diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/1216.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/1216.txt | 5889 |
1 files changed, 5889 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/old/1216.txt b/old/1216.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c101ef8 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/1216.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5889 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Decline of Science in England, by Charles Babbage + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Decline of Science in England + +Author: Charles Babbage + +Posting Date: August 16, 2008 [EBook #1216] +Release Date: March 2,, 2020 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND *** + + + + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer + + + + + +REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, + +AND ON SOME OF ITS CAUSES. + +By Charles Babbage + + + + +DEDICATION. + +HAD I INTENDED TO DEDICATE THIS VOLUME, I SHOULD HAVE INSCRIBED IT TO +A NOBLEMAN WHOSE EXERTIONS IN PROMOTING EVERY OBJECT THAT CAN ADVANCE +SCIENCE REFLECT LUSTRE UPON HIS RANK. BUT THE KINDNESS OF HIS NATURE +MIGHT HAVE BEEN PAINED AT HAVING HIS NAME CONNECTED WITH STRICTURES, +PERHAPS TOO SEVERELY JUST. I SHALL, THEREFORE, ABSTAIN FROM MENTIONING +THE NAME OF ONE WHO WILL FEEL THAT HE HAS COMMANDED MY ESTEEM AND +RESPECT. + +C. BABBAGE. + + +DORSET STREET, MANCHESTER SQUARE, 29th April, 1830. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +Of the causes which have induced me to print this volume I have little +to say; my own opinion is, that it will ultimately do some service +to science, and without that belief I would not have undertaken so +thankless a task. That it is too true not to make enemies, is an opinion +in which I concur with several of my friends, although I should hope +that what I have written will not give just reason for the permanence of +such feelings. On one point I shall speak decidedly, it is not connected +in any degree with the calculating machine on which I have been engaged; +the causes which have led to it have been long operating, and would have +produced this result whether I had ever speculated on that subject, and +whatever might have been the fate of my speculations. + +If any one shall endeavour to account for the opinions stated in these +pages by ascribing them to any imagined circumstance peculiar to myself, +I think he will be mistaken. That science has long been neglected and +declining in England, is not an opinion originating with me, but is +shared by many, and has been expressed by higher authority than mine. I +shall offer a few notices on this subject, which, from their scattered +position, are unlikely to have met the reader's attention, and which, +when combined with the facts I have detailed in subsequent pages, will +be admitted to deserve considerable attention. The following extract +from the article Chemistry, in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, is from +the pen of a gentleman equally qualified by his extensive reading, and +from his acquaintance with foreign nations, to form an opinion entitled +to respect. Differing from him widely as to the cause, I may be +permitted to cite him as high authority for the fact. + +"In concluding this most circumscribed outline of the History of +Chemistry, we may perhaps be allowed to express a faint shade of regret, +which, nevertheless, has frequently passed over our minds within the +space of the last five or six years. Admiring, as we most sincerely do, +the electro-magnetic discoveries of Professor Oersted and his followers, +we still, as chemists, fear that our science has suffered some degree +of neglect in consequence of them. At least, we remark that, during this +period, good chemical analyses and researches have been rare in England; +and yet, it must be confessed, there is an ample field for chemical +discovery. How scanty is our knowledge of the suspected fluorine! Are +we sure that we understand the nature of nitrogen? And yet these are +amongst our elements. Much has been done by Wollaston, Berzelius, +Guy-Lussac, Thenard, Thomson, Prout, and others, with regard to the +doctrine of definite proportions; but there yet remains the Atomic +Theory. Is it a representation of the laws of nature, or is it +not?"---CHEMISTRY, ENCYC. METROP. p.596. + +When the present volume was considerably advanced, the public were +informed that the late Sir Humphry Davy had commenced a work, having the +same title as the present, and that his sentiments were expressed in the +language of feeling and of eloquence. It is to be hoped that it may be +allowed by his friends to convey his opinions to posterity, and that the +writings of the philosopher may enable his contemporaries to forget some +of the deeds of the President of the Royal Society. + +Whatever may be the fate of that highly interesting document, we may +infer his opinions upon this subject from a sentiment expressed in his +last work:-- + +"--But we may in vain search the aristocracy now for +philosophers."----"There are very few persons who pursue science with +true dignity; it is followed more as connected with objects of profit +than those of fame."--SIR H. DAVY'S CONSOLATIONS IN TRAVEL. + +The last authority which I shall adduce is more valuable, from the +varied acquirements of its author, and from the greater detail into +which he enters. "We have drawn largely, both in the present Essay, and +in our article on LIGHT, from the ANNALES DE CHEMIE, and we take this +ONLY opportunity distinctly to acknowledge our obligations to that most +admirably conducted work. Unlike the crude and undigested scientific +matter which suffices, (we are ashamed to say it) for the monthly and +quarterly amusement of our own countrymen, whatever is admitted into ITS +pages, has at least been taken pains with, and, with few exceptions, has +sterling merit. Indeed, among the original communications which +abound in it, there are few which would misbecome the first academical +collections; and if any thing could diminish our regret at the long +suppression of those noble memoirs, which are destined to adorn future +volumes of that of the Institute, it would be the masterly abstracts +of them which from time to time appear in the ANNALES, either from the +hands of the authors, or from the reports rendered by the committees +appointed to examine them; which latter, indeed, are universally models +of their kind, and have contributed, perhaps more than any thing, to the +high scientific tone of the French SAVANS. What author, indeed, but +will write his best, when he knows that his work, if it have merit, will +immediately be reported on by a committee, who will enter into all its +meaning; understand it, however profound: and, not content with MERELY +understanding it, pursue the trains of thought to which it leads; place +its discoveries and principles in new and unexpected lights; and bring +the whole of their knowledge of collateral subjects to bear upon it. Nor +ought we to omit our acknowledgement to the very valuable Journals of +Poggendorff and Schweigger. Less exclusively national than their Gallic +compeer, they present a picture of the actual progress of physical +science throughout Europe. Indeed, we have been often astonished to +see with what celerity every thing, even moderately valuable in the +scientific publications of this country, finds its way into their pages. +This ought to encourage our men of science. They have a larger audience, +and a wider sympathy than they are perhaps aware of; and however +disheartening the general diffusion of smatterings of a number of +subjects, and the almost equally general indifference to profound +knowledge in any, among their own countrymen, may be, they may rest +assured that not a fact they may discover, nor a good experiment they +may make, but is instantly repeated, verified, and commented upon, in +Germany, and, we may add too, in Italy. We wish the obligation were +mutual. Here, whole branches of continental discovery are unstudied, +and indeed almost unknown, even by name. It is in vain to conceal the +melancholy truth. We are fast dropping behind. In mathematics we have +long since drawn the rein, and given over a hopeless race. In +chemistry the case is not much better. Who can tell us any thing of the +Sulfo-salts? Who will explain to us the laws of Isomorphism? Nay, who +among us has even verified Thenard's experiments on the oxygenated +acids,--Oersted's and Berzelius's on the radicals of the +earths,--Balard's and Serrulas's on the combinations of Brome,--and a +hundred other splendid trains of research in that fascinating science? +Nor need we stop here. There are, indeed, few sciences which would not +furnish matter for similar remark. The causes are at once obvious and +deep-seated; but this is not the place to discuss them."--MR. HERSCHEL'S +TREATISE ON SOUND, printed in the ENCYCLOPAEDIA METROPOLITANA. + +With such authorities, I need not apprehend much doubt as to the fact of +the decline of science in England: how far I may have pointed out some +of its causes, must be left to others to decide. + +Many attacks have lately been made on the conduct of various scientific +bodies, and of their officers, and severe criticism has been lavished +upon some of their productions. Newspapers, Magazines, Reviews, and +Pamphlets, have all been put in requisition for the purpose. Odium has +been cast upon some of these for being anonymous. If a fact is to be +established by testimony, anonymous assertion is of no value; if it +can be proved, by evidence to which the public have access, it is of +no consequence (for the cause of truth) who produces it. A matter of +opinion derives weight from the name which is attached to it; but a +chain of reasoning is equally conclusive, whoever may be its author. + +Perhaps it would be better for science, that all criticism should be +avowed. It would certainly have the effect of rendering it more matured, +and less severe; but, on the other hand, it would have the evil of +frequently repressing it altogether, because there exists amongst the +lower ranks of science, a "GENUS IRRITABILE," who are disposed to argue +that every criticism is personal. It is clearly the interest of all who +fear inquiries, to push this principle as far as possible, whilst those +whose sole object is truth, can have no apprehensions from the severest +scrutiny. There are few circumstances which so strongly distinguish the +philosopher, as the calmness with which he can reply to criticisms he +may think undeservedly severe. I have been led into these reflections, +from the circumstance of its having been stated publicly, that I was +the author of several of those anonymous writings, which were considered +amongst the most severe; and the assertion was the more likely to be +credited, from the fact of my having spoken a few words connected with +one of those subjects at the last anniversary of the Royal Society. +[I merely observed that the agreement made with the British Museum for +exchanging the Arundel MSS. for their duplicates, (which had just been +stated by the President,) was UNWISE;--because it was not to be expected +that many duplicates should be found in a library like that of the +Museum, weak in the physical and mathematical sciences: that it was +IMPROVIDENT and UNBUSINESSLIKE;--because it neither fixed the TIME +when the difference was to be paid, in case their duplicates should be +insufficient; nor did it appear that there were any FUNDS out of +which the money could be procured: and I added, that it would be more +advantageous to sell the MSS., and purchase the books we wanted with the +produce.] I had hoped in that diminutive world, the world of science, my +character had been sufficiently known to have escaped being the subject +of such a mistake; and, in taking this opportunity of correcting it, I +will add that, in the present volume, I have thought it more candid to +mention distinctly those whose line of conduct I have disapproved, or +whose works I have criticised, than to leave to the reader inferences +which he might make far more extensive than I have intended. I hope, +therefore, that where I have depicted species, no person will be so +unkind to others and unjust to me, as to suppose I have described +individuals. + +With respect to the cry against personality, which has been lately set +up to prevent all inquiry into matters of scientific misgovernment, a +few words will suffice. + +I feel as strongly as any one, not merely the impropriety, but the +injustice of introducing private character into such discussions. There +is, however, a maxim too well established to need any comment of mine. +The public character of every public servant is legitimate subject +of discussion, and his fitness or unfitness for office may be fairly +canvassed by any person. Those whose too sensitive feelings shrink from +such an ordeal, have no right to accept the emoluments of office, for +they know that it is the condition to which all must submit who are paid +from the public purse. + +The same principle is equally applicable to Companies, to Societies, and +to Academies. Those from whose pocket the salary is drawn, and by whose +appointment the officer was made, have always a right to discuss the +merits of their officers, and their modes of exercising the duties they +are paid to perform. + +This principle is equally applicable to the conduct of a Secretary of +State, or to that of a constable; to that of a Secretary of the Royal +Society, or of an adviser to the Admiralty. + +With respect to honorary officers, the case is in some measure +different. But the President of a society, although not recompensed by +any pecuniary remuneration, enjoys a station, when the body over which +he presides possesses a high character, to which many will aspire, who +will esteem themselves amply repaid for the time they devote to the +office, by the consequence attached to it in public estimation. He, +therefore, is answerable to the Society for his conduct in their chair. + +There are several societies in which the secretaries, and other +officers, have very laborious duties, and where they are unaided by a +train of clerks, and yet no pecuniary remuneration is given to them. +Science is much indebted to such men, by whose quiet and unostentatious +labours the routine of its institutions is carried on. It would be +unwise, as well as ungrateful, to judge severely of the inadvertencies, +or even of the negligence of such persons: nothing but weighty causes +should justify such a course. + +Whilst, however, I contend for the principle of discussion and inquiry +in its widest sense, because I consider it equally the safeguard of our +scientific as of our political institutions, I shall use it, I hope, +temperately; and having no personal feelings myself, but living in terms +of intercourse with almost all, and of intimacy with several of those +from whom I most widely differ, I shall not attempt to heap together +all the causes of complaint; but, by selecting a few in different +departments, endeavour to convince them that some alteration is +essentially necessary for the promotion of that very object which we +both by such different roads pursue. + +I have found it necessary, in the course of this volume, to speak of the +departed; for the misgovernment of the Royal Society has not been +wholly the result of even the present race. It is said, and I think with +justice, in the life of Young, inserted amongst Dr. Johnson's, that the +famous maxim, "DE MORTUIS NIL NISI BONUM," "appears to savour more of +female weakness than of manly reason." The foibles and the follies of +those who are gone, may, without injury to society, repose in oblivion. +But, whoever would claim the admiration of mankind for their good +actions, must prove his impartiality by fearlessly condemning their evil +deeds. Adopt the maxim, and praise to the dead becomes worthless, from +its universality; and history, a greater fable than it has been hitherto +deemed. + +Perhaps I ought to apologize for the large space I have devoted to the +Royal Society. Certainly its present state gives it no claim to that +attention; and I do it partly from respect for its former services, +and partly from the hope that, if such an Institution can be of use to +science in the present day, the attention of its members may be excited +to take steps for its restoration. Perhaps I may be blamed for having +published extracts from the minutes of its proceedings without the +permission of its Council. To have asked permission of the present +Council would have been useless. I might, however, have given the +substance of what I have extracted without the words, and no one could +then have reproached me with any infringement of our rules: but +there were two objections to that course. In the first place, it is +impossible, even for the most candid, in all cases, to convey precisely +the same sentiment in different language; and I thought it therefore +more fair towards those from whom I differed, as well as to the public, +to give the precise words. Again: had it been possible to make so +accurate a paraphrase, I should yet have preferred the risk of incurring +the reproach of the Royal Society for the offence, to escaping their +censure by an evasion. What I have done rests on my own head; and I +shrink not from the responsibility attaching to it. + +If those, whose mismanagement of that Society I condemn, should accuse +me of hostility to the Royal Society; my answer is, that the party which +governs it is not the Royal Society; and that I will only admit the +justice of the accusation, when the whole body, becoming acquainted +with the system I have exposed, shall, by ratifying it with their +approbation, appropriate it to themselves: an event of which I need +scarcely add I have not the slightest anticipation. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + PREFACE + Introductory Remarks + CHAP. I. On the Reciprocal Influence of Science and Education. + CHAP. II. Of the Inducements to Individuals to cultivate Science. + --Sect. 1. Professional Impulses. + ------ 2. Of National Encouragement. + ------ 3. Of Encouragement from learned Societies. + CHAP. III. General State of learned Societies in England. + CHAP. IV. State of the Royal Society in particular. + --Sect. 1. Mode of becoming a Fellow of the Royal Society. + ------ 2. Of the Presidency and Vice-Presidencies. + ------ 3. Of the Secretariships + ------ 4. Of the Scientific Advisers. + ------ 5. Of the Union of several Offices in one person. + ------ 6. Of the Funds of the Society. + ------ 7. Of the Royal Medals. + ------ 8. Of the Copley Medals. + ------ 9. Of the Fairchild Lecture. + ------ 10. Of the Croonian Lecture. + ------ 11. Of the Causes of the Present State of the Royal Society. + ------ 12. Of the Plan for Reforming the Society. + CHAP. V. Of Observations. + --Sect. 1. Of Minute Precision. + ------ 2. On the Art of Observing. + ------ 3. On the Frauds of Observers. + CHAP. VI. Suggestions for the Advancement of Science in England. + --Sect. 1. Of the Necessity that Members of the Royal Society + --------- should express their Opinions. + ------ 2. Of Biennial Presidents. + ------ 3. Of the Influence of the Colleges of Physicians and + --------- Surgeons in the Royal Society. + ------ 4. Of the Influence of the Royal Institution on the Royal + --------- Society. + ------ 5. Of the Transactions of the Royal Society. + ------ 6. Order of Merit. + ------ 7. Of the Union of Scientific Societies. + CONCLUSION. + APPENDIX NO. 1. + ------- NO. 2. + ------- NO. 3. + + + + +REFLECTIONS ON THE DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, AND ON SOME OF ITS +CAUSES. + + + + +INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. + +It cannot have escaped the attention of those, whose acquirements enable +them to judge, and who have had opportunities of examining the state of +science in other countries, that in England, particularly with respect +to the more difficult and abstract sciences, we are much below other +nations, not merely of equal rank, but below several even of inferior +power. That a country, eminently distinguished for its mechanical +and manufacturing ingenuity, should be indifferent to the progress of +inquiries which form the highest departments of that knowledge on whose +more elementary truths its wealth and rank depend, is a fact which is +well deserving the attention of those who shall inquire into the causes +that influence the progress of nations. + +To trace the gradual decline of mathematical, and with it of the highest +departments of physical science, from the days of Newton to the present, +must be left to the historian. It is not within the province of one who, +having mixed sufficiently with scientific society in England to see +and regret the weakness of some of its greatest ornaments, and to see +through and deplore the conduct of its pretended friends, offers these +remarks, with the hope that they may excite discussion,--with the +conviction that discussion is the firmest ally of truth,--and with the +confidence that nothing but the full expression of public opinion can +remove the evils that chill the enthusiasm, and cramp the energies of +the science of England. + +The causes which have produced, and some of the effects which have +resulted from, the present state of science in England, are so mixed, +that it is difficult to distinguish accurately between them. I shall, +therefore, in this volume, not attempt any minute discrimination, +but rather present the result of my reflections on the concomitant +circumstances which have attended the decay, and at the conclusion of +it, shall examine some of the suggestions which have been offered for +the advancement of British science. + + + +CHAPTER I. ON THE RECIPROCAL INFLUENCE OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION. + +That the state of knowledge in any country will exert a directive +influence on the general system of instruction adopted in it, is a +principle too obvious to require investigation. And it is equally +certain that the tastes and pursuits of our manhood will bear on them +the traces of the earlier impressions of our education. It is therefore +not unreasonable to suppose that some portion of the neglect of science +in England, may be attributed to the system of education we pursue. A +young man passes from our public schools to the universities, ignorant +almost of the elements of every branch of useful knowledge; and at these +latter establishments, formed originally for instructing those who +are intended for the clerical profession, classical and mathematical +pursuits are nearly the sole objects proposed to the student's ambition. + +Much has been done at one of our universities during the last fifteen +years, to improve the system of study; and I am confident that there +is no one connected with that body, who will not do me the justice to +believe that, whatever suggestions I may venture to offer, are prompted +by the warmest feelings for the honour and the increasing prosperity of +its institutions. The ties which connect me with Cambridge are indeed of +no ordinary kind. + +Taking it then for granted that our system of academical education ought +to be adapted to nearly the whole of the aristocracy of the country, I +am inclined to believe that whilst the modifications I should propose +would not be great innovations on the spirit of our institutions, they +would contribute materially to that important object. + +It will be readily admitted, that a degree conferred by an university, +ought to be a pledge to the public that he who holds it possesses a +certain quantity of knowledge. The progress of society has rendered +knowledge far more various in its kinds than it used to be; and to meet +this variety in the tastes and inclinations of those who come to us for +instruction, we have, besides the regular lectures to which all must +attend, other sources of information from whence the students may +acquire sound and varied knowledge in the numerous lectures on +chemistry, geology, botany, history, &c. It is at present a matter of +option with the student, which, and how many of these courses he shall +attend, and such it should still remain. All that it would be necessary +to add would be, that previously to taking his degree, each person +should be examined by those Professors, whose lectures he had attended. +The pupils should then be arranged in two classes, according to their +merits, and the names included in these classes should be printed. I +would then propose that no young man, except his name was found amongst +the "List of Honours," should be allowed to take his degree, unless he +had been placed in the first class of some one at least of the courses +given by the professors. But it should still be imperative upon the +student to possess such mathematical knowledge as we usually require. If +he had attained the first rank in several of these examinations, it +is obvious that we should run no hazard in a little relaxing the +strictness of his mathematical trial. + +If it should be thought preferable, the sciences might be grouped, and +the following subjects be taken together:-- + + Modern History. + Laws of England. + Civil Law. + + Political Economy. + Applications of Science to Arts and Manufactures. + + Chemistry. + Mineralogy. + Geology. + + Zoology, including Physiology and Comparative Anatomy. + Botany, including Vegetable Physiology and Anatomy. + +One of the great advantages of such a system would be, that no young +person would have an excuse for not studying, by stating, as is most +frequently done, that the only pursuits followed at Cambridge, classics +and mathematics, are not adapted either to his taste, or to the wants of +his after life. His friends and relatives would then reasonably expect +every student to have acquired distinction in SOME pursuit. If it should +be feared that this plan would lead to too great a diversity of pursuits +in the same individual, a limitation might be placed upon the number of +examinations into which the same person might be permitted to enter. It +might also be desirable not to restrict the whole of these examinations +to the third year, but to allow the student to enter on some portion of +them in the first or second year, if he should prefer it. + +By such an arrangement, which would scarcely interfere seriously with +our other examinations, we should, I think, be enabled effectually to +keep pace with the wants of society, and retaining fully our power +and our right to direct the studies of those who are intended for the +church, as well as of those who aspire to the various offices connected +with our academical institutions; we should, at the same time, open +a field of honourable ambition to multitudes, who, from the exclusive +nature of our present studies, leave us with but a very limited addition +to their stock of knowledge. + +Much more might be said on a subject so important to the interests of +the country, as well as of our university, but my wish is merely to open +it for our own consideration and discussion. We have already done so +much for the improvement of our system of instruction, that public +opinion will not reproach us for any unwillingness to alter. It is our +first duty to be well satisfied that we can improve: such alterations +ought only to be the result of a most mature consideration, and of a +free interchange of sentiments on the subject, in order that we may +condense upon the question the accumulated judgment of many minds. + +It is in some measure to be attributed to the defects of our system of +education, that scientific knowledge scarcely exists amongst the +higher classes of society. The discussions in the Houses of Lords or of +Commons, which arise on the occurrence of any subjects connected with +science, sufficiently prove this fact, which, if I had consulted the +extremely limited nature of my personal experience, I should, perhaps, +have doubted. + + + +CHAPTER II. OF THE INDUCEMENTS TO INDIVIDUALS TO CULTIVATE SCIENCE. + +Interest or inclination form the primary and ruling motives in this +matter: and both these exert greater or less proportionate influence in +each of the respective cases to be examined. + + + + +SECTION 1. PROFESSIONAL IMPULSES. + +A large portion of those who are impelled by ambition or necessity to +advance themselves in the world, make choice of some profession in which +they imagine their talents likely to be rewarded with success; and there +are peculiar advantages resulting to each from this classification of +society into professions. The ESPRIT DE CORPS frequently overpowers the +jealousy which exists between individuals, and pushes on to advantageous +situations some of the more fortunate of the profession; whilst, on the +other hand, any injury or insult offered to the weakest, is redressed or +resented by the whole body. There are other advantages which are perhaps +of more importance to the public. The numbers which compose the learned +professions in England are so considerable, that a kind of public +opinion is generated amongst them, which powerfully tends to repress +conduct that is injurious either to the profession or to the public. +Again, the mutual jealousy and rivalry excited amongst the whole body +is so considerable, that although the rank and estimation which an +individual holds in the profession may be most unfairly appreciated, +by taking the opinion of his rival; yet few estimations will be found +generally more correct than the opinion of a whole profession on the +merits of any one of its body. This test is of great value to the +public, and becomes the more so, in proportion to the difficulty of the +study to which the profession is devoted. It is by availing themselves +of it that men of sense and judgment, who have occasion for the services +of professional persons, are, in a great measure, guided in their +choice. + +The pursuit of science does not, in England, constitute a distinct +profession, as it does in many other countries. It is therefore, on +that ground alone, deprived of many of the advantages which attach +to professions. One of its greatest misfortunes arises from this +circumstance; for the subjects on which it is conversant are so +difficult, and require such unremitted devotion of time, that few who +have not spent years in their study can judge of the relative knowledge +of those who pursue them. It follows, therefore, that the public, and +even that men of sound sense and discernment, can scarcely find means +to distinguish between the possessors of knowledge, in the present +day, merely elementary, and those whose acquirements are of the highest +order. This remark applies with peculiar force to all the more difficult +applications of mathematics; and the fact is calculated to check the +energies of those who only look to reputation in England. + +As there exists with us no peculiar class professedly devoted to +science, it frequently happens that when a situation, requiring for the +proper fulfilment of its duties considerable scientific attainments, is +vacant, it becomes necessary to select from among amateurs, or rather +from among persons whose chief attention has been bestowed on other +subjects, and to whom science has been only an occasional pursuit. +A certain quantity of scientific knowledge is of course possessed by +individuals in many professions; and when added to the professional +acquirements of the army, the navy, or to the knowledge of the merchant, +is highly meritorious: but it is obvious that this may become, when +separated from the profession, quite insignificant as the basis of a +scientific reputation. + +To those who have chosen the profession of medicine, a knowledge of +chemistry, and of some branches of natural history, and, indeed, of +several other departments of science, affords useful assistance. Some of +the most valuable names which adorn the history of English science have +been connected with this profession. + +The causes which induce the selection of the clerical profession are +not often connected with science; and it is, perhaps, a question of +considerable doubt whether it is desirable to hold out to its members +hopes of advancement from such acquirements. As a source of recreation, +nothing can be more fit to occupy the attention of a divine; and our +church may boast, in the present as in past times, that the domain of +science has been extended by some of its brightest ornaments. + +In England, the profession of the law is that which seems to hold out +the strongest attraction to talent, from the circumstance, that in it +ability, coupled with exertion, even though unaided by patronage, cannot +fail of obtaining reward. It is frequently chosen as an introduction +to public life. It also presents great advantages, from its being a +qualification for many situations more or less remotely connected +with it, as well as from the circumstance that several of the highest +officers of the state must necessarily have sprung from its ranks. + +A powerful attraction exists, therefore, to the promotion of a study and +of duties of all others engrossing the time most completely, and which +is less benefited than most others by any acquaintance with science. +This is one amongst the causes why it so very rarely happens that men in +public situations are at all conversant even with the commonest branches +of scientific knowledge, and why scarcely an instance can be cited of +such persons acquiring a reputation by any discoveries of their own. + +But, however consistent other sciences may be with professional +avocations, there is one which, from its extreme difficulty, and the +overwhelming attention which it demands, can only be pursued with +success by those whose leisure is undisturbed by other claims. To be +well acquainted with the present state of mathematics, is no easy task; +but to add to the powers which that science possesses, is likely to be +the lot of but few English philosophers. + + + + +SECTION 2. OF NATIONAL ENCOURAGEMENT. + +The little encouragement which at all previous periods has been afforded +by the English Government to the authors of useful discoveries, or of +new and valuable inventions, is justified on the following grounds: + +1. The public, who consume the new commodity or profit by the new +invention, are much better judges of its merit than the government can +be. + +2. The reward which arises from the sale of the commodity is usually +much larger than that which government would be justified in bestowing; +and it is exactly proportioned to the consumption, that is, to the want +which the public feel for the new article. + +It must be admitted that, as general principles, these are correct: +there are, however, exceptions which flow necessarily from the very +reasoning from which they were deduced. Without entering minutely into +these exceptions, it will be sufficient to show that all abstract truth +is entirely excluded from reward under this system. It is only the +application of principles to common life which can be thus rewarded. +A few instances may perhaps render this position more evident. The +principle of the hydrostatic paradox was known as a speculative truth +in the time of Stevinus; [About the year 1600] and its application to +raising heavy weights has long been stated in elementary treatises on +natural philosophy, as well as constantly exhibited in lectures. Yet, it +may fairly be regarded as a mere abstract principle, until the late Mr. +Bramah, by substituting a pump instead of the smaller column, converted +it into a most valuable and powerful engine.--The principle of the +convertibility of the centres of oscillation and suspension in the +pendulum, discovered by Huygens more than a century and a half ago, +remained, until within these few years, a sterile, though most elegant +proposition; when, after being hinted at by Prony, and distinctly +pointed out by Bonenberger, it was employed by Captain Kater as the +foundation of a most convenient practical method of determining the +length of the pendulum.--The interval which separated the discovery, by +Dr. Black, of latent heat, from the beautiful and successful application +of it to the steam engine, was comparatively short; but it required the +efforts of two minds; and both were of the highest order.