
+[20] F. Lieber, `Smithsonian Contributions,' 1851, vol.  ii.  p.  7.
+
+With the lower animals we see the same principle of
+pleasure derived from contact in association with love.
+Dogs and cats manifestly take pleasure in rubbing against their
+masters and mistresses, and in being rubbed or patted by them.
+Many kinds of monkeys, as I am assured by the keepers in
+the Zoological Gardens, delight in fondling and being fondled
+by each other, and by persons to whom they are attached.
+Mr. Bartlett has described to me the behaviour of two chimpanzees,
+rather older animals than those generally imported into
+this country, when they were first brought together.
+They sat opposite, touching each other with their much protruded lips;
+and the one put his hand on the shoulder of the other.
+They then mutually folded each other in their arms.
+Afterwards they stood up, each with one arm on the shoulder
+of the other, lifted up their heads, opened their mouths,
+and yelled with delight.
+
+
+[21] Mr. Bain remarks (`Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, p.
+239), "Tenderness is a pleasurable emotion, variously stimulated,
+whose effort is to draw human beings into mutual embrace."
+
+We Europeans are so accustomed to kissing as a mark of affection, that it
+might be thought to be innate in mankind; but this is not the case.
+Steele was mistaken when he said "Nature was its author, and it
+began with the first courtship."  Jemmy Button, the Fuegian, told me
+that this practice was unknown in his land.  It is equally unknown with
+the New Zealanders, Tahitians, Papuans, Australians, Somals of Africa,
+and the Esquimaux."  But it is so far innate or natural that it
+apparently depends on pleasure from close contact with a beloved person;
+and it is replaced in various parts of the world, by the rubbing of noses,
+as with the New Zealanders and Laplanders, by the rubbing or patting
+of the arms, breasts, or stomachs, or by one man striking his own face
+with the hands or feet of another.  Perhaps the practice of blowing,
+as a mark of affection, on various parts of the body may depend on
+the same principle.[23]
+
+The feelings which are called tender are difficult to analyse;
+they seem to be compounded of affection, joy, and especially of sympathy.
+These feelings are in themselves of a pleasurable nature, excepting when pity
+is too deep, or horror is aroused, as in hearing of a tortured man or animal.
+They are remarkable under our present point of view from so readily exciting
+the secretion of tears.  Many a father and son have wept on meeting
+after a long separation, especially if the meeting has been unexpected.
+No doubt extreme joy by itself tends to act on the lacrymal glands;
+but on such occasions as the foregoing vague thoughts of the grief which would
+have been felt had the father and son never met, will probably have passed
+through their minds; and grief naturally leads to the secretion of tears.
+Thus on the return of Ulysses:--"Telemachus
+ Rose, and clung weeping round his father's breast.
+ There the pent grief rained o'er them, yearning thus.
+ *   *    *    *    *    *
+ Thus piteously they wailed in sore unrest,
+ And on their weepings had gone down the day,
+ But that at last Telemachus found words to say."
+_Worsley's Translation of the Odyssey_, Book xvi.  st.  27.
+
+So again when Penelope at last recognized her husband:--
+
+     "Then from her eyelids the quick tears did start
+     And she ran to him from her place, and threw
+     Her arms about his neck, and a warm dew
+     Of kisses poured upon him, and thus spake:"
+Book xxiii.  st.  27.
+
+
+
+[22] Sir J. Lubbock, `Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit.
+1869, p.  552, gives full authorities for these statements.
+The quotation from Steele is taken from this work.
+
+[23] See a full acount,{sic} with references, by E. B. Tylor, `Researches into
+the Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit.  1870, p.  51.
+
+
+The vivid recollection of our former home, or of long-past happy days,
+readily causes the eyes to be suffused with tears; but here, again,
+the thought naturally occurs that these days will never return.
+In such cases we may be said to sympathize with ourselves in our present,
+in comparison with our former, state.  Sympathy with the distresses
+of others, even with the imaginary distresses of a heroine in a
+pathetic story, for whom we feel no affection, readily excites tears.
+So does sympathy with the happiness of others, as with that of a lover,
+at last successful after many hard trials in a well-told tale.
+
+Sympathy appears to constitute a separate or distinct emotion;
+and it is especially apt to excite the lacrymal glands.
+This holds good whether we give or receive sympathy.
+Every one must have noticed how readily children burst out crying
+if we pity them for some small hurt.  With the melancholic insane,
+as Dr. Crichton Browne informs me, a kind word will often plunge
+them into unrestrained weeping.  As soon as we express our pity
+for the grief of a friend, tears often come into our own eyes.
+The feeling of sympathy is commonly explained by assuming that,
+when we see or hear of suffering in another, the idea of suffering
+is called up so vividly in our own minds that we ourselves suffer.
+But this explanation is hardly sufficient, for it does not account
+for the intimate alliance between sympathy and affection.
+We undoubtedly sympathize far more deeply with a beloved than
+with an indifferent person; and the sympathy of the one gives us
+far more relief than that of the other.  Yet assuredly we can
+sympathize with those for whom we feel no affection.
+
+Why suffering, when actually experienced by ourselves,
+excites weeping, has been discussed in a former chapter.
+With respect to joy, its natural and universal expression is laughter;
+and with all the races of man loud laughter leads to the secretion
+of tears more freely than does any other cause excepting distress.
+The suffusion of the eyes with tears, which undoubtedly occurs
+under great joy, though there is no laughter, can, as it seems to me,
+be explained through habit and association on the same principles
+as the effusion of tears from grief, although there is no screaming.
+Nevertheless it is not a little remarkable that sympathy
+with the distresses of others should excite tears more freely
+than our own distress; and this certainly is the case.
+Many a man, from whose eyes no suffering of his own could wring
+a tear, has shed tears at the sufferings of a beloved friend.
+It is still more remarkable that sympathy with the happiness or good
+fortune of those whom we tenderly love should lead to the same result,
+whilst a similar happiness felt by ourselves would leave our eyes dry.
+We should, however, bear in mind that the long-continued habit
+of restraint which is so powerful in checking the free flow of tears
+from bodily pain, has not been brought into play in preventing
+a moderate effusion of tears in sympathy with the sufferings
+or happiness of others.
+
+Music has a wonderful power, as I have elsewhere attempted to show,[24]
+of recalling in a vague and indefinite manner, those strong emotions
+which were felt during long-past ages, when, as is probable,
+our early progenitors courted each other by the aid of vocal tones.
+And as several of our strongest emotions--grief, great joy, love,
+and sympathy--lead to the free secretion of tears, it is not surprising
+that music should be apt to cause our eyes to become suffused
+with tears, especially when we are already softened by any of the
+tenderer feelings.  Music often produces another peculiar effect.
+We know that every strong sensation, emotion, or excitement--
+extreme pain, rage, terror, joy, or the passion of love--
+all have a special tendency to cause the muscles to tremble;
+and the thrill or slight shiver which runs down the backbone and
+limbs of many persons when they are powerfully affected by music,
+seems to bear the same relation to the above trembling of the body,
+as a slight suffusion of tears from the power of music does to weeping
+from any strong and real emotion.
+
+_Devotion_.--As devotion is, in some degree, related to affection,
+though mainly consisting of reverence, often combined with fear,
+the expression of this state of mind may here be briefly noticed.
+With some sects, both past and present, religion and love
+have been strangely combined; and it has even been maintained,
+lamentable as the fact may be, that the holy kiss of love
+differs but little from that which a man bestows on a woman,
+or a woman on a man.[25] Devotion is chiefly expressed by the face
+being directed towards the heavens, with the eyeballs upturned.
+Sir C. Bell remarks that, at the approach of sleep,
+or of a fainting-fit, or of death, the pupils are drawn
+upwards and inwards; and he believes that "when we are wrapt
+in devotional feelings, and outward impressions are unheeded,
+the eyes are raised by an action neither taught nor acquired."
+and that this is due to the same cause as in the above
+cases.[26] That the eyes are upturned during sleep is,
+as I hear from Professor Donders, certain.  With babies,
+whilst sucking their mother's breast, this movement of the eyeballs
+often gives to them an absurd appearance of ecstatic delight;
+and here it may be clearly perceived that a struggle is going
+on against the position naturally assumed during sleep.
+But Sir C. Bell's explanation of the fact, which rests on the
+assumption that certain muscles are more under the control of the will
+than others is, as I hear from Professor Donders, incorrect.
+As the eyes are often turned up in prayer, without the mind being
+so much absorbed in thought as to approach to the unconsciousness
+of sleep, the movement is probably a conventional one--
+the result of the common belief that Heaven, the source of Divine
+power to which we pray, is seated above us.
+
+
+[24] `The Descent of Man,' vol.  ii.  p.  336.
+
+A humble kneeling posture, with the hands upturned and palms joined,
+appears to us, from long habit, a gesture so appropriate to devotion,
+that it might be thought to be innate; but I have not met with any
+evidence to this effect with the various extra-European races of mankind.
+During the classical period of Roman history it does not appear, as I hear
+from an excellent classic, that the hands were thus joined during prayer.
+Mr. Rensleigh Wedgwood has apparently given[27] the true explanation,
+though this implies that the attitude is one of slavish subjection.
+"When the suppliant kneels and holds up his hands with the palms joined,
+he represents a captive who proves the completeness of his submission
+by offering up his hands to be bound by the victor.  It is the pictorial
+representation of the Latin _dare manus_, to signify submission."
+Hence it is not probable that either the uplifting of the eyes or the joining
+of the open hands, under the influence of devotional feelings, are innate
+or truly expressive actions; and this could hardly have been expected,
+for it is very doubtful whether feelings, such as we should now rank
+as devotional, affected the hearts of men, whilst they remained during
+past ages in an uncivilized condition.
+
+
+
+[25] Dr. Mandsley has a discussion to this effect in his `Body
+and Mind,' 1870, p.  85.
+
+[26] `The Anatomy of Expression,' p.  103, and `Philosophical Transactions,'
+1823, p.  182.
+
+
+[27] `The Origin of Language,' 1866, p.  146.  Mr. Tylor (`Early History
+of Mankind,' 2nd edit.  1870, p.  48) gives a more complex origin
+to the position of the hands during prayer.  CHAPTER IX.
+
+REFLECTION--MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER--SULKINESS--DETERMINATION.
+
+The act of frowning--Reflection with an effort, or with
+the perception of something difficult or disagreeable--
+Abstracted meditation--Ill-temper--Moroseness--Obstinacy Sulkiness
+and pouting--Decision or determination--The firm closure
+of the mouth.
+
+
+THE corrugators, by their contraction, lower the eyebrows and bring
+them together, producing vertical furrows on the forehead--that is, a frown.
+Sir C. Bell, who erroneously thought that the corrugator was peculiar
+to man, ranks it as "the most remarkable muscle of the human face.
+It knits the eyebrows with an energetic effort, which unaccountably,
+but irresistibly, conveys the idea of mind."  Or, as he elsewhere says,
+"when the eyebrows are knit, energy of mind is apparent, and there
+is the mingling of thought and emotion with the savage and brutal
+rage of the mere animal."[1] There is much truth in these remarks,
+but hardly the whole truth.  Dr. Duchenne has called the corrugator
+the muscle of reflection;[2] but this name, without some limitation,
+cannot be considered as quite correct.
+
+
+[1] `Anatomy of Expression,' pp.  137, 139.  It is not surprising
+that the corrugators should have become much more developed in man
+than in the anthropoid apes; for they are brought into incessant
+action by him under various circumstances, and will have been
+strengthened and modified by the inherited effects of use.
+We have seen how important a part they play, together with
+the orbiculares, in protecting the eyes from being too much
+gorged with blood during violent expiratory movements.
+When the eyes are closed as quickly and as forcibly as possible,
+to save them from being injured by a blow, the corrugators contract.
+With savages or other men whose heads are uncovered, the eyebrows
+are continually lowered and contracted to serve as a shade against
+a too strong light; and this is effected partly by the corrugators.
+This movement would have been more especially serviceable to man,
+as soon as his early progenitors held their heads erect.
+Lastly, Prof. Donders believes (`Archives of Medicine,' ed.
+by L. Beale, 1870, vol.  v.  p.  34), that the corrugators are brought
+into action in causing the eyeball to advance in accommodation
+for proximity in vision.
+
+A man may be absorbed in the deepest thought, and his brow
+will remain smooth until he encounters some obstacle in his
+train of reasoning, or is interrupted by some disturbance,
+and then a frown passes like a shadow over his brow.
+A half-starved man may think intently how to obtain food,
+but he probably will not frown unless he encounters either in thought
+or action some difficulty, or finds the food when obtained nauseous.
+I have noticed that almost everyone instantly frowns if
+he perceives a strange or bad taste in what he is eating.
+I asked several persons, without explaining my object,
+to listen intently to a very gentle tapping sound, the nature
+and source of which they all perfectly knew, and not one frowned;
+but a man who joined us, and who could not conceive what we were
+all doing in profound silence, when asked to listen, frowned much,
+though not in an ill-temper, and said he could not in the least
+understand what we all wanted.  Dr. Piderit[3] who has published
+remarks to the same effect, adds that stammerers generally
+frown in speaking, and that a man in doing even so trifling
+a thing as pulling on a boot, frowns if he finds it too tight.
+Some persons are such habitual frowners, that the mere effort
+of speaking almost always causes their brows to contract.
+
+
+
+[2] `Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legende iii.
+
+[3] `Mimik und Physiognomik,' s.  46.
+
+Men of all races frown when they are in any way perplexed in thought,
+as I infer from the answers which I have received to my queries; but I framed
+them badly, confounding absorbed meditation with perplexed reflection.
+Nevertheless, it is clear that the Australians, Malays, Hindoos, and Kafirs
+of South Africa frown, when they are puzzled.  Dobritzhoffer remarks
+that the Guaranies of South America on like occasions knit their brows.[4]
+
+From these considerations, we may conclude that frowning
+is not the expression of simple reflection, however profound,
+or of attention, however close, but of something difficult
+or displeasing encountered in a train of thought or in action.
+Deep reflection can, however, seldom be long carried on without
+some difficulty, so that it will generally be accompanied by a frown.
+Hence it is that frowning commonly gives to the countenance,
+as Sir C. Bell remarks, an aspect of intellectual energy.
+But in order that this effect may be produced, the eyes must be
+clear and steady, or they may be cast downwards, as often occurs
+in deep thought.  The countenance must not be otherwise disturbed,
+as in the case of an ill-tempered or peevish man, or of one
+who shows the effects of prolonged suffering, with dulled eyes
+and drooping jaw, or who perceives a bad taste in his food,
+or who finds it difficult to perform some trifling act,
+such as threading a needle.  In these cases a frown may often
+be seen, but it will be accompanied by some other expression,
+which will entirely prevent the countenance having an appearance
+of intellectual energy or of profound thought.
+
+
+[4] `History of the Abipones,' Eng.  translat.  vol.  ii.  p.  59, as quoted
+by Lubbock, `Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p.  355.
+
+We may now inquire how it is that a frown should express the perception
+of something difficult or disagreeable, either in thought or action.
+In the same way as naturalists find it advisable to trace the embryological
+development of an organ in order fully to understand its structure,
+so with the movements of expression it is advisable to follow as nearly
+as possible the same plan.  The earliest and almost sole expression
+seen during the first days of infancy, and then often exhibited is
+that displayed during the act of screaming; and screaming is excited,
+both at first and for some time afterwards, by every distressing or
+displeasing sensation and emotion,--by hunger, pain, anger, jealousy, fear,
+&c. At such times the muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted;
+and this, as I believe, explains to a large extent the act of frowning
+during the remainder of our lives.  I repeatedly observed my own infants,
+from under the age of one week to that of two or three months,
+and found that when a screaming-fit came on gradually, the first sign
+was the contraction of the corrugators, which produced a slight frown,
+quickly followed by the contraction of the other muscles round the eyes.
+When an infant is uncomfortable or unwell, little frowns--as I record
+in my notes--may be seen incessantly passing like shadows over its face;
+these being generally, but not always, followed sooner or later by a
+crying-fit. For instance, I watched for some time a baby, between seven
+and eight weeks old, sucking some milk which was cold, and therefore
+displeasing to him; and a steady little frown was maintained all the time.
+This was never developed into an actual crying-fit, though occasionally
+every stage of close approach could be observed.
+
+As the habit of contracting the brows has been followed by infants
+during innumerable generations, at the commencement of every
+crying or screaming fit, it has become firmly associated with
+the incipient sense of something distressing or disagreeable.
+Hence under similar circumstances it would be apt to be continued
+during maturity, although never then developed into a crying-fit.
+Screaming or weeping begins to be voluntarily restrained at an early
+period of life, whereas frowning is hardly ever restrained at any age.
+It is perhaps worth notice that with children much given to weeping,
+anything which perplexes their minds, and which would cause
+most other children merely to frown, readily makes them weep.
+So with certain classes of the insane, any effort of mind,
+however slight, which with an habitual frowner would cause
+a slight frown, leads to their weeping in an unrestrained manner.
+It is not more surprising that the habit of contracting the brows
+at the first perception of something distressing, although gained
+during infancy, should be retained during the rest of our lives,
+than that many other associated habits acquired at an early age
+should be permanently retained both by man and the lower animals.
+For instance, full-grown cats, when feeling warm and comfortable,
+often retain the habit of alternately protruding their fore-feet
+with extended toes, which habit they practised for a definite
+purpose whilst sucking their mothers.
+
+Another and distinct cause has probably strengthened the habit of frowning,
+whenever the mind is intent on any subject and encounters some difficulty.
+Vision is the most important of all the senses, and during primeval times
+the closest attention must have been incessantly:  directed towards
+distant objects for the sake of obtaining prey and avoiding danger.
+I remember being struck, whilst travelling in parts of South America,
+which were dangerous from the presence of Indians, how incessantly,
+yet as it appeared unconsciously, the half-wild Gauchos closely scanned
+the whole horizon.  Now, when any one with no covering on his head
+(as must have been aboriginally the case with mankind), strives
+to the utmost to distinguish in broad daylight, and especially
+if the sky is bright, a distant object, he almost invariably
+contracts his brows to prevent the entrance of too much light;
+the lower eyelids, cheeks, and upper lip being at the same time raised,
+so as to lessen the orifice of the eyes.  I have purposely asked
+several persons, young and old, to look, under the above circumstances,
+at distant objects, making them believe that I only wished to test the power
+of their vision; and they all behaved in the manner just described.
+Some of them, also, put their open, flat hands over their eyes to keep
+out the excess of light.  Gratiolet, after making some remarks to nearly
+the same effect,[5] says, "Ce sont la des attitudes de vision difficile."
+He concludes that the muscles round the eyes contract partly for
+the sake of excluding too much light (which appears to me the more
+important end), and partly to prevent all rays striking the retina,
+except those which come direct from the object that is scrutinized.
+Mr. Bowman, whom I consulted on this point, thinks that the contraction
+of the surrounding muscles may, in addition, "partly sustain the consensual
+movements of the two eyes, by giving a firmer support while the globes
+are brought to binocular vision by their own proper muscles."
+
+As the effort of viewing with care under a bright light a distant
+object is both difficult and irksome, and as this effort has
+been habitually accompanied, during numberless generations,
+by the contraction of the eyebrows, the habit of frowning will
+thus have been much strengthened; although it was originally
+practised during infancy from a quite independent cause, namely as
+the first step in the protection of the eyes during screaming.
+There is, indeed, much analogy, as far as the state
+of the mind is concerned, between intently scrutinizing
+a distant object, and following out an obscure train of thought,
+or performing some little and troublesome mechanical work.
+The belief that the habit of contracting the brows is continued
+when there is no need whatever to exclude too much light,
+receives support from the cases formerly alluded to,
+in which the eyebrows or eyelids are acted on under certain
+circumstances in a useless manner, from having been similarly used,
+under analogous circumstances, for a serviceable purpose.
+For instance, we voluntarily close our eyes when we do not
+wish to see any object, and we are apt to close them, when we
+reject a proposition, as if we could not or would not see it;
+or when we think about something horrible.  We raise our
+eyebrows when we wish to see quickly all round us, and we often
+do the same, when we earnestly desire to remember something;
+acting as if we endeavoured to see it.
+
+
+[5] `De la Physionomie,' pp.  15, 144, 146.  Mr. Herbert Spencer
+accounts for frowning exclusively by the habit of contracting
+the brows as a shade to the eyes in a bright light:
+see `Principles of Physiology,' 2nd edit.  1872, p.  546.
+
+_Abstraction.  Meditation_.--When a person is lost in thought
+with his mind absent, or, as it is sometimes said, "when he is
+in a brown study," he does not frown, but his eyes appear vacant.
+The lower eyelids are generally raised and wrinkled, in the same manner
+as when a short-sighted person tries to distinguish a distant object;
+and the upper orbicular muscles are at the same time slightly contracted.
+The wrinkling of the lower eyelids under these circumstances has been
+observed with some savages, as by Mr. Dyson Lacy with the Australians
+of Queensland, and several times by Mr. Geach with the Malays of the
+interior of Malacca.  What the meaning or cause of this action may be,
+cannot at present be explained; but here we have another instance
+of movement round the eyes in relation to the state of the mind.
+
+The vacant expression of the eyes is very peculiar, and at once shows
+when a man is completely lost in thought.  Professor Donders has,
+with his usual kindness, investigated this subject for me.
+He has observed others in this condition, and has been himself observed
+by Professor Engelmann.  The eyes are not then fixed on any object,
+and therefore not, as I had imagined, on some distant object.
+The lines of vision of the two eyes even often become slightly divergent;
+the divergence, if the head be held vertically, with the plane
+of vision horizontal, amounting to an angle of 2'0 as a maximum.
+This was ascertained by observing the crossed double image of a
+distant object.  When the head droops forward, as often occurs with a man
+absorbed in thought, owing to the general relaxation of his muscles,
+if the plane of vision be still horizontal, the eyes are necessarily
+a little turned upwards, and then the divergence is as much as 3'0,
+or 3'0 5': if the eyes are turned still more upwards, it amounts
+to between 6'0 and 7'0. Professor Donders attributes this divergence
+to the almost complete relaxation of certain muscles of the eyes,
+which would be apt to follow from the mind being wholly absorbed.[6]
+The active condition of the muscles of the eyes is that of convergence;
+and Professor Donders remarks, as bearing on their divergence during
+a period of complete abstraction, that when one eye becomes blind,
+it almost always, after a short lapse of time, deviates outwards;
+for its muscles are no longer used in moving the eyeball inwards
+for the sake of binocular vision.
+
+
+[6] Gratiolet remarks (De la Phys.  p.  35), "Quand l'attention
+est fixee sur quelque image interieure, l'oeil regarde dqns le
+vide et s'associe automatiquement a la contemplation de l'esprit."
+But this view hardly deserves to be called an explanation.
+
+Perplexed reflection is often accompanied by certain movements
+or gestures.  At such times we commonly raise our hands
+to our foreheads, mouths, or chins; but we do not act thus,
+as far as I have seen, when we are quite lost in meditation,
+and no difficulty is encountered.  Plautus, describing in one
+of his plays[7] a puzzled man, says, "Now look, he has pillared
+his chin upon his hand."  Even so trifling and apparently
+unmeaning a gesture as the raising of the hand to the face has
+been observed with some savages.  Al.  J. Mansel Weale has
+seen it with the Kafirs of South Africa; and the native chief
+Gaika adds, that men then "sometimes pull their beards."
+Mr. Washington Matthews, who attended to some of the wildest
+tribes of Indians in the western regions of the United States,
+remarks that he has seen them when concentrating their thoughts,
+bring their "hands, usually the thumb and index finger,
+in contact with some part of the face, commonly the upper lip."
+We can understand why the forehead should be pressed or rubbed,
+as deep thought tries the brain; but why the hand should be
+raised to the mouth or face is far from clear.
+
+_Ill-temper_.--We have seen that frowning is the natural expression
+of some difficulty encountered, or of something disagreeable experienced
+either in thought or action, and he whose mind is often and readily
+affected in this way, will be apt to be ill-tempered, or slightly angry,
+or peevish, and will commonly show it by frowning.  But a cross expression,
+due to a frown, may be counteracted, if the mouth appears sweet, from being
+habitually drawn into a smile, and the eyes are bright and cheerful.
+So it will be if the eye is clear and steady, and there is the appearance
+of earnest reflection.  Frowning, with some depression of the corners
+of the mouth, which is a sign of grief, gives an air of peevishness.
+If a child (see Plate IV., fig.  2)[8] frowns much whilst crying,
+but does not strongly contract in the usual manner the orbicular muscles,
+a well-marked expression of anger or even of rage, together with misery,
+is displayed.
+
+
+[7] `Miles Gloriosus,' act ii.  sc.  2.
+
+If the whole frowning brow be drawn much downward by the
+contraction of the pyramidal muscles of the nose, which produces
+transverse wrinkles or folds across the base of the nose,
+the expression becomes one of moroseness.  Duchenne believes
+that the contraction of this muscle, without any frowning,
+gives the appearance of extreme and aggressive hardness.[9]
+But I much doubt whether this is a true or natural expression.
+I have shown Duchenne's photograph of a young man, with this muscle
+strongly contracted by means of galvanism, to eleven persons,
+including some artists, and none of them could form an idea
+what was intended, except one, a girl, who answered correctly,
+"surely reserve."  When I first looked at this photograph,
+knowing what was intended, my imagination added, as I believe,
+what was necessary, namely, a frowning brow; and consequently
+the expression appeared to me true and extremely morose.
+
+
+[8] The original photograph by Herr Kindermann is much more expressive
+than this copy, as it shows the frown on the brow more plainly.
+
+[9] `Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legende iv.  figs.  16-18.
+
+A firmly closed mouth, in addition to a lowered and frowning brow,
+gives determination to the expression, or may make it obstinate and sullen.
+How it comes that the firm closure of the mouth gives the appearance
+of determination will presently be discussed.  An expression
+of sullen obstinacy has been clearly recognized by my informants,
+in the natives of six different regions of Australia.  It is well marked,
+according to Mr. Scott, with the Hindoos.  It has been recognized with
+the Malays, Chinese, Kafirs, Abyssinians, and in a conspicuous degree,
+according to Dr. Rothrock, with the wild Indians of North America,
+and according to Mr. D. Forbes, with the Aymaras of Bolivia.  I have also
+observed it with the Araucanos of southern Chili.  Mr. Dyson Lacy remarks
+that the natives of Australia, when in this frame of mind, sometimes fold
+their arms across their breasts, an attitude which may be seen with us.
+A firm determination, amounting to obstinacy, is, also, sometimes expressed
+by both shoulders being kept raised, the meaning of which gesture
+will be explained in the following chapter.
+
+With young children sulkiness is shown by pouting, or, as it
+is sometimes called, "making a snout."[10] When the corners
+of the mouth are much depressed, the lower lip is a little
+everted and protruded; and this is likewise called a pout.
+But the pouting here referred to, consists of the protrusion
+of both lips into a tubular form, sometimes to such an extent
+as to project as far as the end of the nose, if this be short.
+Pouting is generally accompanied by frowning, and sometimes
+by the utterance of a booing or whooing noise.
+This expression is remarkable, as almost the sole one,
+as far as I know, which is exhibited much more plainly
+during childhood, at least with Europeans, than during maturity.
+There is, however, some tendency to the protrusion of the lips
+with the adults of all races under the influence of great rage.
+Some children pout when they are shy, and they can then hardly
+be called sulky.
+
+
+[10] Hensleigh Wedgwood on `The Origin of Language,' 1866, p.  78.
+
+From inquiries which I have made in several large families,
+pouting does not seem very common with European children;
+but it prevails throughout the world, and must be both common
+and strongly marked with most savage races, as it has caught
+the attention of many observers.  It has been noticed in eight
+different districts of Australia; and one of my informants
+remarks how greatly the lips of the children are then protruded.
+Two observers have seen pouting with the children of Hindoos;
+three, with those of the Kafirs and Fingoes of South Africa,
+and with the Hottentots; and two, with the children of the wild
+Indians of North America.  Pouting has also been observed with
+the Chinese, Abyssinians, Malays of Malacca, Dyaks of Borneo,
+and often with the New Zealanders.  Mr. Mansel Weale informs me
+that he has seen the lips much protruded, not only with the children
+of the Kafirs, but with the adults of both sexes when sulky;
+and Mr. Stack has sometimes observed the same thing with the men,
+and very frequently with the women of New Zealand.  A trace
+of the same expression may occasionally be detected even
+with adult Europeans.
+
+We thus see that the protrusion of the lips, especially with young children,
+is characteristic of sulkiness throughout the greater part of the world.
+This movement apparently results from the retention, chiefly during youth,
+of a primordial habit, or from an occasional reversion to it.
+Young orangs and chimpanzees protrude their lips to an extraordinary degree,
+as described in a former chapter, when they are discontented, somewhat angry,
+or sulky; also when they are surprised, a little frightened, and even
+when slightly pleased.  Their mouths are protruded apparently for the sake
+of making the various noises proper to these several states of mind;
+and its shape, as I observed with the chimpanzee, differed slightly when
+the cry of pleasure and that of anger were uttered.  As soon as these animals
+become enraged, the shape of the month wholly changes, and the teeth
+are exposed.  The adult orang when wounded is said to emit "a singular cry,
+consisting at first of high notes, which at length deepen into a low roar.
+While giving out the high notes he thrusts out his lips into a funnel shape,
+but in uttering the low notes he holds his mouth wide open."[11] With
+the gorilla, the lower lip is said to be capable of great elongation.
+If then our semi-human progenitors protruded their lips when sulky or a
+little angered, in the same manner as do the existing anthropoid apes,
+it is not an anomalous, though a curious fact, that our children
+should exhibit, when similarly affected, a trace of the same expression,
+together with some tendency to utter a noise.  For it is not at all
+unusual for animals to retain, more or less perfectly, during early youth,
+and subsequently to lose, characters which were aboriginally possessed
+by their adult progenitors, and which are still retained by distinct species,
+their near relations.