--The influence +of electricity in producing decompositions, although of inestimable +value as an instrument of discovery in chemical inquiries, can hardly be +said to have been applied to the practical purposes of life, until the +same powerful genius which detected the principle, applied it, by +a singular felicity of reasoning, to arrest the corrosion of the +copper-sheathing of vessels. That admirably connected chain of +reasoning, the truth of which is confirmed by its very failure as a +remedy, will probably at some future day supply, by its successful +application, a new proof of the position we are endeavouring to +establish. + +[I am authorised in stating, that this was regarded by Laplace as the +greatest of Sir Humphry Davy's discoveries. It did not fail in producing +the effect foreseen by Sir H. Davy,--the preventing the corrosion of +the copper; but it failed as a cure of the evil, by producing one of an +OPPOSITE character; either by preserving too perfectly from decay the +surface of the copper, or by rendering it negative, it allowed marine +animals and vegetables to accumulate on its surface, and thus impede the +progress of the vessel.] + +Other instances might, if necessary, be adduced, to show that long +intervals frequently elapse between the discovery of new principles +in science and their practical application: nor ought this at all to +surprise us. Those intellectual qualifications, which give birth to new +principles or to new methods, are of quite a different order from those +which are necessary for their practical application. + +At the time of the discovery of the beautiful theorem of Huygens, +it required in its author not merely a complete knowledge of the +mathematical science of his age, but a genius to enlarge its boundaries +by new creations of his own. Such talents are not always united with a +quick perception of the details, and of the practical applications +of the principles they have developed, nor is it for the interest of +mankind that minds of this high order should lavish their powers on +subjects unsuited to their grasp. + +In mathematical science, more than in all others, it happens that truths +which are at one period the most abstract, and apparently the most +remote from all useful application, become in the next age the bases +of profound physical inquiries, and in the succeeding one, perhaps, by +proper simplification and reduction to tables, furnish their ready and +daily aid to the artist and the sailor. + +It may also happen that at the time of the discovery of such principles, +the mechanical arts may be too imperfect to render their application +likely to be attended with success. Such was the case with the principle +of the hydrostatic paradox; and it was not, I believe, until the +expiration of Mr. Bramah's patent, that the press which bears his +name received that mechanical perfection in its execution, which has +deservedly brought it into such general use. + +On the other hand, for one person who is blessed with the power of +invention, many will always be found who have the capacity of applying +principles; and much of the merit ascribed to these applications will +always depend on the care and labour bestowed in the practical detail. + +If, therefore, it is important to the country that abstract principles +should be applied to practical use, it is clear that it is also +important that encouragement should be held out to the few who +are capable of adding to the number of those truths on which such +applications are founded. Unless there exist peculiar institutions +for the support of such inquirers, or unless the Government directly +interfere, the contriver of a thaumatrope may derive profit from his +ingenuity, whilst he who unravels the laws of light and vision, on which +multitudes of phenomena depend, shall descend unrewarded to the tomb. + +Perhaps it may be urged, that sufficient encouragement is already +afforded to abstract science in our different universities, by the +professorships established at them. It is not however in the power of +such institutions to create; they may foster and aid the development of +genius; and, when rightly applied, such stations ought to be its fair +and honourable rewards. In many instances their emolument is small; and +when otherwise, the lectures which are required from the professor are +not perhaps in all cases the best mode of employing the energies of +those who are capable of inventing. + +I cannot resist the opportunity of supporting these opinions by the +authority of one of the greatest philosophers of a past age, and of +expressing my acknowledgments to the author of a most interesting piece +of scientific biography. In the correspondence which terminated in the +return of Galileo to a professorship in his native country, he remarks, +"But, because my private lectures and domestic pupils are a great +hinderance and interruption of my studies, I wish to live entirely +exempt from the former, and in great measure from the latter."--LIFE +OF GALILEO, p.18. And, in another letter to Kepler, he speaks with +gratitude of Cosmo, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who "has now invited me +to attach myself to him with the annual salary of 1000 florins, and with +the title of Philosopher and principal Mathematician to his Highness, +without the duties of any office to perform, but with most complete +leisure; so that I can complete my treatise on Mechanics, &c."--p.31. +[Life of Galileo, published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful +Knowledge.] + +Surely, if knowledge is valuable, it can never be good policy in a +country far wealthier than Tuscany, to allow a genius like Mr. Dalton's, +to be employed in the drudgery of elementary instruction. [I utter these +sentiments from no feelings of private friendship to that estimable +philosopher, to whom it is my regret to be almost unknown, and whose +modest and retiring merit, I may, perhaps, have the misfortune to offend +by these remarks. But Mr. Dalton was of no party; had he ever moved in +that vortex which has brought discredit, and almost ruin, on the Royal +Society of England;--had he taken part with those who vote to each other +medals, and, affecting to be tired of the fatigues of office, make to +each other requisitions to retain places they would be most reluctant +to quit; his great and splendid discovery would long since have been +represented to government. Expectant mediocrity would have urged on his +claims to remuneration, and those who covered their selfish purposes +with the cloak of science, would have hastened to shelter themselves in +the mantle of his glory.--But the philosopher may find consolation for +the tardy approbation of that Society, in the applause of Europe. If +he was insulted by their medal, he escaped the pain of seeing his name +connected with their proceedings.] Where would have been the military +renown of England, if, with an equally improvident waste of mental +power, its institutions had forced the Duke of Wellington to employ his +life in drilling recruits, instead of planning campaigns? + +If we look at the fact, we shall find that the great inventions of the +age are not, with us at least, always produced in universities. The +doctrines of "definite proportions," and of the "chemical agency of +electricity,"--principles of a high order, which have immortalized the +names of their discoverers,--were not produced by the meditations of +the cloister: nor is it in the least a reproach to those valuable +institutions to mention truths like these. Fortunate circumstances must +concur, even to the greatest, to render them eminently successful. It is +not permitted to all to be born, like Archimedes, when a science was to +be created; nor, like Newton, to find the system of the world "without +form and void;" and, by disclosing gravitation, to shed throughout that +system the same irresistible radiance as that with which the Almighty +Creator had illumined its material substance. It can happen to but few +philosophers, and but at distant intervals, to snatch a science, like +Dalton, from the chaos of indefinite combination, and binding it in the +chains of number, to exalt it to rank amongst the exact. Triumphs like +these are necessarily "few and far between;" nor can it be expected that +that portion of encouragement, which a country may think fit to bestow +on science, should be adapted to meet such instances. Too extraordinary +to be frequent, they must be left, if they are to be encouraged at all, +to some direct interference of the government. + +The dangers to be apprehended from such a specific interference, would +arise from one, or several, of the following circumstances:--That class +of society, from whom the government is selected, might not possess +sufficient knowledge either to judge themselves, or know upon whose +judgment to rely. Or the number of persons devoting themselves to +science, might not be sufficiently large to have due weight in the +expression of public opinion. Or, supposing this class to be large, it +might not enjoy, in the estimation of the world, a sufficiently high +character for independence. Should these causes concur in any country, +it might become highly injurious to commit the encouragement of science +to any department of the government. This reasoning does not appear to +have escaped the penetration of those who advised the abolition of the +late Board of Longitude. + +The question whether it is good policy in the government of a country +to encourage science, is one of which those who cultivate it are not +perhaps the most unbiased judges. In England, those who have hitherto +pursued science, have in general no very reasonable grounds of +complaint; they knew, or should have known, that there was no demand for +it, that it led to little honour, and to less profit. + +That blame has been attributed to the government for not fostering +the science of the country is certain; and, as far as regards past +administrations, is, to a great extent, just; with respect to the +present ministers, whose strength essentially depends on public opinion, +it is not necessary that they should precede, and they cannot remain +long insensible to any expression of the general feeling. But supposing +science were thought of some importance by any administration, it would +be difficult in the present state of things to do much in its favour; +because, on the one hand, the higher classes in general have not a +profound knowledge of science, and, on the other, those persons whom +they have usually consulted, seem not to have given such advice as to +deserve the confidence of government. It seems to be forgotten, that the +money allotted by government to purposes of science ought to be expended +with the same regard to prudence and economy as in the disposal of money +in the affairs of private life. + +[Who, for instance, could have advised the government to incur the +expense of printing SEVEN HUNDRED AND FIFTY copies of the Astronomical +Observations made at Paramatta, to form a third part of the +Philosophical Transactions for 1829, whilst of the Observations made at +the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, two hundred and fifty copies only +are printed? + +Of these seven hundred and fifty copies, seven hundred and ten will be +distributed to members of the Royal Society, to six hundred of whom they +will probably be wholly uninteresting or useless; and thus the country +incurs a constantly recurring annual expense. Nor is it easy to see +on what principle a similar destination could be refused for the +observations made at the Cape of Good Hope.] + +To those who measure the question of the national encouragement of +science by its value in pounds, shillings, and pence, I will here state +a fact, which, although pretty generally known, still, I think, deserves +attention. A short time since it was discovered by government that the +terms on which annuities had been granted by them were erroneous, and +new tables were introduced by act of Parliament. It was stated at the +time that the erroneous tables had caused a loss to the country of +between two and three millions sterling. The fact of the sale of +those annuities being a losing concern was long known to many; and the +government appear to have been the last to be informed on the subject. +Half the interest of half that loss, judiciously applied to the +encouragement of mathematical science, would, in a few years, have +rendered utterly impossible such expensive errors. + +To those who bow to the authority of great names, one remark may have +its weight. The MECANIQUE COELESTE, [The first volume of the first +translation of this celebrated work into our own language, has just +arrived in England from--America.] and the THEORIE ANALYTIQUE DES +PROBABILITES, were both dedicated, by Laplace, to Napoleon. During the +reign of that extraordinary man, the triumphs of France were as eminent +in Science as they were splendid in arms. May the institutions which +trained and rewarded her philosophers be permanent as the benefits they +have conferred upon mankind! + +In other countries it has been found, and is admitted, that a knowledge +of science is a recommendation to public appointments, and that a man +does not make a worse ambassador because he has directed an observatory, +or has added by his discoveries to the extent of our knowledge of +animated nature. Instances even are not wanting of ministers who have +begun their career in the inquiries of pure analysis. As such examples +are perhaps more frequent than is generally imagined, it may be useful +to mention a few of those men of science who have formerly held, or who +now hold, high official stations in the governments of their respective +countries. + + + Country. Name. Department of Public Office. + Science. + + France.. Marquis Laplace(1) Mathematics President of the + Conservative + Senate. + + France.. M.Carnot Mathematics Minister of War. + + France.. Count Chaptal(2) Chemistry Minister of the + Interior. + + France.. Baron Cuvier(3) Comparative Minister of + Anatomy, Public + History Instruction + + Prussia.. Baron Humboldt Oriental Ambassador + Languages to England + + Prussia.. Baron Alexander The celebrated Chamberlain to + Humboldt Traveller the King of + Prussia + + Modena. Marquis Rangoni(4) Mathematics Minister of + Finance and + of Public + Instruction, + President of + Italian Academy + of Forty. + + Tuscany. Count Fossombroni Mathematics Prime Minister + (5) of the Grand Duke + of Tuscany. + + Saxony.. M. Lindenau(6) Astronomy Ambassador. + + (1) Author of the MECANIQUE COELESTE. + (2) Author of TRAITE DE CHIMIE APPLIQUE AUX ARTS. + (3) Author of LECONS D'ANATOMIE COMPAREE--RECHERCHES SUR OSSEMENS + FOSSILES &c. &c. + (4) Author of MEMORIA SULLE FUNZIONI GENERATRICI, Modena, 1824, + and of various other memoirs on mathematical subjects. + (5) Author of several memoirs on mechanics and hydraulics, in the + Transactions of the Academy of Forty. + (6) Author of TABLES BAROMETRIQUES, Gotha, 1809--TABULAE VENERIS, + NOVAE ET CORRECTAE, Gothae, 1810--INVESTIGATIO NOVA ORBITAE A + MERCURIO CIRCA SOLEM DESCRIPTAE, Gothae, 1813, and of other + works. + + +M. Lindenau, the Minister from the King of Saxony to the King of the +Netherlands, commenced his career as astronomer at the observatory of +the Grand Duke of Gotha, by whom he was sent as his representative at +the German Diet. On the death of the late reigning Duke, M. Lindenau +was invited to Dresden, and filled the same situation under the King of +Saxony; after which he was appointed his minister at the court of the +King of the Netherlands. Such occurrences are not to be paralleled in +our own country, at least not in modern times. Newton was, it is true, +more than a century since, appointed Master of the Mint; but let any +person suggest an appointment of a similar kind in the present day, and +he will gather from the smiles of those to whom he proposes it that the +highest knowledge conduces nothing to success, and that political power +is almost the only recommendation. + + + + +SECTION 3. Of Encouragement from Learned Societies. + +There are several circumstances which concur in inducing persons +pursuing science, to unite together, to form societies or academies. In +former times, when philosophical instruments were more rare, and the art +of making experiments was less perfectly known, it was almost necessary. +More recently, whilst numerous additions are constantly making to +science, it has been found that those who are most capable of extending +human knowledge, are frequently least able to encounter the expense of +printing their investigations. It is therefore convenient, that some +means should be devised for relieving them from this difficulty, and the +volumes of the transactions of academies have accomplished the desired +end. + +There is, however, another purpose to which academies contribute. +When they consist of a limited number of persons, eminent for their +knowledge, it becomes an object of ambition to be admitted on their +list. Thus a stimulus is applied to all those who cultivate science, +which urges on their exertions, in order to acquire the wished-for +distinction. It is clear that this envied position will be valued +in proportion to the difficulty of its attainment, and also to the +celebrity of those who enjoy it; and whenever the standard of scientific +knowledge which qualifies for its ranks is lowered, the value of the +distinction itself will be diminished. If, at any time, a multitude of +persons having no sort of knowledge of science are admitted, it must +cease to be sought after as an object of ambition by men of science, and +the class of persons to whom it will become an object of desire will be +less intellectual. + +Let us now compare the numbers composing some of the various academies +of Europe.-The Royal Society of London, the Institute of France, the +Italian Academy of Forty, and the Royal Academy of Berlin, are amongst +the most distinguished. + + Name Number of Number + Population. Members of + Country. of its Foreign + Academy. Members + + 1. England. 22,299,000 685 50 + 2. France. 32,058,000 76 8 Mem. 100 Corr. + 8. Prussia. 12,915,000 38 16 + 4. Italy.. 12,000,000 40 8 + +It appears then, that in France, one person out of 427,000 is a member +of the Institute. That in Italy and Prussia, about one out of 300,000 +persons is a member of their Academies. That in England, every 32,000 +inhabitants produces a Fellow of the Royal Society. Looking merely at +these proportions, the estimation of a seat in the Academy of Berlin, +must be more than nine times as valuable as a similar situation in +England; and a member of the Institute of France will be more than +thirteen times more rare in his country than a Fellow of the Royal +Society is in England. + +Favourable as this view is to the dignity of such situations in other +countries, their comparative rarity is by no means the most striking +difference in the circumstances of men of science. If we look at the +station in society occupied by the SAVANS of other countries, in several +of them we shall find it high, and their situations profitable. Perhaps, +at the present moment, Prussia is, of all the countries in Europe, that +which bestows the greatest attention, and most unwearied encouragement +on science. Great as are the merits of many of its philosophers, much of +this support arises from the character of the reigning family, by whose +enlightened policy even the most abstract sciences are fostered. + +The maxim that "knowledge is power," can be perfectly comprehended +by those only who are themselves well versed in science; and to the +circumstance of the younger branches of the royal family of Prussia +having acquired considerable knowledge in such subjects, we may +attribute the great force with which that maxim is appreciated. + +In France, the situation of its SAVANS is highly respectable, as well as +profitable. If we analyze the list of the Institute, we shall find few +who do not possess titles or decorations; but as the value of such marks +of royal favour must depend, in a great measure, on their frequency, I +shall mention several particulars which are probably not familiar to +the English reader. [This analysis was made by comparing the list of the +Institute, printed for that body in 1827, with the ALMANACH ROYALE for +1823.] + + + Number of the Members of the Total Number of each Class + Institute of France who belong of the Legion of Honour. + to the Legion of Honour. + + GrandCroix......... 3 80 + GrandOfficier..... 3 160 + Commandeur........ 4 400 + Officier.......... 17 2,000 + Chevalier......... 40 Not limited. + + + + Number of Members of the Institute Total Number + decorated with of + the Order of St. Michel. that Order. + + Grand Croix....... 2 + 100 + Chevalier......... 27 + + Amongst the members of the Institute there + are,-- + + Dukes................... 2 + Marquis................. 1 + Counts.................. 4 + Viscounts................ 2 + Barons.................. 14 + --23 + + Of these there are + Peers of France.......... 5 + +We might, on turning over the list of the 685 members of the Royal +Society, find a greater number of peers than there are in the Institute +of France; but a fairer mode of instituting the comparison, is to +inquire how many titled members there are amongst those who have +contributed to its Transactions. In 1827, there were one hundred and +nine members who had contributed to the Transactions of the Royal +Society; amongst these were found:-- + + Peer........................ 1 + Baronets.................... 5 + Knights..................... 5 + +It should be observed, that five of these titles were the rewards of +members of the medical profession, and one only, that of Sir H. Davy, +could be attributed exclusively to science. + +It must not be inferred that the titles of nobility in the French list, +were all of them the rewards of scientific eminence; many are known to +have been such; but it would be quite sufficient for the argument to +mention the names of Lagrange, Laplace, Berthollet, and Chaptal. + +The estimation in which the public hold literary claims in France and +England, was curiously illustrated by an incidental expression in the +translation of the debates in the House of Lords, on the occasion of His +Majesty's speech at the commencement of the session of 1830. The Gazette +de France stated, that the address was moved by the Duc de Buccleugh, +"CHEF DE LA MAISON DE WALTER SCOTT." Had an English editor wished to +particularize that nobleman, he would undoubtedly have employed the term +WEALTHY, or some other of the epithets characteristic of that quality +most esteemed amongst his countrymen. + +If we turn, on the other hand, to the emoluments of science in France, +we shall find them far exceed those in our own country. I regret much +that I have mislaid a most interesting memorandum on this subject, which +I made several years since: but I believe my memory on the point will +not be found widely incorrect. A foreign gentleman, himself possessing +no inconsiderable acquaintance with science, called on me a few years +since, to present a letter of introduction. He had been but a short time +in London; and, in the course of our conversation, it appeared to me +that he had imbibed very inaccurate ideas respecting our encouragement +of science. + +Thinking this a good opportunity of instituting a fair comparison +between the emoluments of science in the two countries, I placed a sheet +of paper before him, and requested him to write down the names of six +Englishmen, in his opinion, best known in France for their scientific +reputation. Taking another sheet of paper, I wrote upon it the names of +six Frenchmen, best known in England for their scientific discoveries. +We exchanged these lists, and I then requested him to place against each +name (as far as he knew) the annual income of the different appointments +held by that person. In the mean time, I performed the same operation on +his list, against some names of which I was obliged to place a ZERO. The +result of the comparison was an average of nearly 1200L. per annum for +the six French SAVANS whom I had named. Of the average amount of the +sums received by the English, I only remember that it was very much +smaller. When we consider what a command over the necessaries and +luxuries of life 1200L. will give in France, it is underrating it to say +it is equal to 2000L. in this country. + +Let us now look at the prospects of a young man at his entrance into +life, who, impelled by an almost irresistible desire to devote himself +to the abstruser sciences, or who, confident in the energy of youthful +power, feels that the career of science is that in which his mental +faculties are most fitted to achieve the reputation for which he pants. +What are his prospects? Can even the glowing pencil of enthusiasm add +colour to the blank before him? There are no situations in the state; +there is no position in society to which hope can point, to cheer him +in his laborious path. If, indeed, he belong to one of our universities, +there are some few chairs in his OWN Alma Mater to which he may at some +distant day pretend; but these are not numerous; and whilst the salaries +attached are seldom sufficient for the sole support of the individual, +they are very rarely enough for that of a family. What then can he reply +to the entreaties of his friends, to betake himself to some business +in which perhaps they have power to assist him, or to choose some +profession in which his talents may produce for him their fair reward? +If he have no fortune, the choice is taken away: he MUST give up that +line of life in which his habits of thought and his ambition qualify +him to succeed eminently, and he MUST choose the bar, or some other +profession, in which, amongst so many competitors, in spite of his great +talents, he can be but moderately successful. The loss to him is +great, but to the country it is greater. We thus, by a destructive +misapplication of talent which our institutions create, exchange a +profound philosopher for but a tolerable lawyer. + +If, on the other hand, he possess some moderate fortune of his own; and, +intent on the glory of an immortal name, yet not blindly ignorant of the +state of science in this country, he resolve to make for that aspiration +a sacrifice the greater, because he is fully aware of its extent;--if, +so circumstanced, he give up a business or a profession on which he +might have entered with advantage, with the hope that, when he shall +have won a station high in the ranks of European science, he may a +little augment his resources by some of those few employments to which +science leads;--if he hope to obtain some situation, (at the Board of +Longitude, for example,) [This body is now dissolved] where he may +be permitted to exercise the talents of a philosopher for the paltry +remuneration of a clerk, he will find that other qualifications than +knowledge and a love of science are necessary for its attainment. He +will also find that the high and independent spirit, which usually +dwells in the breast of those who are deeply versed in these pursuits, +is ill adapted for such appointments; and that even if successful, he +must hear many things he disapproves, and raise no voice AGAINST them. + +Thus, then, it appears that scarcely any man can be expected to pursue +abstract science unless he possess a private fortune, and unless he +can resolve to give up all intention of improving it. Yet, how few thus +situated are likely to undergo the labour of the acquisition; and if +they do from some irresistible impulse, what inducement is there for +them to deviate one step from those inquiries in which they find the +greatest delight, into those which might be more immediately useful to +the public? + + + +CHAPTER III. GENERAL STATE OF LEARNED SOCIETIES IN ENGLAND. + +The progress of knowledge convinced the world that the system of the +division of labour and of cooperation was as applicable to science, as +it had been found available for the improvement of manufactures. The +want of competition in science produced effects similar to those which +the same cause gives birth to in the arts. The cultivators of botany +were the first to feel that the range of knowledge embraced by the Royal +Society was too comprehensive to admit of sufficient attention to their +favourite subject, and they established the Linnean Society. After many +years, a new science arose, and the Geological Society was produced. At +an another and more recent epoch, the friends of astronomy, urged by the +wants of their science, united to establish the Astronomical Society. +Each of these bodies found, that the attention devoted to their science +by the parent establishment was insufficient for their wants, and each +in succession experienced from the Royal Society the most determined +opposition. + +Instituted by the most enlightened philosophers, solely for the +promotion of the natural sciences, that learned body justly conceived +that nothing could be more likely to render these young institutions +permanently successful, than discouragement and opposition at their +commencement. Finding their first attempts so eminently successful, +they redoubled the severity of their persecution, and the result was +commensurate with their exertions, and surpassed even their wildest +anticipations. The Astronomical Society became in six years known and +respected throughout Europe, not from the halo of reputation which +the glory of its vigourous youth had thrown around the weakness of its +declining years; but from the sterling merit of "its unpretending +deeds, from the sympathy it claimed and received from every practical +astronomer, whose labours it relieved, and whose calculations it +lightened." + +But the system which worked so well is now changed, and the Zoological +and Medico-Botanical Societies were established without opposition: +perhaps, indeed, the total failure of the latter society is the best +proof of the wisdom which guided the councils of the Royal. At present, +the various societies exist with no feelings of rivalry or hostility, +each pursuing its separate objects, and all uniting in deploring with +filial regret, the second childhood of their common parent, and the evil +councils by which that sad event has been anticipated. + +It is the custom to attach certain letters to the names of those who +belong to different societies, and these marks of ownership are by +many considered the only valuable part of their purchase on entry. The +following is a list of some of these societies. The second column gives +the ready-money prices of the tail-pieces indicated in the third. + + + SOCIETIES. Fees on Admission Appended + including Composition Letters + for Annual Payments. + + L. s. d. + Royal Society............. 50 0 0 F.R.S. + Royal Society of Edinburgh. 25 4 0* F.R.S.E. + Royal Academy of Dublin... 26 5 0 M.R.I.A. + Royal Society of Literature 36 15 0 F.R.S.Lit. + Antiquarian............... 50 8 0 F.A.S. + Linnean................... 36 0 0 F.L.S. + Geological................ 34 15 0 F.G.S. + Astronomical.............. 25 4 0 M.A.S. + Zoological................ 26 5 0 F.Z.S. + Royal Institution......... 50 0 0 M.R.I. + Royal Asiatic.............. 31 10 0 F.R.A.S. + Horticultural............. 43 6 0 F.H.S. + Medico-Botanical.......... 21 0 0 F.M.B.S. + +[* The Royal Society of Edinburgh now requires, for composition in lieu +of annual contributions, a sum dependent on the value of the life of the +member.] + +Thus, those who are ambitious of scientific distinction, may, according +to their fancy, render their name a kind of comet, carrying with it a +tail of upwards of forty letters, at the average cost of 10L. 9s. 9d. +per letter. + +Perhaps the reader will remark, that science cannot be declining in a +country which supports so many institutions for its cultivation. It is +indeed creditable to us, that the greater part of these societies are +maintained by the voluntary contributions of their members. But, unless +the inquiries which have recently taken place in some of them should +rectify the SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT by which several have been oppressed, +it is not difficult to predict that their duration will be short. Full +PUBLICITY, PRINTED STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS, and occasional DISCUSSIONS +and inquiries at GENERAL MEETINGS, are the only safeguards; and a due +degree of VIGILANCE should be exercised on those who DISCOURAGE these +principles. Of the Royal Society, I shall speak in a succeeding page; +and I regret to add, that I might have said more. My object is to amend +it; but, like all deeply-rooted complaints, the operation which alone +can contribute to its cure, is necessarily painful. Had the words of +remonstrance or reproof found utterance through other channels, I had +gladly been silent, content to support by my vote the reasonings of the +friend of science and of the Society. But this has not been the case, +and after frustrated efforts to introduce improvements, I shall now +endeavour, by the force of plain, but perhaps painful truths, to direct +public opinion in calling for such a reform, as shall rescue the Royal +Society from contempt in our own country, from ridicule in others. + +On the next five societies in the list, I shall offer no remarks. Of the +Geological, I shall say a few words. It possesses all the freshness, the +vigour, and the ardour of youth in the pursuit of a youthful science, +and has succeeded in a most difficult experiment, that of having an oral +discussion on the subject of each paper read at its meetings. To say of +these discussions, that they are very entertaining, is the least part +of the praise which is due to them. They are generally very instructive, +and sometimes bring together isolated facts in the science which, +though insignificant when separate, mutually illustrate each other, +and ultimately lead to important conclusions. The continuance of these +discussions evidently depends on the taste, the temper, and the good +sense of the speakers. The things to be avoided are chiefly verbal +criticisms--praise of each other beyond its reasonable limits, and +contest for victory. This latter is, perhaps, the most important of the +three, both for the interests of the Society and of truth. With regard +to the published volumes of their Transactions, it may be remarked, +that if members were in the habit of communicating their papers to the +Society in a more finished state, it would be attended with several +advantages; amongst others, with that of lightening the heavy duties of +the officers, which are perhaps more laborious in this Society than in +most others. To court publicity in their accounts and proceedings, +and to endeavour to represent all the feelings of the Society in the +Council, and to avoid permanent Presidents, is a recommendation not +peculiarly addressed to this Society, but would contribute to the +well-being of all. + +Of the Astronomical Society, which, from the nature of its pursuits, +could scarcely admit of the discussions similar to those of the +Geological, I shall merely observe, that I know of no secret which has +caused its great success, unless it be attention to the maxims which +have just been stated. + +On the Zoological Society, which affords much rational amusement to the +public, a few hints may at present suffice. The largeness of its income +is a frightful consideration. It is too tempting as the subject for +jobs, and it is too fluctuating and uncertain in its amount, not to +render embarrassment in the affairs of the Society a circumstance likely +to occur, without the greatest circumspection. It is most probable, from +the very recent formation of this Institution, that its Officers and +Council are at present all that its best friends could wish; but it +is still right to mention, that in such a Society, it is essentially +necessary to have men of business on the Council, as well as persons +possessing extensive knowledge of its pursuits. It is more dangerous +in such a Society than in any other, to pay compliments, by placing +gentlemen on the Council who have not the qualifications which are +requisite; a frequent change in the members of the Council is desirable, +in order to find out who are the most regular attendants, and most +qualified to conduct its business. Publicity in its accounts and +proceedings is, from the magnitude of its funds, more essential to the +Zoological than to any other society; and it is rather a fearful omen, +that a check was attempted to be given to such inquiries at the last +anniversary meeting. If it is to be a scientific body, the friends of +science should not for an instant tolerate such attempts. + +It frequently happens, that gentlemen take an active part in more +than one scientific society: in that case, it may be useful to derive +instruction as to their merits, by observing the success of their +measures in other societies. + +The Asiatic Society has, amongst other benefits, caused many valuable +works to be translated, which could not have otherwise been published. + +The Horticultural Society has been ridden almost to death, and is +now rousing itself; but its constitution seems to have been somewhat +impaired. There are hopes of its purgation, and ultimate restoration, +notwithstanding a debt of 19,000L., which the Committee of Inquiry have +ascertained to exist. This, after all, will not be without its advantage +to science, if it puts a stop to HOUSE-LISTS, NAMED BY ONE OR TWO +PERSONS,--to making COMPLIMENTARY councillors,--and to auditing the +accounts WITHOUT EXAMINING EVERY ITEM, or to omitting even that form +altogether. + +The Medico-Botanical Society suddenly claimed the attention of the +public; its pretensions were great--its assurance unbounded. It speedily +became distinguished, not by its publications or discoveries, but by the +number of princes it enrolled in its list. It is needless now to expose +the extent of its short-lived quackery; but the evil deeds of that +institution will long remain in the impression they have contributed +to confirm throughout Europe, of the character of our scientific +establishments. It would be at once a judicious and a dignified course, +if those lovers of science, who have been so grievously deceived in this +Society, were to enrol upon the latest page of its history its highest +claim to public approbation, and by signing its dissolution, offer the +only atonement in their power to the insulted science of their country. +As with a singular inversion of principle, the society contrived to +render EXPULSION* the highest HONOUR it could confer; so it remains +for it to exemplify, in suicide, the sublimest virtue of which it is +capable. [* They expelled from amongst them a gentleman, of whom it is +but slight praise to say, that he is the first and most philosophical +botanist of our own country, and who is admired abroad as he is +respected at home. The circumstance which surprised the world was not +his exit from, but his previous entrance into that Society.] + + + +CHAPTER IV. STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY IN PARTICULAR. + +As the venerable first parent of English, and I might perhaps say, of +European scientific societies; as a body in the welfare of which, in +the opinions of many, the interests of British science are materially +involved, I may be permitted to feel anxiously, and to speak more in +detail. + + + + +SECTION 1. MODE OF BECOMING A FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +I have no intention of stating what ought to be the qualifications of +a Fellow of the Royal Society; but, for years, the practical mode of +arriving at that honour, has been as follows:-- + +A. B. gets any three Fellows to sign a certificate, stating that he +(A. B.) is desirous of becoming a member, and likely to be a useful and +valuable one. This is handed in to the Secretary, and suspended in the +meeting-room. At the end of ten weeks, if A. B. has the good fortune to +be perfectly unknown by any literary or scientific achievement, however +small, he is quite sure of being elected as a matter of course. If, on +the other hand, he has unfortunately written on any subject connected +with science, or is supposed to be acquainted with any branch of it, the +members begin to inquire what he has done to deserve the honour; +and, unless he has powerful friends, he has a fair chance of being +black-balled. [I understand that certificates are now read at the +Council, previously to their being hung up in the meeting-room; but I am +not aware that this has in the slightest degree diminished their number, +which was, at the time of writing this note, TWENTY-FOUR.] + +In fourteen years' experience, the few whom I have seen rejected, +have all been known persons; but even in such cases a hope +remains;--perseverance will do much, and a gentleman who values so +highly the distinction of admission to the Royal Society, may try +again; and even after being twice black-balled, if he will a third time +condescend to express his desire to become a member, he may perhaps +succeed, by the aid of a hard canvass. In such circumstances, the odds +are much in favour of the candidate possessing great scientific claims; +and the only objection that could then reasonably be suggested, would +arise from his estimating rather too highly a distinction which had +become insignificant from its unlimited extension. + +It should be observed, that all members contribute equally, and that +the sum now required is fifty pounds. It used, until lately, to be +ten pounds on entrance, and four pounds annually. The amount of this +subscription is so large, that it is calculated to prevent many men +of real science from entering the Society, and is a very severe tax on +those who do so; for very few indeed of the cultivators of science +rank amongst the wealthy classes. Several times, whilst I have been +consulting books or papers at Somerset House, persons have called to +ask the Assistant-secretary the mode of becoming a member of the Royal +Society. I should conjecture, from some of these applications, that it +is not very unusual for gentlemen in the country to order their agents +in London to take measures for putting them up at the Royal Society. + + + + +SECTION 2. OF THE PRESIDENCY AND VICE-PRESIDENCIES. + +Why Mr. Davies Gilbert became President of the Royal Society I cannot +precisely say. Let him who penned, and those who supported this +resolution solve the enigma: + +"It was Resolved, + +"That it is the opinion of the Council that Davies Gilbert, Esq. is by +far the most fit person to be proposed to the Society at the approaching +anniversary as President, and that he be recommended accordingly." + +To resolve that he was a FIT person might have been sufficiently +flattering: to state that he was the most fit, was a little hard upon +the rest of the Society; but to resolve that he was "BY FAR THE MOST +FIT" was only consistent with that strain of compliment in which his +supporters indulge, and was a eulogy, by no means unique in its kind, I +believe, even at that very Council. + +That Mr. Gilbert is a most amiable and kind-hearted man will be +instantly admitted by all who are, in the least degree, acquainted with +him: that he is fit for the chair of the Royal Society, will be allowed +by few, except those who have committed themselves to the above-quoted +resolution. + +Possessed of knowledge and of fortune more than sufficient for it, he +might have been the restorer of its lustre. He might have called round +him, at the council board, those most actively engaged in the pursuits +of science, most anxious for the improvement of the Royal Society. +Instead of himself proposing resolutions, he might have been, what a +chairman ought to be, the organ of the body over which he presides. By +the firmness of his own conduct he might have taught the subordinate +officers of the Society the duties of their station. Instead of paying +compliments to Ministers, who must have smiled at his simplicity, he +might have maintained the dignity of his Council by the dignity of +knowledge. + +But he has chosen a different path; with no motives of interest +to allure, or of ambition to betray him, instead of making himself +respected as the powerful chief of a united republic,--that of +science,--he has grasped at despotic power, and stands the feeble +occupant of its desolated kingdom, trembling at the force of opinions +he might have directed, and refused even the patronage of their names by +those whose energies he might have commanded. + +Mr. Gilbert told the Society he accepted the situation for a year; and +this circumstance caused a difficulty in finding a Treasurer: an office +which he had long held, and to which he wished to return. + +Another difficulty might have arisen, from the fact of the late Board +of Longitude comprising amongst its Members the PRESIDENT of the Royal +Society, and three of its Fellows, appointed by the President and +Council. Of course, when Mr. Gilbert accepted the higher situation, he +became, EX OFFICIO, a Member of the Board of Longitude; and a vacancy +occurred, which ought to have been filled up by the President and +Council. But when this subject was brought before them, in defiance of +common sense, and the plain meaning of the act of parliament, which had +enacted that the Board of Longitude should have the assistance of four +persons belonging to the Royal Society, Mr. Gilbert refused to allow +it to be filled up, on the ground that he should not be President next +year, and had made no vacancy. + +Next year Mr. Gilbert wished again to be President one other year; but +the Board of Longitude was dissolved, otherwise we might have had some +LOCUM TENENS to retire at Mr. Gilbert's pleasure. + +These circumstances are in themselves of trifling importance, but they +illustrate the character of the proceedings: and it is not becoming +the dignity of science or of the Society that its officers should be so +circumstanced as to have an apparent and direct interest in supporting +the existing President, in order to retain their own places; and if +such a system is once discovered, doubt immediately arises as to the +frequency of such arrangements. + + + + +SECTION 3. OF THE SECRETARISHIPS. + +Whether the present Secretaries are the best qualified to aid in +reforming the Society, is a question I shall not discuss. With regard +to the senior Secretary, the time of his holding office is perhaps more +unfortunate than the circumstance. If I might be permitted to allude +for a moment to his personal character, I should say that the mild +excellencies of his heart have prevented the Royal Society from deriving +the whole of that advantage from his varied knowledge and liberal +sentiments which some might perhaps have anticipated; and many will +agree with me in regretting that his judgment has not directed a larger +portion of the past deeds of the Councils of the Royal Society. Of the +junior Secretary I shall only observe, that whilst I admit his industry, +his perseverance, and his talents, I regret to see such valuable +qualities exerted at a disadvantage, and that I sincerely wish them +all the success they merit in situations more adapted for their +developement. + +There are, however, some general principles which it may be important to +investigate, which relate to the future as well as to the past state of +the office of Secretary of the Royal Society. Inconvenience has already +arisen from having had at a former period one of our Secretaries the +conductor of a scientific journal; and this is one of the points in +which I can agree with those who now manage the affairs of the Society. +[These observations were written previous to the late appointment, to +which I now devote Section 6. Experience seems to be lost on the Council +of the Royal Society.] Perhaps it might be advantageous to extend the +same understanding to the other officers of the Society at least, if not +to the members of its Council. + +Another circumstance worthy of the attention of the Society is, to +consider whether it is desirable, except in special cases, to have +military persons appointed to any of its offices. There are several +peculiarities in the military character, which, though they do not +absolutely unfit their possessors for the individual prosecution of +science, may in some degree disqualify such persons from holding offices +in scientific institutions. The habits both of obedience and command, +which are essential in military life, are little fitted for that perfect +freedom which should reign in the councils of science. If a military +chief commit an oversight or an error, it is necessary, in order to +retain the confidence of those he commands, to conceal or mask it as +much as possible. If an experimentalist make a mistake, his only course +to win the confidence of his fellow-labourers in science, and to render +his future observations of any use, is to acknowledge it in the most +full and explicit manner. The very qualifications which contribute to +the professional excellence of the soldier, constitute his defects when +he enters the paths of science; and it is only in those rare cases where +the force of genius is able to control and surmount these habits, +that his admission to the offices of science can be attended with any +advantage to it. + +Another objection deserving notice, although not applying exclusively to +the military profession, is, that persons not imbued with the feelings +of men of science, when they have published their observations, are too +apt to view every criticism upon them as a personal question, and +to consider that it is as offensive to doubt the accuracy of their +observations as it is to doubt their word. Nothing can be more injurious +to science than that such an opinion should be tolerated. The most +unreserved criticism is necessary for truth; and those suspicions +respecting his own accuracy, which every philosophical experimenter will +entertain concerning his own researches, ought never to be considered as +a reproach, when they are kept in view in examining the experiments of +others. The minute circumstances and apparently trivial causes which +lend their influence towards error, even in persons of the most candid +judgment, are amongst the most curious phenomena of the human mind. + +The importance of affording every aid to enable others to try the merits +of observations, has been so well expressed by Mayer, that I shall +conclude these remarks with an extract from the Preface to his +Observations: + +"Officii enim cujusque observatoris ease reor, de habitu instrumenti +sui, de cura ac precautione, qua usus est, ad illud recte tractandum, +deque mediis in errores ejus inquirendi rationem reddere publice, ut +aliis quoque copia sit judicandi, quanta fides habenda conclusionibus ex +nostris observationibus deductis aut deducendis. Hoc cum minus fecissent +precedentis saeculi astronomi, praxin nimis secure, nimisque theoretice +tractantes, factum inde potissimum est, ut illorum observationes tot +vigiliis tantoque labore comparatae tam cito obsoleverint." P. viii. + +There are certain duties which the Royal Society owes to its own +character as well as to the public, which, having been on some occasions +apparently neglected, it may be here the proper place to mention, +since it is reasonable to suppose that attention to them is within the +province of its Secretaries. + +The first to which I shall allude is the singular circumstances +attending the fact of the Royal Society having printed a volume +of Astronomical Observations which were made at the Observatory of +Paramatta (New South Wales), bearing the title of "The Third Part of the +Philosophical Transactions for the Year 1829." + +Now this Observatory was founded at the private expense of a British +officer; the instruments were paid for out of his purse; two observers +were brought from Europe, to be employed in making use of those +instruments, at salaries defrayed by him. A considerable portion of +the observations so printed were made by these astronomers during their +employment in his service, and some of them are personally his own. Yet +has the Royal Society, in adopting them as part of its Transactions, +omitted all mention, either in their title-page, preface, or in any +part of the volume, of the FACT that the world owed these valuable +observations to the enlightened munificence of Lieutenant-General Sir +Thomas Brisbane; whose ardent zeal in the pursuit of science induced him +to found, at his own private expense, an establishment which it has +been creditable to the British Government to continue as a national +institution. Had any kindred feelings existed in the Council, instead +of endeavouring to shift the responsibility, they would have hastened to +rectify an omission, less unjust to the individual than it was injurious +to English science. + +Another topic, which concerns most vitally the character and integrity +of the Royal Society, I hardly know how to approach. It has been +publicly stated that confidence cannot be placed in the written minutes +of the Society; and an instance has been adduced, in which an entry +has been asserted to have been made, which could not have been the true +statement of what actually passed at the Council. + +The facts on which the specific instance rests are not difficult to +verify by members of the Royal Society. I have examined them, and shall +state them before I enter on the reasoning which may be founded upon +them. In the minutes of the Council, 26th November, 1829, we find-- + +"Resolved, that the following gentlemen be recommended to be put upon +the Council for the ensuing year." [Here follows a list of persons, +amongst whom the name of Sir John Franklin occurs [Sir John Franklin was +absent from London, and altogether unacquainted with this transaction, +until he saw it stated in the newspapers some months after it had +taken place. That his name was the one substituted for that of Captain +Beaufort I know, from other evidence which need not be produced here, as +the omission of the latter name is the charge that has been made.], +and that of Captain Beaufort is not found. [Any gentleman may satisfy +himself that this is not a mistake of the Assistant Secretary's, in +copying, by consulting the rough minutes of that meeting of the Council, +which it might perhaps be as well to write in a rough minute-book, +instead of upon loose sheets of paper; nor can it be attributed to any +error arising from accidentally mislaying the real minutes, for in that +case the error would have been rectified immediately it was detected; +and this has remained uncorrected, although publicly spoken of for +months. As there is no erasure in the list, one is reluctantly +compelled to conjecture that the real minutes of that meeting have been +destroyed.]] + +Now this could not be the list actually recommended by the Council on +the morning of the 26th of November, because the President himself, on +the evening of that day, informed Capt. Beaufort that he was placed on +the house list; and that officer, with the characteristic openness of +his profession, wrote on the next or the following day to the President, +declining that situation, and stating his reasons for the step. + +Upon the fact, therefore, of the suppression of part of a resolution +of the Council, on the 26th of November, there can be no doubt; but +in order to understand the whole nature of the transaction, other +information is necessary. It has been the wish of many members of the +Society, that the President should not absolutely name his own Council, +but that the subject should be discussed fairly at the meeting previous +to the Anniversary--this has always been opposed by Mr. Gilbert, and +those who support him. Now, it has been stated, that, at the meeting +of the Council on the 26th of November, the President took out of his +pocket a bit of paper, from which he read the names of several persons +as fit to be on the Council for the ensuing year;--that it was not +understood that any motion was made, and it is certain that none was +seconded, nor was any ballot taken on such an important question; and +it was a matter of considerable surprise to some of those present, to +discover afterwards that it was entered on the minutes as a resolution. +This statement I have endeavoured to verify, and I believe it to be +substantially correct; if it was a resolution, it was dictated, not +discussed. It is also important to observe, that no similar resolution +stands on the council-books for any previous year. + +On examining the minutes of the succeeding Council, no notice of +the letter of Captain Beaufort to the President is found. Why was it +omitted? If the first entry had been truly made, there would have been +no necessity for the omission; and after the insertion of that letter, +a resolution would naturally have followed, recommending another name +instead of the one withdrawn. Such was the natural and open course; but +this would have exposed to the Society the weakness of those who manage +it. If the rough minutes of each meeting of the Council were read over +before it separated, and were copied previously to the next meeting, +such a substitution could hardly have occurred; but, unfortunately, this +is not the case, and the delay is in some cases considerable. Thus, the +minutes of the three Councils, held on February 4, on February 11, and +on March 11, were not entered on the minute-books of the Council +on Tuesday, the 16th March; nor was this the fault of the +Assistant-secretary, for up to that day the rough minutes of no one of +those Councils had been transmitted to him. + +Deeply as every friend to the Royal Society must regret such an +occurrence, one slight advantage may accrue. Should that resolution be +ever quoted hereafter to prove that the Council of 1829 really discussed +the persons to be recommended as their successors, the detection of +this suppression of one portion of it, will furnish better means of +estimating the confidence due to the whole. + + + + +SECTION 4. OF THE SCIENTIFIC ADVISERS. + +Whether it was feared by the PARTY who govern the Royal Society, +that its Council would not be sufficiently tractable, or whether the +Admiralty determined to render that body completely subservient to them, +or whether both these motives concurred, I know not; but, low as has +been for years its character for independence, and fallen as the Royal +Society is in public estimation, it could scarcely be prepared for +this last insult. In order to inform the public and the Society, (for I +believe the fact is known to few of the members,) it will be necessary +to trace the history of those circumstances which led to the institution +of the offices of Scientific Advisers, from the time of the existence of +the late Board of Longitude. + +That body consisted, according to the act of parliament which +established it, of certain official members, who usually possessed no +knowledge of the subjects it was the duty of the Board to discuss--of +certain professors of the two universities, and the Astronomer Royal, +who had some knowledge, and who were paid 100L. a year for their +attendance;--of three honorary members of the Royal Society, who +combined the qualifications of the two preceding classes; and, lastly, +of "three other persons," named Resident Commissioners, who were +supposed to be "WELL VERSED IN THE SCIENCES OF MATHEMATICS, ASTRONOMY, +OR NAVIGATION," and who were paid a hundred a year to do the work of the +Board. + +The first three classes were permanent members, but the "three other +persons" only held the appointment for ONE YEAR, and were renewable at +the pleasure of the Admiralty. This Board was abolished by another act +of parliament, on the ground that it was useless. Shortly after, the +Secretary of the Admiralty communicated to the Council of the Royal +Society, the copy of an Order in Council: + +ADMIRALTY OFFICE, + +November 1, 1828. + +SIR, I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, to send +herewith, for the information of the President and Council of the Royal +Society, a copy of His Majesty's Order in Council of the 27th of last +month; explaining that the salaries heretofore allowed to the Resident +Commissioners of the Board of Longitude, and to the Superintendents of +the Nautical Almanac, and of Chronometers, shall be continued to them, +notwithstanding the abolition of the Board of Longitude. And I am to +acquaint you, that the necessary orders have been given to the Navy +Board for the payment of the said salaries. + +I am, Sir, + +Your most obedient humble servant, + +JOHN BARROW. + + +AT THE COURT AT WINDSOR, + +27th October, 1828. + +PRESENT, + +The King's most Excellent Majesty in Council, + +Whereas, there was this day read at the Board a Memorial from the Right +Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, dated 4th of this +instant, in the words following, viz.-- + +Whereas, by an Act of the 58th of his late Majesty's reign, cap. 20, +instituted "An Act for the more effectually discovering the Longitude +at sea, and encouraging attempts to find a Northern passage between +the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and to approach the North Pole," +three persons well versed in the sciences of Mathematics, Astronomy, +or Navigation, were appointed as a Resident Committee of the Board +of Commissioners for discovery of the Longitude at sea, and a +Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac and of Chronometers was also +appointed, with such salaries for the execution of those services as +his Majesty might, by any Order in Council, be pleased to direct; and, +whereas, your Majesty was in consequence, by your Order in Council of +the 27th of May, 1828, most graciously pleased to direct, that the three +said Resident Commissioners should be paid at the rate of 100L. a year +each; and by your further Order in Council, of the 31st October, 1818, +that the Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac should be allowed a +salary of 300L., and the Superintendent of Chronometers 100L. a year; +and, whereas, the act above mentioned has been repealed, and the Board +of Longitude abolished; and doubts have therefore arisen, whether the +said Orders in Council shall still continue in force; and whereas it +is expedient that the said appointments be continued; We beg leave most +humbly to submit to your Majesty, that your Majesty may be graciously +pleased, by your Order in Council, to direct that the said offices +of Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, and of Superintendent of +Chronometers; and also the three persons before-mentioned as a Resident +Committee, to advise with the Commissioners for executing the Office +of Lord High Admiral, on all questions of discoveries, inventions, +calculations, and other scientific subjects, be continued, with the same +duties and salaries, and under the same regulations as heretofore; and +further beg most humbly to propose, that such three persons to form +the Resident Committee, be chosen annually by the Commissioners for +executing the office of Lord High Admiral, from among the Council of the +Royal Society. + +His Majesty, having taken the said Memorial into consideration, was +pleased, by and with the advice of his Privy Council, to approve thereof +and the Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty are to +give the necessary directions herein accordingly. + +(Signed) JAMES HILLER. + +Thus, it appeared that the Admiralty were to choose three persons from +among the Council of the Royal Society, who were to have a hundred a +year each during the pleasure of the Admiralty. + +Such an open attack on the independence of the Council could not escape +the remarks of some of the members, and a kind of mild remonstrance was +made, in which the real ground of complaint was omitted. + +MINUTE OF COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. December 18, 1823. + +RESOLVED, That in acknowledging the communication of the Lords +Commissioners of the Admiralty, made to the Council of the Royal +Society, on the 20th of November last, it be represented to them that +inconvenience may arise from the plan therein specified, from the +circumstance of all the members of the Council being annually elected +by the Society at large; and that body being consequently subject to +continual changes from year to year. + +This was answered by the following letter from the Secretary of the +Admiralty: + +ADMIRALTY OFFICE, DEC. 30, 1828. + +SIR, Having submitted to my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty your +Letter of the 18th instant, subjoining an extract from the Minutes of +the proceedings of the Council of the Royal Society, arising out of the +communication made to them by their Lordships, on the subject of his +Majesty's Order in Council, of the fifth of October last, I have their +Lordships' command to acquaint you, for the information of the President +and Council, and with reference to what they have stated as to the +inconvenience which may arise from the intended plan of limiting their +Lordships' choice of members of the Resident Committee of Scientific +Advice to the Council of the Royal Society, that their Lordships were +induced to recommend this plan to his Majesty as a mark of respect to +the Society, and as a pledge to the public of the qualification of the +persons chosen. Nor did their Lordships apprehend any inconvenience from +the circumstance stated in the Minute of the Council, of the Members +being annually elected, as the Resident Committee is also annually +appointed; and, in point of fact, no practical inconvenience has been +felt during the ten years that the Committee has been in existence, +as four of the distinguished gentlemen whom their Lordships have +successively appointed to this office, have continued during the whole +period to be members of the Council; and if any such difficulty or +inconvenience should hereafter arise, their Lordships will be ready to +take proper measures for remedying it. + +Their Lordships' intention therefore is, to propose to Captain Kater and +Mr. Herschel, to continue to fill this office; and to Dr. Young, who had +resigned it, on receiving the appointment of Secretary to the late Board +of Longitude, to be appointed. + +I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, + +JOHN BARROW. + +The representation made by the Council was not calculated to produce +much effect; but the Secretary of the Admiralty, who knew well the stuff +of which Councils of the Royal Society are composed, might have spared +the bitter irony of making their Lordships say, that they recommended +this plan "AS A MARK OF RESPECT TO THE SOCIETY," and "AS A PLEDGE TO +THE PUBLIC OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PERSONS CHOSEN," whilst he +delicately hints to them their dependent situation, by observing, that +the "RESIDENT COMMITTEE IS ALSO ANNUALLY APPOINTED." + +The Secretary knew that, PRACTICALLY speaking, it had been the custom +for years for the President of the Royal Society to nominate the +Council, and consequently he knew that every scientific adviser must +first be indebted to the President for being qualified to advise, and +then to the Admiralty for deriving profit from his counsel. Thus then +their Lordships, as a "MARK OF RESPECT FOR THE SOCIETY" confirm the +dependence of the Council on the President, by making his nomination +a qualification for place, and establish a new dependence of the same +Council on themselves, by giving a hundred pounds each year to such +three members of that Council as they may select. "THE PLEDGE" they +offer "TO THE PUBLIC, OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PERSONS CHOSEN," is, +that Mr. Davies Gilbert had previously thought they would do for his +Council. + +What the Society, when they are acquainted with it, may think of this +mark of respect, or what value the public may put upon this pledge, must +be left to themselves to express. + +In looking over the list of officers and Council of the Royal Society +the weakest perhaps (for purposes of science) which was ever made, a +consolation arises from the possibility of some of those who were placed +there by way of compliment, occasionally attending. In that contracted +field Lord Melville's penetration may not be uselessly employed; and the +soldier who presides over our colonies may judge whether the principles +which pervade it are open and liberal as his own. + +The inconvenience to the public service from such an arrangement is, +that the number out of which the advisers are selected must, in +any case, be very small; and may, from several circumstances, be +considerably reduced. In a council fairly selected, to judge of +the merits of the various subjects likely to be brought under the +consideration of the Society, anatomy, chemistry, and the different +branches of natural history, will share with the numerous departments of +physical science, in claiming to be represented by persons competently +skilled in those subjects. These claims being satisfied, but few places +will be left to fill up with mathematicians, astronomers, and persons +conversant with nautical astronomy. + +Let us look at the present Council. Is there a single mathematician +amongst them, if we except Mr Barlow, whose deservedly high reputation +rests chiefly on his physical and experimental inquiries, and whom the +President and the Admiralty have clearly shown they do not look upon as +a mathematician, by not appointing him an adviser? + +Small as the number of those persons on the Council, who are conversant +with the three subjects named in the Act of Parliament, must usually +be, it may be still further diminished. The President, when he forms +his Council, may decline naming those members who are most fit for such +situations. Or, on the other hand, some of those members who are best +qualified for them, from their knowledge, may decline the honour of +being the nominees of Mr. Gilbert, as Vice Presidents, Treasurers, or +Councillors, and thus lending their names to support a system of which +they disapprove. + +Whether the first of these causes has ever operated can be best +explained by those gentlemen who have been on the Council. The refusals +are, notwithstanding the President's taciturnity on the subject, better +known than he is willing that they should be. + +Having discussed the general policy of the measure, with reference both +to the Society and to the public, and without the slightest reference +to the individuals who may have refused or accepted those situations, I +shall now examine the propriety of the appointments that have been made. + +Doubtless the gentlemen who now hold those situations either have never +considered the influence such a mode of selection would have on the +character of the Council; or, having considered it, they must have +arrived at a different conclusion from mine. There may, however, +be arguments which I have overlooked, and a discussion of them must +ultimately lead to truth: but I confess that it appears to me the +objections which have been stated rest on principles of human nature, +too deeply seated to be easily removed. + +That I am not singular in the view I have taken of this subject, appears +from several circumstances. A question was asked respecting these +appointments at the Anniversary before the last; and, from the nature of +the answer, many of the members of the Society have been led to believe +the objections have been removed. Several Fellows of the Society, who +knew these facts, thought it inexpedient ever to vote for placing any +gentleman on the Council who had accepted these situations; and, +having myself the same view of the case, I applied to the Council to be +informed of the names of the present Scientific Advisers. But although +they remonstrated against the PRINCIPLE, they replied that they had "NO +COGNIZANCE" of the fact. + +The two first members of the Council, Mr. Herschel and Captain +Kater, who were so appointed, and who had previously been Resident +Commissioners under the Act, immediately refused the situations. Dr. +Young became one of the Advisers; and Captain Sabine and Mr. Faraday +were appointed by the Admiralty as the two remaining ones. Of Dr. Young, +who died shortly after, I shall only observe that he possessed knowledge +which qualified him for the situation. + +Whether those who at present fill these offices can be said to belong +to that class of persons which the Order in Council and the Act of +Parliament point out, is a matter on which doubt may reasonably be +entertained. The Order in Council speaks of these three persons as being +the same, and having the "SAME DUTIES" as those mentioned in the Act; +and it recites the words of the Act, that they shall be persons "WELL +VERSED IN THE SCIENCES OF MATHEMATICS ASTRONOMY, AND NAVIGATION." Of +the fitness of the gentlemen who now hold those situations to pronounce +judgment on mathematical questions, the public will be better able to +form an opinion when they shall have communicated to the world any +of their own mathematical inquiries. Although it is the practice to +consider that acceptance of office is alone necessary to qualify a man +for a statesman, a similar doctrine has not yet prevailed in the world +of science. One of these gentlemen, who has established his reputation +as a chemist, stands in the same predicament with respect to the other +two sciences. It remains then to consider Captain Sabine's claims, which +must rest on his skill in "PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY AND NAVIGATION,"--a claim +which can only be allowed when the scientific world are set at rest +respecting the extraordinary nature of those observations contained in +his work on the Pendulum. + +That volume, printed under the authority of the Board of Longitude, +excited at its appearance considerable attention. The circumstance of +the Government providing instruments and means of transport for the +purpose of these inquiries, placed at Captain Sabine's disposal means +superior to those which amateurs can generally afford, whilst the +industry with which he availed himself of these opportunities, enabled +him to bring home multitudes of observations from situations rarely +visited with such instruments, and for such purposes. + +The remarkable agreement with each other, which was found to exist +amongst each class of observations, was as unexpected by those most +conversant with the respective processes, as it was creditable to one +who had devoted but a few years to the subject, and who, in the course +of those voyages, used some of the instruments for the first time in his +life. + +This accordance amongst the results was such, that naval officers of the +greatest experience, confessed themselves unable to take such +lunars; whilst other observers, long versed in the use of the transit +instrument, avowed their inability to take such transits. Those who were +conversant with pendulums, were at a loss how to make, even under more +favourable circumstances, similarly concordant observations. The same +opinion prevailed on the continent as well as in England. On whatever +subject Captain Sabine touched, the observations he published seemed by +their accuracy to leave former observers at a distance. The methods +of using the instruments scarcely differed in any important point from +those before adopted; and, but for a fortunate discovery, which I shall +presently relate, the world must have concluded that Captain Sabine +possessed some keenness of vision, or acuteness of touch, which it would +be hopeless for any to expect to rival. + +The Council of the Royal Society spared no pains to stamp the accuracy +of these observations with their testimony. They seem to have thrust +Captain Sabine's name perpetually on their minutes, and in a manner +which must have been almost distressing: they recommend him in a letter +to the Admiralty, then in another to the Ordnance; and several of +the same persons, in their other capacity, as members of the Board of +Longitude, after voting him a THOUSAND POUNDS for these observations, +are said to have again recommended him to the Master-General of the +Ordnance. That an officer, commencing his scientific career, should be +misled by such praises, was both natural and pardonable; but that the +Council of the Royal Society should adopt their opinion so heedlessly, +and maintain it so pertinaciously, was as cruel to the observer as it +was injurious to the interests of science. + +It might have been imagined that such praises, together with the Copley +medal, presented to Captain Sabine by the Royal Society, and the medal +of Lalande, given to him by the Institute of France, had arisen from +such a complete investigation of his observations, as should place them +beyond the reach even of criticism. But, alas! the Royal Society may +write, and nobody will attend; its medals have lost their lustre; +and even the Institute of France may find that theirs cannot confer +immortality. That learned body is in the habit of making most +interesting and profound reports on any memoirs communicated to it; +nothing escapes the penetration of their committees appointed for such +purposes. Surely, when they enter on the much more important subject +of the award of a medal, unusual pains must be taken with the previous +report, and it might, perhaps, be of some advantage to science, and +might furnish their admirers with arguments in their defence, if they +would publish that on which the decree of their Lalande's medal to +Captain Sabine was founded. + +It is far from necessary to my present object, to state all that has +been written and said respecting these pendulum experiments: I shall +confine myself merely to two points; one, the transit observations, I +shall allude to, because I may perhaps show the kind of feeling that +exists respecting them, and possibly enable Captain Sabine to explain +them. The other point, the error in the estimation of the division of +the level, I shall discuss, because it is an admitted fact. + +Some opinion may be formed of transit observations, by taking the +difference of times of the passage of any star between the several +wires; supposing the distances of those wires equal, the intervals of +time occupied by the star in passing from one to the other, ought to be +precisely the same. As those times of passing from one wire to another +are usually given to seconds and tenths of seconds, it rarely happens +that the accordance is perfect. + +The transit instrument used by Captain Sabine was thirty inches in +length, and the wires are stated to be equi-distant. Out of about 370 +transits, there are eighty-seven, or nearly one-fourth, which have the +intervals between all the wires agreeing to the same, the tenth of +a second. At Sierra Leone, nineteen out of seventy-two have the same +accordance; and of the moon culminating stars, p. 409, twelve out of +twenty-four are equally exact. With larger instruments, and in great +observatories, this is not always the case. + +Captain Kater has given, in the Philosophical Transactions, 1819, p. +427, a series of transits, with a three and a half foot transit, in +which about one-eleventh part of them only have this degree of accuracy; +and it should be observed that not merely the instrument, but the stars +selected, have, in this instance, an advantage over Captain Sabine's. + +The transit of M. Bessel is five feet in length, made by Frauenhofer, +and the magnifying power employed is 182; yet, out of some observations +of his in January, 1826, only one-eleventh have this degree of +accordance. In thirty-three of the Greenwich observations of January, +1828, fifteen have this agreement, or five-elevenths; but this is with +a ten-feet transit. Now in none of these instances do the times agree +within a tenth of a second between all the wires; but I have accounted +those as agreeing in all the wires in which there is not more than +four-tenths of a second between the greatest and least. + +This superior accuracy of the small instrument requires some +explanation. One which has been suggested is, that Captain Sabine +employs a chronometer to observe transits with; and that since it beats +five times in two seconds, each beat will give four-tenths of a second; +and this being the smallest quantity registered, the agreement becomes +more probable than if tenths were the smallest quantities noticed. In +general, the larger the lowest unity employed the greater will be the +apparent agreement amongst the differences. Thus, if, in the transit of +stars near the pole, the times of passing the wires were only registered +to the nearest minute, the intervals would almost certainly be equal. +There is another circumstance, about which there is some difficulty. It +is understood that the same instrument,--the thirty-inch transit, was +employed by Lieutenant Foster; and it has not been stated that the wires +were changed, although this has most probably been the case. Now, in the +transits which the later observer has given, he has found it necessary +to correct for a considerable inequality between the first and second +wires (See Phil. Trans. 