+
+Nor is it an anomalous fact that the children of savages
+should exhibit a stronger tendency to protrude their lips,
+when sulky, than the children of civilized Europeans;
+for the essence of savagery seems to consist in the retention
+of a primordial condition, and this occasionally holds good even
+with bodily peculiarities.[12] It may be objected to this view
+of the origin of pouting, that the anthropoid apes likewise
+protrude their lips when astonished and even when a little pleased;
+whilst with us this expression is generally confined to a sulky
+frame of mind.  But we shall see in a future chapter that with
+men of various races surprise does sometimes lead to a slight
+protrusion of the lips, though great surprise or astonishment
+is more commonly shown by the mouth being widely opened.
+As when we smile or laugh we draw back the corners of the mouth,
+we have lost any tendency to protrude the lips, when pleased,
+if indeed our early progenitors thus expressed pleasure.
+
+
+[11] Muller, as quoted by Huxley, `Man's Place in Nature,' 1863, p.  38.
+
+A little gesture made by sulky children may here be noticed, namely,
+their "showing a cold shoulder."  This has a different meaning, as,
+I believe, from the keeping both shoulders raised.  A cross child,
+sitting on its parent's knee, will lift up the near shoulder,
+then jerk it away, as if from a caress, and afterwards give
+a backward push with it, as if to push away the offender.
+I have seen a child, standing at some distance from any one,
+clearly express its feelings by raising one shoulder, giving it
+a little backward movement, and then turning away its whole body.
+
+
+_Decision or determination_.--The firm closure of the mouth tends
+to give an expression of determination or decision to the countenance.
+No determined man probably ever had an habitually gaping mouth.
+Hence, also, a small and weak lower jaw, which seems to indicate
+that the mouth is not habitually and firmly closed, is commonly thought
+to be characteristic of feebleness of character.  A prolonged effort
+of any kind, whether of body or mind, implies previous determination;
+and if it can be shown that the mouth is generally closed with firmness
+before and during a great and continued exertion of the muscular system,
+then, through the principle of association, the mouth would almost
+certainly be closed as soon as any determined resolution was taken.
+Now several observers have noticed that a man, in commencing any violent
+muscular effort, invariably first distends his lungs with air, and then
+compresses it by the strong contraction of the muscles of the chest;
+and to effect this the mouth must be firmly closed.  Moreover, as soon
+as the man is compelled to draw breath, he still keeps his chest as much
+distended as possible.
+
+
+[11] I have given several instances in my `Descent
+of Man,' vol.  i.  chap.  iv.
+
+Various causes have been assigned for this manner of acting.
+Sir C. Bell maintains[13] that the chest is distended with air,
+and is kept distended at such times, in order to give
+a fixed support to the muscles which are thereto attached.
+Hence, as he remarks, when two men are engaged in a deadly contest,
+a terrible silence prevails, broken only by hard stifled breathing.
+There is silence, because to expel the air in the utterance of any
+sound would be to relax the support for the muscles of the arms.
+If an outcry is heard, supposing the struggle to take place in the dark,
+we at once know that one of the two has given up in despair.
+
+Gratiolet admits[14] that when a man has to struggle with another
+to his utmost, or has to support a great weight, or to keep
+for a long time the same forced attitude, it is necessary for him
+first to make a deep inspiration, and then to cease breathing;
+but he thinks that Sir C. Bell's explanation is erroneous.
+He maintains that arrested respiration retards the circulation
+of the blood, of which I believe there is no doubt, and he adduces
+some curious evidence from the structure of the lower animals,
+showing, on the one hand, that a retarded circulation is necessary
+for prolonged muscular exertion, and, on the other hand,
+that a rapid circulation is necessary for rapid movements.
+According to this view, when we commence any great exertion,
+we close our mouths and stop breathing, in order to retard
+the circulation of the blood.  Gratiolet sums up the subject
+by saying, "C'est la la vraie theorie de l'effort continu;"
+but how far this theory is admitted by other physiologists I
+do not know.
+
+
+[13] `Anatomy of Expression.'  p.  190.
+
+[14] `De la Physionomie,' pp.  118-121.
+
+Dr. Piderit accounts[15] for the firm closure of the mouth during
+strong muscular exertion, on the principle that the influence
+of the will spreads to other muscles besides those necessarily
+brought into action in making any particular exertion; and it is
+natural that the muscles of respiration and of the mouth, from being
+so habitually used, should be especially liable to be thus acted on.
+It appears to me that there probably is some truth in this view,
+for we are apt to press the teeth hard together during violent exertion,
+and this is not requisite to prevent expiration, whilst the muscles
+of the chest are strongly contracted.
+
+Lastly, when a man has to perform some delicate and difficult operation,
+not requiring the exertion of any strength, he nevertheless generally closes
+his mouth and ceases for a time to breathe; but he acts thus in order
+that the movements of his chest may not disturb, those of his arms.
+A person, for instance, whilst threading a needle, may be seen to compress
+his lips and either to stop breathing, or to breathe as quietly as possible.
+So it was, as formerly stated, with a young and sick chimpanzee, whilst it
+amused itself by killing flies with its knuckles, as they buzzed about on
+the window-panes. To perform an action, however trifling, if difficult,
+implies some amount of previous determination.
+
+
+[15] `Mimik und Physiognomik,' s.  79.
+
+There appears nothing improbable in all the above assigned
+causes having come into play in different degrees,
+either conjointly or separately, on various occasions.
+The result would be a well-established habit, now perhaps inherited,
+of firmly closing the mouth at the commencement of and during
+any violent and prolonged exertion, or any delicate operation.
+Through the principle of association there would also be a strong
+tendency towards this same habit, as soon as the mind had
+resolved on any particular action or line of conduct, even before
+there was any bodily exertion, or if none were requisite.
+The habitual and firm closure of the mouth would thus come
+to show decision of character; and decision readily passes
+into obstinacy.  CHAPTER X.
+
+HATRED AND ANGER.
+
+Hatred--Rage, effects of on the system--Uncovering of the teeth--
+Rage in the insane--Anger and indignation--As expressed by the various
+races of man--Sneering and defiance--The uncovering of the canine
+tooth on one side of the face.
+
+
+IF we have suffered or expect to suffer some wilful injury from a man,
+or if he is in any way offensive to us, we dislike him; and dislike easily
+rises into hatred.  Such feelings, if experienced in a moderate degree,
+are not clearly expressed by any movement of the body or features,
+excepting perhaps by a certain gravity of behaviour, or by some ill-temper.
+Few individuals, however, can long reflect about a hated person,
+without feeling and exhibiting signs of indignation or rage.
+But if the offending person be quite insignificant, we experience merely
+disdain or contempt.  If, on the other hand, he is all-powerful, then
+hatred passes into terror, as when a slave thinks about a cruel master,
+or a savage about a bloodthirsty malignant deity.[1] Most of our
+emotions are so closely connected with their expression, that they
+hardly exist if the body remains passive--the nature of the expression
+depending in chief part on the nature of the actions which have been
+habitually performed under this particular state of the mind.
+A man, for instance, may know that his life is in the extremest peril,
+and may strongly desire to save if; yet, as Louis XVI.
+said, when surrounded by a fierce mob, "Am I afraid? feel my pulse."
+So a man may intensely hate another, but until his bodily frame
+is affected, he cannot be said to be enraged.
+
+
+[1] See some remarks to this effect by Mr. Bain, `The Emotions and the Will,'
+2nd edit.  1865, p.  127.
+
+_Rage_.--I have already had occasion to treat of this emotion in
+the third chapter, when discussing the direct influence of the excited
+sensorium on the body, in combination with the effects of habitually
+associated actions.  Rage exhibits itself in the most diversified manner.
+The heart and circulation are always affected; the face reddens
+or becomes purple, with the veins on the forehead and neck distended.
+The reddening of the skin has been observed with the copper-coloured
+Indians of South America,[2] and even, as it is said, on the white
+cicatrices left by old wounds on negroes.[3] Monkeys also redden
+from passion.  With one of my own infants, under four months old,
+I repeatedly observed that the first symptom of an approaching passion
+was the rushing of the blood into his bare scalp.  On the other hand,
+the action of the heart is sometimes so much impeded by great rage,
+that the countenance becomes pallid or livid,[4] and not a few men
+with heart-disease have dropped down dead under this powerful emotion.
+
+
+[2] Rengger, Naturgesch.  der Saugethiere von Paraguay, 1830, s.  3.
+
+[3] Sir C. Bell, `Anatomy of Expression,' p.  96.  On the other hand,
+Dr. Burgess (`Physiology of Blushing,' 1839, p.  31) speaks of the reddening
+of a cicatrix in a negress as of the nature of a blush.
+
+[4] Moreau and Gratiolet have discussed the colour of the face
+under the influence of intense passion:  see the edit.
+of 1820 of Lavater, vol.  iv.  pp.  282 and 300;
+and Gratiolet, `De la Physionomie,' p.  345.
+
+The respiration is likewise affected; the chest heaves,
+and the dilated nostrils quiver.[5] As Tennyson writes,
+"sharp breaths of anger puffed her fairy nostrils out."
+Hence we have such expressions as breathing out vengeance,"
+and "fuming with anger."[6]
+
+The excited brain gives strength to the muscles, and at the same
+time energy to the will.  The body is commonly held erect ready
+for instant action, but sometimes it is bent forward towards
+the offending person, with the limbs more or less rigid.
+The mouth is generally closed with firmness, showing fixed
+determination, and the teeth are clenched or ground together.
+Such gestures as the raising of the arms, with the fists clenched,
+as if to strike the offender, are common.  Few men in a
+great passion, and telling some one to begone, can resist acting
+as if they intended to strike or push the man violently away.
+The desire, indeed, to strike often becomes so intolerably strong,
+that inanimate objects are struck or dashed to the ground;
+but the gestures frequently become altogether purposeless or frantic.
+Young children, when in a violent rage roll on the ground on
+their backs or bellies, screaming, kicking, scratching, or biting
+everything within reach.  So it is, as I hear from Mr. Scott,
+with Hindoo children; and, as we have seen, with the young
+of the anthropomorphous apes.
+
+
+[6] Sir C. Bell `Anatomy of Expression,' pp.  91, 107) has fully discussed
+this subject.  Moreau remarks (in the edit.  of 1820 of `La Physionomie,
+par G. Lavater,' vol.  iv.  p.  237), and quotes Portal in confirmation,
+that asthmatic patients acquire permanently expanded nostrils, owing to
+the habitual contraction of the elevatory muscles of the wings of the nose.
+The explanation by Dr. Piderit (`Mimik und Physiognomik,' s.  82) of the
+distension of the nostrils, namely, to allow free breathing whilst the mouth
+is closed and the teeth clenched, does not appear to be nearly so correct
+as that by Sir C. Bell, who attributes it to the sympathy (_i. e_.
+habitual co-action) of all the respiratory muscles.  The nostrils of an angry
+man may be seen to become dilated, although his mouth is open.
+
+[7] Mr. Wedgwood, `On the Origin of Language,' 1866, p.  76.  He also observes
+that the sound of hard breathing "is represented by the syllables _puff,
+huff, whiff_, whence a _huff_ is a fit of ill-temper."
+
+But the muscular system is often affected in a wholly different way;
+for trembling is a frequent consequence of extreme rage.
+The paralysed lips then refuse to obey the will, "and the voice sticks
+in the throat;"[7] or it is rendered loud, harsh, and discordant.
+If there be much and rapid speaking, the mouth froths.
+The hair sometimes bristles; but I shall return to this subject
+in another chapter, when I treat of the mingled emotions of rage
+and terror.  There is in most cases a strongly-marked frown
+on the forehead; for this follows from the sense of anything
+displeasing or difficult, together with concentration of mind.
+But sometimes the brow, instead of being much contracted and lowered,
+remains smooth, with the glaring eyes kept widely open.
+The eyes are always bright, or may, as Homer expresses it,
+glisten with fire.  They are sometimes bloodshot, and are said
+to protrude from their sockets--the result, no doubt, of the head
+being gorged with blood, as shown by the veins being distended.
+According to Gratiolet," the pupils are always contracted in rage,
+and I hear from Dr. Crichton Browne that this is the case in the
+fierce delirium of meningitis; but the movements of the iris under
+the influence of the different emotions is a very obscure subject.
+
+Shakspeare sums up the chief characteristics of rage as follows:--
+
+ "In peace there's nothing so becomes a man,
+ As modest stillness and humility;
+ But when the blast of war blows in our ears,
+ Then imitate the action of the tiger:
+ Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood,
+ Then lend the eye a terrible aspect;
+ Now set the teeth, and stretch the nostril wide,
+ Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit
+ To his full height! On, on, you noblest English."
+_Henry V_., act iii.  sc.  1.
+
+
+[7] Sir C. Bell `Anatomy of Expression,' p.  95) has some excellent
+remarks on the expression of rage.
+
+[8] `De la Physionomie,' 1865, p.  346.
+
+
+The lips are sometimes protruded during rage in a manner, the meaning
+of which I do not understand, unless it depends on our descent from some
+ape-like animal.  Instances have been observed, not only with Europeans,
+but with the Australians and Hindoos.  The lips, however, are much more
+commonly retracted, the grinning or clenched teeth being thus exposed.
+This has been noticed by almost every one who has written on expression.[9]
+The appearance is as if the teeth were uncovered, ready for seizing or tearing
+an enemy, though there may be no intention of acting in this manner.
+Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen this grinning expression with the Australians,
+when quarrelling, and so has Gaika with the Kafirs of South America.
+Dickens,[10] in speaking of an atrocious murderer who had just been caught,
+and was surrounded by a furious mob, describes "the people as jumping
+up one behind another, snarling with their teeth, and making at him
+like wild beasts."  Every one who has had much to do with young children
+must have seen how naturally they take to biting, when in a passion.
+It seems as instinctive in them as in young crocodiles, who snap their
+little jaws as soon as they emerge from the egg.
+
+
+[9] Sir C. Bell, `Anatomy of Expression,' p.  177.  Gratiolet (De
+la Phys.  p.  369) says, `les dents se decouvrent, et imitent
+symboliquement l'action de dechirer et de mordre.'I If,
+instead of using the vague term _symboliquement_, Gratiolet had
+said that the action was a remnant of a habit acquired during
+primeval times when our semi-human progenitors fought together
+with their teeth, like gorillas and orangs at the present day,
+he would have been more intelligible.  Dr. Piderit (`Mimik,' &c., s.
+82) also speaks of the retraction of the upper lip during rage.
+In an engraving of one of Hogarth's wonderful pictures, passion is
+represented in the plainest manner by the open glaring eyes,
+frowning forehead, and exposed grinning teeth.
+
+[10] `Oliver Twist,' vol.  iii.  p.  245.
+
+A grinning expression and the protrusion of the lips appear sometimes
+to go together.  A close observer says that he has seen many instances
+of intense hatred (which can hardly be distinguished from rage, more or
+less suppressed) in Orientals, and once in an elderly English woman.
+In all these cases there "was a grin, not a scowl--the lips lengthening,
+the cheeks settling downwards, the eyes half-closed, whilst the brow
+remained perfectly calm."[11]
+
+This retraction of the lips and uncovering of the teeth during
+paroxysms of rage, as if to bite the offender, is so remarkable,
+considering how seldom the teeth are used by men in fighting,
+that I inquired from Dr. J. Crichton Browne whether the habit
+was common in the insane whose passions are unbridled.
+He informs me that he has repeatedly observed it both with the insane
+and idiotic, and has given me the following illustrations:--
+
+Shortly before receiving my letter, be witnessed an uncontrollable
+outbreak of anger and delusive jealousy in an insane lady.
+At first she vituperated her husband, and whilst doing so foamed
+at the mouth.  Next she approached close to him with compressed lips,
+and a virulent set frown.  Then she drew back her lips,
+especially the corners of the upper lip, and showed her teeth,
+at the same time aiming a vicious blow at him.  A second case
+is that of an old soldier, who, when he is requested to conform
+to the rules of the establishment, gives way to discontent,
+terminating in fury.  He commonly begins by asking Dr. Browne
+whether he is not ashamed to treat him in such a manner.
+He then swears and blasphemes, paces tip and down,
+tosses his arms wildly about, and menaces any one near him.
+At last, as his exasperation culminates, he rushes up
+towards Dr. Browne with a peculiar sidelong movement,
+shaking his doubled fist, and threatening destruction.
+Then his upper lip may be seen to be raised, especially at
+the corners, so that his huge canine teeth are exhibited.
+He hisses forth his curses through his set teeth, and his
+whole expression assumes the character of extreme ferocity.
+A similar description is applicable to another man, excepting that
+he generally foams at the mouth and spits, dancing and jumping
+about in a strange rapid manner, shrieking out his maledictions
+in a shrill falsetto voice.
+
+
+[11] `The Spectator,' July 11, 1868, p.  810.
+
+Dr. Browne also informs me of the case of an epileptic idiot, incapable of
+independent movements, and who spends the whole day in playing with
+some toys; but his temper is morose and easily roused into fierceness.
+When any one touches his toys, he slowly raises his head from its
+habitual downward position, and fixes his eyes on the offender,
+with a tardy yet angry scowl.  If the annoyance be repeated, he draws
+back his thick lips and reveals a prominent row of hideous fangs
+(large canines being especially noticeable), and then makes a quick
+and cruel clutch with his open hand at the offending person.
+The rapidity of this clutch, as Dr. Browne remarks, is marvellous
+in a being ordinarily so torpid that he takes about fifteen seconds,
+when attracted by any noise, to turn his head from one side to the other.
+If, when thus incensed, a handkerchief, book, or other article,
+be placed into his hands, he drags it to his mouth and bites it.
+Mr. Nicol has likewise described to me two cases of insane patients,
+whose lips are retracted during paroxysms of rage.
+
+Dr. Maudsley, after detailing various strange animal-like traits
+in idiots, asks whether these are not due to the reappearance
+of primitive instincts--"a faint echo from a far-distant past,
+testifying to a kinship which man has almost outgrown."
+He adds, that as every human brain passes, in the course
+of its development, through the same stages as those occurring
+in the lower vertebrate animals, and as the brain of an idiot
+is in an arrested condition, we may presume that it "will
+manifest its most primitive functions, and no higher functions."
+Dr. Maudsley thinks that the same view may be extended to the brain
+in its degenerated condition in some insane patients; and asks,
+whence come "the savage snarl, the destructive disposition,
+the obscene language, the wild howl, the offensive habits,
+displayed by some of the insane?  Why should a human being,
+deprived of his reason, ever become so brutal in character,
+as some do, unless he has the brute nature within him?"[12] This
+question must, as it would appear, he answered in the affirmative.
+
+_Anger, Indignation_.--These states of the mind differ from rage only
+in degree, and there is no marked distinction in their characteristic signs.
+Under moderate anger the action of the heart is a little increased,
+the colour heightened, and the eyes become bright.  The respiration
+is likewise a little hurried; and as all the muscles serving for this
+function act in association, the wings of the nostrils are somewhat
+raised to allow of a free indraught of air; and this is a highly
+characteristic sign of indignation.  The mouth is commonly compressed,
+and there is almost always a frown on the brow.  Instead of the frantic
+gestures of extreme rage, an indignant man unconsciously throws himself
+into an attitude ready for attacking or striking his enemy, whom he will
+perhaps scan from head to foot in defiance.  He carries his head erect,
+with his chest well expanded, and the feet planted firmly on the ground.
+He holds his arms in various positions, with one or both elbows squared,
+or with the arms rigidly suspended by his sides.  With Europeans
+the fists are commonly clenched.[13] The figures 1 and 2 in Plate VI.
+are fairly good representations of men simulating indignation.
+Any one may see in a mirror, if he will vividly imagine that he has
+been insulted and demands an explanation in an angry tone of voice,
+that he suddenly and unconsciously throws himself into some such attitude.
+
+
+[12] `Body and Mind,' 1870, pp.  51-53.
+
+Rage, anger, and indignation are exhibited in nearly the same manner
+throughout the world; and the following descriptions may be worth giving
+as evidence of this, and as illustrations of some of the foregoing remarks.
+There is, however, an exception with respect to clenching the fists,
+which seems confined chiefly to the men who fight with their fists.
+With the Australians only one of my informants has seen the fists clenched.
+All agree about the body being held erect; and all, with two exceptions,
+state that the brows are heavily contracted.  Some of them allude to
+the firmly-compressed mouth, the distended nostrils, and flashing eyes.
+According to the Rev. Mr. Taplin, rage, with the Australians, is expressed
+by the lips being protruded, the eyes being widely open; and in the case
+of the women by their dancing about and casting dust into the air.
+Another observer speaks of the native men, when enraged, throwing their
+arms wildly about.
+
+
+[13] Le Brun, in his well-known `Conference sur l'Expression'
+(`La Physionomie, par Lavater,' edit.  of 1820, vol.  lx.  p.  268), remarks
+that anger is expressed by the clenching of the fists.  See, to the
+same effect, Huschke, `Mimices et Physiognomices, Fragmentum Physiologicum,'
+1824, p.  20.  Also Sir C. Bell, `Anatomy of Expression,' p.  219.
+
+I have received similar accounts, except as to the clenching of the fists,
+in regard to the Malays of the Malacca peninsula, the Abyssinians,
+and the natives of South Africa.  So it is with the Dakota Indians
+of North America; and, according to Mr. Matthews, they then hold
+their heads erect, frown, and often stalk away with long strides.
+Mr. Bridges states that the Fuegians, when enraged, frequently stamp
+on the ground, walk distractedly about, sometimes cry and grow pale.
+The Rev. Mr. Stack watched a New Zealand man and woman quarrelling,
+and made the following entry in his note-book: "Eyes dilated, body swayed
+violently backwards and forwards, head inclined forwards, fists clenched,
+now thrown behind the body, now directed towards each other's faces."
+Mr. Swinhoe says that my description agrees with what he has seen
+of the Chinese, excepting that an angry man generally inclines
+his body towards his antagonist, and pointing at him, pours forth
+a volley of abuse.
+
+Lastly, with respect to the natives of India, Mr. J. Scott has sent
+me a full description of their gestures and expression when enraged.
+Two low-caste Bengalees disputed about a loan.  At first they were calm,
+but soon grew furious and poured forth the grossest abuse on each
+other's relations and progenitors for many generations past.
+Their gestures were very different from those of Europeans;
+for though their chests were expanded and shoulders squared,
+their arms remained rigidly suspended, with the elbows turned
+inwards and the hands alternately clenched and opened.
+Their shoulders were often raised high, and then again lowered.
+They looked fiercely at each other from under their lowered and
+strongly wrinkled brows, and their protruded lips were firmly closed.
+They approached each other, with heads and necks stretched forwards,
+and pushed, scratched, and grasped at each other.  This protrusion
+of the head and body seems a common gesture with the enraged;
+and I have noticed it with degraded English women whilst quarrelling
+violently in the streets.  In such cases it may be presumed that
+neither party expects to receive a blow from the other.
+
+A Bengalee employed in the Botanic Gardens was accused, in the presence
+of Mr. Scott, by the native overseer of having stolen a valuable plant.
+He listened silently and scornfully to the accusation; his attitude erect,
+chest expanded, mouth closed, lips protruding, eyes firmly set
+and penetrating.  He then defiantly maintained his innocence,
+with upraised and clenched hands, his head being now pushed forwards,
+with the eyes widely open and eyebrows raised.  Mr. Scott also watched
+two Mechis, in Sikhim, quarrelling about their share of payment.
+They soon got into a furious passion, and then their bodies became less erect,
+with their heads pushed forwards; they made grimaces at each other;
+their shoulders were raised; their arms rigidly bent inwards at the elbows,
+and their hands spasmodically closed, but not properly clenched.
+They continually approached and retreated from each other, and often raised
+their arms as if to strike, but their hands were open, and no blow was given.
+Mr. Scott made similar observations on the Lepchas whom he often
+saw quarrelling, and he noticed that they kept their arms rigid and almost
+parallel to their bodies, with the hands pushed somewhat backwards
+and partially closed, but not clenched.
+
+
+_Sneering, Defiance:  Uncovering the canine tooth on one side_.--
+The expression which I wish here to consider differs but little from
+that already described, when the lips are retracted and the grinning
+teeth exposed.  The difference consists solely in the upper lip
+being retracted in such a manner that the canine tooth on one
+side of the face alone is shown; the face itself being generally
+a little upturned and half averted from the person causing offence.
+The other signs of rage are not necessarily present.  This expression
+may occasionally be observed in a person who sneers at or defies another,
+though there may be no real anger; as when any one is playfully
+accused of some fault, and answers, "I scorn the imputation."
+The expression is not a common one, but I have seen it exhibited with
+perfect distinctness by a lady who was being quizzed by another person.
+It was described by Parsons as long ago as 1746, with an engraving,
+showing the uncovered canine on one side.[14] Mr. Rejlander,
+without my having made any allusion to the subject, asked me whether I
+had ever noticed this expression, as he had been much struck by it.
+He has photographed for me (Plate IV.  fig 1) a lady, who sometimes
+unintentionally displays the canine on one side, and who can do
+so voluntarily with unusual distinctness.
+
+The expression of a half-playful sneer graduates into one
+of great ferocity when, together with a heavily frowning
+brow and fierce eye, the canine tooth is exposed.
+A Bengalee boy was accused before Mr. Scott of some misdeed.
+The delinquent did not dare to give vent to his wrath in words,
+but it was plainly shown on his countenance, sometimes by a
+defiant frown, and sometimes "by a thoroughly canine snarl."
+When this was exhibited, "the corner of the lip over the eye-tooth,
+which happened in this case to be large and projecting, was raised
+on the side of his accuser, a strong frown being still retained
+on the brow."  Sir C. Bell states[15] that the actor Cooke
+could express the most determined hate "when with the oblique
+cast of his eyes he drew up the outer part of the upper lip,
+and discovered a sharp angular tooth."
+
+
+[14] Transact.  Philosoph.  Soc., Appendix, 1746, p.  65.
+
+The uncovering of the canine tooth is the result of a double movement.
+The angle or corner of the mouth is drawn a little backwards, and at the same
+time a muscle which runs parallel to and near the nose draws up the outer
+part of the upper lip, and exposes the canine on this side of the face.
+The contraction of this muscle makes a distinct furrow on the cheek,
+and produces strong wrinkles under the eye, especially at its inner corner.
+The action is the same as that of a snarling dog; and a dog when pretending
+to fight often draws up the lip on one side alone, namely that facing
+his antagonist.  Our word _sneer_ is in fact the same as _snarl_,
+which was originally _snar_, the _l_ "being merely an element implying
+continuance of action."[16]
+
+I suspect that we see a trace of this same expression in what is
+called a derisive or sardonic smile.  The lips are then kept
+joined or almost joined, but one corner of the mouth is retracted
+on the side towards the derided person; and this drawing back
+of the corner is part of a true sneer.  Although some persons
+smile more on one side of their face than on the other,
+it is not easy to understand why in cases of derision the smile,
+if a real one, should so commonly be confined to one side.
+I have also on these occasions noticed a slight twitching
+of the muscle which draws up the outer part of the upper lip;
+and this movement, if fully carried out, would have uncovered
+the canine, and would have produced a true sneer.
+
+
+[15] `Anatomy of Expression,' p.  136.  Sir C. Bell calls (p. 131)
+the muscles which uncover the canines the snarling muscles.
+
+[16] Hensleigh Wedgwood, `Dictionary of English Etymology,'
+1865, vol.  iii.  pp.  240, 243.
+
+Mr. Bulmer, an Australian missionary in a remote part of Gipps' Land, says,
+in answer to my query about the uncovering of the canine on one side, "I find
+that the natives in snarling at each other speak with the teeth closed,
+the upper lip drawn to one side, and a general angry expression of face;
+but they look direct at the person addressed."  Three other observers
+in Australia, one in Abyssinia, and one in China, answer my query on this
+head in the affirmative; but as the expression is rare, and as they
+enter into no details, I am afraid of implicitly trusting them.
+It is, however, by no means improbable that this animal-like expression
+may be more common with savages than with civilized races.  Mr. Geach is
+an observer who may be fully trusted, and he has observed it on one occasion
+in a Malay in the interior of Malacca.  The Rev. S. O. Glenie answers,
+"We have observed this expression with the natives of Ceylon, but not often."
+Lastly, in North America, Dr. Rothrock has seen it with some wild Indians,
+and often in a tribe adjoining the Atnahs.
+
+Although the upper lip is certainly sometimes raised on one
+side alone in sneering at or defying any one, I do not know
+that this is always the case, for the face is commonly
+half averted, and the expression is often momentary.
+The movement being confined to one side may not be an essential
+part of the expression, but may depend on the proper
+muscles being incapable of movement excepting on one side.
+I asked four persons to endeavour to act voluntarily in
+this manner; two could expose the canine only on the left side,
+one only on the right side, and the fourth on neither side.
+Nevertheless it is by no means certain that these same persons,
+<251> if defying any one in earnest, would not unconsciously have
+uncovered their canine tooth on the side, whichever it might be,
+towards the offender.  For we have seen that some persons cannot
+voluntarily make their eyebrows oblique, yet instantly act
+in this manner when affected by any real, although most trifling,
+cause of distress.  The power of voluntarily uncovering
+the canine on one side of the face being thus often wholly lost,
+indicates that it is a rarely used and almost abortive action.
+It is indeed a surprising fact that man should possess the power,
+or should exhibit any tendency to its use; for Mr. Sutton has never
+noticed a snarling action in our nearest allies, namely, the monkeys
+in the Zoological Gardens, and he is positive that the baboons,
+though furnished with great canines, never act thus, but uncover
+all their teeth when feeling savage and ready for an attack.