1827). If an erroneous impression has gone +abroad on this subject, it is doing a service to science to insure its +correction, by drawing attention to it. + +Should these observations be confirmed by other observers, it would seem +to follow that the use of a chronometer renders a transit more exact, +and therefore that it ought to be used in observatories. + +Among the instruments employed by Captain Sabine, was a repeating circle +of six inches diameter, made by order of the Board of Longitude, for the +express purpose of ascertaining how far repeating instruments might be +diminished in size:--a most important subject, on which the Board seem +to have entertained a very commendable degree of anxiety. + +The following extract from the "Pendulum Experiments" is important: + +"The repeating circle was made by the direction, and at the expense of +the Board of Longitude, for the purpose of exemplifying the principle +of repetition when applied to a circle of so small a diameter as six +inches, carrying a telescope of seven inches focal length, and one inch +aperture; and of practically ascertaining the degree of accuracy which +might be retained, whilst the portability of the instrument should be +increased, by a reduction in the size to half the amount which had been +previously regarded by the most eminent artists as the extreme limit +of diminution to which repeating circles, designed for astronomical +purposes, ought to be carried. + +"The practical value of the six-inch repeating circle may be estimated, +by comparing the differences of the partial results from the mean at +each station, with the correspondence of any similar collection of +observations made with a circle, on the original construction, and of +large dimensions; such, for instance, as the latitudes of the stations +of the French are, recorded in the Base du Systeme Metrique: when, if +due allowance be made for the extensive experience and great skill of +the distinguished persons who conducted the French observations, the +comparison will scarcely appear to the disadvantage of the smaller +circle, even if extended generally through all the stations of the +present volume; but if it be particularly directed to Maranham and +Spitzbergen,--at which stations the partial results were more numerous +than elsewhere, and obtained with especial regard to every circumstance +by which their accuracy might be affected, the performance of the +six-inch circle will appear fully equal to that of circles of the larger +dimension. The comparison with the two stations, at which a more than +usual attention was bestowed, is the more appropriate, because it was +essential to the purposes for which the latitudes of the French stations +were required, that the observations should always be conducted with the +utmost possible regard to accuracy. + +"It would appear, therefore, that in a repeating circle of six inches, +the disadvantages of a smaller image enabling a less precise contact +or bisection, and of an arch of less radius admitting of a less minute +subdivision, may be compensated by the principle of repetition." + +Captain Sabine has pointed out Maranham and Spitzbergen as places most +favourable to the comparison. Let us take the former of these places, +and compare the observations made there with the small repeating +instrument of six inches diameter, with those made by the French +astronomers at Formentera, with a repeating circle of forty-one +centi-metres, or about sixteen inches in diameter, made by Fortin. It +is singular that this instrument was directed, by the French Board +of Longitude, to be made expressly for this survey, and the French +astronomers paid particular attention to it, from the circumstance +of some doubts having been entertained respecting the value of the +principle of repetition. + +The following series of observations were made with the two instruments. +[I have chosen the inferior meridian altitude of Polaris, merely because +the number of sets of observations are rather fewer. The difference +between the extremes of the altitude of Polaris, deduced from sets taken +above the pole by the same observers, amounts to seven seconds and a +half.] + +Latitude deduced from Polaris, with a repeating circle, 16 inches +diameter.--BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE, tom. iv. p. 376. 1807. + + Number of Latitude Names of Observers. + Observations. of Formentera. + + deg. min. sec. + 64 38 39 55.3 Biot + 100 54.7 Arago + 10 56.2 Biot + 88 56.9 Biot + 120 56.7 Arago + 84 54.9 Biot + 100 56.5 Arago + 102 57.1 Arago + 80 54.5 Biot + 88 53.3 Arago + 90 53.6 Arago + 88 53.8 Arago + 92 53.7 Arago + 42 55.6 Chaix + 90 54.1 Chaix + 80 53.9 Arago + + Mean of 1318 Observations, 38deg. 39min. 54.93sec. + + + +Sets of Observations made with a six-inch repeating circle, at Maranham. + + Star. Number of Latitude Observer. + Observations. deduced. + + deg. min. sec. + alpha Lyrae 8 2 31 42.4 Capt. Sabine + alpha Lyrae 12 43.8 Ditto + alpha Pavonis 10 44.5 Ditto + alpha Lyrae 12 44.6 Ditto + alpha Cygni 12 42.1 Ditto + alpha Gruris 12 42.2 Ditto + + Mean latitude deduced from 66 observations 2deg. 31min 43.3sec. + + +In comparing these results, although the French observations were more +than twenty times as numerous as the English, yet the deviations of the +individual sets from the mean are greater. One second and three-tenths +is the greatest deviation from the mean of the Maranham observations; +whilst the greatest deviation of those of Formentera, is two seconds +and two-tenths. If this mode of comparison should be thought unfair, on +account of the greater number of the sets in the French observations, +let any six, in succession, of those sets be taken, and compared with +the six English sets; and it will be found that in no one instance is +the greatest deviation from the mean of the whole of the observations +less than in those of Maranham. It must also be borne in mind, that +by the latitude deduced by the mean of 1250 superior culminations of +Polaris by the same observers, the latitude of Formentera was found to +be 38deg. 39min 57.07sec., a result differing by 2.14sec. from the mean +of the 1318 inferior culminations given above. [This difference cannot +be accounted for by any difference in the tables of refraction, as +neither the employment of those of Bradley, of Piazzi, of the French, of +Groombridge, of Young, of Ivory, of Bessel, or of Carlini, would make a +difference of two-tenths of a second.] + +These facts alone ought to have awakened the attention of Captain +Sabine, and of those who examined and officially pronounced on the +merits of his observations; for, supposing the skill of the observers +equal, it seems a necessary consequence that "the performance of the +six-inch circle is" not merely "fully equal to that of circles of larger +dimensions," but that it is decidedly SUPERIOR to one of sixteen inches +in diameter. + +This opinion did indeed gain ground for a time; but, fortunately for +astronomy, long after these observations were made, published, and +rewarded, Captain Kater, having borrowed the same instrument, discovered +that the divisions of its level, which Captain Sabine had considered to +be equal to one second each, were, in fact, more nearly equal to eleven +seconds, each one being 10.9sec. This circumstance rendered necessary +a recalculation of all the observations made with that instrument: a +re-calculation which I am not aware Captain Sabine has ever thought it +necessary to publish. [Above two hundred sets of observations with this +instrument are given in the work alluded to. It can never be esteemed +satisfactory merely to state the mean results of the corrections arising +from this error: for the confidence to be attached to that mean will +depend on the nature of the deviations from it.] + +This is the more to be regretted, as it bears upon a point of +considerable importance to navigation; and if it should have caused +any alteration in his opinion as to the comparative merits of great and +small instruments, it might have been expected from a gentleman, who was +expressly directed by the Board of Longitude, to try the question with +an instrument constructed for that especial purpose. + +Finding that this has not been done by the person best qualified for +the task, perhaps a few remarks from one who has no pretensions to +familiarity with the instrument, may tend towards elucidating this +interesting question. + +The following table gives the latitudes as corrected for the error of +level: + + Station. Star Latitude Latitude Diffe- + by Capt. corrected for rence + Sabine error of level. + + deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec. sec. + + Sierra Leone Sirius 8 29 27.9 8 29 34.7 6.8 + + Ascension Alph.Centuri 7 55 46.7 7 55 40.1 6.6 + + Bahia Alph.Lyrae 12 59 19.4 12 59 21.4 2.0 + Alph.Lyrae 21.2 58 49.8 31.4 + Alph.Pavonis 22.4 59 5.1 17.3 + + Maranham Alph.Lyrae 2 31 42.4 2 31 22 20.4 + Alph.Lyrae 43.8 31.8 12.0 + Alph.Pavonis 44.5 44 .5 + Alph.Lyrae 44.6 42.6 2.0 + Alph.Cygni 42.1 39.2 2.9 + Alph.Gruris 42.2 27.4 14.8 + + Trinidad Achernar 10 38 56.1 10 38 58.2 2.1 + Alph.Gruris 52.2 50.8 1.4 + Achernar 59.3 56.6 2.7 + + Jamaica Polaris 17 56 8.6 17 56 4.6 4.0 + 6.6 3.3 3.3 + + New York Sun 40 42 40.1 40 42 44.6 4.5 + Polaris 48.9 38.2 10.7 + Sun 41.4 47.2 5.8 + Beta Urs.Min. 42.3 58.4 16.1 + + Hammerfest Sun 70 40 5.3 70 40 7.2 1.9 + + Spitzbergen Sun 79 49 56.1 79 49 58.6 2.5 + Sun 55.9 44.8 11.1 + Sun 58.6 52.7 5.9 + Sun 59.3 51.6 7.7 + Sun 55.8 51.6 4.2 + Sun 50 1.5 57.0 4.5 + + Greenland Sun 74 32 19.9 74 32 32.4 12.4 + Sun 17.9 18.7 0.8 + + Drontheim Sun 63 25 51.3 63 26 6.1 14.8 + Alph.Urs.Min. 57.2 49.4 7.8 + + +This presents a very different view of the latitudes as determined by +the small repeating circle, from that in Captain Sabine's book; and +confining ourselves still to Maranham, where the latitudes "WERE +OBTAINED, WITH ESPECIAL REGARD TO EVERY CIRCUMSTANCE BY WHICH THEIR +ACCURACY MIGHT BE AFFECTED," and where "A MORE THAN USUAL ATTENTION +WAS BESTOWED," it appears, that if we take Captain Sabine's own test, +namely, "the differences of the partial results from the mean at each +station," the deviations become nearly ten times as large as they were +before; a circumstance which might be expected to have some influence in +the decision of the question. + +There is, however, another light in which it is impossible to avoid +looking at this singular oversight. The second column of the table of +latitudes must now be considered the true one, as that which really +resulted from the observations. Now, on examining the column of true +latitudes, the differences between the different sets of observations is +so considerable as naturally to excite some fear of latent error, more +especially as nearly the greatest discordance arises from the same star, +Alph.Lyrae, observed after an interval of only three days. It becomes +interesting to every person engaged in making astronomical observations, +to know what is the probability of his being exposed to an error so +little to be guarded against, and so calculated to lull the suspicions +of the unfortunate astronomer to whom it may happen. + +In fact, the question resolves itself into this: the true latitude of +a place being determined by sets of observations as in the first of the +following columns-- + + Latitudes as + True latitudes observed. computed by a mistake + of Capt. Sabine's. + + deg.min.sec. deg.min.sec. + Alph.Lyrae, 28th Aug.... 2 31 22.0 2 31 42.4 + Alph.Lyrae, 29th Aug.... 31.8 43.8 + Alph.Pavonis, 29th Aug... 44,0 44.5 + Alph.Lyrae, 31st Aug.... 42.6 44.6 + Alph.Cygni, 31st Aug.... 39.2 42.0 + Alph.Gruris, 2d Sept.... 27.4 42.2 + +what are the chances that, by one error all the latitudes in the first +column should be brought so nearly to an agreement as they are in the +second column? The circumstance of the number of divisions of the +level being almost arbitrary within limits, might perhaps be alleged as +diminishing this extraordinary improbability: but let any one consider, +if he choose the error of each set, as independent of the others, still +he will find the odds against it enormous. + +When it is considered that an error, almost arbitrary in its law, has +thus had the effect of bringing discordant observations into an almost +unprecedented accordance, as at Maranham; and not merely so, but that +at eight of the nine stations it has uniformly tended to diminish the +differences between the partial results, and that at the ninth station +it only increased it by a small fraction of a second, I cannot help +feeling that it is more probable even that Captain Kater, with all his +admitted skill, and that Captain Sabine himself, should have been both +mistaken in their measures of the divisions of the level, than that so +singular an effect should have been produced by one error; and I cannot +bring myself to believe that such an anticipation is entirely without +foundation. + +Whatever may be the result of a re-examination, it was a singular +oversight NOT TO MEASURE the divisions of a level intended to be used +for determining so important a question; more particularly as, in the +very work to which reference was made by Captain Sabine for the purpose +of comparing the observations, it was the very first circumstance which +occupied the French philosophers, and several pages [See pages 265 +to 275 of the RECUEIL D'OBSERVATIONS GEODESIQUES, &c. PAR MM. BIOT ET +ARAGO, which forms the fourth volume of the BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE.] +are filled with the details relative to the determination of the value +of the divisions of the level. It would also have been satisfactory, +with such an important object in view, to have read off some of the sets +after each pair of observations, in order to see how far the system of +repetition made the results gradually converge to a limit, and in order +to know how many repetitions were sufficient. Such a course would almost +certainly have led to a knowledge of the true value of the divisions of +the level; for the differences in the altitude of the same star, after a +few minutes of time, must, in many instances, have been far too great to +have arisen from the change of its altitude: and had these been noticed, +they must have been referred to some error in the instrument, which +could scarcely, in such circumstances, have escaped detection. + +I have now mentioned a few of the difficulties which attend Captain +Sabine's book on the pendulum, difficulties which I am far from saying +are inexplicable. He would be bold indeed who, after so wonderful an +instance of the effect of chance as I have been just discussing, should +venture to pronounce another such accident impossible; but I think +enough has been said to show, that the feeling which so generally +prevails relative to it, is neither captious nor unreasonable. + +Enough also has appeared to prove, that the conduct of the Admiralty in +appointing that gentleman one of their scientific advisers, was, under +the peculiar circumstances, at least, unadvised. They have thus lent, as +far as they could, the weight of their authority to support observations +which are now found to be erroneous. They have thus held up for +imitation observations which may induce hundreds of meritorious officers +to throw aside their instruments, in the despair of ever approaching a +standard which is since admitted to be imaginary; and they have ratified +the doctrine, for I am not aware their official adviser has ever +even modified it, that diminutive instruments are equal almost to the +largest. + +To what extent this doctrine is correct, may perhaps yet admit of doubt. +It cannot, however, admit of a doubt, that it is unwise to crown it with +official authority, and thus expose the officers of their service to +depend on means which may be quite insufficient for their purpose. + +How the Board of Longitude, after EXPRESSLY DIRECTING THIS INSTRUMENT +TO BE MADE AND TRIED, could come to the decision at which they arrived, +appears inexplicable. The known difference of opinion amongst the best +observers respecting the repeating principle, ought to have rendered +them peculiarly cautious, nor ought the opinion of a Troughton, that +instruments of less than one foot in diameter may be considered, +"FOR ASTRONOMY, AS LITTLE BETTER THAN PLAYTHINGS," [Memoirs of the +Astronomical Society, Vol.I. p.53.] to have been rejected without the +most carefully detailed experiments. There were amongst that body, +persons who must have examined minutely the work on the Pendulum. +Captain Kater must have felt those difficulties in the perusal of it +which other observers have experienced; and he who was placed in the +Board of Longitude especially for his knowledge of instruments, might, +in a few hours, have arrived at more decisive facts. But perhaps I am +unjust. Captain Kater's knowledge rendered it impossible for him to have +been ignorant of the difficulties, and his candour would have prevented +him from concealing them: he must, therefore, after examining the +subject, have been outvoted by his lay-brethren who had dispensed with +that preliminary. + +It would be unjust, before quitting this subject, not to mention with +respect the acknowledgment made by an officer of the naval service of +the errors into which he also fell from this same level. Lieutenant +Foster, aware of the many occasions on which Captain Sabine had employed +this instrument, and knowing that he considered each division as equal +to one second, never thought that a doubt could exist on the subject, +and made all his calculations accordingly. When Captain Kater made him +acquainted with the mistake, Lieutenant Foster immediately communicated +a paper [The paper of Lieutenant Foster is printed in the Philosophical +Transactions, 1827, p.122, and is worth consulting.] to the Royal +Society, in which he states the circumstance most fully, and recomputed +all the observations in which that instrument was used. Unfortunately, +from the original observations of Mr. Ross being left on board the Fury +at the time of her loss, the transcripts of his results could not be +recomputed like the rest, and were consequently useless. + + + + +SECTION 5. OF THE UNION OF SEVERAL OFFICES IN ONE PERSON. + +Although the number of situations to which persons conversant with +science may hope to be appointed, is small, yet it has somewhat +singularly happened, that instances of one individual, holding more than +one such appointment, are frequent. Not to speak of those held by the +late Dr. Young, we have at present:-- + +MR. POND--Astronomer Royal, Inspector of Chronometers, and +Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. + +CAPTAIN SABINE--An officer of artillery on leave of absence from his +regiment; Secretary of the Royal Society; and Scientific Adviser of the +Admiralty. + +MR. BRANDE--Clerk of the Irons at the Royal Mint; Professor of Chemistry +at the Royal Institution; Analyser of Rough Nitre, &c. to the East-India +Company; Lecturer on Materia Medica, Apothecaries' Hall; Superintending +Chemical Operator at ditto; Lecturer on Chemistry at ditto; Editor +of the Royal Institution Journal; and Foreign Secretary to the Royal +Society. + +One should be led to imagine, from these unions of scientific offices, +either that science is too little paid, and that gentlemen cannot be +found to execute the offices separately at the salaries offered; +or else, that it is too well paid, since each requires such little +attention, that almost any number can be executed by one person. + +The Director of the Royal Observatory has a larger and better collection +of instruments, and more assistants to superintend, than any other +astronomer in the world; and, to do it properly, would require the +almost undivided attention of a man in the vigour of youth. Nor would +a superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, if he made a point of being +acquainted with every thing connected with his subject, find his +situation at all a sinecure. Slight as are the duties of the Foreign +Secretary of the Royal Society, it might have been supposed that Mr. +Brande would scarcely, amongst his multifarious avocations, have found +time even for them. But it may be a consolation to him to know, that +from the progress the Society is making, those duties must become +shortly, if they are not already, almost extinct. + +Doubtless the President, in making that appointment, looked most +anxiously over the list of the Royal Society. He doubtless knew that the +Academics of Sweden, of Denmark, of Scotland, of Prussia, of +Hanover, and of France, derived honour from the discoveries of their +Secretaries;--that they prided themselves in the names of Berzelius, of +Oersted, of Brewster, of Encke, of Gauss, and of Cuvier. Doubtless the +President must have been ambitious that England should contribute to +this galaxy of glory, that the Royal Society should restore the lost +Pleiad [Pleiades, an assemblage of seven stars in the neck of the +constellation Taurus. There are now only six of them visible to the +naked eye.--HUTTON'S DICTIONARY--Art. Pleiades.] to the admiring science +of Europe. But he could discover no kindred name amongst the ranks of +his supporters, and forgot, for a moment, the interest of the Society, +in an amiable consideration for the feelings of his surrounding friends. +For had the President chosen a brighter star, the lustre of his other +officers might have been overpowered by its splendour: but relieved +from the pain of such a contrast, he may still retain the hope, that, +by their united brightness, these suns of his little system shall yet +afford sufficient light to be together visible to distant nations, as a +faint NEBULA in the obscure horizon of English science. + + + + +SECTION 6. OF THE FUNDS OF THE SOCIETY. + +Although the Society is not in a state approaching to poverty, it may be +useful to offer a few remarks respecting the distribution of its money. + +EXPENSE OF ENGRAVINGS FOR SIR E. HOME'S PAPERS.--The great expense +of the engravings which adorn the volumes of the Philosophical +Transactions, is not sufficiently known. That many of those engravings +are quite essential for the papers they illustrate, and that those +papers are fit for the Transactions, I do not doubt; but, some inquiry +is necessary, when such large sums are expended. I shall endeavour, +therefore, to approximate to the sum these engravings have cost the +Royal Society. + +Previous to 1810, there are upwards of seventy plates to papers of +Sir E. Home's; in many of these, which I have purposely separated, the +workmanship is not so minute as in the succeeding ones. Since 1810, +there have occurred 187 plates attached to papers of the same author. +Many of these have cost from twelve to twenty guineas each plate; but +I shall take five pounds as the average cost of the first portion, and +twelve as that of the latter. This would produce, + + 70 X 5 = 350 + 187 X 12 = 2244 + ...... -----...... L2594 + +As this is only proposed as a rough approximation, let us omit the odd +hundreds, and we have two thousand pounds expended in plates only on ONE +branch of science, and for one person! Without calling in question +the importance of the discoveries contained in those papers, it may be +permitted to doubt whether such a large sum might not have been expended +in a manner more beneficial to science. Not being myself conversant with +those subjects, I can only form an opinion of the value from extraneous +circumstances. Had their importance been at all equal to their number, +I should have expected to have heard amongst the learned of other +countries much more frequent mention of them than I have done, and even +the Council of the Royal Society would scarcely have excluded from +their Transactions one of those productions which they had paid for as a +lecture. + +It might also have been more delicate not to have placed on the Council +so repeatedly a gentleman, for whose engravings they were annually +expending, during the last twenty years, about an hundred pounds. On +the other hand, when the Council lent Sir E. Home the whole of +those valuable plates to take off impressions for his large work on +Comparative Anatomy, of which they constitute almost the whole, it might +have been as well not to have obliterated from each plate all indication +of the source to which he was indebted for them. + + +THE PRESIDENT'S DISCOURSES.--I shall mention this circumstance, because +it fell under my own observation. + +Observing in the annual accounts a charge of 381L 5s. for the +President's Speeches, I thought it right to inquire into the nature +of this item. Happening to be on the Council the next year, I took an +opportunity, at an early meeting of that Council, to ask publicly for +an explanation of the following resolution, which stands in the +Council-books for Dec. 21, 1828. + +"Resolved, That 500 copies of the President's Discourses, about to be +printed by Mr. Murray, be purchased by the Society, at the usual trade +price." + +The answer given to that question was, "THAT THE COUNCIL HAD AGREED TO +PURCHASE THESE VOLUMES AT THAT PRICE, IN ORDER TO INDUCE MR. MURRAY TO +PRINT THE PRESIDENT'S SPEECHES." + +I remarked at the time that such an answer was quite unsatisfactory, as +the following statement will prove. + +The volume consists of 160 pages, or twenty sheets, and the following +prices are very liberal: + + L s. d. + To composing and printing twenty sheets, at + 3L. per sheet............... 60 0 0 + Twenty reams of paper, at 3L. per ream..... 60 0 0 + Corrections, alterations, &c.......... 30 0 0 + + Total cost of 500 copies...... 150 0 0 + +Now upon the subject of the expense of printing, the Council could not +plead ignorance. The Society are engaged in printing, and in paying +printers' bills, too frequently to admit of such an excuse; and several +of the individual members must have known, from their own private +experience, that the cost of printing such a volume was widely different +from that they were about to pay, as an inducement to a bookseller to +print it on his own account. Here, then, was a sum of above two hundred +pounds beyond what was necessary for the object, taken from the funds +of the Royal Society; and for what purpose? Did the President and his +officers ever condescend to explain this transaction to the Council; +or were they expected, as a matter of course, to sanction any thing +proposed to them? Could they have been so weak, or so obedient, as to +order the payment of above three hundred and eighty pounds, to induce a +bookseller to do what they might have done themselves for less than half +the sum? Or did they wish to make Mr. Murray a present of two hundred +pounds? If so, he must have had powerful friends in the Council, and it +is fit the Society should know who they were; for they were not friends, +either to its interests or to its honour. + +The copies, so purchased, were ordered by the Council to be sold to +members of the Society at 15s. each: (the trade price is 15s. 3d.) and +out of the five hundred copies twenty-seven only have been sold: the +remainder encumber our shelves. Thus, after four years, the Society are +still losers of three hundred and sixty Pounds on this transaction. + + +ON THE CONVERSION OF THE GREENWICH OBSERVATIONS INTO +PASTEBOARD.--Although the printing of these observations is not paid for +out of the funds of the Royal Society, yet as the Council of that body +are the visitors of the Royal Observatory, it may not be misplaced to +introduce the subject here. + +Some years since, a member of the Royal Society accidentally learned, +that there was, at an old store-shop in Thames Street, a large quantity +of the volumes of the Greenwich Observations on sale as waste paper. On +making inquiry, he ascertained that there were two tons and a half to be +disposed of, and that an equal quantity had already been sold, for the +purpose of converting it into pasteboard. The vendor said he could get +fourpence a pound for the whole, and that it made capital Bristol board. +The fact was mentioned by a member of the Council of the Royal Society, +and they thought it necessary to inquire into the circumstances. + +Now, the Observations made at the Royal Observatory are printed with +every regard to typographical luxury, with large margins, on thick +paper, hotpressed, and with no sort of regard to economy. This +magnificence is advocated by some who maintain, that the volumes ought +to be worthy of a great nation; whilst others, seeing how little that +nation spends on science, regret that the sums allotted to it should not +be applied with the strictest economy. If the Astronomer Royal really +has a right to these volumes, printed by the government at a large +expense, it is, perhaps, the most extravagant mode which was ever +yet invented of paying a public servant. When that right was given to +him,--let us suppose somebody had suggested the impolicy of it, lest he +should sell the costly volumes for waste paper,--who would have listened +for one moment to such a supposition? He would have been told that +it was impossible to suppose a person in that high and responsible +situation, could be so indifferent to his own reputation. + +A short time since, I applied to the President and Council of the Royal +Society, for copies of the Greenwich Observations, which were necessary +for an inquiry on which I was at that time engaged. Being naturally +anxious to economize the small funds I can devote to science, the +request appeared to me a reasonable one. It was, however, refused; and +I was at the same time informed that the Observations could be purchased +at the bookseller's. [This was a mistake; Mr. Murray has not copies +of the Greenwich Observations prior to 1823.] When I consider that +practical astronomy has not occupied a very prominent place in my +pursuits, I feel disposed, on that ground, to acquiesce in the propriety +of the refusal. This excuse can, however, be of no avail for similar +refusals to other gentlemen, who applied nearly at the same time with +myself, and whose time had been successfully devoted to the cultivation +of that science. [M. Bessel, at the wish of the Royal Academy of Berlin, +projected a plan for making a very extensive map of the heavens. Too +vast for any individual to attempt, it was proposed that a portion +should be executed by the astronomers of various countries, and +invitations to this effect were widely circulated. One only of the +divisions of this map was applied for by any English astronomer; and, +after completing the portion of the map assigned to him, he undertook +another, which had remained unprovided for. This gentleman, the Rev. +Mr. Hussey, was one of the rejected applicants for the Greenwich +Observations.] + +There was, however, another ground on which I had weakly anticipated a +different result;--but those who occupy official situations, rendered +remarkable by the illustrious names of their predecessors, are placed +in no enviable station; and, if their own acquirements are confessedly +insufficient to keep up the high authority of their office, they +must submit to the mortifications of their false position. I am sure, +therefore, that the President and officers of the Royal Society must +have sympathized MOST DEEPLY with me, when they felt it their duty to +propose that the Society over which Newton once presided, should refuse +so trifling an assistance to the unworthy possessor of the chair he once +filled. + +In reply to my application to the President and Council, to be allowed a +copy of the Greenwich Observations, I was informed that, "The number of +copies placed by government at the disposal of the Royal Society, was +insufficient to supply the demands made on them by various learned +bodies in Europe; and, consequently, they were unable, however great +their inclination, to satisfy the wishes of individual applicants." +Now I have spent some time in searching the numerous proceedings in the +council-books of the Royal Society, and I believe the following is the +real state of the case:-- + +In 1785, Lord Sidney, one of His Majesty's principal Secretaries of +State, wrote to the Council a letter, dated Whitehall, March 8, 1785, +from which the following is extracted:-- + +"The King has been pleased to consent, that any copies of the +Astronomical Observations, made at the Observatory of Greenwich, (and +paid for by the Board of Ordnance, pursuant to His Majesty's command, +of July 21, 1767,) which may at any time remain in the hands of the +printer, shall, after you have reserved such copies as you may +think proper as presents, be given to the said Nevil Maskelyne, in +consideration of his trouble in the superintending the printing thereof. +I am to signify His Majesty's pleasure, that you do, from time to time, +give the necessary orders for that purpose, until His Majesty's further +commands shall be communicated to you. + +Soon after this letter, I find on the council-books:-- + +"Ordered, That sixty copies of the Greenwich Observations, last +published, be retained as presents, and that the rest be delivered to +the Astronomer Royal." + +It is difficult to be sure of a negative fact, but in searching many +volumes of the Proceedings of the Council, I have not discovered any +revocation of this order, and I believe none exists. This is confirmed +by the circumstance of the Council at the present day receiving +precisely the same number of copies as their predecessors, and I believe +that in fact they do not know the authority on which the right to those +sixty rests. + +Supposing this order unrevoked, it was clearly meant to be left to the +discretion of the Council, to order such a number to be reserved, "from +time to time," as the demands of science might require. When, therefore, +they found that the number of sixty copies was insufficient, they ought +to have directed the printer to send them a larger number; but when they +found out the purpose to which the Astronomer Royal applied them, they +ought immediately to have ordered nearly the whole impression, in order +to prevent this destruction of public property. If, on the other hand, +the above order is revoked, and we really have no right to more than +sixty copies; then, on discovering the Observations in their progress +towards pasteboard, it was the duty of the Council of the Royal Society, +as visitors of the Royal Observatory, immediately to have represented to +Government the evil of the arrangement, and to have suggested, that if +the Astronomer Royal have the right, it would be expedient to commute it +for a liberal compensation. + +Whichever be the true view of the case, they have taken no steps on the +subject; and I cannot help expressing my belief, that the President and +Council were induced to be thus negligent of the interests of science, +from the fear of interfering with the perquisites of the Astronomer +Royal. + +It is, however, but justice to observe, that the injury already done to +science, by the conversion of these Observations into pasteboard, is not +so great as the public might have feared. Mr. Pond, than whom no one can +be supposed better acquainted with their value, and whose right to +judge no man can question, has shown his own opinion to be, that his +reputation will be best consulted by diminishing the extent of their +circulation. + +Before I quit the subject of the Royal Observatory, on which much might +be said, I will just refer to the report by a Committee of the Royal +Society that was made relative to it, some years since, and which, it is +imagined, is a subject by no means grateful to the memory of any of +the parties concerned in it. My object is to ascertain, whether any +amendments have taken place in consequence. To one fact of considerable +importance, I was myself a witness, when I was present officially at a +visitation. At that time, no original observations made at the transit +instrument were ever preserved. Had I not been an eye witness of the +process of an observation, I should not have credited the fact. + + + + +SECTION 7. OF THE ROYAL MEDALS. + +At a period when the attention of Government to science had not +undergone any marked change, a most unexpected occurrence took place. +His Majesty intimated to the Royal Society, through his Secretary of +State, his intention to found two gold medals, of the value of fifty +guineas each, to be awarded annually by the Council of the Royal +Society, according to the rules they were desired to frame for that +purpose. + +The following is the copy of Mr. Peel's letter:-- + +WHITEHALL, December 3d, 1825. + +SIR, + +I am commanded by the King to acquaint you, that His Majesty proposes to +found two gold medals, of the value of fifty guineas each, to be awarded +as honorary premiums, under the direction of the President and Council +of the Royal Society, in such a manner as shall, by the excitement of +competition among men of science, seem best calculated to promote the +object for which the Royal Society was instituted. + +His Majesty desires to receive from the President and Council of +the Royal Society their opinion upon the subject generally of the +regulations which it may be convenient to establish with regard to the +appropriation of the medals; and I have, therefore, to request that +you will make the necessary communication to the Council of the Royal +Society, in order that His Majesty's wishes may be carried into effect. + +I have the honour to be, &c. &c. (Signed) R. PEEL. + +Nothing could be more important for the interests of science, than this +gracious manifestation of His Majesty's concern for its advancement. It +was hailed by all who were made acquainted with it, as the commencement +of a new era, and the energies which it might have awakened were +immense. The unfettered nature of the gift excited admiration, whilst +the confidence reposed in the Council was calculated to have insured +the wavering faith of any less-gifted body. Even those who, either from +knowing the MANAGEMENT of the Society, or from other grounds, doubted +the policy of establishing medals, saw much to admire in the tone and +spirit in which they were offered. + +The Council immediately came to the resolution of gratefully accepting +them: and it appears that the President communicated that resolution, on +the 26th, to Mr. Peel, in a letter, which is found on the minutes of the +Council-book of the 26th of January. + +At the same Council, the rules for the award of the Royal medals were +decided upon; they were as follow:-- + +26th January, 1826. + +RESOLVED, + +That it is the opinion of the Council, that the medals be awarded for +the most important discoveries or series of investigations, completed +and made known to the Royal Society in the year preceding the day of +their award. + +That it is the opinion of the Council, that the presentation of the +medals should not be limited to British subjects. And they propose, if +it should be His Majesty's pleasure, that his effigy should form the +obverse of the medal. + +That two medals from the same die should be struck upon each foundation; +one in gold, one in silver. + +If these rules are not the wisest which might have been formed, yet +they are tolerably explicit; and it might have been imagined that even a +councillor of the Royal Society, prepared for office by the education +of a pleader, could not have mystified his brethren so completely, as +to have made them doubt on the point of time. The rules fixed precisely, +that the discoveries or experiments rewarded, must be completed and made +known to the Royal Society, within the YEAR PRECEDING THE DAY of the +award. + +Perhaps it might have been a proper mark of respect to this +communication, to have convened a special general meeting of the +Society, to have made known to the whole body the munificent endowment +of their Patron: and when his approbation of the laws which were to +govern the distribution of these medals had been intimated to the +Council, such a course would have been in complete accordance with the +wish expressed in Mr. Peel's letter, "TO EXCITE COMPETITION AMONGST MEN +OF SCIENCE" by making them generally known. + +Let us now examine the first award of these medals: it is recorded in +the following words:-- + +November 16, 1826. + +ONE of the medals of His Majesty's donation for the present year was +awarded to John Dalton, Esq. President of the Philosophical and Literary +Society, Manchester, for his development of the Atomic Theory, and his +other important labours and discoveries in physical science. + +The other medal for the present year was awarded to James Ivory, +Esq. for his paper on Astronomical Refractions, published in the +Philosophical Transactions for the year 1823, and his other valuable +papers on mathematical subjects. + +The Copley medal was awarded to James South, Esq. for his observations +of double stars, and his paper on the discordances between the sun's +observed and computed right ascensions, published in the Transactions. + +It is difficult to believe that the same Council, which, in January, +formed the laws for the distribution of these medals, should meet +together in November, and in direct violation of these laws, award them +to two philosophers, one of whom had made, and fully established, his +great discovery almost twenty years before; and the other of whom (to +stultify themselves still more effectually) they expressly rewarded for +a paper made known to them three years before. + +Were the rules for the award of these medals read previous to their +decision? Or were the obedient Council only used to register the edict +of their President? Or were they mocked, as they have been in other +instances, with the semblance of a free discussion? + +Has it never occurred to gentlemen who have been thus situated, that +although they have in truth had no part in the decision, yet the Society +and the public will justly attribute a portion of the merit or demerit +of their award, to those to whom that trust was confided? + +Did no one member of the Council venture, with the most submissive +deference, to suggest to the President, that the public eye would watch +with interest this first decision on the Royal medals, and that it +might perhaps be more discreet to adjudge them, for the first time, in +accordance with the laws which had been made for their distribution? Or +was public opinion then held in supreme contempt? Was it scouted, as I +have myself heard it scouted, in the councils of the Royal Society? + +Or was the President exempt, on this occasion, from the responsibility +of dictating an award in direct violation of the faith which had been +pledged to the Society and to the public? and, did the Council, intent +on exercising a power so rarely committed to them; and, perhaps, +urged by the near approach of their hour of dinner, dispense with the +formality of reading the laws on which they were about to act? + +Whatever may have been the cause, the result was most calamitous to the +Society. Its decision was attacked on other grounds; for, with a strange +neglect, the Council had taken no pains to make known, either to the +Society, or to the public, the rules they had made for the adjudication +of these medals. + +The evils resulting from this decision were many. In the first place, it +was most indecorous and ungrateful to treat with such neglect the rules +which had been approved by our Royal Patron. In the next place, the +medals themselves became almost worthless from this original taint: and +they ceased to excite "competition amongst men of science," because no +man could feel the least security that he should get them, even though +his discoveries should fulfil all the conditions on which they were +offered, + +The great injury which accrued to science from this proceeding, induced +me, in the succeeding session, when I found myself on the Council of +the Royal Society, to endeavour to remove the stigma which rested on +our character. Whether I took the best means to remedy the evil is now +a matter of comparatively little consequence: had I found any serious +disposition to set it right, I should readily have aided in any plans +for doing that which I felt myself bound to attempt, even though I +should stand alone, as I had the misfortune of doing on that occasion. +[It is but justice to Mr. South, who was a member of that Council, to +state, that the circumstance of his having had the Copley medal of the +same year awarded to him, prevented him from taking any part in the +discussion.] + +The impression which the whole of that discussion made on my mind +will never be effaced. Regarding the original rules formed for the +distribution of the Royal medals, when approved by his Majesty, as +equally binding in honour and in justice, I viewed the decision of the +Council, which assigned those medals to Mr. Dalton and Mr. Ivory, as +void, IPSO FACTO, on the ground that it was directly at variance with +that part which CONFINES the medals to discoveries made known to the +Society within ONE YEAR PREVIOUS TO THE DAY OF THEIR AWARD. I therefore +moved the following resolutions: + +"1st, That the award of the Royal medals, made on the 16th of November, +1826, being contrary to the conditions under which they were offered, is +invalid. + +"2dly, That the sum of fifty guineas each be presented to J. Dalton, +Esq. and James Ivory, Esq. from the funds of the Society; and that +letters be written to each of those gentlemen, expressing the hope +of the Council that this, the only method which is open to them of +honourably fulfilling their pledges, will be received by those gentlemen +as a mark of the high sense entertained by the Council of the importance +and value of their discoveries, which require not the aid of medals +to convey their reputation to posterity, as amongst the greatest which +distinguished the age in which they lived." + +It may be curious to give the public a specimen of the reasoning +employed in so select a body of philosophers as the Council of the Royal +Society. It was contended, on the one hand, that although the award was +SOMEWHAT IRREGULAR, yet nothing was more easy than to set it right. As +the original rules for giving the medals were merely an order of the +Council,--it would only be necessary to alter them, and then the +award would agree perfectly with the laws. On the other hand, it was +contended, that the original rules were unknown to the public and to the +Society; and that, in fact, they were only known to the members of +the Council and a few of their friends; and therefore the award was no +breach of faith. + +All comment on such reasoning is needless. That such propositions could +not merely be offered, but could pass unreproved, is sufficient to show +that the feelings of that body do not harmonize with those of the age; +and furnishes some explanation why several of the most active members of +the Royal Society have declined connecting their names with the Council +as long as the present system of management is pursued. + +The little interest taken by the body of the Society, either in its +peculiar pursuits, or in the proceedings of the Council, and the little +communication which exists between them, is an evil. Thus it happens +that the deeds of the Council are rarely known to the body of the +Society, and, indeed, scarcely extend beyond that small portion who +frequent the weekly meetings. These pages will perhaps afford the first +notice to the great majority of the Society of a breach of faith by +their Council, which it is impossible to suppose a body, consisting of +more than six hundred gentlemen, could have sanctioned. + + + + +SECTION 8. OF THE COPLEY MEDALS. + +An important distinction exists between scientific communications, which +seems to have escaped the notice of the Councils of the Royal Society. +They may contain discoveries of new principles,--of laws of nature +hitherto unobserved; or they may consist of a register of observations +of known phenomena, made under new circumstances, or in new and peculiar +situations on the face of our planet. Both these species of additions to +our knowledge are important; but their value and their rarity are very +different in degree. To make and to repeat observations, even with those +trifling alterations, which it is the fashion in our country (in the +present day) to dignify with the name of discoveries, requires merely +inflexible candour in recording precisely the facts which nature has +presented, and a power of fixing the attention on the instruments +employed, or phenomena examined,--a talent, which can be much improved +by proper Instruction, and which is possessed by most persons of +tolerable abilities and education.* To discover new principles, and to +detect the undiscovered laws by which nature operates, is another and +a higher task, and requires intellectual qualifications of a very +different order: the labour of the one is like that of the computer of +an almanac; the inquiries of the other resemble more the researches of +the accomplished analyst, who has invented the formula: by which those +computations are performed. + +[*That the use even of the large astronomical instruments in a national +observatory, does not require any very profound acquirements, is not +an opinion which I should have put forth without authority. The +Astronomer-Royal ought to be the best judge. + +On the minutes of the Council of the Royal Society, for April 6, 1826, +with reference to the Assistants necessary for the two mural circles, +we find a letter from Mr. Pond on the subject, from which the following +passage is extracted: + +"But to carry on such investigations, I want indefatigable, +hard-working, and above all, obedient drudges (for so I must call +them, although they are drudges of a superior order), men who will be +contented to pass half their day in using their hands and eyes in the +mechanical act of observing, and the remainder of it in the dull process +of calculation."] + +Such being the distinction between the merits of these inquiries, some +difference ought to exist in the nature of any rewards that may be +proposed for their encouragement. The Royal Society have never marked +this difference, and consequently those honorary medals which are given +to observations, gain a value which is due to those that are given for +discoveries; whilst these latter are diminished in their estimation by +such an association. + +I have stated this distinction, because I think it a just one; but the +public would have little cause of complaint if this were the only ground +of objection to the mode of appropriating the Society's medals. The +first objection to be noticed, is the indistinct manner in which the +object for which the medals are awarded is sometimes specified. A medal +is given to A. B. "for his various papers." + +There are cases, few perhaps in number, where such a reason may be +admissible; but it is impossible not to perceive the weakness of those +who judge these matters legibly written in the phrase, "and for his +various other communications," which comes in as the frequent tail-piece +to these awards. With a diffidence in their own powers, which might be +more admired if it were more frequently expressed, the Council think to +escape through this loop-hole, should the propriety of their judgment +on the main point be called in question. Thus, even the discovery which +made chemistry a science, has attached to it in their award this feeble +appendage. + +It has been objected to the Royal Society, that their medals have been +too much confined to a certain set. When the Royal medals were added to +their patronage, the past distribution of the Copley medals, furnished +grounds to some of the journals to predict the future possessors of +the new ones. I shall, doubtless, be told that the Council of the Royal +Society are persons of such high feeling, that it is impossible to +suppose their decision could be influenced by any personal motives. As I +may not have had sufficient opportunities, during the short time I was +a member of that Council, to enable me to form a fair estimate, I shall +avail myself of the judgment of one, from whom no one will be inclined +to appeal, who knew it long and intimately, and who expressed his +opinion deliberately and solemnly. + +The late Dr. Wollaston attached, as a condition to be observed in the +distribution of the interest of his munificent gift of 2,000L. to the +Royal Society, the following clause:--"And I hereby empower the said +President, Council, and Fellows, after my decease, in furtherance of the +above declared objects of the trust, to apply the said dividends to aid +or reward any individual or individuals of any country, SAVING ONLY +THAT NO PERSON BEING A MEMBER OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE TIME BEING, SHALL +RECEIVE OR PARTAKE OF SUCH REWARD." + +Another improvement which might be suggested, is, that it is generally +inexpedient to vote a medal until the paper which contains the discovery +is at least read to the Society; perhaps even it might not be quite +unreasonable to wish that it should have been printed, and consequently +have been perused by some few of those who have to decide on its merits. +These trifles have not always been attended to; and even so lately as +the last year, they escaped the notice of the President and his Council. +The Society was, however, indebted to the good sense of Mr. Faraday, who +declined the proffered medal; and thus relieved us from one additional +charge of precipitancy. [When this hasty adjudication was thus put +a stop to, one of the members of the Council inquired, whether, as a +Copley medal must by the will be annually given, some other person might +not be found deserving of it. To which the Secretary replied, "We do +not intend to give any this year." All further discussion was thus +silenced.] + +Perhaps, also, as the Council are on some occasions apt to be oblivious, +it might be convenient that the President should read, previously to the +award of any medals or to the decision of any other important subjects, +the statutes relating to them. He might perhaps propitiate their +attention to them, by stating, HOW MUCH IT IMPORTETH TO THE CONSISTENCY +OF THE COUNCIL TO BE ACQUAINTED WITH THE LAWS ON WHICH THEY ARE ABOUT TO +DECIDE. + +If those who have been conversant with the internal management of the +Council, would communicate their information, something curious might +perhaps be learned respecting a few of these medals. Concerning those +of which I have had good means of information, I shall merely state--of +three of them--that whatever may have been the official reasons for +their award, I had ample reasons to convince me of the following being +the true causes:-- + +First.--A medal was given to A, at a peculiarly inappropriate +time--BECAUSE HE HAD NOT HAD ONE BEFORE. + +Second.--Subsequently a medal was given to B, in order TO DESTROY THE +IMPRESSION WHICH THE AWARD OF THE MEDAL TO A HAD MADE ON THE PUBLIC THE +PRECEDING YEAR. + +Third.--A medal was given to C, "BECAUSE WE THINK HE HAS BEEN ILL USED." + +I will now enter on an examination of one of their awards, which +was peculiarly injudicious. I allude to that concerning the mode of +rendering platina malleable. Respecting, as I did, the illustrious +philosopher who invented the art, and who has left many other claims +to the gratitude of mankind, I esteem it no disrespect to his memory to +place that subject in its proper light. + +An invention in science or in art, may justly be considered as +possessing the rights of property in the highest degree. The lands +we inherit from our fathers, were cultivated ere they were born, and +yielded produce before they were cultivated. The products of genius are +the actual creations of the individual; and, after yielding profit or +honour to him, they remain the permanent endowments of the human race. +If the institutions of our country, and the opinions of society, support +us fully in the absolute disposal of our fields, of which we can, by +the laws of nature, be only the transitory possessors, who shall justly +restrict our discretion in the disposal of those richer possessions, the +products of intellectual exertion? + +Two courses are open to those individuals who are thus endowed with +Nature's wealth. They may lock up in their own bosoms the mysteries they +have penetrated, and by applying their knowledge to the production of +some substance in demand in commerce, thus minister to the wants or +comforts of their species, whilst they reap in pecuniary profit the +legitimate reward of their exertions. + +It is open to them, on the other hand, to disclose the secret they have +torn from Nature, and by allowing mankind to participate with them, to +claim at once that splendid reputation which is rarely refused to the +inventors of valuable discoveries in the arts of life. + +The two courses are rarely compatible, only indeed when the discoverer, +having published his process, enters into equal competition with other +manufacturers. + +If an individual adopt the first of these courses, and retaining his +secret, it perish with him, the world have no right to complain. During +his life, they profited by his knowledge, and are better off than if the +philosopher had not existed. + +Monopolies, under the name of patents, have been devised to assist and +reward those who have chosen the line of pecuniary profit. Honorary +rewards and medals have been the feeble expressions of the sentiments +of mankind towards those who have preferred the other course. But these +have been, and should always be, kept completely distinct. [It is a +condition with the Society of Arts, never to give a reward to any thing +for which a patent has been, or is to be, taken out.] + +Let us now consider the case of platina. A new process was discovered of +rendering it malleable, and the mere circumstance of so large a quantity +having been sent into the market, was a positive benefit, of no ordinary +magnitude, to many of the arts. The discoverer of this valuable process +selected that course for which no reasonable man could blame him; +and from some circumstance, or perhaps from accident, he preserved no +written record of the manipulations. Had Providence appointed for that +disorder, which terminated too fatally, a more rapid career, all the +knowledge he had acquired from the long attention he had devoted to the +subject, would have been lost to mankind. The hand of a friend recorded +the directions of the expiring philosopher, whose anxiety to render +useful even his unfinished speculations, proves that the previous +omission was most probably accidental. + +Under such circumstances it was published to the world in the +Transactions of the Royal Society. But what could induce that body +to bestow on it their medal? To talk of adding lustre to the name of +Wollaston by their medal, is to talk idly. They must have done it then +as an example, as a stimulus to urge future inquiries in the career of +discovery. But did they wish discoveries to be so endangered? + +The discoveries of Professor Mitscherlick, of Berlin, had long been +considered, by a few members of the Society, as having strong claims on +one of its honorary rewards; but difficulties had arisen, from so few +members of the Council having any knowledge of discoveries which had +long been familiar to Europe. The Council were just on the point of +doing justice to the merits of the Prussian philosopher, when it was +suggested that its medal should be given to Dr. Wollaston, and they +immediately altered their intention, and thus enabled themselves to +reserve their medal to Professor Mitscherlick for another year; at +which period, for aught they knew, his discoveries might possess the +additional merit of having been made prior to the limit allowed by their +regulations. That medal was, in fact, voted at a meeting, at which no +one member present was at all conversant with the subjects rewarded. I +shall, however, say no more on this subject. They erred from feeling, +an error so very rare with them, that it might be pardoned even for its +singularity. + +I will, however, add one word to those whose censures have been unjustly +dealt, to those who have reproached the philosopher for receiving +pecuniary advantage from his inventions. + +Amongst the many and varied contrivances for the demands of science, +or the arts of life, with which we were enriched by the genius of +Wollaston, was it too much to allow him to retain, during his fleeting +career, one out of the multitude, to furnish that: pecuniary supply, +without which, the man will want food for his body, and the philosopher +be destitute of tools for his inventions? Had he been, as, from the rank +he held in science, he certainly would have been in other kingdoms, rich +in the honours his country could bestow, and receiving from her a reward +in some measure commensurate with his deserts,--then, indeed, there +might have been reason for that reproach; but I am convinced that, +in such circumstances, the philosopher would have balanced, with no +"niggard" hand, the claims of his country, and would have given to it, +unreservedly, the produce of his powerful mind. + + + + +SECTION 9. OF THE FAIRCHILD LECTURE. + +Mr. Fairchild left by will twenty-five pounds to the Royal Society. This +was increased by several subscriptions, and 100L. 3 per cent. South +Sea Annuities was purchased, the interest of which was to be devoted +annually to pay for a sermon to be preached at St.Leonard's, Shoreditch. + +Few members of the Society, perhaps, are aware, either of the bequest or +of its annual payment. I shall merely observe, that for five years, +from 1800 to 1804, it was regularly given to Mr. Ascough; and that for +twenty-six years past, it has been as regularly given to the Rev. Mr. +Ellis. + +The annual amount is too trifling to stimulate to any extraordinary +exertions; yet, small as it is, it might, if properly applied, be +productive of much advantage to religion, and of great honour to the +Society. For this purpose, it would be desirable that it should be +delivered at some church or chapel, more likely to be attended by +members of the Royal Society. Notice of it should be given at the place +of worship appointed, at least a week previous to its delivery, and at +the two preceding weekly meetings of the Royal Society. The name of the +gentleman nominated for that year, and the church at which the sermon is +to be preached, should be stated. + +With this publicity attending it, and by a judicious selection of the +first two or three gentlemen appointed to deliver it, it would soon +be esteemed an honour to be invited to compose such a lecture, and the +Society might always find in its numerous list of members or aspirants, +persons well qualified to fulfil a task as beneficial for the promotion +of true religion, as it ever must be for the interest of science. I am +tempted to believe that such a course would call forth exertions of the +most valuable character, as well as give additional circulation to what +is already done on that subject. + +The geological speculations which have been adduced, perhaps with too +much haste by some, as according with the Mosaic history, and by +others, as inconsistent with its truth, would, if this subject had been +attentively considered, have been allowed to remain until the fullest +and freest inquiry had irrevocably fixed their claim to the character +of indisputable facts. But, I will not press this subject further on +my reader's attention, lest he should think I am myself delivering the +lecture. All that I could have said on this point has been so much more +ably stated by one whose enlightened view of geological science has +taken away some difficulties from its cultivators, and, I hope, removed +a stumbling-block from many respectable individuals, that I should only +weaken by adding to the argument. [I allude to the critique of Dr. Ure's +Geology in the British Review, for July, 1829; an Essay, equally worthy +of a philosopher and a Christian.] + + + + +SECTION 10. OF THE CROONIAN LECTURE. + +The payment [Three pounds.] for this Lecture, like that of the +preceding, is small. It was instituted by Dr. Croone, for an annual +essay on the subject of Muscular Motion. It is a little to be regretted, +that it should have been so restricted; and perhaps its founder, had he +foreseen the routine into which it has dwindled, might have endeavoured +to preserve it, by affording it a wider range. + +By giving it to a variety of individuals, competition might have been +created, and many young anatomists have been induced to direct their +attention to the favourite inquiry of the founder of the Lecture; +but from causes which need not here be traced, this has not been the +custom--one individual has monopolized it year after year, and it seems, +like the Fairchild Lecture, rather to have been regarded as a pension. +There have, however, been some intervals; and we are still under +obligations to those who have supported THE SYSTEM, for not appointing +Sir Everard Home to read the Croonian Lecture twenty years in +SUCCESSION. Had it been otherwise, we might have heard of vested rights. + + + + +SECTION 11. OF THE CAUSES OF THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +The best friends of the Royal Society have long admitted, whilst they +regretted, its declining fame; and even those who support whatever +exists, begin a little to doubt whether it might not possibly be +amended. + +The great and leading cause of the present state to which the Royal +Society is reduced, may be traced to years of misrule to which it has +been submitted. In order to understand this, it will be necessary +to explain the nature of that misrule, and the means employed in +perpetuating it. + +It is known, that by the statutes, the body of the Society have the +power of electing, annually, their President, Officers, and Council; +and it is also well known, that this is a merely nominal power, and +that printed lists are prepared and put into the hands of the members +on their entering the room, and thus passed into the balloting box. If +these lists were, as in other scientific societies, openly discussed in +the Council, and then offered by them as recommendations to the Society, +little inconvenience would arise; but the fact is, that they are private +nominations by the President, usually without notice, to the Council, +and all the supporters of the system which I am criticizing, endeavour +to uphold the right of this nomination in the President, and prevent or +discourage any alteration. + +The Society has, for years, been managed by a PARTY, or COTERIE, or +by whatever other name may be most fit to designate a combination of +persons, united by no expressed compact or written regulations, but who +act together from a community of principles. That each individual has +invariably supported all the measures of the party, is by no means the +case; and whilst instances of opposition amongst them have been very +rare, a silent resignation to circumstances has been the most usual mode +of meeting measures they disapproved. The great object of this, as of +all other parties, has been to maintain itself in power, and to divide, +as far as it could, all the good things amongst its members. It has +usually consisted of persons of very moderate talent, who have had +the prudence, whenever they could, to associate with themselves other +members of greater ability, provided these latter would not oppose the +system, and would thus lend to it the sanction of their name. The party +have always praised each other most highly--have invariably opposed all +improvements in the Society, all change in the mode of management; +and have maintained, that all those who wished for any alteration were +factious; and, when they discovered any symptoms of independence and +inquiry breaking out in any member of the Council, they have displaced +him as soon as they decently could. + +Of the arguments employed by those who support the SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT +by which the Royal Society is governed, I shall give a few samples: +refutation is rendered quite unnecessary--juxta-position is +alone requisite. If any member, seeing an improper appointment in +contemplation, or any abuse in the management of the affairs of the +Society continued, raise a voice against it, the ready answer is, Why +should you interfere? it may not be quite the thing you approve; but it +is no affair of yours.