+Whether the adult anthropomorphous apes, in the males of whom
+the canines are much larger than in the females, uncover them
+when prepared to fight, is not known.
+
+The expression here considered, whether that of a playful sneer
+or ferocious snarl, is one of the most curious which occurs in man.
+It reveals his animal descent; for no one, even if rolling on the ground
+in a deadly grapple with an enemy, and attempting to bite him,
+would try to use his canine teeth more than his other teeth.
+We may readily believe from our affinity to the anthropomorphous apes
+that our male semi-human progenitors possessed great canine teeth,
+and men are now occasionally born having them of unusually large size,
+with interspaces in the opposite jaw for their reception.[17] We may
+further suspect, notwithstanding that we have no support from analogy,
+that our semi-human progenitors uncovered their canine teeth
+when prepared for battle, as we still do when feeling ferocious,
+or when merely sneering at or defying some one, without any intention
+of making a real attack with our teeth.
+
+
+[17] `The Descent of Man,' 1871, vol.  L p.  126.  CHAPTER XI.
+
+DISDAIN--CONTEMPT--DISGUST-GUILT--PRIDE, ETC.--HELPLESSNESS--PATIENCE--
+AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.
+
+Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed--Derisive smile--
+Gestures expressive of contempt--Disgust--Guilt, deceit, pride, &c.--
+Helplessness or impotence--Patience--Obstinacy--Shrugging the shoulders
+common to most of the races of man--Signs of affirmation and negation.
+
+
+SCORN and disdain can hardly be distinguished from contempt,
+excepting that they imply a rather more angry frame of mind.
+Nor can they be clearly distinguished from the feelings discussed
+in the last chapter under the terms of sneering and defiance.
+Disgust is a sensation rather more distinct in its nature
+and refers to something revolting, primarily in relation to
+the sense of taste, as actually perceived or vividly imagined;
+and secondarily to anything which causes a similar feeling,
+through the sense of smell, touch, and even of eyesight.
+Nevertheless, extreme contempt, or as it is often called
+loathing contempt, hardly differs from disgust.  These several
+conditions of the mind are, therefore, nearly related;
+and each of them may be exhibited in many different ways.
+Some writers have insisted chiefly on one mode of expression,
+and others on a different mode.  From this circumstance M. Lemoine
+has argued[1] that their descriptions are not trustworthy.
+But we shall immediately see that it is natural that the
+feelings which we have here to consider should be expressed
+in many different ways, inasmuch as various habitual actions
+serve equally well, through the principle of association,
+for their expression.
+
+Scorn and disdain, as well as sneering and defiance, may be displayed
+by a slight uncovering of the canine tooth on one side of the face;
+and this movement appears to graduate into one closely like a smile.
+Or the smile or laugh may be real, although one of derision;
+and this implies that the offender is so insignificant that he excites
+only amusement; but the amusement is generally a pretence.
+Gaika in his answers to my queries remarks, that contempt
+is commonly shown by his countrymen, the Kafirs, by smiling;
+and the Rajah Brooke makes the same observation with respect to the Dyaks
+of Borneo.  As laughter is primarily the expression of simple joy,
+very young children do not, I believe, ever laugh in derision.
+
+The partial closure of the eyelids, as Duchenne[2] insists,
+or the turning away of the eyes or of the whole body,
+are likewise highly expressive of disdain.  These actions
+seem to declare that the despised person is not worth looking
+at or is disagreeable to behold.  The accompanying photograph
+(Plate V. fig.  1) by Mr. Rejlander, shows this form of disdain.
+It represents a young lady, who is supposed to be tearing up
+the photograph of a despised lover.
+
+The most common method of expressing contempt is by movements
+about the nose, or round the mouth; but the latter movements,
+when strongly pronounced, indicate disgust.  The nose may be slightly
+turned up, which apparently follows from the turning up of the upper lip;
+or the movement may be abbreviated into the mere wrinkling of the nose.
+The nose is often slightly contracted, so as partly to close the passage;[3]
+and this is commonly accompanied by a slight snort or expiration.
+All these actions are the same with those which we employ when we
+perceive an offensive odour, and wish to exclude or expel it.
+In extreme cases, as Dr. Piderit remarks,[4] we protrude and raise
+both lips, or the upper lip alone, so as to close the nostrils
+as by a valve, the nose being thus turned up.  We seem thus to say
+to the despised person that he smells offensively,[5] in nearly
+the same manner as we express to him by half-closing our eyelids,
+or turning away our faces, that he is not worth looking at.
+It must not, however, be supposed that such ideas actually pass
+through the mind when we exhibit our contempt; but as whenever we
+have perceived a disagreeable odour or seen a disagreeable sight,
+actions of this kind have been performed, they have become habitual
+or fixed, and are now employed under any analogous state of mind.
+
+
+[1] `De In Physionomie et la Parole,' 1865, p.  89.
+
+[2] `Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legende viii.  p.  35.
+Gratiolet also speaks (De la Phys.  1865, p.  52) of the turning
+away of the eyes and body.
+
+
+[3] Dr. W. Ogle, in an interesting paper on the Sense
+of Smell (`Medico-Chirurgical Transactions,' vol.  liii.  p.  268), shows
+that when we wish to smell carefully, instead of taking one deep
+nasal inspiration, we draw in the air by a succession of rapid short sniffs.
+If "the nostrils be watched during this process, it will be seen that,
+so far from dilating, they actually contract at each sniff.
+The contraction does not include the whole anterior opening, but only
+the posterior portion."  He then explains the cause of this movement.
+When, on the other hand, we wish to exclude any odour, the contraction,
+I presume, affects only the anterior part of the nostrils.
+
+[4] `Mimik und Physiognomik,' ss.  84, 93.  Gratiolet (ibid. p.
+155) takes nearly the same view with Dr. Piderit respecting
+the expression of contempt and disgust.
+
+[5] Scorn implies a strong form of contempt; and one of the roots
+of the word `scorn' means, according to Mr. Wedgwood (Dict. of
+English Etymology, vol.  iii.  p.  125), ordure or dirt.
+A person who is scorned is treated like dirt.
+
+Various odd little gestures likewise indicate contempt;
+for instance, _snapping one's fingers_.  This, as Mr. Taylor
+remarks,[6] "is not very intelligible as we generally see it;
+but when we notice that the same sign made quite gently,
+as if rolling some tiny object away between the finger and thumb,
+or the sign of flipping it away with the thumb-nail and forefinger,
+are usual and well-understood deaf-and-dumb gestures, denoting
+anything tiny, insignificant, contemptible, it seems as though we
+had exaggerated and conventionalized a perfectly natural action,
+so as to lose sight of its original meaning.  There is a curious
+mention of this gesture by Strabo."  Mr. Washington Matthews
+informs me that, with the Dakota Indians of North America,
+contempt is shown not only by movements of the face, such as those
+above described, but "conventionally, by the hand being closed
+and held near the breast, then, as the forearm is suddenly extended,
+the hand is opened and the fingers separated from each other.
+If the person at whose expense the sign is made is present, the hand
+is moved towards him, and the head sometimes averted from him."
+This sudden extension and opening of the hand perhaps indicates
+the dropping or throwing away a valueless object.
+
+The term `disgust,' in its simplest sense, means something offensive
+to the taste.  It is curious how readily this feeling is excited
+by anything unusual in the appearance, odour, or nature of our food.
+In Tierra del Fuego a native touched with his finger some cold
+preserved meat which I was eating at our bivouac, and plainly
+showed utter disgust at its softness; whilst I felt utter disgust
+at my food being touched by a naked savage, though his hands did
+not appear dirty.  A smear of soup on a man's beard looks disgusting,
+though there is of course nothing disgusting in the soup itself.
+I presume that this follows from the strong association in our minds
+between the sight of food, however circumstanced, and the idea
+of eating it.
+
+
+
+[6] `Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit.  1870, p.  45.
+
+As the sensation of disgust primarily arises in connection
+with the act of eating or tasting, it is natural that its
+expression should consist chiefly in movements round the mouth.
+But as disgust also causes annoyance, it is generally accompanied
+by a frown, and often by gestures as if to push away or to guard
+oneself against the offensive object.  In the two photographs
+(figs. 2 and 3, on Plate V.) Mr. Rejlander has simulated this
+expression with some success.  With respect to the face,
+moderate disgust is exhibited in various ways; by the mouth being
+widely opened, as if to let an offensive morsel drop out; by spitting;
+by blowing out of the protruded lips; or by a sound as of clearing
+the throat.  Such guttural sounds are written _ach_ or _ugh_;
+and their utterance is sometimes accompanied by a shudder,
+the arms being pressed close to the sides and the shoulders
+raised in the same manner as when horror is experienced.[7]
+Extreme disgust is expressed by movements round the month
+identical with those preparatory to the act of vomiting.
+The mouth is opened widely, with the upper lip strongly retracted,
+which wrinkles the sides of the nose, and with the lower lip
+protruded and everted as much as possible.  This latter movement
+requires the contraction of the muscles which draw downwards
+the corners of the mouth.[8]
+
+
+[7] See, to this effect, Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood's Introduction
+to the `Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit.
+1872, p.  xxxvii.
+
+It is remarkable how readily and instantly retching or actual vomiting
+is induced in some persons by the mere idea of having partaken
+of any unusual food, as of an animal which is not commonly eaten;
+although there is nothing in such food to cause the stomach to reject it.
+When vomiting results, as a reflex action, from some real cause--
+as from too rich food, or tainted meat, or from an emetic--it does not
+ensue immediately, but generally after a considerable interval of time.
+Therefore, to account for retching or vomiting being so quickly and easily
+excited by a mere idea, the suspicion arises that our progenitors
+must formerly have had the power (like that possessed by ruminants
+and some other animals) of voluntarily rejecting food which disagreed
+with them, or which they thought would disagree with them; and now,
+though this power has been lost, as far as the will is concerned,
+it is called into involuntary action, through the force of a formerly
+well-established habit, whenever the mind revolts at the idea
+of having partaken of any kind of food, or at anything disgusting.
+This suspicion receives support from the fact, of which I am assured
+by Mr. Sutton, that the monkeys in the Zoological Gardens often vomit
+whilst in perfect health, which looks as if the act were voluntary.
+We can see that as man is able to communicate by language to his
+children and others, the knowledge of the kinds of food to be avoided,
+he would have little occasion to use the faculty of voluntary rejection;
+so that this power would tend to be lost through disuse.
+
+
+[8] Duchenne believes that in the eversion of the lower lip,
+the corners are drawn downwards by the _depressores anguli oris_.
+Henle (Handbuch d.  Anat.  des Menschen, 1858, B. i.  s.  151) concludes that
+this is effected by the _musculus quadratus menti_.
+
+As the sense of smell is so intimately connected with that of taste,
+it is not surprising that an excessively bad odour should excite retching
+or vomiting in some persons, quite as readily as the thought of revolting
+food does; and that, as a further consequence, a moderately offensive
+odour should cause the various expressive movements of disgust.
+The tendency to retch from a fetid odour is immediately strengthened
+in a curious manner by some degree of habit, though soon lost by longer
+familiarity with the cause of offence and by voluntary restraint.
+For instance, I wished to clean the skeleton of a bird, which had not
+been sufficiently macerated, and the smell made my servant and myself
+(we not having had much experience in such work) retch so violently,
+that we were compelled to desist.  During the previous days I had
+examined some other skeletons, which smelt slightly; yet the odour
+did not in the least affect me, but, subsequently for several days,
+whenever I handled these same skeletons, they made me retch.
+
+From the answers received from my correspondents it appears that
+the various movements, which have now been described as expressing
+contempt and disgust, prevail throughout a large part of the world.
+Dr. Rothrock, for instance, answers with a decided affirmative with
+respect to certain wild Indian tribes of North America.  Crantz says
+that when a Greenlander denies anything with contempt or horror
+he turns up his nose, and gives a slight sound through it.[9] Mr. Scott
+has sent me a graphic description of the face of a young Hindoo at
+the sight of castor-oil, which he was compelled occasionally to take.
+Mr. Scott has also seen the same expression on the faces of high-caste
+natives who have approached close to some defiling object.
+Mr. Bridges says that the Fuegians "express contempt by shooting
+out the lips and hissing through them, and by turning up the nose."
+The tendency either to snort through the nose, or to make a noise
+expressed by _ugh_ or _ach_, is noticed by several of my correspondents.
+
+
+[9] As quoted by Tylor, `Primitive Culture,' 1871, vol.  i.  p.  169.
+
+Spitting seems an almost universal sign of contempt or disgust;
+and spitting obviously represents the rejection of anything offensive
+from the mouth.  Shakspeare makes the Duke of Norfolk say, "I spit at him--
+call him a slanderous coward and a villain."  So, again, Falstaff says,
+"Tell thee what, Hal,--if I tell thee a lie, spit in my face."
+Leichhardt remarks that the Australians "interrupted their speeches
+by spitting, and uttering a noise like pooh! pooh! apparently
+expressive of their disgust."  And Captain Burton speaks
+of certain negroes "spitting with disgust upon the ground."
+Captain Speedy informs me that this is likewise the case with
+the Abyssinians.  Mr. Geach says that with the Malays of Malacca
+the expression of disgust "answers to spitting from the mouth;"
+and with the Fuegians, according to Mr. Bridges "to spit at one is
+the highest mark of contempt."
+
+I never saw disgust more plainly expressed than on the face of one of my
+infants at the age of five months, when, for the first time, some cold water,
+and again a month afterwards, when a piece of ripe cherry was put into
+his mouth.  This was shown by the lips and whole mouth assuming a shape
+which allowed the contents to run or fall quickly out; the tongue being
+likewise protruded.  These movements were accompanied by a little shudder.
+It was all the more comical, as I doubt whether the child felt real disgust--
+the eyes and forehead expressing much surprise and consideration.
+The protrusion of the tongue in letting a nasty object fall out of the mouth,
+may explain how it is that lolling out the tongue universally serves
+as a sign of contempt and hatred.[11]
+
+
+[10] Both these quotations are given by Mr. H. Wedgwood, `On the Origin
+of Language,' 1866, p.  75.
+
+We have now seen that scorn, disdain, contempt, and disgust are
+expressed in many different ways, by movements of the features,
+and by various gestures; and that these are the same throughout the world.
+They all consist of actions representing the rejection or exclusion
+of some real object which we dislike or abhor, but which does not
+excite in us certain other strong emotions, such as rage or terror;
+and through the force of habit and association similar actions
+are performed, whenever any analogous sensation arises in our minds.
+
+_Jealousy, Envy, Avarice, Revenge, Suspicion, Deceit, Slyness, Guilt,
+Vanity, Conceit, Ambition, Pride, Humility, &c_.--It is doubtful whether
+the greater number of the above complex states of mind are revealed by any
+fixed expression, sufficiently distinct to be described or delineated.
+When Shakspeare speaks of Envy as _lean-faced_, or _black_, or _pale_,
+and Jealousy as "_the green-eyed monster_;" and when Spenser describes
+Suspicion as "_foul, ill-favoured, and grim_," they must have felt
+this difficulty.  Nevertheless, the above feelings--at least many of them--
+can be detected by the eye; for instance, conceit; but we are often
+guided in a much greater degree than we suppose by our previous knowledge
+of the persons or circumstances.
+
+My correspondents almost unanimously answer in the affirmative to my query,
+whether the expression of guilt and deceit can be recognized amongst
+the various races of man; and I have confidence in their answers,
+as they generally deny that jealousy can thus be recognized.  In the cases
+in which details are given, the eyes are almost always referred to.
+The guilty man is said to avoid looking at his accuser, or to give him
+stolen looks.  The eyes are said "to be turned askant," or "to waver
+from side to side," or "the eyelids to be lowered and partly closed."
+This latter remark is made by Mr. Hagenauer with respect to the Australians,
+and by Gaika with respect to the Kafirs.  The restless movements of the eyes
+apparently follow, as will be explained when we treat of blushing,
+from the guilty man not enduring to meet the gaze of his accuser.
+I may add, that I have observed a guilty expression, without a
+shade of fear, in some of my own children at a very early age.
+In one instance the expression was unmistakably clear in a child two years
+and seven months old, and led to the detection of his little crime.
+It was shown, as I record in my notes made at the time, by an
+unnatural brightness in the eyes, and by an odd, affected manner,
+impossible to describe.
+
+
+[11] This is stated to be the case by Mr. Tylor (Early Hist.
+of Mankind, 2nd edit.  1870, p.  52); and he adds, "it is not
+clear why this should be so."
+
+Slyness is also, I believe, exhibited chiefly by movements about the eyes;
+for these are less under the control of the will, owing to the force
+of long-continued habit, than are the movements of the body.
+Mr. Herbert Spencer remarks,[12] "When there is a desire to see something
+on one side of the visual field without being supposed to see it,
+the tendency is to check the conspicuous movement of the head,
+and to make the required adjustment entirely with the eyes;
+which are, therefore, drawn very much to one side.  Hence, when the eyes
+are turned to one side, while the face is not turned to the same side,
+we get the natural language of what is called slyness."
+
+
+[12] `Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit.  1872, p.  552.
+
+Of all the above-named complex emotions, Pride, perhaps, is the most
+plainly expressed.  A proud man exhibits his sense of superiority
+over others by holding his head and body erect.  He is haughty
+(_haut_), or high, and makes himself appear as large as possible;
+so that metaphorically he is said to be swollen or puffed up with pride.
+A peacock or a turkey-cock strutting about with puffed-up feathers,
+is sometimes said to be an emblem of pride.[13] The arrogant man
+looks down on others, and with lowered eyelids hardly condescends
+to see them; or he may show his contempt by slight movements,
+such as those before described, about the nostrils or lips.
+Hence the muscle which everts the lower lip has been called
+the _musculus superbus_.  In some photographs of patients
+affected by a monomania of pride, sent me by Dr. Crichton Browne,
+the head and body were held erect, and the mouth firmly closed.
+This latter action, expressive of decision, follows, I presume,
+from the proud man feeling perfect self-confidence in himself.
+The whole expression of pride stands in direct antithesis to that
+of humility; so that nothing need here be said of the latter
+state of mind.
+
+
+_Helplessness, Impotence:  Shrugging the shoulders_.--When a man wishes
+to show that he cannot do something, or prevent something being done,
+he often raises with a quick movement both shoulders.  At the same time,
+if the whole gesture is completed, he bends his elbows closely inwards,
+raises his open hands, turning them outwards, with the fingers separated.
+The head is often thrown a little on one side; the eyebrows are elevated,
+and this causes wrinkles across the forehead.  The mouth is generally opened.
+I may mention, in order to show how unconsciously the features are thus
+acted on, that though I had often intentionally shrugged my shoulders
+to observe how my arms were placed, I was not at all aware that my eyebrows
+were raised and mouth opened, until I looked at myself in a glass;
+and since then I have noticed the same movements in the faces of others.
+In the accompanying Plate VI., figs.  3 and 4, Mr. Rejlander has successfully
+acted the gesture of shrugging the shoulders.
+
+
+[12] Gratiolet (De la Phys.  p.  351) makes this remark,
+and has some good observations on the expression of pride.
+See Sir C. Bell (`Anatomy of Expression,' p.  111) on the action
+of the _musculus superbus_.
+
+Englishmen are much less demonstrative than the men of most other
+European nations, and they shrug their shoulders far less frequently
+and energetically than Frenchmen or Italians do.  The gesture
+varies in all degrees from the complex movement, just described,
+to only a momentary and scarcely perceptible raising of both shoulders;
+or, as I have noticed in a lady sitting in an arm-chair, to the mere
+turning slightly outwards of the open hands with separated fingers.
+I have never seen very young English children shrug their shoulders,
+but the following case was observed with care by a medical professor
+and excellent observer, and has been communicated to me by him.
+The father of this gentleman was a Parisian, and his mother a Scotch lady.
+His wife is of British extraction on both sides, and my informant
+does not believe that she ever shrugged her shoulders in her life.
+His children have been reared in England, and the nursemaid is a
+thorough Englishwoman, who has never been seen to shrug her shoulders.
+Now, his eldest daughter was observed to shrug her shoulders at the age
+of between sixteen and eighteen months; her mother exclaiming at
+the time, "Look at the little French girl shrugging her shoulders!"
+At first she often acted thus, sometimes throwing her head a little
+backwards and on one side, but she did not, as far as was observed,
+move her elbows and hands in the usual manner.  The habit gradually
+wore away, and now, when she is a little over four years old,
+she is never seen to act thus.  The father is told that he sometimes
+shrugs his shoulders, especially when arguing with any one; but it
+is extremely improbable that his daughter should have imitated him at
+so early an age; for, as he remarks, she could not possibly have often
+seen this gesture in him.  Moreover, if the habit had been acquired
+through imitation, it is not probable that it would so soon have been
+spontaneously discontinued by this child, and, as we shall immediately see,
+by a second child, though the father still lived with his family.
+This little girl, it may be added, resembles her Parisian grandfather
+in countenance to an almost absurd degree.  She also presents another and
+very curious resemblance to him, namely, by practising a singular trick.
+When she impatiently wants something, she holds out her little hand,
+and rapidly rubs the thumb against the index and middle finger:
+now this same trick was frequently performed under the same circumstances
+by her grandfather.
+
+This gentleman's second daughter also shrugged her shoulders before
+the age of eighteen months, and afterwards discontinued the habit.
+It is of course possible that she may have imitated her elder sister;
+but she continued it after her sister had lost the habit.
+She at first resembled her Parisian grandfather in a less degree
+than did her sister at the same age, but now in a greater degree.
+She likewise practises to the present time the peculiar habit of
+rubbing together, when impatient, her thumb and two of her fore-fingers.
+
+In this latter case we have a good instance, like those given
+in a former chapter, of the inheritance of a trick or gesture;
+for no one, I presume, will attribute to mere coincidence
+so peculiar a habit as this, which was common to the grandfather
+and his two grandchildren who had never seen him.
+
+Considering all the circumstances with reference to these children
+shrugging their shoulders, it can hardly be doubted that they
+have inherited the habit from their French progenitors,
+although they have only one quarter French blood in their veins,
+and although their grandfather did not often shrug his shoulders.
+There is nothing very unusual, though the fact is interesting,
+in these children having gained by inheritance a habit during
+early youth, and then discontinuing it; for it is of frequent
+occurrence with many kinds of animals that certain characters
+are retained for a period by the young, and are then lost.
+
+As it appeared to me at one time improbable in a high degree
+that so complex a gesture as shrugging the shoulders,
+together with the accompanying movements, should be innate,
+I was anxious to ascertain whether the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman,
+who could not have learnt the habit by imitation, practised it.
+And I have heard, through Dr. Innes, from a lady who has
+lately had charge of her, that she does shrug her shoulders,
+turn in her elbows, and raise her eyebrows in the same
+manner as other people, and under the same circumstances.
+I was also anxious to learn whether this gesture was practised
+by the various races of man, especially by those who never have
+had much intercourse with Europeans.  We shall see that they act
+in this manner; but it appears that the gesture is sometimes
+confined to merely raising or shrugging the shoulders,
+without the other movements.
+
+Mr. Scott has frequently seen this gesture in the Bengalees and Dhangars
+(the latter constituting a distinct race) who are employed in the
+Botanic Garden at Calcutta; when, for instance, they have declared
+that they could not do some work, such as lifting a heavy weight.
+He ordered a Bengalee to climb a lofty tree; but the man, with a shrug
+of his shoulders and a lateral shake of his head, said he could not.
+Mr. Scott knowing that the man was lazy, thought he could,
+and insisted on his trying.  His face now became pale, his arms
+dropped to his sides, his mouth and eyes were widely opened,
+and again surveying the tree, he looked askant at Mr. Scott,
+shrugged his shoulders, inverted his elbows, extended his open hands,
+and with a few quick lateral shakes of the head declared his inability.
+Mr. H. Erskine has likewise seen the natives of India shrugging
+their shoulders; but he has never seen the elbows turned so much
+inwards as with us; and whilst shrugging their shoulders they
+sometimes lay their uncrossed hands on their breasts.
+
+With the wild Malays of the interior of Malacca, and with the Bugis
+(true Malays, though speaking a different, language), Mr. Geach has
+often seen this gesture.  I presume that it is complete, as, in answer
+to my query descriptive of the movements of the shoulders, arms, hands,
+and face, Mr. Geach remarks, "it is performed in a beautiful style."
+I have lost an extract from a scientific voyage, in which shrugging
+the shoulders by some natives (Micronesians) of the Caroline Archipelago
+in the Pacific Ocean, was well described.  Capt. Speedy informs me
+that the Abyssinians shrug their shoulders but enters into no details.
+Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab dragoman in Alexandria acting exactly
+as described in my query, when an old gentleman, on whom he attended,
+would not go in the proper direction which had been pointed out to him.
+
+Mr. Washington Matthews says, in reference to the wild Indian
+tribes of the western parts of the United States, "I have on a few
+occasions detected men using a slight apologetic shrug, but the rest
+of the demonstration which you describe I have not witnessed."
+Fritz Muller informs me that he has seen the negroes in Brazil
+shrugging their shoulders; but it is of course possible that they
+may have learnt to do so by imitating the Portuguese.  Mrs. Barber has
+never seen this gesture with the Kafirs of South Africa; and Gaika,
+judging from his answer, did not even understand what was meant
+by my description.  Mr. Swinhoe is also doubtful about the Chinese;
+but he has seen them, under the circumstances which would make us
+shrug our shoulders, press their right elbow against their side,
+raise their eyebrows, lift up their hand with the palm directed
+towards the person addressed, and shake it from right to left.
+Lastly, with respect to the Australians, four of my informants
+answer by a simple negative, and one by a simple affirmative.
+Mr. Bunnett, who has had excellent opportunities for observation
+on the borders of the Colony of Victory, also answers by a "yes,"
+adding that the gesture is performed "in a more subdued and less
+demonstrative manner than is the case with civilized nations."
+This circumstance may account for its not having been noticed
+by four of my informants.
+
+These statements, relating to Europeans, Hindoos, the hill-tribes
+of India, Malays, Micronesians, Abyssinians, Arabs, Negroes, Indians of
+North America, and apparently to the Australians--many of these natives
+having had scarcely any intercourse with Europeans--are sufficient
+to show that shrugging the shoulders, accompanied in some cases
+by the other proper movements, is a gesture natural to mankind.
+
+This gesture implies an unintentional or unavoidable action
+on our own part, or one that we cannot perform; or an action
+performed by another person which we cannot prevent.
+It accompanies such speeches as, "It was not my fault;"
+"It is impossible for me to grant this favour;" "He must follow his
+own course, I cannot stop him."  Shrugging the shoulders likewise
+expresses patience, or the absence of any intention to resist.
+Hence the muscles which raise the shoulders are sometimes called,
+as I have been informed by an artist, the patience muscles."
+Shylock the Jew, says,
+
+ "Signor Antonio, many a time and oft
+ In the Rialto have you rated me
+ About my monies and usances;
+ Still have I borne it with a patient shrug."
+_Merchant of Venice_, act 1.  sc.  3.
+
+
+Sir C. Bell has given[14] a life-like figure of a man,
+who is shrinking back from some terrible danger,
+and is on the point of screaming out in abject terror.
+He is represented with his shoulders lifted up almost to his ears;
+and this at once declares that there is no thought of resistance.
+
+As shrugging the shoulders generally implies "I cannot do this or that,"
+so by a slight change, it sometimes implies "I won't do it."
+The movement then expresses a dogged determination not to act.
+Olmsted describes[15] an Indian in Texas as giving a great shrug
+to his shoulders, when he was informed that a party of men were
+Germans and not Americans, thus expressing that he would have
+nothing to do with them.  Sulky and obstinate children may be seen
+with both their shoulders raised high up; but this movement is not
+associated with the others which generally accompany a true shrug.
+An excellent observer[16] in describing a young man who was
+determined not to yield to his father's desire, says, "He thrust
+his hands deep down into his pockets, and set up his shoulders
+to his ears, which was a good warning that, come right or wrong,
+this rock should fly from its firm base as soon as Jack would;
+and that any remonstrance on the subject was purely futile."
+As soon as the son got his own way, he "put his shoulders into
+their natural position."
+
+
+[14] `Anatomy of Expression,' p.  166.
+
+[15] `Journey through Texas,' p.  352.
+
+Resignation is sometimes shown by the open hands being placed,
+one over the other, on the lower part of the body.  I should not have
+thought this little gesture worth even a passing notice, had not
+Dr. W. Ogle remarked to me that he had two or three times observed
+it in patients who were preparing for operations under chloroform.
+They exhibited no great fear, but seemed to declare by this posture
+of their hands, that they had made up their minds, and were resigned
+to the inevitable.
+
+We may now inquire why men in all parts of the world when they feel,--
+whether or not they wish to show this feeling,--that they
+cannot or will not do something, or will not resist something
+if done by another, shrug their shoulders, at the same time
+often bending in their elbows, showing the palms of their hands
+with extended fingers, often throwing their heads a little
+on one side, raising their eyebrows, and opening their mouths.
+These states of the mind are either simply passive,
+or show a determination not to act.  None of the above
+movements are of the least service.  The explanation lies,
+I cannot doubt, in the principle of unconscious antithesis.
+This principle here seems to come into play as clearly as in
+the case of a dog, who, when feeling savage, puts himself in
+the proper attitude for attacking and for making himself appear
+terrible to his enemy; but as soon as he feels affectionate,
+throws his whole body into a directly opposite attitude,
+though this is of no direct use to him.
+
+
+[16] Mrs. Oliphant, `The Brownlows,' vol.  ii.  p.  206.
+
+Let it be observed how an indignant man, who resents, and will not
+submit to some injury, holds his head erect, squares his shoulders,
+and expands his chest.  He often clenches his fists, and puts
+one or both arms in the proper position for attack or defence,
+with the muscles of his limbs rigid.  He frowns,--that is,
+he contracts and lowers his brows,--and, being determined,
+closes his mouth.  The actions and attitude of a helpless man are,
+in every one of these respects, exactly the reverse.  In Plate VI.