--If, on the other hand, it do relate to himself, +the reply is equally ready. It is immediately urged: The question is +of a personal nature; you are the last person who ought to bring it +forward; you are yourself interested. If any member of the Society, +feeling annoyed at the neglect, or hurt by the injuries or insults of +the Council, show signs of remonstrance, it is immediately suggested to +him that he is irritated, and ought to wait until his feelings subside, +and he can judge more coolly on the subject; whilst with becoming +candour they admit the ill-treatment, but urge forbearance. If, after +an interval, when reflection has had ample time to operate, the offence +seems great as at first, or the insult appears unmitigated by any +circumstances on which memory can dwell,--if it is then brought forward, +the immediate answer is, The affair is out of date--the thing is gone +by--it is too late to call in question a transaction so long past. Thus, +if a man is interested personally, he is unfit to question an abuse; +if he is not, is it probable that he will question it? and if, +notwithstanding this, he do so, then he is to be accounted a meddler. If +he is insulted, and complain, he is told to wait until he is cool; +and when that period arrives, he is then told he is too late. If his +remonstrance relates to the alteration of laws which are never referred +to, or only known by their repeated breach, he is told that any +alteration is useless; it is perfectly well known that they are never +adhered to. If it relate to the impolicy of any regulations attaching to +an office, he is immediately answered, that that is a personal question, +in which it is impossible to interfere--the officer, it seems, is +considered to have not merely a vested right to the continuance of every +abuse, but an interest in transmitting it unimpaired to his successors. + +In the same spirit I have heard errors of calculation or observation +defended. If small errors occur, it is said that they are too trifling +to be of any importance. If larger errors are pointed out, it is +immediately contended that they can deceive nobody, because of their +magnitude. Perhaps it might be of some use, if the Council would oblige +the world with their SCALE of ERROR, with illustrations from some of the +most RECENT and APPROVED works, and would favour the uninformed with +the orthodox creed upon all grades, from that which baffles the human +faculties to detect, up to that which becomes innocuous from its size. + +The offices connected with the Royal Society are few in number, and +their emolument small in amount; but the proper disposition of them +is, nevertheless, of great importance to the Society, and was so to the +science of England. + +In the first place, the President, having in effect the absolute +nomination of the whole Council, could each year introduce a few +gentlemen, whose only qualification to sit on it would be the high +opinion they must necessarily entertain of the penetration of him who +could discover their scientific merits. He might also place in the list +a few nobles or officials, just to gild it. Neither of these classes +would put any troublesome questions, and one of them might be employed, +from its station in society, to check any that might be proposed by +others. + +With these ingredients, added to the regular train of the party, and a +star or two of science to shed lustre over the whole, a very manageable +Council might be formed; and such has been its frequent composition. + +The duties of the Secretaries, when well executed, are laborious, +although not in this respect equal to those of the same officers who, in +several societies, give their gratuitous aid; and their labours are much +lightened by the Assistant Secretary and his clerk. The following are +their salaries:-- + + The Senior Secretary ........... 105L. + The Junior Secretary, 105L........ ) + 5L. for making Index to Phil. Trans... ) 110L. + The Foreign Secretary........... 20L. + +Now it is not customary to change these annually; and as these offices +are amongst the "loaves and fishes" they are generally given by the +President to some staunch supporters of the system. They have frequently +been bestowed, with very little consideration for the interest, or even +for the dignity of the Society. To notice only one instance: the late +Sir Joseph Banks appointed a gentleman who remained for years in +that situation, although he was confessedly ignorant of every subject +connected with the pursuits of the Society. I will, however, do justice +to his memory, by saying that his respectability was preserved +under such circumstances, by the most candid admission of the fact, +accompanied by a store of other knowledge unfortunately quite foreign to +the pursuits of the Society; and I will add, that I regretted to see him +insulted by one President in a situation improperly given to him by a +former. + +Next in order come the Vice-Presidents, who are appointed by the +President; and in this respect the present practice is not inconvenient. + +The case, however, is widely different with the office of Treasurer. The +President ought not to usurp the power of his appointment, which ought, +after serious discussion by the Council, to be made by the Society at +large. + +Besides the three Secretaries, there is an Assistant Secretary, +and recently another has been added, who may perhaps be called a +Sub-assistant Secretary. All these places furnish patronage to the +President. + +Let us now look at the occasional patronage of the President, arising +from offices not belonging to the Society. He is, EX OFFICIO, a Trustee +of the British Museum; and it may seem harsh to maintain that he is not +a fit person to hold such a situation. It is no theoretical view, but it +is the EXPERIENCE of the past which justifies the assertion; and I +fear that unless he has the sole responsibility for some specific +appointments, and unless his judgment is sharpened by the fear of public +discussion, a President of the Royal Society, in the Board-room of the +British Museum, is quite as likely as another person to sacrifice his +public duty to the influence of power, or to private friendship. With +respect to the merits of that Institution, I have no inclination at +present to inquire: but when it is considered that there is at this +moment attached to it no one whose observations or whose writings have +placed him even in the second rank amongst the naturalists of Europe, +the President of the Royal Society has given some grounds for the remark +made by several members of the Society, that he is a little too much +surrounded by the officers of a body who may reasonably be supposed to +entertain towards him feelings either of gratitude or expectation. +[It will be remembered that the name of Mr. Robert Brown has been but +recently attached to the British Museum, and that it is to be attributed +to his possessing a life interest in the valuable collection of the late +Sir Joseph Banks.] + +The late Board of Longitude was another source of patronage, which, +although now abolished, it may be useful to hint at. + +There were three members to be appointed by the Royal Society: these +were honorary, and, as no salary was attached, it might have been +expected that this limited number of appointments would have been given +in all cases to persons qualified for them. But no: it was convenient +to pay compliments; and Lord Colchester, whose talents and knowledge +insured him respect as Speaker of the House of Commons, or as a +British nobleman, was placed for years in the situation as one of the +Commissioners of the Board of Longitude, for which every competent judge +knew him to be wholly unfit. What was the return which he made for this +indulgence? Little informed respecting the feelings of the Society, and +probably misinformed by the party whose influence had placed him there, +he saved them in the day of their peril. + +When the state of the Society had reached such a point that many of +the more scientific members felt that some amendment was absolutely +necessary to its respectability, a committee was formed to suggest to +the Council such improvements as they might consider it expedient to +discuss. [Amongst the names of the persons composing this Committee, +which was proposed by Mr. South, were those of Dr. Wollaston and +Mr. Herschel.] The Council received their report at the close of the +session; and in recording it on the journals, they made an appeal to the +Council for the ensuing year to bestow on it "THEIR EARLIEST AND MOST +SERIOUS ATTENTION." + +Now when the party, to whose government some of these improvements would +have been a death-warrant, found that the subject was likely to be taken +up in the Council, they were in dismay: but the learned and grateful +peer came to their assistance, and aided Mr. Davies Gilbert in getting +rid of these improvements completely. + +It has been the fashion to maintain that all classes of the Royal +Society should be represented in the Council, and consequently that a +peer or two should find a place amongst them. Those who are most adverse +to this doctrine would perhaps be the most anxious to render this +tribute to any one really employing his time, his talents, or his rank +in advancing the cause of science. But when a nobleman, unversed in our +pursuits, will condescend to use the influence of his station in aiding +a President to stifle, WITHOUT DISCUSSION, propositions recommended +for consideration by some of the most highly gifted members of the +Society,--those who doubt the propriety of the principle may reasonably +be pardoned for the disgust they must necessarily entertain for the +practical abuse to which it leads. + +Of the other three Commissioners, who received each a hundred a-year, +although the nomination was, in point of form, in the Admiralty, yet +it was well known that the President of the Royal Society did, in fact, +always name them. Of these I will only mention one fact. The late Sir +Joseph Banks assigned to me as a reason why I need not expect to be +appointed, (as he had held out to me at a former period when I had +spoken to him on the subject) that I had taken a prominent part in the +formation of the ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. I am proud of the part I did take +in establishing that Society, although an undue share of its honour was +assigned to me by the President. + +It may, perhaps, be inquired, why I publish this fact at this distance +of time? I answer, that I stated it publicly at the Council of the +Astronomical Society;--that I always talked of it publicly and openly at +the time;--that I purposely communicated it to each succeeding President +of the Royal Society; and that, although some may have forgotten the +communications I made at the time, there are others who remember them +well. + +The Secretary of the late Board of Longitude received 300L., and 200L. +more, as Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac. + +Another situation, in the patronage of which the President is known to +have considerable influence, is that of Astronomer Royal; and it is +to be observed, that he is kept in the Council as much as possible, +notwithstanding the nature of his duties. + +Of the three appointments of 100L. a-year each, which have been +instituted since the abolition of the Board of Longitude, the President +is supposed to have the control, thus making him quite sure of the +obedience of his Council. + +Besides these sources of patronage, there are other incidental occasions +on which Government apply to the Royal Society to recommend proper +persons to make particular experiments or observations; and, although I +am far from supposing that these are in many instances given to persons +the second or third best qualified for them, yet they deserve to be +mentioned. + + + + +SECTION 12. OF THE PLAN FOR REFORMING THE SOCIETY. + +The indiscriminate admission of every candidate became at last so +notorious, even beyond the pale of the Society, that some of the members +began to perceive the inconveniences to which it led. This feeling, +together with a conviction that other improvements were necessary to +re-establish the Society in public opinion, induced several of the most +active members to wish for some reform in its laws and proceedings; +and a Committee was appointed to consider the subject. It was perfectly +understood, that the object of this Committee was to inquire,--First, as +to the means and propriety of limiting the numbers of this Society; and +then, as to other changes which they might think beneficial. The names +of the gentlemen composing this Committee were:-- + + Dr. Wollaston, Mr. Herschel, + Dr. Young, Mr. Babbage, + Mr. Davies Gilbert, Captain Beaufort, + Mr. South, Captain Kater. + +The importance of the various improvements suggested was different in +the eyes of different members. The idea of rendering the Society so +select as to make it an object of ambition to men of science to be +elected into it, was by no means new, as the following extract from the +Minutes of the Council will prove:-- + +"MINUTES OF COUNCIL. August 27, 1674 Present, + + Sir W. Petty, Vice-President, + Sir John Lowther, + Sir John Cutler, + Sir Christopher Wren, + Mr. Oldenburgh, + Sir Paul Neile. + +"It was considered by this Council, that to make the Society prosper, +good experiments must be in the first place provided to make the +weekly meetings considerable, and that the expenses for making these +experiments must be secured by legal subscriptions for paying the +contributors; which done, the Council might then with confidence proceed +to the EJECTION OF USELESS FELLOWS." + +The reformers of modern times were less energetic in the measures they +recommended. Dr. Wollaston and some others thought the limitation of +the numbers of the Society to be the most essential point, and 400 was +suggested as a proper number to be recommended, in case a limitation +should be ultimately resolved upon. I confess, such a limit did not +appear to me to bring great advantages, especially when I reflected +how long a time must have elapsed before the 714 members of the Society +could be reduced by death to that number. And I also thought that as +long as those who alone sustained the reputation of the Society by their +writings and discoveries should be admitted into it on precisely +the same terms, and on the payment of the same sum of money as other +gentlemen who contributed only with their purse, it could never be an +object of ambition to any man of science to be enrolled on its list. + +With this view, and also to assist those who wished for a limitation, I +suggested a plan extremely simple in its nature, and which would become +effective immediately. I proposed that, in the printed list of the Royal +Society, a star should be placed against the name of each Fellow who +had contributed two or more papers which had been printed in the +Transactions, or that such a list should be printed separately at the +end. + +At that period there were 109 living members who had contributed papers +to the Transactions, and they were thus arranged: + + 37 Contributors of.. 1 paper + 21.......... 2 papers + 19.......... 3 ditto + 5 .......... 4 ditto + 3 .......... 5 ditto + 3 .......... 6 ditto + 12.... from 7 to 12 ditto + 14... of more than 12 papers. + +100 Contributing Fellows of the Royal Society. 589 Papers contributed by +them. + +Now the immediate effect of printing such a list would be the division +of the Society into two classes. Supposing two or more papers necessary +for placing a Fellow in the first class, that class would only consist +of seventy-two members, which is nearly the same as the number of those +of the Institute of France. If only those who had contributed three or +more were admitted, then this class would be reduced to fifty-one. In +either of these cases it would obviously become a matter of ambition +to belong to the first class; and a more minute investigation into the +value of each paper would naturally take place before it was admitted +into the Transactions. Or it might be established that such papers only +should be allowed to count, as the Committee, who reported them as fit +to be printed, should also certify. The great objection made to such +an arrangement was, that it would be displeasing to the rest of the +Society, and that they had a vested right (having entered the Society +when no distinction was made in the lists) to have them always continued +without one. + +Without replying to this shadow of an argument of vested rights, I will +only remark that he who maintains this view pays a very ill compliment +to the remaining 600 members of the Royal Society; since he does, +in truth, maintain that those gentlemen who, from their position, +accidentally derive reputation which does not belong to them, are +unwilling, when the circumstance is pointed out, to allow the world +to assign it to those who have fairly won it; or else that they +are incapable of producing any thing worthy of being printed in the +Transactions of the Royal Society. Lightly as the conduct of the +Society, as a body, has compelled me to think of it, I do not think so +ill of the personal character of its members as to believe that if the +question were fairly stated to them, many would object to it. + +Amongst the alterations which I considered most necessary to the +renovation of the Society, was the recommendation, by the expiring +Council, of those whom they thought most eligible for that of the +ensuing year. + +The system which had got into practice was radically bad: it is +impossible to have an INDEPENDENT Council if it is named by ONE PERSON. +Our statutes were framed with especial regard to securing the fitness +of the members elected to serve in the Council; and the President is +directed, by those statutes, at the two ordinary meetings previous to +the anniversary, to give notice of the elections, and "to declare how +much it importeth the good of the Society that such persons may be +chosen into the Council as are most likely to attend the meetings and +business of the Council, and out of whom may be made the best choice of +a President and other officers." This is regularly done; and, in mockery +of the wisdom of our ancestors, the President has perhaps in his pocket +the list of the future Council he has already fixed upon. + +In some other Societies, great advantage is found to arise from the +discussion of the proper persons to be recommended to the Society for +the Council of the next year. A list is prepared, by the Secretary, of +the old Council, and against each name is placed the number of times +he has attended the meetings of the Council. Those whose attendance has +been least frequent are presumed to be otherwise engaged, unless absence +from London, or engagement in some pursuit connected with the Society, +are known to have interfered. Those members who have been on the Council +the number of years which is usually allowed, added to those who go out +by their own wish, and by non-attendance, are, generally, more in number +than can be spared; and the question is never, who shall retire?--but, +who, out of the rest of the Society, is most likely to work, if placed +on the Council? + +If any difference of opinion should exist in a society, it is always of +great importance to its prosperity to have both opinions represented +in the Council. In this age of discussion it is impossible to stifle +opinions; and if they are not represented in the Council, there is some +chance of their being brought before the general body, or, at last, even +before the public. It is certainly an advantage that questions should be +put, and even that debates should take place on the days appropriated +to the anniversaries of societies. This is the best check to the +commencement of irregularities; and a suspicion may reasonably be +entertained of those who endeavour to suppress inquiry. + +On the other hand, debates respecting the affairs of the Society should +never be entered on at the ordinary meetings, as they interrupt its +business, and only a partial attendance can be expected. That the +conduct of those who have latterly managed the Royal Society has not +led to such discussions, is to be attributed more to the forbearance of +those who disapprove of the line of conduct they have pursued, than to +the discretion of the party in not giving them cause. + +The public is the last tribunal; one to which nothing but strong +necessity should induce an appeal. There are, however, advantages in it +which may, in some cases, render it better than a public discussion at +the anniversary. When the cause of complaint is a system rather than any +one great grievance, it may be necessary to enter more into detail than +a speech will permit; also the printed statement and arguments will +probably come under the consideration of a larger number of the members. +Another and a considerable benefit is, that there is much less danger +of any expression of temper interrupting or injuring the arguments +employed. + +There were other points suggested, but I shall subjoin the Report of the +Committee:-- + +REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE APPOINTED TO CONSIDER THE BEST MEANS OF LIMITING +THE MEMBERS ADMITTED INTO THE ROYAL SOCIETY, AS WELL AS TO MAKE SUCH +SUGGESTIONS ON THAT SUBJECT AS MAY SEEM TO THEM CONDUCIVE TO THE WELFARE +OF THE SOCIETY. + +Your Committee having maturely considered the resolution of the Council +under which they have been appointed; and having satisfied themselves +that the progressive increase of the Society has been in a much higher +ratio than the progressive increase of population, or the general growth +of knowledge, or the extension of those sciences which it has been +the great object of the Society to promote, they have agreed to the +following Report:-- + +Your Committee assume as indisputable propositions, that the utility +of the Society is in direct proportion to its respectability. That +its respectability can only be secured by its comprising men of high +philosophical eminence; and that the obvious means of associating +persons of this eminence will be the public conviction, that to belong +to the Society is an honour. Your Committee, therefore, think themselves +fully borne out in the conclusion, that it would be expedient to limit +the Society to such a number as should be a fair representation of the +talent of the country; the consequence of which will be, that every +vacancy would become an object of competition among persons of +acknowledged merit. + +From the returns which have been laid on your table, of the Fellows who +have contributed papers, and from the best estimate they can make of the +persons without doors who are engaged in the active pursuit of science, +your Committee feel justified in recommending that those limits should +be fixed at four hundred, exclusive of foreign members, and of such +royal personages as it may be thought proper to admit. + +As many years must elapse before the present number of seven hundred and +fourteen can be reduced to those limits by the course of nature, and as +it would be prejudicial to the interests of the Society and of science, +that no fresh accessions should take place during that long period, your +Committee would further recommend, that till that event takes place, +four new members should be annually admitted. + +With respect to the manner of admission, your Committee are of opinion, +that there are several inconveniences in the present mode of proceeding +to a single ballot upon each certificate, according to its seniority. +If the above limitation should be adopted, it may be presumed, that for +every vacancy there will be many candidates; from amongst them, it must +be the general wish to select the most distinguished individuals; but to +accomplish this, if the present system were to be continued, it would +be necessary to reject all those candidates whose certificates were of +earlier date than theirs; a process not only extremely irritating, +but probably ineffectual from the want of unanimity. Your Committee, +therefore, most earnestly recommend, that one general election should +take place every year towards the end of the session, and that this +should be conducted on the same principles as the present annual +election of the Council and officers; VIZ. by having lists printed of +all the candidates (whose certificates had been suspended for the usual +time,) in which lists each Fellow would mark the requisite number of +persons. + +As the charter, however, requires the concurrence of two-thirds of the +Fellows present, your Committee suggest, that after the choice has been +determined by the plurality of votes by ballot in the above manner, the +successful candidates should be again submitted to a general vote, in +accordance with the enactments of the said charter. + +In concluding this part of the subject, your Committee beg leave +to remark, that by the method now proposed, the invidious act of +blackballing would cease, and with it all feelings of resentment and +mortification; as the result of such an open competition could only be +construed by the public into a fair preference of the superior claims of +the successful few, and not into a direct and disgraceful rejection of +the others. + +Your Committee are fully aware, that such a reduction in the usual +admissions would materially affect the pecuniary resources of the +Society; but they are at the same time convinced, that by a vigorous +economy its present income might be rendered adequate to all its real +wants, and the aggregate expenditure might be considerably diminished by +many small but wholesome retrenchments. + +It appears, from the accounts of last year, that although 1200L. was +received for compositions, in addition to the standing income, and usual +contributions, &c., and although no money was invested, yet there was a +balance only of a few pounds at the end of the year. It further appears, +that 500L. was paid for the paper, 370L. for engravings, and nearly +340L. for printing; and from those alarming facts, your Committee submit +to your consideration, whether the expenditure might not be beneficially +controlled by a standing Committee of Finance. + +In obedience to the latter part of your resolution, your Committee now +proceed to offer some further suggestions for your consideration. +They conceive that it would afford a beneficial stimulus to individual +exertion, if the Fellows who have received the medals of the Society, +and those who have repeatedly enriched its Transactions, were +distinguished by being collected into a separate and honourable list. It +would also be found, perhaps, not less a future incentive than an act of +retrospective justice, if the names of all those illustrious Fellows who +have formerly obtained the medals, as well as of all those individuals +who have been large benefactors to the Society, were recorded at the end +of the list. It would be a satisfactory addition likewise to the annual +list, if all those Fellows who have died, or had been admitted within +the preceding year, were regularly noticed. And your Committee think, +that these lists should always form part of the Transactions, and be +stitched up with the last part of the volume. + +It requires no argument to demonstrate that the well-being of the +Society mainly depends on the activity and integrity of its Council; +and as their selection is unquestionably of paramount importance, your +Committee hope that our excellent President will not consider it any +impeachment of his impartiality, or any doubt of his zeal, if they +venture to suggest, that the usual recommendation to the Society of +proper members for the future Council should henceforth be considered as +a fit subject for the diligent and anxious deliberation of the expiring +Council. + +There is another point of great moment to the character of the Society, +and to the dignified station it occupies among the learned associations +of Europe; for its character abroad can only be appreciated by the +nature and value of its Transactions. Your Committee allude to the +important task of deciding on what papers should be published; and they +are of opinion that it would be a material improvement on the present +mode, if each paper were referred to a separate Committee, who should +have sufficient time given them to examine it carefully, who should be +empowered to communicate on any doubtful parts with the author; and who +should report, not only their opinion, but the grounds on which that +opinion is formed, for the ultimate decision of the Council. + +If it should be thought fit to adopt the suggestions which your +Committee have now had the honour of proposing, they beg leave to move, +that another Committee be appointed, with directions to frame or to +alter the necessary statutes, so that they may be in strict accordance +with the charters. + +In concluding the Report, your Committee do not wish to disguise the +magnitude of some of the measures they have thought it their duty +to propose; on the contrary, they would not only urge the fullest +discussion of their expediency; but further, that if you should even be +unanimously disposed to confirm them, your Committee would recommend, +that the several statutes, when they have been drawn up or modified, +should be only entered on your minutes, and not finally enacted. +All innovations in the constitution, or even the habits of the Royal +Society, should be scrutinized with the most jealous circumspection. +It is enough for the present Council to have traced the plan; let the +Council of the ensuing sessions share the credit of carrying that plan +into effect. + +This Report was presented to the Council very late in the session of +1827, and on the 25th of June there occurs the following entry on the +council-book:-- + +"The Report of the Committee for considering the best means of limiting +the number of members, and such other suggestions as they may think +conducive to the good of the Society, was received and read, and ordered +to be entered on the minutes; and the Council, regarding the importance +of the subject, and its bearings on the essential interests of the +Society, in conformity with the concluding paragraph, and considering +also the advanced stage of the session, recommend it to the most serious +and early consideration of the Council for the ensuing year." + +Those who advocated these alterations, were in no hurry for their +hasty adoption; they were aware of their magnitude, and anxious for the +fullest investigation before one of them should be tried. + +Unfortunately, the concluding recommendation of the Committee did not +coincide with the views of Mr. Gilbert, whom the party had determined to +make their new President. That gentleman made such arrangements for the +Council of the succeeding year, that when the question respecting the +consideration of the Report of that Committee was brought forward, it +was thrown aside in the manner I have stated. Thus a report, sanctioned +by the names of such a committee, and recommended by one Council to +"THE MOST SERIOUS and EARLY consideration of the Council for the ensuing +year," was by that very Council rejected, without even the ceremony of +discussing its merits. Was every individual recommendation it contained, +not merely unfit to be adopted, but so totally deficient in plausibility +as to be utterly unworthy of discussion? Or did the President and his +officers feel, that their power rested on an insecure foundation, and +that they did not possess the confidence of the working members of the +Society? + + + +CHAPTER V. OF OBSERVATIONS. + +There are several reflections connected with the art of making +observations and experiments, which may be conveniently arranged in this +chapter. + + + + +SECTION 1. OF MINUTE PRECISION. + +No person will deny that the highest degree of attainable accuracy is an +object to be desired, and it is generally found that the last advances +towards precision require a greater devotion of time, labour, and +expense, than those which precede them. The first steps in the path of +discovery, and the first approximate measures, are those which add most +to the existing knowledge of mankind. + +The extreme accuracy required in some of our modern inquiries has, in +some respects, had an unfortunate influence, by favouring the opinion, +that no experiments are valuable, unless the measures are most minute, +and the accordance amongst them most perfect. It may, perhaps, be of +some use to show, that even with large instruments, and most practised +observers, this is but rarely the case. The following extract is taken +from a representation made by the present Astronomer-Royal, to the +Council of the Royal Society, on the advantages to be derived from the +employment of two mural circles:-- + +"That by observing, with two instruments, the same objects at the same +time, and in the same manner, we should be able to estimate how much of +that OCCASIONAL DISCORDANCE FROM THE MEAN, which attends EVEN THE +MOST CAREFUL OBSERVATIONS, ought to be attributed to irregularity of +refraction, and how much to THE IMPERFECTIONS OF INSTRUMENTS." + +In confirmation of this may be adduced the opinion of the late M. +Delambre, which is the more important, from the statement it contains +relative to the necessity of publishing all the observations which have +been made. + +"Mais quelque soit le parti que l'on prefere, il me semble qu'on doit +tout publier. Ces irregularites memes sont des faits qu'il importe de +connoitre. LES SOINS LES PLUS ATTENTIFS N'EN SAUROIENT PRESERVER LES +OBSERVATEURS LES PLUS EXERCES, et celui qui ne produiroit que des angles +toujours parfaitment d'accord auroit ete singulierement bien servi +par les circonstances ou ne seroit pas bien sincere."--BASE DU SYSTEME +METRIQUE, Discours Preliminaire, p. 158. + +This desire for extreme accuracy has called away the attention of +experimenters from points of far greater importance, and it seems to +have been too much overlooked in the present day, that genius marks its +tract, not by the observation of quantities inappreciable to any but the +acutest senses, but by placing Nature in such circumstances, that she is +forced to record her minutest variations on so magnified a scale, that +an observer, possessing ordinary faculties, shall find them legibly +written. He who can see portions of matter beyond the ken of the rest of +his species, confers an obligation on them, by recording what he sees; +but their knowledge depends both on his testimony and on his judgment. +He who contrives a method of rendering such atoms visible to ordinary +observers, communicates to mankind an instrument of discovery, and +stamps his own observations with a character, alike independent of +testimony or of judgment. + + + + +SECTION 2. ON THE ART OF OBSERVING. + +The remarks in this section are not proposed for the assistance of +those who are already observers, but are intended to show to persons not +familiar with the subject, that in observations demanding no unrivalled +accuracy, the principles of common sense may be safely trusted, and that +any gentleman of liberal education may, by perseverance and attention, +ascertain the limits within which he may trust both his instrument and +himself. + +If the instrument is a divided one, the first thing is to learn to +read the verniers. If the divisions are so fine that the coincidence is +frequently doubtful, the best plan will be for the learner to get some +acquaintance who is skilled in the use of instruments, and having set +the instrument at hazard, to write down the readings of the verniers, +and then request his friend to do the same; whenever there is any +difference, he should carefully examine the doubtful one, and ask his +friend to point out the minute peculiarities on which he founds his +decision. This should be repeated frequently; and after some practice, +he should note how many times in a hundred his reading differs from his +friend's, and also how many divisions they usually differ. + +The next point is, to ascertain the precision with which the learner +can bisect an object with the wires of the telescope. This can be done +without assistance. It is not necessary even to adjust the instrument, +but merely to point it to a distant object. When it bisects any +remarkable point, read off the verniers, and write down the result; then +displace the telescope a little, and adjust it again. A series of such +observations will show the confidence which is due to the observer's +eye in bisecting an object, and also in reading the verniers; and as the +first direction gave him some measure of the latter, he may, in a great +measure, appreciate his skill in the former. He should also, when he +finds a deviation in the reading, return to the telescope, and satisfy +himself if he has made the bisection as complete as he can. In general, +the student should practise each adjustment separately, and write down +the results wherever he can measure its deviations. + +Having thus practised the adjustments, the next step is to make an +observation; but in order to try both himself and the instrument, let +him take the altitude of some fixed object, a terrestrial one, and +having registered the result, let him derange the adjustment, and repeat +the process fifty or a hundred times. This will not merely afford him +excellent practice, but enable him to judge of his own skill. + +The first step in the use of every instrument, is to find the limits +within which its employer can measure the SAME OBJECT UNDER THE SAME +CIRCUMSTANCES. It is only from a knowledge of this, that he can +have confidence in his measures of the SAME OBJECT UNDER DIFFERENT +CIRCUMSTANCES, and after that, of DIFFERENT OBJECTS UNDER DIFFERENT +CIRCUMSTANCES. + +These principles are applicable to almost all instruments. If a person +is desirous of ascertaining heights by a mountain barometer, let him +begin by adjusting the instrument in his own study; and having made the +upper contact, let him write down the reading of the vernier, and then +let him derange the UPPER adjustment ONLY, re-adjust, and repeat the +reading. When he is satisfied about the limits within which he can make +that adjustment, let him do the same repeatedly with the lower; but +let him not, until he knows his own errors in reading and adjusting, +pronounce upon those of the instrument. In the case of a barometer, +he must also be assured, that the temperature of the mercury does not +change during the interval. + +A friend once brought to me a beautifully constructed piece of +mechanism, for marking minute portions of time; the three-hundredth +parts of a second were indicated by it. It was a kind of watch, with +a pin for stopping one of the hands. I proposed that we should each +endeavour to stop it twenty times in succession, at the same point. We +were both equally unpractised, and our first endeavours showed that we +could not be confident of the twentieth part of a second. In fact, both +the time occupied in causing the extremities of the fingers to obey the +volition, as well as the time employed in compressing the flesh before +the fingers acted on the stop, appeared to influence the accuracy of our +observations. From some few experiments I made, I thought I perceived +that the rapidity of the transmission of the effects of the will, +depended on the state of fatigue or health of the body. If any one were +to make experiments on this subject, it might be interesting, to compare +the rapidity of the transmission of volition in different persons, +with the time occupied in obliterating an impression made on one of the +senses of the same persons. For example, by having a mechanism to make +a piece of ignited charcoal revolve with different degrees of velocity, +some persons will perceive a continuous circle of light before others, +whose retina does not retain so long impressions that are made upon it. + + + + +SECTION 3. ON THE FRAUDS OF OBSERVERS. + +Scientific inquiries are more exposed than most others to the inroads of +pretenders; and I feel that I shall deserve the thanks of all who really +value truth, by stating some of the methods of deceiving practised by +unworthy claimants for its honours, whilst the mere circumstance of +their arts being known may deter future offenders. + +There are several species of impositions that have been practised in +science, which are but little known, except to the initiated, and which +it may perhaps be possible to render quite intelligible to ordinary +understandings. These may be classed under the heads of hoaxing, +forging, trimming, and cooking. + +OF HOAXING. This, perhaps, will be better explained by an example. In +the year 1788, M. Gioeni, a knight of Malta, published at Naples an +account of a new family of Testacea, of which he described, with great +minuteness, one species, the specific name of which has been taken from +its habitat, and the generic he took from his own family, calling it +Gioenia Sicula. It consisted of two rounded triangular valves, united by +the body of the animal to a smaller valve in front. He gave figures +of the animal, and of its parts; described its structure, its mode of +advancing along the sand, the figure of the tract it left, and estimated +the velocity of its course at about two-thirds of an inch per minute. He +then described the structure of the shell, which he treated with nitric +acid, and found it approach nearer to the nature of bone than any other +shell. + +The editors of the ENCYCLOPEDIE METHODIQUE, have copied this +description, and have given figures of the Gioenia Sicula. The fact, +however, is, that no such animal exists, but that the knight of Malta, +finding on the Sicilian shores the three internal bones of one of the +species of Bulla, of which some are found on the south-western coast +of England, [Bulla lignaria] described and figured these bones most +accurately, and drew the whole of the rest of the description from the +stores of his own imagination. + +Such frauds are far from justifiable; the only excuse which has been +made for them is, when they have been practised on scientific academies +which had reached the period of dotage. It should however be remembered, +that the productions of nature are so various, that mere strangeness +is very far from sufficient to render doubtful the existence of any +creature for which there is evidence; [The number of vertebrae in the +neck of the plesiosaurus is a strange but ascertained fact] and that, +unless the memoir itself involves principles so contradictory, as to +outweigh the evidence of a single witness, [The kind of contradiction +which is here alluded to, is that which arises from well ascertained +final causes; for instance, the ruminating stomach of the hoofed +animals, is in no case combined with the claw-shaped form of the +extremities, frequent in many of the carniverous animals, and necessary +to some of them for the purpose of seizing their prey] it can only be +regarded as a deception, without the accompaniment of wit. + +FORGING differs from hoaxing, inasmuch as in the latter the deceit is +intended to last for a time, and then be discovered, to the ridicule of +those who have credited it; whereas the forger is one who, wishing to +acquire a reputation for science, records observations which he has +never made. This is sometimes accomplished in astronomical observations +by calculating the time and circumstances of the phenomenon from tables. +The observations of the second comet of 1784, which was only seen by +the Chevalier D'Angos, were long suspected to be a forgery, and were at +length proved to be so by the calculations and reasonings of Encke. The +pretended observations did not accord amongst each other in giving any +possible orbit. But M. Encke detected an orbit, belonging to some of +the observations, from which he found that all the rest might be almost +precisely deduced, provided a mistake of a unity in the index of the +logarithm of the radius vector were supposed to have been made in all +the rest of the calculations. ZACH. CORR. ASTRON. Tom. IV. p. 456. + +Fortunately instances of the occurrence of forging are rare. + +TRIMMING consists in clipping off little bits here and there from those +observations which differ most in excess from the mean, and in +sticking them on to those which are too small; a species of "equitable +adjustment," as a radical would term it, which cannot be admitted in +science. + +This fraud is not perhaps so injurious (except to the character of the +trimmer) as cooking, which the next paragraph will teach, The reason of +this is, that the AVERAGE given by the observations of the trimmer is +the same, whether they are trimmed or untrimmed. His object is to gain a +reputation for extreme accuracy in making observations; but from respect +for truth, or from a prudent foresight, he does not distort the position +of the fact he gets from nature, and it is usually difficult to detect +him. He has more sense or less adventure than the Cook. + +OF COOKING. This is an art of various forms, the object of which is to +give to ordinary observations the appearance and character of those of +the highest degree of accuracy. + +One of its numerous processes is to make multitudes of observations, and +out of these to select those only which agree, or very nearly agree. +If a hundred observations are made, the cook must be very unlucky if he +cannot pick out fifteen or twenty which will do for serving up. + +Another approved receipt, when the observations to be used will not +come within the limit of accuracy, which it has been resolved they shall +possess, is to calculate them by two different formulae. The difference +in the constants employed in those formulae has sometimes a most happy +effect in promoting unanimity amongst discordant measures. If still +greater accuracy is required, three or more formulae can be used. + +It must be admitted that this receipt is in some instances rather +hazardous: but in cases where the positions of stars, as given in +different catalogues, occur, or different tables of specific gravities, +specific heats, &c. &c., it may safely be employed. As no catalogue +contains all stars, the computer must have recourse to several; and if +he is obliged to use his judgment in the selection, it would be cruel +to deny him any little advantage which might result from it. It may, +however, be necessary to guard against one mistake into which persons +might fall. + +If an observer calculate particular stars from a catalogue which makes +them accord precisely with the rest of his results, whereas, had they +been computed from other catalogues the difference would have been +considerable, it is very unfair to accuse him of COOKING; for--those +catalogues may have been notoriously inaccurate; or--they may have +been superseded by others more recent, or made with better instruments; +or--the observer may have been totally ignorant of their existence. + +It sometimes happens that the constant quantities in formulae given by +the highest authorities, although they differ amongst themselves, yet +they will not suit the materials. This is precisely the point in which +the skill of the artist is shown; and an accomplished cook will carry +himself triumphantly through it, provided happily some mean value of +such constants will fit his observations. He will discuss the relative +merits of formulae he has just knowledge enough to use; and, with +admirable candour assigning their proper share of applause to Bessel, to +Gauss, and to Laplace, he will take THAT mean value of the constant used +by three such philosophers, which will make his own observations accord +to a miracle. + +There are some few reflections which I would venture to suggest to those +who cook, although they may perhaps not receive the attention which, in +my opinion, they deserve, from not coming from the pen of an adept. + +In the first place, it must require much time to try different +formulae. In the next place it may happen that, in the progress of human +knowledge, more correct formula: may be discovered, and constants may +be determined with far greater precision. Or it may be found that some +physical circumstance influences the results, (although unsuspected at +the time) the measure of which circumstance may perhaps be recovered +from other contemporary registers of facts. [Imagine, by way of example, +the state of the barometer or thermometer.] Or if the selection of +observations has been made with the view of its agreeing precisely with +the latest determination, there is some little danger that the average +of the whole may differ from that of the chosen ones, owing to some law +of nature, dependent on the interval between the two sets, which +law some future philosopher may discover, and thus the very best +observations may have been thrown aside. + +In all these, and in numerous other cases, it would most probably +happen that the cook would procure a temporary reputation for unrivalled +accuracy at the expense of his permanent fame. It might also have the +effect of rendering even all his crude observations of no value; for +that part of the scientific world whose opinion is of most weight, is +generally so unreasonable, as to neglect altogether the observations +of those in whom they have, on any occasion, discovered traces of the +artist. In fact, the character of an observer, as of a woman, if doubted +is destroyed. + +The manner in which facts apparently lost are restored to light, even +after considerable intervals of time, is sometimes very unexpected, and +a few examples may not be without their use. The thermometers employed +by the philosophers who composed the Academia Del Cimento, have been +lost; and as they did not use the two fixed points of freezing and +boiling water, the results of a great mass of observations have remained +useless from our ignorance of the value of a degree on their instrument. +M. Libri, of Florence, proposed to regain this knowledge by comparing +their registers of the temperature of the human body and of that of some +warm springs in Tuscany, which have preserved their heat uniform during +a century, as well as of other things similarly circumstanced. + +Another illustration was pointed out to me by M. Gazzeri, the Professor +of Chemistry at Florence. A few years ago an important suit in one of +the legal courts of Tuscany depended on ascertaining whether a certain +word had been erased by some chemical process from a deed then before +the court. The party who insisted that an erasure had been made, availed +themselves of the knowledge of M. Gazzeri, who, concluding that those +who committed the fraud would be satisfied by the disappearance of the +colouring matter of the ink, suspected (either from some colourless +matter remaining in the letters, or perhaps from the agency of the +solvent having weakened the fabric of the paper itself beneath the +supposed letters) that the effect of the slow application of heat would +be to render some difference of texture or of applied substance evident, +by some variety in the shade of colour which heat in such circumstances +might be expected to produce. Permission having been given to try the +experiment, on the application of heat the important word reappeared, to +the great satisfaction of the court. + + + +CHAPTER VI. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND. + + + + +SECTION 1. OF THE NECESSITY THAT MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY SHOULD +EXPRESS THEIR OPINIONS. + +One of the causes which has contributed to the success of the PARTY, is +to be found in the great reluctance with which many of those whose names +added lustre to the Society expressed their opinions, and the little +firmness with which they maintained their objections. How many times +have those whose activity was additionally stimulated by their interest, +proposed measures which a few words might have checked; whilst the +names of those whose culpable silence thus permitted the project to be +matured, were immediately afterwards cited by their grateful coadjutors, +as having sanctioned that which in their hearts they knew to be a job. + +Even in the few cases which have passed the limits of such forbearance, +when the subject has been debated in the Council, more than one, more +than two instances are known, where subsequent circumstances have +occurred, which proved, with the most irresistible moral evidence, that +members have spoken on one side of the question, and have voted on the +contrary. + +This reluctance to oppose that which is disapproved, has been too +extensively and too fatally prevalent for the interests of the Royal +Society. It may partly be attributed to that reserved and retiring +disposition, which frequently marks the man of real knowledge, as +strongly as an officious interference and flippant manner do the +charlatan, or the trader in science. Some portion of it is due to that +improper deference which was long paid to every dictum of the President, +and much of it to that natural indisposition to take trouble on any +point in which a man's own interest is not immediately concerned. It is +to be hoped, for the credit of that learned body, that no anticipation +of the next feast of St. Andrew ever influenced the taciturnity of their +disposition. [It may be necessary to inform those who are not members +of the Royal Society, that this is the day on which those Fellows who +choose, meet at Somerset House, to register the names of the Council and +Officers the President has been pleased to appoint for the ensuing year; +and who afterwards dine together, for the purpose of praising each other +over wine, which, until within these few years, was PAID for out of +the FUNDS of the Society. This abuse was attacked by an enterprising +reformer, and of course defended by the coterie. It was, however, +given up as too bad. The public may form some idea of the feeling which +prevails in the Council, when they are informed that this practice was +defended by one of the officers of the Society, on the ground that, +if abolished, THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY WOULD LOSE HIS PERCENTAGE ON THE +TAVERN BILLS.] + + + + +SECTION 2. OF BIENNIAL PRESIDENTS. + +The days in which the Royal Society can have much influence in science +seem long past; nor does it appear a matter of great importance who +conduct its mismanaged affairs. Perpetual Presidents have been tried +until the Society has become disgusted with dictators. If any reform +should be attempted, it might perhaps be deserving consideration whether +the practice of several of the younger institutions might not be worthy +imitation, and the office of President be continued only during two +sessions. There may be some inconveniences attending this arrangement; +but the advantages are conspicuous, both in the Astronomical and +Geological Societies. Each President is ambitious of rendering the +period of his reign remarkable for some improvement in the Society +over which he presides; and the sacrifice of time which is made by the +officers of those Societies, would become impossible if it were required +to be continued for a much longer period. Another circumstance of +considerable importance is, that the personal character of the President +is less impressed on the Society; and, supposing any injudicious +alterations to be made, it is much less difficult to correct them. + + + + +SECTION 3. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE COLLEGES OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS +IN THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +The honour of belonging to the Royal Society is much sought after +by medical men, as contributing to the success of their professional +efforts, and two consequences result from it. In the first place, the +pages of the Transactions of the Royal Society occasionally contain +medical papers of very moderate merit; and, in the second, the +preponderance of the medical interest introduces into the Society some +of the jealousies of that profession. On the other hand, medicine is +intimately connected with many sciences, and its professors are usually +too much occupied in their practice to exert themselves, except upon +great occasions. + + + + +SECTION 4. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION ON THE ROYAL +SOCIETY. + +The Royal Institution was founded for the cultivation of the more +popular and elementary branches of scientific knowledge, and has risen, +partly from the splendid discoveries of Davy, and partly from the +decline of the Royal Society, to a more prominent station than it would +otherwise have occupied in the science of England. Its general +effects in diffusing knowledge among the more educated classes of the +metropolis, have been, and continue to be, valuable. Its influence, +however, in the government of the Royal Society, is by no means attended +with similar advantages, and has justly been viewed with considerable +jealousy by many of the Fellows of that body. It may be stated, +without disparagement to the Royal Institution, that the scientific +qualifications necessary for its officers, however respectable, are not +quite of that high order which ought to be required for those of the +Royal Society, if the latter body were in a state of vigour. + +The Royal Institution interest has always been sufficient to appoint one +of the Secretaries of the Royal Society; and at the present moment they +have appointed two. In a short time, unless some effectual check is put +to this, we shall find them nominating the President and the rest of the +officers. It is certainly not consistent with the dignity of the Royal +Society thus to allow its offices to be given away as the rewards of +services rendered to other institutions. The only effectual way to put a +stop to this increasing interest would be, to declare that no manager +or officer of the Royal Institution should ever, at the same time, hold +office in the Royal Society. + +The use the Members of the Royal Institution endeavour to make of their +power in the Council of the Royal Society, is exemplified in the minutes +of the Council of March 11, 1830, which may be consulted with advantage +by those who doubt. + + + + +SECTION 5. OF THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. + +The Transactions of the Royal Society, unlike those of most foreign +academies, contain nothing relating to the history of the Society. The +volumes contain merely those papers communicated to the Society in +the preceding year which the Council have selected for printing, a +meteorological register, and a notice of the award of the annual medals, +without any list of the Council and officers of the Society, by whom +that selection and that award have been made. + +Before I proceed to criticise this state of things, I will mention one +point on which I am glad to be able to bestow on the Royal Society the +highest praise. I refer to the extreme regularity with which the volumes +of the Transactions are published. The appearance of the half-volumes at +intervals of six months, insures for any communication almost immediate +publicity; whilst the shortness of the time between its reception and +publication, is a guarantee to the public that the whole of the paper +was really communicated at the time it bears date. To this may also be +added, the rarity of any alterations made previously to the printing, +a circumstance which ought to be imitated, as well as admired, by other +societies. There may, indeed, be some, perhaps the Geological, in which +the task is more difficult, from the nature of the subject. The sooner, +however, all societies can reduce themselves to this rule, of rarely +allowing any thing but a few verbal corrections to papers that are +placed in their hands, the better it will be for their own reputation, +and for the interests of science. + +It has been, and continues to be, a subject of deep regret, that the +first scientific academy in Europe, the Institute of France, should be +thus negligent in the regularity of its publications; and it is the +more to be regretted, that it should be years in arrear, from the +circumstance, that the memoirs admitted into their collection are +usually of the highest merit. I know some of their most active members +have wished it were otherwise; I would urge them to put a stop to a +practice, which, whilst it has no advantages to recommend it, is unjust +to those who contribute, and is only calculated to produce conflicting +claims, equally injurious to science, and to the reputation of that +body, whose negligence may have given rise to them. [Mr. Herschel, +speaking of a paper of Fresnel's, observes--"This memoir was read to +the Institute, 7th of October, 1816; a supplement was received, 19th of +January, 1818; M. Arago's report on it was read, 4th of June, 1821: and +while every optical philosopher in Europe has been impatiently expecting +its appearance for seven years, it lies as yet unpublished, and is only +known to us by meagre notices in a periodical journal." MR HERSCHEL'S +TREATISE ON LIGHT, p. 533.--ENCYCLOPAEDIA METROPOLITANA.] + +One of the inconveniences arising from having no historical portion in +the volumes of the Royal Society is, that not only the public, but our +own members are almost entirely ignorant of all its affairs. With a +means of giving considerable publicity (by the circulation of above 800 +copies of the Transactions) to whatever we wish to have made known to +our members or to the world, will it be credited, that no notice was +taken in our volume for 1826, of the foundation of two Royal medals, +nor of the conditions under which they were to be distributed. [That +the Council refrained from having their first award of those medals thus +communicated, is rather creditable to them, and proves that they had a +becoming feeling respecting their former errors.] That in 1828, when +a new fund, called the donation fund, was established, and through the +liberality of Dr. Wollaston and Mr. Davies Gilbert, it was endowed by +them with the respective sums of 2,000L. and 1,000L. 3 per cents; +no notice of such fact appears in our Transactions for 1829. Other +gentlemen have contributed; and if it is desirable to possess such a +fund, it is surely of importance to inform the non-attending, which is +by far the largest part of the Society, that it exists; and that we are +grateful to those by whom it has been founded and augmented. Neither +did the Philosophical Transactions inform our absent members, that they +could purchase the President's Discourses at the trade-price. + +The list of the Officers, Council, and Members of the Royal Society is +printed annually; yet, who ever saw it bound up with the Philosophical +Transactions, to which it is intended to be attached? I never met with +a single copy of that work so completed, not even the one in our own +library. It is extremely desirable that the Society should know the +names of their Council; and whilst it would in some measure contribute +to prevent the President from placing incompetent persons upon it, it +would also afford some check, although perhaps but a slight one, on +the distribution of the medals. When I have urged the expediency of the +practice, I have been answered by excuses, that the list could not be +made up in time for the volume. If this is true of the first part, they +might appear with the second; and even if this were impracticable, the +plan of prefixing them to the volume of the succeeding year, would +be preferable to that of omitting them altogether. The true reason, +however, appeared at last. It was objected to the plan, that by the +present arrangement, the porter of the Royal Society took round the +list to those members resident in London, and got from some of them a +remuneration, in the shape of a Christmas-box; and this would be lost, +if the time of printing were changed. [During the printing of this +chapter, a friend, on whom I had called, complained that the porter of +the Royal Society had demanded half-a-crown for leaving the list.] Such +are the paltry interests to which those of the Royal Society are made to +bow. + +Another point on which information ought to be given in each volume, +is the conditions on which the distribution of the Society's medals +are made. It is true that these are, or ought to be, printed with +the Statutes of the Society; but that volume is only in the hands of +members, and it is for the credit of the medals themselves, that the +laws which regulate their award should be widely known, in order that +persons, not members of the Society, might enter into competition for +them. + +Information relative to the admissions and deaths amongst the Society +would also be interesting; a list of the names of those whom the Society +had lost, and of those members who had been added to its ranks each +year, would find a proper place in the historical pages which ought to +be given with each volume of our Transactions. + +The want of a distinction between the working members of the Society, +and those who merely honour it with their patronage, renders many +arrangements, which would be advantageous to science, in some cases, +injudicious, and in other instances, almost impossible. + +Collections of Observations which are from time to time given to the +Society, may be of such a nature, that but few of the members are +interested in them. In such cases, the expense of printing above 800 +copies may reasonably induce the Council to decline printing them +altogether; whereas, if they had any means of discrimination for +distributing them, they might be quite willing to incur the expense +of printing 250. Other cases may occur, in which great advantage +would accrue, if the principle were once admitted. Government, the +Universities, public bodies, and even individuals might, in some cases, +be disposed to present to the Royal Society a limited number of copies +of their works, if they knew that they were likely to be placed in +the hands of persons who would use them. Fifty or a hundred additional +copies might, in some cases, not be objected to on the ground of +expense, when seven or eight hundred would be quite out of the question. + +Let us suppose twenty copies of a description of some new chemical +process to be placed at the disposal of the Royal Society by any public +body; it will not surely be contended that they ought all to remain on +the Society's shelves. Yet, with our present rules, that would be the +case. If, however, the list of the Members of the Society were read over +to the Council, and the names of those gentlemen known to be conversant +with chemical science were written down; then, if nineteen copies of +the work were given to those nineteen persons on this list, who had +contributed most to the Transactions of the Society, they would in all +probability be placed in the fittest hands. + +Complete sets of the Philosophical Transactions have now become +extremely bulky; it might be well worth our consideration, whether the +knowledge of the many valuable papers they contain would not be much +spread, by publishing the abstracts of them which have been read at the +ordinary meetings of the Society. Perhaps two or three volumes octavo, +would contain all that has been done in this way during the last +century. + +Another circumstance, which would contribute much to the order of the +proceedings of the Council, would be to have a distinct list made out of +all the statutes and orders of the Council relating to each particular +subject. + +Thus the President, by having at one view before him all that had ever +been decreed on the question under consideration, would be much better +able to prevent inconsistent resolutions, and to save the time of the +Council from being wasted by unnecessary discussions. + + + + +SECTION 6. ORDER OF MERIT. + +Amongst the various proposals for encouraging science, the institution +of an order of merit has been suggested. It is somewhat singular, that +whilst in most of the other kingdoms of Europe, such orders exist for +the purpose of rewarding, by honorary distinctions, the improvers of the +arts of life, or successful discoverers in science, nothing of the +kind has been established in England. [At the great meeting of the +philosophers at Berlin, in 1828, of which an account is given in the +Appendix; the respect in which Berzelius, Oersted, Gauss, and Humboldt +were held in their respective countries was apparent in the orders +bestowed on them by the Sovereigns of Sweden, of Denmark, of Hanover, +and of Prussia; and there were present many other philosophers, whose +decorations sufficiently attested the respect in which science was held +in the countries from which they came.] + +Our orders of knighthood are favourable only to military distinction. +It has been urged, as an argument for such institutions, that they are a +cheap mode of rewarding science, whilst, on the other hand, it has +been objected, that they would diminish the value of such honorary +distinctions by making them common. The latter objection is of little +weight, because the numbers who pursue science are few, and, probably, +will long continue so. It would also be easily avoided, by restricting +the number of the order or of the class, if it were to form a peculiar +class of another order. Another objection, however, appears to me to +possess far greater weight; and, however strong the disposition of the +Government might be (if such an order existed) to fill it properly, I +do not believe that, in the present state of public opinion respecting +science, it could be done, and, in all probability, it would be filled +up through the channels of patronage, and by mere jobbers in science. + +Another proposal, of a similar kind, has also been talked of, one which +it may appear almost ridiculous to suggest in England, but which would +be considered so in no other country. It is, to ennoble some of the +greatest scientific benefactors of their country. Not to mention +political causes, the ranks of the nobility are constantly recruited +from the army, the navy, and the bar; why should not the family of that +man, whose name is imperishably connected with the steam-engine, be +enrolled amongst the nobility of his country? In utility and profit, +not merely to that country, but to the human race, his deeds may proudly +claim comparison even with the most splendid of those achieved by +classes so rich in glorious recollections. An objection, in most cases +fatal to such a course, arises from the impolicy of conferring a title, +unless a considerable fortune exists to support it; a circumstance +very rarely occurring to the philosopher. It might in some measure be +removed, by creating such titles only for life. But here, again, until +there existed some knowledge of science amongst the higher classes, and +a sound state of public opinion relative to science, the execution of +the plan could only be injurious. + + + + +SECTION 7. OF THE UNION OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. + +This idea has occurred to several persons, as likely to lead to +considerable advantages to science. If the various scientific societies +could unite in the occupation of one large building, considerable +economy would result from the union. By properly arranging their +evenings of meeting, one meeting-room only need be required. The +libraries might either be united, or arranged in adjoining rooms; and +such a system would greatly facilitate the inquiries of scientific +persons. + +Whether it would be possible to reunite in any way the different +societies to the Royal Society, might be a delicate question; but +although, on some accounts, desirable, that event is not necessary for +the purpose of their having a common residence. + +The Medico-Botanical Society might, perhaps, from sympathy, be the first +to which the Royal Society would apply; and by a proper interchange of +diplomas, [A thing well understood by the INITIATED, both at HOME and +ABROAD.] the two societies might be inoculated with each other. But +even here some tact would be required; the Medico-Botanical is a +little particular about the purity of its written documents, and lately +attributed blame to one of its officers for some slight tampering with +them, a degree of illiberality which the Council of the Royal Society +are far from imitating. + +The Geological and the Astronomical Societies nourish no feelings of +resentment to the parent institution for their early persecution; and +though they have no inducement to seek, would scarcely refuse any union +which might be generally advantageous to science. + + + +CONCLUSION. + +In a work on the Decline of Science, at a period when England has so +recently lost two of its brightest ornaments, I should hardly be excused +if I omitted to devote a few words to the names of Wollaston and of +Davy. Until the warm feelings of surviving kindred and admiring friends +shall be cold as the grave from which remembrance vainly recalls +their cherished forms, invested with all the life and energy of +recent existence, the volumes of their biography must be sealed. Their +contemporaries can expect only to read their eloge. + +In habits of intercourse with both those distinguished individuals, +sufficiently frequent to mark the curiously different structure of their +minds, I was yet not on such terms even with him I most esteemed, as to +view his great qualities through that medium which is rarely penetrated +by the eyes of long and very intimate friendship. + +Caution and precision were the predominant features of the character +of Wollaston, and those who are disposed to reduce the number of +principles, would perhaps justly trace the precision which adorned +his philosophical, to the extreme caution which pervaded his moral +character. It may indeed be questioned whether the latter quality will +not in all persons of great abilities produce the former. + +Ambition constituted a far larger ingredient in the character of +Davy, and with the daring hand of genius he grasped even the remotest +conclusions to which a theory led him. He seemed to think invention a +more common attribute than it really is, and hastened, as soon as he was +in possession of a new fact or a new principle, to communicate it to the +world, doubtful perhaps lest he might not be anticipated; but, confident +in his own powers, he was content to give to others a chance of reaping +some part of that harvest, the largest portion of which he knew must +still fall to his own share. + +Dr. Wollaston, on the other hand, appreciated more truly the rarity of +the inventive faculty; and, undeterred by the fear of being anticipated, +when he had contrived a new instrument, or detected a new principle, he +brought all the information that he could collect from others, or which +arose from his own reflection, to bear upon it for years, before he +delivered it to the world. + +The most singular characteristic of Wollaston's mind was the plain and +distinct line which separated what he knew from what he did not know; +and this again, arising from his precision, might be traced to caution. + +It would, however, have been visible to such an extent in few except +himself, for there were very few so perfectly free from vanity and +affectation. To this circumstance may be attributed a peculiarity of +manner in the mode in which he communicated information to those +who sought it from him, which was to many extremely disagreeable. He +usually, by a few questions, ascertained precisely how much the inquirer +knew upon the subject, or the exact point at which his ignorance +commenced, a process not very agreeable to the vanity of mankind; taking +up the subject at this point, he would then very clearly and shortly +explain it. + +His acquaintance with mathematics was very limited. Many years since, +when I was an unsuccessful candidate for a professorship of mathematics, +I applied to Dr. W. for a recommendation; he declined it, on the ground +of its not being his pursuit. I told him I asked it, because I thought +it would have weight, to which he replied, that it ought to have none +whatever. There is no doubt his view was the just one. Yet such is the +state of ignorance which exists on these subjects, that I have several +times heard him mentioned as one of the greatest mathematicians of the +age. [This of course could only have happened in England.] But in this +as in all other points, the precision with which he comprehended +and retained all he had ever learned, especially of the elementary +applications