+we may imagine one of the figures on the left side to have just said,
+"What do you mean by insulting me?" and one of the figures
+on the right side to answer, "I really could not help it."
+The helpless man unconsciously contracts the muscles of his
+forehead which are antagonistic to those that cause a frown,
+and thus raises his eyebrows; at the same time he relaxes
+the muscles about the mouth, so that the lower jaw drops.
+The antithesis is complete in every detail, not only in the movements
+of the features, but in the position of the limbs and in the attitude
+of the whole body, as may be seen in the accompanying plate.
+As the helpless or apologetic man often wishes to show his state
+of mind, he then acts in a conspicuous or demonstrative manner.
+
+In accordance with the fact that squaring the elbows and clenching
+the fists are gestures by no means universal with the men of all races,
+when they feel indignant and are prepared to attack their enemy,
+so it appears that a helpless or apologetic frame of mind is expressed
+in many parts of the world by merely shrugging the shoulders,
+without turning inwards the elbows and opening the hands.
+The man or child who is obstinate, or one who is resigned to some
+great misfortune, has in neither case any idea of resistance
+by active means; and he expresses this state of mind, by simply
+keeping his shoulders raised; or he may possibly fold his arms
+across his breast.
+
+_Signs of affirmation or approval, and of negation or disapproval:
+nodding and shaking the head_.--I was curious to ascertain how far
+the common signs used by us in affirmation and negation were general
+throughout the world.  These signs are indeed to a certain extent
+expressive of our feelings, as we give a vertical nod of approval
+with a smile to our children, when we approve of their conduct;
+and shake our heads laterally with a frown, when we disapprove.
+With infants, the first act of denial consists in refusing food;
+and I repeatedly noticed with my own infants, that they did so by
+withdrawing their heads laterally from the breast, or from anything offered
+them in a spoon.  In accepting food and taking it into their mouths,
+they incline their heads forwards.  Since making these observations I
+have been informed that the same idea had occurred to Charma.[17] It
+deserves notice that in accepting or taking food, there is only
+a single movement forward, and a single nod implies an affirmation.
+On the other hand, in refusing food, especially if it be pressed on them,
+children frequently move their heads several times from side to side,
+as we do in shaking our heads in negation.  Moreover, in the case of refusal,
+the head is not rarely thrown backwards, or the mouth is closed,
+so that these movements might likewise come to serve as signs of negation.
+Mr. Wedgwood remarks on this subject,[18] that "when the voice is exerted
+with closed teeth or lips, it produces the sound of the letter _n_ or _m_.
+Hence we may account for the use of the particle _ne_ to signify negation,
+and possibly also of the Greek mh in the same sense."
+
+
+[17] `Essai sur le Langage,' 2nd edit.  1846.  I am much
+indebted to Miss Wedgwood for having given me this information,
+with an extract from the work.
+
+That these signs are innate or instinctive, at least with Anglo-Saxons,
+is rendered highly probable by the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman
+"constantly accompanying her _yes_ with the common affirmative nod,
+and her _no_ with our negative shake of the head."  Had not Mr. Lieber
+stated to the contrary,[19] I should have imagined that these gestures
+might have been acquired or learnt by her, considering her wonderful
+sense of touch and appreciation of the movements of others.
+With microcephalous idiots, who are so degraded that they never learn
+to speak, one of them is described by Vogt,[20] as answering, when asked
+whether he wished for more food or drink, by inclining or shaking his head.
+Schmalz, in his remarkable dissertation on the education of the deaf
+and dumb, as well as of children raised only one degree above idiotcy,
+assumes that they can always both make and understand the common signs
+of affirmation and negation."
+
+Nevertheless if we look to the various races of man, these signs are
+not so universally employed as I should have expected; yet they seem
+too general to be ranked as altogether conventional or artificial.
+My informants assert that both signs are used by the Malays,
+by the natives of Ceylon, the Chinese, the negroes of the Guinea
+coast, and, according to Gaika, by the Kafirs of South Africa,
+though with these latter people Mrs. Barber has never seen a lateral
+shake used as a negative.  With respect to the Australians,
+seven observers agree that a nod is given in affirmation; five agree
+about a lateral shake in negation, accompanied or not by some word;
+but Mr. Dyson Lacy has never seen this latter sign in Queensland,
+and Mr. Bulmer says that in Gipps' Land a negative is expressed
+by throwing the head a little backwards and putting out the tongue.
+At the northern extremity of the continent, near Torres Straits,
+the natives when uttering a negative "don't shake the head with it,
+but holding up the right hand, shake it by turning it half round
+and back again two or three times."[22] The throwing back of the head
+with a cluck of the tongue is said to be used as a negative by the modern
+Greeks and Turks, the latter people expressing _yes_ by a movement
+like that made by us when we shake our heads.[23] The Abyssinians,
+as I am informed by Captain Speedy, express a negative by jerking
+the head to the right shoulder, together with a slight cluck,
+the mouth being closed; an affirmation is expressed by the head
+being thrown backwards and the eyebrows raised for an instant.
+The Tagals of Luzon, in the Philippine Archipelago, as I hear from
+Dr. Adolf Meyer, when they say "yes," also throw the head backwards.
+According to the Rajah Brooke, the Dyaks of Borneo express an
+affirmation by raising the eyebrows, and a negation by slightly
+contracting them, together with a peculiar look from the eyes.
+With the Arabs on the Nile, Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray concluded
+that nodding in affirmation was rare, whilst shaking the head
+in negation was never used, and was not even understood by them.
+With the Esquimaux[24] a nod means _yes_ and a wink _no_.
+The New Zealanders "elevate the head and chin in place
+of nodding acquiescence."[25]
+
+
+[18] `On the Origin of Language,' 1866, p.  91.
+
+[19] `On the Vocal Sounds of L. Bridgman;' Smithsonian Contributions,
+1851, vol.  ii.  p.  11.
+
+[20] `Memoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, p.  27.
+
+[21] Quoted by Tylor, `Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit.
+1870, p.  38.
+
+
+[22] Mr. J. B. Jukes, `Letters and Extracts,' &c. 1871, p.  248.
+
+[23] F. Lieber, `On the Vocal Sounds,' &c. p.  11.  Tylor, ibid.  p.  53.
+
+With the Hindoos Mr. H. Erskine concludes from inquiries
+made from experienced Europeans, and from native gentlemen,
+that the signs of affirmation and negation vary--a nod and a
+lateral shake being sometimes used as we do; but a negative
+is more commonly expressed by the head being thrown suddenly
+backwards and a little to one side, with a cluck of the tongue.
+What the meaning may be of this cluck of the tongue,
+which has been observed with various people, I cannot imagine.
+A native gentleman stated that affirmation is frequently shown
+by the head being thrown to the left.  I asked Mr. Scott to attend
+particularly to this point, and, after repeated observations,
+he believes that a vertical nod is not commonly used by
+the natives in affirmation, but that the head is first thrown
+backwards either to the left or right, and then jerked obliquely
+forwards only once.  This movement would perhaps have been
+described by a less careful observer as a lateral shake.
+He also states that in negation the head is usually held
+nearly upright, and shaken several times.
+
+Mr. Bridges informs me that the Fuegians nod their heads
+vertically in affirmation, and shake them laterally in denial.
+With the wild Indians of North America, according to
+Mr. Washington Matthews, nodding and shaking the head have
+been learnt from Europeans, and are not naturally employed.
+They express affirmation by describing with the hand
+(all the fingers except the index being flexed) a curve downwards
+and outwards from the body, whilst negation is expressed by
+moving the open hand outwards, with the palm facing inwards."
+Other observers state that the sign of affirmation with these Indians
+is the forefinger being raised, and then lowered and pointed
+to the ground, or the hand is waved straight forward from the face;
+and that the sign of negation is the finger or whole hand
+shaken from side to side.[26] This latter movement probably
+represents in all cases the lateral shaking of the head.
+The Italians are said in like manner to move the lifted finger
+from right to left in negation, as indeed we English sometimes do.
+
+
+[24] Dr. King, Edinburgh Phil.  Journal, 1845, p.  313.
+
+[25] Tylor, `Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit.  1870, p.  53.
+
+On the whole we find considerable diversity in the signs
+of affirmation and negation in the different races of man.
+With respect to negation, if we admit that the shaking of
+the finger or hand from side to side is symbolic of the lateral
+movement of the head; and if we admit that the sudden backward
+movement of the head represents one of the actions often
+practised by young children in refusing food, then there is
+much uniformity throughout the world in the signs of negation,
+and we can see how they originated.  The most marked exceptions
+are presented by the Arabs, Esquimaux, some Australian tribes,
+and Dyaks.  With the latter a frown is the sign of negation,
+and with us frowning often accompanies a lateral shake of the head.
+
+With respect to nodding in affirmation, the exceptions
+are rather more numerous, namely with some of the Hindoos,
+with the Turks, Abyssinians, Dyaks, Tagals, and New Zealanders.
+The eyebrows are sometimes raised in affirmation, and as a person
+in bending his head forwards and downwards naturally looks up to
+the person whom he addresses, he will be apt to raise his eyebrows,
+and this sign may thus have arisen as an abbreviation.
+So again with the New Zealanders, the lifting up the chin
+and head in affirmation may perhaps represent in an abbreviated
+form the upward movement of the head after it has been nodded
+forwards and downwards.
+
+
+[26] Lubbock, `The Origin of Civilization,' 1870, p.  277.
+Tylor, ibid.  p.  38.  Lieber (ibid. p.  11) remarks on the negative
+of the Italians.  CHAPTER XII.
+
+SURPRISE--ASTONISHMENT--FEAR--HORROR.
+
+Surprise, astonishment--Elevation of the eyebrows--Opening the mouth--
+Protrusion of the lips--Gestures accompanying surprise--
+Admiration--Fear--Terror--Erection of the hair--Contraction of
+the platysma muscle--Dilatation of the pupils--Horror--Conclusion.
+
+
+ATTENTION, if sudden and close, graduates into surprise;
+and this into astonishment; and this into stupefied amazement.
+The latter frame of mind is closely akin to terror.
+Attention is shown by the eyebrows being slightly raised;
+and as this state increases into surprise, they are raised
+to a much greater extent, with the eyes and mouth widely open.
+The raising of the eyebrows is necessary in order that
+the eyes should be opened quickly and widely; and this
+movement produces transverse wrinkles across the forehead.
+The degree to which the eyes and mouth are opened corresponds
+with the degree of surprise felt; but these movements must
+be coordinated; for a widely opened mouth with eyebrows only
+slightly raised results in a meaningless grimace, as Dr. Duchenne
+has shown in one of his photographs.[1] On the other hand,
+a person may often be seen to pretend surprise by merely
+raising his eyebrows.
+
+Dr. Duchenne has given a photograph of an old man with his
+eyebrows well elevated and arched by the galvanization of
+the frontal muscle; and with his mouth voluntarily opened.
+This figure expresses surprise with much truth.
+I showed it to twenty-four persons without a word of explanation,
+and one alone did not at all understand what was intended.
+A second person answered terror, which is not far wrong; some of
+the others, however, added to the words surprise or astonishment,
+the epithets horrified, woful, painful, or disgusted.
+
+
+[1] `Mecanisme de la Physionomie,' Album, 1862, p.  42.
+
+The eyes and mouth being widely open is an expression universally
+recognized as one of surprise or astonishment.  Thus Shakespeare says,
+"I saw a smith stand with open mouth swallowing a tailor's news."
+(`King John,' act iv.  scene ii.) And again, "They seemed almost,
+with staring on one another, to tear the cases of their eyes;
+there was speech in the dumbness, language in their very gesture;
+they looked as they had heard of a world destroyed."
+(`Winter's Tale,' act v.  scene ii.)
+
+My informants answer with remarkable uniformity to the same effect,
+with respect to the various races of man; the above movements of
+the features being often accompanied by certain gestures and sounds,
+presently to be described.  Twelve observers in different
+parts of Australia agree on this head.  Mr. Winwood Reade has
+observed this expression with the negroes on the Guinea coast.
+The chief Gaika and others answer _yes_ to my query with respect
+to the Kafirs of South Africa; and so do others emphatically
+with reference to the Abyssinians, Ceylonese, Chinese, Fuegians,
+various tribes of North America, and New Zealanders.  With the latter,
+Mr. Stack states that the expression is more plainly shown by
+certain individuals than by others, though all endeavour as much
+as possible to conceal their feelings.  The Dyaks of Borneo are said
+by the Rajah Brooke to open their eyes widely, when astonished,
+often swinging their heads to and fro, and beating their breasts.
+Mr. Scott informs me that the workmen in the Botanic Gardens
+at Calcutta are strictly ordered not to smoke; but they often
+disobey this order, and when suddenly surprised in the act,
+they first open their eyes and mouths widely.  They then often
+slightly shrug their shoulders, as they perceive that discovery
+is inevitable, or frown and stamp on the ground from vexation.
+Soon they recover from their surprise, and abject fear is exhibited
+by the relaxation of all their muscles; their heads seem to sink
+between their shoulders; their fallen eyes wander to and fro;
+and they supplicate forgiveness.
+
+The well-known Australian explorer, Mr. Stuart, has given[2]
+a striking account of stupefied amazement together with terror
+in a native who had never before seen a man on horseback.
+Mr. Stuart approached unseen and called to him from a little distance.
+"He turned round and saw me.  What he imagined I was I do not know;
+but a finer picture of fear and astonishment I never saw.
+He stood incapable of moving a limb, riveted to the spot,
+mouth open and eyes staring. . . . He remained motionless until
+our black got within a few yards of him, when suddenly throwing down
+his waddies, he jumped into a mulga bush as high as he could get."
+He could not speak, and answered not a word to the inquiries made
+by the black, but, trembling from head to foot, "waved with his
+hand for us to be off."
+
+That the eyebrows are raised by an innate or instinctive impulse
+may be inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman invariably
+acts thus when astonished, as I have been assured by the lady
+who has lately had charge of her.  As surprise is excited
+by something unexpected or unknown, we naturally desire,
+when startled, to perceive the cause as quickly as possible;
+and we consequently open our eyes fully, so that the field of vision
+may be increased, and the eyeballs moved easily in any direction.
+But this hardly accounts for the eyebrows being so greatly raised
+as is the case, and for the wild staring of the open eyes.
+The explanation lies, I believe, in the impossibility of opening
+the eyes with great rapidity by merely raising the upper lids.
+To effect this the eyebrows must be lifted energetically.
+Any one who will try to open his eyes as quickly as possible
+before a mirror will find that he acts thus; and the energetic
+lifting up of the eyebrows opens the eyes so widely that they stare,
+the white being exposed all round the iris.  Moreover, the elevation
+of the eyebrows is an advantage in looking upwards; for as long
+as they are lowered they impede our vision in this direction.
+Sir C. Bell gives[3] a curious little proof of the part
+which the eyebrows play in opening the eyelids.  In a stupidly
+drunken man all the muscles are relaxed, and the eyelids
+consequently droop, in the same manner as when we are falling asleep.
+To counteract this tendency the drunkard raises his eyebrows;
+and this gives to him a puzzled, foolish look, as is well
+represented in one of Hogarth's drawings.  The habit of raising
+the eyebrows having once been gained in order to see as quickly
+as possible all around us, the movement would follow from the force
+of association whenever astonishment was felt from any cause,
+even from a sudden sound or an idea.
+
+
+[2] `The Polyglot News Letter,' Melbourne, Dec. 1858, p.  2.
+
+With adult persons, when the eyebrows are raised,
+the whole forehead becomes much wrinkled in transverse lines;
+but with children this occurs only to a slight degree.
+The wrinkles run in lines concentric with each eyebrow,
+and are partially confluent in the middle.  They are highly
+characteristic of the expression of surprise or astonishment.
+Each eyebrow, when raised, becomes also, as Duchenne remarks,[4]
+more arched than it was before.
+
+
+[3] `The Anatomy of Expression,' p.  106.
+
+The cause of the mouth being opened when astonishment is felt,
+is a much more complex affair; and several causes apparently concur
+in leading to this movement.  It has often been supposed[5] that
+the sense of hearing is thus rendered more acute; but I have watched
+persons listening intently to a slight noise, the nature and source
+of which they knew perfectly, and they did not open their mouths.
+Therefore I at one time imagined that the open mouth might aid
+in distinguishing the direction whence a sound proceeded,
+by giving another channel for its entrance into the ear through
+the eustachian tube, But Dr. W. Ogle[6] has been so kind as to search
+the best recent authorities on the functions of the eustachian tube,
+and he informs me that it is almost conclusively proved that it remains
+closed except during the act of deglutition; and that in persons
+in whom the tube remains abnormally open, the sense of hearing,
+as far as external sounds are concerned, is by no means improved;
+on the contrary, it is impaired by the respiratory sounds being
+rendered more distinct.  If a watch be placed within the mouth,
+but not allowed to touch the sides, the ticking is heard much less
+plainly than when held outside.  In persons in whom from disease
+or a cold the eustachian tube is permanently or temporarily closed,
+the sense of hearing is injured; but this may be accounted for by mucus
+accumulating within the tube, and the consequent exclusion of air.
+We may therefore infer that the mouth is not kept open under the sense
+of astonishment for the sake of hearing sounds more distinctly;
+notwithstanding that most deaf people keep their mouths open.
+
+
+[4] Mecanisme de la Physionomie,' Album, p.  6.
+
+[5] See, for instance, Dr. Piderit (`Mimik und Physiognomik,' s.
+88), who has a good discussion on the expression of surprise.
+
+[6] Dr. Murie has also given me information leading to the same conclusion,
+derived in part from comparative anatomy.
+
+Every sudden emotion, including astonishment, quickens the action
+of the heart, and with it the respiration.  Now we can breathe,
+as Gratiolet remarks[7] and as appears to me to be the case,
+much more quietly through the open mouth than through the nostrils.
+Therefore, when we wish to listen intently to any sound, we either
+stop breathing, or breathe as quietly as possible, by opening
+our mouths, at the same time keeping our bodies motionless.
+One of my sons was awakened in the night by a noise under
+circumstances which naturally led to great care, and after
+a few minutes he perceived that his mouth was widely open.
+He then became conscious that he had opened it for the sake
+of breathing as quietly as possible.  This view receives
+support from the reversed case which occurs with dogs.
+A dog when panting after exercise, or on a hot day, breathes loudly;
+but if his attention be suddenly aroused, he instantly pricks
+his ears to listen, shuts his mouth, and breathes quietly,
+as he is enabled to do, through his nostrils.
+
+When the attention is concentrated for a length of time with fixed
+earnestness on any object or subject, all the organs of the body
+are forgotten and neglected;[8] and as the nervous energy
+of each individual is limited in amount, little is transmitted
+to any part of the system, excepting that which is at the time
+brought into energetic action.  Therefore many of the muscles
+tend to become relaxed, and the jaw drops from its own weight.
+This will account for the dropping of the jaw and open mouth of a man
+stupefied with amazement, and perhaps when less strongly affected.
+I have noticed this appearance, as I find recorded in my notes,
+in very young children when they were only moderately surprised.
+
+
+[7] `De la Physionomie,' 1865, p.  234.
+
+[8] See, on this subject, Gratiolet, ibid.  p.  254.
+
+There is still another and highly effective cause, leading to the mouth
+being opened, when we are astonished, and more especially when we
+are suddenly startled.  We can draw a full and deep inspiration much
+more easily through the widely open mouth than through the nostrils.
+Now when we start at any sudden sound or sight, almost all the muscles
+of the body are involuntarily and momentarily thrown into strong action,
+for the sake of guarding ourselves against or jumping away from
+the danger, which we habitually associate with anything unexpected.
+But we always unconsciously prepare ourselves for any great exertion,
+as formerly explained, by first taking a deep and full inspiration,
+and we consequently open our mouths.  If no exertion follows, and we
+still remain astonished, we cease for a time to breathe, or breathe as
+quietly as possible, in order that every sound may be distinctly heard.
+Or again, if our attention continues long and earnestly absorbed, all our
+muscles become relaxed, and the jaw, which was at first suddenly opened,
+remains dropped.  Thus several causes concur towards this same movement,
+whenever surprise, astonishment, or amazement is felt.
+
+Although when thus affected, our mouths are generally opened,
+yet the lips are often a little protruded.  This fact reminds
+us of the same movement, though in a much more strongly
+marked degree, in the chimpanzee and orang when astonished.
+As a strong expiration naturally follows the deep inspiration
+which accompanies the first sense of startled surprise,
+and as the lips are often protruded, the various sounds which
+are then commonly uttered can apparently be accounted for.
+But sometimes a strong expiration alone is heard; thus Laura Bridgman,
+when amazed, rounds and protrudes her lips, opens them,
+and breathes strongly.[9] One of the commonest sounds is a deep _Oh_;
+and this would naturally follow, as explained by Helmholtz,
+from the mouth being moderately opened and the lips protruded.
+On a quiet night some rockets were fired from the `Beagle,' in a
+little creek at Tahiti, to amuse the natives; and as each rocket,
+was let off there was absolute silence, but this was invariably
+followed by a deep groaning _Oh_, resounding all round the bay.
+Mr. Washington Matthews says that the North American Indians
+express astonishment by a groan; and the negroes on the West Coast
+of Africa, according to Mr. Winwood Reade, protrude their lips,
+and make a sound like _heigh, heigh_.  If the mouth is not
+much opened, whilst the lips are considerably protruded,
+a blowing, hissing, or whistling noise is produced.
+Mr. R. Brough Smith informs me that an Australian from the interior
+was taken to the theatre to see an acrobat rapidly turning head
+over heels:  "he was greatly astonished, and protruded his lips,
+making a noise with his mouth as if blowing out a match."
+According to Mr. Bulmer the Australians, when surprised,
+utter the exclamation _korki_, "and to do this the mouth is
+drawn out as if going to whistle."  We Europeans often whistle
+as a sign of surprise; thus, in a recent novel[10] it is said,
+"here the man expressed his astonishment and disapprobation
+by a prolonged whistle."  A Kafir girl, as Mr. J. Mansel Weale
+informs me, "on hearing of the high price of an article,
+raised her eyebrows and whistled just as a European would."
+Mr. Wedgwood remarks that such sounds are written down as _whew_,
+and they serve as interjections for surprise.
+
+
+
+[9] Lieber, `On the Vocal Sounds of Laura Bridgman,'
+Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol.  ii.  p.  7.
+
+[10] `Wenderholme,' vol.  ii.  p.  91.
+
+According to three other observers, the Australians often evince
+astonishment by a clucking noise.  Europeans also sometimes express
+gentle surprise by a little clicking noise of nearly the same kind.
+We have seen that when we are startled, the mouth is suddenly opened;
+and if the tongue happens to be then pressed closely against the palate,
+its sudden withdrawal will produce a sound of this kind, which might
+thus come to express surprise.
+
+Turning to gestures of the body.  A surprised person often raises
+his opened hands high above his head, or by bending his arms
+only to the level of his face.  The flat palms are directed
+towards the person who causes this feeling, and the straightened
+fingers are separated.  This gesture is represented by
+Mr. Rejlander in Plate VII.  fig.  1.  In the `Last Supper,'
+by Leonardo da Vinci, two of the Apostles have their hands
+half uplifted, clearly expressive of their astonishment.
+A trustworthy observer told me that he had lately met his wife
+under most unexpected circumstances:  "She started, opened her mouth
+and eyes very widely, and threw up both her arms above her head."
+Several years ago I was surprised by seeing several of my young
+children earnestly doing something together on the ground;
+but the distance was too great for me to ask what they were about.
+Therefore I threw up my open hands with extended fingers above my head;
+and as soon as I had done this, I became conscious of the action.
+I then waited, without saying a word, to see if my children
+had understood this gesture; and as they came running to me
+they cried out, "We saw that you were astonished at us."
+I do not know whether this gesture is common to the various
+races of man, as I neglected to make inquiries on this head.
+That it is innate or natural may be inferred from the fact
+that Laura Bridgman, when amazed, "spreads her arms and turns
+her hands with extended fingers upwards;"[11] nor is it likely,
+considering that the feeling of surprise is generally a brief one,
+that she should have learnt this gesture through her keen
+sense of touch.
+
+Huschke describes[12] a somewhat different yet allied gesture, which he says
+is exhibited by persons when astonished.  They hold themselves erect,
+with the features as before described, but with the straightened arms
+extended backwards--the stretched fingers being separated from each other.
+I have never myself seen this gesture; but Huschke is probably correct;
+for a friend asked another man how he would express great astonishment,
+and he at once threw himself into this attitude.
+
+These gestures are, I believe, explicable on the principle of antithesis.
+We have seen that an indignant man holds his head erect, squares his
+shoulders, turns out his elbows, often clenches his fist, frowns, and closes
+his mouth; whilst the attitude of a helpless man is in every one of
+these details the reverse.  Now, a man in an ordinary frame of mind,
+doing nothing and thinking of nothing in particular, usually keeps his
+two arms suspended laxly by his sides, with his hands somewhat flexed,
+and the fingers near together.  Therefore, to raise the arms suddenly,
+either the whole arms or the fore-arms, to open the palms flat,
+and to separate the fingers,--or, again, to straighten the arms,
+extending them backwards with separated fingers,--are movements in complete
+antithesis to those preserved under an indifferent frame of mind,
+and they are, in consequence, unconsciously assumed by an astonished man.
+There is, also, often a desire to display surprise in a conspicuous
+manner, and the above attitudes are well fitted for this purpose.
+It may be asked why should surprise, and only a few other states
+of the mind, be exhibited by movements in antithesis to others.
+But this principle will not be brought into play in the case
+of those emotions, such as terror, great joy, suffering, or rage,
+which naturally lead to certain lines of action and produce certain
+effects on the body, for the whole system is thus preoccupied;
+and these emotions are already thus expressed with the greatest plainness.
+
+
+[11] Lieber, `On the Vocal Sounds,' &c., ibid.  p.  7.
+
+[12] Huschke, `Mimices et Physiognomices,' 1821, p.  18.  Gratiolet (De
+la Phys.  p.  255) gives a figure of a man in this attitude, which,
+however, seems to me expressive of fear combined with astonishment.
+Le Brun also refers (Lavater, vol.  ix.  p.  299) to the hands of an
+astonished man being opened.
+
+There is another little gesture, expressive of astonishment
+of which I can offer no explanation; namely, the hand being placed
+over the mouth or on some part of the head.  This has been observed
+with so many races of man, that it must have some natural origin.
+A wild Australian was taken into a large room full of official papers,
+which surprised him greatly, and he cried out, _cluck, cluck, cluck_,
+putting the back of his hand towards his lips.  Mrs. Barber says
+that the Kafirs and Fingoes express astonishment by a serious look
+and by placing the right hand upon the mouth, Littering the word _mawo_,
+which means `wonderful.' The Bushmen are said[13] to put their
+right hands to their necks, bending their heads backwards.
+Mr. Winwood Reade has observed that the negroes on the West Coast
+of Africa, when surprised, clap their hands to their mouths,
+saying at the same time, "My mouth cleaves to me," i.  e.  to my hands;
+and he has heard that this is their usual gesture on such occasions.
+Captain Speedy informs me that the Abyssinians place their right hand
+to the forehead, with the palm outside.  Lastly, Mr. Washington Matthews
+states that the conventional sign of astonishment with the wild
+tribes of the western parts of the United States "is made by placing
+the half-closed hand over the mouth; in doing this, the head is often
+bent forwards, and words or low groans are sometimes uttered."
+Catlin[14] makes the same remark about the hand being pressed over
+the mouth by the Mandans and other Indian tribes.
+
+
+[13] Huschke, ibid.  p.  18.
+
+
+_Admiration_.--Little need be said on this head.  Admiration apparently
+consists of surprise associated with some pleasure and a sense of approval.
+When vividly felt, the eyes are opened and the eyebrows raised; the eyes
+become bright, instead of remaining blank, as under simple astonishment;
+and the mouth, instead of gaping open, expands into a smile.
+
+
+_Fear, Terror_.--The word `fear' seems to be derived from what is
+sudden and dangerous;[15] and that of terror from the trembling
+of the vocal organs and body.  I use the word `terror' for
+extreme fear; but some writers think it ought to be confined
+to cases in which the imagination is more particularly concerned.
+Fear is often preceded by astonishment, and is so far akin to it,
+that both lead to the senses of sight and hearing being instantly aroused.
+In both cases the eyes and mouth are widely opened, and the eyebrows raised.
+The frightened man at first stands like a statue motionless and breathless,
+or crouches down as if instinctively to escape observation.
+
+
+[14] `North American Indians,' 3rd edit.  1842, vol.  i.  p.  105.
+
+[15] H. Wedgwood, Dict.  of English Etymology, vol.  ii.  1862, p.
+35.  See, also, Gratiolet (`De la Physionomie,' p.  135) on the sources
+of such words as `terror, horror, rigidus, frigidus,' &c.
+
+The heart beats quickly and violently, so that it palpitates
+or knocks against the ribs; but it is very doubtful whether it
+then works more efficiently than usual, so as to send a greater
+supply of blood to all parts of the body; for the skin instantly
+becomes pale, as during incipient faintness.  This paleness of
+the surface, however, is probably in large part, or exclusively,
+due to the vasomotor centre being affected in such a manner
+as to cause the contraction of the small arteries of the skin.
+That the skin is much affected under the sense of great fear,
+we see in the marvellous and inexplicable manner in which
+perspiration immediately exudes from it.  This exudation
+is all the more remarkable, as the surface is then cold,
+and hence the term a cold sweat; whereas, the sudorific glands
+are properly excited into action when the surface is heated.
+The hairs also on the skin stand erect; and the superficial
+muscles shiver.  In connection with the disturbed action of the heart,
+the breathing is hurried.  The salivary glands act imperfectly;
+the mouth becomes dry,[16] and is often opened and shut.
+I have also noticed that under slight fear there is a strong
+tendency to yawn.  One of the best-marked symptoms is the trembling
+of all the muscles of the body; and this is often first seen
+in the lips.  From this cause, and from the dryness of the mouth,
+the voice becomes husky or indistinct, or may altogether fail.
+"Obstupui, steteruntque comae, et vox faucibus haesit."
+
+
+[16] Mr. Bain (`The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p.  54) explains in
+the following manner the origin of the custom "of subjecting criminals
+in India to the ordeal of the morsel of rice.  The accused is made
+to take a mouthful of rice, and after a little time to throw it out.
+If the morsel is quite dry, the party is believed to be guilty,--
+his own evil conscience operating to paralyse the salivating organs."
+
+Of vague fear there is a well-known and grand description in Job:--"In
+thoughts from the visions of the night, when deep sleep falleth on men,
+fear came upon me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake.
+Then a spirit passed before my face; the hair of my flesh stood up.
+It stood still, but I could not discern the form thereof:
+an image was before my eyes, there was silence, and I heard a voice,
+saying, Shall mortal man be more just than God?  Shall a man be more
+pure than his Maker?"  (Job iv.  13)
+
+As fear increases into an agony of terror, we behold,
+as under all violent emotions, diversified results.
+The heart beats wildly, or may fail to act and faintness ensue;
+there is a death-like pallor; the breathing is laboured;
+the wings of the nostrils are wildly dilated; "there is a gasping
+and convulsive motion of the lips, a tremor on the hollow cheek,
+a gulping and catching of the throat;"[17] the uncovered
+and protruding eyeballs are fixed on the object of terror;
+or they may roll restlessly from side to side, _huc illuc
+volvens oculos totumque pererrat_.[18] The pupils are said to be
+enormously dilated.  All the muscles of the body may become rigid,
+or may be thrown into convulsive movements.  The hands are
+alternately clenched and opened, often with a twitching movement.
+The arms may be protruded, as if to avert some dreadful danger,
+or may be thrown wildly over the head.  The Rev. Mr. Hagenauer has
+seen this latter action in a terrified Australian.  In other cases
+there is a sudden and uncontrollable tendency to headlong flight;
+and so strong is this, that the boldest soldiers may be seized
+with a sudden panic.
+
+
+[17] Sir C. Bell, Transactions of Royal Phil.  Soc.  1822, p.  308.
+`Anatomy of Expression,' p.  88 and pp.  164-469.
+
+[18] See Moreau on the rolling of the eyes, in the edit.  of 1820 of Lavater,
+tome iv.  p.  263.  Also, Gratiolet, De la Phys.  p.  17.
+
+As fear rises to an extreme pitch, the dreadful scream of terror is heard.
+Great beads of sweat stand on the skin.  All the muscles of the body
+are relaxed.  Utter prostration soon follows, and the mental powers fail.
+The intestines are affected.  The sphincter muscles cease to act,
+and no longer retain the contents of the body.
+
+Dr. J. Crichton Browne has given me so striking an account
+of intense fear in an insane woman, aged thirty-five, that
+the description though painful ought not to be omitted.
+When a paroxysm seizes her, she screams out, "This is hell!"
+"There is a black woman!"  "I can't get out!"--and other
+such exclamations.  When thus screaming, her movements are
+those of alternate tension and tremor.  For one instant she
+clenches her hands, holds her arms out before her in a stiff
+semi-flexed position; then suddenly bends her body forwards,
+sways rapidly to and fro, draws her fingers through her hair,
+clutches at her neck, and tries to tear off her clothes.
+The sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles (which serve to bend the head
+on the chest) stand out prominently, as if swollen, and the skin
+in front of them is much wrinkled.  Her hair, which is cut
+short at the back of her head, and is smooth when she is calm,
+now stands on end; that in front being dishevelled by the movements
+of her hands.  The countenance expresses great mental agony.
+The skin is flushed over the face and neck, down to the clavicles,
+and the veins of the forehead and neck stand out like
+thick cords.  The lower lip drops, and is somewhat everted.
+The mouth is kept half open, with the lower jaw projecting.
+The cheeks are hollow and deeply furrowed in curved lines running
+from the wings of the nostrils to the corners of the mouth.
+The nostrils themselves are raised and extended.  The eyes
+are widely opened, and beneath them the skin appears swollen;
+the pupils are large.  The forehead is wrinkled transversely
+in many folds, and at the inner extremities of the eyebrows it
+is strongly furrowed in diverging lines, produced by the powerful
+and persistent contraction of the corrugators.
+
+Mr. Bell has also described[19] an agony of terror and of despair,
+which he witnessed in a murderer, whilst carried to the place of execution
+in Turin.  "On each side of the car the officiating priests were seated;
+and in the centre sat the criminal himself.  It was impossible
+to witness the condition of this unhappy wretch without terror;
+and yet, as if impelled by some strange infatuation, it was equally
+impossible not to gaze upon an object so wild, so full of horror.
+He seemed about thirty-five years of age; of large and muscular form;
+his countenance marked by strong and savage features; half naked,
+pale as death, agonized with terror, every limb strained in anguish,
+his hands clenched convulsively, the sweat breaking out on his bent
+and contracted brow, he kissed incessantly the figure of our Saviour,
+painted on the flag which was suspended before him; but with an agony
+of wildness and despair, of which nothing ever exhibited on the stage
+can give the slightest conception."
+
+I will add only one other case, illustrative of a man utterly prostrated
+by terror.  An atrocious murderer of two persons was brought into
+a hospital, under the mistaken impression that he had poisoned himself;
+and Dr. W. Ogle carefully watched him the next morning, while he was
+being handcuffed and taken away by the police.  His pallor was extreme,
+and his prostration so great that he was hardly able to dress himself.
+His skin perspired; and his eyelids and head drooped so much that it was
+impossible to catch even a glimpse of his eyes.  His lower jaw hung down.
+There was no contraction of any facial muscle, and Dr. Ogle is almost
+certain that the hair did not stand on end, for he observed it narrowly,
+as it had been dyed for the sake of concealment.
+
+
+[19] `Observations on Italy,' 1825, p.  48, as quoted in 'The Anatomy
+of Expression,' p.  168.
+
+With respect to fear, as exhibited by the various races of man, my informants
+agree that the signs are the same as with Europeans.  They are displayed
+in an exaggerated degree with the Hindoos and natives of Ceylon.  Mr. Geach
+has seen Malays when terrified turn pale and shake; and Mr. Brough Smyth
+states that a native Australian "being on one occasion much frightened,
+showed a complexion as nearly approaching to what we call paleness,
+as can well be conceived in the case of a very black man."  Mr. Dyson Lacy
+has seen extreme fear shown in an Australian, by a nervous twitching of
+the hands, feet, and lips; and by the perspiration standing on the skin.
+Many savages do not repress the signs of fear so much as Europeans;
+and they often tremble greatly.  With the Kafir, Gaika says, in his
+rather quaint English, the shaking "of the body is much experienced,
+and the eyes are widely open."  With savages, the sphincter muscles
+are often relaxed, just as may be observed in much frightened dogs,
+and as I have seen with monkeys when terrified by being caught.
+
+
+_The erection of the hair_.--Some of the signs of fear
+deserve a little further consideration.  Poets continually
+speak of the hair standing on end; Brutus says to the ghost
+of Caesar, "that mak'st my blood cold, and my hair to stare."
+And Cardinal Beaufort, after the murder of Gloucester exclaims,
+"Comb down his hair; look, look, it stands upright."
+As I did not feel sure whether writers of fiction might not have
+applied to man what they had often observed in animals, I begged
+for information from Dr. Crichton Browne with respect to the insane.
+He states in answer that he has repeatedly seen their hair
+erected under the influence of sudden and extreme terror.
+For instance, it is occasionally necessary to inject morphia,
+under the skin of an insane woman, who dreads the operation
+extremely, though it causes very little pain; for she believes
+that poison is being introduced into her system, and that her
+bones will be softened, and her flesh turned into dust.
+She becomes deadly pale; her limbs are stiffened by a sort
+of tetanic spasm, and her hair is partially erected on the front
+of the head.
+
+Dr. Browne further remarks that the bristling of the hair which is
+so common in the insane, is not always associated with terror.
+It is perhaps most frequently seen in chronic maniacs, who rave
+incoherently and have destructive impulses; but it is during
+their paroxysms of violence that the bristling is most observable.
+The fact of the hair becoming erect under the influence both of rage
+and fear agrees perfectly with what we have seen in the lower animals.
+Dr. Browne adduces several cases in evidence.  Thus with a man
+now in the Asylum, before the recurrence of each maniacal paroxysm,
+"the hair rises up from his forehead like the mane of a Shetland pony."
+He has sent me photographs of two women, taken in the intervals between
+their paroxysms, and he adds with respect to one of these women,
+"that the state of her hair is a sure and convenient criterion of
+her mental condition."  I have had one of these photographs copied,
+and the engraving gives, if viewed from a little distance,
+a faithful representation of the original, with the exception
+that the hair appears rather too coarse and too much curled.
+The extraordinary condition of the hair in the insane is due,
+not only to its erection, but to its dryness and harshness,
+consequent on the subcutaneous glands failing to act.
+Dr. Bucknill has said[20] that a lunatic "is a lunatic to his
+finger's ends;" he might have added, and often to the extremity
+of each particular hair.
+
+Dr. Browne mentions as an empirical confirmation of the relation which exists
+in the insane between the state of their hair and minds, that the wife
+of a medical man, who has charge of a lady suffering from acute melancholia,
+with a strong fear of death, for herself, her husband and children,
+reported verbally to him the day before receiving my letter as follows,
+"I think Mrs. ---- will soon improve, for her hair is getting smooth;
+and I always notice that our patients get better whenever their hair
+ceases to be rough and unmanageable."
+
+Dr. Browne attributes the persistently rough condition of the hair in many
+insane patients, in part to their minds being always somewhat disturbed,
+and in part to the effects of habit,--that is, to the hair being
+frequently and strongly erected during their many recurrent paroxysms.
+In patients in whom the bristling of the hair is extreme, the disease
+is generally permanent and mortal; but in others, in whom the bristling
+is moderate, as soon as they recover their health of mind the hair
+recovers its smoothness.
+
+
+[20] Quoted by Dr. Maudsley, `Body and Mind,' 1870, p.  41.
+
+In a previous chapter we have seen that with animals the hairs are
+erected by the contraction of minute, unstriped, and involuntary muscles,
+which run to each separate follicle.  In addition to this action,
+Mr. J. Wood has clearly ascertained by experiment, as he informs me,
+that with man the hairs on the front of the head which slope forwards,
+and those on the back which slope backwards, are raised in opposite
+directions by the contraction of the occipito-frontalis or scalp muscle.
+So that this muscle seems to aid in the erection of the hairs on the head
+of man.  in the same manner as the homologous _panniculus carnosus_ aids,
+or takes the greater part, in the erection of the spines on the backs
+of some of the lower animals.
+
+
+_Contraction of the platysma myoides muscle_.--This muscle is spread
+over the sides of the neck, extending downwards to a little beneath
+the collar-bones, and upwards to the lower part of the cheeks.
+A portion, called the risorius, is represented in the woodcut
+(M) fig.  2.  The contraction of this muscle draws the corners of
+the mouth and the lower parts of the checks downwards and backwards.
+It produces at the same time divergent, longitudinal, prominent ridges
+on the sides of the neck in the young; and, in old thin persons,
+fine transverse wrinkles.  This muscle is sometimes said not to be
+under the control of the will; but almost every one, if told to draw
+the corners of his mouth backwards and downwards with great force,
+brings it into action.  I have, however, heard of a man who can
+voluntarily act on it only on one side of his neck.
+
+Sir C. Bell[21] and others have stated that this muscle is strongly
+contracted under the influence of fear; and Duchenne insists so strongly
+on its importance in the expression of this emotion, that he calls it
+the _muscle of fright_.[22] He admits, however, that its contraction
+is quite inexpressive unless associated with widely open eyes and mouth.
+He has given a photograph (copied and reduced in the accompanying woodcut)
+of the same old man as on former occasions, with his eyebrows strongly raised,
+his mouth opened, and the platysma contracted, all by means of galvanism.
+The original photograph was shown to twenty-four persons, and they were
+separately asked, without any explanation being given, what expression
+was intended:  twenty instantly answered, "intense fright" or "horror;"
+three said pain, and one extreme discomfort.  Dr. Duchenne has given
+another photograph of the same old man, with the platysma contracted,
+the eyes and mouth opened, and the eyebrows rendered oblique,
+by means of galvanism.  The expression thus induced is very striking
+(see Plate VII.  fig.  2); the obliquity of the eyebrows adding the appearance
+of great mental distress.  The original was shown to fifteen persons;
+twelve answered terror or horror, and three agony or great suffering.
+From these cases, and from an examination of the other photographs given
+by Dr. Duchenne, together with his remarks thereon, I think there can
+be little doubt that the contraction of the platysma does add greatly
+to the expression of fear.  Nevertheless this muscle ought hardly to be
+called that of fright, for its contraction is certainly not a necessary
+concomitant of this state of mind.
+
+
+[21] `Anatomy of Expression,' p.  168.
+
+[22] Mecanisme de la Phys.  Humaine, Album, Legende xi.  A man may
+exhibit extreme terror in the plainest manner by death-like pallor,
+by drops of perspiration on his skin, and by utter prostration,
+with all the muscles of his body, including the platysma,
+completely relaxed.  Although Dr. Browne has often seen this
+muscle quivering and contracting in the insane, he has not been
+able to connect its action with any emotional condition in them,
+though he carefully attended to patients suffering from great fear.
+Mr. Nicol, on the other hand, has observed three cases in which
+this muscle appeared to be more or less permanently contracted
+under the influence of melancholia, associated with much dread;
+but in one of these cases, various other muscles about the neck
+and head were subject to spasmodic contractions.
+
+Dr. W. Ogle observed for me in one of the London hospitals about
+twenty patients, just before they were put under the influence of chloroform
+for operations.  They exhibited some trepidation, but no great terror.
+In only four of the cases was the platysma visibly contracted;
+and it did not begin to contract until the patients began to cry.
+The muscle seemed to contract at the moment of each deep-drawn inspiration;
+so that it is very doubtful whether the contraction depended
+at all on the emotion of fear.  In a fifth case, the patient,
+who was not chloroformed, was much terrified; and his platysma was
+more forcibly and persistently contracted than in the other cases.
+But even here there is room for doubt, for the muscle which appeared
+to be unusually developed, was seen by Dr. Ogle to contract as the man
+moved his head from the pillow, after the operation was over.
+
+As I felt much perplexed why, in any case, a superficial
+muscle on the neck should be especially affected by fear,
+I applied to my many obliging correspondents for information
+about the contraction of this muscle under other circumstances.
+It would be superfluous to give all the answers which I have received.
+They show that this muscle acts, often in a variable manner
+and degree, under many different conditions.  It is violently
+contracted in hydrophobia, and in a somewhat less degree in lockjaw;
+sometimes in a marked manner during the insensibility from chloroform.
+Dr. W. Ogle observed two male patients, suffering from such
+difficulty in breathing, that the trachea had to be opened,
+and in both the platysma was strongly contracted.  One of these men
+overheard the conversation of the surgeons surrounding him, and when
+he was able to speak, declared that he had not been frightened.
+In some other cases of extreme difficulty of respiration, though not
+requiring tracheotomy, observed by Drs.  Ogle and Langstaff,
+the platysma was not contracted.
+
+Mr. J. Wood, who has studied with such care the muscles of the human body,
+as shown by his various publications, has often seen the platysma
+contracted in vomiting, nausea, and disgust; also in children and
+adults under the influence of rage,--for instance, in Irishwomen,
+quarrelling and brawling together with angry gesticulations.
+This may possibly have been due to their high and angry tones;
+for I know a lady, an excellent musician, who, in singing certain
+high notes, always contracts her platysma.  So does a young man,
+as I have observed, in sounding certain notes on the flute.
+Mr. J. Wood informs me that he has found the platysma best
+developed in persons with thick necks and broad shoulders;
+and that in families inheriting these peculiarities, its development
+is usually associated with much voluntary power over the homologous
+occipito-frontalis muscle, by which the scalp can be moved.
+
+None of the foregoing cases appear to throw any light on
+the contraction of the platysma from fear; but it is different,
+I think, with the following cases.  The gentleman before referred to,
+who can voluntarily act on this muscle only on one side of his neck,
+is positive that it contracts on both sides whenever he is startled.
+Evidence has already been given showing that this muscle
+sometimes contracts, perhaps for the sake of opening the mouth widely,
+when the breathing is rendered difficult by disease, and during
+the deep inspirations of crying-fits before an operation.
+Now, whenever a person starts at any sudden sight or sound,
+he instantaneously draws a deep breath; and thus the contraction
+of the platysma may possibly have become associated with the sense
+of fear.  But there is, I believe, a more efficient relation.
+The first sensation of fear, or the imagination of something dreadful,
+commonly excites a shudder.  I have caught myself giving
+a little involuntary shudder at a painful thought, and I
+distinctly perceived that my platysma contracted; so it does if I
+simulate a shudder.  I have asked others to act in this manner;
+and in some the muscle contracted, but not in others.
+One of my sons, whilst getting out of bed, shuddered from
+the cold, and, as he happened to have his hand on his neck,
+he plainly felt that this muscle strongly contracted.
+He then voluntarily shuddered, as he had done on former occasions,
+but the platysma was not then affected.  Mr. J. Wood has also
+several times observed this muscle contracting in patients,
+when stripped for examination, and who were not frightened,
+but shivered slightly from the cold.  Unfortunately I have not
+been able to ascertain whether, when the whole body shakes,
+as in the cold stage of an ague fit, the platysma contracts.
+But as it certainly often contracts during a shudder; and as a
+shudder or shiver often accompanies the first sensation of fear,
+we have, I think, a clue to its action in this latter case.[23]
+Its contraction, however, is not an invariable concomitant
+of fear; for it probably never acts under the influence
+of extreme, prostrating terror.
+
+
+[23] Ducheinne takes, in fact, this view (ibid. p.  45), as he
+attributes the contraction of the platysma to the shivering of fear
+(_frisson de la peur_); but he elsewhere compares the action with
+that which causes the hair of frightened quadrupeds to stand erect;
+and this can hardly be considered as quite correct.
+
+
+_Dilatation of the Pupils_.--Gratiolet repeatedly insists[24]
+that the pupils are enormously dilated whenever terror is felt.
+I have no reason to doubt the accuracy of this statement,
+but have failed to obtain confirmatory evidence, excepting in the one
+instance before given of an insane woman suffering from great fear.
+When writers of fiction speak of the eyes being widely dilated,
+I presume that they refer to the eyelids.  Munro's statement,"
+that with parrots the iris is affected by the passions,
+independently of the amount of light, seems to bear on this question;
+but Professor Donders informs me, that he has often seen movements
+in the pupils of these birds which he thinks may be related to their
+power of accommodation to distance, in nearly the same manner
+as our own pupils contract when our eyes converge for near vision.
+Gratiolet remarks that the dilated pupils appear as if they were
+gazing into profound darkness.  No doubt the fears of man have often
+been excited in the dark; but hardly so often or so exclusively,
+as to account for a fixed and associated habit having thus arisen.
+It seems more probable, assuming that Gratiolet's statement
+is correct, that the brain is directly affected by the powerful
+emotion of fear and reacts on the pupils; but Professor Donders
+informs me that this is an extremely complicated subject.
+I may add, as possibly throwing light on the subject, that Dr. Fyffe,
+of Netley Hospital, has observed in two patients that the pupils
+were distinctly dilated during the cold stage of an ague fit.
+Professor Donders has also often seen dilatation of the pupils
+in incipient faintness.
+
+
+[24] `De la Physionomie,' pp.  51, 256, 346.
+
+[25] As quoted in White's `Gradation in Man,' p.  57.
+
+_Horror_.--The state of mind expressed by this term implies terror,
+and is in some, cases almost synonymous with it.  Many a man
+must have felt, before the blessed discovery of chloroform,
+great horror at the thought of an impending surgical operation.
+He who dreads, as well as hates a man, will feel, as Milton uses
+the word, a horror of him.  We feel horror if we see any one,
+for instance a child, exposed to some instant and crushing danger.
+Almost every one would experience the same feeling in the highest
+degree in witnessing a man being tortured or going to be tortured.
+In these cases there is no danger to ourselves; but from the power
+of the imagination and of sympathy we put ourselves in the position
+of the sufferer, and feel something akin to fear.
+
+Sir C. Bell remarks,[26] that "horror is full of energy;
+the body is in the utmost tension, not unnerved by fear."
+It is, therefore, probable that horror would generally be
+accompanied by the strong contraction of the brows; but as fear
+is one of the elements, the eyes and mouth would be opened,
+and the eyebrows would be raised, as far as the antagonistic
+action of the corrugators permitted this movement.  Duchenne has
+given a photograph[27] (fig. 21) of the same old man as before,
+with his eyes somewhat staring, the eyebrows partially raised,
+and at the same time strongly contracted, the mouth opened,
+and the platysma in action, all effected by the means of galvanism.
+He considers that the expression thus produced shows extreme
+terror with horrible pain or torture.  A tortured man, as long
+as his sufferings allowed him to feel any dread for the future,
+would probably exhibit horror in an extreme degree.
+I have shown the original of this photograph to twenty-three
+persons of both sexes and various ages; and thirteen
+immediately answered horror, great pain, torture, or agony;
+three answered extreme fright; so that sixteen answered nearly
+in accordance with Duchenne's belief.  Six, however, said anger,
+guided no doubt, by the strongly contracted brows,
+and overlooking the peculiarly opened mouth.  One said disgust.
+On the whole, the evidence indicates that we have here a fairly
+good representation of horror and agony.  The photograph
+before referred to (Pl. VII.  fig.  2) likewise exhibits horror;
+but in this the oblique eyebrows indicate great mental distress
+in place of energy.
+
+
+[26] `Anatomy of Expression,' p.  169.
+
+[27] `Mecanisme de la Physionomie,' Album, pl.  65, pp.  44, 45.
+
+Horror is generally accompanied by various gestures,
+which differ in different individuals.  Judging from pictures,
+the whole body is often turned away or shrinks; or the arms are
+violently protruded as if to push away some dreadful object.
+The most frequent gesture, as far as can be inferred from
+the action of persons who endeavour to express a vividly-imagined
+scene of horror, is the raising of both shoulders,
+with the bent arms pressed closely against the sides or chest.
+These movements are nearly the same with those commonly made when we
+feel very cold; and they are generally accompanied by a shudder,
+as well as by a deep expiration or inspiration, according as
+the chest happens at the time to be expanded or contracted.
+The sounds thus made are expressed by words like _uh_ or _ugh_.[28]
+It is not, however, obvious why, when we feel cold or express
+a sense of horror, we press our bent arms against our bodies,
+raise our shoulders, and shudder.
+
+
+[28] See remarks to this effect by Mr. Wedgwood, in the Introduction to his
+`Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit.  1872, p.  xxxvii.  He shows
+by intermediate forms that the sounds here referred to have probably given
+rise to many words, such as _ugly, huge_, &c. _Conclusion_.--I have now
+endeavoured to describe the diversified expressions of fear, in its gradations
+from mere attention to a start of surprise, into extreme terror and horror.
+Some of the signs may be accounted for through the principles of habit,
+association, and inheritance,--such as the wide opening of the mouth and eyes,
+with upraised eyebrows, so as to see as quickly as possible all around us,
+and to hear distinctly whatever sound may reach our ears.  For we have
+thus habitually prepared ourselves to discover and encounter any danger.
+Some of the other signs of fear may likewise be accounted for, at least
+in part, through these same principles.  Men, during numberless generations,
+have endeavoured to escape from their enemies or danger by headlong flight,
+or by violently struggling with them; and such great exertions will have
+caused the heart to beat rapidly, the breathing to be hurried, the chest
+to heave, and the nostrils to be dilated.  As these exertions have often
+been prolonged to the last extremity, the final result will have been
+utter prostration, pallor, perspiration, trembling of all the muscles,
+or their complete relaxation.  And now, whenever the emotion of fear is
+strongly felt, though it may not lead to any exertion, the same results
+tend to reappear, through the force of inheritance and association.
+
+Nevertheless, it is probable that many or most of the above
+symptoms of terror, such as the beating of the heart,
+the trembling of the muscles, cold perspiration, &c., are in large
+part directly due to the disturbed or interrupted transmission
+of nerve-force from the cerebro-spinal system to various parts
+of the body, owing to the mind being so powerfully affected.
+We may confidently look to this cause, independently of habit
+and association, in such cases as the modified secretions of
+the intestinal canal, and the failure of certain glands to act.
+With respect to the involuntary bristling of the hair, we have
+good reason to believe that in the case of animals this action,
+however it may have originated, serves, together with certain
+voluntary movements, to make them appear terrible to their enemies;
+and as the same involuntary and voluntary actions are performed
+by animals nearly related to man, we are led to believe that man has
+retained through inheritance a relic of them, now become useless.
+It is certainly a remarkable fact, that the minute unstriped muscles,
+by which the hairs thinly scattered over man's almost naked body
+are erected, should have been preserved to the present day;
+and that they should still contract under the same emotions, namely,
+terror and rage, which cause the hairs to stand on end in the lower
+members of the Order to which man belongs.  CHAPTER XIII.
+
+SELF-ATTENTION--SHAME--SHYNESS--MODESTY:  BLUSHING.
+
+Nature of a blush--Inheritance--The parts of the body most affected--
+Blushing in the various races of man--Accompanying gestures--
+Confusion of mind--Causes of blushing--Self-attention, the
+fundamental element--Shyness--Shame, from broken moral laws and
+conventional rules--Modesty--Theory of blushing--Recapitulation.
+
+
+BLUSHING is the most peculiar and the most human of all expressions.
+Monkeys redden from passion, but it would require an overwhelming
+amount of evidence to make us believe that any animal could blush.
+The reddening of the face from a blush is due to the relaxation
+of the muscular coats of the small arteries, by which the capillaries
+become filled with blood; and this depends on the proper vaso-motor
+centre being affected.  No doubt if there be at the same time much
+mental agitation, the general circulation will be affected; but it is
+not due to the action of the heart that the network of minute vessels
+covering the face becomes under a sense of shame gorged with blood.
+We can cause laughing by tickling the skin, weeping or frowning by a blow,
+trembling from the fear of pain, and so forth; but we cannot cause
+a blush, as Dr. Burgess remarks,[1] by any physical means,--that is
+by any action on the body.  It is the mind which must be affected.
+Blushing is not only involuntary; but the wish to restrain it,
+by leading to self-attention actually increases the tendency.
+
+
+[1] `The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,' 1839, p.  156.  I shall
+have occasion often to quote this work in the present chapter.
+
+The young blush much more freely than the old, but not during infancy,[2]
+which is remarkable, as we know that infants at a very early age redden
+from passion.  I have received authentic accounts of two little girls blushing
+at the ages of between two and three years; and of another sensitive child,
+a year older, blushing, when reproved for a fault.  Many children,
+at a somewhat more advanced age blush in a strongly marked manner.
+It appears that the mental powers of infants are not as yet sufficiently
+developed to allow of their blushing.  Hence, also, it is that idiots
+rarely blush.  Dr. Crichton Browne observed for me those under his care,
+but never saw a genuine blush, though he has seen their faces flash,
+apparently from joy, when food was placed before them, and from anger.
+Nevertheless some, if not utterly degraded, are capable of blushing.
+A microcephalous idiot, for instance, thirteen years old, whose eyes
+brightened a little when he was pleased or amused, has been described
+by Dr. Behn,[3] as blushing and turning to one side, when undressed
+for medical examination.
+
+Women blush much more than men.  It is rare to see an old man, but not
+nearly so rare to see an old woman blushing.  The blind do not escape.
+Laura Bridgman, born in this condition, as well as completely deaf,
+blushes.[4] The Rev. R. H. Blair, Principal of the Worcester College,
+informs me that three children born blind, out of seven or eight then
+in the Asylum, are great blushers.  The blind are not at first conscious
+that they are observed, and it is a most important part of their education,
+as Mr. Blair informs me, to impress this knowledge on their minds;
+and the impression thus gained would greatly strengthen the tendency
+to blush, by increasing the habit of self-attention.
+
+
+[2] Dr. Burgess, ibid.  p.  56.  At p.  33 he also remarks on women
+blushing more freely than men, as stated below.
+
+[3] Quoted by Vogt, `Memoire sur les Microcephales,'
+1867, p.  20.  Dr. Burgess (ibid. p.  56) doubts whether
+idiots ever blush.
+
+The tendency to blush is inherited.  Dr. Burgess gives the case[5] of a
+family consisting of a father, mother, and ten children, all of whom,
+without exception, were prone to blush to a most painful degree.
+The children were grown up; "and some of them were sent to travel in order to
+wear away this diseased sensibility, but nothing was of the slightest avail."
+Even peculiarities in blushing seem to be inherited.  Sir James Paget,
+whilst examining the spine of a girl, was struck at her singular
+manner of blushing; a big splash of red appeared first on one cheek,
+and then other splashes, variously scattered over the face and neck.
+He subsequently asked the mother whether her daughter always blushed
+in this peculiar manner; and was answered, "Yes, she takes after me."
+Sir J. Paget then perceived that by asking this question he had caused
+the mother to blush; and she exhibited the same peculiarity as her daughter.
+
+In most cases the face, ears and neck are the sole parts which redden;
+but many persons, whilst blushing intensely, feel that their whole
+bodies grow hot and tingle; and this shows that the entire surface must
+be in some manner affected.  Blushes are said sometimes to commence
+on the forehead, but more commonly on the cheeks, afterwards spreading
+to the ears and neck.[6] In two Albinos examined by Dr. Burgess,
+the blushes commenced by a small circumscribed spot on the cheeks,
+over the parotidean plexus of nerves, and then increased into a circle;
+between this blushing circle and the blush on the neck there was
+an evident line of demarcation; although both arose simultaneously.
+The retina, which is naturally red in the Albino, invariably increased
+at the same time in redness.[7] Every one must have noticed how easily
+after one blush fresh blushes chase each other over the face.
+Blushing is preceded by a peculiar sensation in the skin.
+According to Dr. Burgess the reddening of the skin is generally
+succeeded by a slight pallor, which shows that the capillary vessels
+contract after dilating.  In some rare cases paleness instead of redness
+is caused under conditions which would naturally induce a blush.
+For instance, a young lady told me that in a large and crowded party
+she caught her hair so firmly on the button of a passing servant,
+that it took some time before she could be extricated; from her
+sensations she imagined that she had blushed crimson; but was assured
+by a friend that she had turned extremely pale.
+
+
+[4] Lieber `On the Vocal Sounds,' &c.; Smithsonian Contributions,
+1851, vol.  ii.  p.  6.
+
+[5] Ibid.  p.  182.
+
+I was desirous to learn how far down the body blushes extend;
+and Sir J. Paget, who necessarily has frequent opportunities for observation,
+has kindly attended to this point for me during two or three years.
+He finds that with women who blush intensely on the face, ears, and nape
+of neck, the blush does not commonly extend any lower down the body.
+It is rare to see it as low down as the collar-bones and shoulder-blades;
+and he has never himself seen a single instance in which it extended below
+the upper part of the chest.  He has also noticed that blushes sometimes
+die away downwards, not gradually and insensibly, but by irregular
+ruddy blotches.  Dr. Langstaff has likewise observed for me several women
+whose bodies did not in the least redden while their faces were crimsoned
+with blushes.  With.  the insane, some of whom appear to be particularly
+liable to blushing, Dr. J. Crichton Browne has several times seen the blush
+extend as far down as the collar-bones, and in two instances to the breasts.
+He gives me the case of a married woman, aged twenty-seven, who suffered
+from epilepsy.  On the morning after her arrival in the Asylum, Dr. Browne,
+together with his assistants, visited her whilst she was in bed.
+The moment that he approached, she blushed deeply over her cheeks and temples;
+and the blush spread quickly to her ears.  She was much agitated
+and tremulous.  He unfastened the collar of her chemise in order to examine
+the state of her lungs; and then a brilliant blush rushed over her chest,
+in an arched line over the upper third of each breast, and extended downwards
+between the breasts nearly to the ensiform cartilage of the sternum.
+This case is interesting, as the blush did not thus extend downwards until
+it became intense by her attention being drawn to this part of her person.
+As the examination proceeded she became composed, and the blush disappeared;
+but on several subsequent occasions the same phenomena were observed.
+
+
+[6] Moreau, in edit.  of 1820 of Lavater, vol.  iv.  p.  303.
+
+[7] Burgess.  ibid.  p.  38, on paleness after blushing, p.  177.
+
+The foregoing facts show that, as a general rule, with English women,
+blushing does not extend beneath the neck and upper part of the chest.
+Nevertheless Sir J. Paget informs me that he has lately heard
+of a case, on which he can fully rely, in which a little girl,
+shocked by what she imagined to be an act of indelicacy,
+blushed all over her abdomen and the upper parts of her legs.
+Moreau also[8] relates, on the authority of a celebrated painter,
+that the chest, shoulders, arms, and whole body of a girl,
+who unwillingly consented to serve as a model, reddened when she
+was first divested of her clothes.
+
+It is a rather curious question why, in most cases the face, ears, and neck
+alone redden, inasmuch as the whole surface of the body often tingles
+and grows hot.  This seems to depend, chiefly, on the face and adjoining
+parts of the skin having been habitually exposed to the air, light,
+and alternations of temperature, by which the small arteries not only
+have acquired the habit of readily dilating and contracting, but appear
+to have become unusually developed in comparison with other parts
+of the surface.[9] It is probably owing to this same cause, as M. Moreau
+and Dr. Burgess have remarked, that the face is so liable to redden under
+various circumstances, such as a fever-fit. ordinary heat, violent exertion,
+anger, a slight blow, &c.; and on the other hand that it is liable
+to grow pale from cold and fear, and to be discoloured during pregnancy.
+The face is also particularly liable to be affected by cutaneous complaints,
+by small-pox, erysipelas, &c. This view is likewise supported by
+the fact that the men of certain races, who habitually go nearly naked,
+often blush over their arms and chests and even down to their waists.
+A lady, who is a great blusher, informs Dr. Crichton Browne, that when she
+feels ashamed or is agitated, she blushes over her face, neck, wrists,
+and hands,--that is, over all the exposed portions of her skin.
+Nevertheless it may be doubted whether the habitual exposure of the skin
+of the face and neck, and its consequent power of reaction under stimulants
+of all kinds, is by itself sufficient to account for the much greater tendency
+in English women of these parts than of others to blush; for the hands
+are well supplied with nerves and small vessels, and have been as much
+exposed to the air as the face or neck, and yet the hands rarely blush.
+We shall presently see that the attention of the mind having been directed
+much more frequently and earnestly to the face than to any other part
+of the body, probably affords a sufficient explanation.
+
+
+[8] See Lavater, edit.  of 1820, vol.  iv.  p.  303.
+
+[9] Burgess, ibid.  pp.  114, 122.  Moreau in Lavater, ibid.
+vol.  iv.  p.  293.
+
+
+_Blushing in the various races of man_.--The small vessels
+of the face become filled with blood, from the emotion of shame,
+in almost all the races of man, though in the very dark
+races no distinct change of colour can be perceived.
+Blushing is evident in all the Aryan nations of Europe, and to a
+certain extent with those of India.  But Mr. Erskine has never
+noticed that the necks of the Hindoos are decidedly affected.
+With the Lepchas of Sikhim, Mr. Scott has often observed
+a faint blush on the cheeks, base of the ears, and sides
+of the neck, accompanied by sunken eyes and lowered head.
+This has occurred when he has detected them in a falsehood,
+or has accused them of ingratitude.  The pale, sallow complexions
+of these men render a blush much more conspicuous than in most
+of the other natives of India.  With the latter, shame, or it
+may be in part fear, is expressed, according to Mr. Scott,
+much more plainly by the head being averted or bent down,
+with the eyes wavering or turned askant, than by any change
+of colour in the skin.
+
+The Semitic races blush freely, as might have been expected,
+from their general similitude to the Aryans.  Thus with
+the Jews, it is said in the Book of Jeremiah (chap. vi.
+15), "Nay, they were not at all ashamed, neither could they blush."
+Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab managing his boat clumsily on the Nile,
+and when laughed at by his companions, "he blushed quite to
+the back of his neck."  Lady Duff Gordon remarks that a young
+Arab blushed on coming into her presence.[10]
+
+Mr. Swinhoe has seen the Chinese blushing, but he thinks it is rare;
+yet they have the expression "to redden with shame."  Mr. Geach
+informs me that the Chinese settled in Malacca and the native Malays
+of the interior both blush.  Some of these people go nearly naked,
+and he particularly attended to the downward extension of the blush.
+Omitting the cases in which the face alone was seen to blush, Mr. Geach
+observed that the face, arms, and breast of a Chinaman, aged 24 years,
+reddened from shame; and with another Chinese, when asked why he had not
+done his work in better style, the whole body was similarly affected.
+In two Malays[11] he saw the face, neck, breast, and arms blushing;
+and in a third Malay (a Bugis) the blush extended down to the waist.
+
+The Polynesians blush freely.  The Rev. Mr. Stack has seen
+hundreds of instances with the New Zealanders.  The following case
+is worth giving, as it relates to an old man who was unusually
+dark-coloured and partly tattooed.  After having let his land
+to an Englishman for a small yearly rental, a strong passion
+seized him to buy a gig, which had lately become the fashion with
+the Maoris.  He consequently wished to draw all the rent for four years
+from his tenant, and consulted Mr. Stack whether he could do so.
+The man was old, clumsy, poor, and ragged, and the idea of his
+driving himself about in his carriage for display amused Mr. Stack
+so much that he could not help bursting out into a laugh;
+and then "the old man blushed up to the roots of his hair."
+Forster says that "you may easily distinguish a spreading blush"
+on the cheeks of the fairest women in Tahiti.[12] The natives
+also of several of the other archipelagoes in the Pacific have
+been seen to blush.
+
+
+[10] `Letters from Egypt,' 1865, p.  66.  Lady Gordon is mistaken
+when she says Malays and Mulattoes never blush.
+
+[11] Capt. Osborn (`Quedah,' p.  199), in speaking of a Malay,
+whom be reproached for cruelty, says he was glad to see that
+the man blushed.
+
+Mr. Washington Matthews has often seen a blush on the faces
+of the young squaws belonging to various wild Indian tribes
+of North America.  At the opposite extremity of the continent
+in Tierra del Fuego, the natives, according to Mr. Bridges,
+"blush much, but chiefly in regard to women; but they certainly
+blush also at their own personal appearance."  This latter
+statement agrees with what I remember of the Fuegian, Jemmy Button,
+who blushed when he was quizzed about the care which he took
+in polishing his shoes, and in otherwise adorning himself.
+With respect to the Aymara Indians on the lofty plateaus
+of Bolivia, Mr. Forbes says,[13] that from the colour of their
+skins it is impossible that their blushes should be as clearly
+visible as in the white races; still under such circumstances
+as would raise a blush in us, "there can always be seen the same
+expression of modesty or confusion; and even in the dark,
+a rise of temperature of the skin of the face can be felt,
+exactly as occurs in the European."  With the Indians who
+inhabit the hot, equable, and damp parts of South America,
+the skin apparently does not answer to mental excitement so
+readily as with the natives of the northern and southern parts
+of the continent, who have long been exposed to great vicissitudes
+of climate; for Humboldt quotes without a protest the sneer
+of the Spaniard, "How can those be trusted, who know not how to
+blush?"[14] Von Spix and Martius, in speaking of the aborigines
+of Brazil, assert that they cannot properly be said to blush;
+"it was only after long intercourse with the whites, and after
+receiving some education, that we perceived in the Indians
+a change of colour expressive of the emotions of their minds."[15]
+It is, however, incredible that the power of blushing could
+have thus originated; but the habit of self-attention, consequent
+on their education and new course of life, would have much
+increased any innate tendency to blush.
+
+
+[12] J. R. Forster, `Observations during a Voyage round the World,'
+4to, 1778, p.  229.  Waitz gives (`Introduction to Anthropology,' Eng.
+translat.  1863, vol.  i.  p.  135) references for other islands in
+the Pacific.  See, also, Dampier `On the Blushing of the Tunquinese'
+(vol. ii.  p.  40); but I have not consulted this work.
+Waitz quotes Bergmann, that the Kalmucks do not blush, but this may be
+doubted after what we have seen with respect to the Chinese.  He also
+quotes Roth, who denies that the Abyssinians are capable of blushing.
+Unfortunately, Capt. Speedy, who lived so long with the Abyssinians, has not
+answered my inquiry on this head.  Lastly, I must add that the Rajah Brooke
+has never observed the least sign of a blush with the Dyaks of Borneo;
+on the contrary under circumstances which would excite a blush in us,
+they assert "that they feel the blood drawn from their faces."
+
+[13] Transact.  of the Ethnological Soc.  1870, vol.  ii.  p.  16.
+
+Several trustworthy observers have assured me that they have
+seen on the faces of negroes an appearance resembling a blush,
+under circumstances which would have excited one in us, though their
+skins were of an ebony-black tint.  Some describe it as blushing brown,
+but most say that the blackness becomes more intense.  An increased supply
+of blood in the skin seems in some manner to increase its blackness;
+thus certain exanthematous diseases cause the affected places in the negro
+to appear blacker, instead of, as with us, redder.[16] The skin, perhaps,
+from being rendered more tense by the filling of the capillaries,
+would reflect a somewhat different tint to what it did before.
+That the capillaries of the face in the negro become filled with blood,
+under the emotion of shame, we may feel confident; because a perfectly
+characterized albino negress, described by Buffon,[17] showed a faint
+tinge of crimson on her cheeks when she exhibited herself naked.
+Cicatrices of the skin remain for a long time white in the negro,
+and Dr. Burgess, who had frequent opportunities of observing a scar of this
+kind on the face of a negress, distinctly saw that it "invariably became
+red whenever she was abruptly spoken to, or charged with any trivial
+offence."[18] The blush could be seen proceeding from the circumference
+of the scar towards the middle, but it did not reach the centre.
+Mulattoes are often great blushers, blush succeeding blush over their faces.
+From these facts there can be no doubt that negroes blush, although no
+redness is visible on the skin.
+
+
+[14] Humboldt, `Personal Narrative,' Eng.  translat.  vol.  iii.  p.  229.
+
+[15] Quoted by Prichard, Phys.  Hist.  of Mankind,
+4th edit 1851, vol.  i.  p.  271.
+
+[16] See, on this head, Burgess, ibid.  p.  32.  Also Waitz, `Introdnction
+to Anthropology,' Eng.  edit.  vol.  i.  p.  139.  Moreau gives
+a detailed account (`Lavater,' 1820, tom.  iv.  p.  302) of the blushing
+of a Madagascar negress-slave when forced by her brutal master to exhibit
+her naked bosom.
+
+I am assured by Gaika and by Mrs. Barber that the Kafirs of South Africa never
+blush; but this may only mean that no change of colour is distinguishable.
+Gaika adds that under the circumstances which would make a, European blush,
+his countrymen "look ashamed to keep their heads up."
+
+It is asserted by four of my informants that the Australians,
+who are almost as black as negroes, never blush.  A fifth
+answers doubtfully, remarking that only a very strong blush
+could be seen, on account of the dirty state of their skins.
+Three observers state that they do blush;[19] Mr. S. Wilson adding
+that this is noticeable only under a strong emotion, and when the skin
+is not too dark from long exposure and want of cleanliness.
+Mr. Lang answers, "I have noticed that shame almost always excites
+a blush, which frequently extends as low as the neck."  Shame is
+also shown, as he adds, "by the eyes being turned from side to side."
+As Mr. Lang was a teacher in a native school, it is probable
+that he chiefly observed children; and we know that they blush
+more than adults.  Mr. G. Taplin has seen half-castes blushing,
+and he says that the aborigines have a word expressive of shame.
+Mr. Hagenauer, who is one of those who has never observed
+the Australians to blush, says that he has "seen them looking
+down to the ground on account of shame;" and the missionary,
+Mr. Bulmer, remarks that though "I have not been able to detect
+anything like shame in the adult aborigines, I have noticed
+that the eyes of the children, when ashamed, present a restless,
+watery appearance, as if they did not know where to look."
+
+
+[17] Quoted by Prichard, Phys.  Hist.  of Mankind, 4th edit.
+1851, vol.  i.  p.  225.
+
+[18] Burgess, ibid.  p.  31.  On mulattoes blushing, see p.  33.  I have
+received similar accounts with respect to, mulattoes.
+
+[19] Barrington also says that the Australians of New South Wales blush,
+as quoted by Waitz, ibid.  p.  135.
+
+The facts now given are sufficient to show that blushing,
+whether or not there is any change of colour, is common to most,
+probably to all, of the races of man.
+
+_Movements and gestures which accompany Blushing_.--Under a keen sense of
+shame there is a, strong desire for concealment.[20] We turn away the whole
+body, more especially the face, which we endeavour in some manner to hide.
+An ashamed person can hardly endure to meet the gaze of those present,
+so that he almost invariably casts down his eyes or looks askant.
+As there generally exists at the same time a strong wish to avoid
+the appearance of shame, a vain attempt is made to look direct at
+the person who causes this feeling; and the antagonism between these
+opposite tendencies leads to various restless movements in the eyes.
+I have noticed two ladies who, whilst blushing, to which they are very liable,
+have thus acquired, as it appears, the oddest trick of incessantly blinking
+their eyelids with extraordinary rapidity.  An intense blush is sometimes
+accompanied by a slight effusion of tears;[21] and this, I presume,
+is due to the lacrymal glands partaking of the increased supply of blood,
+which we know rushes into the capillaries of the adjoining parts,
+including the retina.
+
+
+[20] Mr. Wedgwood says (Dict. of English Etymology, vol.  iii.  1865, p.
+155) that the word shame "may well originate in the idea of shade
+or concealment, and may be illustrated by the Low German _scheme_,
+shade or shadow."  Gratiolet (De la Phys.  pp.  357-362) has a good
+discussion on the gestures accompanying shame; but some of his
+remarks seem to me rather fanciful.  See, also, Burgess (ibid. pp.
+69, 134) on the same subject.
+
+Many writers, ancient and modern, have noticed the foregoing movements;
+and it has already been shown that the aborigines in various
+parts of the world often exhibit their shame by looking
+downwards or askant, or by restless movements of their eyes.
+Ezra cries out (ch. ix.  6), "O, my God!  I am ashamed,
+and blush to lift up my head to thee, my God."  In Isaiah
+(ch. I. 6) we meet with the words, "I hid not my face from shame."
+Seneca remarks (Epist. xi.  5) "that the Roman players hang down
+their heads, fix their eyes on the ground and keep them lowered,
+but are unable to blush in acting shame."  According to Macrobius,
+who lived in the filth century (`Saturnalia,' B. vii.
+C. 11), "Natural philosophers assert that nature being moved
+by shame spreads the blood before herself as a veil, as we
+see any one blushing often puts his hands before his face."
+Shakspeare makes Marcus (`Titus Andronicus,' act ii, sc.  5) say to
+his niece, "Ah! now thou turn'st away thy face for shame."
+A lady informs me that she found in the Lock Hospital a girl whom
+she had formerly known, and who had become a wretched castaway,
+and the poor creature, when approached, hid her face under
+the bed-clothes, and could not be persuaded to uncover it.
+We often see little children, when shy or ashamed, turn away,
+and still standing up, bury their faces in their mother's gown;
+or they throw themselves face downwards on her lap.
+
+
+[21] Burgess, ibid.  pp.  181, 182.  Boerhaave also noticed
+(as quoted by Gratiolet, ibid.  p.  361) the tendency
+to the secretion of tears during intense blushing.
+Mr. Bulmer, as we have seen, speaks of the "watery eyes"
+of the children of the Australian aborigines when ashamed.
+
+
+_Confusion of mind_.--Most persons, whilst blushing intensely,
+have their mental powers confused.  This is recognized in such
+common expressions as "she was covered with confusion."
+Persons in this condition lose their presence of mind,
+and utter singularly inappropriate remarks.
+They are often much distressed, stammer, and make awkward
+movements or strange grimaces.  In certain cases involuntary
+twitchings of some of the facial muscles may be observed.
+I have been informed by a young lady, who blushes excessively,
+that at such times she does not even know what she is saying.
+When it was suggested to her that this might be due to her
+distress from the consciousness that her blushing was noticed,
+she answered that this could not be the case, "as she had
+sometimes felt quite as stupid when blushing at a thought
+in her own room."
+
+I will give an instance of the extreme disturbance of mind
+to which some sensitive men are liable.  A gentleman,
+on whom I can rely, assured me that he had been an eye-witness
+of the following scene:--A small dinner-party was given in honour
+of an extremely shy man, who, when he rose to return thanks,
+rehearsed the speech, which he had evidently learnt by heart,
+in absolute silence, and did not utter a single word;
+but he acted as if he were speaking with much emphasis.
+His friends, perceiving how the case stood, loudly applauded
+the imaginary bursts of eloquence, whenever his gestures
+indicated a pause, and the man never discovered that he had
+remained the whole time completely silent.  On the contrary,
+he afterwards remarked to my friend, with much satisfaction,
+that he thought he had succeeded uncommonly well.
+
+When a person is much ashamed or very shy, and blushes intensely,
+his heart beats rapidly and his breathing is disturbed.
+This can hardly fail to affect the circulation of the blood
+within the brain, and perhaps the mental powers.
+It seems however doubtful, judging from the still more powerful
+influence of anger and fear on the circulation, whether we can
+thus satisfactorily account for the confused state of mind
+in persons whilst blushing intensely.
+
+The true explanation apparently lies in the intimate
+sympathy which exists between the capillary circulation
+of the surface of the head and face, and that of the brain.
+On applying to Dr. J. Crichton Browne for information,
+he has given me various facts bearing on this subject.
+When the sympathetic nerve is divided on one side of the head,
+the capillaries on this side are relaxed and become filled
+with blood, causing the skin to redden and to grow hot, and at
+the same time the temperature within the cranium on the same
+side rises.  Inflammation of the membranes of the brain leads
+to the engorgement of the face, ears, and eyes with blood.
+The first stage of an epileptic fit appears to be the contraction
+of the vessels of the brain, and the first outward manifestation is,
+an extreme pallor of countenance.  Erysipelas of the head commonly
+induces delirium.  Even the relief given to a severe headache
+by burning the skin with strong lotion, depends, I presume,
+on the same principle.
+
+Dr. Browne has often administered to his patients the vapour
+of the nitrite of amyl,[22] which has the singular property of
+causing vivid redness of the face in from thirty to sixty seconds.
+This flushing resembles blushing in almost every detail:
+it begins at several distinct points on the face, and spreads till it
+involves the whole surface of the head, neck, and front of the chest;
+but has been observed to extend only in one case to the abdomen.
+The arteries in the retina become enlarged; the eyes glisten,
+and in one instance there was a slight effusion of tears.
+The patients are at first pleasantly stimulated, but, as the
+flushing increases, they become confused and bewildered.
+One woman to whom the vapour had often been administered asserted that,
+as soon as she grew hot, she grew MUDDLED.  With persons just
+commencing to blush it appears, judging from their bright eyes and
+lively behaviour, that their mental powers are somewhat stimulated.
+It is only when the blushing is excessive that the mind grows confused.
+Therefore it would seem that the capillaries of the face
+are affected, both during the inhalation of the nitrite of amyl
+and during blushing, before that part of the brain is affected
+on which the mental powers depend.
+
+Conversely when the brain is primarily affected;
+the circulation of the skin is so in a secondary manner.
+Dr. Browne has frequently observed, as he informs me, scattered red
+blotches and mottlings on the chests of epileptic patients.
+In these cases, when the skin on the thorax or abdomen is gently
+rubbed with a pencil or other object, or, in strongly-marked cases,
+is merely touched by the finger, the surface becomes
+suffused in less than half a minute with bright red marks,
+which spread to some distance on each side of the touched point,
+and persist for several minutes.  These are the _cerebral
+maculae_ of Trousseau; and they indicate, as Dr. Browne remarks,
+a highly modified condition of the cutaneous vascular system.
+If, then, there exists, as cannot be doubted, an intimate sympathy
+between the capillary circulation in that part of the brain
+on which our mental powers depend, and in the skin of the face,
+it is not surprising that the moral causes which induce intense
+blushing should likewise induce, independently of their own
+disturbing influence, much confusion of mind.
+
+
+[22] See also Dr. J. Crichton Browne's Memoir on this subject
+in the `West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Report,' 1871, pp.  95-98.
+
+
+_The Nature of the Mental States which induce Blushing_.--These consist
+of shyness, shame, and modesty; the essential element in all
+being self-attention. Many reasons can be assigned for believing
+that originally self-attention directed to personal appearance,
+in relation to the opinion of others, was the exciting cause;
+the same effect being subsequently produced, through the force
+of association, by self-attention in relation to moral conduct.
+It is not the simple act of reflecting on our own appearance,
+but the thinking what others think of us, which excites a blush.
+In absolute solitude the most sensitive person would be quite
+indifferent about his appearance.  We feel blame or disapprobation
+more acutely than approbation; and consequently depreciatory
+remarks or ridicule, whether of our appearance or conduct,
+causes us to blush much more readily than does praise.
+But undoubtedly praise and admiration are highly efficient:
+a pretty girl blushes when a man gazes intently at her,
+though she may know perfectly well that he is not depreciating her.
+Many children, as well as old and sensitive persons blush,
+when they are much praised.  Hereafter the question will be discussed,
+how it has arisen that the consciousness that others are attending
+to our personal appearance should have led to the capillaries,
+especially those of the face, instantly becoming filled with blood.
+
+My reasons for believing that attention directed to personal appearance,
+and not to moral conduct, has been the fundamental element
+in the acquirement of the habit of blushing, will now be given.
+They are separately light, but combined possess, as it appears
+to me, considerable weight.  It is notorious that nothing makes
+a shy person blush so much as any remark, however slight, on his
+personal appearance.  One cannot notice even the dress of a woman
+much given to blushing, wihout causing her face to crimson.
+It is sufficient to stare hard at some persons to make them,
+as Coleridge remarks, blush,--"account for that he who can."[23]
+
+With the two albinos observed by Dr. Burgess,[24] "the slightest attempt
+to examine their peculiarities invariably" caused them to blush deeply.
+Women are much more sensitive about their personal appearance than men are,
+especially elderly women in comparison with elderly men, and they blush
+much more freely.  The young of both sexes are much more sensitive on this
+same head than the old, and they also blush much more freely than the old.
+Children at a very early age do not blush; nor do they show those other signs
+of self-consciousness which generally accompany blushing; and it is one of
+their chief charms that they think nothing about what others think of them.
+At this early age they will stare at a stranger with a fixed gaze
+and un-blinking eyes, as on an inanimate object, in a manner which we
+elders cannot imitate.
+
+
+[23] In a discussion on so-called animal magnetism in `Table Talk,' vol.  i.
+
+[24] Ibid.  p.  40.
+
+It is plain to every one that young men and women are highly sensitive
+to the opinion of each other with reference to their personal appearance;
+and they blush incomparably more in the presence of the opposite sex
+than in that of their own.[25] A young man, not very liable to blush,
+will blush intensely at any slight ridicule of his appearance from
+a girl whose judgment on any important subject lie would disregard.
+No happy pair of young lovers, valuing each other's admiration and love
+more than anything else in the world, probably ever courted each
+other without many a blush.  Even the barbarians of Tierra del Fuego,
+according to Mr. Bridges, blush "chiefly in regard to women, but certainly
+also at their own personal appearance."
+
+Of all parts of the body, the face is most considered and regarded,
+as is natural from its being the chief seat of expression and
+the source of the voice.  It is also the chief seat of beauty and
+of ugliness, and throughout the world is the most ornamented.[26]
+The face, therefore, will have been subjected during many generations
+to much closer and more earnest self-attention than any other part
+of the body; and in accordance with the principle here advanced
+we can understand why it should be the most liable to blush.
+Although exposure to alternations of temperature, &c., has probably much
+increased the power of dilatation and contraction in the capillaries
+of the face and adjoining parts, yet this by itself will hardly
+account for these parts blushing much more than the rest of the body;
+for it does not explain the fact of the hands rarely blushing.
+With Europeans the whole body tingles slightly when the face
+blushes intensely; and with the races of men who habitually go
+nearly naked, the blushes extend over a much larger surface than with us.
+These facts are, to a certain extent, intelligible, as the self-attention
+of primeval man, as well as of the existing races which still
+go naked, will not have been so exclusively confined to their faces,
+as is the case with the people who now go clothed.
+
+
+[25] Mr. Bain (`The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p.  65) remarks on "the
+shyness of manners which is induced between the sexes .... from the influence
+of mutual regard, by the apprehension on either side of not standing well
+with the other."
+
+[26] See, for evidence on this subject, `The Descent of Man,'
+&c., vol.  ii.  pp.  71, 341.
+
+We have seen that in all parts of the world persons who feel shame for
+some moral delinquency, are apt to avert, bend down, or hide their faces,
+independently of any thought about their personal appearance.
+The object can hardly be to conceal their blushes, for the face is
+thus averted or hidden under circumstances which exclude any desire
+to conceal shame, as when guilt is fully confessed and repented of.
+It is, however, probable that primeval man before he had acquired
+much moral sensitiveness would have been highly sensitive about
+his personal appearance, at least in reference to the other sex,
+and he would consequently have felt distress at any depreciatory
+remarks about his appearance; and this is one form of shame.
+And as the face is the part of the body which is most regarded,
+it is intelligible that any one ashamed of his personal appearance
+would desire to conceal this part of his body.  The habit having
+been thus acquired, would naturally be carried on when shame from
+strictly moral causes was felt; and it is not easy otherwise to see
+why under these circumstances there should be a desire to hide
+the face more than any other part of the body.
+
+The habit, so general with every one who feels ashamed, of turning away,
+or lowering his eyes, or restlessly moving them from side to side,
+probably follows from each glance directed towards those present,
+bringing home the conviction that he is intently regarded; and he endeavours,
+by not looking at those present, and especially not at their eyes,
+momentarily to escape from this painful conviction.
+
+
+_Shyness_.--This odd state of mind, often called shamefacedness,
+or false shame, or _mauvaise honte_, appears to be one of the most
+efficient of all the causes of blushing.  Shyness is, indeed,
+chiefly recognized by the face reddening, by the eyes being averted
+or cast down, and by awkward, nervous movements of the body.
+Many a woman blushes from this cause, a hundred, perhaps a
+thousand times, to once that she blushes from having done
+anything deserving blame, and of which she is truly ashamed.
+Shyness seems to depend on sensitiveness to the opinion,
+whether good or bad, of others, more especially with respect
+to external appearance.  Strangers neither know nor care anything
+about our conduct or character, but they may, and often do,
+criticize our appearance:  hence shy persons are particularly
+apt to be shy and to blush in the presence of strangers.
+The consciousness of anything peculiar, or even new, in the dress,
+or any slight blemish on the person, and more especially, on the face--
+points which are likely to attract the attention of strangers--
+makes the shy intolerably shy.  On the other hand, in those cases
+in which conduct and not personal appearance is concerned,
+we are much more apt to be shy in the presence of acquaintances,
+whose judgment we in some degree value, than in that of strangers.
+A physician told me that a young man, a wealthy duke, with whom
+he had travelled as medical attendant, blushed like a girl,
+when he paid him his fee; yet this young man probably would not have
+blushed and been shy, had he been paying a bill to a tradesman.
+Some persons, however, are so sensitive, that the mere act of speaking
+to almost any one is sufficient to rouse their self-consciousness,
+and a slight blush is the result.
+
+Disapprobation or ridicule, from our sensitiveness on this head,
+causes shyness and blushing much more readily than does approbation;
+though the latter with some persons is highly efficient.
+The conceited are rarely shy; for they value themselves much
+too highly to expect depreciation.  Why a proud man is often shy,
+as appears to be the case, is not so obvious, unless it
+be that, with all his self-reliance, he really thinks much
+about the opinion of others although in a disdainful spirit.
+Persons who are exceedingly shy are rarely shy in the presence
+of those with whom they are quite familiar, and of whose
+good opinion and sympathy they are perfectly assured;--
+for instance, a girl in the presence of her mother.
+I neglected to inquire in my printed paper whether shyness can
+be detected in the different races of man; but a Hindoo gentleman
+assured Mr. Erskine that it is recognizable in his countrymen.
+
+Shyness, as the derivation of the word indicates in several
+languages,[27] is closely related to fear; yet it is distinct
+from fear in the ordinary sense.  A shy man no doubt dreads
+the notice of strangers, but can hardly be said to be afraid
+of them, he may be as bold as a hero in battle, and yet have no
+self-confidence about trifles in the presence of strangers.
+Almost every one is extremely nervous when first addressing
+a public assembly, and most men remain so throughout their lives;
+but this appears to depend on the consciousness of a great
+coming exertion, with its associated effects on the system,
+rather than on shyness;[28] although a timid or shy man no
+doubt suffers on such occasions infinitely more than another.
+With very young children it is difficult to distinguish
+between fear and shyness; but this latter feeling with them has
+often seemed to me to partake of the character of the wildness
+of an untamed animal.  Shyness comes on at a very early age.
+In one of my own children, when two years and three months old,
+I saw a trace of what certainly appeared to be shyness,
+directed towards myself after an absence from home of only a week.
+This was shown not by a blush, but by the eyes being for a few
+minutes slightly averted from me.  I have noticed on other
+occasions that shyness or shamefacedness and real shame are
+exhibited in the eyes of young children before they have acquired
+the power of blushing.
+
+
+[27] H. Wedgwood, Dict.  English Etymology, vol.  iii.  1865, p.  184.
+So with the Latin word _verecundus_.
+
+As shyness apparently depends on self-attention, we can perceive
+how right are those who maintain that reprehending children
+for shyness, instead of doing them any good, does much harm,
+as it calls their attention still more closely to themselves.
+It has been well urged that "nothing hurts young people more than
+to be watched continually about their feelings, to have their
+countenances scrutinized, and the degrees of their sensibility
+measured by the surveying eye of the unmerciful spectator.
+Under the constraint of such examinations they can think
+of nothing but that they are looked at, and feel nothing
+but shame or apprehension."[29]
+
+
+[28] Mr. Bain (`The Emotions and the Will,' p.  64) has discussed
+the "abashed" feelings experienced on these occasions,
+as well as the _stage-fright_ of actors unused to the stage.
+Mr. Bain apparently attributes these feelings to simple
+apprehension or dread.
+
+[29] `Essays on Practical Education,' by Maria and R. L. Edgeworth,
+new edit.  vol.  ii.  1822, p.  38.  Dr. Burgess (ibid. p.
+187) insists strongly to the same effect.
+
+_Moral causes:  guilt_.--With respect to blushing from strictly
+moral causes, we meet with the same fundamental principle
+as before, namely, regard for the opinion of others.
+It is not the conscience which raises a blush, for a man may sincerely
+regret some slight fault committed in solitude, or he may suffer
+the deepest remorse for an undetected crime, but he will not blush.
+"I blush," says Dr. Burgess,[30] "in the presence of my accusers."
+It is not the sense of guilt, but the thought that others think
+or know us to be guilty which crimsons the face.  A man may feel
+thoroughly ashamed at having told a small falsehood, without blushing;
+but if he even suspects that he is detected he will instantly blush,
+especially if detected by one whom he reveres.
+
+On the other hand, a man may be convinced that God witnesses all his actions,
+and he may feel deeply conscious of some fault and pray for forgiveness;
+but this will not, as a lady who is a great blusher believes, ever excite
+a blush.  The explanation of this difference between the knowledge
+by God and man of our actions lies, I presume, in man's disapprobation
+of immoral conduct being somewhat akin in nature to his depreciation of our
+personal appearance, so that through association both lead to similar results;
+whereas the disapprobation of God brings up no such association.
+
+Many a person has blushed intensely when accused of some crime,
+though completely innocent of it.  Even the thought, as the lady before
+referred to has observed to me, that others think that we have made
+an unkind or stupid remark, is amply sufficient to cause a blush,
+although we know all the time that we have been completely misunderstood.
+An action may be meritorious or of an indifferent nature, but a sensitive
+person, if he suspects that others take a different view of it, will blush.
+For instance, a lady by herself may give money to a beggar without a trace
+of a blush, but if others are present, and she doubts whether they approve,
+or suspects that they think her influenced by display, she will blush.
+So it will be, if she offers to relieve the distress of a decayed gentlewoman,
+more particularly of one whom she had previously known under better
+circumstances, as she cannot then feel sure how her conduct will be viewed.
+But such cases as these blend into shyness.
+
+
+[29{sic, should be 30}] `Essays on Practical Education,'
+by Maria and R. L. Edgeworth, new edit.  vol.  ii.  1822, p.  50.
+
+
+_Breaches of etiquette_.--The rules of _etiquette_ always refer
+to conduct in the presence of, or towards others.  They have no
+necessary connection with the moral sense, and are often meaningless.
+Nevertheless as they depend on the fixed custom of our equals
+and superiors, whose opinion we highly regard, they are considered
+almost as binding as are the laws of honour to a gentleman.
+Consequently the breach of the laws of etiquette, that is, any impoliteness
+or _gaucherie_, any impropriety, or an inappropriate remark,
+though quite accidental, will cause the most intense blushing
+of which a man is capable.  Even the recollection of such an act,
+after an interval of many years, will make the whole body to tingle.
+So strong, also, is the power of sympathy that a sensitive person,
+as a lady has assured me, will sometimes blush at a flagrant breach
+of etiquette by a perfect stranger, though the act may in no
+way concern her.
+
+
+_Modesty_.--This is another powerful agent in exciting blushes;
+but the word modesty includes very different states of the mind.
+It implies humility, and we often judge of this by persons being
+greatly pleased and blushing at slight praise, or by being
+annoyed at praise which seems to them too high according
+to their own humble standard of themselves.  Blushing here has
+the usual signification of regard for the opinion of others.
+But modesty frequently relates to acts of indelicacy;
+and indelicacy is an affair of etiquette, as we clearly
+see with the nations that go altogether or nearly naked.
+He who is modest, and blushes easily at acts of this nature,
+does so because they are breaches of a firmly and wisely
+established etiquette.  This is indeed shown by the derivation of
+the word _modest_ from _modus_, a measure or standard of behaviour.
+A blush due to this form of modesty is, moreover, apt to be intense,
+because it generally relates to the opposite sex; and we have
+seen how in all cases our liability to blush is thus increased.
+We apply the term `modest,' as it would appear, to those
+who have an humble opinion of themselves, and to those who
+are extremely sensitive about an indelicate word or deed,
+simply because in both cases blushes are readily excited,
+for these two frames of mind have nothing else in common.
+Shyness also, from this same cause, is often mistaken for modesty
+in the sense of humility.
+
+Some persons flush up, as I have observed and have been assured,
+at any sudden and disagreeable recollection.  The commonest
+cause seems to be the sudden remembrance of not having done
+something for another person which had been promised.
+In this case it may be that the thought passes half
+unconsciously through the mind, "What will he think of me?"
+and then the flush would partake of the nature of a true blush.
+But whether such flushes are in most cases due to the capillary
+circulation being affected, is very doubtful; for we must remember
+that almost every strong emotion, such as anger or great joy,
+acts on the heart, and causes the face to redden.
+
+The fact that blushes may be excited in absolute solitude seems
+opposed to the view here taken, namely that the habit originally
+arose from thinking about what others think of us.  Several ladies,
+who are great blushers, are unanimous in regard to solitude;
+and some of them believe that they have blushed in the dark.
+From what Mr. Forbes has stated with respect to the Aymaras,
+and from my own sensations, I have no doubt that this latter statement
+is correct.  Shakspeare, therefore, erred when he made Juliet,
+who was not even by herself, say to Romeo (act ii.  sc.  2):--
+
+ Thou know'st the mask of night is on my face;
+ Else would a maiden blush bepaint my cheek,
+ For that which thou hast heard me speak to-night."
+
+But when a blush is excited in solitude, the cause almost
+always relates to the thoughts of others about us--to acts done
+in their presence, or suspected by them; or again when we reflect
+what others would have thought of us had they known of the act.
+Nevertheless one or two of my informants believe that they
+have blushed from shame at acts in no way relating to others.
+If this be so, we must attribute the result to the force
+of inveterate habit and association, under a state of mind
+closely analogous to that which ordinarily excites a blush;
+nor need we feel surprise at this, as even sympathy with another
+person who commits a flagrant breach of etiquette is believed,
+as we have just seen, sometimes to cause a blush.
+
+Finally, then, I conclude that blushing,--whether due to shyness--
+to shame for a real crime--to shame from a breach of the laws
+of etiquette--to modesty from humility--to modesty from
+an indelicacy--depends in all cases on the same principle;
+this principle being a sensitive regard for the opinion,
+more particularly for the depreciation of others, primarily in
+relation to our personal appearance, especially of our faces;
+and secondarily, through the force of association and habit,
+in relation to the opinion of others on our conduct.
+
+
+_Theory of Blushing_.--We have now to consider, why should the thought
+that others are thinking about us affect our capillary circulation?
+Sir C. Bell insists[31] that blushing "is a provision for expression,
+as may be inferred from the colour extending only to the surface of
+the face, neck, and breast, the parts most exposed.  It is not acquired;
+it is from the beginning."  Dr. Burgess believes that it was designed by
+the Creator in "order that the soul might have sovereign power of displaying
+in the cheeks the various internal emotions of the moral feelings;"
+so as to serve as a check on ourselves, and as a sign to others,
+that we were violating rules which ought to be held sacred.
+Gratiolet merely remarks,--"Or, comme il est dans l'ordre de la nature
+que l'etre social le plus intelligent soit aussi le plus intelligible,
+cette faculte de rougeur et de paleur qui distingue l'homme, est un
+signe naturel de sa haute perfection."
+
+The belief that blushing was SPECIALLY designed by the Creator is opposed
+to the general theory of evolution, which is now so largely accepted;
+but it forms no part of my duty here to argue on the general question.
+Those who believe in design, will find it difficult to account for shyness
+being the most frequent and efficient of all the causes of blushing,
+as it makes the blusher to suffer and the beholder uncomfortable,
+without being of the least service to either of them.  They will also find
+it difficult to account for negroes and other dark-coloured races blushing,
+in whom a change of colour in the skin is scarcely or not at all visible.
+
+
+[31] Bell, `Anatomy of Expression,' p.  95.  Burgess, as quoted
+below, ibid.  p.  49.  Gratiolet, De la Phys.  p.  94.
+
+No doubt a slight blush adds to the beauty of a maiden's face;
+and the Circassian women who are capable of blushing, invariably fetch
+a higher price in the seraolio of the Sultan than less susceptible
+women.[32] But the firmest believer in the efficacy of sexual selection
+will hardly suppose that blushing was acquired as a sexual ornament.
+This view would also be opposed to what has.  just been said about
+the dark-coloured races blushing in an invisible manner.
+
+The hypothesis which appears to me the most probable, though it
+may at first seem rash, is that attention closely directed
+to any part of the body tends to interfere with the ordinary
+and tonic contraction of the small arteries of that part.
+These vessels, in consequence, become at such times more or
+less relaxed, and are instantly filled with arterial blood.
+This tendency will have been much strengthened, if frequent
+attention has been paid during many generations to the same part,
+owing to nerve-force readily flowing along accustomed channels,
+and by the power of inheritance.  Whenever we believe that others
+are depreciating or even considering our personal appearance,
+our attention is vividly directed to the outer and visible
+parts of our bodies; and of all such parts we are most
+sensitive about our faces, as no doubt has been the case during
+many past generations.  Therefore, assuming for the moment
+that the capillary vessels can be acted on by close attention,
+those of the face will have become eminently susceptible.
+Through the force of association, the same effects will tend
+to follow whenever we think that others are considering
+or censuring our actions or character.
+
+As the basis of this theory rests on mental attention
+having some power to influence the capillary circulation,
+it will be necessary to give a considerable body of details,
+bearing more or less directly on this subject.
+Several observers,[33] who from their wide experience and
+knowledge are eminently capable of forming a sound judgment,
+are convinced that attention or consciousness (which latter term
+Sir H. Holland thinks the more explicit) concentrated on almost
+any part of the body produces some direct physical effect on it.
+This applies to the movements of the involuntary muscles,
+and of the voluntary muscles when acting involuntarily,--
+to the secretion of the glands,--to the activity of the senses
+and sensations,--and even to the nutrition of parts.
+
+
+[32] On the authority of Lady Mary Wortley Montague;
+see Burgess, ibid.  p.  43.
+
+It is known that the involuntary movements of the heart are
+affected if close attention be paid to them.  Gratiolet[34] gives
+the case of a man, who by continually watching and counting his
+own pulse, at last caused one beat out of every six to intermit.
+On the other hand, my father told me of a careful observer,
+who certainly had heart-disease and died from it, and who
+positively stated that his pulse was habitually irregular
+to an extreme degree; yet to his great disappointment it
+invariably became regular as soon as my father entered the room.
+Sir H. Holland remarks,[35] that "the effect upon the circulation
+of a part from the consciousness suddenly directed and fixed
+upon it, is often obvious and immediate."  Professor Laycock,
+who has particularly attended to phenomena of this nature,[36]
+insists that "when the attention is directed to any portion
+of the body, innervation and circulation are excited locally,
+and the functional activity of that portion developed."
+
+
+[33] In England, Sir H. Holland was, I believe, the first to consider
+the influence of mental attention on various parts of the body, in his
+`Medical Notes and Reflections,' 1839 p.  64.  This essay, much enlarged,
+was reprinted by Sir H. Holland in his `Chapters on Mental Physiology,'
+1858, p.  79, from which work I always quote.  At nearly the same time,
+as well as subsequently, Prof. Laycock discussed the same subject:
+see `Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,' 1839, July, pp.  17-22. Also
+his `Treatise on the Nervous Diseases of Women,' 1840, p.  110; and `Mind
+and Brain,' vol.  ii.  1860, p.  327.  Dr. Carpenter's views on mesmerism
+have a nearly similar bearing.  The great physiologist Muller treated
+(`Elements of Physiology,' Eng.  translat.  vol.  ii.  pp.  937, 1085)
+of the influence of the attention on the senses.  Sir J. Paget discusses
+the influence of the mind on the nutrition of parts, in his `Lectures on
+Surgical Pathology,' 1853, vol.  i.  p.  39:  1 quote from the 3rd edit.
+revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, p.  28.  See, also, Gratiolet, De
+la Phys.  pp.  283-287.
+
+[34] De la Phys.  p.  283.
+
+It is generally believed that the peristaltic movements
+of the intestines are influenced by attention being paid
+to them at fixed recurrent periods; and these movements depend
+on the contraction of unstriped and involuntary muscles.
+The abnormal action of the voluntary muscles in epilepsy, chorea,
+and hysteria is known to be influenced by the expectation of an attack,
+and by the sight of other patients similarly affected.[37] So
+it is with the involuntary acts of yawning and laughing.
+
+Certain glands are much influenced by thinking of them, or of
+the conditions under which they have been habitually excited.
+This is familiar to every one in the increased flow of saliva,
+when the thought, for instance, of intensely acid fruit is
+kept before the mind."  It was shown in our sixth chapter,
+that an earnest and long-continued desire either to repress,
+or to increase, the action of the lacrymal glands is effectual.
+Some curious cases have been recorded in the case of women,
+of the power of the mind on the mammary glands; and still more
+remarkable ones in relation to the uterine functions.[39]
+
+
+[35] `Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, p.  111.  [36] `Mind
+find Brain,' vol.  ii.  1860, p.  327.  [37] `Chapters
+on Mental Physiology,' pp.  104-106. [38] See Gratiolet on
+this subject, De la Phys.  p.  287.  [39] Dr. J. Crichton Browne,
+from his observations on the insane, is convinced that attention
+directed for a prolonged period on any part or organ may
+ultimately influence its capillary circulation and nutrition.
+He has given me some extraordinary cases; one of these,
+which cannot here be related in full, refers to a married
+woman fifty years of age, who laboured under the firm
+and long-continued delusion that she was pregnant.
+When the expected period arrived, she acted precisely as if she
+had been really delivered of a child, and seemed to suffer
+extreme pain, so that the perspiration broke out on her forehead.
+The result was that a state of things returned, continuing for
+three days, which had ceased during the six previous years.
+Mr. Braid gives, in his `Magic, Hypnotism,' &c., 1852, p.
+95, and in his other works analogous cases, as well as other facts
+showing the great influence of the will on the mammary glands,
+even on one breast alone.
+
+When we direct our whole attention to any one sense, its acuteness
+is increased;[40] and the continued habit of close attention,
+as with blind people to that of hearing, and with the blind and deaf
+to that of touch, appears to improve the sense in question permanently.
+There is, also, some reason to believe, judging from the capacities
+of different races of man, that the effects are inherited.
+Turning to ordinary sensations, it is well known that pain is increased
+by attending to it; and Sir B. Brodie goes so far as to believe
+that pain may be felt in any part of the body to which attention
+is closely drawn.[41] Sir H. Holland also remarks that we become
+not only conscious of the existence of a part subjected to
+concentrated attention, but we experience in it various odd sensations.
+as of weight, heat, cold, tingling, or itching.[42]
+
+Lastly, some physiologists maintain that the mind can influence
+the nutrition of parts.  Sir J. Paget has given a curious instance
+of the power, not indeed of the mind, but of the nervous system,
+on the hair.  A lady "who is subject to attacks of what is called
+nervous headache, always finds in the morning after such an one,
+that some patches of her hair are white, as if powdered with starch.
+The change is effected in a night, and in a few days after,
+the hairs gradually regain their dark brownish colour.[43]
+
+
+[40] Dr. Maudsley has given (`The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,'
+2nd edit.  1868, p.  105), on good authority, some curious statements with
+respect to the improvement of the sense of touch by practice and attention.
+It is remarkable that when this sense has thus been rendered more acute
+at any point of the body, for instance, in a finger, it is likewise improved
+at the corresponding point on the opposite side of the body.
+
+[41] The Lancet,' 1838, pp.  39-40, as quoted by
+Prof. Laycock, `Nervous Diseases of Women,' 1840, p.  110.
+
+[42] `Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, pp.  91-93.
+
+We thus see that close attention certainly affects various parts
+and organs, which are not properly under the control of the will.
+By what means attention--perhaps the most wonderful of all the wondrous
+powers of the mind--is effected, is an extremely obscure subject.
+According to Muller,[44] the process by which the sensory cells of the brain
+are rendered, through the will, susceptible of receiving more intense
+and distinct impressions, is closely analogous to that by which the motor
+cells are excited to send nerve-force to the voluntary muscles.
+There are many points of analogy in the action of the sensory
+and motor nerve-cells; for instance, the familiar fact that close
+attention to any one sense causes fatigue, like the prolonged exertion
+of any one muscle.[45] When therefore we voluntarily concentrate
+our attention on any part of the body, the cells of the brain
+which receive impressions or sensations from that part are,
+it is probable, in some unknown manner stimulated into activity.
+This may account, without any local change in the part to which our
+attention is earnestly directed, for pain or odd sensations being
+there felt or increased.
+
+
+[43] `Lectures on Surgical Pathology,' 3rd edit.
+revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, pp.  28, 31.
+
+[44] `Elements of Physiology,' Eng.  translat.  vol.  ii.  p.  938.
+
+[45] Prof. Laycock has discussed this point in a very interesting manner.
+See his `Nervous Diseases of Women,' 1840, p.  110.
+
+If, however, the part is furnished with muscles, we cannot
+feel sure, as Mr. Michael Foster has remarked to me, that some
+slight impulse may not be unconsciously sent to such muscles;
+and this would probably cause an obscure sensation in the part.
+
+In a large number of cases, as with the salivary and lacrymal glands,
+intestinal canal, &c., the power of attention seems to rest,
+either chiefly, or as some physiologists think, exclusively, on the
+vaso-motor system being affected in such a manner that more blood
+is allowed to flow into the capillaries of the part in question.
+This increased action of the capillaries may in some cases be combined
+with the simultaneously increased activity of the sensorium.
+
+The manner in which the mind affects the vasomotor system may be
+conceived in the following manner.  When we actually taste sour fruit,
+an impression is sent through the gustatory nerves to a certain part
+of the sensorium; this transmits nerve-force to the vasomotor centre,
+which consequently allows the muscular coats of the small arteries
+that permeate the salivary glands to relax.  Hence more blood flows
+into these glands, and they secrete a copious supply of saliva.
+Now it does not seem an improbable assumption, that, when we
+reflect intently on a sensation, the same part of the sensorium,
+or a closely connected part of it, is brought into a state of activity,
+in the same manner as when we actually perceive the sensation.
+If so, the same cells in the brain will be excited, though, perhaps,
+in a less degree, by vividly thinking about a sour taste, as by
+perceiving it; and they will transmit in the one case, as in the other,
+nerve-force to the vaso-motor centre with the same results.
+
+To give another, and, in some respects, more appropriate illustration.
+If a man stands before a hot fire, his face reddens.  This appears
+to be due, as Mr. Michael Foster informs me, in part to the local
+action of the heat, and in part to a reflex action from the vaso-motor
+centres.[46] In this latter case, the heat affects the nerves of the face;
+these transmit an impression to the sensory cells of the brain,
+which act on the vaso-motor centre, and this reacts on the small arteries
+of the face, relaxing them and allowing them to become filled with blood.
+Here, again, it seems not improbable that if we were repeatedly to
+concentrate with great earnestness our attention on the recollection
+of our heated faces, the same part of the sensorium which gives us
+the consciousness of actual heat would be in some slight degree stimulated,
+and would in consequence tend to transmit some nerve-force to
+the vaso-motor centres, so as to relax the capillaries of the face.
+Now as men during endless generations have had their attention often
+and earnestly directed to their personal appearance, and especially
+to their faces, any incipient tendency in the facial capillaries to be
+thus affected will have become in the course of time greatly strengthened
+through the principles just referred to, namely, nerve-force passing
+readily along accustomed channels, and inherited habit.  Thus, as it
+appears to me, a plausible explanation is afforded of the leading
+phenomena connected with the act of blushing.
+
+
+_Recapitulation_.--Men and women, and especially the young,
+have always valued, in a high degree, their personal appearance;
+and have likewise regarded the appearance of others.  The face has
+been the chief object of attention, though, when man aboriginally
+went naked, the whole surface of his body would have been attended to.
+Our self-attention is excited almost exclusively by the opinion of others,
+for no person living in absolute solitude would care about his appearance.
+Every one feels blame more acutely than praise.  Now, whenever we know,
+or suppose, that others are depreciating our personal appearance,
+our attention is strongly drawn towards ourselves, more especially
+to our faces.  The probable effect of this will be, as has just
+been explained, to excite into activity that part of the sensorium,
+which receives the sensory nerves of the face; and this will
+react through the vaso-motor system on the facial capillaries.
+By frequent reiteration during numberless generations, the process
+will have become so habitual, in association with the belief that others
+are thinking of us, that even a suspicion of their depreciation suffices
+to relax the capillaries, without any conscious thought about our faces.
+With some sensitive persons it is enough even to notice their dress
+to produce the same effect.  Through the force, also, of association
+and inheritance our capillaries are relaxed, whenever we know,
+or imagine, that any one is blaming, though in silence, our actions,
+thoughts, or character; and, again, when we are highly praised.
+
+
+[46] See, also, Mr. Michael Foster, on the action of the vaso-motor system,
+in his interesting Lecture before the royal Institution, as translated
+in the `Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' Sept. 25, 1869, p.  683.
+
+On this hypothesis we can understand how it is that the face blushes
+much more than any other part of the body, though the whole surface
+is somewhat affected, more especially with the races which still go
+nearly naked.  It is not at all surprising that the dark-coloured races
+should blush, though no change of colour is visible in their skins.
+From the principle of inheritance it is not surprising that
+persons born blind should blush.  We can understand why the young
+are much more affected than the old, and women more than men;
+and why the opposite sexes especially excite each other's blushes.
+It becomes obvious why personal remarks should be particularly liable
+to cause blushing, and why the most powerful of all the causes is shyness;
+for shyness relates to the presence and opinion of others, and the shy
+are always more or less self-conscious. With respect to real shame
+from moral delinquencies, we can perceive why it is not guilt,
+but the thought that others think us guilty, which raises a blush.
+A man reflecting on a crime committed in solitude, and stung by
+his conscience, does not blush; yet he will blush under the vivid
+recollection of a detected fault, or of one committed in the presence
+of others, the degree of blushing being closely related to the feeling
+of regard for those who have detected, witnessed, or suspected his fault.
+Breaches of conventional rules of conduct, if they are rigidly insisted
+on by our equals or superiors, often cause more intense blushes even
+than a detected crime, and an act which is really criminal, if not
+blamed by our equals, hardly raises a tinge of colour on our cheeks.
+Modesty from humility, or from an indelicacy, excites a vivid blush,
+as both relate to the judgment or fixed customs of others.
+
+From the intimate sympathy which exists between the capillary circulation
+of the surface of the head and of the brain, whenever there is
+intense blushing, there will be some, and often great, confusion of mind.
+This is frequently accompanied by awkward movements, and sometimes
+by the involuntary twitching of certain muscles.
+
+As blushing, according to this hypothesis, is an indirect result of attention,
+originally directed to our personal appearance, that is to the surface
+of the body, and more especially to the face, we can understand the meaning
+of the gestures which accompany blushing throughout the world.  These consist
+in hiding the face, or turning it towards the ground, or to one side.
+The eyes are generally averted or are restless, for to look at the man
+who causes us to feel shame or shyness, immediately brings home in an
+intolerable manner the consciousness that his gaze is directed on us.
+Through the principle of associated habit, the same movements of the face
+and eyes are practised, and can, indeed, hardly be avoided, whenever we
+know or believe that, others are blaming, or too strongly praising,
+our moral conduct.  CHAPTER XIV.
+
+CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
+
+The three leading principles which have determined the chief movements
+of expression--Their inheritance--On the part which the will and
+intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions--
+The instinctive recognition of expression--The bearing of our
+subject on the specific unity of the races of man--On the successive
+acquirement of various expressions by the progenitors of man--
+The importance of expression--Conclusion.
+
+
+I HAVE now described, to the best of my ability, the chief
+expressive actions in man, and in some few of the lower animals.
+I have also attempted to explain the origin or development of these
+actions through the three principles given in the first chapter.
+The first of these principles is, that movements which are serviceable
+in gratifying some desire, or in relieving some sensation,
+if often repeated, become so habitual that they are performed,
+whether or not of any service, whenever the same desire or sensation
+is felt, even in a very weak degree.
+
+Our second principle is that of antithesis.  The habit of voluntarily
+performing opposite movements under opposite impulses has become
+firmly established in us by the practice of our whole lives.
+Hence, if certain actions have been regularly performed,
+in accordance with our first principle, under a certain frame of mind,
+there will be a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance
+of directly opposite actions, whether or not these are of any use,
+under the excitement of an opposite frame of mind.
+
+Our third principle is the direct action of the excited nervous
+system on the body, independently of the will, and independently,
+in large part, of habit.  Experience shows that nerve-force is
+generated and set free whenever the cerebro-spinal system is excited.
+The direction which this nerve-force follows is necessarily
+determined by the lines of connection between the nerve-cells,
+with each other and with various parts of the body.
+But the direction is likewise much influenced by habit;
+inasmuch as nerve-force passes readily along accustomed channels.
+
+The frantic and senseless actions of an enraged man may be attributed
+in part to the undirected flow of nerve-force, and in part to the effects
+of habit, for these actions often vaguely represent the act of striking.
+They thus pass into gestures included under our first principle;
+as when an indignant man unconsciously throws himself into a fitting
+attitude for attacking his opponent, though without any intention
+of making an actual attack.  We see also the influence of habit
+in all the emotions and sensations which are called exciting;
+for they have assumed this character from having habitually led
+to energetic action; and action affects, in an indirect manner,
+the respiratory and circulatory system; and the latter reacts on the brain.
+Whenever these emotions or sensations are even slightly felt by us,
+though they may not at the time lead to any exertion, our whole system
+is nevertheless disturbed through the force of habit and association.
+Other emotions and sensations are called depressing, because they
+have not habitually led to energetic action, excepting just at first,
+as in the case of extreme pain, fear, and grief, and they have ultimately
+caused complete exhaustion; they are consequently expressed chiefly
+by negative signs and by prostration.  Again, there are other emotions,
+such as that of affection, which do not commonly lead to action of any kind,
+and consequently are not exhibited by any strongly marked outward signs.
+Affection indeed, in as far as it is a pleasurable sensation,
+excites the ordinary signs of pleasure.
+
+On the other hand, many of the effects due to the excitement
+of the nervous system seem to be quite independent
+of the flow of nerve-force along the channels which have
+been rendered habitual by former exertions of the will.
+Such effects, which often reveal the state of mind of the person
+thus affected, cannot at present be explained; for instance,
+the change of colour in the hair from extreme terror or grief,--
+the cold sweat and the trembling of the muscles from fear,--
+the modified secretions of the intestinal canal,--and the failure
+of certain glands to act.
+
+Notwithstanding that much remains unintelligible in our present subject,
+so many expressive movements and actions can be explained to a certain
+extent through the above three principles, that we may hope hereafter
+to see all explained by these or by closely analogous principles.
+
+Actions of all kinds, if regularly accompanying any state
+of the mind, are at once recognized as expressive.
+These may consist of movements of any part of the body,
+as the wagging of a dog's tail, the shrugging of a man's shoulders,
+the erection of the hair, the exudation of perspiration,
+the state of the capillary circulation, laboured breathing,
+and the use of the vocal or other sound-producing instruments.
+Even insects express anger, terror, jealousy, and love
+by their stridulation.  With man the respiratory organs are
+of especial importance in expression, not only in a direct,
+but in a still higher degree in an indirect manner.
+
+Few points are more interesting in our present subject
+than the extraordinarily complex chain of events which lead
+to certain expressive movements.  Take, for instance,
+the oblique eyebrows of a man suffering from grief or anxiety.
+When infants scream loudly from hunger or pain, the circulation
+is affected, and the eyes tend to become gorged with blood:
+consequently the muscles surrounding the eyes are strongly
+contracted as a protection:  this action, in the course
+of many generations, has become firmly fixed and inherited:
+but when, with advancing years and culture, the habit of
+screaming is partially repressed, the muscles round the eyes
+still tend to contract, whenever even slight distress is felt:
+of these muscles, the pyramidals of the nose are less under the control
+of the will than are the others and their contraction can be
+checked only by that of the central fasciae of the frontal muscle:
+these latter fasciae draw up the inner ends of the eyebrows,
+and wrinkle the forehead in a peculiar manner, which we
+instantly recognize as the expression of grief or anxiety.
+Slight movements, such as these just described, or the scarcely
+perceptible drawing down of the corners of the mouth, are the last
+remnants or rudiments of strongly marked and intelligible movements.
+They are as full of significance to us in regard to expression,
+as are ordinary rudiments to the naturalist in the classification
+and genealogy of organic beings.
+
+That the chief expressive actions, exhibited by man and by
+the lower animals, are now innate or inherited,--that is,
+have not been learnt by the individual,--is admitted by every one.
+So little has learning or imitation to do with several of them that they
+are from the earliest days and throughout life quite beyond our control;
+for instance, the relaxation of the arteries of the skin in blushing,
+and the increased action of the heart in anger.  We may see children,
+only two or three years old, and even those born blind, blushing from shame;
+and the naked scalp of a very young infant reddens from passion.
+Infants scream from pain directly after birth, and all their
+features then assume the same form as during subsequent years.
+These facts alone suffice to show that many of our most important
+expressions have not been learnt; but it is remarkable that some,
+which are certainly innate, require practice in the individual,
+before they are performed in a full and perfect manner; for instance,
+weeping and laughing.  The inheritance of most of our expressive actions
+explains the fact that those born blind display them, as I hear from
+the Rev. R. H. Blair, equally well with those gifted with eyesight.
+We can thus also understand the fact that the young and the old of widely
+different races, both with man and animals, express the same state
+of mind by the same movements.
+
+We are so familiar with the fact of young and old animals displaying
+their feelings in the same manner, that we hardly perceive how remarkable
+it is that a young puppy should wag its tail when pleased, depress its
+ears and uncover its canine teeth when pretending to be savage,
+just like an old dog; or that a kitten should arch its little back
+and erect its hair when frightened and angry, like an old cat.
+When, however, we turn to less common gestures in ourselves,
+which we are accustomed to look at as artificial or conventional,--
+such as shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence, or the raising
+the arms with open hands and extended fingers, as a sign of wonder,--
+we feel perhaps too much surprise at finding that they are innate.
+That these and some other gestures are inherited, we may infer from
+their being performed by very young children, by those born blind,
+and by the most widely distinct races of man.  We should also bear
+in mind that new and highly peculiar tricks, in association with certain
+states of the mind, are known to have arisen in certain individuals,
+and to have been afterwards transmitted to their offspring, in some cases,
+for more than one generation.
+
+Certain other gestures, which seem to us so natural that we might
+easily imagine that they were innate, apparently have been learnt like
+the words of a language.  This seems to be the case with the joining
+of the uplifted hands, and the turning up of the eyes, in prayer.
+So it is with kissing as a mark of affection; but this is innate, in so far
+as it depends on the pleasure derived from contact with a beloved person.
+The evidence with respect to the inheritance of nodding and shaking
+the head, as signs of affirmation and negation, is doubtful; for they
+are not universal, yet seem too general to have been independently
+acquired by all the individuals of so many races.
+
+
+We will now consider how far the will and consciousness have come
+into play in the development of the various movements of expression.
+As far as we can judge, only a few expressive movements, such as those just
+referred to, are learnt by each individual; that is, were consciously
+and voluntarily performed during the early years of life for some
+definite object, or in imitation of others, and then became habitual.
+The far greater number of the movements of expression, and all
+the more important ones, are, as we have seen, innate or inherited;
+and such cannot be said to depend on the will of the individual.
+Nevertheless, all those included under our first principle were at
+first voluntarily performed for a definite object,--namely, to escape
+some danger, to relieve some distress, or to gratify some desire.
+For instance, there can hardly be a doubt that the animals which fight
+with their teeth, have acquired the habit of drawing back their ears
+closely to their heads, when feeling savage, from their progenitors
+having voluntarily acted in this manner in order to protect their ears
+from being torn by their antagonists; for those animals which do not
+fight with their teeth do not thus express a savage state of mind.
+We may infer as highly probable that we ourselves have acquired the habit
+of contracting the muscles round the eyes, whilst crying gently,
+that is, without the utterance of any loud sound, from our progenitors,
+especially during infancy, having experienced, during the act of screaming,
+an uncomfortable sensation in their eyeballs.  Again, some highly
+expressive movements result from the endeavour to cheek or prevent other
+expressive movements; thus the obliquity of the eyebrows and the drawing
+down of the corners of the mouth follow from the endeavour to prevent
+a screaming-fit from coming on, or to cheek it after it has come on.
+Here it is obvious that the consciousness and will must at first have come
+into play; not that we are conscious in these or in other such cases
+what muscles are brought into action, any more than when we perform
+the most ordinary voluntary movements.
+
+With respect to the expressive movements due to the principle
+of antithesis, it is clear that the will has intervened,
+though in a remote and indirect manner.  So again with the movements
+coming under our third principle; these, in as far as they are
+influenced by nerve-force readily passing along habitual channels,
+have been determined by former and repeated exertions of the will.
+The effects indirectly due to this latter agency are often combined in a
+complex manner, through the force of habit and association, with those
+directly resulting from the excitement of the cerebro-spinal system.
+This seems to be the case with the increased action of the heart
+under the influence of any strong emotion.  When an animal erects
+its hair, assumes a threatening attitude, and utters fierce sounds,
+in order to terrify an enemy, we see a curious combination of movements
+which were originally voluntary with those that are involuntary.
+It is, however, possible that even strictly involuntary actions,
+such as the erection of the hair, may have been affected by the mysterious
+power of the will.
+
+Some expressive movements may have arisen spontaneously,
+in association with certain states of the mind, like the
+tricks lately referred to, and afterwards been inherited.
+But I know of no evidence rendering this view probable.
+
+The power of communication between the members of the same
+tribe by means of language has been of paramount importance
+in the development of man; and the force of language is much
+aided by the expressive movements of the face and body.
+We perceive this at once when we converse on an important subject
+with any person whose face is concealed.  Nevertheless there are
+no grounds, as far as I can discover, for believing that any muscle
+has been developed or even modified exclusively for the sake
+of expression.  The vocal and other sound-producing organs,
+by which various expressive noises are produced, seem to form
+a partial exception; but I have elsewhere attempted to show
+that these organs were first developed for sexual purposes,
+in order that one sex might call or charm the other.
+Nor can I discover grounds for believing that any inherited movement,
+which now serves as a means of expression, was at first voluntarily
+and consciously performed for this special purpose,--like some
+of the gestures and the finger-language used by the deaf and dumb.
+On the contrary, every true or inherited movement of expression
+seems to have had some natural and independent origin.
+But when once acquired, such movements may be voluntarily
+and consciously employed as a means of communication.
+Even infants, if carefully attended to, find out at a very
+early age that their screaming brings relief, and they soon
+voluntarily practise it.  We may frequently see a person
+voluntarily raising his eyebrows to express surprise, or smiling
+to express pretended satisfaction and acquiescence.  A man often
+wishes to make certain gestures conspicuous or demonstrative,
+and will raise his extended arms with widely opened fingers
+above his head, to show astonishment, or lift his shoulders
+to his ears, to show that he cannot or will not do something.
+The tendency to such movements will be strengthened or increased
+by their being thus voluntarily and repeatedly performed;
+and the effects may be inherited.
+
+It is perhaps worth consideration whether movements at first used
+only by one or a few individuals to express a certain state
+of mind may not sometimes have spread to others, and ultimately
+have become universal, through the power of conscious and
+unconscious imitation.  That there exists in man a strong tendency
+to imitation, independently of the conscious will, is certain.
+This is exhibited in the most extraordinary manner in certain
+brain diseases, especially at the commencement of inflammatory
+softening of the brain, and has been called the "echo sign."
+Patients thus affected imitate, without understanding every
+absurd gesture which is made, and every word which is uttered
+near them, even in a foreign language.[1] In the case of animals,
+the jackal and wolf have learnt under confinement to imitate
+the barking of the dog.  How the barking of the dog, which serves
+to express various emotions and desires, and which is so remarkable
+from having been acquired since the animal was domesticated,
+and from being inherited in different degrees by different breeds,
+was first learnt we do not know; but may we not suspect
+that imitation has had something to do with its acquisition,
+owing to dogs having long lived in strict association with so
+loquacious an animal as man?
+
+
+[1] See the interesting facts given by Dr. Bateman on
+`Aphasia,' 1870, p.  110.
+
+In the course of the foregoing remarks and throughout this volume,
+I have often felt much difficulty about the proper application of
+the terms, will, consciousness, and intention.  Actions, which were
+at first voluntary, soon became habitual, and at last hereditary,
+and may then be performed even in opposition to the will.
+Although they often reveal the state of the mind, this result was
+not at first either intended or expected.  Even such words as that
+"certain movements serve as a means of expression" are apt to mislead,
+as they imply that this was their primary purpose or object.
+This, however, seems rarely or never to have been the case;
+the movements having been at first either of some direct use,
+or the indirect effect of the excited state of the sensorium.
+An infant may scream either intentionally or instinctively to show
+that it wants food; but it has no wish or intention to draw its
+features into the peculiar form which so plainly indicates misery;
+yet some of the most characteristic expressions exhibited by man
+are derived from the act of screaming, as has been explained.
+
+Although most of our expressive actions are innate or instinctive,
+as is admitted by everyone, it is a different question whether we
+have any instinctive power of recognizing them.  This has generally
+been assumed to be the case; but the assumption has been strongly
+controverted by M. Lemoine.[2] Monkeys soon learn to distinguish,
+not only the tones of voice of their masters, but the expression
+of their faces, as is asserted by a careful observer.[3] Dogs well know
+the difference between caressing and threatening gestures or tones;
+and they seem to recognize a compassionate tone.  But as far
+as I can make out, after repeated trials, they do not understand
+any movement confined to the features, excepting a smile or laugh;
+and this they appear, at least in some cases, to recognize.
+This limited amount of knowledge has probably been gained, both by
+monkeys and dogs, through their associating harsh or kind treatment
+with our actions; and the knowledge certainly is not instinctive.
+Children, no doubt, would soon learn the movements of expression
+in their elders in the same manner as animals learn those of man.
+Moreover, when a child cries or laughs, he knows in a general manner
+what he is doing and what he feels; so that a very small exertion
+of reason would tell him what crying or laughing meant in others.
+But the question is, do our children acquire their knowledge of expression
+solely by experience through the power of association and reason?
+
+As most of the movements of expression must have been
+gradually acquired, afterwards becoming instinctive,
+there seems to be some degree of _a priori_ probability that
+their recognition would likewise have become instinctive.
+There is, at least, no greater difficulty in believing this than
+in admitting that, when a female quadruped first bears young,
+she knows the cry of distress of her offspring, or than in admitting
+that many animals instinctively recognize and fear their enemies;
+and of both these statements there can be no reasonable doubt.
+It is however extremely difficult to prove that our children
+instinctively recognize any expression.  I attended to this point
+in my first-born infant, who could not have learnt anything
+by associating with other children, and I was convinced that
+he understood a smile and received pleasure from seeing one,
+answering it by another, at much too early an age to have learnt
+anything by experience.  When this child was about four months old,
+I made in his presence many odd noises and strange grimaces,
+and tried to look savage; but the noises, if not too loud,
+as well as the grimaces, were all taken as good jokes;
+and I attributed this at the time to their being preceded
+or accompanied by smiles.  When five months old, he seemed
+to understand a compassionate, expression and tone of voice.
+When a few days over six months old, his nurse pretended to cry,
+and I saw that his face instantly assumed a melancholy expression,
+with the corners of the mouth strongly depressed;
+now this child could rarely have seen any other child crying,
+and never a grown-up person crying, and I should doubt whether
+at so early an age he could have reasoned on the subject.
+Therefore it seems to me that an innate feeling must have told
+him that the pretended crying of his nurse expressed grief;
+and this through the instinct of sympathy excited grief in him.
+
+
+[2] `La Physionomie et la Parole,' 1865, pp.  103, 118.
+
+[3] Rengger, `Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s.  55.
+
+M. Lemoine argues that, if man possessed an innate knowledge
+of expression, authors and artists would not have found it
+so difficult, as is notoriously the case, to describe and depict
+the characteristic signs of each particular state of mind.
+But this does not seem to me a valid argument.
+We may actually behold the expression changing in an unmistakable
+manner in a man or animal, and yet be quite unable, as I
+know from experience, to analyse the nature of the change.
+In the two photographs given by Duchenne of the same old man
+(Plate III.  figs.  5 and 6), almost every one recognized
+that the one represented a true, and the other a false smile;
+but I have found it very difficult to decide in what the whole
+amount of difference consists.  It has often struck me as a
+curious fact that so many shades of expression are instantly
+recognized without any conscious process of analysis on our part.
+No one, I believe, can clearly describe a sullen or sly expression;
+yet many observers are unanimous that these expressions can be
+recognized in the various races of man.  Almost everyone to whom I
+showed Duchenne's photograph of the young man with oblique eyebrows
+(Plate II.  fig.  2) at once declared that it expressed grief
+or some such feeling; yet probably not one of these persons,
+or one out of a thousand persons, could beforehand have told anything
+precise about the obliquity of the eyebrows with their inner
+ends puckered, or about the rectangular furrows on the forehead.
+So it is with many other expressions, of which I have had
+practical experience in the trouble requisite in instructing
+others what points to observe.  If, then, great ignorance
+of details does not prevent our recognizing with certainty
+and promptitude various expressions, I do not see how this
+ignorance can be advanced as an argument that our knowledge,
+though vague and general, is not innate.
+
+I have endeavoured to show in considerable detail that all the chief
+expressions exhibited by man are the same throughout the world.
+This fact is interesting, as it affords a new argument in favour of
+the several races being descended from a single parent-stock, which must
+have been almost completely human in structure, and to a large extent
+in mind, before the period at which the races diverged from each other.
+No doubt similar structures, adapted for the same purpose, have often
+been independently acquired through variation and natural selection
+by distinct species; but this view will not explain close similarity
+between distinct species in a multitude of unimportant details.
+Now if we bear in mind the numerous points of structure having no
+relation to expression, in which all the races of man closely agree,
+and then add to them the numerous points, some of the highest
+importance and many of the most trifling value, on which the movements
+of expression directly or indirectly depend, it seems to me improbable
+in the highest degree that so much similarity, or rather identity
+of structure, could have been acquired by independent means.
+Yet this must have been the case if the races of man are descended
+from several aboriginally distinct species.  It is far more probable
+that the many points of close similarity in the various races are due
+to inheritance from a single parent-form, which had already assumed
+a human character.
+
+It is a curious, though perhaps an idle speculation, how early in the long
+line of our progenitors the various expressive movements, now exhibited
+by man, were successively acquired.  The following remarks will at least
+serve to recall some of the chief points discussed in this volume.
+We may confidently believe that laughter, as a sign of pleasure or enjoyment,
+was practised by our progenitors long before they deserved to be called human;
+for very many kinds of monkeys, when pleased, utter a reiterated sound,
+clearly analogous to our laughter, often accompanied by vibratory movements
+of their jaws or lips, with the corners of the mouth drawn backwards
+and upwards, by the wrinkling of the cheeks, and even by the brightening
+of the eyes.
+
+We may likewise infer that fear was expressed from an extremely remote period,
+in almost the same manner as it now is by man; namely, by trembling,
+the erection of the hair, cold perspiration, pallor, widely opened eyes,
+the relaxation of most of the muscles, and by the whole body cowering
+downwards or held motionless.
+
+Suffering, if great, will from the first have caused screams or groans to
+be uttered, the body to be contorted, and the teeth to be ground together.
+But our progenitors will not have exhibited those highly expressive
+movements of the features which accompany screaming and crying until their
+circulatory and respiratory organs, and the muscles surrounding the eyes,
+had acquired their present structure.  The shedding of tears appears
+to have originated through reflex action from the spasmodic contraction
+of the eyelids, together perhaps with the eyeballs becoming gorged
+with blood during the act of screaming.  Therefore weeping probably came
+on rather late in the line of our descent; and this conclusion agrees with
+the fact that our nearest allies, the anthropomorphous apes, do not weep.
+But we must here exercise some caution, for as certain monkeys,
+which are not closely related to man, weep, this habit might have been
+developed long ago in a sub-branch of the group from which man is derived.
+Our early progenitors, when suffering from grief or anxiety, would not have
+made their eyebrows oblique, or have drawn down the corners of their mouth,
+until they had acquired the habit of endeavouring to restrain their screams.
+The expression, therefore, of grief and anxiety is eminently human.
+
+Rage will have been expressed at a very early period by threatening
+or frantic gestures, by the reddening of the skin, and by glaring eyes,
+but not by frowning.  For the habit of frowning seems to have been acquired
+chiefly from the corrugators being the first muscles to contract round
+the eyes, whenever during infancy pain, anger, or distress is felt,
+and there consequently is a near approach to screaming; and partly
+from a frown serving as a shade in difficult and intent vision.
+It seems probable that this shading action would not have become habitual
+until man had assumed a completely upright position, for monkeys
+do not frown when exposed to a glaring light.  Our early progenitors,
+when enraged, would probably have exposed their teeth more freely than
+does man, even when giving full vent to his rage, as with the insane.
+We may, also, feel almost certain that they would have protruded their lips,
+when sulky or disappointed, in a greater degree than is the case with
+our own children, or even with the children of existing savage races.
+
+Our early progenitors, when indignant or moderately angry,
+would not have held their heads erect, opened their chests,
+squared their shoulders, and clenched their fists, until they
+had acquired the ordinary carriage and upright attitude
+of man, and had learnt to fight with their fists or clubs.
+Until this period had arrived the antithetical gesture of shrugging
+the shoulders, as a sign of impotence or of patience, would not
+have been developed.  From the same reason astonishment would
+not then have been expressed by raising the arms with open hands
+and extended fingers.  Nor, judging from the actions of monkeys,
+would astonishment have been exhibited by a widely opened mouth;
+but the eyes would have been opened and the eyebrows arched.
+Disgust would have been shown at a very early period by
+movements round the mouth, like those of vomiting,--that is,
+if the view which I have suggested respecting the source
+of the expression is correct, namely, that our progenitors
+had the power, and used it, of voluntarily and quickly
+rejecting any food from their stomachs which they disliked.
+But the more refined manner of showing contempt or disdain,
+by lowering the eyelids, or turning away the eyes and face,
+as if the despised person were not worth looking at, would not
+probably have been acquired until a much later period.
+
+Of all expressions, blushing seems to be the most strictly human;
+yet it is common to all or nearly all the races of man, whether or
+not any change of colour is visible in their skin.  The relaxation
+of the small arteries of the surface, on which blushing depends,
+seems to have primarily resulted from earnest attention directed
+to the appearance of our own persons, especially of our faces,
+aided by habit, inheritance, and the ready flow of nerve-force along
+accustomed channels; and afterwards to have been extended by the power
+of association to self-attention directed to moral conduct.
+It can hardly be doubted that many animals are capable of appreciating
+beautiful colours and even forms, as is shown by the pains
+which the individuals of one sex take in displaying their beauty
+before those of the opposite sex.  But it does not seem possible
+that any animal, until its mental powers had been developed to an
+equal or nearly equal degree with those of man, would have closely
+considered and been sensitive about its own personal appearance.
+Therefore we may conclude that blushing originated at a very late
+period in the long line of our descent.
+
+From the various facts just alluded to, and given in the course
+of this volume, it follows that, if the structure of our
+organs of respiration and circulation had differed in only
+a slight degree from the state in which they now exist,
+most of our expressions would have been wonderfully different.
+A very slight change in the course of the arteries and veins
+which run to the head, would probably have prevented the blood
+from accumulating in our eyeballs during violent expiration;
+for this occurs in extremely few quadrupeds.  In this case we should
+not have displayed some of our most characteristic expressions.
+If man had breathed water by the aid of external branchiae
+(though the idea is hardly conceivable), instead of air through
+his mouth and nostrils, his features would not have expressed his
+feelings much more efficiently than now do his hands or limbs.
+Rage and disgust, however, would still have been shown by movements
+about the lips and mouth, and the eyes would have become
+brighter or duller according to the state of the circulation.
+If our ears had remained movable, their movements would have
+been highly expressive, as is the case with all the animals
+which fight with their teeth; and we may infer that our early
+progenitors thus fought, as we still uncover the canine tooth
+on one side when we sneer at or defy any one, and we uncover
+all our teeth when furiously enraged.
+
+
+The movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin
+may have been, are in themselves of much importance for our welfare.
+They serve as the first means of communication between the mother
+and her infant; she smiles approval, and thus encourages her child
+on the right path, or frowns disapproval.  We readily perceive sympathy
+in others by their expression; our sufferings are thus mitigated and our
+pleasures increased; and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened.
+The movements of expression give vividness and energy to our spoken words.
+They reveal the thoughts and intentions of others more truly than do words,
+which may be falsified.  Whatever amount of truth the so-called science
+of physiognomy may contain, appears to depend, as Haller long ago remarked,[4]
+on different persons bringing into frequent use different facial muscles,
+according to their dispositions; the development of these muscles being
+perhaps thus increased, and the lines or furrows on the face, due to their
+habitual contraction, being thus rendered deeper and more conspicuous.
+The free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it.
+On the other hand, the repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward
+signs softens our emotions.[5] He who gives way to violent gestures will
+increase his rage; he who does not control the signs of fear will experience
+fear in a greater degree; and he who remains passive when overwhelmed
+with grief loses his best chance of recovering elasticity of mind.
+These results follow partly from the intimate relation which exists between
+almost all the emotions and their outward manifestations; and partly from
+the direct influence of exertion on the heart, and consequently on the brain.
+Even the simulation of an emotion tends to arouse it in our minds.
+Shakespeare, who from his wonderful knowledge of the human mind ought
+to be an excellent judge, says:--
+
+ Is it not monstrous that this player here,
+ But in a fiction, in a dream of passion,
+ Could force his soul so to his own conceit,
+ That, from her working, all his visage wann'd;
+ Tears in his eyes, distraction in 's aspect,
+ A broken voice, and his whole function suiting
+ With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing!
+_Hamlet_, act ii.  sc.  2.
+
+
+
+[4] Quoted by Moreau, in his edition of Lavater, 1820, tom.  iv.  p.  211.
+
+We have seen that the study of the theory of expression
+confirms to a certain limited extent the conclusion that man
+is derived from some lower animal form, and supports the belief
+of the specific or sub-specific unity of the several races;
+but as far as my judgment serves, such confirmation was
+hardly needed.  We have also seen that expression in itself,
+or the language of the emotions, as it has sometimes been called,
+is certainly of importance for the welfare of mankind.
+To understand, as far as possible, the source or origin of
+the various expressions which may be hourly seen on the faces
+of the men around us, not to mention our domesticated animals,
+ought to possess much interest for us.  From these several causes,
+we may conclude that the philosophy of our subject has well
+deserved the attention which it has already received from several
+excellent observers, and that it deserves still further attention,
+especially from any able physiologist.
+
+
+[5] Gratiolet (`De la Physionomie,' 1865, p.  66) insists on the truth
+of this conclusion.
+
+
+
+
+{raw OCR to the end} INDEX.
+
+ABSTRACTION.
+
+ A.
+ ABSTRACTION, 226.
+ Actions, reflex, 35 ; coughing,
+ sneezing, &c., 85; muscular action
+ of decapitated frog, 36; closing
+ the eyelids, 38 : starting, 38-
+ 41; contraction of the iris, 41.
+ Admiration, 289.
+ Affirmation, signs of. 272.
+ Albinos, blushing in, 312, 326.
+ Alison, Professor, 31.
+ Ambition, 261.
+ Anatomical drawin,s by HeDle, 5.
+ Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression,
+ 2.
+ Anderson, Dr., 106, n. 26.
+ Anger, as a stimulant, 79; expreqsion,
+ 244; in monkeys, 136. See
+ also Rage.
+ Animals, special expressions of, 115.
+ See al8o Expression.
+ -7 habitual associated movements
+ in the lower, 42-49; dogs,
+ 43; wolves and Jackals, 44;
+ horses, 45; cats, 46; chickens,
+ 4~ , sholdrakes, &c., 48.
+ Annesley, Lieut., R. A., 124, n. 4.
+ Antithesis, the principle of, 50 ;
+ dogs, 50, 57 ; cats, 56; conventional
+ signs, 61.
+ Anxie ' 17 6,
+
+ ty,
+ Ape, 'Ile Gibbon, produces musical
+
+ the
+ sou
+
+ nds 8
+ rre
+ -c
+ 'tore
+ A ~s pili, 101, 103.
+ Association, the power of, 31; instances
+ of, 31, 3 2.
+ Astonishment, 218; in monkeys.
+ 142.
+ Audubon, 98, n. 14.
+ Avarice, 261.
+ Azara, 126, n. 6,128, n. 7.
+
+ B.
+ Baboon, the Anubis, 95, 133, 137.
+ Bain, Mr., 8, 31, 198, '- 4, 213, n. 21,
+ 290, n. 16,327, n. 25.
+
+BULMER.
+
+ Baker, Sir Samuel, 113.
+ Barber, Mrs., 21, 107, n. 28, 268,
+ 288.
+ Bartlett, Mr., 44, 48, 112~ 122,134,
+ 136.
+ Behn, Dr., 310.
+ Bell, Mr., 293.
+ -, Sir Charles, 1, 9, 22, 49, 115,
+ 120, 128, n. 8, 144, 157, 171, 210,
+ n. 17, 218, 220, 304, 336.
+ Bennett, G., 138, n. 16.
+ Ber,,eon, 168, n. 21.
+ BerLrd, Claude, 37, 68, 70, n. 5.
+ Billiard- player, gestures of the, 6.
+ Birds ruffle their feathers when
+ angry. 97; when frightened adpres~
+ them, 99.
+ Blair, the Rev. R. IT., 311, 351.
+ Blind, tendency of the, to blush,
+ 310.
+ Blushing, 309; inheritance of, 311;
+ in the various races of man, 315;
+ movements and gestures which
+ accompany, 320 ; confusion of
+ mind, 322; the nature of the
+ mental states which induce, 325;
+ shyness, 329 ; moral causes:
+ guilt, 332, breaches of etiquette,
+ 333; modest;y, 333 ; theory of,
+ 336.
+ Blyth, Mr., 97.
+ Bowman, Mr., 159, n. 14,160, n. 16,
+ 165, 169, 225.
+ Brehm, 96, 128, 137, n. 11t, 138,
+ n. 15.
+ Bridges, Mr., 22, 246, 2rO, 317.
+ Bridgman, Laura, 196, 212, 266, 2~3,
+ 285,310.
+ Brinton, Dr., 158, n. 18.
+ Brodie, Sir B., 340.
+ Brooke, the Rajah, 20, 207.
+ Brown, Dr. R., 108, n. 29.
+ Browne, Dr. J. Crichton, 13, 76, n.
+ 10, 154, 183, 197, 203, 242, 292,
+ 295, 313, 339, n. 39.
+ Bucknill, Dr., 296.
+ Bulmer, Mr. J., 20, 207, 250, 285,
+ 320.
+
+367
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg Etext--Expression of Emotion in Man & Animals
+
diff --git a/old/old/1998-03-eemaa10.zip b/old/old/1998-03-eemaa10.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..25bb354
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/old/1998-03-eemaa10.zip
diff --git a/old/old/2012-08-02_1227-8.zip b/old/old/2012-08-02_1227-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ee60538
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/old/2012-08-02_1227-8.zip
diff --git a/old/old/2012-08-02_1227-h.zip b/old/old/2012-08-02_1227-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..00df578
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/old/2012-08-02_1227-h.zip
diff --git a/old/old/2012-08-02_1227.zip b/old/old/2012-08-02_1227.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4546159
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/old/2012-08-02_1227.zip