of mathematics to physics, was such, that he possessed +greater command over those subjects than many of far more extensive +knowledge. + +In associating with Wollaston, you perceived that the predominant +principle was to avoid error; in the society of Davy, you saw that it +was the desire to see and make known truth. Wollaston never could have +been a poet; Davy might have been a great one. + +A question which I put, successively, to each of these distinguished +philosophers, will show how very differently a subject may be viewed by +minds even of the highest order. + +About the time Mr. Perkins was making his experiments on the compression +of water, I was much struck with the mechanical means he had brought to +bear on the subject, and was speculating on other applications of it, +which I will presently mention. + +Meeting Dr. Wollaston one morning in the shop of a bookseller, I +proposed this question: If two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen are +mixed together in a vessel, and if by mechanical pressure they can be so +condensed as to become of the same specific gravity as water, will the +gases under these circumstances unite and form water? "What do you think +they will do?" said Dr. W. I replied, that I should rather expect they +would unite. "I see no reason to suppose it," said he. I then inquired +whether he thought the experiment worth making. He answered, that he did +not, for that he should think it would certainly not succeed. + +A few days after, I proposed the same question to Sir Humphry Davy. He +at once said, "they will become water, of course;" and on my inquiring +whether he thought the experiment worth making, he observed that it was +a good experiment, but one which it was hardly necessary to make, as it +must succeed. + +These were off-hand answers, which it might perhaps be hardly fair to +have recorded, had they been of persons of less eminent talent: and it +adds to the curiosity of the circumstance to mention, that I believe Dr. +Wollaston's reason for supposing no union would take place, arose +from the nature of the electrical relations of the two gases remaining +unchanged, an objection which did not weigh with the philosopher whose +discoveries had given birth to it. + +[The result of the experiment appeared, and still appears to me, to be +of the highest importance; and I will shortly state the views with which +it was connected. The next great discovery in chemistry to definite +proportions, will be to find means of forming all the simple unions of +one atom with one, with two, or with more of say other substance: and it +occurred to me that the gaseous bodies presented the fairest chance of +success; and that if wishing, for instance, to unite four atoms of one +substance with one of another, we could, by mechanical means, reduce the +mixed gases to the same specific gravity as the substance would possess +which resulted from their union, then either that such union would +actually take place, or the particles of the two substances would be +most favourably situated for the action of caloric, electricity, or +other causes, to produce the combination. It would indeed seem to +follow, that if combination should take place under such circumstances, +then the most probable proportion in which the atoms would unite, should +be that which furnished a fluid of the least specific gravity: but +until the experiments are made, it is by no means certain that other +combinations might not be produced.] + +The singular minuteness of the particles of bodies submitted by Dr. +Wollaston to chemical analysis, has excited the admiration of all +those who have had the good fortune to witness his experiments; and the +methods he employed deserve to be much more widely known. + +It appears to me that a great mistake exists on the subject. It has been +adduced as one of those facts which prove the extraordinary acuteness of +the bodily senses of the individual,--a circumstance which, if it +were true, would add but little to his philosophical character; I am, +however, inclined to view it in a far different light, and to see in it +one of the natural results of the admirable precision of his knowledge. + +During the many opportunities I have enjoyed of seeing his minute +experiments, I remember but one instance in which I noticed any +remarkable difference in the acuteness of his bodily faculties, either +of his hearing, his sight, or of his sense of smell, from those of other +persons who possessed them in a good degree. [This was at Mr. South's +observatory, and the object was, the dots on the declination circle of +his equatorial; but, in this instance, Dr. Wollaston did not attempt to +TEACH ME HOW TO SEE THEM.] + +He never showed me an almost microscopic wire, which was visible to his, +and invisible to my own eye: even in the beautiful experiments he made +relative to sounds inaudible to certain ears, he never produced a tone +which was unheard by mine, although sensible to his ear; and I believe +this will be found to have been the case by most of those whose minds +had been much accustomed to experimental inquiries, and who possessed +their faculties unimpaired by illness or by age. + +It was a much more valuable property on which the success of such +inquiries depended. It arose from the perfect attention which he could +command, and the minute precision with which he examined every object. A +striking illustration of the fact that an object is frequently not seen, +FROM NOT KNOWING HOW TO SEE IT, rather than from any defect in the organ +of vision, occurred to me some years since, when on a visit at Slough. +Conversing with Mr. Herschel on the dark lines seen in the solar +spectrum by Fraunhofer, he inquired whether I had seen them; and on my +replying in the negative, and expressing a great desire to see them, +he mentioned the extreme difficulty he had had, even with Fraunhofer's +description in his hand and the long time which it had cost him in +detecting them. My friend then added, "I will prepare the apparatus, and +put you in such a position that they shall be visible, and yet you shall +look for them and not find them: after which, while you remain in the +same position, I will instruct you how to see them, and you shall see +them, and not merely wonder you did not see them before, but you shall +find it impossible to look at the spectrum without seeing them." + +On looking as I was directed, notwithstanding the previous warning, I +did not see them; and after some time I inquired how they might be seen, +when the prediction of Mr. Herschel was completely fulfilled. + +It was this attention to minute phenomena which Dr. Wollaston applied +with such powerful effect to chemistry. In the ordinary cases of +precipitation the cloudiness is visible in a single drop as well as in +a gallon of a solution; and in those cases where the cloudiness is so +slight, as to require a mass of fluid to render it visible, previous +evaporation, quickly performed on slips of window glass, rendered the +solution more concentrated. + +The true value of this minute chemistry arises from its cheapness and +the extreme rapidity with which it can be accomplished: it may, in hands +like those of Wollaston, be used for discovery, but not for measure. I +have thought it more necessary to place this subject on what I consider +its true grounds, for two reasons. In the first place, I feel that +injustice has been done to a distinguished philosopher in attributing +to some of his bodily senses that excellence which I think is proved to +have depended on the admirable training of his intellectual faculties. +And, in the next place, if I have established the fact, whilst it +affords us better means of judging of such observations as lay claim to +an accuracy "MORE THAN HUMAN," it also opens, to the patient inquirer +into truth, a path by which he may acquire powers that he would +otherwise have thought were only the gift of nature to a favoured few. + + + +APPENDIX, No. 1. + +In presenting to my readers the account of the meeting of men of science +at Berlin, in the autumn of 1828, I am happy to be able to state, that +its influence has been most beneficial, and that the annual meeting +to be held in 1831, will take place at Vienna, the Emperor of Austria +having expressed a wish that every facility which his capital affords +should be given to promote its objects. + +It is gratifying to find that a country, which has hitherto been +considered adverse to the progress of knowledge, should become convinced +of its value; and it is sincerely to be hoped, that every one of the +numerous members of the Society will show, by his conduct, that the +paths of science are less likely than any others to interfere with those +of politics. + + +ACCOUNT OF THE GREAT CONGRESS OF PHILOSOPHERS AT BERLIN, ON THE 18TH OF +SEPTEMBER 1828. FROM THE EDINBURGH JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, APRIL, 1829. + +The existence of a large society of cultivators of the natural sciences +meeting annually at some great capital, or some central town of Europe, +is a circumstance almost unknown to us, and deserving of our attention, +from the important advantages which may arise from it. + +About eight years ago, Dr. Okens, of Munich, suggested a plan for an +annual meeting of all Germans who cultivated the sciences of medicine +and botany. The first meeting, of about forty members, took place at +Leipsic, in 1822, and it was successively held at Halle, Wurtzburg, +Frankfort on the Maine, Dresden, Munich, and Berlin. All those who had +printed a certain number of sheets of their inquiries on these subjects +were considered members of this academy. + +The great advantages which resulted to these sciences from the +communication of observations from all quarters of Germany, soon induced +an extension of the plan, and other departments of natural knowledge +were admitted, until, at the last meeting, the cultivators even of pure +mathematics were found amongst the ranks of this academy. + +Several circumstances, independent of the form and constitution of the +academy, contributed to give unwonted splendour to the last meeting, +which took place at Berlin in the middle of September of the last year. + +The capital selected for its temporary residence is scarcely surpassed +by any in Europe in the number and celebrity of its savans. + +The taste for knowledge possessed by the reigning family, has made +knowledge itself fashionable; and the severe sufferings of the Prussians +previous to the war, by which themselves and Europe were freed, have +impressed on them so strongly the lesson that "knowledge is power," that +its effects are visible in every department of the government; and there +is no country in Europe in which talents and genius so surely open for +their possessors the road to wealth and distinction. + +Another circumstance also contributed its portion to increase the +numbers of the meeting of the past year. The office of president, which +is annually changed, was assigned to M. Alexander de Humboldt. The +universality of his acquirements, which have left no branch within the +wide range of science indifferent or unexplored, has connected him by +friendship with almost all the most celebrated philosophers of the age; +whilst the polished amenity of his manners, and that intense desire of +acquiring and of spreading knowledge, which so peculiarly characterizes +his mind, renders him accessible to all strangers, and insures for them +the assistance of his counsel in their scientific pursuits, and the +advantage of being made known to all those who are interested or +occupied in similar inquiries. + +Professor Lichtenstein, (Director of the Museum of Zoology,) as +secretary of the academy, was indefatigable in his attentions, and most +ably seconded the wishes of its distinguished president. + +These two gentlemen, assisted by several of the residents at Berlin, +undertook the numerous preliminary arrangements necessary for the +accommodation of the meeting. + +On the 18th of September, 1828, there were assembled at Berlin 377 +members of the academy, whose names and residences (in Berlin) were +printed in a small pamphlet, and to each name was attached a number, +to indicate his seat in the great concert room, in which the morning +meetings took place. Each member was also provided with an engraved card +of the hall of meeting, on which the numbers of the seats were printed +in black ink, and his own peculiar seat marked in red ink, so that every +person immediately found his own place, and knew where to look for any +friend whom he might wish to find. + +At the hour appointed for the opening of the meeting, the members being +assembled, and the galleries and orchestra being filled by an assemblage +of a large part of the rank and beauty of the capital, and the +side-boxes being occupied by several branches of the royal family, and +by the foreign ambassadors, the session of the academy was opened by the +eloquent address of the president. + +SPEECH made at the Opening of the Society of German Naturalists and +Natural Philosophers at Berlin, the 18th of September, 1828.--By +ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. + +Since through your choice, which does me so much honour, I am permitted +to open this meeting, the first duty which I have to discharge is one of +gratitude. The distinction which has been conferred on him who has never +yet been able to attend your excellent society, is not the reward of +scientific efforts, or of feeble and persevering attempts to discover +new phenomena, or to draw the light of knowledge from the unexplored +depths of nature. A finer feeling, however, directed your attention to +me. You have assured me, that while, during an absence of many years, +and in a distant quarter of the globe, I was labouring in the same +cause with yourselves, I was not a stranger in your thoughts. You have +likewise greeted my return home, that, by the sacred tie of gratitude, +you might bind me still longer and closer to our common country. + +What, however, can the picture of this, our native land, present more +agreeable to the mind, than the assembly which we receive to-day for +the first time within our walls; from the banks of the Neckar, the +birth-place of Kepler and of Schiller, to the remotest border of the +Baltic plains; from hence to the mouths of the Rhine, where, under the +beneficent influence of commerce, the treasuries of exotic nature have +for centuries been collected and investigated, the friends of nature, +inspired with the same zeal, and, urged by the same passion, flock +together to this assembly. Everywhere, where the German language is +used, and its peculiar structure affects the spirit and disposition +of the people. From the Great European Alps, to the other side of the +Weichsel, where, in the country of Copernicus, astronomy rose to renewed +splendour; everywhere in the extensive dominions of the German nation +we attempt to discover the secret operations of nature, whether in the +heavens, or in the deepest problems of mechanics, or in the interior of +the earth, or in the finely woven tissues of organic structure. + +Protected by noble princes, this assembly has annually increased in +interest and extent. Every distinction which difference of religion +or form of government can occasion is here annulled. Germany manifests +itself as it were in its intellectual unity; and since knowledge of +truth and performance of duty are the highest object of morality, +that feeling of unity weakens none of the bonds which the religion, +constitution, and laws of our country, have rendered dear to each of +us. Even this emulation in mental struggles has called forth (as the +glorious history of our country tells us,) the fairest blossoms of +humanity, science, and art. + +The assembly of German naturalists and natural philosophers since its +last meeting, when it was so hospitably received at Munich, has, through +the flattering interest of neighbouring states and academies, shone +with peculiar lustre. Allied nations have renewed the ancient alliance +between Germany and the ancient Scandinavian North. + +Such an interest deserves acknowledgment the more, because it +unexpectedly increases the mass of facts and opinions which are +here brought into one common and useful union. It also recalls lofty +recollections into the mind of the naturalist. Scarcely half a century +has elapsed since Linne appears, in the boldness of the undertakings +which he has attempted and accomplished, as one of the greatest men of +the last century. His glory, however bright, has not rendered Europe +blind to the merits of Scheele and Bergman. The catalogue of these great +names is not completed; but lest I shall offend noble modesty, I dare +not speak of the light which is still flowing in richest profusion +from the North, nor mention the discoveries in the chemical nature of +substances, in the numerical relation of their elements, or the eddying +streams of electro-magnetic powers. [The philosophers here referred to +are Berzelius and Oersted.] May those excellent persons, who, deterred +neither by perils of sea or land, have hastened to our meeting from +Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, England, and Poland, point our the way +to other strangers in succeeding years, so that by turns every part +of Germany may enjoy the effects of scientific communication with the +different nations of Europe. + +But although I must restrain the expression of my personal feelings +in presence of this assembly, I must be permitted at least to name the +patriarchs of our national glory, who are detained from us by a regard +for those lives so dear to their country;--Goethe, whom the great +creations of poetical fancy have not prevented from penetrating the +ARCANA of nature, and who now in rural solitude mourns for his princely +friend, as Germany for one of her greatest ornaments;--Olbers, who has +discovered two bodies where he had already predicted they were to be +found;--the greatest anatomists of our age--Soemmering, who, with equal +zeal, has investigated the wonders of organic structure, and the spots +and FACULAE of the sun, (condensations and openings of the photosphere;) +Blumenbach, whose pupil I have the honour to be, who, by his works and +his immortal eloquence, has inspired everywhere a love of comparative +anatomy, physiology, and the general history of nature, and who +has laboured diligently for half a century. How could I resist the +temptation to adorn my discourse with names which posterity will repeat, +as we are not favoured with their presence? + +These observations on the literary wealth of our native country, and the +progressive developement of our institution, lead us naturally to +the obstructions which will arise from the increasing number of our +fellow-labourers, The chief object of this assembly does not consist, +as in other societies whose sphere is more limited, in the mutual +interchange of treatises, or in innumerable memoirs, destined to be +printed in some general collection. The principal object of this Society +is, to bring those personally together who are engaged in the same field +of science. It is the immediate, and therefore more obvious interchange +of ideas, whether they present themselves as facts, opinions, or +doubts. It is the foundation of friendly connexion which throws light +on science, adds cheerfulness to life, and gives patience and amenity to +the manners. + +In the most flourishing period of ancient Greece, the distinction +between words and writing first manifested itself most strongly amongst +a race, which had raised itself to the most splendid intellectual +superiority, and to whose latest descendants, as preserved from the +shipwreck of nations, we still consecrate our most anxious wishes. It +was not the difficulty of interchange of ideas alone, nor the want of +German science, which has spread thought as on wings through the world, +and insured it a long continuance, that then induced the friends of +philosophy and natural history in Magna Graecia and Asia Minor to wander +on long journeys. That ancient race knew the inspiring influence of +conversation as it extemporaneously, freely, and prudently penetrates +the tissue of scientific opinions and doubts. The discovery of the truth +without difference of opinion is unattainable, because the truth, in its +greatest extent, can never be recognized by all, and at the same time. +Each step, which seems to bring the explorer of nature nearer to his +object, only carries him to the threshold of new labyrinths. The mass of +doubt does not diminish, but spreads like a moving cloud over other and +new fields; and whoever has called that a golden period, when difference +of opinions, or, as some are accustomed to express it, the disputes +of the learned, will be finished, has as imperfect a conception of the +wants of science, and of its continued advancement, as a person who +expects that the same opinions in geognosy, chemistry, or physiology, +will be maintained for several centuries. + +The founders of this society, with a deep sense of the unity of nature, +have combined in the completest manner, all the branches of physical +knowledge, and the historical, geometrical, and experimental philosophy. +The names of natural historian and natural philosopher are here, +therefore, nearly synonymous, chained by a terrestrial link to the type +of the lower animals. Man completes the scale of higher organization. In +his physiological and pathological qualities, he scarcely presents to us +a distinct class of beings. As to what has brought him to this exalted +object of physical study, and has raised him to general scientific +investigation, belongs principally to this society. Important as it +is not to break that link which embraces equally the investigation +of organic and inorganic nature, still the increasing ties and daily +developement of this institution renders it necessary, besides the +general meeting which is destined for these halls, to have specific +meetings for single branches of science. For it is only in such +contracted circles,--it is only among men whom reciprocity of studies +has brought together, that verbal discussions can take place. Without +this sort of communication, would the voluntary association of men in +search of truth be deprived of an inspiring principle. + +Among the preparations which are made in this city for the advancement +of the society, attention has been principally paid to the possibility +of such a subdivision into sections. The hope that these preparations +will meet with your approbation, imposes upon me the duty of reminding +you, that, although you had entrusted to two travellers, equally, the +duty of making these arrangements, yet it is to one alone, my noble +friend, M. Lichtenstein, that the merit of careful precaution and +indefatigable activity is due. Out of respect to the scientific spirit +which animates the Society of German Naturalists and Natural Philosophy, +and in acknowledgment of the utility of their efforts, government have +seconded all our wishes with the greatest cheerfulness. + +In the vicinity of the place of meeting, which has in this manner been +prepared for our general and special labours, are situated the museums +dedicated to anatomy, zoology, oryctognosy, and geology. They exhibit to +the naturalist a rich mine for observation and critical discussion. The +greater number of these well-arranged collections have existed, like +the University of Berlin, scarcely twenty years. The oldest of them, to +which the Botanical Garden, (one of the richest in Europe) belongs, have +during this period not only been increased, but entirely remodelled. The +amusement and instruction derived from such institutions, call to our +minds, with deep feelings of gratitude, that they are the work of that +great monarch, who modestly and in simple grandeur, adorns every year +this royal city with new treasures of nature and art; and what is of +still greater value than the treasures themselves,--what inspires every +Prussian with youthful strength, and with an enthusiastic love for the +ancient reigning family,--that he graciously attaches to himself every +species of talent, and extends with confidence his royal protection to +the free cultivation of the understanding. + +This was followed by a paper on magnetism, by Professor Oersted; and +several other memoirs were then read. + +The arrival of so many persons of similar pursuit, (for 464 members were +present,) rendered it convenient to have some ordinary, at which those +who chose might dine, and introduce their friends or families. This had +been foreseen, and his Majesty had condescended to allow the immense +building used for the exercise of his troops, to be employed for this +purpose. One-third of it was floored on the occasion, and tables were +arranged, at which, on one occasion, 850 persons sat down to dinner. On +the evening of the first day, M. de Humboldt gave a large SOIREE in the +concert rooms attached to the theatre. About 1200 persons assembled on +this occasion, and his Majesty the King of Prussia honoured with his +presence the fete of his illustrious chamberlain. The nobility of the +country, foreign princes, and foreign ambassadors, were present. It +was gratifying to observe the princes of the blood mingling with the +cultivators of science, and to see the heir-apparent to the throne, +during the course of the evening, engaged in conversation with those +most celebrated for their talents, of his own, or of other countries. + +Nor were the minor arrangements of the evening beneath the consideration +of the President. The words of the music selected for the concert, +were printed and distributed to the visitors. The names of the most +illustrious philosophers which Germany had produced, were inscribed in +letters of gold at the end of the great concert room. + +In the first rank amongst these stood a name which, England, too, +enrolls amongst the brightest in her scientific annals; and proud, as +well she may be, of having fostered and brought to maturity the genius +of the first Herschel, she has reaped an ample reward in being able to +claim as entirely her own, the inheritor of his talents and his name. + +The six succeeding days were occupied, in the morning, by a meeting +of the academy, at which papers of general interest were read. In +the afternoon, through the arrangement of M. de Humboldt and M. +Lichtenstein, various rooms were appropriated for different sections of +the academy. In one, the chemical philosophers attended to some +chemical memoir, whilst the botanists assembled in another room, the +physiologists in a third, and the natural philosophers in a fourth. Each +attended to the reading of papers connected with their several sciences. +Thus every member was at liberty to choose that section in which he felt +most interest at the moment, and he had at all times power of access to +the others. The evenings were generally spent at some of the SOIREES +of the savans, resident at Berlin, whose hospitality and attentions to +their learned brethren of other countries were unbounded. During the +unoccupied hours of the morning, the collections of natural history, +which are rapidly rising into importance, were open to examination; and +the various professors and directors who assisted the stranger in his +inquiries, left him equally gratified by the knowledge and urbanity of +those who so kindly aided him. + +A map of Europe was printed, on which those towns only appeared which +had sent representatives to this scientific congress; and the numbers +sent by different kingdoms appeared by the following table, which was +attached to it;-- + + Russia......... 1 + Austria........ 0 + England........ 1 + Holland........ 2 + Denmark........ 7 + France ........ 1 + Sardinia ....... 0 + Prussia........ 95 + Bavaria........ 12 + Hanover........ 5 + Saxony ........ 21 + Wirtemburg ...... 2 + Sweden ........ 13 + Naples ........ 1 + Poland ........ 3 + German States..... 43 + --- 206 + Berlin ....... 172 + --- 378 + +The proportion in which the cultivators of different sciences appeared, +was not easy to ascertain, because there were few amongst the more +eminent who had not added to more than one branch of human knowledge. +The following table, though not professing to be very accurate, will +afford, perhaps, a tolerably fair view:-- + + Geometers............. 11 + Astronomers........... 5 + Natural Philosophers . 23 + -- 39 + + Mines............ 5 + Mineralogy ...... 16 + Geology.......... 9 + -- 30 + + Chemistry........... 18 + Geography........... 8 + Anatomy............. 12 + + Zoology............ 14 + Natural History.... 8 + Botany.............. 35 + -- 57 + + Physicians....... 175 + Amateurs ....... 9 + Various ......... 35 + ---381 + +A medal was struck in commemoration of this meeting, and it was proposed +that it should form the first of a series, which should comprise all +those persons most celebrated for their scientific discoveries in the +past and present age. + + + +APPENDIX, No. 2. + +An examination into some charges brought against one of the twenty-four +candidates, mentioned in a note as having their names suspended in the +meeting-room of the Royal Society, at one time, has caused a printed +pamphlet to be circulated amongst the members of the Society. Of the +charges themselves I shall offer no opinion, but entreat every member +to judge for himself. I shall, however, make one extract, which tends to +show how the ranks of the Society are recruited. + +EXTRACT FROM A PRINTED LETTER FROM A. F. M. TO J. G. CHILDREN, ESQ. +DATED, 22, UPPER BEDFORD-PLACE, MARCH 13, 1830. + +"When I wished you to Propose me at the Geological Society, you asked me +why you should not propose me also at the Royal Society; and my answer +was, that it was an honour to which I did not think I could aspire; that +my talents were too insignificant to warrant such pretensions. Many days +passed, and still you pressed me on the subject, because your partiality +made you think me deserving of the honour; but I resisted, really +through modesty, not that I did not covet the distinction, until +something was said of my paper on the meteoric mass of iron of Brazil, +which was published some years ago in the Transactions of the Royal +Society; when you insisted on proposing me, and I assented gratefully, +because I was and am desirous of being a Fellow of the Royal Society, if +I can be supposed worthy of having my name so honourably enrolled." + +EXTRACT FROM A LETTER OF J. G. CHILDREN, ESQ. TO A. F. M. ESQ. DATED, +BRITISH MUSEUM, MARCH 24, 1830. + +"All that you have said respecting your being a candidate for admission +into the Royal Society, is correct to the letter. I pressed the subject +upon you, and I would do it again to-morrow, were it necessary." + +Here, then, we find Mr. Children, who has been on the Council of the +Royal Society, and who was, a few years since, one of its Secretaries, +pressing one of his friends to become, and actually insisting on +proposing him as, a Fellow of the Royal Society, He must have been +well aware of the feelings which prevail amongst the Council as to +the propriety of such a step, and by publishing the fact, seems quite +satisfied that such a course is advantageous to the interests of +the Society. That similar applications were not unfrequently made in +private, is well known; but it remains for the Society to consider +whether, now they are publicly and officially announced to them, it +will sanction this mode of augmenting the already numerous list of its +fellows. + + +APPENDIX, No. 3, + +LIST OF THE MEMBERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY, WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE +PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS, OR HAVE BEEN ON THE COUNCIL. + + +N. B.--The Numbers are made up to the present year for the Papers, but +only to 1827 for Members of the Council. + + No. of No. of + Papers years on + printed Council. + in Phil. + Trans.-------- ------- + 3 Aberdeen, Earl of. + 3 3 Abernethy, John. + 2 Allan, Thomas. + 3 Allen, William. + 1 Arden, Lord. + 1 Atholl, Duke of. + 7 2 Babbage, Charles, + 1 Babington, William. + 1 2 Baily,Francis. + 9 Barlow, Peter. (C) + 2 Barnard, Sir F. Augusta. + 5 Barrow, John. + 2 Bauer, Francis. + 1 Bayley, John. + 1 Beaufort, Francis. + 2 Beaufoy, Henry. + 5 Bell, Charles. + 1 Bingley, Robert. + 1 Blackburne, John. + 3 Blake, William. + 1 3 Blane, Sir Gilbert. + 1 1 Blizard, Sir William. + 1 1 Bostock, John. + 12 10 Brande, Wm. Thos. (C) + 16 Brewster, David. (C) + 6 1 Brodie, B. Collins. (C) + 1 Bromhead Sir E. F. + 3 Brougham, Henry. + 1 Browne, Henry. + 1 Brown, Robert. + 2 Brownlow, Earl. + 1 Buckland, Rev. W. (C) + 1 Burney, Rev. C. Parr. + 1 Canterbury, Archbp. of. + 1 Carew, Rt. Hon. R. P. + 7 Carlisle, Sir Anthony. + 2 Carlisle, Nicholas. + 1 Carne, Joseph. + 1 Carrington, Sir C. E. + 2 Charleville, Earl of. + 7 2 Chenevix, Richard. (C) + 3 4 Children, John George. + 10 Christie, Sam. Hunter. + 1 Clerk, Sir George. + 2 Clift, William. + 9 Cloyne, Bishop of. (C) + 2 Colby, Colonel Thomas. + 1 Colebrooke, Henry T. + 2 2 Cooper, Sir Astley P. (C) + 1 Crichton, Sir Alex. + 5 Croker, John Wilson. + 1 Cullum, Sir T. Gery. + 2 Dalton, John. + 2 Darnley, Earl of + 1 Darwin, Robert Waring. + 1 Davis, John Francis. + 2 Davy, Edmund. + 13 Davy, John. + 3 Dyllwin, Lewis Weston. + 1 Dollond, George. + 1 Dudley and Ward, Visc. + 2 Earle, Henry. + 1 Egremont, Earl of. + 1 Fallows, Rev. Fearon. + 8 Faraday, Michael. + 1 Farnborough, Lord. + 1 Fisher, Rev. George. + 1 Fly, Rev. Henry. + 2 Foster, Henry. + 1 1 Frankland, Sir Thomas. + 1 Gibbes, Sir Geo, Smith. + 2 13 Gilbert, Davies. + 2 Gillies, John. + 5 Goldingham, John. + 3 1 Gompertz, Benjamin. + 1 Goodenough, George T. + 2 Gordon, Sir James W. + 3 Granville, Augustus B. + 1 Greatorex, Thomas. + 1 Greenough, Geo.Bellas. + 1 Griffiths, John. + 3 1 Groombridge, Stephen. + 1 Halford, Sir Henry. + 2 Hall, Basil. + 1 Hamilton, Wm. Rich. + 2 Hardwicke, Earl of. + 2 Harvey, George. + 1 Harwood, J. + 16 10 Hatchett, Charles. (C) + 1 Hawkins, John. + 2 2 Heberden, William. + 9 Hellins, Rev. John, (C) + 1 Henley, Morton Lord. + 10 Henry, William. (C) + 12 6 Herschel, John F.W. (C) + 1 Hoare, Henry Hugh + 1 Hoare, Sir Richard Colt. + 2 Hobhouse, Sir Benj. + 1 Holland, Henry. + 109 16 Home, Sir Everard. (C) + 2 Hope, Thomas Charles. + 1 Hosack, David. + 1 1 Horsburgh, James. + 1 Howard, Luke. + 2 Hume, Sir Abraham. + 7 2 Ivory, James.C. + 1 Jekyll, Joseph. + 4 1 Johnson, Jas. Rawlins. + 13 7 Kater, Capt. Henry. (C) + 2 Kidd, John. + 24 1 Knight, Thomas A. (C) + 1 1 Konig, Charles. + 2 Lambert, Aylmer B. + 1 Lansdowne, Marquis of. + 1 1 Latham, John. + 2 Lax, Rev. William. + 1 Leach, William Elford. + 1 Lowther, Viscount. + 2 Macartney, James. + 2 Macdonald, Lieut. Col. + 1 Mac Grigor, Sir James. + 2 Mac Leay, Alexander. + 1 Mansfield, Earl of + 4 11 Marsden, William. + 1 Mathias, Thomas Jas. + 3 Maton, William George. + 1 Miller, Lieut. Col. G. + 2 Montagu, Matthew. + 7 4 Morgan, William. + 1 Mount Edgecumbe, Earl of. + 3 Murdoch, Thomas. + 2 Nicholl, Rt. Hon. Sir J. + 1 Norfolk, Duke of. + 2 Ord, Craven. + 1 Parry, Charles Henry. + 1 Pepys, Sir Lucas. + 6 2 Pepys, Wm. Hasledine. + 7 Philip, A. P. Wilson. + 1 Phillips, Richard. + 2 Pitt, William Morton. + 1 29 Planta, Joseph. + 19 17 Pond, John. (C) + 2 Powell, Rev. Baden. + 2 Prinsep, James. + 4 1 Prout William. + 1 Rackett, Rev. Thomas. + 1 Redesdale, Lord. + 2 Reeves, John. + 5 3 Rennell, James (C) + 1 Rennie, George. + 4 Ritchie, + 1 Robertson, James. + 1 Rogers, Samuel. + 2 1 Roget, Peter Mark. + 3 Rudge, Edward. + 12 Sabine, Edward. (C) + 2 Sabine, Joseph. + 1 St. Aubyn, Sir John. + 3 Scoresby, jun. William. + 2 Scott, John Corse. + 3 1 Seppings, Sir Robert. (C) + 1 Sewell, Sir John. + 3 Somerset, Duke of. + 3 Sotheby, William. + 3 2 South, James. (C) + 5 Spencer, Earl. + 3 Stanley, Sir John Thos. + 3 Staunton, Sir Geo. Thos. + 2 Stowell,Lord. + 1 Sumner, George Holme. + 1 Thomas, Honoratus L. + 2 Thomson, Thomas. + 1 Tiarks, Dr. John Lewis. + 1 Troughton, Edward. (C) + 2 Ure, Andrew. + 2 Warburton, Henry. + 1 Weaver, Thomas. + 1 Whewell, William. + 3 Whidbey, Joseph. + 2 3 Wilkins, Charles. + 3 Williams, John Lloyd. + 1 1 Wilson, Sir Giffin. + 2 Wilson, Gloucester. + 1 Yorke, Rt. Hon. Chas. + +I had intended to have printed a list of those persons to whom the Royal +Society had in past years awarded the Copley medals, and the reasons for +which they were given; but having applied to the Council for permission +to employ an amanuensis, to copy those awards, either from the minutes, +or from the volumes of the Philosophical Transactions, I was surprised +at receiving a refusal. I confess it appeared to me, that as a whole, +those adjudications did us credit, although I doubted the propriety +of many individual cases. As, however, the Council seem to have had a +different opinion, and as I had made the application through courtesy, +I shall decline printing a list, every individual portion of which has +been already published in many ways, although the whole has never been +printed in a collected form. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Decline of Science in England, by Charles Babbage + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE OF SCIENCE IN ENGLAND *** + +***** This file should be named 1216.txt or 1216.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/1/1216/ + +Produced by An Anonymous Volunteer + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |